a eee eet =. 2 Te, 4 a Se i a Me kt De a ee a ae ae on a WOW Se Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopaediaorun22rees © THE CYCLOPADIA; OR, Universal Dictionary OF ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE. VOL, XXII. b 4 . 4 a c . 7 ; ‘, - ; : a A Oy ; Da | - ERE ‘i : ; . ' y a 7 ; r = = F i Rs ok ol od " HILT ATABRATOLSDY FI r ee ae hs J & i - 5 ‘ A ae 1 ie ; - : . . ' 7 ne ‘4 ng y ' iM . : ch ~~ . ’ * 6 ; . : f be AAVUARATEL. OMA 2OKAII ARK f * as a |; hi + 4 = $ pay THE CVE LO PA DIA; OR, UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY or Arts, Sciences, and Literature. BY ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.B.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN, ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. SEE IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES. VOL. XXII. Se oe LONDON: Printed For LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Pavernosrer-Row, F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL, CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING CADELL MAVOR AND JONES, J- AND DAVIES, S. AND A. ARCH, BAGSTER, J« MAWMAN, JAMES BLAGK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO., J+ DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING. 1819, , YAP KONUIIG Reree n un Ue ae - iy ree vu 7 mA sain 2 Bal. 4 gaa Aa Aaa apa fie w Aci ARRE. dar one 4 0 i 6 6 6 3 states he al ' wT Sarid ORE ae wy) we Tes REL OT - . + Me iy . % =, A ea ten | mage 5a ie, ee Wotton revennekT JOMOTEL a AMO a ent bm Vit EOMUTIO b RAMMET EE | GM Cente ete A Ae eae} tA A ie | (TDfa kh Geek eee dean aeram, 2 RUEDAH pos aA OR (Oe ide oe eA AAA Be a aioe ak al wa aes Wee LON th ER TOT PETS MON brat be J “ PA HE ES Ae , PCA Cee ee ” PRHORUAS ut ayy, baat id, cores i. , , ans righ - Ara ee SOE aA ia se | ieee sd aden in i a U a Ac * - ’ . yh is 7 CY Cee Eh DF fs OR, A NEW UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF % AGn ES and 7S €: les N-C iS. MACHINERY. We for manufaduring Ships’ Blocks, in the royal dock-yard at Portf{mouth. Thefe machines are the invention of Mark Ifamberd Brunel, efq.: they are the moft ingenious and complete fyftem of machinery for forming articles in wood, of any this kingdom can produce, being not le{s creditable to the country as an exhibition of mechanical talent, than advantageous to the government in the econo- mical fupply of an article of fuch immenfe demand for the navy. ‘The great celebrity thefe machines have obtained, and the valuable information their publication will convey to mechanics, has induced ys to devote feven of our plates to their explanation, and will apologize for our entering into fo long an account of the manufacture of an article fo trifling as a fhip’s block ; though even this fhould not be de- {pifed, when its importance in naval affairs is confidered, and how often the fafety of a veffel may be endangered by the failure of a fingle block, regulating any important aétion in a fhip’s working. It is of great confequence that thefe, in common with every other part of a fhip’s rigging, fhould be made in a moft accurate and fubftantial manner. The block machines are particularly worthy of notice, as performing moft of the practical operations of carpentry with the utmoft accuracy and difpatch, and will be found applicable to many other purpofes befides the fabrication of fhips’ blocks. Indeed, in the dock-yard all the fmall wooden articles required in the navy can, in fome part or other, be executed by the machinery in the wood mill, as the building containing them is very properly called, and the largeft timber is converted and fawn up into any fcantling, by feveral cu- rious circular and reciprocating faws adapted to various purpofes. The fucceeding operations, performed by the {mall- er machines, are boring, mortifing, many very ingenious ap- phications of turning for a yariety of purpofes, both in Vou. XXII. Strahan and Prefton, wood and iron, rivetting, drilling, broaching, burnifhing iron pins, &c. as we fhall defcribe at length. The different kinds of blocks ufed in the rigging of a fhip are defcribed in our article Brock, and alfo the manner of conftru¢ting them by the old method which was then in praétice, the machines in queftion having beey erected fince the printing of that article, or, at leaft, brought into ufe, or we fhould have defcribed them in their proper place; but even here they are by no means mifplaced, being the beft examples of practical machinery, of any we could fele&t from the nu- merous manufaétures our country contains, being adapted to perform operations which are generally underitood, but which have hitherto been executed by manual labour and dexterity only. - The blocks for the royal navy were for many years pre- vious to 1807, when the machines were fet to work, fup- plied, on contraét, by Mr. Taylor, of Southampton, who employed a large mill, containing powerful fawing ma- chines, for converting the timber into the proper feantling for the blocks, but left them to be formed by manual la- bour, as related in our article Brock: the mill alfo gave motion to lathes of the common conftruction for making the fheaves. Except what was done at this manufactory, and fome few curious machines devifed by general Bentham, the credit of bringing the block manufacture to its prefent perfection is due to Mr. Brunel, who has difplayed as much judgment in the divifion of the operations by the feveral machines, as ingenuity in the contrivance of their parts, which are admirably well calculated to produce their in- tended effects. The greateft attention has been every where paid to that form of con{truétion which would admit of the moft perfeét workmanfhip in the execution; in this, the ideas of the ingenious inventor have been ably feconded B by MACHINERY. by Mr. Henry Maudflay, of Weltminfter-road, London, who made thefe machines with the moft ferupulous atten- tion to accuracy and durability, at the fame time preferving an elegant proportion in their form, which is very agree- able to the eye. The framing of all thefe machines is made of caft iron, and many of thofe parts which are expofed to violent and rapid motion are made of hardened fteel to avoid wearing: and where this is impra@ticable, fuch parts are formed fo that they can be readily renewed when worn out. A better proof of their durability cannot be defired, than the circumftance, that the machines have been now finifhed four years, and have been in continual work during that period, fome of them being fubjeét to very violent and rapid action ; yet, among forty-three of them, nothing has happened to require any repairs of fufficient confequence to engage the aflittance of the maker or inventor ; the trifling repairs.of the cutting tools, &c. being made by the work- men on the {pot, and of all fuch parts they have duplicates provided, by which any failure can be reftored in a few mi- nutes. Thefe circumftances we particularly recommend to the attention of manufaéturers who have occafion to em- ploy extenfive fets of machinery ; for this, when well con- itru&ed, though expenfive in the ereCtion, is cheaper in the end than imperfect works, which require conftant repair, the expence of which is the leaft evil; as it generally hap- pens that a machine will fail at that time when it is moft wanted, in confequence of being then molt worked ; and the lofs occafioned by the ftoppage of great works, particu- larly where many people are employed, is too evident to require our notice. In the fame manner, an attention to neatnefs, in the appearance of machinery, has its advan- tages, by inducing the workmen to be ‘eareful of the ma- chines they work at, to preferve them from the flighteft injury, and to keep them clean from duft, which, trifling as it may appear, is a very effential point in the prefer. vation of thofe parts which are in rapid motion with friétion againft other parts, for dult getting between fuch furfaces grinds them away very faft, and in their moft effen- tial points. Workmen and people employed about machines have no intereft in their prefervation, farther than to avoid: fuch figns of violence ard careleffnefs as may be immediately deteéted by their fuperiors ; but by introducing an emula- tion among them, of having the neateft machines in the fa&tory, and of keeping them in the beft order, they may be induced to take as much care of them as if they were their own property. This fa& is well known to fome of the largeft proprietors of cotton and woollen mills, though as much neglected by others. The machines contained in the avood mill at Portfmouth may be feparated into four claffes. x. The fawing machine for converting the large timber into proper dimentions for thé {mall machines to operate upon, confifting of the large machines for fawing up the elm trees from which the thells of the blocks are to be made, and the fmaller fawing machines for cutting np the lignum vite for the fheaves. 2. Thofe machines which are employed in form- ing the fheaves. 3. Thofe which form the iron pins for the blocks. And, 4. Thofe by which the fhells of the blocks are manufa¢tured. They are all fituated in one large mill, which confifts of two very tall buildings, or wings, having a {maller and lower one between them, lighted by fky-Kghts in its roof. The lower part of one of the wings is appropriated to the two fteam engines, which a@tuate the whole, as alfo fome immenfe chain pumps, which are occafionally employed in draining the dry docks. ‘The mill has two engines of thirty horfe aia ei: erected by Meffrs. Boulton and Watt, and the other by Mefirs. Murray and Wood of Leeds. Either of thefe can be applied indif- ferently to work the chain pumps, or for turning the wood mill, and their power is tranfmitted by a train of wheel-work to an horizontal fhaft, extending along the centre of the middle building, very near its roof, and upon this are a number of wheels and drums, which, by endlefs ropes and {traps, communicate motion to the various machines for making the block fhells, which are fituated on the ground, in the central building. They are feventeen in number: four- teen of this number conftitute three complete fets for making blocks‘f different fizes following each other, fram four inches in length to eighteen; the length in inchee ~being the denomination of the fize of fhips’ blocks. 'Vhere is alfo a large machine for boring parts of thofe very large blocks which are called made blocks, and cannot wholly be made by the machines ; it alfocuts fhot racks by tools for the purpofe : and here are two machines for turning dead eyes, which are blocks without fheaves, for attaching the fhip’s fhrouds to her fides. The ground-floor of the wing oppofite to that céntain- ing the {team engines, is appropriated to feven large faw- ing machines for cutting up the trees; and the floor over it contains three fawsgg;machines for cutting up the trees of lignum vite: Afr the fmall machines for making the fheaves, which are thirtesayin number, and a {mall room, containing five machines, where the iron pins are turned and polifhed. Inthe upper parts of both wings of the mill are warehoufes for containing the immenfe itock of finifhed blocks, which are always kept in ftore for armaments, and feveral workfhops with common lathes, worked by the mill, for making and finifhing various fmall articles of a fhip’s furniture. Many of them are, in part, made by fome of the block machines, in addition to all thofe kinds of blocks which we have explained under Brock. Some of thele ar- ticles are dowels, tor uniting fhips’ timber ; ¢reenat/s, marling Spikes, ferving mallets, pump buckets, and many other trifles which it is unneceffary to particularize. At the top of one building is a large water ciftern, kept always full by a pump belonging to the engine, and provided with pipes which conduét the water to every part of the works, and are in every room furnifhed with fcrew caps, at any of which an engine hofe can be {crewed on in the event of a fire, which is fomewhat to be dreaded when they work by tamps in the winter time, as the great quantity of chips and faw duft, always lying about in every part of the mill, might be fet on fire. To avoid this danger as much as poffible, the lamps are included in glaffes of a fimilar figure to a long cafk, with a cap on the top, which has.holes to al- low the {moke to pafs out, but fo contrived, that it is: im- poffible a {park fhould efcape. Upon the yoof-leads at the top of all, are racks for fetting up the very large blocks to feafon by gradual expofure to the weather, or they would, if all at once fubjeéted to the fun or rain, crack and fplit in all dire€tions, fo as to fall to pieces. * We fhall commence our defcription of this ingenious mill by an enumeration of the feveral proceffes the blocks and their fheaves are fubjected to, beginning with the rough elm and lignum vite trees, and tracing them through their various {tages to the finifhed blocks with their fheaves, and, in like manner, the pins for them. r The elm trees are firft cut into fhort lengths, proper to form the various fizes of blocks, by two large fawing machines, one a reciprogating, aud the other a circular faw, Thefe lengths of the trees are next cut into fquares, and ripped or {plit up iato proper fizes by four facing cio wit MACHINERY. with circular faws, and one very large reciprocating fav, which is ufed for cutting up the pieces for very large blocks. Thefe are the feven machines in the wing. The fcantlings, thus prepared for the blocks, are perfo- rated in the three Joring machines, with a hole through each, to contain the centre pin for the fheaves of the block, and as many other holes in a perpendicular direétion to the former, as the number of fheaves it is to have, thefe holes ‘being intended as the commencement of the feveral mortifes to contain the fheaves. The blocks are now mortifed in the three mortifing en- gines, which elongate the holes above-mentioned to their proper dimenfions. The angles of the blocks are now cut off by three cir- cular faws, preparatory to reducing them to the elliptical figure they are to have. The outfide furfaces of the blocks are next formed to their true figure by the three /haping engines, each of which forms every part of ten blocks together. The fcores, or grooves, are next formed round the block, to receive the rope or ftrap by which they are fufpended: this is done by the two /coring engines. ? ; The blocks are now trimmed by hand labour, to fmooth and polifh them. For making the fheaves, the firft procefs is cutting pieces or flakes off the end of the trees of lignum vite, of a proper thicknefs to form the fheaves: this is performed by three converting machines, one a reciprocating faw, and the other two circular faws, . ‘ Thefe flakes are made circular, and the centres pierced in two rounding and centering machines, or trepan faws. ‘A hole is now excavated in the centre of each fheave, to inlay the coak or piece of bell metal which is fitted into the centre of each sheave, to forma focket for the centre pin. The coaks, being put into their places, are rivetted faft by the two rivetting hammers. In fome kinds of fheaves, three fmall holes are drilled through each fheave, and alfo pafling through the coak, by the drilling machine ; and {hort wire pins, cut by the cutting Jkeers, are put through thefe holes; then they are rivetted down at the fame time with the reft of the coaks by the rivetting hammer. ‘[his method isnot always adopted, the coaks being found to be firm enough without thefe pins or rivets. The centre holes through the coaks are next broached out to a true cylinder in the three broaching engines. The laft procefs is turning the faces and edges of the fhéaves to a flat furface, in the three facing lathes, which alfo form the groove round the edges of them, for the rope which encompaffes them when in the block. This completes the machines for making the fheaves. The iron pins are forged by two {miths, in the ufual manner of fuch articles, between two {wages or tools, each having a femicylindrical cavity formed in it, fo that the two, when put together, forma cylinder. The heated iron being laid in one of thefe, the other is put over it, and beat with ahammer, by which means it forms the pin to acylinder. The end of the pinis left fquare for a very fhortlenpth. They are in this {tate turned {mooth and true in the pin turning. lathe, and afterwards po- lithed and made perfeét on the Gahice in the polifhing ma- _ ghine. Such blocks as are from four to feven inches in length, are generally fitted with wooden pins, which are turned ina fimple lathe called a qwhi/ket. : There are alfo_ two machines for making dead eyes, and a large apparatus or boring machine for making the largeft fizes ef blocks, of that denomination called made blocks, fome of which are as much as four feet in length, and with four fheaves. ‘Uhey are of courfe made up of planks, and this machine is ufed for boring the holes of the numerous bolts which are ufed to unite thefe parts: it is alfo ufed occafion- ally to cut out fhot racks. The whole of this lift contains 43 machines. We fhall now proceed to a defcription of the feveral ma- chines, beginning with the large {awing machines for elm trees, contained in the ground-floor of one of the wings of the mill. In the centre of this room is a vertical fhaft turned by the machinery, having a capftan on the lower end of it, round which a rope is paffed, to draw any log of timber into the mill from the yard, where the ftore of elm is kept. The trees are by this means condu@ed to the firft machine, which cutS them off acrofs into proper lengths, to form fuch blocks as the tree feems beft adapted for. Two machines are employed for this purpofe, one a circular and a other a reciprocating faw: the latter we fhall defcribe rift. The great crofs-cutting Saw.—The tree fubjeG&ed to the aCtion of this machine is placed on a long frame or bench raifeda little from the floor, and at the end of it is ere@ed a frame, compofed of vertical pofts and crofs timber, in the manner of a fmall and low door-way : through this frame the end of the tree is drawn by the capftan above-mentioned, its end projecting as much from the furface of the frame as ‘is intended to be cut off ; and itis faftened in the frame from rolling fideways, by a lever, which can be readily made to prefs upon it and hold it down. The faw itfelf is a flraight blade, fixed into a wooden handle or pole at each end, to lengthen it: one of thefe handles is conneéted by a joint to the upper end of a lever, bent like an L, and having its centre beneath the floor: the horizontal arm of the lever is conne&ted by a fpear rod, with a crank on the end of a fpindle near the cieling of the room, the motion of which is regulated by a fly-wheel. By this means the faw has a reciprocating motion from right to left, nearly in a horizontal pofition, and ex- aétly acrofs the log it is to cut off, imitating in its motion the carpenter’s hand faw, confidering his arm as the arm of the bent or L lever. The teeth of the faw are of courfe on the lower fide of the blade, and are floped fo as to cut in drawing towards the lever. It rifes and falls freely upon its Joint at the end of the lever, and can be lifted up by the handle, at the oppofite end of the blade, to take it off its work, which it follows up, by its own weight. The machine being at reft, is prepared for work, by fixing the log in the frame as before mentioned, fo that the furface of the frame interfects the log at the place where it is intended to be crofs-cut. The faw, which was before lifted up by its handle, to be clear above the log, is now fuffered to reft upon it, in the place where the cut is to be made; and to ruide it at firlt fetting in, the back of the faw is received in a faw kerf, made in the end of a piece of board, which is attached to the frame over the faw, but flides up and down in a groove to reach the faw at any height, according to the thicknefs of the log lying beneath it. Being thus pre- pared, the machine is put in action by a rope or itrap which turns the fly-wheel andits crank. ‘This giving a vibration to the bent or L lever, caufes the faw to reciprocate horizon- tally acrofs the tree, until it cuts it through: it follows up its cut by its own weight alone, but the attendant can at any time lift up the fae from its work, though its motion continues, by means of a rope which fufpends the handle of the faw when required. As the faw gets into the tree it quits the guide above-mentioned, which becomes the lefs neceflary as the faw goes deeper ; a faw having no tendency to alter its firft courfe, when cutting acrofs the Bz grain ' MACHINERY. grain of the wood. We admire the fimplicity of this ma- chine, which neverthelefs executes its work with much accu- racy and expedition. It might be very ufefully employed in many fituations where great manual labour is fpent in crofs-cutting large logs of timber. The crofs-cutting circular Saw.—This machine is for fimilar purpofes, and ftands clofe by the former. It is a circular faw, whofe fpindle is fo mounted, as to move in any direc- tion parallel to itfelf ; the faw all the while continuing in the fame plane, and revolving rapidly upon its axis, cuts the wood it is prefented to, and as it admits of being applied at firft on one fide, and then on another fide of the tree, a faw of moderate dimenfions will be fufficient to divide larger trees, than could otherwife be done by it. Plate \. (Block- Machinery) contains two plans and two ele- vations of machine. Fig. 1 is an elevation, fhewing the tree A A (whichis to-be cut) lengthways. ig. 2 is taken in the other direétion, and therefore fhews the tree endways. ig. isa plan, anfwering in its pofition to fi. 1, and fhews the whole of the mechanifm ; but the plan ( fg. 4.) only contains thelower parts. The fame letters of reference refer to all the figures. A.A, as before mentioned, is the tree intended tobe fawn acrofs: it lies upon a framing of timber B, which may be con- fidered as its bench or fupport. Acrofs the end of this frame a itrong timber, or ground fill, C, is framed, and in this two fipritee R, S, are ereéted, which, with a crofs beam at top, form the frame, which gives the means of confining the tree upon the bench B while it is cut. ‘This is done by means of a lever D, one end of whichis hitched under a bolt put in a hole in the pott S of the frame, to ferve as a fulcrum, and the other end paffes between the face of the poft R, anda piece of wood, a, fixed thereto, and the lever, being forced down upon the tree, is kept down by a bolt put through a hole in the piece a, and alfo into the poft. The other end of the lever is retained by a piece of wood fimilar to a, (fee jig. 1.) fixed to the poft S ; by-this means.the tree is held {teadily whilft itisfawn. ‘Tis a roller, or capftan, to advance the tree forwards on the bench: it is turned round by means of the handfpike E, which is fitted loofely upon the centre pin of it, and has a {mall click engaging the teeth of a ratchet wheel 4, fixed faft upon the gudgeon or centre pin. The handfpike, being worked in the manner of a pump, turns the roller about a few teeth of the wheel at every ftroke, and by arope wound on the roller draws up the tree: disa click which detains the teeth of the ratchet wheel, and prevents therollerrunning back, after being moved by the handfpike. A framing of wood is placed beneath the tree at F, to form a continuation of the bench B, but leaving a fpace between it and the front of the beam C, for the faw to defcend into when it divides the tree, when the frame, F, will fupport the piece cut off. A piece of wood is faftened down upon the frame F, at f: by means of a {crew, it a&ts as a ftop to the end of the tree, and meafures out the quantity to be cut off from the end of it: it is of courfe adjuftable, and may be fixed at any dif- tance from the end of the bench B, according to the length intended to be cut off the end of the tree. We now come to defcribe the mechanifm conneéted with the faw, which is fhewn by G, fixed on the end of a fpindle ¢, mounted in a frame confifting of two fide-beams, H, H, conneéted by crofs pieces, I, I, K, L, and ftrengthened by diagonal bolts or tyes, e, ¢: the top crofs piece is formed of iron, as fhewn in fig. 3, and its ends are jointed to the end of a frame M M, poifed in the manner of the balance-beam of a draw-bridge, on a fulcrum fupported by the fixed framing of the machine, confifting of two pofts, N, extending from the floor to the ceiling, and conneéted by a crofs beam O O. By this means, the {pindle of the faw can be moved in any direction at pleafure, but always preferves its: parallelifm, afcending and defcending by the inclination of the frame, M M, upon its fulcrum, and moving from right to left b the frame’ H, fwinging upon the joints conneéting and fut. pending it: from the former the faw receives its motion from the mill by a {trap 4, which encompafles a pulley é Jigs. 1 and 2, contained in an opening of the iron top, L, of the frame H; it is faftened on a fhort fpindle, which is exadtly in a line with the joints conneQing the two frames, MM and H: upon the iame fpindle is another pulley £ which by the ftrap, P P, gives motion toa pulley /, fixed on the {pindle of the faw; m, m, Jigs. 1 and 2, are two {mall wheels to guide the ftrap, and tighten it up, if necef- fary, when it ftretches ; the main ftrap, 4 4, is guided over pullies 2, which, being near the centre of motion of the . trame M, are not materially affe€ted by the motion of the frame either to tighten or loofen the ftrap which paffes round a large drum, turned by the mill. The attendant has go- vernment of the machine, to,move the faw in different direc- tions by two winch handles, V and W: the latter of thefe is on the end of an axis w, having two pinions upon it, which operate upon two racks at the end of wooden rods, Q, Q, jigs. 1 and 2, which are conneéted with the end of the great frame, M M, at the fame joints which conne& the two frames together ; fo that by turning this winch, W, in one direction, it elevates the faw, and in a contrary direc- tion, depreffes it, by inclining the frame, M, on its centre. In like manner, the handle, V, gives motion by a wheel and fpindle to a fimilar fpindle v, which a¢tuates by its pinions two rods, X, X, jointed to the fufpended frame H, and therefore moves the faw nearer or farther from the workman who ftands at the frame NN; the two frames, H and M, are greatly ftrengthened by the rods, Q, Q, and X, X, being conne&ted with"them ; for as the two pinions aé& equally upon the two rods, and thus move both fides of the frame alike, they preferve them from twilting, which would caufe the f{pindle of the faw ‘to deviate from the parallelifm ; but to have this effe&, it is neceflary that the pinions fhould fit their racks accurately. For this purpofe, the rods, Q and X, to which the racks are affixed, are fupported behind b two rollers, y, y, applied to the back of each. Thefe rollers are fixed in a triangular iron frame, the third angle of which is fitted upon the axis of the pinions ; and by this means, the teeth of the racks and pinions are always kept in accurate contact, though the racks neceffarily alter their inclination at times, according to the pofition of the frames te which they are joined. The operation of this very ingenious machine is almoft evident from the defeription. ‘The tree being fixed, the at- tendant takes the handles V and W, one ineach hand; and by turning one or the other, directs the faw at pleafure to any fide of the tree. Att firft he applies it, as in fig. 2, and it cuts half through the tree from that fide, with very great rapidity ; then he gradually raifes it up by the handle W, and cuts into the log at the top fide; but all the time the faw continues in the fame plane: and at lait he brings it over to the oppofite fide, and cutting through it there, the log is feparated, even if it is nearly of the fame diameter as the faw. The faw is now moved by its handles to be clear of the tree, the piece removed, and the tree advanced to cut another length. This machine is fo expeditious and accurate in its performance as to take the lead of the other, except for fuch trees as are of a fize too great for the circular faw. It has, fince its firft ere&tion, received an addition of a rack and pinion to the frame R S, for holding the tree, which preffes down the tree inftead of the lever, and holds the wood in the manner of a vice or prefs: by this means, the faw can now 10 be | MACHINERY. be ufed for fawing the pieces into fquares, after they are cut off the tree; and for cutting them up to form different fized blocks, or for fawing up any other timber. - Whe next ma- chine we fhal! defcribe is The great reciprocating Saw, for cutting up trees length- wife.—In this machine the faw works vertically : it has an horizontal carriage, on which the timber is faftened; this paffes through a vertical frame with grooves, in which an- other frame flides up and down in the manner of a window- fafh, and has the faw ftretched in it. The faw-frame is moved up and down by means of a crank on an axis beneath the floor, which is turned by means of an endlefs rope. At every time the faw rifes and falls, it turns a ratchet-wheel round, by means of aclick, a few teeth; and this has on its axis a pinion, working a rack attached to the carriage of the tree, which by this means is advanced: at every ftroke, the faw makes a proper quantity for another cut. The faw- frame is adapted to hold feveral faws parallel to each other, for fawing a tree into feveral boards at once, when required. Betides thefe machines, the wing contains four of The circular fawing Benches.—Thefe machines are ufed for cutting the wood Hill fmaller, after the other machines. Thele machines are a bench, fimilarto a carpenter's, having a f{pindle extending acrofs it juft beneath the boards, with a circular faw fixed upon it, which comes up through a cre- vice in the bench; and as it revolves, the workman applies a piece of wood to it, which it cuts with amazing rapidity. The wood is guided by a long wooden ruler, fixed on the bench, parallel to the plane of the faw. The wood is ap- plied to this guide-ruler when cutting, and this regulates all the wood it cuts to the fame breadth; but the guide-ruler can be quickly adjufted to any diftance from the faw, being attached to the bench by radius bars fimilar to a parallel ruler, fo that it will always be parallel to the faw. We have been thus concife in defcribing thefe circular faws, and the great reciprocating faw, as they are the only machines in the mill which do not fhew a completely original defign, or which have any refemblance to other machinery. The reciprocating faw is {uch as is common on the continent and in America, and the circular faws have been long in ufe in this country. See Saw-Mill. One of the fawing benches is much longer than the others, being continued the whole length of the houfe. It is ufed for fawing the edges of loag alates to a ftraight line, after they have been cut up from the trees by the great recipro- cating faw. It has a carriage for holding the plank, which is advanced towards the faw by a rack and pinion, which the workman turns by a winch in front of the bench: the plank is held in the carriage by its ends, one end being applied againft a {top, fimilar to that which a carpenter’s bench has for ftopping a piece of wood, while it is planed; the other end af the plank is forced up to this ftop by a fcrew, at- tached to the carriage, but in fuch a manner that it can readily be fixed at any part of its length, to hold planks of different lengths. The plank, when of great length, is kept down to bed firmly upon the carriage, while it is fawn bya roller, which preffes upon it very near that part of the plank which is paffing the faw. This roller is preffed down on the plank by the weight of a long beam of wood fet up on end, the roller being fitted in the endof it. ‘This beam is fitted, in guides which permit it to rife and fall, to ac- commodate any inequalities in the thicknefs of the wood or plank which paffes beneath it. This concludes our deferip- tion of the machines in the wing on the ground-floor. The machines contained in the floor over the great fawing ma- chines are devoted to converting or fawing up the tree of lignum vite, for the fheaves, and the fmall machines for forming the fheaves. The firlt is : The reciprocating Saw for converting the Lignum Vite.— This machine is fomewhat fimilar to that firft defcribed for the elm trees, but made on a fmaller fcale and with more accuracy. The faw is ftretched in a wooden frame, which is neceflary, becaufe, being for the hard wood, it is cut with a much finer tooth, and the blade is much thinner, fo that it wattes lefs wood in faw-duft than the former. The tree of lignum vite is plated horizontally, being held in a machine, which is, in fact, an enormous vice, though very different in appearance: it is opened and fhut by two ferews inftead of one, as the common {mith’s vice, and thefe ferews are both moved at the fame time by means of cog-wheels connecting them, fo as to move the jaws of the vice parallel. This ma- chine is ufed for cutting the ends of the tree into flakes of the proper thicknefs, to form thofe fheaves which the dia- meter of the tree is beft adapted to make with the leaft wafte. The vice which holds the tree is provided with a f{crew, which advances the whole together towards the faw a proper quantity at every time a fheave is cut off, to cut another of the intended thicknefs. For this purpofe, the vice is ftationed upon a carriage fitted upon proper fliders, fo that it advances truly parallel, in order that the pieces it cuts off may have parallel fides. This machine is only ufed for converting the largeft trees of lignum vite, which are drawn up to the floor on which thefe machines are fituated by a crane worked by the mill, fo as to occation little more trouble than if they were upon the ground: the {maller trees are cut up in a very curious machine. The circular Savy for converting the Lignum Vite.—This operates with a revolving faw, whichis applied to the outlide of the tree, which at the fame time turns round to prefent everypart of its circumference to the action of the faw. By this means the faw will cut a tree of nearly as great a dia- meter as itfelf, and make a very flat feCtion. We have been compelled, from the number of our plates, to omit a drawing of this machine, and muft, therefore, attempt a verbal de- {cription. . The fpindle of the circular faw is fitted in an iron frame, which moves ina fixed vertical axis, in the manner of a gate or door. The faw fpindle being vertical, the faw itfelf is of courfe horizontal, and its centre defcribes the are of a circle when {wung upon its axis of motion, but continues in the fame plane. It is turned, like the other machines, by an endlefs band, which is conducted over pullies, on an axis concentric with the axis of motion for the faw-frame ; by which means the band continues with the fame degree of tenfion in all pofitions. of the frame fupporting it. The vertical axis of this faw-frame is fupported between the points of centre {crews belonging to an iron {tandard, which is attached to two vertical iron columns, extending from the floor to the ceiling of the room, and which conititutes the chief framing of the machine. The tree of lignum vite, be- ing previoufly cut into lengths of two or two and a half feet, is fixed in a chuck or clam at the top of a vertical fpindle, which is fitted in a focket, in the middle of a crofs-bar, fliding between the two vertical columns. This crofs-bar has two iron rods extending up from it to another fimilar one, alfo fliding between the columns, thefe forming an iron frame which rifes and falls at pleafure, in the manner of a fafh frame, by means of a large ferew, which is received into a nut, formed in the middle of the upper crofs-bar of the frame. The lower end of the {crew refts in a ftep in the middle of a fixed crofs-bar extending acrofs from one co- lumn to the other, and perforated with two holes for the iron MACHINERY. tron‘rods forming the fides of the frame to pafs through as they rife and fall. The fcrew has an iron crofs forming four handles to turn it by, and a ratchet wheel and click to prevent its running back. The chuck or clam at the upper end of the vertical fpindle is of that kind called univerfal, and has two jaws, between which it will hold trees of different dimenfions; but both clams approach or recede from the centre by the fame movement, fo as to keep the tree always nearly in the centre of the vertical axis. It is accomplithed by fitting both clams in a groove formed acrofs the face of the chuck, and both are moved by one {crew, one part of which is cut with a left, and the other with a right-handed thread, fo that in turning the ferew by a wrench, the jaws open or {hut, and the wood can be fixed in with as much eafe as in a vice, but always very nearly in the centre of the chuck. A rotatory motion is communicated to the vertical {pindle by a cog-wheel fitted in a focket made in an iron plate, which is the bafement of the two columns. The centre of this wheel is exatly in the line of the vertical fpindle, which is formed to a fquare, and is received through a f{quare hole in the centre of the cog-wheel, but has liberty to flide freely up and down through the wheel. This is turned round by means of a pinion fixed on the lower end of an upright axis, which rifes up a confiderable height by the fide of one of the vertical columns, and has a {mall winch upon the top of it, by which the workman turns it round, and thus caufes the great cog-wheel with the vertical {pindle and wood to revolve at whatever elevation it may be, accord- ing to the height the fliding frame is raifed by its fcrew. ~ The operation of the machine is this; the wood, being fixed at the top of the vertical fpindle, is raifed by turning the great fcrew to fuch a height, that the faw is oppofite that place in the tree where it is intended to be divided. The faw is in con{lant motion by the mill, and the attendant preffes it by a lever (fixed to the faw-frame) againft the wood, which it cuts into very rapidly. At the fame time he is doing this, he turns the vertical {pindle (with the wood) round by means of the winch, which communicates with it by the wheelwork, fo that the tree applies all ‘parts of its circumference in fucceffion to the aétion of the faw, which will by this means cut through a tree nearly twice its own radius, and in confequence of its revolution makes a very flat feétion, which will be exaétly parallel to the laft it cuts off, fo that the flakes will be of the fame thicknefs in all its parts. When the piece is thus feparated, the workman fwings the faw out of the way of the wood, and turns the fcrew by its crofs handle, to raife up the frame, with the fpindle and tree, the proper quantity to cut off fuch a thicknefs as will form the fheave intended. This quantity is meafured by the fcrew, which, as before {tated, has a ratchet wheel upon it, with a click to prevent it running back, which the weight of the iron frame, fpindle, and wood fup- ported by it, would otherwife force it to do. The workman counts a certain number of thefe teeth by the noife they make in paffing the click as the: meafure of the proper elevation of the wood: by this means the operation pro- ceeds with great rapidity, and another piece is cut off, until the whole length is cut up, when the workman relieves the click, and the ferew runs back, letting down the fpindle ready to receive another length of tree which is cut up in its turn. There are two of thefe machines clofe to each other, one for the larger and the other for {mall trees. The plates of lignum vite, thus cut off the end of the trees, are fawn to a circular figure, and a hole pierced through the centre of each preparatory for turning them se The Crown or Tre and 3. Jig. 1 is a Saw.—See Plate Il. figs. 1, 2, orizontal fection through the centre of the axis.» Fig. 2 is an elevation of the whole; and fig. 3-an end view. A A isa cylindrical faw with teeth formed upon the end of it, in the manner of a furgeon’s trephine, or the crown wheel of a watch. This faw is fixed upon a chuck B, (fg. 1.) which is faltened, by ferewing to the pulley D, turned by an endlefs belt. “This pulley-and faw are fitted to flip round freely upon a fixed axis or tube E, fupported by being fcrewed to a ftandard F, ereéted upon the iron frame RR, on which the whole machine is built. G isa ftandard, having a {crew H through the top of it, and exactly in a line with the centre of the tube E. At the end of it isa cup 4, which, when advanced by the {crew, exaétly meets the end of the fixed tube I, and be- tween thefe two furfaces, or rings of furfaces, the piece of wood to be rounded is held, by ferewing the ferew tight up. The wood is fhewn ina fection at I, fig. 1, within the faw. The faw flides backwards and forwards upon the fixed tube E, and can be thus prefented as it revolves againft the piece of wood, to cut through it, and reduce its circum- ference to a perfect circle of the fize of the interior diameter of the faw. The fixed tube E has a cylindrical fpindle K fitted withinfide of it, which is turned round by a pulley I fixed in the middle of it, and turned round like the other by an endlefs ftrap or belt.. This fpindle has a drill ferewed into the end of it, to perforate the centre hole in the fheave ; and it can be moved endways to bring it up to its work in the fame manner as the other. Indeed, it is canfed to advance or retreat at the fame time with it, by means of two con? neéting rods 4,4, which pafs through holes in the flandard F, and are at their ends united by ferews, to collars which are fitted upon fockets, formed in the central part of the pullies D and L, fo that the collars admit the pullies to turn road freely, independent of them; but when either pulley, with its {pindle, is moved endways, it obliges the other to partake of the fame movement. ‘T'he two collars are fhewn fepa- rately at X and Y, and the ftandard F between them. The farther end of the fpindle K is fupported by a collar in a ftandard M, alfo erefted upgn the frame R. The motion endways is given to the faw and drill by a lever N, fituated beneath the frame R. ‘The vertical arm n of this lever is forked at the upper end, as fhewn feparately at Z, and has notches cut in the extremity of each fork, to receive two pins ‘projeting from the fides of a collar ¢, fitted on the end of the fpindle K, which turns round freely in the collar, but commands the motion of the {pindle endways. The lever N is raifed up, and the fpindle kept back by means of afpring O fixed to the frame of the machine, fo that when left to itfelf, the faw and drill always retreat back as far as they can. In this ftate the workman takes a piece of the lignum yitz, which is of an irregular figure, being the fhape of the fection of the tree. This he places againft the end of the fixed tube E, and ferews it faft by the fcrew H. He now depreffes the handle N, and thus advances the faw and drill, as they are turning all the time, agin the wood, which the former perforates in the centre, while the latter cuts off thofe parts which proje€t beyond the circle, leaving the wood round on the edge and ready for the next operation, which is performed by The Coaking Engine.—This machine prepares the fheave for the reception of a bell-metal bufh, or centre piece, called the coaé, one of which is fitted into each fide of the fheave, to furround its centre pin, and avoid wearing. This piece of bell-metal, or coak, is {hewn in fg. 9 of the plate: it has a cylindrical part a, which paffes through the centre hole A the MACHINERY. the fheave, and has a hole through it for the pin of the fheave. This, which is called its barrel, has at the enda fioulder, or flaunch, of the form of d, that is, a circle having three ears projeCting from its circumference, which are in- layed into the wood, and thus keeps the coak from turning round in the fheave. This is fhewn at fiz. 4 of the plate: eis a ring of the fame fize and form as the flaunch at the end of the coak : it is inlayed into the other fide of the fleave, but has a large hole through its centre to receive the part, 4, of the other coak, where it comes through the centre of the fheave. This part being rivetted down into the ring e, fecures , the two coaks together ; but, in fome kind of fheaves, they ave further fattened by means of a wire-pin put through the centre of each of the three ears, which is alfo rivetted down. The firft operation which is therefore performed on the fheave, after rounding and:centering the wood for it, is cut- ting a hole, of a proper figure, for the reception of the brafs coak. Theefigine for performing this is defcribed in the lower part of Plate B, of which fig. 4 is a front view of it ; Jig. 5, an elevation taken on one fide ; fig. 6, a plan of the top of the frame ; and fg. 7, a plan of the lower part where the fheave is fixed. This is, in all the views, marked A: over this a {mall fpindle, B, is fituated; it is mounted in a frame C C, and turned round with great velocity by an end- lefs band pafling round its pulley a, and conducted over the pullies D, D, fg. 5, away to a drum, turned by the mill. ‘The end of the fpindle has a cutter {crewed into it, fuch as is fhewn feparately at X, formed out of one piece of fteel, with three cutting edges, which cut out a circle of the fize of each of the three ears projecting from the edge of the coak, The frame, CC, of the fpindle is fitted to flide up and down on two vertical rods KE, fixed in the framing; and the depth to which*it falls is determined by a fmall fcrew 4, Jig- 5 on the point of which the frame refts. The fheave, A, is fixed to a chuck I’, which has a very fhort axis, received into a focket in the middle of the lever G, attached to the frame by a centre-pin, ce, at one end, and the other is ufed in the manner of a handle, to move the lever on its centre, and by this means remove the fheave away from the fpindle, fo as to give it any required excentricity from the {pindle ; in which cafe, the cutter, X, will cut out a cir- cular hole in the fheave, at any required diftance of the centre thereof. The chuck, on which the fheave is fixed, has three arms, 1, 2, 3, jig. 7, projecting at equal diltances from it: thefe are detained at pleafure by a detent f, which is forced towards it by a fpring: the frame of the fpindle, when raifed to its greatett elevation, is fufpended by a {pring- catch H; and in this ftate the cutter is raifed up out of the way. The workman now prepares the fheave for coak- ing, by fixing it on the chuck F. To explain the manner of doing this, fee fig. 8, where N is a {crew pafling down through the centre of the axis and chuck, and has a {erew eut on the lower end; and by means of a nut M, figs. 4 and 5, tapped upon it, the pin can be forcibly drawn down through the axis. The upper end of the pin is, as its figure fhews, of a conical figure, and fills a hole through the centre of a fteel ring O, which is fituated upon the face of the chuck, immediately over its centre. The external dia- meter of this ring fits the infide of the hole, through the centre of the fheave, which is by this means fixed to the chuck: but to hpld it fait thereupon, the ring is divided by a faw into three fegments, and a piece of watch-fpring, P, being put round them, in a groove formed for its reception, keeps the three together, and always collapfes them upon the central pin N; but on turning the nut, M, the pin is drawn-down, and its conical head expands the three feg- ments, fo as to jamb them faft into the infide of the fheave, and by this means fixes it faft. This contrivance of an ex” panding chuck, which will faften into holes of different fizes, within certain limits, and always preferves its concen- tricity, is extremely ingenious, and is a very valuable tool for turning many fmall articles in the lathe. The workman thus fixes the fheave to its chuck, to perform which, with convenience, he pulls the end of the lever, G, fo far forwards, that the axis comes as far as it can within the circular frame K, which fupports the machine; but when the fheave is fixed he returns it, fo as to come nearly concentric with the f{pindle. This point is determined by thootiag a {mall bolt g, fi. 4, beneath the lever, G, forwards, and then its end itops again{t the fixed point of an adjufting ferew 4. He now, by relieving the {pring-catch H, fuffers the fpindle to defeend till it reits on the point of the ftop-crew 5. In this Kate, the end of the cutter is as much beneath the furface of the fheave as the thicknefs of the fhoulder d, fig. g, of the coak ; but the cutter is within the centre hole, at leaft in part, though, in defcending as it revolves, it cuts away the wood, on one fide the hole, as much as will enlarge its dia- meter on that fide to the fize of the circle of the fhoulder, d, of the coak from which the three ears proceed. The work- man now draws the handle of the lever, G, away from the fpindle, until the bolt is ftopped againit the ‘point of the oppofite ftop-ferew £, as it appears in fig. 7. In this fitua- tion, the fheave is in that polition, that the cutter is fo far removed from the centre of the fheave, as to cut out the cavity to contain one of the femi-circular ears of the coak. The lever, G, is now preffed again{t the other ftop-fcrew h ; the catch, f, 1s relieved from the arm, #, of thechuck, by which it is turned round; and in this motion the cutter enlarges the centre hole to the third of a circle of the proper dia- meter to receive the coak: when the fucceeding arm, g, comes to the detent, he moves the lower, G, out from the centre again to the ftop-[crew &£, and thus cuts the fecond ear. he levcr is now returned ; the chuck turned round; and a third cavity formed in the fame manner as the former ; the lever being returned again to the f{erew 4, the chuck is turned round to where it fet out, and thus completes the enlargement of the centre hole, and the cavity is prepared for the reception of the coak. The fheave, being removed from the chuck, is put on again, with the other. fide upper- moft ; and to enfure the ears being exatly oppofite to. each other on the different fides of the fheave, a {mall button is let into a hole in the face of the chuck, at the fame diftance from the centre as the femicircular ear, and of the fame diameter as that is; being, therefore, of the fame diameter as the cutter, this button is forced upwards by a {pring ; but while the firft fide of the fheave was cutting, it was prefled down flufh with the furface of the chuck, and was not in ufe: when the. fecond fide is to be cut the fheave is turned round on its centre pin (which is the ring ©), before fixing,, until the button fprings up into one of the cavities for the ears, and is placed in fuch a part of the chuck, that it determines the. pofition of the fheave upon it, fo as to caufe the ears.to be oppofite to each other., Being thus, fixed,, the operation of cutting the fecond iide is exactly the fame as the firit. This coaking en- gine is a very complete and ingenious machine, and operates in the. molt perfect manner to inlay the coaks, and will ferve many different fizes, as will be underftood from its various ad- juftments. Thefe are; the ttop-ferew 4, which regulates the degree of evlargement the centre hole fhall have to receive the fhoulder of the coak : the {crew, 4, determines the diltance of the centre of the ear from the centre of the fheave; the diameter of the ear muft have the cutter x fuited to it, for which purpofe it {crews to the fpindle: and laftly, the fcrew, 4, governs MACHINERY. é, governs the depth to which the cavity is excavated, and muft be equal to the thicknefs of the fhoulder d, fig. 9, of the coak. ‘Two coaking machines are ufed at Portfmouth, both effeting the fame purpofe as that we have deferibed, but one of them in its {truéture differs very materially from our drawing. This is the largeft machine. The {pindle of the cutter is fitted ina frame, which is conne&ted by-joints with a fecond frame, having a fwinging motion on a vertical axis in the manner of a double folding door, or more exactly like the frames of the great circular faw firft deferibed, if the fpindle of it was placed vertical inftead of horizontal ; and it re- ceives its circular motion by fimilar means. This {pindle has not the power of afcent and defcent, but it is evident it can, by the two frames, be moved to any {pot near the centre of the fheave that is placed beneath it. The cutter is made to cut out the proper fhape, by means of a hole cut in a piece of fixed brafs plate, which is of fuch a figure, that a pin or collar, concentric with the fpindle, being traced round its interior furface, will guide the cutter fo as to ex- cavate the proper figure in the fheave, which is fixed on a chuck beneath it, but cannot be turned round, which, from the conftru@ion of this machine, is unneceffary, as the cutter traverfes all the fpace which is to be cut out, but cannot move any further, being limited by the brafs plate. The chuck for the fheave is fixed at the top of a frame which rifes and falls with the fheave, to adjuft the depth the cutter fhall cut, and the chuck is let down clear of the end of the cutter every time the fheave is to be fhifted. This rifing and falling is performed in a very convenient manner by means of a ferew which elevates the frame, and has upon it a barrel, round which two cords are wound in oppolite directions. Thefe cords are conduéted over pullies to two treadles fituated beneath the frame of the machine, fo that by prefling the foot on one treadle, the chuck and fheave are raifed up, and by the other, it is let down, and in either cafe the {crew retains it where itis placed. The frame is provided with a ftop-{crew, which will determine the height to which it fhall rife, and confequently the depth to which the cutter excavates in the face of the fheave. The bell-metal coaks are caft in fand, in the manner defcribed in our article Casrinc, from accurate patterns made for the purpofe, of which they have a great variety of all forts for the different fizes. The pattern, or core, which is inferted in the fand for forming the hole through its centre, is not a f{mooth cylinder, but has two projecting threads which encompafs it fpirally, in the manner of a very coarfe ferew ; fo that when caft, the interior furface of the central hole through the coak is not a fmogth cylinder, but has two fpiral cavities, or chambers, winding round within it, in the manner of the fpiral {cores within a rifle gun barrel; but thefe cavities do not reach the ends of the hole, which is therefore circular at the two ends. Thefe chambers are in- tended to contain a fupply of greafe to the centre pin, when the block is in ufe, as will be more fully deferibed. The coaks, being put into their places, have holes drilled through the centre of each ear, by a very fimple Drilling Machine.—This bears a great refemblance to a common turning lathe, to the fpindle of which a {mall drill is fixed, immediately oppofite to it. In the place of the back puppet of the lathe, is a flat plate or tablet, againft which the fheave is placed, and by a fcrew advanced again{t the drill, which is all the time in rapid motion. The proper place for drilling the hole is determined by marks punched in the pattern from which the coaks are caft, and thus occafion fimilar marks inthe centre of each of the ears of every coak, by means of which the drill point is guided to the riht place, and quickly penetrates through both the coaks and the fheave alfo. The pins to fit into thefe holes are made of copper wire, which is chopped or cut into lengths in the mott expeditious manner by a ftrong pair of fhears, having a ftop or guage fixed at the proper diftance behind its blade, to ftop the end of the wire, and point out the proper mark where it is to be cut. ‘Thefe pins are driven into the holes through the fheave, and in this ftate the {heave is ready for rivetting, to faften the pins in, and to unite the two parts of the coak firmly to each other. This is done by The Rivetting Hammer.—lIt is delineated in figs. 1, and 2, .of Plate 111. ; the firft an elevation, and the other a plan of the machine. Its frame isa flatiron plate A A, which is fituated ona {trong bench: upon this two ftandards B, B, are caft, and fupport an axis a, turned round by means of a belt on the pulley 4. The other pulley, c, is fitted loofely upon the end of the fpindle a, and when the {trap is upon it, the machine ftands ftill, becaufe the pulley turns round upon its axis. On the middle of this fpindle is a wheel D, having three cogs, which operate, as it revolves, to lift up the tail of the ham- mer E, which is fixed upon an axis F, fupported in the fame frame, BB, as the main axis. A {mall anvil or ftake, G, is fixed to the bottom plate of the frame A, immediately beneath the face of the hammer, and the fheave, H, is prefented between them to. receive the ftrokes of the hammer, which is lifted by the cogs of the wheel D, and falls upon the fheave three or four hundred times fer minute. The hammer would not fall fo quickly by its own weight, as to reach the fheave before the next cog of the wheel, D, lifted it up: afpring, I, is therefore applied to aét beneath the tail of the hammer, and by raifing it up to throw down the face of the hammer. This {pring is {crewed upon a lever K, which is fixed on an axis, L, extended acrofs the frame, and the other end is ful tained by refting on the furface of an excentric circular wheel M, fixed upon an axis, which alfo has a wheel, N, fixed by the fide of it, and a rope being faftened round this, de- fcends to a treadle beneath the bench, and the workman prefling this with his foot turns the wheel round, and its ex- centric circle a€ts upon the lever, K, té raife it up, which caufes the {pring to aét with greater force, and the hammer to make a more powerful ftroke. In ufing this machine, the workman takes a fheave, and, lifting up the hammer, ap- plies it beneath the face of it; then by fhifting the endlefs ttrap, which is all the time in motion, upon the live pulley 4, the axis, a, is turned round, and the hammer beats upon the rivets, fo as to faften them effeétually in a very fhort time. By this the end of the barrel of one coak is firmly rivetted into the other coak on the oppofite fide, and the barrel being, at the fame time, fhortened by the rivetting, the fides of the coak are drawn into their cavities with fuch force as never to be in danger of getting loofe. Some kinds of fheaves are found to do as well by merely rivetting down the end of the barrel without ufing any pins: thefe were firft applied to pre~ vent the poffibility of any coaks getting loofe ; but having been found, in fome years,praétice, to be a needlefs precau- tion, it is accordingly difcontinued, except in fome particular inftanceg. Broaching Engine.—The fheaves, after being coaked and rivetted, are broached, to make the interior furface of the centre hole perfeétly fmooth and cylindrical. For this pur- pofe, the fheave is fixed on a flat chuck, at the upper end of a vertical {pindle, which turns round, and the broach or borer is forced down perpendicularly through the centre hole of the coak, while the fheave is turning round, boring out the hole as it defcends to a true cylinder. The manner of fixing the fheave to the chuck in an expeditious manner, and er ts concentric with the axis, is very well con- trived. vertical {pindle is hollow for a confiderable depth MACHINERY. depth down it, and the borer is a cylindrical rod which exadily fits into this hole in the end of the fpindle, and alfo fits pretty truly into the centre hole of the coak, in the ftate it comes from the rivetting hammer. This cylindrical rod has a {mall tooth of fteel fixed into it, and projecting a {mall diftance from the circumference of the cylindrical rod, which, as before ftated, is of the fame fize as the hole through the coak of the fheave, and its tooth projects as much as the hole is intended to be enlarged in the operation of broaching. ; : In fixing on the fheaves, the machine being at reft, the broach is drawn up (by the fcrew movement which is ufed to force it down into the fheave), fo as to be clear out of the end of the f{pindle: the fheave is then laid upon the flat chuck, at the top end of the fpindle, which is much larger than the fheave itfelf: the cylindrical borer is next put down through the centre of the fheave, and entered into the hole in the end of the f{pindle. By this means the fheave is placed on the chuck, exaétly in the centre of it, and both being flat, it only requires to be fcrewed or clamped fatt again{t the chuck, fo as to be turned round at the fame time with it. This is done by a clamp, confifting of an iron ring of a {maller diameter than the fheave, having two fhort bars projecting from the oppofite fides of it. Thefe bars extend acrofs the face of the chuck, to which one of them is con- nected by a joint or hinge, and the other by a fcrew ; or, in other words, the clamp may be confidered as one bar, having a large hole through the middle of it, one end being hinged to the chuck, and the other drawn towards it by a -fcrew fimilar to a vice fcrew ; but is fo con{truéted as to be quickly unhooked, and then the clamp bar may be lifted up upon its joint, in the manner of a book lid, to place the fheave under it. The ring or hole through the centre of the clamp, when {crewed down upon the chuck, is concentric with the fpindle, and thus leaves the centre of the fheave free and clear for the operation of the borer. The fheave is thus, by means of this clamp, faftened down upon the face of the chuck in a moment, and the workman fets the machine in motion. He now, by turning a handle, gives motion to a wheel over head, in the centre of which is a nut, through which the fcrew in a line with the borer is fitted to work; and this ferew as well as the borer being prevented from turning round by appropriate fitting at the end of it, is caufed to defcend, and force the borer down till its cutting tooth meets the bell-metal coak, and cuts its way through, enlarging the hole to its intended dimenfions, and making it truly cylindrical to fit the pin on which it will turn when in the block. It is to be obferved, that the interior furface of the hole has two fpiral grooves or cavities withinfide it, which are formed in the cafting, as before defcribed. Thefe are too deep to be taken out in the broaching, and form receptacles for greafe, which is thus always kept fupplied to the centre pin, both to diminifh friftion and avoid wear of the parts. This isa great improvement in the blocks, as, without fuch receptacles, the pin, if well fitted into its centre hole, as it is and fhould be, would afford no room for greafe, and then the block would require conftant atten- tion to keep it fupplied, or would always be in want of it. The two fpiral cavities do not come to the ends of the hole in the coak, which is therefore a complete circle. By this means, when the pin is in its place, the cavities have no ex- ternal communication at which the greafe can efcape. The Face-turning Lathe—The fheaves in this ftate are turned to make the two faces perfetly {mooth, and the circumference truly circular, as well as to form the groove or hollow round the edge of it, to receive the rope. The turning is performed in a very complete lathe adapted for Vou. XXII. the purpole, fee Plate III. figs. 3, 4, 5,6, and 7. Fig, 3 is an elevation, and fg. 4 an end view ; fig. 5 is an horizontal plan, and fy. 6 are various parts fhewn feparately ; Sg: 7 is a crofs {ection anfwering to fg. 4. A is the {pindle or man- dril of the lathe, mounted in the ufual ftyle between two ftandards B, C, which are ereéted upon the main frame or bed D of the machine : it is turned round by an endlef{s band on the pulley E, and Fus an idle or dead pulley, on which the band is fhifted when the lathe is intended to be at reit, becaufe it turns freely round upon the axis without moving it. On the end of the {pindle a chuck, G, is {crewed, to which the fheave, H, is fixed by means of an expanding ring chuck, fuch as defcribed belonging to the coaking engine, except that the fcrew, N, is tapped into the chuck G, inftead of having a nut behind it in the manner of the coaking engine, and this {crew is turned with a ferew driver, which has a {quare end, and the end of the ferew has a fquare hele to receive it. The tool a, which cuts or turns the face of the fheave, is carried in a ftraight line acrofs it, from the centre to the circumference by a fliding reft, which confifts of two fliders placed acrofs each other. One is fixed faft down upon the frame of the lathe at I, and has a metal frame, K, fitted acrofs it, which flides upon it by means of two parallel pieces £, £, which are attached to it on the lower fide, and fit upon the dovetailed edges of the lower flider I. A ferew, the handle of which is fhewn at M, is fitted within the lower flider, and operates by a nut fixed beneath the frame K. To move it along the flider I, when the fcrew is turned by the handle, M, upon the end of it; the frame, K, has two pieces or rulers 2, 2, {crewed down upon it, forming a dovetail groove, in which a flider, N, is fitted and moved in a direétion acrofs the frame by a fcrew L, which is alfo provided with its handle P. This laft lider has a frame Q, erected upon it, in the top of which is a groove, to receive the tool a, and a piece of metal, 4, covers it, and can be drawn down upon it by means of a fcrew, fo as to form a clamp which holds the tool down firmly upon the flider. The handle, P, of the fcrew, L, is only ufed occafionally, to traverfe the tool acrofs the face of the fheave ; it is in general moved by means of a pulley O, fitted to flip round freely thereon. This pulley is turned round by means of an endlefs band d, which makes a turn round the pulley ¢, and then pafles away and goes round a pulley R, which is fixed on the extreme end of a {pindle S, mounted in a frame T, fixed perpendicularly acrofs the great frame D D. This fpindle has a wheel, V, fixed upon it, having fine teeth formed round the edge of it, which are engaged with the threads of an endlefs ferew W, cut upon the main fpindle A. By this means the pulley, R, receives a flow motion from the main axis, and by means of the endlefs band, communicates a {till flower movement to the pulley O. The band, after having made the turn round this, is conduéted round a pulley e, which is fixed at the upper end of a flexible {pring X, attached to the legs of the frame, and thus preferving a proper tenfion of the band, though the fituation of the pulley, Q, is conftantly altering the pofition of its centre by the movement of the flider N, and its frame, K, upon the lower flider, I, by the ferew M. The manner of ufing the machine is this: the fheave is at- tached to the chuck by a turn of the fcrew N, in the centre of the expanding fteel ring, as before defcribed of the coak- ing engine, and the direction of the {pindles movement is fuch, that the drift of the work always makes the chuck tighter, by working the {crew farther in and expanding the ring more powerfully into the hole in the centre of the coak, to make it turn the fheave about with the chuck. Being thus prepared, the ftrap is fhifted to the live pulley E, and caufes the {pindle to revolve and the fheave with it: the {crew, MACHINERY. {crew, L, is turned by its handle P, to bring the point of the tobl oppofite the centre of the fheave ; the ferew of the lower (lider is now turned by its handle M, to advance the point ef the tool, to touch the face of the fheave as it revolves, and then the fcrew, P, is put in motion by this means. The pulley, O, is, as before ttated, in conftant motion, but flips upon the end of the fcrew. This, ata fhort diftance from the pulley, is formed into a {quare, and has a clutch or fhort lever fitted upon it, fuch as is fhewn at Y, fig. 3. This has a centér-piece or focket, having a groove formed round it for the reception of pins attached to a forked lever Y, fig. 5, in the manner fhewn at Z. This admits the clutch to turn round freely within the fork, but is obliged to move an end upon the {pindle, to draw it away from the pulley O; and in this ftate the pulley flips round: but when the lever is moved to thruft the clutch towards the pulley, a pin pro- jecting from it intercepts the arm or lever of the clutch, and turns the ferew round with it. In this ftate the flider, N, traverfes lowly along, and the point of the tool, a, advances from the centre of the fheave to the circumference, turning the face of it all the way perfe&tly {mooth and true ; to pre- vent the ferew forcing the flider, N, too far, and injuring or breaking it, a rod, z, is provided, which is jointed to the end of the lever y, and is received through an eye, x, attached to the flider N. The rod flides freely through this eye; but by the time the tool has arrived at the circumference of the fheave, the eye, x, has intercepted a nut, p, at the end of the rod, and drawing it, removes the lever y, and by this means difengages the {crew from the connection with the pulley Q, and thus prevents the danger of breaking the ferew : for as foon as the flider arrives at the end of its mo- tion, the ferew is difengaged, and its motion ceafes. The groove round the edge of the pulley is turned, at the fame time the tool is turning the face of the fheave, by a gouge which the workman holds over the edge or reft, marked &5, which is fixed oppofite the edge of the fheave, in the manner reprefented in fig. 7, though it is omitted in the other figures. This part of the turning is performed in the ufual manner of turning by hand; and the workman has plenty of time to do it, whilft the machine is turning the face of the fheave, which it does without any attention on the part of the workman, except at the firit fetting out, when he has a little trifle to perform: this is, as foon as the tool has advanced acrofs the face of the metal coak, (and therefore finifhed the turning of it,) to double the velocity of the machine; for it is found by experience, that the pro- cefs of turning will be performed to the greateft advantage, when the work revolves with a certain velocity for brafs or bell-metal; but in turning wood, it is proper to move nearly twice as quick, being a fofter fubftance, and not liable to heat and {often the edge of the tool, as metal would, if turned with the fame velocity. The change of {peed in the machine before us, is effe€ted by the wheel which gives motion to the flrap, turning the fpindle of the lathe: it has another wheel fituated cloke to it, upon the fame fpindle, but revolving with twice the velocity of the other. They are fo near each other, in the fame manner as the live and dead pulley upon the fpindle A, that the {trap can readily be fhifted from one to the other while they are at work. Thus, when the machine is firft fet in motion, and as long as the tool continues turning the bell-metal, the: {trap 1s upon the flow pulley; but as foon as the workman fees the tool is beginning to cut the wood, he fhifts the ftrap upon the quick pulley, by which its velocity, and confequently that of the lathe, is immediately doubled, and continues fo until the fheave is finifhed turning; and then the workman returns it back again to the flow pulley, and immediately after fhifts the ftrap to the idle pulley upon the fpindle A, which flips round upon it, and the motion ceafes. The flider, I, is not fixed to the frame, DD, in a dire&tion perfectly parallel to the fpindle, and therefore the flider, N, is not exa¢tly perpendicular to it, by which means it gives a convex furface to the fheave ; and when it is fitted into its block, it will be certain to touch it only in the centre, and thus avoid all unneceflary friGtion. The chuck G, as fhewn by its feétion in fg. 3, is turned hollow, and the fheave only applies to a prominent edge at the circumference of it, by which means it will receive the convex furface, when the fe- cond fide is to be turned, as readily as it did the flat furface, when the firft fide was turned. ,The angle of inclination of the flider is very trifling, becaufe the fheave is not required to be very convex; and this convexity will be double the angle the flider, I, makes with the {pindle, or, what is the fame thing, the difference of the other flider from the per- pendicular to the fpindle. The ferews which faften the flider, I, down upon the main frame D, are adjuftable to increafe or diminifh the convexity at pleafure. The turning duft, which this machine makes, is, winnowed in a machine, fimilar to that ufed in corn-mills, to feparate the wood-chips from the metal-turnings, which are returned to the foundery to be re-melted, and ufed in cafting other coaks. ) This machine completes the fuite for making the fheaves. All the machines we have defcribed difplay great ingenuity, and much originality of thought, particularly the expanding chuck for holding the fheaves in the coaking and turning machines. Among all the multitude of ingenious tools, ufed by turners for chucking or fixing their various works in the lathe, nothing was completely adapted to the cireum- {tances of the prefent cafe: for as the coak is to be turned to the very centre, and the fheave all acrofs the face, and alfo upon its circumference at the fame time, fo that nothing elfe than holding it by the infide of the centre hole would fucceed. It isa valuable tool for many other fimilar ufes. The converting machine, or circular fawing machine, is extremely well adapted to its purpofe; and the contrivance of turning the log round, while it is fawing, is moft excel- lent, as it enfures a perfect flat furface, and parallel to the former cut; conditions which would be extremely difficult to fulfil in any other manner. Indeed the great recipro- cating faw is not found to be at all equal to it, and is there- fore never ufed, except for fuch large trees as the circular faws cannot cut through: it would have been unwieldy to have made fo large a machine on the conftruétion we have defcribed for the circular faw, many of the irees being eighteen inches and more in diameter. The whole feries are calculated for operating upon large or {mall work ; and this is one of the greateft merits of the machines. More than 100 fizes of fheaves are made by them, of all diameters and all thickneffes. It will be proper for us to review all the _ fuite, and point out the means by which they are adapted to the different fizes. In the firft converting or fawing ma- chine, the number of teeth of the ratchet wheel on the {crew, which the workman paffes every time, regulates the thicknefs of the fheave, and this very accurately ; for the f{erew is cut with a coarfe or rapid thread, and the ratchet wheel having feveral teeth, it gives the means, by counting one tooth more or lefs, to cut them with the greateft pre- cifion to any thicknefs required. In the rounding and centering machine, the chuck of the trepan faw is ferewed to the fpindle, inthe fame manner as a lathe chuck, and can readily be removed, and another of any fize fubftituted, for the different fizes of fheaves; the drill in the central axis alfo {crews into it, and a great va- 9 riety ; MACHINERY. riety of all fizes are provided. The whole of this machine is very ingenious and expeditious in its operation. The coaking machine is univerfal, and will cut any fize, as we have before defcribed. The coaks are caft from a great variety of patterns, fuited to the various fizes. The rivetting hammer, having no parts which are at- tached to the fheave, will of courfe apply to any thicknefs indifferently. The broaching engine holds any fized fheave, and the clamp which faftens them to the chuck adjufts to different thicknefles: the borer or broach is eafily changed for any fize ; it is, as before ftated, a cylindrical rod of the fize to fit the centre of the rough coak, and its cutter projects enough from it to clear the hole out. The facing lathe is provided with a variety of expanding chucks, like the coaking machine, and adapted to all fizes. They are put on by merely removing the conical {erew in the centre of the chuck, and putting in another ring around it; the lower flider accommodates for different thickneffes of fheaves, and the common turning reft, fg. 7, for the dif- ferent diameters. This operation finifhes the fheaves, which are now ready to be fitted into their fhells or blocks, the manner of forming which we have yet to explain; but we fhall firft notice the machines for making the iron pins, fituated in a {mall room up ftairs. Thefe are of two kinds: firft for turning, and others for polifhing or burnifhing them afterwards. The pins are forged between {wages, by two workmen, in the ufual manner of fuch articles, and are cylindrical, except a {mall part at one end, which is left {quare, to be inferted into the cheeks of the block, that the pin may not turn round when it is put together, by the friétion of the fheave upon its pin, Pin-turning Lathe.—The lathes for turning the iron pins are the beft finifhed machines of the whole fuite, being the laft which are made, and by no means the leaft important in their ufe, as they turn the largeft iron pins, perfeétly cy- lindrical, from end to end in a very fhort time, and without attendance, except at firft; an operation which is very tedious and laborious, when performed, in the ufual manner, by hand. We bhall be able to give a tolerable idea of this machine with- out a drawing on purpofe, it being compounded of the parts of many machines we have defcribed in our different plates. The reader muft fuppofe a lathe witha triangular bar, in its form fimilar to that defcribed in our article LATHE, but its reft removed from the bar. This is to be fixed over a ftrong fquare iron frame, but the puppets of the lathe not vertical; that is, a perpendicular line let fall from the central line of the mandril, will fall clear before the trian- gular bar, one fide of which is upright. This is neceflary, becaufe water is ufed to drop upon the turning tool; and if it fell upon the bar, it would caufe it to ruft and fpoil the fittings. The fquare iron frame, over which this lathe 1s fixed, has on one of its fides along fliding reft, which is in its pro- perties fimilar to that belonging to the face-turning lathe, except that its long flider is parallel to the direétion of the mandril; the tool being fupported by a fmaller flider per- pendicular to this, and moving along upon the long flider by a long fcrew, which can occafionally be turned by a motion from the mandril, or may be turned by a handle. The tool itfelf is a cylinder of fteel, cut off obliquely, fo as to prefent an elliptic face, the {mall end of which is the cut- ting edge; it is held in a holder at the end of the {mall flider, of fimilar form to that ufed for the fhaping engine, as will be particularly defcribed hereafter. he lower or long flider, which, as before mentioned, is parallel to, and as long as the lathe, confifts of a re¢tangular frame (or it may be confidered as a large flat bar, with an opening or mortife through its upper fide, and extending its whole length, giving it the appearance of a frame), and in this the fcrew is fitted. On the upper furface of the frame two rulers are {crewed at the fides, forming between them a dove-tailed groove reaching the whole length of the frame, and in this groove a {mall flat plate is fitted, and traverfes, by the aétion of the long fcrew, from one end of the lathe to the other. The flat fliding plate has a cap-piece or focket {crewed down upon it, forming between them a focket for the reception of a fhort triangular bar or prifm, which is the upper flider carrying the tool, and traverfes through this focket in a di- rection perpendicular to the former flider; it therefore ad- vances or recedes dire¢tly to and from the pin which is turn- ing in the lathe. The end of the triangular flider has a focket or holder in it, which holds the tool in an inclining pofition, a little removed from the vertical, in the manner of the fhap- ing engine: the flider has a fcrew behind it to force it for- wards towards the work: the flat plate, which moves in the groove of the lower flider, has an iron arm proceeding from it, which turns upward behind the pin in the lathe, and has a little table on the top of it, to fupport a {mall veffel of water, which fupplies a {mall {tream to drop upon the turn- ing tool. The {crew of the long flider has a fmall wheel fixed on the end of it, which is turned by an endlefs {crew formed on the end of a {mall f{pindle, perpendicular to the direction of the lathe, and is turned by a band, which receives its motion from pullies on the mandril of the lathe. The pivot of the {pindle of this endlefs {crew is fixed in a piece of metal which moves on a centre, to allow the fcrew to fall down clear of the teeth of the wheel; but when the fcrew is engaged with the wheel, the piece fupporting its pivot is kept up by a catch, which is provided with a rod, in the fame manner as the facing lathe: this difengages the catch, and confequently, by letting fall the endlefs {crew, difengages the motion of the long fcrew, when it has turned the length of the intended pin, fo as to avoid the dangef of injuring the machine. The pin is, as before ftated, forged with a {quare part at one end: this fquare end is received into a chuck fcrewed to the end of the mandril, the form of which is an hollow fquare prif{m; but two of its oppofite angles are cut clear away, fo that it catches the pin by only two of the angles of its f{quare, and by being forced deeper into the prifm, it is fure to fit and hold it corre@ly by thefe two angles, and with lefs danger of altering its pofition, than if there were four angles to the chuck, being certain of a correct bearing. The pin is prepared for turning by a {mall hole being punched in the cylindric end of it, a fimple tool being ufed to enfure the punch being fet truly in the centre of the end of the pin. The operation of this turning lathe is thus: fuppofe the motion caft off, and the wheel-work of the long {crew difengaged, the tool is moved by turning this {crew with its handle to {tand at that end of the long flider which is fartheft removed from the mandril. The pin is now put in, by inferting its f{quare end into the chuck, and {crew- ing the back centre into the hole punched in the other end of the pin, which being thus mounted, the lathe is put in motion, and the tool advanced, by the fcrew of the upper flider, to- wards the pin, until its edge meets it, and cutting it as it turns round to a true circle juft at the end. Being thus fet in, the wheel at the end of the fcrew of the long flider is, as before defcribed, engaged with the wheel-work which gives it motion, and this traverfes the tool from one end of the flider to the other, cutting a thick fhaving off the pin, aud turning it cylindrical in its whole length; the fmall veflel of water C2 before MACHINERY. before mentioned being attached to the focket for the flider carrying the tool, therefore moves along with it all the way. This cock is fet to drop a {mali {tream of cold water on the tool to keep it cool; but the water falls, together with the fhay- ings, clear down through the iron frame, and is caught in a ciftern below. The motion of the tool, when it arrives at the intended length of the pin, catts itfelf off, as before ftated, fo as to be in no danger of breaking the flider or fcrew. Three of thefe machines are in conftant ufe for different fized pins. After being turned, the pins are truly cylindrical and ftraight, but have fpiral lines or fcratches traced upon them, in confequence of the edge of the tool not being al- ways perfeGly keen. To remove thefe, and make them perfect, the pins are burnifhed in The Polifhing Machine.—This confifts of three fteel dies fixed in a box, and regulated by ftrong {crews to form a triangular opening of any required dimenfions. The pin being drawn through thefe dies, and turned round at the fame time, receives a mott violent preffure and fri€tion, which burnifhes and polifhes the whole of its furface in the moft perfect manner imaginable. The dies are of courfe immerfed in oil, to avoid the heating of the pin or dies from the friction. This is the general conftruétion of the machine: the pin is faftened, by means of a {trong hand vice, to the lower end of along ferew, with which it forms a right line: this ferew and pin are placed in a vertical pofition exaétly over the dies, and the {crew is enclofed in a nut or female fcrew, which is made in two halves, and fhuts up in the manner of a pair of tongs round the fcrew, fo that they can be opened, and then the ferew can be raifed or lowered at pleafure, it being pro- perly balanced and fufpended by tackle, which gives the means of lifting it with eafe. Exaétly beneath the fcrew the dies are fixed, being fitted into an iron frame or box con- taining the three, each fitted into a proper groove, and adjuftable by a {crew behind it, to form a triangle of fuch dimenfions as the pin will exaGly fill. The interior furfaces of thefe dies are highly polifhed, and as hard as fteel can be made. The box or frame for the dies is contained in a pan which is filled with oil, and has a vertical tube beneath it, to admit the pin to defcend into as it paffes through the dies. To prevent this tube and pan overflowing by the im- merfion of a large pin, a copper pipe proceeds from the ver- tical tube, and communicates with a large pan, fixed ata little diftance behind the dies, and on the fame level with the pan which furrounds them. By means of this communication, the united furfaces of the two pans are fo large, as not to be materially raifed by the immerfion of a pin. In the operation of this machine, fuppofe the ferew at the top of its movement, the pin is fattened to it by the vice at the lower end, biting the {quare end of the pin. One of the ferews of the dies is now ferewed back, and this opens or enlarges the triangle between them, that the pin may pafs clear through it without forcing. The nut at the top of the {crew is now opened, and the pin let down till its fquare end comes to the dies. The ferew of the die is now fcrewed up hard to bite the pin; and the nut is clofed round upon the {crew. ‘The machine is now put in motion, and the ferew being turned by it turns the pin round, and at the fame time draws it up through the dies, which burnith the furface in the moft perfeét manner ; and when they come out, have as high a polifh as it is poflible for iron to bear, and the fur- face receives a kind of cafe-hardening, which enables them to refit wear in a molt effeétual manner. It is found to fa- cilitate the procefs of polifhing, to rub the pin over with foap before it is put in, as this prevents any danger of the pin having fpecks in it which are not perfeétly polifhed, owing to fome properties in that part of the iron which caufe the dies to abrade or rub up the fourface of the iron rather than burnifh it down to a polifh; but the ufe of a flight quantity of foap is found to render the procefs certain, Machines for making the Shells of the Blocks—We have now to notice thofe machines which are devoted to the fa- brication of the fhells for the blocks: they are, as before ftated, contained in the central building of the mill, in the roof of which is the fhaft that drums upon it, giving motion to the whole, with very convenient contrivances for detaching any movement at pleafure. This fuite of ma- chines, perhaps, difplays the greateft ingenuity, or at leaft the greateft novelty, of any in the whole work; feveral of the operations, particularly the mortifing and shaping, be- ing new principles of working wood by machinery, and are valuable inventions, being applicable to many other ufe- ful purpofes, when wood is to be formed into fmall articles, of which a great number are required of the fame kind.—The firft operation to which the blocks of wood intended to form the different fhells are fubjected to, is boring in the : Boring Machine.—The pieces of elm to form the dif. ferent blocks being prepared, and converted to the proper dimenfion by the fawing machines. firft defcribed, have two holes perforated through each in different dire€tions ; one through the centre of each, which is intended to receive a centre pin from the fheave, and as many others as the block is intended to have fheaves in a dire€tion perpendi- cular to the former, being intended as the commencement of the feveral mortifes which are to contain the fhedves. Figs. 1 and 2. ef Plate IV. are elevations of this machine, Jig. 3 an end {crew of one fpindle, fig. 4 is a detached view of fome part, and fig. 5 is a plan of the whole machine, the fame letters of reference being every where ufed. A, B, reprefent two {pindles turned by their refpective pullies a, b, and mounted ina frame fimilar to the mandril of a lathe; both are provided with borers C, D, formed to edges in the manner of a carpenter’s centre bit. The block marked X is held in an iron frame, ELL, by the end of a fcrew, F, being forced down upon the top of it, and the borers are prefented to it by the aétion of two levers g G é and 5 Hi, which move on centre pins fixed in the frame of the machine at gand / (but at different heights from the frame, as is fhewn in fig. 6.) Thefe levers act upon pins fixed in the frames of the two f{pindles, which frames are fitted upon dovetailed fliders Iand K, fo that they advance towards the block when the workman moves the handles, i, £, at the ends of the levers in that direétion ; and the borers, being in rapid motion by their pullies, penetrate the wood ve quickly. The proper fituation for fixing the block, that the borers may enter at the proper points, is determined in this manner: the frame EL, as the plan fhews, confifts of three legs rifing from the main frame, and uniting to- gether to fupport the focket in which the ferew, F, atts, Two of thefe legs unite together before they reach the focket. (See L, fig. 2; and LL, figs. 1 and 5.) In this double leg three {mall fcrews, d,e, f, are inferted, their heads forming a fupport, againft which one fide of the block is firmly held, be- fore the {crew, F’, is {crewed down upon it, and holds it faft up- on the head of a fcrew K, which is the fupport of the block. But thefe three ferews only determine the pofition with refpeét to the borer D ; aud that it fhall pierce it perpendi- cularly to the fide of the block, the borer, C, is caufed to penetrate the centre of the block by a gauge, formed out of a piece of iron, fhewn feparate in fg. 4. It has a groove in it, through which the ferew, K, paffes to fix it down to the MACHINERY. the frame, and a blade, R, ftanding up perpendicular, juft beneath the borer D, fg. 1, as fhewn there at R. One fide of the block being preffed in conta¢t with this blade, while the other fide is held againft the heads of the three ferews, determines its fituation, fo that the borers will form the holes in the exa¢t points required, and which being adjufted by experiments for one block, will bore any number of the fame fize in the fame places. The adjuftment for blocks of different thicknefles, is made by the three {crews, d,e,f, being {crewed to project more or lefs from the frame, that when the fide of the block is applied to their heads, the borer, D, will perforate the block in the middle of its width, and perpendicular thereto.—In the fame manner, by the gauge, R, being fixed a greater or lefs diftance from the fcrew K, the borer, C, may be adjufted to bore exaétly through the centre of the fide it is prefented to. The lengths of different fized blocks is accounted for by putting collets of different thicknefles beneath the head of the ferew K, which raifes the fupport for the block to the proper height. ‘The flider, I, on which the frame of the fpindle, A, moves, is firmly fixed down upon the frame of the machine, but the flider, K, for the other {pindle is -formed on the top of a frame SS, which has a motion on an axis formed by the points of two fcrews, 'T, T,, pafling through ftuds projeGing from the frame. ‘This frame, and ‘the flider it fupports, can be rendered immoveable at plea- fure, by the points of two ftop-fcrews manda, which may be alfo fet to allow it any required latitude of motion. In the former cafe, when the frame is fixed ftationary, as we have confidered it in what we have before itated, the ma- chine is adapted for boring fingle fheaved blocks, the borer, D, perforating the block in the centre. When double blocks are te be bored, the points of the ftop-ferews manda are fet at a proper diitance afunder, and the frame, being held firft to one of, them, bores a hole for one fheave, and being then turned over to the oppofite ftop-fcrew, formed a fecond hole at a proper diftance from the firlt. The difference of height between the two borers is rather more than the femidiameter of the fheave, becaufe one is level with the centre, and the other, D, is by the end of the mortife, to adjult this difference for the different dia- ‘meters of blocks; the frame, SS, has feveral holes in its fides, at {mall diltances apart, to receive the points of the ferews TI’, I’, and the frame, being pitched on any of thefe different centres, will raife or deprefs the point of the borer, D, to the proper height for the different fized blocks. The fcrew, F, has a lever N, fixed upon the top of it, and loaded at the ends with two weights, in the manner of the fly prefs, and the block being, as before-mentioned, held in its true polition, the {crew is forced fmartly down upon it, and by the momentum of the balls preffes very powerfully upon the wood. The fcrew is provided with a fteel ring, fitted upon its point, which has a fharp edge beneath, and this penetrates the end of the block, deeply marking a ring round in it, which is exaétly in the centre of the end, and is ufed to fix the block in a proper pofition in fome of the fucceeding machines. The blocks, being thus bored, are fubjeéted to the aétion of The Mortifing Machine, which cuts out the mortifes for the reception of the fheaves. It is delineated in Plate V. where fig 3 is an elevation in front, and fig. 5 a vertical fection of the lower parts taken parallel to the former ; fig. 1 a horizontal plan, as is alfo fig. 4 at a different level; fig. 3 is an elevation of the whole machine. The machine works as many chiffels as the block is to have fheaves ; thefe, as fhewn at A, figs. 2 and 3, areat- tached to a frame B aaé, which rifes and falls with great velocity, forcing the chiffels through the block X, fixed im a carriage CD, which advances after every cut the chiffels have made, the thicknefs of the chip, it is intended to cut out of the end of the mortife at the next ftroke. But this advancing movement of the carriage ceafes as foon as the mortife is enlarged to its proper length. The recipro- cating motion of the frame for the chiffel is occafioned by acrank d, on the end of the main axis E, which is fup- ported in bearings at each end, one in a crofs-bar, F, of the frame, and the other in a ftandard G, which is erected from the caft iron ground fill, which is the foundation of this whole machine. The axis has a rapid rotatory motion communicated to it by an endiefs ftrap, encompaffing the pulley H, and the velocity of the motion is regulated by the fly-wheel I. The crank, d, hasa {pear or conneéting rod, K, jointed to it, and connected by a joint at the upper end with the fliding frame B, which is formed to a triangle at top, and has a cylindrical rod, &, rifing from its vertex, and accu- rately fitted into a focket, fupported by framing, erected on the top of the main columns which form the framing. The fides of the lower part of the frame, Baa, are formed into dovetail fliders, and received into grooves in the edges of metal bars 0, 4, fig. 3, attached by fcrews to the vertical pillars of the frame. By this means the frame flides freely up and down, without being capable of any deviation from the perpendicular, and the chiffel, being firmly fixed to it, moves in the fame manner when they defcend into the mortife. The frame has two bars, a, a, acrofs it, againft which the chiflels, A, A, are held, by means of a clamp provided to each, which lies behind the bars, and its two ends, z, z, come over them in front, with holes to receive the chiffels and {crews to falten them. By means of thefe fcrews, the chiflels are preffed forcibly againit the bars, and attached to the frame, but in fuch a manner that they can be fixed at any diftance afunder, or any number may be put on at pleafure, by their refpedtive clamps, to mortife either fingle, double, or threefold blocks. The carriage C D, in which the blocks are fixed, is an iron frame, fliding on proper bearing in the main frame, and the advancing movement is communicated to it by means of a {crew L, fitted through a nut in the centre of the ratchet wheel M, which turns round in a focket, formed in a crofs bar, N, of the framing : thus, when the wheel is turned round, it operates upon the fcrew to advance it, with the carriage and block at the fame time: the ratchet wheel is turned round at intervals, by means of a tooth, formed in a rod e, Jig: 5, attached by a joint to the end of a bent lever O, which receives its motion by the other end of the lever, having a roller g, which applies itfelf to the circumference of an excentric circle er camm, 4, fixed on the main axis E. By this means, at every revolution of the main axis, the rod, e, moves backwards and forwards, and in the period when the chiflels are nearly at the height of their afcent, the tooth of the pall or rod, e, turns the ratchet wheel one tooth, and by the fcrew, L, advances the carriage and block the thicknefs of the chip, the chiffels are intended to cut from the end of the mortife, at the fucceeding ftroke. The ratchet wheel, M, has’a cog- wheel, P, fixed to it, which has its teeth engaged by a {maller cog-wheel'Q, fixed ona long {pindle R, extending to the front of the machine, and has a handle, 5, fixed upon it, by means of which the workman can, at any time, turn the wheel round fo as to bring the carriage te the proper point for the commencement of the mortife. ‘The motion of the {crew is caft off at the proper time by this means ; the rod is fupported at its extremity, by refling upon the extremity of a lever n, the oppofite end of which is moveable on a centre pin fixed in the column of the frame. This lever is fupported by a fe- cond lever 7, moving on a centre in a {mall ftandard erected 12 for MACHINERY. for it. The oppofite end, a, of this lever is loaded with a heavy end, that will overbalance the lever, n, and rod ¢, and lift them up, fo that the tooth of ¢ paffes clear over the teeth of the ratchet wheel, without interfering with them, and in this ftate the carriage is at ret. ‘The end, 9, of the lever io, when the machine is mortifing, is fupported upon a ruler of iron p» fig. 3, which is faftened by {crews to the fide of the car- riage C D. This fuffers the rod, e, to defcend fo law, that its tooth turns the wheel round at every revolution, and advances the carriage ; but when it has proceeded the length of the in- tended mortife, the ruler gets beyond the heavy end of the lever no, which drops down and relieves the {crew from any farther motion, fo that there is no danger of cutting the mortife longer than is proper. A very ingenious part of this machine is the contrivance for giving it motion or {topping it at pleafure. The fly-wheel I, and alfo the pulley, H, for the ftrap, are fitted upon a round part of the main axis E, fo as to flip round freely thereon, when the machine is to beat reft. Whenit isto be worked, the pulley and its axis are united by a wheel R, fig. 1, fitted on the axis by means of fillets, fo that it is conttrained to turn round with the axis, but has liberty of fliding along it. The latter motion is given to it by a lever, V, extending acrofs the frame, to which it is conneéted at one end by a centre pin, and in the middle it has an aperture large enough to receive the centre piece of the wheel R, in which a groove is turned to admit the points of two ferews v, v, which ope- rating in the fides of the groove, confine the wheel endways upon its axis ; but the wheel turns round without interference with the lever. The wheel, R,is formed conical upon its edges, and can be by the lever, &c. jambed to fit ina fimilar cone formed withinfide the pulley H. In this ftate, the friction of the two conical furfaces is fufficient to turn the machine ; but when the wheel, R, is drawn back on the axis, fo that its conical edge is difengaged from the conical cavity formed within the pulley H, the fly-wheel flips upon the axis at the fame time the cone on the back of the wheel, R, is jambed into aniron ring, W, firmly fixed to the frame, It is formed conical withinfide, in the fame manner as the infide of the pulley H, and when the wheel is jambed into it, fixes the axis motionlefs. This is a very proper provifion, as the fric- tion of the fly-wheel running fo quickly upon its axis, when it is caft off, might be fufficient to move the machine flowly, and the momentum it acquires would, in addition to this, keep it in motion for fome time; but the conical wheel being jambed in the fixed ring, W, as foon as it is withdrawn ae the pulley, deftroys the motion of the machine at once. The chiffels are provided with fmall teeth r,r, fig. 6, which are fitted into dovetailed notches formed in the blade of the chiffel. Thefe are called /eribers: they have a fharp edge projeCting a {mall diftance beyond the infide edge of the chiffel, and, therefore, in defcending through the mer- tife, the feribers cut the fides of the mortife fair, and cut two clefts which feparate the chip (which will be cut out at the next ftroke) at its edges from the infides of the mor- tife, fo that the chip comes out clear without fplitting at the edges, and this makes the infides of the mortife as divan and fmooth as poffible. Each chiffel has a piece of fteel #, Jig. 6, fixed on before the edge, by a {crew which projects from the middle of it, and is ferewed into the blade of the chiffel : the upper end of the piece being received in a notch or groove formed in the chiffel attaches it faft thereto. This piece, or nofe, is for the purpole of clearing the chips out of the mortife as faft as the chiffel cutsthem; for though, in general, when the fcribers are in proper order, the chips fall down through the block like pieces of pafteboard, yet jt may happen that they will ftick in, and then without this nofe-piece would clog up with the chips, fo that the chiffel could not be got down through them. The block is faftened into the carriage by means of a fcrew r, which has on the point of it a ring of the fame dimenfions as that on the {crew of the boring machine, and is inferted into the impref- fion made in the end of the block by that ring There are three of thefe fcrews, for the purpofe of holding one or more blocks at the fame time. he centre {crew is ufed for fixing one double or threefold block ; or, the two other {crews are ufed, when two fingle blocks are to be fixed in at the fame time. The centre {crew is then ufelefs. By means of thefe ferews, the true pofition of one end of every block is determined, fo that it will fall exa@tly beneath the chiffel A. The other end of the block is gauged into its place by ftops: thefe are attached to a fet I, placed acrofs the carriage, its ends being received into notches made in the fides, and thefe notches affordthe means of fixing the bar at any place corref{pondent to the length of the block which is to be mortifed. Again{t this crofs-bar, the ends of the _blocks are preffed by means of the {crews r, , and oppofite to each is a fharp-edged {teel ring to penetrate and hold faft the block : but to prevent it from turning round, on thefe two rings as a centre, each of the rings fixed on the crofs-bar has two {maller rings infcribed within it, which alfo penetrate the wood, and thus faften the block in the firmeft manner. This is fhewn at fig. 5. The gauges before-mentioned, for guiding the block to its true fituation, are formed on a piece of iron 2, which has two arms, 3, 3, projecting fromit. Thefe have other arms rifing from them at the ends ina vertical pofition, and againit thele one fide of each block is applied to make it vertical. A {mall piece of iron 4, which is fitted upon two vertical pins 5, 5, and can flide up and down upon them, and faften at any elevation by means of two clamp ferews, forms the guage for the height of the block, and is by thefe {crews adjuftable for blocks of different breadths. The two arms, 3, of the piece 2, are formed at the fame diftance afunder as the ferews, r, in the front of the carriage, fo that when one is fet in the pofition for a block to be held by one f{crew, the other block will be at the proper place for the otherfcrew. Theadjuftment for the different thicknefles of the blocks, is made by {liding the whole of the piece, 2, endways, for which purpofe the fcrew which faftens it to the crofs-bar 1, pafles through a groove in the piece which admits this ad- juftment, and gives means of faitening it at any place cor- re{ponding with the thickneffes of the blocks. ‘The operation of the mortifing machine isas follows: the block breught from the boring machine has the point formed by the fcrew thereof applied to the end of one of the {crews at r,r, in the carriage of the mortifing machine, and by {crewing it tight, the block is fixed between its point and the double circle points before mentioned on the crofs- bar 1, and the ftops fituated on this bar guide the block to its proper pofition, which is, that the hole bored for the commencement .of the fheave hole fhall be vertical. The block being thus fixed, the handle, s, is turned till the hole is brought beneath the chiflel A. The machine is now put in motion with the lever V, as before defcribed, by jambing the wheel R into the cone within the pulley H of the fly- wheel. At the firft defcent of the chiflels, they cut down through the whole depth of the holes previoufly bored, fo as to cuta flat fidetothem. Whenthey rife up, the excen- tric, circle 4, moving the bent lever and rod, e, moves the ratchet wheel M round one tooth, and advances the block a very minute quantity forwards from the fly-wheel, fo that the chiffels, in defcending, cut a frefh f{pace, and, in afcend- ing, the block advances ; and in this manner it proceeds with aftonifhing rapidity through the whole length of the ae mortife, MACHINERY. mort?fe. At this time, the loaded end, o, of the lever, 7 0, drops off the ruler fixed at the fide of the carriage C D, and rifes the levers ande, fo that the farther advance of the block is prevented. The attendant to the machine, as foon as he obferves this, ftops the motion by moving the lever V, and he takes care to doit at the inftant when the chiffels are at the higheit point, which is effected by a dextrous movement, for the fixed cone, W, ftops the machine inftantaneoufly. The finifhed block is now removed, and a frefh one put in the handle, s, turned back to return the carriage, and bring the block to the proper point, when the machine is ftarted, and proceeds as before. Three mortifing engines of different dimenfions are ufed at the mills, correfponding with the different fizes of blocks ‘to be manufactured. The fmalleft and largeft of thefe is what we have defcribed in our Plate. The intermediate machine was made before the others, and with fome difference in its conftruction, though none in its effect. The motion of the fliding frame for the chiflels is communicated to it by means of a long working beam or lever, extending the whole length of the frame at the top of it. At one end, it is united by a connecting rod with the chiffel frame ; ‘and at the other, it is fixed to an axis, which is fupported by the framing, and which forms its centre of motion. A connecting rod is joined to it in the middle of the beam; and the lower end of this is worked by a crank, formed in the middle of the main axis, which is fituated in a direction perpendicular to that which we have defcribed, and is fupported in the framing. It is provided with the cone for cafting off the movement. ‘This machine operates equally well with the others, from which, indeed, it does not differ in any effential point. But the move- ment of the machine we have drawn, is that which is moft complete, and lefs fubjeCt to violent ftrainin any part. The engine with the beam a¢ts with furprifing rapidity, as it makes upwards of 400 itrokes per minute, at every one of which it cuts out a chip from each mortife as thick as patteboard. Its movement is fo extremely quick, that the chiffels cannot be diftinétly feen when it is at work, and the mortifes are obferved to lengthen, and chips fall out without any evi- dent caufe. The blocks, being thus mortifed, have theirangles fawn_off, as a preparation to giving them their elliptical figure, by The Corner Saw.—This isa circular faw, fhewn at figs. 8 and g of Plate lV. where fg. 7 is a plan of the bench, fg. 8 a front elevation, and fig. g an end feétion. In thefe, A isa circular faw, fixed upona {pindle a, mounted in an iron frame B, like a lathe f{pindle, and turned by a band round the pulley C. The block is placed upon an inclined table D, which prefents it to the faw, fo as to remove a proper portion of the angle, and prepare it for the fhaping engine, which forms the exterior {urface of the block. The block lodges again{t the ledge, E, of the table, which guides it whilft it is fawn, by keeping it to the fame diftance from the faw. It is accommodated for blocks of different dimenfions, by placing wooden rulers of proper thicknefles againft the ledge E, to bring it nearto the faw. In one of thefe machines, the ledge, E, is fitted with connecting bars in the ftyle of a parallel ruler, fo that it can be fixed at any diftance from the faw, but always parallel thereto. The faw is fixed ona chuck, which is attached to the {pindle for fawing, fo that it can be quickly removed to fharpen the faw. The Shaping Engine.—The shaping engine conlifts of a double wheel, called its chuck, in which ten blocks are fixed at once. -Thefe being turned rapidly round, a gouge is fixed fo as to intercept them, and form their external fur- faces to fegments of the circles in which they all revolve. This is the general principle of the machine. Its particular conftruétion is explained by Plate VI. where fig. 1 is ant elevation; fig. z, anedge view; and fig. 3,a plan. The de- tached figure parts we fhall foon explain. The feparate figures at X and Y, in the corner of the plate, are intro- duced to explain the ftate of the block when it is brought to this ingenious machine, and to fhew alfo the change made upon it. Fig. KX is a front view, and Y an edge view of a double fheave block. The outlines fhew the form of it when finifhed in the fhaping engine, and the dotted lines its form before it is put into it. Thus the four angles are fhewn as cut off in fg. X by the corner faw, prepa- ratory to giving it the elliptical figure it is to have. The other view fhews nothing cut off by the corner faw, the whole alteration being made by the fhaping engine. This figure alfo fhews the ftate of the mortifes. The machine, as before-mentioned, contains ten blocks, which are all fhaped at the fame time, being fitted in a large wheel, or rather, between the circumference of two wheels A A and BB, having a common axis CC. The blocks are fhewn at the letters E, E; andthe plan, fg. 3. explains the manner in which they are held between the wheels by a fcrew, a, having a fteel ring fitted upon the point of it, which is exaétly the fame in all refpeéts as the ring on the point of the fcrew of the boring machine ; and the ring of the ferew a, being inferted into the impreffion made in the end of the block, fecures one end; the other is retained by a ring, 5, of the fame dimenfions, containing two others within it, which enter the impreffion made in the other end of the block by the double rings in the carriage of the mortifing machine, to which they are exa€tly a counter- part. The double ring, 6, is formed in the end of a fhort {pindle, fitted in a focket through the rim of the great wheel A, exa&ly oppofite the {crew a, and has on the outfide of the wheel a fmall toothed wheel d. The fcrew, a, being tightened up by a winch, the block becomes faftened in between the point of it and the fpindle 4, as it were inalathe. The compound wheels A A, BB, or more properly the chuck, as we fhall in future call it, being thus filled with blocks, has a rapid circular motion given to it by means of an endlefs rope encompafling the pulley, F, on the main axis. Now it is evident that’a cutting tool, being prefented to the blocks as they revolve, will form their ex- terior furfaces to fegments of circles, of the fize of that which they revolve in. ‘This tool, which is a gouge, is held in a fliding reft, fhewn feparately in jigs. 4. and 55 and is alfo feen in the other figures. It confifts of a dove- tailed flider G, accurately fitted into a groove, which is part of a frame H, that is attached to a long. metal bar I K, curved to a fegment of a circle; fee fig. 1. At one end, K, it is fitted on a centre piece, fixed in a crofs-bar of the frame, exaétly beneath the centre of the axis of the chuck ; the other end of this bar, which may be called the radius, refts upon a part of the framing L, which is curved to a circular arch, and on this the radius refts, as it {weeps on its centre from one fide to the other of the machine. The flider G, for the gouge g, is advanced towards its work by a lever M, having a handle m, figs. 3 and 4, at one end; and the other is fitted on a centre pin n, fixéd in a projecting part of the frame of the groove H To the mid- dle of the lever a fhort connecting bar, 4, is jointed, and communicates the power of the lever to the flider G, and confequently advances the gouge g, which is held in the end of it, towards its work: but the quantity of this advance is determined by a roller ¢, the axis of which is fitted ina focket attached to the flider G: it bears againft a guide or pattern ruler N, which is fupported on two pillars from the frame of the machine. The pattern ruler has fucha de- gree MACHINERY. ee of curvature, as fhewn in the plan, that when the roller, e, of the flider, G, is kept in contact with it by a preffure on the handle, m, towards the machine, and the whole flide reft is fwept along its curved reft L, the edge of the gouge, , will deferibe that curve which the furface of the block is intended to have, as fhewn by the dotted line at E. The manner of aétion in this machine is eafily gathered from what we have faid. The chuck being filled with blocks, as before related, the fliding reft is moved quite to the end of its flider L, and in this ftate the machine is put in ation. The workman now holds the handle, m, in one hand, and the long handle, R, (which is attached by a joint to the frame H,) by the other hand: with the former he prefles towards the machine to keep the roller, ¢, in contaét with the ruler N, and by the latter he {weeps the gouge flowly and fteadily from one fide of the frame to the other. In this circuit, the edge of the gouge removes the angles of all the ten blocks at once, reducing them on the outtide to the figure of the dotted line E in the plan, which, as before ex- plained, is determined by the curve of the pattern ruler. This being done, the machine is ftopped, and it is neceflary to turn all the blocks round one quarter upon their re- fpective axes to prefent another fide outwards, that it may be fhaped to its proper curve in its turn. This is accom- plifhed in a very ingenious manner. Each of the {mall {pin- dles, 4, has, as before ftated, a {mall wheel, d, fixed upon it, and to every one of thefe an endlefs f{crew, is adapted. The axes of all thefe fcrews marked f, tend to the centre of the chuck, and each has a {mall bevelled cog-wheel upon it; and all thefe are turned by one large bevelled wheel O, which is fitted upon the main axis, but flips round freely thereupon. It has a pin projecting from a part of its circumference, which is detained by means of a ftop Q, fig. 1, jointed to the frame at the lower end, and forked at top, to catch this pin when it is moved on its joint fo as to approach the wheel; but when thrown back bya {pring in its joint, into the pofition of the figure, it is out of a@tion. When the blocks are to be turned round one quar- ter, this ftop is prefled towards the wheel, and the pin, by turning the chuck round, catches in the forked top of it, and prevents the wheel from turning. The workman now, by taking hold of the chuck, turns it round four times, as he determines by obferving a mark made upon one part of the run of the chuck coming oppofite to fome part of the framing. In thefe four turns of the chuck, the centre wheel, O, remaining ftationary, the blocks are, by means of their endlefs fcrews f, turned round one-fourth of a circle, and the next face of each block is turned outwards to be fub- jected to the action of the gouge. But the fides, now ex- pofed, being thofe in which the mortifes are made, -are of a more rapid curvature, being of an elliptical figure, as fhewn at X, in the corner of the plate, while the former was only flightly rounded. To give this difference of curvature, a new moulding ruler, N, is employed. This is fixed immedi- ately beneath the other one, as fhewn by figs. 1 and 2, and the roller, e, of the flider, G, is adapted to act upon either ; its axis being let down in its focket, and retained at the proper level to work with either, by a clip or clafp (not fhewn in the figures, ) which enters either of the two grooves formed round in the {pindle of the roller; and for the pur- pofe of elevating or depreffing the roller, its {pindle has a head, S, fixed on the top of it. The roller being now fhifted to the proper pattern ruler and all the blocks, the turning of thefe fides is performed in the fame manner as the firit, but, of courfe, giving it a different curvature correfponding to the difference of the two moulding rulers. The machine is now ftopped, the blocks fhifted to another quarter, the guider roller, ¢, returned to its firft ruler, be- caufe the machine is now to form thofe fides of the blocks oppofite to what were firft done, and therefore the fame curve. The chuck being again fet in motion, the third fide is turned. The movement is now {ftopped, the roller, e, fhifted to the fame ruler as for the fecond fide, and the blocks being turned round another quarter, the laft fide is finifhed, and they are removed from the machine to make way for another fet. This ingenious machine is adapted to receive blocks of different dimenfions by the following means: the length of the blocks are allowed for, by placing the wheels, A A, B B, of the chuck at a greater or lefs diftance afunder upon their axis C. This is done by the five fcrews, T, which unite them. The wheel, A, is fixed faft to its axis, and the other flides upon it, to regulate their diftance ; the fcrews, T, have nuts upon them, both within and without the wheel B, fo that they hold it quite firmly at the intended diftance from the other, The next adjuftment, dependent on the fize of the block, is that the edge of the gouge fhall defcribe its curve at'the proper diflance from the centres of the feveral blocks, to make them of the intended dimenfions. This would be adjutted by placing the pattern rulers, N, at a greater or !efs diftance from the blocks; or, what has the fame effect, altering the diftance between the centre of the roller e, which applies to the rulers, and the edge of the gouge g. For this purpofe, the focket for the f{pindle of the roller is fitted into a groove in the flider G, and is regulated by a fcrew, P, at the end of the flider. The trial is made by {etting the gouge oppofite the centre of the Pinel as in the plan, and turning the fcrew P, until the edge of the gouge very nearly touches the block in the centre, becaufe it is in- tended only to take off the corners of the block, little or nothing being removed from the middle. This adjuftment is neceflarily made every time the gouge is removed from the flider to fharpen. The gouge is faftened into the holder, at the end of the flider G, by means of a fcrew, as fhewn in "Three moulding rulers are fhewn in the figures, though we have only explained the ufe of two. Double and fingle fheave blocks of the fame lengths have both the fame curva- ture on the edges in which the mortifes are, and therefore they may be fhaped indifferently from the fame pattern ruler: but confidering them in the other direction, viz. that in which the plan exhibits them, the gouge is required to traverfe its curve at nearly twice the diftance from the centre of a double block, to that required for the fingle fheave ; and this is effeted by providing an additional pattern ruler for the fingle blocks: therefore, in the machine as repre- fented, one ruler is adapted for fhaping the edges of either fingle or double blocks, a fecond for the outfrdes of the cheeks of double blocks, and a third for the cheeks of fingle blocks: all the three rulers can be quickly removed from the machine, and others of a different curvature fubftituted, being only fixed by two ferews to the pillars which rife from the reft L; anda great variety of thefe patterns are provided to fuit all kinds of blocks, of which an amazing number of fhapes are in ufe in the navy. As this fhaping engine is a machine which would be very eafily applied to other purpofes, it may not be uninterefting to defcribe the manner of forming a pattern ruler to fhape any curve. It is done experimentally by choofing fuch a block as is of a proper figure, or forming one by hand to the inténded cur- vature, and fixing it in the chuck; then fubftituting any blunt tool in place of the gouge, and fixing a fharp tracing point on in the end of the centre pin of the roller e: a piece of board is fixed in place of the pattern ruler. The tool is now MACHINERY. mow applied to the block fixed in the chuck ; and being kept in contac with it, while the fliding reft is {wept from one end to the other, the point in the centre of the roller traces a curve upon the board: the block is then to be re- moved, or turned out of the way. Now by placing the fliding reft fucceffively at different parts of its fweep, and thrufting the flider, G, towards the machine by its lever M, the tracing point will defcribe ftraight lines upon the board, all tending to the centre of the machine, or rather to the centre, K, of the radial bar; and as many of thefe being made at fhort intervals as is thought proper, the board is removed. A pair of compafies being now opened to the exact radius of the roller e, this diftance is fet off, from the traced curve, apon every one of the radial lines, thus transferring the curve as much nearer to the centre as the femidiameter of - the roller. A‘ curve is now drawn through thefe points, and the board being cut to it, will have the curve defired, and may be ufed as a pattern to cat a metal ruler from, which being fixed in the fame points as the board was, will fhape the blocks to the form of that which was employed as the pattern for it. Three fhaping engines are employed for blocks of dif- ferent fizes: the largeft, which was laft made, is that we have defcribed; the fmaller one is very nearly like it; but the intermediate fize, like the mortifing machine, is of a lefs perfe& conftruétion, and fhews the progrefs of invention: it holds but a {mall number of blocks, and thefe are turned round on their axes, one by one, by the workman. A cir- cular plate, with four notches in irs edge, whieh are caught by a click, is the gauge for fetting them correétly to one- fourth of a turn each time they are fhifted. Even this machine is a very excellent one for the purpofe, though greatly improved in the fecond and third, which were made by the introduction of the whcels and {crews for fetting all the blocks together, which is a moft ingenious con- trivance. ’ The large machine has a contrivance, very fimilar to the mortifing machine, for checking its motion as foon as the movement is caft off; for otherwife the momentum of the chuck loaded with blocks would be confiderable. The machine in our plate is reprefented with a wheel, V, upon it, which is furrounded by a brake or gripe: this is relieved from the wheel by a {pring, when the machine is in motion ; but when the workman preffes a lever (omitted in the draw- ing), it encompafles the wheel by its gripe, and caufes a friction, which quickly flops the machine. The framing f{upports a number of iron bars, which enclofe the chuck as it were in a cage. This precaution is very neceflary to the fecurity of the workman ; for if the blocks fhould get loole, as has once happened, they would be thrown by the centri= fugal force with the velocity of bullets, and might do ferious injury. The accident alluded to was occafioned by one of the wheels of the chuck cracking in the rim, fo as to let loofe the blocks, and they all flew out behind the machine, pafling through a window, into the tteam-engine houle, where they ftruck the governor or regulating balls of it, and broke them in pieces. It is fingular that, in pafling through the window, all the blocks followed each other through the fame pane of glafs with great violence. oo Scoring Machine-—We now come to the laft machine in the feries: this is the fcoring machine, which forms the {core round the block for the reception of the flrap or rope, by which it is fufpended in the rigging of the fhip. The fcore is a groove, deep enough at the ends of the block to receive one-half of the rope or itrap, but is diminifhed to nothing where it croffes the pin of the block. The *machine is reprefented in Plate VU., where jig. 1 is a hori« Vor. XXII. zontal plan of the upper part of the machine, and Sf 2 a plan of that part containing the blocks ; Jig» 3 another plan taken immediately below the former ; figs. 4 and 5 are eleva- tions of the machine taken in two direétions at right angles to each other. T'wo blocks, in the ftate they are finifhed by the fhaping engine, are {cored at once by this machine : one of thefe is marked Y, the other is dotted. The groove is formed by a circular cutter A B, fituated exaGly over each block: thefe cutters are circular wheels made of brafs, and formed round upon the edge. In two oppolite points of the circumference are two openings, as a, a, Js. 45 in which cutters with round edges are fixed to project a little beyond the rim of the wheels, in the manner of a plane iron ; and they cut the wood in exaétly the fame manner, except that they move in a circle initead of a ftraight line. Thefe cutters are both fixed on one f{pindle C, which is turned by a band round the pulley D, in the middle of it. This {pindle is mounted in a frame E E F F, Jig. 1; which moves on an axis, F I’, centred in the frame, (lee fig. 4.) fo that the fpindle has liberty of afcent and detcent by the handle H, but always keeps parallel to itfelf. The blocks are held in a frame ereéted upon a ftrong plate G, Jig. 5, and fhewn feparately in Jig. 2, which {wings on the points of two centre fcrews, 6, 4, in the manner of an axis: it is moved by the handle I, and governed by a pendulum K. By this motion, all parts of the blocks can be prefented to the cutters: each of the blocks is faf- tened in the frame by means of two pins, d, d, ereGed from the plate G, the block is preffed with fufficient force to hold it in between thefe by a fcrew /, which operates upon a clamp e, connected by a joint with the lower plateG. The upper end of this clamp has half ring formed in it, which catches in the impreflion made in the end of the block by the preceding machines, and thus fixes it, fo that its centre comes beneath the cutter ; and as the block is fhaped equally on each fide of its centre, it will affume the true pofition, by being forced between the two pins d, d, without regard to the fize of the block. The frame, E F, hasa curved piece of iron fixed beneath it, which is formed fo as to inclofe the pulley, D, on the lower half, as clofe as it can be not to touch, and is therefore concentric with the axis C. This piece of iron comes down upon the edge of a metal plate L, which is the pattern for fcoring the block, as it regulates the depth to which the fcore fhall be excavated, being nothing at the centre of the block, and deep enough at the endg to bury half the ftrap. ‘The aétion of this machine is fimple. The blocks being fixed as before mentioned, the workman takes one handle, H and I, in each hand, and by the upper one keeps the curved iron always in contact with the pattern, L, beneath it: at the fame time, by depreffling the handle I, the blocks are inclined, fo that they traverfe beneath the cutters A, B, to form the fcores from their centres to the ends of them, the two pins d, d, admitting the cutters be- tween them quite to the ends of the blocks, and in depth as much as the pattern, L, allows the cutters to defcend beneath the furfaces of the blocks. Now it will eafily be feen, that by railing up the handle I, the other ends of the blocke might be fcored in the fame manner, and fo indeed they are in the firft machine that was made, and which is {till in ufe at Port{mouth : but the objection to the method is, that the cutters cut againit the grain of the wood, fo as to be rough, in the fame manner as when a carpenter planes the edge of a board obliquely to the direction of the grain, if he plgies from one end it will cut fmooth, but in the other direction it will cut ragged and rough. To avoid this in the machine before us, the plate G, to which the blocks are im- mediately fixed, i8 united to another plate M beneath it, by a centre MACHINERY. a centre pin m, which is exa€tly beneath the pattern L, and alfo in the middle between the two blocks and cutters: on this as acentre, the upper plate, G, turns round, and is detained by a fpring catch n, which is fixed to the lower plate, and falls into a notch made in a projeGting part of the upper plate G, when the two blocks are in their proper pofition. The firft quarters of the fcores of two blocks being cut as before deferibed, the workman relieves the catch n, -and turns the plate, G, half round on its centre, when the catch again de- tains it in this pofition, by which the blocks are reverfed, having exchanged fituations, and their finifhed ends are out. wards ; confequently, the other ends, where the ferews /, /, are, are beneath the cutters ; the handle I being, therefore, depreffed as before, cuts the fecond quarter of the fcore, and in the fame manner as the firft, being in the proper way of the grain of the wood to cut fmooth. This completes one half, and the blocks are taken out to be turned the other fide upwards, to cut the fcores in them by a repetition of the fame procefs as we have defcribed. The axis of the frame, E F, has a lever proceeding from it behind, which is loaded with a fufficient weight to counterpoife the weight of the frame and cutters, giving them aconttant tendency to rife upwards, and thus keep out of the way when the handle is left to itfelf. ‘The pattern L, which determines the depth of the fcore, and therefore depends upon the curvature of the block, can be quickly removed from the machine, to make way for any other fhape being fixed to the plate, G, by only two fcrews. A great variety of thefe patterns is required, as well as for the fhaping engine, and their curvature is de- termined by the fame means as we have before deferibed of that machine. The operation of feoring is the laft which is performed by machinery upon the fhells of the blocks, which are now com- letely formed, and only require to be rafped and filed to a mooth furface, which the machines will not always do, though they cut them perfectly correct to the intended forms ; but the wood is not always fo hard and perfe@ in its texture as to make them fmooth, {mall pits being left in va- rious parts, which require the aid of files and rafps to re- move them; though, by a little labour of this kind, they are made as neat as can be wifhed. The machines will, when their cutters are in order, and the wood of good quality, cut as fmooth as any thing can be expected. Of this we are con- vinced by having feen the performance of a fet of working models of thefe machines, which we hefitate not to fay are the moft perfect and elegant models that have ever been made of any kina of machines: they are about four times the fize ef the drawings in our plates, and are all placed upon one large table, fo as to exhibit the whole of the operations, as they fucceed each other, at one view. A very elegant model ofa fteam-engine, made on Mr. Maudflay’s pattern, aétuated the whole. hefe models are depofited in the Admiralty houfe, Weftminfter. They operate in a more precife man- ner than the large machines, their cutters being kept exceed- ingly keen, and the wood they work upon being of a harder and better kind. The blocks at Portfmouth are made of elm, which isa very proper wood for them, not being liable to fplit: the fheaves, as we have before-mentioned, are made of lignum vite. Tn the operation of dreffing the blocks by hand, we muft notice a plane, for making the infides of the mortifes perfectly {nooth and flat; for though the mortifing engine will, when ivery gaod order, cut as correAlly as poflible; yet it is ad- vifable to plane the infides, to be certain that they are not rough, for that would oceafion a great friétion at the fides of the fheave, ‘The plane is of the fame form as a carpen- ter’s, but is made of brafs and very thin, that it may enter 8 the mortife. It is fixed pro’:€ing horizontally from the edge of a work-bench, and the workman, taking the block by its end, inferts the end of the plane into the mortife, and thrults it forwards. The plane cuts a fhaving from the infide of the mortife, ina direétion acrofs the grain, and thus at two or three flrokes finifhes them, and they are ready for putting together, which completes the blocks. As conneéte with this fubje&t we fhall defcribe the ; Machine for making dead Eyes.—This is a very ingenious and complete machine, and it forms the whole of the article atonce. The pieces of wood being fawn to the fize, have the holes bored through them in the boring machine, for the reception of the rope which is to be reeved through them. Two of thefe holes are equi-diflant from the centre of the block of wood; and by means of thefe two holes, it is fixed in the machine, which fhapes and feores it at twice fix- ing. This is reprefented in Plate VII. where jig. 6 isa plan of the whole machine, and Jig. ‘7 an elevation in front, The frame or bench fuftaining it, is omitted, only the work- ing parts being fhewn, Itisalathe,to which proper me- chanifm is added. AB is its f{pindle, fupported between the ftandards Y, Z, and C the pulley for turning it by a band D. Fig. 6 is a chuck, ferewed to the end of the {pindle: this chuck has a double ferew, a, in it; that is, a right and left handed ferew, which operates upon two fli- ders, carrying two round pins, x, x, which project from the face of the chuck : one of thefe fliders is moved by the right hand part of the ferew, whichis the end a; and the other by the left hand part, which is the end 45 and the {crew being retained by a collar in the centre of the chuck, the two pins, x, x, with their fliders, mutuaily advance or re- cede, when the fcrew, a 4, is turned with a wrench applied to the fquare ends a or b, fig. 6. By means of thefe pins, the block, f, is readily fixed to the chuck D. The fcrew, ab, is turned till the pins; a, w, are at the fame diflance afunder as the two holes in the block f, which is then hung on the pins, and the fcrew being turned, forces the two pins farther from the centre, and thus faftens it firmly to the chuck ; and as the pins are always equally diftant from the centre, they chuck it always truly. ‘Che turning tool, which is a gouge, is applied by a fliding relt, and apparatus of the fame kind as that of the fhaping engine, E is the circular iron reft on which the tool {weeps, and is f{upport- ed to bear the preffure of the work. F is the radius bar, turning round on a centre pin, fixed in the frame immediate- ly beneath the work, inthe line of the {pindle ; and this ra- dius isin one piece with the frame H, which is the founda- tion of the fliding reft. This confifts of the dove-tailed flider, G, fitted into a groove formed on the top of the frame H : this flider is advanced to its work by the lever M, which has a handle, m, at one end, and the other is fitted on a centre pin, a, fixed in an arm projecting from the frame H. N is the fhape or pattern ruler, fupported by two columns, 0,0; ‘and is the ‘roller which applies to the fhape when the handle, m, is prefled towards the ma- chine, as fhewn by a dotted circle in fg. 6. The whole reft is {wept round on by E, a handle fimilar to that of the fhaping engine, but no part of which is fhewn in thefe figures. The angles of the block are removed by the corner faw be- fore it comes to the machine in which it is chucked, as before- mentioned, and then the fpindle, A B, is put in motion. The workman, by the two handles, as before explained, of the fhaping-engine, {weeps the tool one quarter round on the centre of its radial bar, F, and the roller applying to the fhape, N, gives the dead eye, f, its intended curvature. The machine being flopped, the dead eye is removed from the chuck, and reverfed; the other fide being prefented to MAC to the tool is fhaped in the fame manner : the {core now re- mains to be cut round its circumference. If this was mere- ly a groove all round, it would be eafily turned by a gouge, but cuftom has eftablifhed, that it fhall not continue quite round the dead eye, but have one point, (where the ends of the ftrap are to unite,) left folid. This is fhewn in the plan jig. 6, and alfo in the other view, fig. 7, by the dotteéline, z, being the folid part. \ This being the form of the fcore, it requires fome particular mechanifm to cut it, which is ef- feted in this manner ; afpindle, P, withacutter, Q, fimi- lar to the {coring engine, is mounted in a frame, RS, which moves on a centre at S, fo as to approach or recede from the work at pleafure. The {pindle hasa very rapid motion given toit by a band paffing round the pulley T, and the cutter, being applied to the work, excavates the fcore as the block and {pindle are turned round. The depth to which it is per- mitted to cut is determined by a roller, d, fituated at the end of a rod, which is fitted on the axis, S, of the frame RS, and attached firmly to the frame by an arch V ; in which is a groove to receive a clamp ferew, which gives the means of fattening it at any point, and the roller then becomes a part -of the moving frame RS. This roller applies itfelf toa pattern, or fhape-wheel, W, fixed on the {pindle, and turn- ing with it. Its figure is circular, except a projeCting knob on one fide, w, as {hewn by the dotted lines in i. 7. The manner of ufing this {coring apparatus is as follows : the fhaping being performed as before defcribed, the motion of the fpindle is ca{t off: the workman now goes to the oppofite fide of the machine, and taking hold of the frame, RS, by one hand, and the pulley, C, of the fpindle by the other, then applies the cutter (which before hung back out of the way), at the fame time turning the work flowly round by its pulley: this cuts out the fcore, the pattern- wheel determining its depth, and the projecting part, w, of the pattern-wheel, when it comes round, lifts the cutter out altogether, leaving the folid, or unformed part of the {core at 2, as we have before defcribed. This machine readily adapts itfelf to receive different fizes : . ‘the two pins x, x, firlt mentioned in the face of the chuck D, ‘ferew into the fliders of the chuck which are moved by the double .ferew a, and can be removed to put on any fize cor- re{ponding with the fize of the holes bored through the ~dead eye: thefe pins are made hollow, to avoid unneceffary weight in the moving parts. The fcrew, a, inthe chuck will (as before-mentioned) expand the pins to hold any fized block. ‘The fcrew r, at the end of the flider, regulates the potition of the roller which applies to the fhape N, and thus adapts to the thicknefs of the dead eye. The operation of this adjuftment will be underttood by referring to the fhaping- machine. ‘I'he fhape, N, is readily changed, to make different fizes, by introducing others of a different curvature: for this purpofe, it is only held on the pillars O, O, by notches, as fhewa in the plan, and nuts being {crewed upon it to hold it faft. ‘The fcore is always in the middle of the dead eye ; and, therefore, for different thicknefles, the cutter, Q, muit be fhifted endways : this is done by fliding the whole frame, X, fupporting the centres, S, on which the frame, RS, of the fpindle moves as a centre; the {crews, #, ¢; which hold it, are fitted in grooves to admit of this motion, and the pattern- wheel, or fhape W, as well as the roller, ¢, which applies to its circumference double the neceflary width, to allow this variation, without lofing their bearing. The projecting part, w, of the pattern-wheel, conlilts of an iron bridge, ferewed on to the rim of the wheel: it is made very light, and has a balance weight on the oppofite fide of the rim to balance its weight; for, if this was not attended to, the rapid revolution of any unbalanced weight would, by its MAC eentrifugal force, a€ting fucceffively on all fides, caufe-a tremor of the whole machine, and a great wear and fri€tion on the centres of motion; but when truly balanced, the motion is pleafant and equable. MACHISCHEVO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Tobolfk ; 36 miles W. of Ufchim. MACHLIS, in Natural Hiffory, a name ufed by Pliny and fome of the old authors, for the elk, and alfo for the rein-deer. MACHONOWBA, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Braclaw; 60 miles E. of Braclaw. MACHRIANICK Bay, a bay of Scotland, on the W. coaft of Kintyre. .N. Jat. 55°.27!. W. long. 5? 43'. MACHSA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye- men; 25 miles E.S.E. of Zebid. MACHUA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sirowy ; 20 miles N. of Jalour. MACHUL, an infrument of mufic among the Hebrews: Kircher apprehends that the name was given to two kinds of initruments, one of the ftringed and the other of the pul- fatile kind. . That of the former fort had fix chords. Though there is great reafon to doubt whether an initru- ment requiring the aid of the hair-bow, and fo much re- fembling the viol, be fo ancient. The fecond kind was of a circular form, made of metal, and either hung round with little bells, or furnifhed with iron rings, fufpended on a rod or bar that pafled acrofs the circle. Kircher fuppofes that it was moved to and fro by a handle fixed to it, and thus emitted a melancholy kind of murmur. MACHYNLLETH, or Macuynirarrn, in Geogra- phy, a market town in the hundred of the fame name, in the county of Montgomery, North Wales, is fituated at the conflux of the rivers Dulas and Dovey, 37 miles diftant from the county town, and 207 from London. It has a claim to high antiquity, being generally {uppofed to have been a Roman ftation, named the Maglona of the Itinerary : many ancient coins have been difcovered in the vicinity. In this town, Owen Glendwr, in the year 1402, when, from repeated fuccefles, he was in the meridian of his glory, aflembled the eftates of Wales, and held a parliament; by which his title to the principality was folemnly acknow- ledged, and he was formally inaugurated fovereign of Wales. On this occafion he narrowly efcaped falling a victim to the hatred of his brother-in-law Dafydd Gam, who attended the aflembly with intent to affaflinate him; but his defign was timely difcovered. An old houfe, vow divided into tene- ments, is fhewn as being that in which the pariiament was holden. The inhabitants of this town are chiefly employed in handicraft bufinels; that of tanning being carried on to a confiderable extent, as is alfo the manufacture of flannel, and of what are provineially termed webs, and Welfh plains or cottons. Thefe are a coarfe fort of thick white cloth, made in pieces from ninety to one hundred and twenty yards in length: this article formerly conftituted a portion of the export trade, but latterly has been appropriated to clothing the army, and for home confumption. Seven annual fairs are held here, and a weekly market on Wed- nefday. ‘The population of the parifh, which includes, with the town, the townthips of Is Carreg and Uwch Carreg, was, in the year 1801, returned to parliament as 1825, occu- pying 372 houfes. Pennant’s Tour in Wales. Carlifle’s Topographical Dictionary of Wales. MACIAS, Ex Examorapo, in Biography, a Spanith poet, celebrated as one of Love’s martyrs, was born Jin Galicia. towards the clofe of the fourteenth century, and educated in the houfehold of the famous Henrique de Vil- kena, malter of Calatrava, who was very friendly to him. D2 He MAC He fell in love with a damfel of the fame houfehold; the paffion was mutual, but effectually concealed from all other perfons, and when Macias was abfent, the mafter gave her in marriage to a knight who refided in Porcuna. Macias on his return grew defperate, which occafioned his impri- fonment at Arjonilla; here he employed himfelf in making verfes on his miftrefs, fome of which were carried to the hufband ; who, in a fit of rage, mounted his horfe with a {pear and fhield in his hand, rode to the prifon, and flew the unfortunate captive as he was finging a fong in honour of his love. Other accounts fay that he bibl the keeper of the prifon to untile a part of the roof, and flew him from above. He was buried in the church of St. Catalina, at Arjonilla, and this fhort epitaph was infcribed on his tomb «« Aqui yace Macias el Enamorado.” ‘The lance was pre- ferved upon his grave, and fome Spanifh verfes written under it. In fuch cafes, fays the biographer, the Spaniards gene- tally take part with the hufband; but Macias was a poet, and the poets took up his caufe. Their works are full of allufions to this flory. The fong which occafioned his murder is preferved in the Efcurial, and has been printed by Argote de Molina in his «* Nobleza de Andalucia,’’ and by Sanchez in his notes upon the marquis of Santillana’s letter. Gen. Biog. MACIECOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Chelm; 40 miles E. of Chelm. MACJEJEWICE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lublin; 44 miles W.N.W. of Lublin. MACIGNO, in Mineralogy, the Italian name of a rock, which is employed for the purpofes of building at Florence, and throughout Tufcany, where it is faid to conftitute entire mountains of a ftratified ftru€ture. Patrin, who calls it “‘uxe pierre marneufe et micacée,” has given the following account of this ufeful ftone. There are two varieties of macigno with regard to colour; one of them, called fietra bigia, is of a greyifh-yellow; the other, denominated pietra Serena, of a blueifh-grey colour. This latter, of which moft of the houfes of Florence are built, has the inconvenience of becoming black when expofed to the air, and at length to decompofe. The pietra bigia, which contains much oxyd of iron, pofleffes greater folidity, and is lefs ated upon by the atmoiphere ; it is calculated for the exterior of buildings, while the pietra ferena fhould only be employed for the interior. The upper ftrata in the macigno quarries are more clayey than the others; they refift the a¢tion of the fire fufficiently well, fo that they are made ufe of for the conttruction of furnaces and hearths. ‘lhe fame hills exhibit ftrata or beds, fome of which are of a lefs folid texture than the macigno, and appear often to be nothing but indurated clay ; thefe layers are called Jardellone. The others, on the contrary, are much harder than macigno; they are of a white colour, and bear the name of pietra forte. This latter is the ftone which is employed for paving the ftreets of Florence. Ferber is of opinion, that the two kinds of macigno, to- gether with the darde/lone and the pietra forte, are varieties of one and the fame rock, in which clay, calcareous earth, and mica, are by turns predominating. The pietra forte varies as much as the macigno with regard to colour; it is often greyih or blueifh-yellow, and fome- times thefe two colours are even united in the fame piece. In the quarry of Campora, fituated two miles from Flo- rence, and yielding the {tones with which the ftreets of Flo- rence are paved, the pietra forte is difpofed in horizontal layers that have only a few inches in thicknefs, and are fometimes feparated from each other by fimilar layers of bardellone ; and not unfrequently a-cruft of calcareous {par, MAC of about a line in thicknefs, intervenes between the latter and the pietra forte. Ferber fuppofes, that it is this calca- reous fub{tance which, by penetrating into a layer of bar dellone, converts it into pietra forte. Patrin adds, that this ftone exhibits a remarkable ap- pearance in its interior ftru@ture; which is, that it divides into rhomboids feparated from each other by diflepiments of calcareous {par. This author is of opinion, that the cal- careous and argillaceous particles have been depofited at the fame time ; that afterwards a feparation has taken place by ele&tive attraétion, and that the calcareous particles, tend ing to arrange themfelves in rhomboidal forms, have im- parted to the pietra forte the fame chara¢ter which is com- municated by them to the fandftone of Fontainebleau. It is in thefe macigno hills that the beautiful varieties of marle, exhibiting landicapes, ruins, &c. and known by the name of Florentine marble, are found. See MARLE. ; The above is all that is known of the nature of the ftone of the neighbourhood of Florence; it fhould, however, be obferved in this place, that the dardiglione, properly {peak- ing, appears to be a different fub{tance from. that defcribed by Patrin and Ferber under the name of bardellone ; the for- mer being the anhydrous fulphate of lime, (anhydrite and wiirfelfpat of Werner,) on which count Bournon has given a memojr in vol.i. of the Tranfaétions of the Geological Society. MAC-INTOSH, in Geography, a county of America, in the lower diftrié& of Georgia, between Liberty and Glynn counties, on the Alatamaha river. It is divided into four towns, and contains 2660 inhabitants; of whom 1819 are flaves. MACK, in Agriculture, a provincial term fometimes ap- plied to a fort or kind of grain, or breed of. cattle or live itock. MACKALLY, in Gcography, a town of Bengal; 35 miles S.S.E. of Moorfhedabad. MACKENZELL, a town of Germany, in the bifhoprie of Fulda; nine miles N.E. of Fulda. MACKENZIE, Sir Grorce,.in Biography, an eminent Scotch lawyer and mifcellaneous writer, was born of a noble family at Dundee in 1636. He ftudied at the uni- verfities of Aberdeen and St. Andrews, and finifhed the ufual courfe of claffics and philofophy ; at the age of fix- teen he was fent to Bourges in France, where he pafied three years in the ftudy of the civil law. On his return to Scotland, he was admitted to the bar, and foon became diftinguifhed for his talents as a pleader. He was appointed, in 1661, the advocate for the marquis of Argyle, impeached - of high treafon, and {poke with fo much fervour and bold- nefs in behalf of his client, as to draw down upon him a reprimand from the bench. This, however, did not ftop his career, and in a fhort time after he was raifed to a feat on that bench in the criminal court. A piece of fervicé which he rendered to the court in 1674, by effecting a reconcilia- tion between the lords of feffion and the faculty of advocates, caufed him to be knighted, made king’s advocate, and one of the lords of the privy-council in Scotland. In the con- tentions of that period the poit of king’s advocate, which is analogous to that of attorney-general in England, was equally important and ardhous. Sir George, who had em- braced the doétrine of paflive obedience, exerted fo much zeal in his new office, that he obtained from the covenanters the title of the “blood-thirfty advocate, and the perfecutor of the faints of God.””? Notwithitanding this, he introduced into the form of criminal trials feveral alterations favourable to the accufed, and fo far from endeavouring to extend the power of his office, he confiderably retrenched it. Hie other ‘ Qe MAC ether officers of the fame rank, he has been charged with endeavouring to ftretch the law of treafon, efpecially in the eafes of Baillie of Jervifwood, and the earl of Argyle, the fentence againft the latter of whom was refcinded by act of parliament in the reign of William and Mary. When James II. abroeated the penal laws, fir George, who was fincerely attached to the Proteftant religion in the epifcopal form, refigned his office. The king, however, gladly re- ftored him to his poft, when he was convinced of the neceflity of purfuing different meafures, and he firmly adhered to his matter’s intereft in the fubfequent change. He oppofed in council the propofed addrefs from Scotland, to the prince of Orange on his landing in 1688, and he wrote alfo a me- morial to that prince exhorting him to adhere to the terms ef his declaration. At the convention of the eftates he argued very warmly again{t the declaration of a vacancy in the throne, and the ele¢tion of William for fovereign, and when he found his oppofition ineffeétual, he retired to Ox- ford, where he was admitted a ftudent. He died in Lon- don in 1691, and was interred with fignal funeral honours in the chu:ch-yard of the Grey-frtars in Edinburgh. Asa ftatefman, the chara¢ter of fir George Mackenzie ttands high for learning and talents, and he was much elteemed for public and private worth. People of different parties and feelings will judge differently of his political exertions, but his integrity and good intentions feem unquettionable. In the midit of all his public bufinefs he found leifure to com- pofe feveral literary pieces, among which are * Aretino, or a Serious Romance ;” “ Religio Stoici;”? ** A moral Eflay on Solitude ;’’ “* Moral Gallantry,’’ and a play and poems, Thefe pieces gave him the reputation of an elegant writer and found moralift. As a lawyer, he publifhed « A Dif courfe upon the Laws and Cultoms of Scotland, in Mat- ters criminal ;’’ “¢ Idea Eloquentie forenfis hodierne, una cum Aé€tione forenfi ex unaquaque Juris Parte,” “ The Inftitutions of the Laws of Scotland ;?? and « Obfervations upon the Ads of Parliament.”? As an advocate for monarchy, he wrote “ Jus Regium,” or the juit and folid foundation of monarchy in general, and more efpecially of the mo- narchy of Scotland, and feveral other pieces. As an anti- quarian and national hittorian, he wrote ‘¢ Obfervations on the Laws and Cuftoms of Nations as to Precedency, with the Science of Heraldry, as Part of the Law of Nations ; and'a-Defence of the Royal Line and Antiquities of Scot- Yand ;”’ the latter treatife involved him in a controverly with Dr. Lloyd, bifhop of St. Afaph, and Dr. Stillingfleet. He wrote a work likewife re{pecting an union between England and Scotland, entitled « Reflections upon the Ad- vantages and Difadvantages that would happen by an incor- porating Union between the two Kingdoms.” Befides thefe, foil additional moral and mifcellaneous treatifes iffued. from his pen, which demonttrated the tertility and variety of his fpeculations ; and his aptnefs as a writer on almoft all topics. He was the founder of the advocates’ library in Edinburgh. Mackenzie’s River, in Geography, on the N.W. part of “America, rifes in Slave lake, runs a N.N.W. courfe, and after receiving a number of large rivers, difcharges itfelf into the N. fea at Whale ifland, in N. lat. 69 14’, and between 130° and 135° W. long., its courfe from Slave lake having been 780 miles. It derived its name from Mr. M‘Kenzie, who afcended this river in the fummer of 1789. The Indian natives inhabiting the W. fide of the river from the Slave ‘lake are the Stronz-bow, Mountain, and Hare Indians ; thofe on the E. fide the Beaver, Inland, Nathana, and Quarreleras MAC MACKERMORE, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of Scotland ; about five miles E. from the ifland of Jura. Neat. 55° 57'. W. long. 6° 43’. MACKERTER’s Heap, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland of Ilay. N. lat. 55°52'. W. long. 5° 59’. MACKEY, Joun, in Biography, an Englifhman, who followed James II. to France after the revolution, and was admitted by that unfortunate monarch to his confidence, which he fcandaloufly betrayed, by giving information to king William of every fecret with which he was entrutfted. As an author he is known by his © Picture of the Court of St. Germain,” which was publifhed in 1691; and his « Me- moirs of the Court of England, in the Reigns of William and Anne,” publifhed at the Hague in 1733; this work abounds in curious anecdotes. He died in 1726 at Rot- terdam. MACKNIGHT, James, a learned clergyman of the church of Scotland, was born at Irvine, in Ayrthire, in the year 1721. Having laid a good’ foundation in gram- matical learning, he was at the age of fourteen fent to the univerfity of Glafsow, where he difplayed a moft ardent thirft for knowledge, and fecured to himfelf the appro- bation of his tutors. After he had completed the ufual courfe of his ftudies at the Scotch college, he croffed the fea to Holland, and attended the leétures at ‘the univer- fity of Leyden. His favourite ftudy was theology, and on his return to Scotland he was licenfed as a preacher by the prefbytery of Irvine, and chofen to officiate at the Gorbals, , near Glafgow. From thence he removed to Kilwinning, on the invitation ef Mr. Fergufon, then minifter of thar place, and acted for fome time as affiltant in the duties of the parifh. Here he eftablifhed a charaéter as‘a judicious and ufeful minifter, and upon a vacancy taking place at Maybole, he obtained that living. He was ordained paftor in the month of May 1753, and continued to difcharge the duties : of that office full fixteen years. During this period, and amidit his various profefliong! occupations, he compofed his ‘* Harmony of the Gofpels,”’ and his ** New Tranflation of the Apoftolical Epittles.” Although the plan of the - ‘* Harmony’’ differed confiderably from that of former har- monies, in fuppofing that the Evangeliits have not neglected the order of time in the narration of events, the reception which it met with from the moft competent judges was fo favourable, that the author undertook a fecond edition in» 1763, with improvements, and confiderable additions, which confilted chiefly“of fix difcourfes on Jewifh antiquities. . A third edition was called for in 1804, which was publifhed in two volumes 8vo. In the year 1763, Mr. Macknight pub- lifthed another work of great merit, entitled “The Truth of the Gofpel Hiltory,”’ which was the fruit of his ftudies and refearches during the intervals between the two editions of his ** Harmony.”’ Its great objeét was to illuftrate and confirm the internal, the collateral, and the dire&t evidences of the gofpel hiftory. On account of thefe publications the degree of doctor of divinity was.conferred upon him by the univerfity of Edinburgh. In 1769 he was chofen modera- tor or prefident of the general aflembly of the church of Scotland, and was in the fame year tranflated to the living of Jedburgh, which he held three years, when he was elected minifter of lady Yeller’s parifh in Edinburgh: from this he was tranflated, in 1778, to the old church, in which he continued during the remainder of his life. Dr. Macknight now devoted his time and talents to the promotion of various ufeful inftitutions as well as to the exemplary performance of his Zattoral duties. He took a lead in the management of many different charitable inftitutions, and particularly of the fend MAC fund eftablifhed by act of parliament, for a provifion to the widows and fatherlefs children of minifters in the church of Scotland. As an author, Dr, Macknight occupied a confi- derable portion of his time in the execution of his laft and greareft work on the apoltolical epiftles. This was the re- fult of an almoft unremitting labour during thirty years: he is faid to have ftudied eleven hours in each day, and that be- fore the work was fent to the prefs, the whole MS. had been written five times with his own hand. . A f{pecimen was pub- lithed in 1787, being his verfion of the epiltles to the Theffa- lonians: this was fo well Sf that in 1795 the whole was given to the public in four large volumes in quarto, un- der the title of * A new literal Tranflation from the original Greek of allthe Apoftolical Epiltles ; with a Commentary, and Notes, philofophical, critical, explanatory, and practical.” The whole is interfperfed with eflays on feveral important fubje¢ts, and to the fourth volume is added a life of the apoitle Paul, which includes a capital compendium of the apoftolical hiftory. Having finifhed this great work, which he had been accultomed to regard as the grand object of his life, he was defirous of enjoying the remainder of his days free from laborious purfuits, and refufed, though earnettly folicited, to undertake a fimilar work with regard to the acts of the apoftles. He probably felt the powers of his mind failing him, and had prudence and wifdom to obey the voice of reafon and nature; and ina very fhort time after the decline of his faculties became manifelt to his family. Towards the clofe of the year 1799 he caught a violent cold, which was the fore-runner of other complaints that put an end to his lifein January 1800. «* Dr. Macknight,” fays his biographer, “had acquired an early talte for claflical lite- rature, and ftudied the writers of antiqnity with much criti- cal ficill. He was deeply read in metaphyfica’, moral, and mathematical fcience. His piety was fincere, rational, and without oftentation, and to be ufeful in the caufe of truth and virtue was his higheft ambition. In that branch of the pattoral office, which in Scotland is called lecturing, and con- fifts ina familiar expofition of the facred writings, his learn- ing and ability were much admired, ard never failed to pleafe as well as to inftru@ and edify in a degree which has feldom been equalled. As a preacher, without pretenfions to the graces of elocution, he had a certain earne{tnefs of manner, evidently proceeding from the heart, and from a fincere anxiety to be ufeful, which always comnianded the attention, aad excitéd the intereft of the hearers.’” See the Harmony of the four Gofpels, third edition. MACKREDIPET, in Geography, a town of Hindoof- tan, in Golconda; 30 miles S. of Indelavoy. MACKREL, Scomper, in Ichthyology. BER. This fifh was in high efteem among the Romans, becaufe it furnifhed the precious garum. The belt time of taking mackrel is during a freth gale of wind, which is thence called the mackrel gale. See Mackrel Fisuery. Macxrer, Horfe. See Scomeer Trachurus. MACKUM, in Geography, a town of Holland, in the department of Friefland, on the Zuyder {ee ; 25 miles W. of Bolfwaert. MACLAURIN, Coxsn, in Biography, defcended of an ancient family, the pofleffors of the ifland of Tirrie, upon the coaft of Argylefhire, was born at Kilmoddan, in the month of February 1698. His grandfather, Daniel, on Jeaving his ifland, removed to Inverara, and contributed very much to reftore that town, after it had been almoft en- tirely ruined in the time of the civil wars. John, the fon of Daniel, and father to the fubjeét of this article, was minifter See Scom- MAC of Glenderule ; where he was greatly diftinguifhed as a faith- ful and diligent paftor: he was employed by the fynod of his province in completing the verfion of the pfalms into Irifh, which is {till ufed in thofe parts of the country in which divine fervice is performed in that language. ‘This gentleman, whofe charaéter was highly exemplary, died within fix weeks of the birth of his fon Colin, the care of whom devolved in a good meafure upon an uncle, Daniel, who was minilter of Kilfin- nan. He was ably affifted in the charge by Mrs. Maclavrin - during her life, which was extended only to the year 1707, when fhe died, leaving the care of all her children to the management and fuperintendance of an uncle. In 1709 Colin, though only eleven years of age, was fent to the univerfity of Glafgow, where he continued five years ap- plying himfelf with the utmoft diligence to his ftudies. As he was a lad of confiderable abilities, it need not be added that his fuccefs was fully proportioned to his exertions. He was accuftomed to keep a diary, in which he inferted an account of almoft every hour in the day ; of the commence- ment and progrefs of every particular ftudy, enquiry, or inveltigation, and of his converfations with learned men. In Dr. Robert Simfon, and feveral other diftinguifhed feholars, the youth met with ardent friends, who feemed to vie with each other who fhould moft encourage him in his purfuits by opening to him their libraries, and admitting him into their fociety and mott intimate friend(hip. ‘The genius of this young man for mathematical learning difcovered itfelf very accidentally, when he was only twelve years of age. He met with a copy of the Elements of Euclid, and in a few days made himfelf matter of the firft fix books without any affilt- ance, and thence following the natural bent of his inclination, he made fuch a furprifing progrefs, that very foon after he engaged in the moft curious and difficult problems. In his fifteenth year he took his degree of matter of arts with much applaufe, on which occafion he compofed and publicly de- fended a Thefis on the power of gravity. He now turned his attention to theology, and having fpent a year in the ftudy he quitted the univerfity, and lived in retirement with his uncle, till the autumn of 1717, when he prefented him- felf a candidate for the profefforfhip of mathematics in the Marifchal college of Aberdeen, which he obtained ; and was afterwards the happy means of reviving the tafle for mathe- matical learning, and raifing it higher than it had ever been in that univerfity. During the vacations of 1719 and 1721, he went to London, and was, in his firit journey, introduced to Dr. Hoadly, Dr. Clarke, the illuftrious Newton, and feveral other eminent men, whofe notice and friendfhip he ever after reckoned the greatelt honour and happinefs ot his life. In his firft journey he was admitted a member of the Royal Society: two of his papers were inferted in their Tranfactions, and his book, entitled ‘ Geometria Orga- nica,’? was publifhed with the approbation of their prefident. In 1721 he became aequainted with Martin Folkes, efq. afterwards prefident of the Royal Society, with whom he cultivated a molt entire and unreferved friendthip, frequently interchanging letters with him, and communicating all his views and improvements in the feiences. In the following year lord Polwarth, plenipotentiary of the king of Great Britain at the congrefs of Cambray, ergaged Mr. Maclaurin .to become travelling tutor and companion to his eldeft fon, who was then fet out on his travels. After viliting Paris and fome other cities and towns of France, they fixed on Lorrain as the place of their refidence, where Mr. Maclaurin gained the efteem of the principal perfons of the court. Here he wrote his piece on the percuflion of bodies, which gained the prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences fora724. The fubftance MACLAURIN. fubftance of this tract was afterwards inferted in his treatife of Fluxions, andis likewife to be found in the fecond book of his ** Account of the Difcoveries of Newton.’? Shortly after they quitted Lorrain, Mr. Maclaurin’s pupil was feized with a fever which terminated fatally, to the great grief of the preceptor, who mourned for himas for a companion and the friend of his heart. He immediately returned to Aber- deen ; and was ina fhort time, by the recommendation and intereft of fir Ifaac Newton, chofen affiftant to Mr. James Gregory in the profefforfhip of mathematics at Edinbucgh. He foon became a very popular leturer, and feldom had lefs than a hundred young perfons attending his courfe, Thefe, according to their ftandings in the univerfity, he divided into claffes : in the firft he taught the firit fix books of Euclid's elements, plain trigonometry, pra¢tical geome- try, the elements of fortification, and an introduction to algebra. With the fecond clafs he entered more largely into algebra, read the rtth and 12th books of Euclid; and in{tructed them in fpherical trigonometry, conic feétions, and the general principles of ele€tricity. The third advanced jn aflronomy and perfpective, and read a part of fir Ifaac Newton’s Principia, and had acourfe of experiments for illuftrating them performed and explained to them. He afterwards read and demonttrated the elements of fluxions : with the next clafs he read a fyftem of fluxions ; and in- troduced the pupils to the doétrine of chances, and ex- plained the remainder of Newton’s Principia. Befides the labours of his public profeffion, Mr. Maclaurin was engaged in many other important avocations. If a new Or uncommon experiment was faid to have been any where exhibited, the curious among Mr. Maclaurin’s friends were defirous of having it repeated by him; or if a comet or eclipfe was to be oblerved, his telefcopes were always in readinefs. Amidft all the hindrances which he almott per- petually was experiencing, he continued to purfue_ his ftudies with the utmoit afliduity, and took from the ordi- dinary hours of fleep, what he bettowed on his fcholars and friends, a circumftance that is thought to have impaired. his health and fhortened his valuable life. Ins733, Mr. Maclau- rin married Anne, the daughter of Mr, Walter Stewart, folicitor-general to king George I. for Scotland, by whom he had feven children; of thefe, five furvived him. In-1734, Dr. Berkeley, bifhop of Cloyne publifhed his treatife en- titled «The Analyft,’”? in which he attempted to overfet the do&trine of “ Fluxions,”? and to charge mathematicians with infidelity in matters of religion. This work was the occa- fion of Mr. Maclaurin’s elaborate Treatife on Fiuxions, which was publifhed at Edinburgh in 1742, and which is reckoned the moit complete treatife on that fcience that has'even yet-appeared. He became a very ative and dif- tinguifhed member of the fociety which had exifted fume ‘ years at Edinburgh for the improvement of medical know- Jedge, but which he contrived to extend more generally to the interefts of fcience in all its. branches. In conjunction with Dr, Plummer, profeffor of chemiftry, he was appointed joint f{ecretary, and generally at the monthly meetings either read fome paper of his own, or communicated the contents of letters received from foreign parts, by which means the fociety was informed of ull the new difcoyeries and improvements in the {ciences. He fhewed his zeal for promoting the interefls of fcience, by projeting the build- ing of an “ Adtronomical Obfervatory,’’ and a theatre for experiments in the univerfity, of which he drew an ex- cellent plan, and would probably have carried it into execu- tion by the munificence of private perfons, had not the un- happy diforders of the country intervened. In the year 1739, he was confulted by the earl of Morton with regard to é * the fettling of the geography of the Orkney and Shetland iflands, which had been laid down in the maps without at- tention to real faéts deduced from altronomical obfervations. He drew up a memorial of what was neceflary to be done, furnifhed the proper inftruments, and recommended Mr. Short, the celebrated optician, as a fit perfon for managing the affair. From the account which he received of this vifit to thofe iflands, he was made more fenfible than before of the errors in their geographical fituation, which have proved the occafion of numerous fhipwrecks, and he en- gaged feveral of his old pupils, who were then fettled in the northern counties, to furvey the coaits, expeéting, as the refult of their obfervations, to obtain a good map of Scot- land. He had at this time another fcheme for the improve- ment of geography and navigation, which was the difcovery of a paflage from Greenland to the South-fea by the north pole: he was fatisfied that fuch a paflage exitted, and would, if his fituation could have admitted of it, have undertaken the voyage at his own expence. A premium was:afterwards offered by government for the difcovery of a north-weift paflage, which did not accord with his views, as he was con- vinced, from all his reading on the fubje&, that it mutt lie near the pole. In the year 1745, he took a moft ative part in favour of his majefty’s government, in oppofition to the rebels who were marching to the fouth. By the fatigue and anxiety to which he was expofed by his exertions in this caufe, he laid the foundation of the difeafe which in a few months put a period to his life. When, however, the rebel army got poffeffion of the city, he thought it advifable to make his efcape into England, well knowing that he could not expect. mercy if he fell into the hands of the enemy. As foon as he arrived in the neighbourhood of York, he was . invited by the archbifhop to refide with him during his ftay, with which he gladly complied, and on account of which he was imprefled with the deepeft fentiments of gratitude. Upon the march of the rebels into England, he ventured to return to Edinburgh, when it was found his con{titution was completely undermined: and that his diforder had already. advanced beyond the reach of medicine. His complaint being the dropfy, he was three times tapped, but the operations proved inefficacious, and he died on the 14th of June 1746, having exhibited, through the progrefs of his difeafe, a difpofition worthy of a philofopher and a Chrilftian. ; Mr. Maclaurin was not only diftinguifhed by his genius and learning, but by the qualities of the heart: by his fin- cere love to God and his fellow creatures, and by his uni- verfal benevolence and unaffected piety. His favourite ftu- dies were the mathematics, which he cultivated with, extra- ordinary fuccefs. His peculiar merit as a philofopher was, that all his ftudies were accommodated to general utility, and in many parts of his works, there is evidently an appli- cation of his molt abftrufe theories to the perfecting of me- chanical arts. He had refolved, for the fame purpofe, to compofe a courfe of praétical mathematics, and to refcue feveral ufeful branches of the f{cience from the treatment which they too frequently meet with in lefs {kilful hands. Thefe defigns were prevented by his death: in his life-time, however, he frequently had the pleafure to ferve his friends and country by his fuperior attainments. If any difficulty occurred concerning the conftruction or perfecting of ma- chines, the working of mines, the improvement of manu- factures, &c. Mr. Maclaurin was ever ready to refolve them. He was likewife employed to terminate fome difputes which had arifen at Glafgow concerning the gauging of veffels ; and prefented to the commiffioners of .excile two elaborate memorials, containing *rules by which the officers acted, with MAC ~with their demonftrations. He made calculations relative to the fund for the widows of the Scotch clergy, and of the profeffors in the univerfities, and contributed very much to perfeét the {cheme which has been found of eminent uti- lity to a vaft number of perfons who would otherwife have been left deltitute of the means of fupport. But what feems to have endeared his ftudies to him, was the ufe they are of in demonftrating the exiftence and attributes of the Creator, and eftablifhing the principles of natural religion on a folid foundation. To this ufe Mr. Maclaurin fre- quently applied them: and he was equally zealous in the de- fence of revealed religion, which he would warmly vindicate, whenever he found it attacked either in converfation or writ- ing. Befides the works already mentioned, Mr. Maclaurin was author of many papers in the Philofophical Tranf- aétions ; «On the Conitruétion and Medfures of Curves ;” On Equations with impoflible Roots ;” “ On the Defcrip- tion of Curves,” &c. He gave an “ Account of the An- nular Eclipfe of the Sun at Edinburgh in January 1742—3.” After his death were publifhed his “* Treatife on Algebra,” and his “* Account of fir Ifaac Newton’s philofophical Dif- coveries.’ The firlt of thefe is a capital introduction to the f{eience of which it treats. ‘The author's defign with regard to the fecord feems to have been to explain only thole parts of fir Ifaac’s philofophy which have been, and which were, for fome time, controverted, which was pro- ably the reafon that his difcoveries concerning light and colours were {carcely touched on. Such was the life of this eminent perfon, {pent in a courfe .of laborious ftudy ; in continually endeavouring to be ufe- ful; in improving curious and ufeful arts, and propagating truth, virtue, aud religion amongft mankind. ‘ He was,” fays his biographer, “ taken from us at an age when he was capable of doing much more, but has left an example, which will be long admired and imitated, till the revolution of human affairs puts an end to learning in thefe parts of the world; or the ficklenefs of men, and their fatiety of the belt things, have fubftituted for this philofophy fome empty form of falfe fcience, and by the one or the other means, we are bronght back to our original ftate of bar- parity.” Account of the Life, &c. of the Author prefixed zo the work lait-mentioned. ‘ Macravurin, Joun, Lord Drecuorn, fon of the above, born at Edinburgh in December, 1734, was educated at the grammar-fchool of Edinburgh, and afterwards went through an academical courfe at the univerfity of that city. He was admitted a member of the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh in 1756. In 1782, a Royal Society was efta- blifhed in Edinburgh, of which Mr. Maclaurin was one of the original conftituent members, and at an early period of the inflitution he read an Effay to prove that ‘Troy was not taken by the Greeks. In 1787 he was raifed from the Scot- tifh bar, at which he had praétifed long and fuccefsfully, to the bench, by the title of lord Dreghorn. He died in 1796. Asan author we have ** An Effay on Literary Pro- perty;” “ A Colleétion of Criminal Cafes;”? «An Effay on Patronage;’’ and fome poetical pieces: befides which we have in the dramatic line afcribed to him, * Hampden;’’ “ The Puble;’ and «The Philofopher’s Opera.” During the years 17925 3, 4, and 5, lord Dreghorn kept a journal, or diary, in which he recorded the various events that happened in Europe during thofe years. From this journal he made a feleétton for publication: and in 1799 a {election of his lordfhip’s works was printed in two vols. 8vo. Biog. Dram. MACLE, in Mineralogy. Macle tafaltique, ou fchorl en rim: quadrangu aires rhomboidaux, Romé de V’Ifle; Chi- oftolit’, Karlen; Hoblfpath, Werres; Hollow-/par, Jame- MAC s ‘ sie Delameth ; Argilla chiaflolithus, Lat. (not of “orfter. This remarkable mineral has hitherto been found only cryltallized ; but its forms are very different from thofe of all other mineral fubftances we are acquainted with, and not eafily determinable. Itis generally found in long, flightly rhomboidal prifms of a yellowifh, reddifh or greenifh colour ; each prifm is appa-' rently produced by four tabular or prifmatic cryftals, ex- ternally ftratght and more or lefs exaétly joined, internall more or lefs feparated from one another: the fpace thus left in the centre of the prifm, and varying both in form and ex- tent, is filled up with a black or blueifh-black fubflance ; whence a tranfyerfe fe€tion of the complete prifmatic cryftal reprefents a black nucleus, generally of a flightly rhombic figure, from each angle of which a black line runs towards the oppofite angle of the'external fubflance, pro- ducing a kind of crofs, more or lefs dilated in the centre, (Macle tétragramme of Haiiy, pl. 51. £. 219.) and generally equally dilated at its four extremities (Macle pentarbombique, Haily, ib. fig. 220.) Sometimes the fame black diagonal lines branch out into other lines, (Macle polygramme, Haiiy, ib. fig. 221.) In the narrow prifmatic variety the black fub- {tance forms by far the principal part, appearing in the form of a prifm, enclofed in a thin cafe of the fame form, and of a yellowifh-white colour. The black rhombic figure in the centre of the horizontal feGion of the eryftals appears at firit fight to belong to a prifm; but it is generally the fection of a pyramid, as is manifefted by the increaling or diminifhing fize of the rhombic fpot, according as the tran{verfal feGions are made nearer to one or to the other extremity of the cryttal. The cryltals are generally middle-fized, fometimes very = oa and acicular; they fometimes adopt a cylindrical orm. Fraéture more or lefs foliated, with a double cleavage; the principal one parallel to the lateral planes of the prifm. It is tranflucent on the edges, at leaft in thofe cryftals that have the appearance of feldipar; thofe that approach to the nature of tleatite are opaque. j Hardnefs variable, according as the fubftance exhibits the appearances jult mentioned. Specific gravity 2.9444, Haiiy; 2.927, Karften. Before the blowpipe it is converted into a whitith feoria ; the internal black fubftance melts into a blackifh glafs. This fub{tance has not been fubjeéted to chemical ana- lyfis. i Macle occurs imbedded in clay-flate. Mr. Buch fufpeés that the ftreaked and {potted appearance of fome of the varie- ties of primitive clay-flate, called frucht or kukuk-/chiefer, is produced, not by hornblende, but by minute cryftals of macle or hollow fbi It is found at Gefrees, in the margraviate of Bayreuth; in ci-devant Brittany, in France; and near St. Jago di Com- pottella, in Galicia. Thofe of Brittany are. more exact! quadrangular, Some of them have about four and a half lines in diameter, and upwards of three and a half inches in length. Thofe of Spain are generally much thicker, and of a. rounded form. According to Hatiy, the external furface both of the Spanifh and French macles frequently exhibits fomething of a pearly luttre. It has alfo been obferved by Lelievre and Dolomieu in the valley of Bareges, in the Pyrenees ; and by Raimond on the plateau de Troumoufe, in the High Pyrenees. ‘This fubflance has alfo been found by Mr. Davy in the clay-flate of Cumberland, and in the county of Wicklow in Ireland, where it has likewife been obferyed by Dr, Fitton. Pro- 4 feflor MAC feffor Link has found it in the mica flate of the Serra de Marao in Portugal. Fhe macle has been mentioned by Boetius de Boot under the name of /apis cruciger. It was applied at his time as an amulet for ftopping hemorrhages, &c.; and even at the pre- fent day it is ufed for feveral fuperftitious purpofes. Werner confiders this fubftance as nearly related to feld- {par. Dr. Fitton and Mr. Stephens, in their very interefting « Notes on the Mineralogy of Part of the Vicinity of Dub- lin,” fufpe& that a connedtion exilts between the macle and the andalufite (Fe/d/par apyre of Haiity) ; the former gentle- man, in particular, has convinced himfelf that colour, frac- ture, luftre, and other charaéters obfervable in the cryftalline part of the former fubftance, completely agree with thofe of the andalufite. Macte, Criffaux maclés, Macled cry ftals, are the names by which feveral mineralogifts, and principally Romé de VI fle, have diftinguifhed the cryftals with re-entering angles, formed by the union of two diftin& cryftals, producing the appearance of two halves of one fymmetrical cryftal, which in the aéct of uniting have turned on each other in fuch a man- ner, that the planes of the upper part of the one correfpond to thofe of the lower part of the other, or nearly fo. Such cryftals are denominated crifaux tranfpofés and hémitropes by Haiiy ; and Zwillings-kryftalle by Werner. MACLIN, Cuartes, in Biography, a native of Ireland, probably born in the county of Weft Meath, of a family named M‘Laughlin, which was anglicifed to that by which he was ever afterwards known. He was born about the rift of May 1699, and in 1708 abfconding from his mother, then a widow, he came over to England. For fome mifconduét with regard to a female conne¢tion he was fent back to Ire- land. Here he formed an acquaintance with certain under- graduates of ‘T'rinity college, Dublin, and took up the em- ployment of bargeman in that college, read much for the improvement of his mind, and remained in that degraded itate till he had attained the age of twenty-one. He then came to London, made a conne¢tion with a {trolling company of players, and acted the part of harlequin. After leading an extraordinary courfe of life, he was again reftored to his mother, and returned a penitent to his former {tation in Trinity college. In 1716 he arrived in England for the third time, joined a company of players at Briftol, then at- tached himfelf to feveral {trolling companies, and afterwards made his entré at the theatre in Lincoln’s-inn-Fields, where his merit was firft difcovered in a trifling character in Field- ing’s “ Coffee-houfe Politician,’’ which, it is faid, would in any other hands have gone unnoticed. He now for feveral {ucceffive feafons performed comic characters, and on the tenth of May 1735, had the misfortune to kill Mr. Hallam, an adtor in the fame theatre with himfelf, in a private quar- rel.” He was brought to trial in confequence; but no ma- licious intent appearing in evidence he was acquitted. In 1741 he eftablifhed his fame as an a¢tor, in the character of Shylock in “ The Merchant of Venice,” and by his fine and impreflive manner reftored to the {tage a play which had been forty years fupplanted by lord Lanfdown’s “ Jew of Ve- nice.” The manager and performers having about this time difagreed, Maclin, and feveral of the moft eminent of the company, among whom was Garrick, revolted, and figned a formal agreement, by which they were bound not to accede to any terms which might be propofed to them by the patentee, without confent of the fubfcribers. The feceders applied, but without efle&, for the grant of a new patent, of courfe they found themfelves under the hard ne- ceflity of agreeing to the terms offered by the manager, who afcribed the revolt of the players to the influence and Vou. XXII. MAC fuggeftion of Maclin, and refolved to punifh him for his ingratitude. T'o the others he was reconciled, but the fen- tence of eternal banifhment from his theatre was pronounced againft the man who had been once his friend and advifer. A change in the management, by which Mr. James Lacey fucceeded Fleetwood, reftored Maclin to his ufual employ- ment. This was in 1747, and in the following {pring he accepted an invitation from the manager of the Dublin theatre, by which he engaged his fervices for two years, but {carcely had he gone through the duties of his {tation a fingle month, when he took offence at fome inftances of fuppofed negle&t, which ended in a feparation from that concern. After various incidents, he, in 1753, obtained from Mr. Gar- rick the ufe of his theatre for a fingle night, and took a formal leave of the ftage, in a prologue written for the oc- cafion, in which he introduced his daughter as an adirefs to the protection of the public. He now projected the efta- blifhment of a tavern and coffee-houfe which was to make his fortune: this he foon after converted into a debating and {pouting club, under the name of « The Britifh Inquifition:"” but Maclin was wholly unfit for the bufinefs of a tavern- keeper, became a prey to every needy and unprincipled vil- lain, and, in Feb. 1755, was feen in the lift of bankrupts. On his examination before the commiffioners every thing turned to his charaéter, except that he had been miferably deficient in prudence, and in the end he paid twenty-fhil- lings in the pound. He next joined Mr. Barry in founding a new theatre in Dublin, where, however, he did not remain more than two or three years, and in 1759 he returaed to London and made an engagement at Drury-lane, at a very confiderable falary, and brought out his farce of Love a-la- Mode, which, though oppofed at firft, was received in Lon- don and at Dublin with unbounded applaufe. Maclin in a fhort time transferred himfelf from Drury-lane to Covent Garden theatre, to which he continued uniformly attached. He obtained great and almoft univerfal and unbounded ap- plaufe as an actor in comedy, but in 1773 he was determined to attempt the charaéter of Macbeth in tragedy ; in this new line he gave full fatisfa&tion to his friends, but the public, headed by a few violent {pirits, probably his perfonal ene- ‘ mies, were fo much enraged at his attempting tragedy, that for a long time they would not admit him in his own comic parts, and he was formally difmiffed from the theatre. In 1775 he brought his a€tion againft his opponents, and hav- ing obtained a verdict in his favour, he rg) relinquifhed the damages awarded in his favour upon the moft liberal terms, a circumftance which drew from lord chief juftice Mansfield the following handfome and well-turned compli- ment ; ‘You have met with great applaufe to-day: you never aéted your part better.’’ From this period Maclin occafionally performed and paid a vifit to Dublin during Mr, Daly’s management. In 1788, and again in 1789, while acting his favourite charaéters, he fuddenly loft his memory, and in the fecond inftance he refolved to make no other effort ; but by the advice of his friends he publifhed by fub- {cription his two pieces ** The Man of the World ;” and “« Love a-la-Mode :’? by the exertions of Mr. Murphy, who fuperintended the printing, and his other friends, 1500/. was raifed, with which an annuity of 200/. was fettled on himfelf, and 75/. per ann. on his wife, if fhe furvived him. Mr. Maclin died on the 11th of July 1797, at the age of 107, if he were born at the period before-mentioned, but of this the reader fhould be apprized there were fome ferious doubts entertained. His remains were interred under the chancel of Covent Garden church. Mr. Maclin, fays his biographer, was in his private character a tender hufband, « good father, and a fteady friend. To his firmnefs and refo~ 2 lution MAC lution in fupporting the rights of his theatrical brethren, it was owing that they have been relieved from a {pecies of op- preflion to which they had been ignominioufly fubjected for many years, whenever the caprice or malice of their enemies chofe to exert itfelf.. We allude to the profecution which he carried on againit a fet of infignificant beings, who, call- ing themfelves “ The Town,” ued frequently to difturk the entertainments of the theatre, to the terror of the aétors, as well as to the annoyance and difyrace of the publie. As a comedian his principal and moft important parts were fir Gilbert Wrangle in “The Refufal ;”? fir Archy M‘Sar- cafm in his own farce of “ Love a-la-Mode ;"’ and fir Per- tinax Mac Sycophant in ‘© The Man of the World,” writ- ten alfo by himfelf, and firf{ brought forward in 1781. Maclin alfo made a fine figure in the charaéter of Shak- fpeare’s Jago ; but the part in which he was allowed to fhine without a competitor was that of Shylock. Befides the dramatic works already referred to, Maclin wrote a tragedy of “ King Henry VIL. or the Popith Impoftor ;? « A Will or no Will;’’ « The fufpicions Hufband criticifed; or the Plague of Envy;” “The Fortune Hunters ;” and fome other pieces. Biog. Dram. MACNEN-ABAD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Segeltan; 111 miles S.S.E. of Zareng. ACOGUA, a fort on the W. coaft of Africa, at the mouth of the St. Domingo river. N. lat. 12° 20/. MACOKETH, or Macoxercu, Great, a river of America, which runs into the Miffifippi from the north-weit, in N. lat. 42° 23'. Little Macoketch falls through the E. bank of the Miffifippi about 45 miles above the mouth of the former. MACOLOE, one of the Querimba iflands, in the In- dian fea. S. lat. rx° 10! MACOMER, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 16 miles W. of Bofa. MACON, atown of France, principal place of a dif- triG, and capital of the department of the Saone and Loire, near the Saone; before the revolution the metropolis of a fmall country called the “ Maconnois,’* which was formerly a county and the fee of a bifhop. It contained four churches, a commandery of Malta, feven convents, a college, and an hofpital. Its trade is confiderable. The place contains in two cantons 5807, and the cantons 20,252 inhabitants, on a territory of 177% kiliometres, in 28 communes. N, lat. 46° 38. E. long. 4° 55’. MACONDEGAY Istanps, three fmall iflands in the bay of Gunong-Tellu, on the E. coaft of the ifland of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 30’. E. long 120° 25’. MACONIA, atown of Pegu; 20 miles S, of Pegu. MACOPIN, a {mall river of America, which runs from the S.E. into the Illinois, 18 miles from the Miffifippi, 20 yards wide and navigable nine miles in the hills: the fhore, which is low, is covered with maple, afh, button-wood, &c.: the land abounds with timber, and is overrun with high weeds. ; MACORIZ, a {mall river on the S. fide of the ifland of St. Domingo; 16 leagues E. of the city of St. Domingo. MACOTERA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon ; 18 miles E. of Salamanca. MACOTTO, a town onthe S. coaft of the iffand of Lugon, N. lat. 13° 42/. E.long. 123° 8'. MACOU, a town of Perfian Armenia; 75 miles S. of Erivan. MACOUBA Sr. Ann, Le, a town of the ifland of Martinico. N. lat.14°54!. W. long. 61° 17’. MACOUBEA, in Botany, occurs only in Juffien and Aublet, the former having taken it from the Supplement of MAC the latter author's work on the Plants of Guiana, where it is figured in t. 378.—The only parts of fru&tification with which tiiey were acquainted, are Peric. Capfule orbicular, flightly compreffed, fometimes obtufely triangular, of one cell; hollow withinfide ; rough, reddifh and marked with grey {pots on the outlide. Seeds numerous, oblong, incurved, obtufe, convex above, furrowed below, inzlofed ia a white membrane, and attached to the internal coat of the pericarp. —M. guianenfis is a tree vifing to the height of forty feet, Its wood is of a greenifh-yellow, and in drying has a dif- agreeable {mell. Leaves oppolite, on footitalks, ovate, acute, entire. Fruit as big as oranges, in clulters, at the divarications of the branches. The whole tree abounds with a milky juice.—Aublet found it in the woods of Guiana, bearing fruit in February. Juffieu places Macoubca in the natural order of Guftifere on the authority of Aublet’s defcription. MACOUCOUDA, is the Caribbean name of the plant in queflion, as we learn from Aublet.—It is noticed by Jufliew as nearly allied to J/ex, but figured by Lamarck under its vernacular and generic name.—Aubl. Guian. 88. La- marck Dict. v. 3. 669. Illuftr. t. 75. Juff. 379.—Clafs au order, Zetrandria Monogynia. Wat. Ord. Rhamni, uff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of ove leaf, eloven into four, fhort, acute fegments. Cor. of one petal, tubu- lar, ftanding upon the receptacle; tube very fhort; limb divided into four, roundifh lobes, Stam. Filaments four, within the divifions of the corella;-anthers roundifh, of two cells. Pi, Germen fuperior, very fmall, roundifh; ftyle none; ftigma obtufe. Peric. and Seeds unknown. / 1. M. guianenfis. Aubl. Guian. t. 34. Lamarck Mluftr, t.75. The only fpecies known, A native of woods in Guiana and Cayenne, flowering in February.—The trunk of this tree is thirty or forty feet in height, much branched, Bark thick, hard, brittle, white externally. Leaves alter- nate, nearly feflile, polifhed, oval, obtufe and fometimes ending in a fort of jagged point. Flowérs corymbofe, axil. lary, on footitalks, white. Fruit unknown.—The natives ufe the bark of this tree merely for fuel. MACOURIA, in Geography, a river of Guiana, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 5°. W. long. 53° 46’. MACOWAL, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sirhind ; 50 miles N. of Sirhind. MACOYAQUI, a town of New Mexico, in the pro-« vince of Mayo; 70 miles E.N.E. of Santa Cruz. MACPHERSON, James, in Biagraphy, a modern writer of fome celebrity, was born, in 1738, at Ruthven, in the county of Invernefs. He ftudied at the univerlities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh, and while he was a refident at the latter, he publifhed a poem, entitled ‘¢ The Highlands,” which difplayed fome genius, though undifciplined by good talte. He was intended for the church, but never entered upon its duties. In 1760 he was‘living as private tutor in the family of Mr. Graham, of Balgowan, and about this. time he publifhed « Fragments of Ancient Poetry, coileéted in the Highlands of Scotland, and tranflated from the Gaelic. and Erle Languages.’? The fingularity of thefe pieces, the novelty of their. ftyle and imagery, and the idea that they were the product of a remote age and rude people, caufed them to, be received with great interelt by many lovers of poetry ; and as hopes were given that other works of the fame kind might be recovered, a fubfeription was fet on foot to enable Macpherfon to leave his employment, and vifit the Highlands for that purpofe. The refuit of this miffion, or of his own leifure, was the epic poem of « Fingal,” and feveral other pieces, which were faid to be campoled Oe MAC sompofed by Offian, the fon of Fingal, king of the High- lands. An animated controverfy was foon kindled. relative to their authenticity: the Scotch were, in general, on the fide favourable to the national honour ; but many learned and able writers in the fouthern part of the ifland rejected their claims to the antiquity aflumed. The arguments urged again{t their authenticity, were drawn from the improbability of the exiftence and prefervation of regular epic poems among ar uncivilized people who had not the ufe of let- ters; the abundance of poetic ornament, and the elevation and delicacy of moral fentiment, together with the freedom from all mixture of puerility and extravagance. Whatever was their origin, they met with a number of enthufiaftic admirers, and were tranflated into feveral languages: they were commented upon by critics, and admitted aa evidence of manners, habits, and cuftoms by hiftorians and antiqua- rians. ‘Che blind Offian was placed in company with the blind Homer, and the wild mountains and heaths of the Highlands were converted into claflic ground. The ori- ginals were now loudly called for, and indire& promifes made that they. fhould appear, till at length the fuppofed tranf- lator, inftead of convincing or conciliating the {ceptical, at- tempted to filence them by a tone of infolent aflumption, The controverfy, however, continued during the life of Mac- pherfon, and is not, indeed, at this moment completely ter- minated, there being ftill advocates who juttify the claims of Offian as the real author of the worke publifhed under his name. Dr. Aikin, in the General Biography, obferves, that the late malterly difcuffion of the topic by Mr. Lairy feems to have produced a general opinion, that at leaft the great mafs of the poems is modern fiétion ; and curiofity is now mottly limited to the enquiry how far it may have hada foundation in the traditionary {tories ftill current in the High- lands. In 1764, Mr. Macpherfon was taken by governor Johnitone to Penfacola, in Florida, as his fecretary. After executing his office in fettling the government of that colony, he vifited feveral of the Weft India iflands, and fome of the North American provinces, and returned in 1766. Re- fuming his literary purfuits, he publithed, in 1771, « An Introduétion to the Hiftory of Great Britain and Ireland,” which is-elegantly written, and contains much valuable mat- ter. He next publifhed a fort of profe tranflation of Homer, which obtained for him neither fame nor profit, and was foon difmiffed to total obliyion. He now devoted himfelf wholly to hiltorical and political compofition, and in 177 publifhed “ U'he Hiftory of Great Britain from the Ref- toration to the Acceflion of the Houfe of Hanover,’ in two volumes, quarto. This was at the fame time accom- panied with two other volumes of original papers, ferving as documents and authorities for the hiftory. Although the author difcovered a confiderable predileGtion for the Stuart family, and appeared to place too much confidence in the reprelentations of faéts made by James I]. in the manu- fcript memoirs of his own life, yet it certainly made a va- luable addition to the knowledge of that period of Englith hiftory. Mr. Macpherfon next engaged in political warfare, and when the refiltance of the Americans called forth the pen, as well as the fword of authority, he was engaged as one of the ableit. He publifhed a pamphlet, entitled «* The Rights of Great Britain aflerted again{t the Claims of the Colonies,” for which he obtained great credit, on account of the flyle and argument: it was very induftrioufly cir- eulated by the agents and adherents of government. This was printed in 1776, and in 1779 he wrote “ A Short Hif- tory of the Oppofition during the lait Seffion of Parlia- ment,’”’ which was highly commended. His fervices were not neglected, and he received from thofe, whofe caufe he MAC vindicated, the lucrative poft of agent to the nabcb of Arcot, whofe concerns with the Eaft India company were, ‘at that period, very perplexed. Mr. Macpherfon did not receive the emoluments without performing the duties of his. office, and wrote feveral appeals to the public in behalf of this potentate ; and it being judged neceflary that the nabob fhould have a reprefentative in the houfe of commons, he was returned, in 1780, to ferve in parliament for the borough of Camelford, and was re-elected in 1784 and 1790. After this we find that his health was in a declining ftate, he re~ tired to a feat which he had built, called Bellevue, near Ins vernefs, where he died, in February 1796. His remains were depofited in Weltminfter Abbey : he bequeathed 300/. to be laid out in a monument of him, to be erected at Bellee vue ; and 10oo/. to defray the expence of printing and pub- lifhing the original Offian. Gen. Biog. MaceueErson’s Sirait, in Geography, a chamel in the Mergui Archipelago, between Banks's ifland and St. Sue fanna. N. lat. ro% 37!. MACQUER, Josrrn, in Biography, » phy fician and emi- nent chemift, was born at Paris in 1710, and became a doétor of the faculty of medicine in the univerfity of that metropolis, profeflor of pharmacy, and cenfor-royal. He was, likewife, a member of the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Stockholm, and Paris, and conduéted the medical and chemical departments of the Journal des Scavans. He had the merit of purfuing chemiftry, not fo much with a view of multiplying the preparations of pharmacy, which had conftituted the leading enquiries of experimentalifts be+ fore his time ; -but engaged init as a department of natural philofophy, and gained a confiderable reputation by the pub- lication of feveral ufeful and popular works on the fubjeét. . In fa@t, he was one of the moft fuccefsful cultivators of the {cience, upon rational principles, previous to the new model- ling which it has received within the laft twenty-five years. He died in 1784. The following is a lift of his publications : 1. “ Elemens de Chymie Theorique,”’ 1749—1753, 12mo. z. “ Elemens de Chymie Pratique,” two volumes, 12mo. 3. ‘© Plan d’un Cours de Chymie experimentale et raifonnée,’’ 12mo., 1757. This was compofed in conjunction with Mi Baumé, who was affociated with him in his lectures. 4. “ Didtionnaire de Chymie,’’ two volumes, 8vo., 1766. Thefe works have all been tranflated into Englifh and German; the Didtionary particularly by Mr. Keir, with great additions and improvements. 5. ‘* Formule Medica. mentorum Magiltralium,’* 1763 ; aud he had alfo a fhare in the compofition of the “ Pharmacopeia Parifienfis,’”’ of 1758. Eloy Di&. Hilt. dela Méd. Gen. Biog. Macauer, Puirir, an hiltorieal writer, was born at Paris in 1720. He was brought up to the bar, but the weaknefs of his conftitution prevented him from taking an active part ‘in his profeflion, and he accordingly de,‘oted himfelf to lite- rary occupations. His principal works were “ Abregé Chronologique de I’ Hiftoire Ecclefiattique,’’? three volumes, 8vo., compofed after the manner of Hefnault’s Chronolo- gical Hiltory of France; ‘* Les Annales Romains ;” and “ Abrege Chronologique de l’Hiftoire d’\Efpagne et de Portugal,’ two volumes, 8vo. He hada fhare in the ¢ Dic- tionnaire des Arts et Metiers,’’ and other coufiderable works. He died in 1770, leaving behind him an excellent chara&ter for fimplicity and unaffected integrity. MACREUSE, in Ornithslogy, the Anas Nigra, Scoter or Black Diver. See Duck. MACRI, or Macani, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, ina bay of the Mediterranean, called the gulf of Macri, anciently “ Glaucus Sinus ;” 70 miles S.W. of Satalia. N. lat. 36°58’. E.lony. 29° 30’. E23 MACRIANUS, MAC MACRIANUS, Tirus Futvius Jutrus, in Biography, an Egyptian of obfcure birth, who, from a private foldier, rofe to the higheft command in the army, and proclaimed himfelf emperor when Valerian had been made prifoner by the Perfians, A.D. 260. He maintained his ufurped power by the influence of his liberality: his two fons, Macrianus and Quietus, were invefted with the imperial purple, and during a fhort period the enemies of Rome were feverally ‘defeated either by the emperors or their generals. When he had fupported his dignity for a year in the Eaftern parts of the world, Macrianus marched towards Rome to crufh Gallienus, who had been proclaimed emperor. He was de- feated in Illyricum by the lieutenant of Gallienus, and put to death, with his fon, at his own defire. MACRINUS Opitivs, a native of Czfarea, in Africa, who from the loweft origin rofe to the high dignity of em- ‘peror of the world. He is faid to have been a flave, and to have exhibited in public fhows in the charaéter of a gladiator, which faéts have been doubted, as he raifed himfelf to repu- tation as a pleader in the courts. He became the tteward of Plautianus, the minifter of Severus, and on his difgrace and fall he narrowly efcaped with his life, and was banifhed to Africa, where he maintained himfelf by the united profef- fions of rhetorician, pleader, and counfellor. After fome abfence he was recalled’ from his exile by Severus, who made him polt-mafter on the Flaminian way. Caracalla afterwards created hima Roman knight, and he rofe through the different employments to the high office of pretorian- prefe&, an office which he filled with honour and integrity. He at length became an object of the emperor’s fufpicions, and faw, or imagined that he faw, his own fafety entirely depended upon ftriking the firft blow, and accordingly en- gaged a difcortented foldier to ftab the tyrant, which he effleG&ted. He immediately fucceeded to the vacant throne by an election of the foldiers in the year 217, and the fenate confirmed the choice of the military. Macrinus was not deftitute of qualities and principles worthy of his high fta- tion, and by the punifhment of informers, and the refpec&t which he himfelf paid, and which he caufed others to pay to the laws, he reftored tranquillity to his country. Thefe promifing appearances did not long continue, and the timi- dity which Macrinus betrayed in buying a peace of Arta- banus, the Parthian, by a large fum of money, rendered him odius to his fubjeéts, and while he affected to imitate the virtuous Aurelius, without poffefling the good qualities of his heart, he became contemptible and infignificant. The army, who had raifed Macrinus to the purple, now took a decided part againft him; the whole army mutinied, and their tumult was increafed by the confcioufnefs of their power and numbers. At this time the youug Bafianus was produced as the natural fon of Caracalla, and was declared emperor by the at y. Macrinus, at firft, was refolved to oppofe his competitor: the two armies met, and a bloody battle enfued: the fortune of the day remained fome time very dubious, when Macrinus, who might probably have been victorious had he been firm and fteady, fhamefully fled, leaving his enemies in pofleffion of the field, and eventually of the crown. He paffed through Antioch, croffed Leffer Afia in difguife, and arrived at Chalcedonia with the intention of pafling over into Europe; but being there recognifed, he was feized and conveyed towards Cappadocia. On the road news was brought him that his fon had been taken prifoner and put to death, which fo enraged him, that he leaped from the chariot, and in the fall broke his arm ; the guards, dread- ing the lofs of their captive, inflantly difpatched him, and carried his head to his rival. This circumftance happened in the month of June 218, after a reign of fourteen months. 2 MAC = Hiftorians mention, to the honour of this emperor, that he meditated a great reform in jurifprudence, by abolifhingall thofe imperial referipts which had obtained the authority of laws, though often iffued on particular occafions, and di¢tated by the caprice of the prince on the throne ; but the fhortnefs of his reign prevented the execution of this and other plans which he had devifed for the public good. Gibbon. Cre- vier. Macxinus, SALMoNEvS, a modern Latin poet, whofe proper name was John Salmon, was born at Loudun, and flourifhed in the fixteenth century. He obtained fo high a reputation as a poet, efpecially in the clafs of Lyrics, that he was called the Horace of his time. He was appoiated preceptor of the two fons of Reneé, of Savoy, and acquitted himfelf fo well in this employment, that he was received at court, and acquired the friendfhip of feveral of the principal perfons who frequented it. He wrote a great number of verfes, of which fome of the belt are thofe to his wife. He died in the year 1557. Several of his poems are contained in the fecond volume of the ‘ Delicie Poetarum Gallico- rum:”’ and a colleétion of his feleét hymns was printed by R. Stephanus. He had a fon Charles, who is faid to have furpafled his father in his knowledge of the Greek lan- guage, and to have equalled him in his Latin poetry. He was appointed preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, filter of Henry IV., and unfortunately perifhed in the bloody maf- facre of St. Bartholomew. Moreri. MACROBIUS, Avre ius Tueoposivs, a Latin writer and eminent critic, who flourifhed towards the clofe of the fourth century, is fuppofed to have been a Greek, but the place of his birth is unknown. He is, indeed, claimed b the people of Parma, who fhew his tomb, but he refers his bite place to a country in which the Latin language was not vernacular. He undoubtedly lived at Rome, but it is not known whether he was the fame Macrobius who was great chamberlain under Honorius and Theodofius II, It has likewife been difputed whether he was with regard to his religion a Chriftian or Pagan. The fuppofition that he held the office of chamberlain under the Chriftian emperors has been the chief, or, perhaps, the only ground for ima- gining him to have been a Chriftian, fince the language of his writings and the interlocutors in his dialogue are entirely heathen. He wrote a Commentary on Cicero's ‘* Dream of Scipio,”’ from which it appears he was a Platonift: and a dialogue, entitled ‘¢ Saturnalia,’ or Mifcellanies, which was fuppofed to have been written at a feltival of Saturn, by acompany of learned perfons, whofe names are thofe of fome of the moft learned {cholars of that time. ‘The quef- tions treated of related to topics of antiquity, mythology, hiftory, and poetry, difcuffed in a plealing way, and with references to the works of ancient authors, and to the laws and cuftoms of the Romans; and although the ftyle is not pure, and the arrangement cannot be commended, yet it is a work of confiderable merit, and of much utility as a help to claflical erudition, and as containing fome curious obfer- vations on the two greateft epic poems of antiquity. ‘The beft editions of this author are thofe of the Variorum; and Gronovius in 1670, and Leipfic in 1777. Macrobius has been regarded and cenfured as a plagiarift, but without juft reafon, as he exprefsly mentions, in his preface, an intention of borrowing from any exifting authors whatever might fuit his purpofe. Many of the works of Macrobius are {till preferved, among others, his Commentary on Cicero’s Somaium Scipio- nis, and his Saturnalia, in feven books. In this lalt work there are many interefting paflages concerning ancient mufic. MACROCE- MAC MACROCEPHALUS, in Natural Hifory, a genus of infects of the order Hemiptera. The generic character is, that it has an infle@ted {nout; the fheath is one-valved, three- jointed, and furnifhed with three briftles; it has neither jaws, feelers, nor lip; the anteane are projecting, very fhort, fubmoniliform, clavate; the head is oblong, cylin- drical above ; the fcutel, which is as long as the abdomen, is depreffed and membranaceous. There is but a fingle Species. Cimicotwes, which is found in North America, and is rather lefs than the Cimex erofus : the body is of a ferru- ginous grey ; the fcutel is of a pale afh colour with a yel- low {pot ; the under wings are purplifh-violet, and the fore- fhanks are thickened. MacrocePHaLus, Maxpoxs¢ado:, compounded of pexpo-, great, and x:@xan, head, denotes a perfon with a head larger or longer than the common fize. Macrocephali, or long-heads, is a name given to a certain people, who, according to the account of authors, were famous for the unfeemly length of their heads; yet cuftom fo far habituated them to it, that inftead of looking on it as a deformity, they efteemed it a beauty, and as foon as the child was born, moulded and fafhioned its head in their hands to as great a length as poffible, and afterwards ufed all fuch rollers and bandages as might feem moft likely to determine its growing long. MACROCERCLI, the name eftablifhed by Dr. Hill for a large genus of animalcules, diftinguifhed from all otliers by having tails longer than their bodies. See ANIMALCULE and VoRTICELLA. MACROCNEMUM, in Botany, from pxxpos, long, and xnun, @ leg, alluding, as it feems, tothe long ftalks by which its clufters of flowers are fupported. Browne Jam. 165. Linn. Gen. go. Schreb. 120. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 933. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Juff. 200—Clafs and order, Pen- tandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, turbinate, five-toothed, permanent ; often bearing a foliaceous, {talked, internal appendage. Cor. of one petal, tubular ; its limb fmall, in five ovate, flightly fpreadmg fegments. Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped, villofe, fhorter than the corolla ; anthers ovate, comprefled, in the mouth of the fower. Pi/. Germen inferior, conical; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma thiekifh, two-lobed. Peric. Capfule ob- long, fomewhat turbinate, two-celled, and two-valved, burlting lengthwife, the partitions from the middle of each valve. Seeds numerous, imbricated, on a feparate linear re- ceptacle in each cell. Eff. Ch. Corolla tubular, five-cleft. Capfule inferior, oblong, of two cells; the valves burlting longitudinally, with partitions from their centre. Seeds imbricated. Obf. This genus is allied to Ginchona, but differs effen- tially in the ftructure of its capfule. Its great peculiarity conlifts in the large, leaf-like, coloured, ttalked, folitary appendages, placed within the calyx, and according to Jac- quin, in his Hortus Schoenbrunenfis, originating from the very bafe of the germen, between two teeth of the calyx; but thefe, which might eafily be miftaken for bracteas, are not found in every {pecies, nor in every flower of any one. The original fpecies 1s deftitute of them. 1. M. jamaicenfe. Linn. Sp. Pl. 244. Swartz. Obf. 68. t. 3. f. 1 —Corymbs on long axillary ftalks. Calyx with- out an appendage. Native of fhady places, about the banks of rivers, in the fouthern part of Jamaica. A branched fmooth fhrub, with long, lax, round fearred tranches. Leaves oppolite, ftalked, a {pan long, elliptic- MAC oblong, pointed, entire, {mooth, crowded about the ends of the branches; paler beneath. Flowers yellowith-green, in long-ftalked corymbofe panicles. Fruit near an inch in length. : p M. /fpeciofum. Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. 1. 19. t. 43. —Corymbs fhorter than the leaves, hairy. Calycine bra¢tea roundifh-ovate, its ftalk fhorter than the corolla.—Native of the Caraccas. Jacquin had it flowering in his ftove in December. This is a moft beautiful fhrub, five feet high, its inflorefeence, and even the calyx and corolla, downy or hairy, as well as the margins of the /eaves. The axillary and terminal corymbofe fanicles compofe a large tuft of flowers at the end of each branch, very confpicuous for the long purple-mouthed corolla, ard the large rofe-coloured, veiny, {mooth or downy, appendage to the calyx of moft of them, more {plendid than the flowers themfelves. 3. M. candidiffimum. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 38. t. 30.—Co- rymbs fhorter than the leaves, {mooth, Calycine bractea roundifh-ovate, its ftalk longer than the corolla.—Found b Von Rohr in the neighbourhood of St. Martha.—This dif- fers from the laft in its {maller fize, and white calycine braé&ea, whofe ftalk exceeds the flower-in length. The corolla is alfo of a fhorter figure. Cap/ule elliptic-oblong, com- prefled. 4. M. coccineum. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 38.t. 29. —Corymbs denfe, the length of the footftalks, in long clufters. Caly- cine braétea elliptical, its {talk much longer than the corolla. —Native of Trinidad. Von Rohr. A_ tree with hairy branches. The leaves are from one to two feet long, elliptic- obovate. ~ Corymbs fhort and denfe, difpofed in very long clufters. One flower in each corymb is furnifhed with a very large, elliptical, long-ltalked, fcarlet calycine append- age, looking, at firit fight, like a bra@ea to each. The corolla is {mooth, its limb nearly as long asits tube. Germen hairy. 5. M. flrifum. Roxb. MSS.—Flowers in little denfe, round, axillary heads, fhorter than the footftalks.— Native of Bengal. Herb. Banks. The branches are fmooth and angular. Leaves ouly two or three inches long, elliptical, pointed. Flowers {mall, without calycine braéteas. Some fpecies of this curious genus {till, we believe, remain unfettled. MACROCOLUM, or Macrocotium, formed of yexposy large, and xorrxw, I join, among the. Romans, the largeft kind of paper then in ufe. It meafured fixteen inches, and fre- quently two feet. MACROCOSM, Maxpoxoouoc, compounded of uxx;0:, long, large, and xocucs, world, denotes the great world, that is, the univerfe. In which fenfe it ftands contradiftinguifhed from micro- cofm, a term ufed to exprefs man. MACRODESPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Kithenagur. MACROLOBIUM, in Botany, was fo named, as Pro- feffor Martyn fuggelts, from having one of the petals very long in proportion to the others, but we are rather inclined to confider it as derived from jzxpes, large, and AcBos, a pod ; the large feed-veflel moft evidently warranting fuch an appli cation of the name, which was given by Schreber with Aublet’s plates before him. Schreb. 30. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 1. 186. Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 37. Mart. Mill. Dict. V. 3. (Outea; Aubl. Guian. 28. Juil. 347. Lamarek Illuttr. t. 26.—Vouapa; Aubl. Guian. 25. Jufl. 350. Lamarck Iluttr. t. 26.)—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynta. Nat. Ord. Lomentacea, Linn. Leguminofe, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, aouble; the outer of two, oppofite, ovate-oblong leaves, adhering to the bafe of the MAC the inner, which is of one leaf, turbinate, fhort, with an oblique, five-toothed margin. Cor. Petals five, unequal; the upper one large, erect, unguiculate, oblong, obtufe, con- cave, undulated, inferted into the inner perianth ; lower petals four, fmall, ovate, fpreading, attached to the upper part of the inver perianth. Stam. Filaments four, one of them fhort, barren, ftanding under the large petal; the reft very long, thread-fhaped; anthers fquare. Pi. Ger- men fuperior, talked, ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped ; fligma obtufe. Peric. Legume ovate, comprefled, coriaceous, of one cell. Seed folitary, roundifh, comprefied. E@. Ch. Calyx double; the outer of two leaves; the inner turbinate and obliquely five-toothed. Corolla of five petals, unequal. Legume fingle-feeded. Obf. Schreber remarks that Outea and Vouapaof Aublet do not feem to be diftin&t genera, as the corolla, fertile ftamens and the piltil agree in number, form, and fituation in both. In the former indeed, Outea, Aublet had never feen the ripe fruit, and in the latter he appears not to have diftinguifhed the leffer petals from the calyx. Vahl, how- ever, has kept thefe genera diitin@, on the authority of Richard. 1. M. pinnatum. Willd. (Outea guianentis ; Aubl. Guian. t. 9.)—Leaves pinnate, obtufe.—Native of woods and fo- refts in Guiana, flowesing in May. —The trunk of this tree rifes to the height of ffty feet, and is about a foot in diameter. Bark {mooth and greyifh. Wood whitifh to- wards the furface, but red at the heart. Branches fpread- ing, inclining, the upper ones ereét. Leaves abruptly pin- nate, alternate; leaflets four, ovate, obtule. Stipulas two, acute, fmall, deciduous, at the bafe of the common ftalk. Flywers in {pikes, axillary, of a violet colour. Some emi- m+ botanifts have fafpected that this may be a Zamarindus, anethe following a Hymenea. . 2. M. Aymeneoides. Willd. Vahl. (Vouapa bifolia ; Aubl. Guian. t. 7.)—Leaves binate, pointed, oblique at the bafe. Legume oblong. Found in the woods of Guiana and Cay- enne, near the fhores of lakes and rivers, flowering in No- vember and bearing fruit in January.—A ¢ree fixty feet high, much branched at the top. Leaves alternate, of two green, ttrong, and thick, oval, long-peinted leaflets. Flowers in folitary, terminal cluiters from the bofom of the leaves, of a pale violet colour. 3. M. fpherocarpum. Willd. Vahl. (Vouapa Simira ; Aubl. Guian. t. 8.)—Leaves binate, pointed, ovate. Le- gume roundifh compreff-d.—Native of woods at Courou, in Guiana, bearing fruit in June. The height of this ¢ree is eighty feet. Zrunk thick, much branched at the top. Leaves alternate of two ovate, entire leaflets, reticulated with veins. The flowers have not been feen, but the fruit rows in axillary clu‘ters, and is a thick, roundith, leathery, Feupiie bar legume, of one cell and two valves, containing a folitary, roundifh, deprefled, fmooth feed. The wood is violet-coloured. MACROLOGY, Mzxyoroysz, formed of paxpos, long, and avyo:, difcourfe, in Rhetoric, a redundant, or too copious ttyle; an example of which we have in Livy, lib. viii. «« Legati non impetrata pace, retro domum, unde venerant abierunt.”’ The too copious is equally fubje& to obfeurity with the too concife ftyle, and confequently ought to be avoided, See BracnyoLocy, Dicrion, and Sryue, M *CRONISLI, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Turki Archipelago, near the coait of Livadia; formerly called Helena, becaufe it is faid to have afforded an afylum to that princefs. It was anciently very populous, but is now de- ferted, and only occupied by lizards or other reptiles. dn MAC the interior parts are found many rare plants; 6 miles N.E. of cape Calonni. N. lat. 37°38’... E. long. 24° 17’. MACROPEDIDM, the Jong-legs, a name giver by fome writers in natural hiltory to the common tipula. MACROPIPER, a name given by authors to the piper longum, or long pepper. MACROPNUS, formed of pxxp0:, long, and avon, breath, a word ufed by Hippocrates, and other old writers in medi- cine, to fignify a perfon who fetches his breath at long inter- vals. Itis ufed in oppofition to drachypnus, or fhort-breathed. MACROPTERA, derived from jo:x20:, long, and wlepov, a wing, in Ornithology. The hawks of this genus have their wings fo long, that when clofed they reach to the end of the tail, or nearly fo. Of this gemus are the bald-buzzard, the kite, the hen-harrier, the honey-buzzard, and the com- mon buzzard, the facre, the jerfalcon, &c. MACROPUS, Kancuroo, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the clafs and order Mammalia-fere. The fore-teeth in the upper jaw fix, and emarginated; but in the young animal they are eight ; there are only two in the lower jaw, very large, long, fharp, and pointing forwards: there are five grinders on each fide, both in the upper and lower jaw, diilant from the other teeth; the fore-legs are very fhort ; and the hind ones very long ; the female has an abdominal pouch. There are two fpecies, viz. the major, or M. gigan- teus, anfwering to the Didelphis gigantea of Linnzus and the M. minor, or the kanguroo rat. This genus, as it appears from what has been faid, has hitherto been generally confounded with the Didelphis, which fee: it is, however, found effentially to difagree with that genus in refpeét to the teeth and other particulars ; hence Dr. Shaw, and other later naturalifis, have feparated it from the Didelphis tribe. Of all the animals which the continent of Auttralafia has prefented to our view, the Platypus excepted, (which fee) the kanguroo muft be confidered as the mott extraordinary = “its fize, conformation, teeth, and other particulars, confpir- ing to render it a molt interefting object to every naturalift.’” Species. Magsor; Great kanguroo. Brownifh, with fharp ears and pentadactylous fore feet. This animal was firlt dif- covered by captain Cook’s people, while at Botany Bay, in New Holland, in the year 1770, an interefting account of which is given in the captain’s firft voyage. It is thus defcribed by Dr. Shaw: The general fize of the kan- guroo is at lealt equal to that of a full-grown fheep: the upper parts of the animal are fmall, while the lower are remarkably large in proportion ; yet fuch is the elegance of gradation in this refpect, that the kanguroo may juftly be corfidered as one of the molt piétureique of quadrupeds, The head bears fome refemblance to that of a deer, and the vifage is mild and placid ; the ears are moderately large, of a fharpened form, and upright; the eyes large; and the mouth rather {mall; the neck is thin and finely proportioned ; the fore-legs are extrerzely fhort, with the feet divided into five toes, each of which is furnifhed with a fharp and fomewhat crooked claw. From the breaft.downwards the body gra- dually enlarges, and again decreafes a little towards the tail; the thighs and hind-legs are extremely {tout and long ; and the feet are fo con{truéted as to appear, at firlt fight, to confilt of but three toes, of which the middle one is by far the Jargeft, and is furnifhed witha claw of great fize and itrength ; the exterior toe is alfo furnified with a very ftrong claw, but far fmaller than that of the middle ; and the interior confifts of two Lmall toes united under a common fkin, with -their refpeétive claws placed fo clofe to -each other MAC ‘ether as to appear like a fplit or double claw: the whole appearance of the foot bears a diitant refemblance to that of a bird. The great kanguroo refts on the whole Iéugth of the foot, which is callous, blackifh, and granulated be- neath. The colour of the animal,is an elegant pale brown, lighter, or more inclining to whitenefs on the abdomen ; the ventral pouch, or receptacle for the young, is fituated as in the didelphis tribes, and is extremely large and deep.”” The dimenfions of a full-grown kanguroo are thefe: eight feet from the tip of the nofe to that of the tail ; length of the tail three feet one inch; of the head eleven inches; of the fore-legs two feet; of the hind three feet feven inches ; circumference of the fore-part of the animal, near the legs, three feet nine inches; of the lower part, near the legs, four feet five inches ; round the thickeft end of the tail thir- teen inches. ‘he weight of the largeft {pecimens is faid to be rsolbs., but it is thought to attain a ftill larger fize. «¢ Though the general pofition of the kanguroo, when at reft, is ttanding on its hind-feet, yet it frequently places its fore-feet on the ground alfo, and thus feeds in the manner of other quadrupeds, It drinks by lapping. In its natural ftate it is extremely timid, and fpring; from the fight of mankind by valt bounds of many feet in height, and toa furprifing diflance. The female kanguroo has two mamme, fituated in the abdominal pouch, and on each fide are feated two teats; yet, fo far as has hitherto been obferved, the animal produces but one young at a birth, and fo exceed- ingly diminutive is the young, when firlt found in the pouch, as fearcely to exceed an inch in length. The young conti- nues in the pouch till it is grown to a large fize, and takes occafional refuze in it long after it has been accultomed to come abroad. It feeds on vegetable fubttances, and chiefly on grafs. In their native ftate, kanguroos are faid to feed in herds of thirty and forty together, and one. is ufually flationed, as if apparently on the watch, at a diftance from the reft. One of the moft remarkable peculiarities of this ‘animal is its power of feparating at pleafure, to a confider- able'diftance, the two long fore-teeth in the lower jaw. Property in this ifland confilts of cattle, grain, and flaves of the fame nation with their.maifter. ., yery, perfgn who has the misfortune to be made a prifoner of war, man, woman, ey 7 M A-D Gr child, is reduced to the condition of favery, and from that moment is regarded by his own kindred as an object of contempt. Their arms confift-of a fhield, and the ¢ fagay,"’ a kind of lance, which they throw with peculiar addrefs. They are alfo tolerably well provided with mufquets, pur- chafed from the French; and they have alfo fome {wivel guns and cannon, obtained from the fame quarter. ‘The refidence of the chief is within a fort or ftockade, confifting of three rows of large trees, fixed in the ground !o clofe as almoft to exclude the light ; and faftened together at the top by a crofs beam. ‘Their forts in general are mere fimple palifades, conftru€ted in the form of an oblong fquare ; though fome of them have baftions and galleries, with open- ings for the purpofe of reconnoitring. On the eve of war, the women, children, and cattle, retreat to the woods, and there conceal themfelves, waiting the iffue of the campaign. The village is then occupied only by the men, who, pre- vioufly to any aét of hoftility, facrifice an ox. An Indian, of diftinguifhed eloquence, harangues on the injuftice of the enemy ; and his countrymen, in the mean while, dip their fagays in the blood of the viiim. Their operations in the field are of a very defultory defcription, confifling chiefly in teazing and haraffing the enemy, or attempting to furprife him in the night. ‘They feldom come to a regular engage- ment. The natives of Madagafcar are fufceptible of very violent enmities, and fometimes execute on their devoted objeéts the moft deliberate cruelties. The cuftomary ufe of prefents is the fame here as in India. It is the bufinefs of the inferior to make the firft advance, as weil as the firft prefent; but he always receives another in return. The natives indulge in all the offices of hofpitality ; but not to the excefs which fome travellers have afcribed to them, who have faid that it is cuftomary for-parents to proftitute their children to the embraces of ftrangers. This M, de Pages abfolately denies. He acknowledges, however, that chaf- tity in the intercourfe of the fexes is little regarded. The young ladies of Madagafcar, habituated to intrigue, prompted by the political and pecuniary views of their pa- rents, and captivated by the charm of fome new ornament for their perfons, ceafe to be relu€tant ta the wifhes of their admirers, Married women are very little addiGed to violate the nuptial engagement. When a woman happens to con- ceive by a foreigner, fhe recurs to various drugs, known to the natives, in order to procure abortion. In the language of Madagafcar, which is by no means harfh or difagreeable to the ear, M. de Pages perceived fome inflexions of voice which occur in that of the Philippine ifles. It feems to be a compound of different languages, and contains many words borrowed from the Arabic and Portuguefe. The ifland of Madagafcar is divided into a great number ‘of tribes. Its population, fays M. Rochon, may be reck- oned at 4,000,000 inhabitants ; but no precife calculation is poffible; as the ifland is divided ‘into diftinc focieties, each of which inhabits the canton which it likes beft, and is eee by its own ufages. A tribe conlilts of feveral vil- ages, who all have a particular chief. This chief is fome- ' times eleftive, but more frequently hereditary. ‘The land is never parcelled out, but belongs to thofe who take the trouble of cultivating it. Thefe iflanders have neither locks nor bolts, and live ina frugal manner. The French fettle- iment of Fort Dauphin is in the fouth-calt extremity of the ifland. For an account of it, fee Fort Daupnin. The chiefs never go out without their gun, and a {tick tipped with iron, ornamented at its end with a tuft of cow-hair. _ They wear a cap of red wool, by the colour of which they are diftinguifhed from their fubjeéts. In the province of Carcanofly, in which Fort Dauphin is fituated, the terri- MAD tories are deemed to belong to the chiefs, who diftribute them among their fubjeéts for cultivation, for which they expect a fmall return. The people’ of this province are not quite ignorant of the art of writing. They have fome hif- torical books written in the Malegafh language; but their men of letters, called ** Ombiaffes,’’? ufe the Arabic charac- ter. They have treatifes on phyfic, geomancy, and judicial aftrology. The moft famous of them come from Mantatara, and profefs geomancy and aftrology in the public fchools. The art of writing has doubtlefs been brought to this ifland by the Arabs, who conquered it between three and four centuries ago. ‘The paper is manufa@ured in the valley of Amboul, and is wrought from the papyrus nilotica, ‘The pens ufed by the iflanders are made of bamboo. Their ink is prepared of a deco@ion in boiling water of the bark of a tree, called “ Arandrato.”” The Arabic has made fome progrefs in the north-weft of Madagafcar; and the Arabians have a flaple on the river Bombetoque in the ifland, where they carry on commerce; and thus they have fucceeded in introducing, with their language and learning among the natives, fome traces of Mahometanifm. The contiguity of ‘Madagafcar to the coaft of Africa makes it natural to aferibe its population to that vaft continent; and the different races of inhabitants are now fo much con- founded, as to render it a vain attempt to enumerate them, For an account of the Kimofes of Madagafcar, fee that ar- ticle. The north-eaf%ern part of the ifland of Madagafcar is the rich ftaple of the colonies of the ifles of France and Bourbon. The moft frequented harbours are * Foule Pointe,” ‘St. Mary’s,’? and the “ bay of Antongil.’”” In thefe three places the French have endeavoured to form co- lonies; but the incurfions of pirates and the prevalence of the flave-trade have, according to Rochon’s ftatement, by their confequences defolated the northern part of Madagal. car.) S.-lat, 12°30! to 25°) go! EL long. 44° to isi. Rochon’s Voyage to Madagafcar. De Pages’ Travels round the World, vol. iii. See Benyowsky. MADAGH, a town of Algiers, near the coaft; 20 miles W.S.W. of Oran. MADAH, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segefs tan; 24 miles S. of Zareng. MADALENA, or Macpa.ena, a majeftic navigable river of South America, in New Grenada, reckoned the Danube of this province, which rifes about 30 miles E. of Popayan, and after a northerly courfe of 100 miles, in which it is augmented by other rivers, runs into the Caribbean fea. The courfes of this river, and. alfo of the Cauca, are con- fiderable ftreams, perhaps the iffues of fubterranean waters, from the vaft cavity under the Table land, where the vol- canoes often pour out deftructive torrents of water and mud. *N. lat. 11°. W. long. 74° 40'—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the fouth coaft of Chiloe. S. lat. 44° 15". , Maparrena, La, a town of Canada, on the river St. Lawrence. N, lat. 46° 25'. {mall ifland near the coaft of Sardinia, long. 9° 35'. F Mapa.ena, La,. Bay of, a bay on the welt coaft of California. N. lat 24° 53'. E. long. 247° 56’. MApbALENA, St, a town of New Navarre; 150 miles S.W. of Cafa Grande. MADAMAT,, in Hindoo Mythology, the fon of Krifhna and Rukmeni, and a name of Kama, the god of love; he having been incarnated in the perfon of Madamat, otherwife Madana, or Makadama. See Kama. MADAME Istx, in Geography, forms the north-eaft W. long. 72° 25'.—Alfo, a N, lat. 41° 15’, E. fide of the gut of Canfo, as you enter from the fouth-eatt, and , MAD and is oppofite to the eaftern extremity of Nova Scotia. The north point of the ifland lies 14 miles S. of St. Peter’s harbour, in Cape Bretou ifland; on which ifland the ifles de Madame are dependent. MADAMPAR, a fea-port town of the ifland of Ceylon, on the weft coaft, at the mouth of a river. MADAMUT, a town of Egypt, on the eaft fide of the Nile; 20 miles S.S.W. of Kous. MADAN, Maartiy, in Biography, an Englifh divine of the eftablifhed church, was born about the year 1726, and was brought up to the profeffion of the bar, which he quitted for the church, though without preferment. The chapel at the Lock-hofpital was built chiefly by his exer- tions ; and he officiated many years as the chaplain, without any emolument. He is chiefly known as an author by a work entitled, ‘’Thelyphthora, or a Treatife on Female Ruin,” in 3 vols., $vo., publifhed in 1781, which occa- fioned a long and very violent controverfy. The author maintained the lawfulnefs, or even the duty of polygamy. Mr. Madan was a good claffical fcholar, and publifhed a tranflation of Juveral and Perfius: he alfo wrote a treatife on * Capital Punifhments.”” He died in 1790, having at- tained to much popularity as a preacher ; and as a nian, his moral character was unimpeachable. Mapan’s Point, in Geography, a cape on the north-eaft coalt of the ifland of St. Chriftopher. N, lat. 17° 28'. W. long. 62° 38'. MADANA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Kama, the Hindoo god of love, otherwife Madamat ; which fee. ; MADAPASSA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 60 miles S. of Dacca. MADAPOUR, a town of Bengal; io miles S.E. of Rajemal. MADARAVAN, a town of Fez, in the vicinity of iron-mines, not far from mount Atlas. MADARGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 82 miles N.N.W. of Dacca. MADAROSIS, from pedo:, bald, in Surgery, a lofs of the eye-lafhes. MADBAH, in Geography, a town of Kemaoun; 23 miles S.E. of Kerigur. MADBAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 37 miles S.E. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26° 25'. E. long. 85° 21’. MADBURY, a townfhip of America, in Strafford county, New Hampfhire, between Dover and Durham, about ro miles N.W. of Portf{fmouth ; incorporated in 1755, containing 544 inhabitants. MADDAPOUR, a town of Bengal; 34 miles E. of Mauldah. MADDEN, Dr. SamueEt, in Biography, was born in Ireland about the year 1686, and educated at Dublin, where _ he refided the greater part of his life. In 1729 he was in England, and wrote a tragedy, entitled “ Themiftocles ;” and was, as he fays of himfelf, tempted to let it come out, by the offer of a noble ftudy of Bock from the profits of it. In 1732 he publifhed “ Memoirs of the twentieth Century,”’ a work which, for fome reafon not now known, wa’ in a few days totally fuppreffed. In 1740 we find him in his native country, and fetting apart the fum of one hundred pounds to be diltributed in premiums for the encouragement of arts, manufa€tures and fcience; and the fame {um he continued to beftow annually for the like purpofe, fo long as he lived. The good effe&ts of thefe well-direéted bene- faGtions we-e not only felt in Lreland, but their influence was extended to the fitter country, and, it is shouents. Bale rife to the ‘‘ Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu- factures, &c. in London,’’ of which his grace the duke of MAD Norfolk is now the prefident. Dr. Madden obtained church preferment in Ireland, and he died in December 1765. He left behind him another tragedy, as a legacy to Mr. Sheridan. Biog. Dram. MADDER, in Agriculture, the common name of a plant, fometimes cultivated in the field, as an ingredient in the dyeing of a fcarlet colour. The forts commonly cultivated for this ufe is, the rudia tinéoria, which is a plant of the thick flefhy tap-rooted kind. It is ftated by a late writer, that this plant ‘was for- merly much more cultivated in particular diftri&s in this country than it is at prefent, the importations from Holland having leffened the demands, and reduced the price of it, fo. much as to render its culture incapable of being condu&ted with profit to the farmer.” Soil.—The foils which are the moft fuited to the cultivation of this plant, according to the fame writer, are thofe of the deep fertile fandy loams that are not retentive of moiflure, and which have a confiderable portion of vegetable matter in their compofition, It may alfo be grown on the more light defcriptions of foil that have fufficient depth, and which are in a proper ftate of fertility to admit of its being grown upon them. A ie rig and Plants or Sets.—In the preparation of the land for the reception of this crop, ‘it will be neceflary to” plough it up deeply before the winter into high ridges, in order that it may be expofed to the action and influence of the frofts, and the atmofphere, arly in the {pring thefe ridges fhould be well harrowed down by a heavy long-tined harrow, and then ploughed again in the contrary direction to a good depth. And when after this the land is not perfeétly clean from weeds, or not rendered fufficiently fine and mellow, another ploughing and harrowing fhould be given. In the laft operations the ground fhould always be Aft in as level | and even a ftate as poffible. It is then ready for the re~ ception of the plants. ‘The fets or plants may then be ob- tained either by fowing the feed upon a bed of earth which is rich, and made perfeétly fine by digging and raking in the {pring, and then lightly covered in, ov from offsets or fuckers from the old plants. In the firlt method, on the plants ap- pearing they fhould be made perfeétly clean by weeding, and be fet out to the diftance of three inches in the beds by the hoe. In this way, by keeping the ground quite clean and well ftirred about the plants, they will be ready to ‘fet out inthe fecond autumn, though it will moltly be better to defer the bufinefs till the fpring, in this climate, if the fets can be procured, as the plants feldom ripen their feed per- feétly, or afford it in a ftate to vegetate well. It requires about twenty thoufand plants for fetting an acre of land. The moft fuitable time of taking the fets is fhewn by the plants having attained the height of ten or twelve inches fram the ground, and the fuckers having thrown out fibrous roots at their bottoms. This may be feen by drawing up a few of the plants, and ufually ‘about the latter end of May or beginning of June.’’ Befides ¢¢it is neceffary that the fets have formed root-fibres at the bottoms, before they are re- aed as where that is not the cafe, they never fucceed well.”” The land being prepared in the manner directed above, and the plants thus provided, “a fufficient number of labourers are to be provided, that the work may be performed as expe- ditioufly as poffible. In taking off the fets, much care is neceffary not to injure them. Some perform it by means of adibble with a flat edge, and which is fhod with iron; this tool, on being thruft into the ground on the fide of the fhoots, divides and feparates them by depreffing the handle without hurting the fine fibrous roots. The number of ; planta MADDER. plants that can be fet ina fhort fpace of time fhould only be taken upat once. They fhould be prepared by having about a third of their top parts cut off. A fort of thin batter fhould likewife be made, by mixing good vegetable mould and water well together, into which the roots of the fets fhould be dipped before they are placed into the earth, as by this means the neceflity of watering the plants afterwards is prevented. ‘Chis work is executed by a perfon before the planting commences. ‘Two others are employed afterwards in diftributing the plants fo as to be convenient for putting them into the ground.” There are different methods employed in fetting the plants ; in fome cafes they are put in the furrow by means of the plough, while in others they are fet in beds by a dibble. ‘The former is probably the better method, and as being the moft expeditious, is belt adapted to the culture of the plant on an extenfive {cale. In this the planter begins by drawing a ftraight furrow on one fide of the plantation to a good depth ; a row of plants is then laid in it by a perfon for the purpofe, at the diftance of five, fix, or more inches from each other, according to the circumftances of the land, in fuch a manner as to lean off from the plough ; another fur- row is then formed, by the mould of which they are covered. In this manner the work proceeds until the whole is finifhed. In the other method, it is obferved, the fets, after the land has been formed into beds, five feet in breadth, with two feet between each for intervals, are put in.by means of a line and a dibble, beginning at the diltance of fix inches from the outfides, and fetting a row of plants at fuitable diftances from each other, as juft mentioned ; then removing the line two feet farther on them, and putting in another row ; after which it is again removed two feet, and a third row of plants fet in, which finifhes the bed; the work proceeding in this manner till the whole of the plantation is completed. In this way each bed contains three rows of plants, at two feet diftance each, three feet being left between the rows on the different beds.” But ‘in Holland, where the culture of this root is exten- five, their method is, it is obferved, a little different from the above. The plants, after being taken from the older plant- ations about the month of May, are immediately fet in rows at the diltance of three or four inches from plant to plant, and about fifteen inches from row to row, the beds being ten or twelve feet in width, with intervals of only about two feet.”? It is fuggefted that, ‘as in whatever manner the plants are fet, fome of them, even in the moft favourable feafons, are lable to die foon after the work has been performed, it is neceflary, in the courfe of a fortnight or three weeks, to look over the ground and put frefh vigorous plants in the places where the others have been deftroyed. By this means the plantations may be rendered more perfect and produétive.”’ But whatever method of planting may be pradtifed, it is of the greatelt impertance to the fuccefs of the crop, “that it be kept perfectly clean from weeds, and that the mould be oocafionally ftirred about the roots of the plants.’’ The firit of thefe is accomplifhed, according to the furvey of Kent, by means of hand-weeding and hoeing during the fummer feafon, and the latter either by the ufe of a ied hoe, ora light plough ; this laft is the moft eafy and expe- ditious. Inthis manner, or by digging the intervals of the rows, the mould is alfo laid up to the plants once each year after the {tems have been removed ih the autumn feafon. Where the bed practice is followed, they are fometimes earthed up in the autumn after the {tems have been cut down, by paring the intervals fomewhat in the manner of thofe of the afparagus kind, This method is, however, in general too expenfive and troublefome where the crops are cultivated on an extenfive fcale. According to Mr, Young, the beft way of performing this culture is “to ufe the fhim, not for turning a ridge againft the rows, as the plants will yet be too weak for that operation, but merely to loofen the earth of the intervals, thereby to kill the weeds, and prepare the foil for being thrown up againft the rows by a fucceeding operation. Hand-hoeing and weeding fhould depend on the number of the weeds that arife among the plants.. Let the cultivator of madder, through the whole procefs of the crop, remem- ber, fays he, that he muft be to the full as accurate as a gar- dener ; his foil n\uft be rendered little inferior to a dung- hill; all weeds muft be forever eradicated ; not one mutt in- jure the plants ; his land muft always be kept perfe€tly loofe and well pulverized; for a crop that depends merely on the quantity of the roots, can never thrive to profit in land that is bound or in an adhefive ftate.’? Whatever practice is adopted, “the crops are to be ma- naged in this manner until the third autumn after planting, when the plants will be ina ftate to be taken up; this is known by their ftalks beginning to wither, and is generally about O&ober.. This bufinefs is performed either by trench- ing the land over with a {pade, or by means of the plough. The firft is the more certain, though much lefs expeditious method. In executing it, the workmen dig along the rows to the depthof about two feet, breaking and reducing every {pit of earthas perfeétly as poffible, each being attended by two perfons, who pick out the roots of the madder. But when the planting has been done in narrow-beds, it is fome- times the practice to take the roots up by turning the earth into the intervals by a /pud, or broad three-tined fork. — In this way it is fuppofed that the roots are taken up more per- feétly, and with lefs danger of being injured.. But the moft ready method is by means of the plough, which after having the earth-board and coulter removed, is paffed along each fide of the rows, fo as to fully loofen the mould; perfons being employed to pick out the roots, loofening fuch parts of the earth as may have efcaped the aétion of the plough by their fpades.”?, And ‘when the roots have been taken up, they fhould be expofed fome time to the air, in order that they may be rendered fo dry as to be cleared from dirt. They are then to be conveyed toa kiln, fuch as is employed for the purpofe of drying malt, or hops, when they are to be brought into fuch a ftate of drynefs as to be perfectly brit- tle. This is to prevent the danger of their being injured by becoming mouldy, or from running into a ftate of fermenta- tion ; but much caution is neceflary in conducting the pro- cels. After this they are packed up in bags, in order to be difpofed of to the dyer, who reduces them into a' powder by a mill before they are made ufe of as a colouring ingredient.’” Mr. Young, however, obferves, that he is ‘informed, that at prefent (1803) the largeft quantity of madder ufed in our manufactures, is ufed without being powdered as for- merly, and that it is faleable with common drying, without {tove-work ; but that, that common degree is open to much uncertainty, fo that the preceding remarks are not done away. The price of 4/. per hundred weight, marks a confiderable deficcation in his opinion.”’ It is hinted, that in order to judge of this root, the beit is that which, on being broken in two, has a brightifh red or ae appearance, without any yellow caft being ex- hibited. It is ftated, “in order to colle& the feed of the madder plant, it is neceffary to let the plants remain in the field till the feed is almoft wholly ripe, which is generally in the month of September. The heads are then to be ast rom MADDER, from the flems, and cxpofed in a cloth in the fun, till the feed can be eafily forced out by flightly beating them. It is then to be rendered perfectly clean, and afterwards placed in a funny fituation, until it become guite dry ; for if the leaft dampnefs remain, it will grow mouldy, and its vege- tative power be either greatly impaired or wholly deftroyed. When thus properly dried, it fhould be put in fmall bags, and hung up to the ceiling of a room where a fire is con- ftantly kept.” The produce from the root of this plant is different, ac- cording to the difference of the foil; but moftly from ten to fifteen or twenty hundred weight, where they ate fuitable to its cultivation. It feems not improbable, a late writer fays, ¢ that the cultivation of madder might be rendered a profitable article of field-hufbandry in different diftriéts, if the importation of the root from Holland was prohibited; as the event of dif- ferent trials has fhewn that full crops of good madder are capable of being raifed.”” And it is fuppofed by the intel- ligent writer of the Survey of Kent, ‘that if the price was never lower than 3/. the hundred weight, it might be grown not only with profit by the farmer, but without injury to the confumer.’”’ As itis fuppofed, « from the high degree of culture which land under this fort of crop mutt neceffarily undergo, and its not being fo much exhaufted as in many other cafes, that it muft be an excellent preparation for wheat, or any other crop that requires a clean and fine pul- verized condition of the mould or {vil.?? But the author of the Farmer’s Calendar ‘ recommends the young farmer to remember that the culture of thefe plants, applicable only to the ufe of manufaétures, and which are alfo largely imported from abroad, is rarely ad- vifable. He was a madder planter once, and loft by every acre he planted. A man may plant ih the moment of a high price, and take up his crop three years after at a low one. All fuch fpeculations are too hazardous; nor was there even a fair open competition among the purchafers. Thofe who have cultivated madder with the fuccefs boafted by the writers of hufbandry, fhould not hold thefe obferwations in contempt. ‘There appears to him almoft as much ufe in mentioning trials that were unfuccefsful, as in thofe that are ever fo profitable; for it is certainly of as much confequence to tell one man that his foil qwi// not do for madder, as to affure another that his qi// do. Inftead of an acre or two, he might poffibly have launched (like many. others) into ten or fifteen acres; in which cafe, the lofs would have been no trifle. And it is furely highly incumbent on every one to make known to the world fuch of his experience as will probably be of any ufe to it. Bad fuccefs of feveral per- fons in a culture is too apt to prejudice others in general againit it. However irrational, flill it is fo; and it ought to bea caution not to recommend any thing in general, un- der the extravagant notion, that becaufe an article of cul- ture 1s profitable on one foil, it muft be the fame on very different ones. But the grand obftacle to the culture of madder is the difficulty of fale: for while a man has notoa fair market for his unmanufaétured madder, none can with any prudence-engage in it, unlefs on fo large a feale as to admit the whole apparatus of reducing it to fuch a ftateas to be abfolutely a marketable commodity. In anfwer to this it may be faid, that madder really dry isa marketable commodity. But this matters not, if the purchafer has it in his power to be a knave: he has a pretence, a fcreen always at hand that will cloak the greateft knavery, and to a de- gree known in no other branch of agriculture. Among the gentlemen of trade who have a mutual underftanding and e@ontidence, fuch objections appear trivial ;. but to the culti- vator at a diftance from the market, it is a different affaits * He writes to a madder-merchant to know the price: The- anfwer is, 4/. an hundred weight. Up he fends his maddery: and inftead of 4/. he receives but Fe not from a variation in price, but in weight. It may be faid, that the correfpondent in London may be right. Very true; but will the countrys man believe it? He thinks himfelf right, and has no other proof that he is not fo but the interefted affertion of the man who buys it. Is it not evident that, in fuch a cafe, the cultivator will be difgufted, and throw afide a bufinefs in which he knows neither the market-weight nor the markets price? If encouragement is defigned to this culture from any quarter, it fhould not be exclufive of this circumftance. Manufactures fhould be ereéted and eftablifhed, in which the madder could be prepared for any one, at fo much an. hundred weight, and that by perfons not the leaft cons cerned in purchafing. Then the cultivator would have a commodity in his hands, which he could fell in as fimple and fair a way as any other. If nothing of this fort can be ef- fected, all encouragement fhould be for fuch a number of acres (and no lefs) as will anfwer the expence of a private manufa€ture; which would prevent perfons being vas guardedly drawn in, by premiums apparently confiderabley to cultivate a root which, when raifed, is in its fale abfos lutely at the mercy of the purchafer.” Kilns are often neceffary in the culture of this root; but’ for {mall crops, a common oven may ferve, though it is very tedious, and would require large ovens to fupply the place of kilns. However, to fave the expence of building fuck kilns, a place may be made over the roof of the oven, to put the roots in, that they may begin to dry. Where much madder is grown, it is, notwithitanding, abfolutely necef+ fary to have a kiln proportioned to the quantity that is to be dried. Thefe may be made of different forms, being attentive that it may contain a large quantity of roots; that it be worked with eafe, and the fmalleit proportion of fuel ; and that it may be fo contrived as to retain an equal mode- rate heat. Thofe made ufe of in the Low Countries differ very little from that ufed here in drying malt. ‘There is a large fur nace, in which a great fire is made: this furnace is made under an arch; the hot air and fmoke pafs through a funnel over the furnace, and fpread themfelves in a {pace in form of an inverted pyramid, the bottom of which is covered with a perforated floor, on which the madder-roots are {preads See Kity. : And where the manufacture of the article is carried on, a mill for the purpofe of. pulverizing the dried madder is likes wife neceflary. See Mixx. a Expences of Culture per Acre—This is on land worth forty fhillings per acre, in the digging mode, and before the great rife in the price of farm labour. r t 2s. d. Rent for three years - - - - Goo Digging ditto at two-pence fer perch = +) § 6 8 Dividing ditto into beds, two men one day, at by goes off one fhilling each - .ulepooss 1s hle tae Raking ditto, two men one day, atone fhilling = 7 each - - - - - - - ov 6 Planting ditto with two thoufand plants, one day, at one fhilling and fixpence each - 03% Six women to take up two thoufand ditto, at — we . fixpence each, one fay = - = = & 0 3 Hoeing the firlt fummer five times) ~ > % Vo 197 3 Covering ditto in autumn the firft year - 0 6% awh isn uel *Carried’over * 8-77 ° 8 Brought wi *’ ~ 9 MADDER. Ls. d. : Brought over - ce lated ey Atta) Hoeing ditto the fecond fummer three trmes - 0 g 0 Covering ditto in autumn the fecond year = (0), (6120 Hoeing ditto the third fummer twice - er Ored! -O To be paid in lieu of tithe, - ° at five fhillings per - = Leo acre per annum - - Digging ditto out of the ground = = AOe cO Beer - - - - - - =2 sO, OL © LE LO 2 Produce. ™ Produce of an acre of madder E = eg? wizir 2 Expences - - - - - =e TSbe2 Profit - - - . - - - 3614 © In this eftimate, which is much below the prefent price, nothing is allowed for plants; as, though expenfive at firft, when once done, a fupply from the plantation will conftantly be had for a long time. Mapper, in Botany and Gardening. See Rusia. Mapper, in aw. See Larceny. Mapper, in the Materia Medica. The roots of madder were employed by the Greek writers with the fame medi- cinal intentions for which they are recommended by moft modern writers on the materia medica. Madder differs from fome other fubftances ufed in dyeing, by its property of tinging with a florid red colour, not only the milk, urine, &c. but the bones of thofe animals which have fed upon it. This circumftance was firlt noticed by Antonius Mizaldus, (Memorab. ut. ac jucunda Cent. 7. Aph. gt. Lutet. 1566.) but not known in England till Mr. Belchier publifhed an account of a pig anda cock, whofe bones became red b eating madder mixed with their food. (Phil. Tranf. vol. xxxix. vol. xli.) Since that time various experiments have been made, by M. Hamel du Monceau and others, from which it appears that the colouring matter of madder affeéts the bones in a very fhort time, and that the moft folid or hardeft part of the bones firft receives the red colour, which gradually extends, ab externo, through the whole offeous fubftance, while the animal continues to take the madder ; and if the root be alternately intermitted and em- ployed for a fufficient length of time, and at proper in- tervals, the bonesare found to be coloured in a correfpondent number of concentric circles. Mem. de l’Acad. des Scienc. 1739. Med. Eff. Edinb. abr. vol. ii. According to Lewis (Mat. Med.), the roots of madder have a bitterifh, f{omewhat auftere talte, and a flight fmell not of the agreeable kind. They impart to water a dark red tinéture, to reétified {pirit and to diftilled oils a bright red: both the watery and {pirituous tin¢tures talte ftrongly of the madder. ‘ By medical writers, madder has been confidered as a deobftruent, detergent, and diuretic, and is chiefly ufed in the jaundice, dropfy, and other difeafes, fuppofed to pro- ceed from vifceral obftruétions, particularly thofe of the liver and kidnies; and fome modern authors have recom- mended it as an em:nenagogue (Home’s Clin. Exp.), and in rickety affe€tions. (lLevret fur les Accouchemens.) With xegard to its diuretic quality, for which there are feveral re{peétable authorities, Dr. Cullen afferts, that in many trials, both for this and other purpofes, fuch an effeét 1s not conftant, as it never occurred to him. As a remedy for Vou. XXII. the jaundice, it has the authority of Sydenham, and was formerly an ingredient in the iéeric decotion, which the college of Edinburgh direéted to be prepared by boiling an ounce of madder, the fame quantity of turmeric, and the fame quantity of the roots and leaves of celandine, in three pints of water to a quart; to which, when ftrained and cooled, the juice of 200 millepedes are added; and a quarter of a pint of this liquor was ordered to be taken twice a day, or oftener. But as this decoétion feemed to be more adapted to the “ feces albidz,’’ than to the difeafe itfelf, it was expunged from the Pharmacopeia. That fome French writers fhould prefcribe madder in a rickety ftate of the bones, appears a little furprifing, fays Dr. Woodville, as the brute animals to which it was given, efpecially the younger, fuffered confiderable emaciation and proftration of {trength from its effe@ts. Its virtues, as an emmenagogue, reft principally on the authority of Dr. Home, who gave from a feruple to half a dram of the powder, or two ounces of the decoGtion, three or four times a day. But this medicine failed with Dr. Cullen, who alfo fays, (Mat. Med. vol. ii.) ** I know of other praétitioners in this country, who, after feveral ineffeGtual trials made with it, have now entirely deferted its ufe.’’ Woody. Med. Bot. Mapper, Rubia Tindorum, in the Arts and Manufadures, grows wild in many parts of the Levant, as well as in the fouth of Europe, and has been very largely cultivated in Holland, particularly in Zealand, and alfo in the northern parts of Europe, for the ufe of the dyers and calico printers. (See Dyginc.) The method of cultivating it in Holland is this: in autumn they new plough the land, where the mad- der is to be planted, if it is ftrong and heavy, laying it up in high ridges, that it may be mellowed by the winter’s frofts. In March they plough it again, working it very deep, and laying it in ridges at eighteen inches afunder, and about a foot deep. hen, in the beginning of April, when the madder begins to fhoot out of the ground, they open the earth about the old roots, and take off all the {ide fhoots, which extend themfelves horizontally juft under the furface of the ground, preferving as much of the root as may be with them. Thefe they plant immediately on the tops of the new ridges, at about a foot diftance from each other ; and this they ufually do in fhowery weather, when the plants immediately take root and require no more water. In thefe ridges they let the plants remain two feafons, keeping them clear of weeds; and at Michaelmas time, when the leaves are fallen off, they take up the roots, and dry them for the market. See Rusra. The madder-plant grows to about three feet in height, but it is the long-fpreading fibrous root that is ufed in dyeing, The madder of the Levant, called « Lizari,” or « Azala,” has afomewhat higher and finer colour than that of the Dutch ; but that of Holland is more carefully prepared. The Dutch method is as follows: theroots, as foon as they are gathered, are put under a fhed, orin a granary, or other fheltered place, and there remain, expofed to a current of air, for ten or twelve days, till they are quite pliable, and till no juice can be prefled out by {queezing them. They are then farther dried, either in a common oven of flack heat, if the quantity be fmall, or in large ftoved rooms, con{tructed for this purpofe, and heated with turf, a larce opening being left for the efcape of all the internal vapours, This procefs requires particular attention and management, When the roots are quite hard and brittle, they are laid on a threfhing-floor, and beaten with a flail, in order to fepa. rate the dirt and outer thin fin ; they are afterwards ground ina mill, and the powder, being fifted and forted, 1s care G fully MADDER. fulty packed in large barrels: it is thus exported, and in this itate ufed by the dyers. For the method of cultivating and preparing madder in England, fee the! article Rusia. oe method practifed in Turkey and Perfia for preparing the madder ufed in the beautiful Adrianople red, is ftated by an eye-witnefs, cited in Aikin’s Ditionary, to be as follows : For every 1oolb. weight of the frefh root, a fteeping liquor is prepared of 2lbs. of bran, and 1b, of honey and alum, in four gallons of water. The roots, having been previoufly wathed clean, are foaked in this liquor for two or three days, and then dried, firft under cover, and laftly in the fun. They are afterwards ground and fifted, the powder lait produced in the mill being of the bett quality. The powder of madder fhould not be dry and harfh, but feel {omewhat greafy, and adhere together under the fingers. Madder-root confifts of three parts, v’x. the fkin or cuticle which is rubbed off under the flail, and is of no ufe; a thicker bark or cortical part, and within this a woody por- tion. ‘Thefe two latter parts are of a high red, and both are intermixed with many yellowifh particles, which injure the red colour, but cannot be feparated in grinding the root. When the colour is extraéted in the dyeing vat, the red part is Jefs foluble in water than the yellow, and is not fo readily extracted ; and, therefore, the beauty of the red co- Jouris deteriorated by long boiling, and by ufing too large a quantity of the root. Inthe ftate of madder, when ufed by the dyers, it is an orange brown powder, liable to be- come damp, and to be fpoiled in a moift place. As. to the chemical properties of madder, we fhall detail the following experiments by Mr. Wali, from Berthollet Elem. de Tein- ture, vol. ii. Zealand madder of the beft quality, was of an orange-brown colour, and in moderately fine powder. This powder, with water, gave an orange-red,infufien, by mace- ration with or without heat, but in the latter cafe the colour was finer. By flow evaporation of the infufion, or decoc- tion in a fhallow veflel, a pellicle is gradually formed, and finks to the bottom, and is fucceflively replaced by others. The extract, when nearly dry, is of a dingy brown, and is only in part again foluble in water. Alum added to the in- fufion gives a precipitate of a very deep brown-red, and the fupernatant liquor aflumes a brownifh-yellow tinge. If the alkaline carbonats be added to this liquor, they give a bloud- red lake, mifcible with oils, but very inferior in beauty to the cochineallake. With an excefs of alkali, the precipitate is re-diflolved, and the liquor becomes red. The colour given by foda is not fo fine as that by pot-afh. Lime pre- cipitates a brown-red lake, having no beauty. The acids added to all infufions of madder turn it yellow, but form no precipitate. ‘The natural colour is again reftored by al- kalis. Carbonat of magnefia, added to the water in which madder is infufed, turns it of a clear blood red colour, which, when {pread upon paper, becomes yellow by the fun’s rays. The following effeéts are produced by different metallic fo- lutions: acetate of lead, added to the aqueous infufion of madder, gives a brownith-red precipitate ; nitrat of mercury a purple-brown ; fulphat of iron a beautiful clear brown ; and fulphat of manganefe alfo a purplifh-brown. The folu- tions of tin, as Berthollet obferves, produce a lake void of brilliancy and beauty, owing, as he conjectures, to the pre- cipitation of the yellow as well as the red particles of mad- der, fo that this metal, which ferves to heighten the beauty of cochineal, can hardly be ufed with any advantage for madder. Sir Henry Englefield has invented a method of extra¢ting the red of madder of lakes, for which he obtained the gold medal from the Society of Arts, (See Tranf. of the Society, vol. ii.) His method is founded on the difco- very that the red colouring part is f{carcely foluble in cold water, but in the ufual method of extra¢tion is chiefly fuf- pended by means of the mucilage of the root. His princi- pal procefs is as follows: Inclofe two ounces (troy weight) of the fineft Dutch madder, known in commerce by the name of * crop madder,” in a bag capable of containing three or four times that quantity, made of {trong and fine calico. Put it into a large marble mortar, and pour on it 2 pint of foft river water, preffing the bag in every direction, and rubbing it as much as poffible without danger of burtt- ing ; the water will foon become quite opaque, and loaded with colouring matter. Pour off the water, and add an- other frefh pint of water, triturating it with the madder as before ; and repeat the operation, till the water, the laft added, comes away but flightly tinged. About five pints will be required to exhauft the colour, after which the root, if taken out dried, will be found to have loft +iths of its weight, and alfo its peculiar {mell ; and the colour will be a light nankeen or cinnamon. The water loaded with the co- louring matter muit then be put into an earthen or well-tinned copper veffel (not iron) and heated till it juft boils. Ther pour it into a large bafon, and add an ounce of alum diffolved in a pint of hot foft water, carefully ftirring the mixture. Afterwards add about 1/0z. of a faturated folution of car- bonat of potafh, which will immediately excite an’ effervef- cence, and a fubfequent precipitation of a coloured lake. When it has ftood till cold the lake is to be colleéted, well wathed with repeated quantities of warm water, and gently dried. It will then be found to weigh about half an ounce, ora fourth part of the madder employed. This madder lake, which is very beautiful, is found by analyfis to eonfift of more than 40 per cent. of alumine, the remainder is the colouring matter of the madder. If the alum folution and the madder infufion, without the alkali, be fuffered to ftand for awhile, a dull red lake will equally precipitate, and the clear liquor will afterwards yield a beautiful ooze-red lake by alkali, but wanting a fufficient body of colour, A lake equally good with the firft mentioned, but of a lighter colour, will be afforded by previoufly allowing the madder and cold water to ftand for a few days in a moderately warm place, by which a flight fermentation will be induced, anda portion of the mucilage of the root deftroyed. The pro- cefs is then to be continued as before. ‘The fame ingenious experiments alfo fuceeeded very perfectly in obtaining a ftilk more beautiful and equally durable lake, from the frefh mad- der-root imported from Holland, packed up in mofs. Aikin’s Dict. Wocl, previoufly boiled in a folution of alum and tartar, receives from a hot decoétion of madder and tartar, a very durable, but not a very beautiful red colour. M. Margraaf (Berlin Mem. 1771) fhews how avery durable lake, of a fine red colour, fit for the purpofes of painting, may be ob- tained from madder. ‘he procefs is as follows: take two ounces of the pureft Roman alum, and diffolve it in three (French) quarts cf diftilled water that has boiled, and ina clean glazed pot. Set the pot on the fire, and when the water begins to boil, withdraw it, andadd to it two ounces #f the beit Dutch madder. Boil the mixture once ortwice, then remove it from the fire, and filtrate it through a double filtre of paper not coloured. Let the fltrated liquor ftand fora night to fettle ; and pour off the clear liquor into the glazed pot, well cleaned. Make the liquor hat, and add to it gradu- ally a clear folution of {alt of tartar in water, ull all the madder is precipitated ; filtrate the mixture, and upon the red preci- pitate which remains upon the filtre, pour boiling diftilled- water, till tle water no longer acquires a faline talte ; ae re MAD eed lake is then to be gently dried. The colour of this pre- cipitate is deep; but 1f two parts of madder be ufed to one part of alum, the colour will be {till deeper: one part of madder, and four parts of alum, produce a beautiful rofe- colour. Mapper, Littlefield, in Botany. See SHERARDIA. Mapper, Petty. See CRUCIANELLA. MADDIGUBA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gooty; 10 miles from Anantpour. MADDIGUER, a town of Hindooftan; r2 miles N.W. of Gooty. MADDORPETTA, a town of Hindooftan, in My- fore ; 19 miles N.E. of Seringapatam. MADDOX, Isaac, in Biography, who arrived at the higheft honours of the church, was defcended from parents of rather mean rank in London. Of thofe parents he was deprived while very young, and he was placed in a charity- {chool, where he imbibed a tafte for ufeful knowledge. An attempt was made to put him apprentice to a paftry-cook, but his love of reading, and his defire after learning, feem to have unfitted him for that employment, and he was, by the intereft of his friends, allowed to purfue his ftudies at one of the Scotch univerfities. It has been faid, but the fae feems at leaft doubtful, that he became a preacher among the diffenters for a fhort time. It is certain that he refufed to take orders in the church of Scotland, and, pro- bably by his talents, obtained the patronage of bifhop Gib- fon. He was, by the intereit of the learned prelate, admit- ted of Queen’s college, Cambridge, and foon after received epifcopal ordination. He was firlt appointed curate of St. Bride’s, and then domeftic chaplain to Dr. Waddington, bifhop of Chichefter, whofe niece he married, and was af- terwards promoted to the re€tory of St. Vedait, Fofter-lane, London. In the year 1729 he was appointed clerk of the clofet to queen Caroline, about which time he was created a doétor by a diploma from Lambeth. In 1733, he was made dean of Wells, and in the fame year he publithed « A Vin- dication of the Government, Doétrine, and Worfhip of the Church of England, eftablifhed in the Reign of Queen Eliza- beth.’ The work wasa fort of anfwer to, or attack on, Neal’s Hiftory of the Puritans. This defence of the church, together with his intereft by marriage and otherwife, paved the way for his preferment, and he was in 1736 confecrated bifhop of St. Afaph, from which fee he was tranflated to that of St. Afaph in 1743, and from thence to Worcetter. Excepting the volume already referred to, the bifhop publifhed only fourteen fingle fermons, preached on public occations, between the years 1734 and 1752. The bifhop died in 1759, about the age of fixty-two. Asa prelate, he difcharged the duties of his {tation with fidelity and much diligence : in the government of the clergy he aéted the part of a prudent and affectionate father. He was always liberal, and in many in- ftances munificent: during his life, he gave two hundred pounds a-vear towards the augmentation of the fmaller be- nefices of his diocefe. He was. zealous enceurager of pub- lic and benevolent inftitutions. ‘To the London hofpitals he was a great benefactor, and was among the firft promoters of the Worceller infirmary. In his manners he was diftin- guifhed for cheerfulnefs, affability, and good nature, and was at all times above the falfe pride of concealing his hum- ble origin. At one of his entertainments he prefled the com- pany to tafte his pattry, faying he believed it was good, but he could affure them that it was not of his own manufacture. Gen. Biog. MADE Srreams, in Agriculture, fuch as ate formed by art, as in the cale of irrigation, &c. MAD MADEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Tet- lingana ; 38 miles of Warangole. MADEIRA, a well-known ifland in the Atlantic, of which Funchal, fituated near the eaftern extremity of the fouth coatt, is the capital and bifhop’s fee. The firft fight of the ifland is peculiarly magnificent to thofe who have never travelled beyond the Britifh channel. The entrance to the bay affords a moft beautiful profpe& of the city of Funchal and of the furrounding country, which from every part of the coaft rifes fo fteep as to bring very diftant objects into a fore-ground, likea Chinefe landfcape. As high as the tem- perature will admit the hills are clothed with vines, in the midit of which a white manfion, at agreeable diftances. is difcoveréd, and on the higheft habitable part of the hill is an elegant chapel, dedicated to Nofla Senhora de Monte. To the left of this is a beautiful country feat, with a fine hanging wood, ereéted by the late conful, Mr. Ch. Mur- ray, and fince purchafed by a Portuguefe nobleman. Above this the mountain is covered with woods or verdure, as high as the fight can diftinguifh, and indeed in every part, excepting thofe columnar peaks, the foil of which has been wafhed away by the violent rains to which thofe lati- tudes, and particularly fuch elevated parts, are liable. The whole ifland is faid to be about go miles in length, and Ir in its greateft breadth. The altitude of Pico Ruivo, its higheft land, taken by the barometer and thermometer according to M. de la Luc, is eftimated at 50684 London feet. To Mr. Johnfon, called by the Portuguefe the ac- complifhed Englifhman, we are indebted for an accurate map of Madeira, and many other very valuable remarks. Though partner in a confiderable mercantile houfe, he was a well-educated man, and always turned his acquirements to the benefit of others. His obfervations, confirmed, we be- lieve, by the qnadrant, eltimated the peak fomewhat higher. This is, however, nearly an Englifh ‘mile, elevated on a furface of about five miles on each fide, which is enough to give an idea of the prodigious fteepnefs of every part of the ifland. From Pico Ruivo, fituated nearly at the eaftern extremity of the mountainous part, there is a kind of table land, running weftward for more than twenty miles, in fome parts extremely narrow, and from its ele- vated fituation fo tempeftuous during the winter, that no habitations are fount] in its whole extent. This is called Paulo da Serra, and is faid to be level ground, a compa- rative term in an ifland, the furfate of which 1s fo univer- fally uneven. The following account of the geology of Madeira is offered as the moft recent, though in many refpeéts imperfect, from the fhort ftay of the honourable H. G. Bennet, to whom we are indebted for it. *« Tt confilts,” fays that gentleman, ‘ of a fucceffion of lofty hills rifing rapidly from the fea, particularly on the ealtern and northern extremities. The fummits of many of thefe ranges prefent the appearance of what has been called a table land; yet occafionally the forms are conical, and fur- mounted by a peak, which in fome inftances I found to be of columnar bafalt. Deep ravines or vallies defcend from the hills or ferras (fo called from the interfections the eye meets with in viewing from below the different chains oi mountains) to the fea, and in the hollow of moft of them flows a {mall river, which in general is rapid and fhallow. The foil of the ifland is clay on the furface, and large maffes of it as hard as brick are found underneath. Though there are not at prefent any exifting volcanoes in the ifland, yet the remains of two craters are to be feen, one on the eaftern, the other on the weftern fide, the largelt being about a Portuguefe league, or four Englifh miles, in cir- cumference. Every thing around wears marks of having G2 fuffered MADEIRA. fuffered the aétion of fire ; yet I was unable to difcover any depofit of fulphur, and was told that none had hitherto been found in the ifland. « The varieties of ftrata, which I fhall term generally lava, are not numerous. I myfelf faw but four, and I was in- formed there were no more to be met with. Three of them were invariably alternating in the fame order. The firft or loweft lava is of a compact {pecies, containing few, if any, extraneous fubftances, is of a blue colour, and of a re- markably fine grain. Upon that, the fecond, which is a red earthy friable lava, refts ; fometimes feparated by beds of clay mixed with pumice, and layers of black afhes and pumice. ‘This red lava contains minute pieces of olivine ; fometimes it aflumes a prifmatic form, and in one place was of a moderate degree of hardnefs: the principal {prings of water in the ifland iffue from this ftratum. On the top is the third, a greyifh lava, generally compact, though at times near the furface very cellular, and containing much olivine. This lava takes principally the prifmatic form of bafalt. I have,feen it in the moft perfect prifms from 30 to 40 feet or morein height, the furface being covered with fcoria, afh, and pumice. Thefe maffes of lava contain more or lefs of what I confider to be olivine, occafionally carbonate of lime and zeolite, which laft affumes either a crytftallized or globular form, or is diffufed in a thin coating between the different layers. “‘ The fourth fpecies of lava is of a coarfe grain, is ufed for the making of walls, and the commoneft and pooreft houfes are built of it, the blue and grey lavas being ufed for the copings, &c. It works eafier than the two other kinds above mentioned, is more friable and foft, and its colour is a mix- ture of brown and red. I obferved it in a ftratum by itfelf, and it did not feem to have any conneétion with the other three kinds. “ Thefe are the principal ftratified lavas that the ifland affords ; but in the beds of the rivers, particularly in that which flows in the valley of the Corral, feveral varieties oc- cur in ifolated mafles, containing olivine and zeolite in greater or lefs quantity, and exhibiting detached portions of {ftrata, fimilar to thofe that are found in the Foffa Grande on the fide of Vefuviis.. “«« T alfo examined the coaft to the weftward of the town of Funchal. From the beach before the town to Illhoo Caftle, and beyond it to the land called the Punta de la Cruz, the general character of the coaft is as follows: The red ftone is the apparent bafe upon which refts a bed of grey prifmatic lava, the ftratum being fometimes from 40 to 100 feet in depth. At times this grey lava refts upon a deep bed of afhes and pumice, agglutinated together like the peperino and puzzolano in the vicinity of Naples. The fcoria at the furface is remarkably thick, and all the upper parts of the lava appear to be cellular. The general dip of the lava on the coaft near Funchalis to the north, but near the fort of Illhoo it forms with a mafs of pumice that is inter- fected with flight veins of carbonate of lime and zeolite, a rapid angle or curve of declination to the ealt. To the wett- ward of the fort, the lava is not found for a little diftance, and there is nothing but deep beds of pumice and the ag- glutinated mafs above mentioned. Thefe beds of pumice are of various thicknefs, the deepeft appearing to be about four feet, and alternating with that ftratum which I have called peperino. In different cavities of the pumice bed, there are large depofits of black afhes. ‘Towards the extremity of the {trata the red ftone appears on the furface in a more folid ftate, and lies in prifmatic maffes, the prifms being fmall, and not exceeding afew inches in diameter. Their fub{tance is brittle, and crumbles with eafe. This ftratum of red lava is of a fhort continuance. Pafling a {mall brook, it dips rapidly to the weitward, and in its place the grey lava is found in a confufed though fometimes prifmatic form, and rifes from the beach, while the red lava {till runs along the furface to the height of near 100 feet, the top being covered with a thick fcoria. « There is alfo in the vicinity of Funchal, to the eaftward of the town, a fall of water, which, independent of the ro-~ mantic beauty of the fituation, merits being vifited on ac- count of the expofure of the two {trata of lava in their re- lative pofition. The hills are compofed wholly of lava, fometimes of a confufed, fometimes of a prif{matic forma- tion, the red and grey lavas being vifible on both fides of the valley. Near the head of it, a fhort diftance from the cafcade, the red {tratum is at the bottom, and about 60 feet higher it re-appears, and again, about 200 feet higher, alter- nating with the grey lava. The upper red lava dips rapidly to the fouth, and the ftrata are difpofed in the following manner : Grey lava. Lower Red. «The rock, down which the cafcade falls, is alfo inter- fe&ted with a red {tratum of about three feet wide, that tra- verfes it, and dips to the weftward, and is broken off by a broad dyke of grey lava. It appears about 30 feet higher, and dips again to the weftward. The fubftance of the red, rock in this place is hard, and it breaks into a columnar form, being by far the moft compaé of the red {trata 1 met with in the ifland. I faw this red lava alfo in the ifland of Teneriffe, to the eaftward of Santa Cruz, as well as in the neighbourhood of Orotava.’? ' From the fides of Pico Ruivo arife three principal rivers, which traverfe the ifland in different directions, Befides thefe are two very confiderable fountains on the table land, and various other tributary ftreams. This command of water at fuch a height is a moft munificent blefling of providence in a country ufually free from rain for more than fix mouths of the year, the fteepnefs of which renders the rivers in their natural forms little better than cataracts. By diverting the water to the fides of the mountains by regulations ee eftablifhed among the colonitts, traéts of land are fertilized, which muft otherwife remain for ever unproductive, or exhibit only trees and prickly pears (cactus . mamillaris) whofe roots would often become bare by the tor- rents of the rainy feafons. The following is the popular tradition of the difcovery of Madeira. One Machin, an Englifhman of obfeure birth, . had fallen in love with a young damfel, called Anne d’Arfet, of exquifite beauty, and of a noble family, which difdain-— ing fo lowan alliance, though Machin had gained her af- fections, obtained a warrant from the king to keep him in prifon, until the lady was perfuaded to marry a nobleman, _ who took her immediately to his feat near Briltol. Ma-, chin, being fome time afterwards releafed, found means to conyey the lady on board a yeflel provided to carry Rup to rance. MADEIRA. France. When they were far at fea, a ftorm arofe, and they were toffed for thirteen days on the waves out of fight of land. At length they perceived fomething that appeared like an ifland, overgrown with wood. The fhip foon came to anchor, and Machin and the lady, witha few attendants, went on fhore. Inthe courfe of the night a tempeft drove the veffel from her anchor, and carried her to the coaft of Barbary, where fhe was wrecked, and the feamen made cap- tives ‘sy the Moors. The lady, affected by this difafter, died in a fhort time, and Machin, through grief, foon fol- lowed her. Their attendants, rendered defperate by the lofs of their conduétor, quitted the ifland, and betaking themfelves to their open boat, put out to fea, without know- ing what courfe to fteer. After a feries of adventures, they fell in with a Spaniard, who, delighted with their ftory, communicated it to Gongalves Zargo, fent out by the king of Portugal on a voyage of difcovery, and prevailed upon him to fail in fearch of the ifland, who ina little time found it. This ftory, though unnoticed by De Barros, the Livy of the Portuguefe, is not only authenticated by a contemporary hiftorian, but, after a very minute inquiry-of the late Rev. Mr. Roberts, we are affured, ttands on as fair a foundation as any other hiftorical fa. The gentleman we allude to, being a clergyman of the Roman Catholic perfuafion, and a native of Oporto, had the moft favourable opportunities of afcertaining the fact, which diligence, knowledge of the lan- guages, and accefs to every library, could afford him, and expreffed his firm perfuafion that the legend of Machin was, if not in all, at leaft in mofl, refpects true. At Mecheco, a town in the eaftern extremity of the ifland, a fmall chapel was fhewn, of which the.following was the hiftory given by the inhabitants. ‘That the Englifhman (Machin), on the demife of his wife, had ere&ted a crofs, with an infcription, requefting that fhould hereafter any Chriftian by chance re- fort to the ifland, a chapel might be built, in which maffes fhould be performed for the foul of his Anne: that the above chapel was ere&ted on the fpot, and the crofs, made of cedar, was preferved near the altar. This crofs was always exhibited. It was, however, much diminifhed, on account of fmall pieces given gratuitoufly to different vifitors, info- much that it was at lat nailed to another and larger wooden crofs, to preferve its form, and keep it together. This chapel had certainly greater marks of antiquity than any other building in that town. It was unfortunately wafhed away in that memorable flood which occurred in Oétober 1803; fo that, at this time, nothing remains to commemo- rate the event but the piéture above alluded to, in the cattle hall. De Barros, who confiders the ifland as difcovered by Gongalves Zargo, informs us, that as foon as it was divided into captainfhips (Mecheco and Funchal), the firft ttep taken by the new fettlers was to fet fire to the trees, the foreft being every where impenetrable. Nothing can be better confirmed by every fpecies of evidence than thefe faéts, and that the ifland derived its name from the quantity of its wood. ‘The word Madeira has the fame fignification as the Latin materia, from which it is only vernacularifed, the Portuguefe frequently fubitituting d for the Latin ¢, and tranf{pofing the r from its fituation with its connecting vowel; of which we need give no more familiar inftances than padre and fradre for pater and frater, when ufed in a {piritual fenfe. That materia is the claffical term for forett trees, we have the authority of Cefar in his Commentaries, who remarks of Britain, “ Materia cujufque generis, ut in Gailia, eft; prater fagum et abietem.”? At this time the trunks of immenfe cedars are often difcovered, but all the original trees themfelves fecm extinét, and, in the inhabited part of the ifland, to have given place to chefnut trees, T'he land is fuppofed to have derived its great fertility from this conflagration, which is faid, and with much probability, te have continued in different parts for feven years. But it is well known that no land could be fertilized by fuch an event for three centuries; and the account we have given of the nature and quantity of the vegetable ftratum, joined to the abundance of water, and a favourable temperature, is fuffi- cient to explain all the fertility it really poffeffes. Though the vines grow luxuriantly, and produce abundantly, where- ever they have a fufficient depth of foil, plenty of water, and a favourable afpeét, yet the corn-lands require all the culti- vation and occational fallows of other lefs favoured countries. At the fame time, it is no {mall boaft of the iflanders that their country produces the beft wheat, the pureft fugar, and the fineft wines in the world, befides being bleft with the cleareft water, the moft falubrious air, the mildett climate, and a freedom from all noxious reptiles. Their wheat and fugar are fuch as are produced in the Mediterranean iflands ; but their wine, though originally brought from that fource, infinitely furpaffes all other in ftrength, delicacy of flavour, and drynefs, befides the advantage of improving by being kept for any length of time, and even in fouthernmoft lati- tudes. The mode of producing a good crop of wheat, at a dif- tance from the town, is by a previous cultivation of the commen broom. This is cut for fuel, and, after a time, grubbed up, and burnt on the foil. By thefe means, a crop of wheat is infured for a fucceffion of years, more or lefs, according to the foil; after which the fame procefs is again reforted to. For this purpofe, the feeds of the broom are collected, and generally bear the fame price by meafure as wheat. With all thefe affiftances, the quantity of wheat produced is faid not to equal a third of what is confumed, though maize is the principal food of the peafantry. Sugar + is no longer cultivated as an object of traffic. Thofe fidal- gos, who have plantations, ftill keep them up chiefly for their own ufe, and prefents for their friends. Immediately after the fugar harveft, a {mall trade is carried on by manu- faéturing fomething like barley-fugar, called rapaduras, (probably ra/paduras, meaning the rafpings or fcrapings of the frefh fugar,) with which moft of the natives are accuf- tomed to regale themfelves and children at this feafon; but for common ufe, the ifland is fupplied with fugar from the Portuguefe fettlements in the Brazils. The wealth of the country confifts in its wines, which are cultivated with a degree of induftry propotioned to their value. To preferve the foil, it is found neceffary to erect walls along the fides of the hills, at diftances regulated by the declivity. Thefe walls are, in fome places, erected with prodigious labour. In afpeés favourable for the growth of vines, if the foil has been previoufly wafhed away, fo as to leave the bare rock, even here different {tages have been erected, to which earth has been brought up, fo as to form an artificial foil for this valuable produétion. It will eafily be conceived that fuch works as thefe can- not be accomplifhed without immenfe labour. When to this are added the difficulties of the roads, the vait expence and danger with which they are made, which, from the na- ture of the country, willin very few places admit of wheel carriages, and the confequent inconveniences of conveying every article from the town to remote parts of the country, and alfo of conveying the wine and other produétions of the country to Funchal: when all this is taken into account, it will be readily underftood that the cultivators of Madeira cannot be a flothful race. Yet becaufe men, who have been hard at work from before fun-rife, are feen refrefhing them- {elves MADEIRA. felves with fleep in the open air, and even on the beach, during the interval allowed for reft at noon-tide, they are often confidered as indolent by ftrangers, who firft view them after fix hours’ labour. Nor are the women lefs in- duftrious. Thofe who are young enough climb the moun- tains to procure broom and brufh-wood, which they bring to town, and fell for fucl. Others bring the produce of their gardens ; whilit the elder ones are conftantly employed at home in {pinning or domeltic concerns. It is true, that the increafed demand for labour in Fun- chal has produced a race, fomewhat fimilar to our /ong-/hore and water-/ide men in England, who labour much too hard, and fupport themfelves under it with ardent f{pirits or wine. But this is far from the chara¢ter of the people. The country is cultivated by what are called by the French metayers, that is, by a peafantry who divide the pro- duce with the land-owner, Confidering the labour required for firft preparing the land, and that the produce of the wine is reckoned as nothing till the third year, fuch a re- turn to the cultivator is very unequal. He is ufually allowed a {mall {pace for yams, or rather eddoes, aroun efculentum, {weet potatoes, convolvulus batata, or other ef- culents. Thefe he is expeéted to fhare with the landlord. In this there is faid to be great collufion; but in the wine this can hardly be the cafe, on account of the tythes. The cultivators have, however, one very great intereft in the land, and confequently a great inducement to engage in thefe operofe undertakings. Whatever neceflary improve- ments they make, become their own: hence the walls, the wines, and even their cottage, as far as is confidered necef- fary, is their own property ; and though, in entailed eftates, a leafe cannot be granted for more than nine years, yet the tenant cannot be difpofleffed till he is paid the full value of his improvements. In proportion as the increafe of com- merce has rendered money of lefs value, the money-price of thefe improvements is advanced; and even the vines are eftimated, not by number, but by their age and fuppofed fertility. Hence the tenant not only furveys the property he has acquired by his.own labour or expence, but fees that property yearly improving by the common operations of nature. The tythes of this, in common with the other Portuguefe colonies, were given by the pope to the king of Portugal, as fovereign of the order of Chrift. Out of them the clergy are paid, and for the moft part very poorly. They for- merly received all their revenue in kine; but, unfortunately for themfelyes, petitioned to have a moiety in money. In confequence of this, by the gradual diminution of the value of money, and increafed value of every produétion, they are confiderable lofers. Some of them make a traffic of wine; and, on the whole, they are much lefs fuper(titious than in moit Catholic countries. Their number, both fecular and regular, is much lefs than is generally fuppofed. By fome it 1s faid not to exceed 300, including the monks and nuns. _.hlCc le MADREPORA. dotted. Jt is found in Silefia; the ftars are flat, with about 30 unequal denticulate gills. Roruraris, The coral of this {pecies is of many fhapes, with folitary, orbicular, flat, unequally radiate ftars, with a {mooth, flat, and hardly prominent margin. This is found in the Red fea, frequently growing to other marine fub- ftances, white, folid, fub-globular, or flattened, the {tars about a line in diameter. Tusuranis. In this the tubes are cylindrical, very en- tire, a little prominent and expanded into an unequally ra- diate ftar. This is frequently found foffile ; the tubes are about the fize of ‘a crow-guill; the ftars have fix thicker gills, between each of which are three leffer ones. Meamiivaris. Stars orbicular, prominent, wart-like, excavated. Found near Frankfort in a foffile ftate; the flars are without a border. Patextorpes. Glabrous, ftars large and many-rayed, being a little elevated with a minute centre. This is found foffile ; the ftars have from 30 to 40 thick equal rays. Gtosuraris. Stars large, rounded, equally rayed, with a large perforated centre. Fitum. The ftars in this fpecies are rounded, large and fomewhat crowded, with a very minute and partly exca- vated centre. ‘This is found in a foffile {tate near Bafle.. PERFORATA. Stars crowded, minute, excavated, with perforated gills. The coral is fometimes hemifpherical, and nearly-a foot in diameter ; the ftars are twelve-rayed. Vermicunaris: Stars with unequa!, undulate, {mooth rays; it is found foffile; the ftars have about eight princi- pal rays, fome of them are forked. *ARACHNOIDES. Stars crowded, minute, flattened, with fubundulate, fhort, equal rays. It is found foffile; coral hemifpherical ; the ftars have twelve contingent rays. Unpurara. Stars large, elevated, with elongated curved rays; found foffile; ftars about half an inch wide, with 24 rays. Sotipa. Stars every where contiguous, with united membranaceous margins. It inhabits the Red fea, where it forms vatt rocks, and is ufed in building, and burnt into lime ; the ftare are.concave, with a very thin brittle margin the “centre is orbicular and rough, with a row of {mall tubercles. *Monive. Stars funnel-formed, without difk, covered with gills and divifions ; gills equal, radiant, denticulate, and continued into the next ftar. Found in a foffile ftate in Arabia; ftars as Jarge as a pea; the centre lefs than a muf- tard-feed. Dezparica. The ftars of this fpecies are fomewhat hexagonal, with united reticulate divifions toothed internally, and at the margin. Inhabits the Red fea; the flars are fnowy, very thin, and toothed within. Monosrriara. Divilions between the old ftars elevated into rough lanceolate tongue-fhaped procefles; this is found in the Red fea; is fpongy, tough, fnowy. Conticnatio. ‘This is flattifh and orbicular, with ‘li- near flars at the circumference tending to the centre, the middie ones ovate, divaricate, and nearly contiguous. An imbabitant of the Red fea; is fometimes found a foot in diameter, Cristata. Corals yentricofe-conic, fmooth, but rough towards the tip; ftars angular-rounded, labyrinthic, and fur- pifhed with alternately. fhorter rows of gills. Is:found on the fhores of China, Rus. Unequal, with fpongy papille, and fuperficial , flattifh diftant (lars. It inhabita the Red fea. ‘Cuspipata., Corals conic, grooved; ftars turbinate, with raight, elongated, acute gills, It is found in China. irregular. . E. Branched, with diftin? Stars and tuberculous porulous ndulations. Species. Porites. Slightly branched, compofite, reugh, with fubftellate crowded pores. Inhabits India and South Ame- rica; is of a clear white, outwardly often grey; the branches are patulous, obtufe, and rough, with eminent dots. Dieiratra. Branches clavate, flattened’ ftars feattered, fix-rayed, with a projecting, vaulting, upper margin. Tn- habits the Indian ocean; refembles the laft; the coral is white, outwardly yellowifh-grey. Damicornis. This {pecies is very much branched ; the branches are tapering and fubdivided ; {tars crowded, blind, and ciliate. It inhabits Africa and India. Verrucosa. This alfo is very much branched, and the branches are obtufe, and furnifhed with numerous fimpler wart-like fub-divifions; the itars are feattered, and. alfo crowded and ciliate. Moricata. This isa compofite and fub-imbricate {pe- cies, with obliquely truncate prominent afcending {tars 5. there are fix varieties of this fpecies, viz. 1. With long pointed branches, and without {maller fub-divifions: 2. With divaricate branches, and fhort divergent pointed {ub- divifions. 3. With afcending ftraight branches’ and fub- divifions. 4. With decumbent*lower branches, and afcend- ing, fhort, acute fub-divifions. 5. In this variety the branches are united into a palm at the bafe, with divergent fub-divifions. 6. This has numerous divergent branches’: and fub-divifions; the cylinders of ftars are turbinate, . with thickend rounded margins. Inhabits India and South . America. ; Fasticiata. In this the ftars are decorticated out- wardly. Inhabits South America; is white and. nearly a . foot high. Ramea. The branches are ftriate, cylindrical, truncate, with terminal ftars;.it is found in the Indian, Mediterra- nean, and Atlantic feas, is about two feet high; ftony, ferruginous, and marked with fine longitudinal {triz, fome of which are undulate. OcuraTa. This is tubular, glabrous, flexuous, ob- liquely ftriate, with alternate branches and-concave ftars . pointing two ways. . Inhabits the Indian ocean, and 1s found in European. countries in a foflite ftate’; the coral is white, , perforated within. Vircixea. This is fub-dichotomous, ftraight, folid, with alternate eminent ftars. It inhabits the Mediterranean; American, and Norway feas; it is milk-white, and about the thicknefs of one’s finger. Rosca. ‘This fpecies is, according to its name, of arofe colour, much branching, with:numerous prominent mar- gined {tars ; it inhabits the Indian ocean, and is about four inches high; the coral is of a beautiful rofe-colour when recent, and afterwards fading to a paler tinge ; the branches taper towards the bafe. Hinteria... Stars every -where-alternate, prominent, with exferted acute gills... It inhabits the Indian ocean, and is white. Limirara... Branches a little flattened, with feattered fix-rayed itars, equal at'the margin. Bo'rnyomwrs. With thick, faftigiate, obtufe, cluftered | branches, and reticulate craggy undulations... Granosa., This fpecies’ isa little branching, crefted, and fomewhat fingered ; with the branches obtufes all the undulations are acutely ‘carinate; the {tare are linearvand | PROLIFERA, MAD Prouirera. This is fub-dichotomous, coalefcing, with ftars at the fide proliferous, terminal, concave. This is an inhabitant of the Norway fea; it is white and very folid ; the flars are funnel-formed with about eight gills. Sersata. This fpecies is branching, with fubulate fub- divifions and ftar-like pores in leapitudinal rows. Inhabits the Eaftern ocean; it is white, ftony, about the fize of a large quill, and nearly a foot high, Cactus: This has comprefled, divergent, dichotomous branches, carinate at the edge; the fides with contiguous ftars. It is found foffile in Arabia; is about a foot high; the branches are a little ere&t, and in tranfverfe rows. Corymposa. The branches of the corymb are thicker at the tip and marked with prickly itrie ; the flars are ter- minal, and folitary ; the branches are as thick as a finger ; the ftars are an inch wide. Gemmascens. This fpecies has prominent, obconic, bud-like ftars. It inhabits the Indian ocean, and is fnow- white. : ProsLEMATICA. With oblique, minute, immerfed, dif- tant ftars, and broad punétured margin. 1s found about the Antilles iflands; it is ftony, rough, fea-green, fome- times as thick as a man’s arm, and full five feet high; the interftices of the {tars are marked with lines. Spurra. This is flightly branched and dichotomous, ’ with cylindrical tubes filled with fraall, irregularly difpofed, longitudinal divifions. INFUNDIBULIFORMIS. formed, with flightly prominent ftars within. the Indian ocean ; and is white and folid. AncutosA. Dichotomous, faftigiate, with terminal, turbinate, angular ftars, and toothed gills. It inhabits the American feas; is fhort, thick, cellular, fmooth, and white. Discomes. This fpecies is difk-fhaped, fomewhat pe- dunculate, and roughifh, with marginal fafciculate ftars. It is found ir the Indian ocean. Cuatcipicum. This is known by its prominent, remote, cylindrical tubes of ftars, lamellate without and within. It is found in the Red fea. ’ ConcamMErata. This is flat, with remote ftars, a little prominent at the margin; the interftices are lamellate. It is found in a foffile ftate. Rosacea. Furnifhed with a ftem, and branched ; the leffér branches are cylindrical, afcending; ftars ter- minal ; it is fometimes rofy, fometimes white, and fometimes rey. ‘ We fhall conclude this article with fome general obfer- vations, taken chiefly from the 47th volume of the Philo- fophical Tranfaétions. In {peaking of the animal that fills the cavities of the madrepore, it is faid its feet are numerous, and terminate externally in two conical produétions, which, being placed on each fide of every one of the lamelle that give the ftellular form to the cavity of the coral, ferve to affix the animal to the circumference of its cell, and may, with propriety, be confidered as the inftruments by which the little animal forms the lamella themfelves. ‘The bafes of thefe conical produ@tions unite and form round. bodies, which poffefs fomewhat of the figure, and of the properties of mufcles ; they ferving to lengthen or to fhorten the feet, andalfo moft probably to regulate the force with which they clafp the lamellz, on which they exert their plattic powers. The other ends of thefe round bodies terminate in {mall cylin- dricétubes, which are attached to the fhell of the animal, in the centre of which is feen its head, capable of moving with great quicknefs, and ornamented with feveral rays, which This is turbinate, ftriate, funnel- It inhabits MAD. are moft probably the arms or claws with which it feizes and fecures the animalcules on which it feeds, Admitting that the formation of thefe corals is the work of the madre- porean polype, it may be thus traced through its won- derful labours. It is found that each of the pie of the polype is provided with two proceffes, which are applied to each fide of one of the perpendicular Jamin, while a muf- cular pyriform body, attached to the other end of the leg, gives to it the power of employing that motion which is neceflary for the accomplifhment of its tafk. The young polype may be confidered as completing its operation by two diftinét proceffes; the fecretion and feparation of car- bonate of lime from fea-water conveyed through the pyri- form body ; and its difpofition, at the moment of fecretion, by the two fmall proceffes, where the economy of the animal direSts. »Proportioned to the number of legs poflefled by the infant animal, is probably the number of perpendicular laminz, or pillars, converging in the centre, which it begins to erect ; thefe, when raifed to a certain height, appear to be connected together by a horizontal plate of the fame fub- ftance ; on thefe the animal ereéts fimilar pillars, and places on them a covering, fimilar to that with which he has com- pleted the firft compartment. Thus feem to proceed the labours of this minute artift; and as the number of its legs or inftruments increafe, and as they extend in length, fo ‘much the number of the perpendicular lamine, and the cir- cumference of the horizontal plates, augment. MADREPORE Srone; Madrepor flein, Moll. Kar- flen; Chauw carbonatée madréporite, Brongn. This rare fubftance, which was difcovered by baron Moll © in the valley of Rufsbach, in the territory of Saltzburg, is confidered by fome mineralogifts as a variety of lime-{tone, while {aproth and others confider it as a diltin& {pecies of the calcareous genus. Externally, and on its longitudinal frature, its colour is greyifh-black ; on the crofs-fra¢ture, it is of a pitchy black - colour. Has been found hitherto only in maffive, blunt-cornered, rounded, and oblong, fometimes flattened pieces, of from three inches to one foot in diameter. ‘ Its furface is more or lefs finely furrowed, and fometimes fmall fhallow holes are feen in it; furrows often radiating, © and marked with tranfverfe minute ftriz. Externally this fubftance is glimmering, pafling into dull ; internally, on the longitudinal fraéture, partly glimmering, partly gliftening ; but on the tran{verfal planes of fraéture it fhews a pitchy luftre, fometimes approaching to metallic. It gives a grey ftreak. : It is not particularly hard; it is brittle, and eafily fran- gible. Fragments opaque, indeterminately angular, not very - fharp-edged, always of a {ftraight or divergingly columnar ~~ ftruéture. They often contain copper pyrites, finely dif- - feminated, and in pellicles. It is not particularly heavy ; lefs fo than compact lime- ftone. Before the blowpipe, the black colour of the madrepore {tone is converted into greyifh-white. According to the analyfis of Mefirs. Schrol and Heim, the conftituent parts of this fubftance are, lime 63,%,, alu- mine 10,2,, filex 12,8., iron 15}%3; and the fame con- ftituents, and their proportion, are quoted in the French fyftems of mineralogy, as the refults of an analyfis of madre- porite made in the Ecole des Mines. But Klaproth, who analyfed a {pecimen fent by baron Moll himfeif, obtained the following refults : ; Carbonate * MAD , Carbonate of lime = 93: Carbonate of magnefia 0.50 Carbonate of iron = 1.25 Carbon (radical) - 0.50 Arenaceous filex - 4.50 Oxyd of manganefe, a trace 99-75 Klapr. Beytr. iii. p. 276. The ftru€ture of the feparate pieces of this mineral, refembling the aggregation of madrepores, has given rife to its name. Some mineralogifts have, indeed, fuppofed that the fubftance derives its origin from a fpecies of madre- pores ; but Klaproth obferves, that this opinion is not fup- ported by any certain mark indicative of preceding organic ftructure. Patrin confiders the madrepore ftone as a fafcicular variety of arragonite. The geognoftic fituation of this mineral is not known. MADRET, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the rovince of Yemen; 10 miles N.E. of Chamir. MADRID, a city of Spain, in the province of New Caltile, and capital of the kingdom; feated on the river Manzanares. The accefs to its feveral gates is by ftreets and avenues, planted with trees ; of thefe, the gate of Al- cala is the moft grand, being conftru€ted in the form of a triumphal arch, and the entrance to the city by this gate is the moft interefting. As foon as you pafs this gate, you are prefented with an avenue, having on one fide a row of low but uniform houfes, and on the other railings, through which are feen extenfive gardens ; the end of it is crofled by the promenade of the Prado; and the view terminates in the extended ftreet of Alcala. The origin of this city is not fatisfatorily afcertained. Some pretend that it was founded by the Greeks, who never penetrated fo far into Spain: others fay that it was the ancient Mantua Carpe- tanorum. It was at firft known, however, by the palace, or pleafure-houfe, poffeffed here by the kings of Caltile ; and the foundation of the town is faid to have been laid by Al- phonfo, the 6th of Leon and 1ft of Caftile, who reigned at the end of the rth century. We find that it was facked by the Moors in i169, and that it was overthrown by an earthquake towards the middle of the 14th century, under the reign of Peter the Cruel, and rebuilt by Henry II., the fucceffor of that prince. Charles I. fe- leted it for the place of his refidence, which occafioned its increafe from {mall beginnings, and his: fon, Philip I1., transferred the feat of government to it in 1563. Its firft limits were very narrow, and not extended beyond the vici- _ nity of the king’s palace; but in procefs of time it was enlarged by the addition of feveral fuburbs. Madrid is fituated on feveral low hills near each other, in the midft of an extenfive plain, bounded, on the fide of old Cattile, by the mountains of Guadariama, and undefined by any fixed boundaries on any other fide. The plain is dry, parched up, and naked, without trees, and uneven; and the city is fituated at a confiderable height above the level of the fea. Its fituation for the government of the kingdom is convenient, as it lies inthe centre of the kingdom, and equally within reach of the diftant provinces. Its prefent extent 18 41,333 feet, or two leagues in circumference ; its figure is a {quare; andit has 15 gates of granite, 506 flreets, 42 f{quares, large and f{mall, 7398 houfes, 133 churches, convents, colleges, feminaries, or hofpitals, 65 public edifices, 17 fountains, and fevegil promenades. It i divided into eight diftri€s, each difti& into eight wards, Vox. XXII. ‘MM AD to each of which an alcade is attached, a fort of commiffary of police, chofen annually from among tke inhabitants. The population, according to the account of 1788, amounted to 156,272 perfons ; and if the garrifon be included, which confifts of from 8 to 10,000 foreigners, and Spaniards from the provinces, the population may be reckoned at 200,000. Townfend reckons 13 parifhes, 7398 houfes, 32,745 fa- milies, amounting to a population of 144,543. The number of deaths in 1788 was 5915, and that of the births 4897. In 1797, the deaths were reckoned to be 4441, and the births 4911. The Plaza Mayor, which is near the centre of the city, and from which feveral ftreets branch out, is the moft populous and beft frequented place in Madrid, the centre of commerce, and particularly of retail trade. It is likewife the place where. public fétes are given, and at that time acquires, from its decorations, illuminations, and crowds of {peétators, a grand appearance. Madrid is well laid out; and though it has many narrow, and crooked ftreets, the greater number are handfome, and there are fome which would do honour to the finelt cities in Europe. That of Alcala is the moft diftinguifhed, as it extends in a ftraight line from the Prado to the Puerta del Pol, and is broad enough to admit ten carriages abreaft; but the houfes are not lofty in proportion to the breadth of the ftreet. The ftreets, though roughly paved, are kept very clean, and well lighted by lamps placed on both fides over the houfes, oppofite to each other, at equal and fhort diftances. Many of the private edifices, efpecially in the large ftreets, though difplaying no magnificence of archite¢ture, exhibit an agreeable appearance. The interior of the houfes of perfons of fuperior rank is handfomely and magnificently furnifhed ; fome of them being adorned with chef-d’ceuvres of the fine arts. The city of Madrid is in the diocefe of Toledo; and the {piritual adminiftration is directed by the grand vicar of that city ; a bifhop ia partibus infidelium, auxiliary to the arches bifhop, alfo refides there, with the powers of that prelate. In Madrid they reckon 15, or, as Townfend fays, 13 parifhes and fix chapels of eafe; and a number of monaf- teries, convents, &c. which it is needlefs for us to {pecify. The fecular clergy are 395 in number; and the regular clergy, including thofe of the monks and nuns, amount to 2718; amounting in the whole to 3113. The eftablifh- ments, under the name of hofpitals, and benevolent aflocia- tions for the relief of indigence and diftrefs in this city, are very numerous, The head of the civil adminiftration of Madrid is a military governor, who bears the honours of captain-general of a province ; and the police is under the fuperintendance of different magiftrates. Since the expul- fion of the Jefuits, Charles [1I., in 1770, eftablifhed an enlarged plan for the inftruétion of youth, the execution of which is committed to a number of fecular priefts, who, in one of the houfes formerly occupied by the Jefuits, fuper- intend the college of St. Ifidore. This eftablifhment in- cludes fixteen mafters, or profeffors, for the languages and fciences, and a good library. ‘There is another college ap- propriated to the inftruction of the young nobility. The academies are numerous: amongit thefe we may reckon four for jurifprudence, and another for medicine ; a Spanith academy, founded in 1774, by Philip V., for the improve- ment of the Spanifh language ; an academy for hiftory, in- ftituted in 1735, by the fame prince, for the elucidation of hiftorical fubjects, in connection with geography and clrro- nology: the academy St. Fernando, devoted to painting, {culpture, and architecture, which originated in the muni- ficence of Philip V. Among the libraries, we may enus merate the royal library, formed in 1712, and containing a great MADRID. great number of printed volumes, a large celleétion of MSS., a variety of modern medals, and a {election of antiques: the cabinet of natural hiltory was formed by Charles ITI., and is receiving continual acceffions. To the clafs of curious and ufeful edifices in Madrid, we may refer feveral of its churches, its gates, the cuftom-houfe, ereéted in 1769, the houfe of the academy of St. Fernando, and of the cabinet of natural hiftory, the Cafa de Carreos, or poit-houfe, the Caraét de Corfe, or ftate-prifon, erected under Philip IV., the Cafa del Ayuintamiento, or town-houfe, the Palacio de los Confajos, or council-houfe, which is the feat of a fupreme tribunal, the Armeria Real, or royal magazine, and the king’s palace. The'latter ttands on an eminence at one of the extremities of Madrid, commanding a diftant view of the beautiful country, which is watered by the Manzanares ; founded by Alphon. VI. in the rith century, facked by the Moors in 1109; afterwards deftroyed by an earthquake. but repaired by Henry II. and completed by Henry IV. ; much enlarged by Charles V., and his fucceffors ; totally confumed by fire in 1734; and, in 1737, rebuilt on its pre- fent plan by Philip V. and Ferdinand VI. This new palace prefents four fronts, 470 feet in length, and 1Q0 in height, en- riched with numerous pillars and pilafters. The interior of this palace is ornamented by feveral produtions of the arts. Its walls and cielings are covered with allegorical paintings by the beft matters; and the apartments are filled with pictures by the molt eminent artilts, among which we may fele&t an Adoration of the Magi by Rubens, anda Bearing ofthe Crofs by Raphael. Among the paintings we may alfo feleét a piece by Titian, of Venus binding the Eyes of Cupid, an Apotheofis of Hercules by Mengs, and an Adoration of the Shepherds by the fame maiter. There is alfo a group of nymphs dancing round the ftatue of Priapus by Pouffin. One of the moit magnificent apartments in the palace is the king's hall, in which his majefty gives public audience to foreign ambaffadors ; it is a double cube of go feet, hung with crimfon velvet, and adorned with a fumptuous canopy and painted cieling ; it is embellifhed with mirrors of an ex- traordinary fize, with feveral antique heads, and a {mall equefttian ftatue of Philip II., in gilded bronze. The pa- lace is the depofitory of the crown jewels and regalia ; among which we may mention a fuperb throne, with its canopy, con- ftructed for Philip II. The Buen-Retiro is another royal manfion, fituated in another extremity of Madrid, opening on the promenade of the Prado, and extending to the country that borders on the road from Alcala to Madrid; ere&ted by Philip IV. This palace is environed by beautiful gar- dens, which occupy an immenfe area, in one of which is placed an equeftrian ftatue of Philip II. in bronze. Ma- drid has feveral promenades, but their diftance renders them inconvenient of accefs. Of thefe the Prado is that which is moft frequented. ' Madrid does not poffefs one manufacture, from which it can derive any advantage. It has, indeed, three for hats, and another for {tained paper, but they are barely fufficient to anfwer the demands of the capital. There are alfo three others of greater note, for inlaid work in ftone, for tapeftry, and for porcelain ; but as they are appropriated to the king, they are wholly unproduGtive to commerce. A. confiderable manufaéture of falt-petre was alfo eftablifhed in 1779, and in 1785 it occupied 4000 men, the number of which has fince been increafing. Madrid is fo deftitute of commerce, that itis abfolutely dependent.for fupport on remote provinces or foreign countries for every article of ufe or ornament, for clothes and corn, for all the luxuries and neceflaries of life. This city has no difcriminating charaéter with regard to man- ners or cultoms. Its amufements are numerous; but that which moft interefts the inhabitants is the bull-fight. In Madrid are three theatres, which fearcely receive from thofe who attend them fufficient encouragement for their fupport. On Corpus Chriiti day there is a grand proceffion, compofed of the fecular and regular clergy of Madrid, followed by the king, his miniflers and court, each bearing in his hand a wax taper. As to the climate of Madrid, we obferve that the fly is almoft always ferene and free from clouds; the air is dry, pure, and bracing, efpecially in the winter fea- fon, but it is highly injurious to heétic fubjeéts. The air is fo piercing, as to give rife to the proverb, that the air of Ma- drid deflroys a man, when it does not extinguifh a candle. The winds moft prevalent are, the north in winter, the fouth and welt in {pring. In fummer the heat is intenfe, and during the months of July and Augutt almoft infupportable, The ufual heat in fummer is faid to be from 75” to 85°; at night the thermometer feldom falls below 70°; the mean height of the barometer is 27°.96. It feems to be about 1900 feet above the level of the fea. Upon the whole, Ma- drid may be confidered as a healthy relidence. The va- rious artigles of food confumed in this capital are fupplied by different parts of Spain. Its bread is excellent, and its water is pure and good. For the fupply of the capital, {chemes have been adopted for rendering the {mall ftream of Manzaranes the channel of communication with the pro- vinces. With this view it has been propofed to form a junction between the Manzanares and the Xarama; and at length under the aufpices of Charles IIT, a canal was formed from the bridge of Toledo near Madrid to the Karama, near the village of Manzanares, which includes a diftance of four leagues. N. lat. 40° 25/18". W. long. 3° 12!. . Laborde’s View of Spain, vol. ui. Townfend’s Travels in Spain, vols, i. and ii. Mapnrip, a town of America, in the northern part of Louifiana, feated on the W. bank of the Mifiiflippi, fettled fome years ago by Col. Morgan, of New Jerfey, under the patronage of the Spanifh king, and called by the name of the capital of his European dominions; ‘The {pot on which it was propofed by the fettlers to found a great city, is fituated in N. lat. 36 30', and 45 miles below the mouth of the Ohio river. Its limits were propofed to extend four miles S. and two W. from the river, fo as to crols a beautiful deep lake of clear {pring water, called St. Anne’s, 100° yards wide, and feveral miles in length, emptying itfelf by a conftant and rapid narrow {tream through the centre of thecity. On each fide of this lake it was propofed to lay out {treets, 100 feet wide, and to continue a road round it of the fame breadth: A ftreet, 120 feet wide, was to be formed on the bank of the Miffifippi; 12 acres of land were to be preferved in the central part of the city, to be laid out and ornamented for public walks ; and other lots of land were dettined for other public ufes. For the completion of this plan, the coun- try round this {pot prefents feveral inducements. It is fin- gularly fertile and produ@tive. The natural growth cenfifts of mulberry, locuft, faffafras, walnut, hickory, oak, afh, logwood, &c. befides grape vines in great abundance. The meadows are fertile in grafs, flowering plants, ftrawberries, and with culture produce good crops of wheat, barley, In- dian corn, flax, hemp, and tobacco, and are eatily tilled. The climate is favourable to health, and to the production of various kinds of fruits and vegetables. Iron and lead mines and falt fprings are plentiful ; and the banks of the Miflifip- pi, for many leagues, commencing about 20 miles above the mouth of the Ohio, are acontinued chain of lime-flone, A fine traét of high, rich, level land S.W., W., and N.W. of New Madrid, abort 25 miles wide, extends quite to the river St. Francis. ¢ fituation of New Madrid is Sages ts ¥ MAD ly adapted to its being rendered the great emporium of the weftern country. MADRIDEJOS, a town of Spain, in New Cattile ; 30 miles S.E. of Toledo. MADRIER, in the Military Art, athick plank, about 18 inches {quare, ftrengthened on one fide with a ftrong band of iron, and a ftrong iron hook, and having, on the other fide, a cavity fufficient to receive the mouth of a petard when charged ; with which it is applied againft a gate, or other body defigned to be broken down. See Perarp. Mannrier alfo denotes a long and broad plank, ufed for fupporting the earth in mining, carrying on faps, making caponiers, galleries, and the like. There are alfo madriers lined with tin, and covered with earth; ferving as defences againft artificial fires, in lodg- ments, &c. where there is need of being covered over head. MADRIGAL, in the modern Italian, Spanifh, and French poetry, denotes a little amorous piece, containing a certain number of free unequal verfes, not tied either to the ferupulous regularity of a fonnet, or the fubtlety of an epi- gram, but confifting of fome tender and delicate, yet fimple thought, fuitably expreffed. Menage derives the word from mandra, which, in Latin and Greek, fignifies a fheepfold ; imagining it to have been originally a kind of paftoral, or fhepherd’s fong ; whence the Italians formed their madrigale, and we madrigal. Others rather choofe to derive the word from madrugar ; which, in the Spanifh, fignifies to rife in the morning ; the madrigals being formerly fung early in the morning, by thofe who had a mind to ferenade their miltreffes. Huet fuppofes it to be a corruption of martegeaux, a name given to the inhabitants of a diftriét of Provence, who ei- ther invented or excelled in this fpecies of compofition. If the origin is deduced from the Spaniards, it may have taken its name from a town in Spain, called Madrigal. Others, fuppofing that its firft application was to religious poems ad- dreffed to the Virgin, alla Madre, derive from thence ma- drialle, and madrigale. The madrigal, according to M. le Brun, is an epigram without any thing very brifk and fprightly in its fall, or clofe : fomething very tender and gallant is ufually the fub- je@t of it: and a certain beautiful, noble, yet chafte fimpli- city, forms its character. The madrigal is ufually looked ‘on as the fhorteft of all the leffer kinds of poems, except the epigram: it may confift of fewer verfes than either the fonnet, or roundelay. There is no other rule regarded in mingling the rhymes and verfes of different kinds, but the fancy and convenience of the author. This poem, however, really allows of lefs li- cence than marry others ; whether we regard the rhyme, the meafures, or the purity of expreffion. The term is alfo applied to a mufical compofition of three or more parts for different voices, adapted to the words of fuch poems. Manricar is likewife a mufical term fora vocal com- pofition, feldom in lefs than four parts. The etymology of this word has been much difputed. But it feems as if its firft application had been to fhort religious lyric poems, or hymns, addrefled to the virgin, alla Madre ;° whence madriale and madrigale; but being afterwards applied to poems on love and gallantry, by the Italians, French, and Spaniards, the original import has been forgotten. Indeed, the words of all the madrigals which we have feen of the 16th cen- tury, when they were moft in favour, feem to belong to the mother of love and gallantry ; alla madre; della gaia, ma- dre galante, mater letitie, than to the Virgin, or religious fub- jects. It never-can have meant a morning fong, as fome MAE have imagined ; the Italians having been long in poffeflion of the term matinata, a lover’s matins under the windows of his miftrefs; as they have of /enerata, an evening fong. This {pecies of mufic feems to have been brought to its high- eft degree of perfeCtion in Italy, by Luca Marenzio, at the latter end of the 16th century, after which time it foon declined, and loft the favour of the public. Few Italian compofers of eminence produced madrigals after Luca Marenzio, except Stradella, and Aleflandro Scar- latti, which are admirable. Mapricat, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Caf- tile, 27 miles N. of Avila—Alfo, atown of Spain, in Old Caftile, near Olmedo, on the Adaja; 30 miles S. of Valla- dolid.—Alfo, atown of Popayan, in South America ; 110 miles S. of Popayan. N. lat. 0° 50’... W.long. 75° 45'. MADRIGOLO, ‘a town of the duchy of Parma; fix miles W. of Parma. MADRISIO, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 30 miles N. of Venice. MADROGAN, or Bananatapa, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Mocaranga, in which is a palace of the king. S. lat. 18°. E. long. 29° go’. MADROYV, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 18 miles E.N.E. of Seringapatam. MADRUSAVA, atown of Japan, in theifland of Ni- phon; 36 miles S.E. of Kenday. MADRUZZO, a town of the Tyrolefe; 4 miles W.S.W. of Trent. MADS, in Agriculture, a provincial term applied to earth-worms. MADSJAS, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro- vince of Oman; 20 miles S.E. of Sohar. MADUE Sez, a large lake of Hinder Pomerania, drain- ed in 1770, and now inhabited. MADUGAR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Jyenagur ; 10 miles S. of Jyepour. MADURA, a province of Hindooftan, about 180 miles in length, and 80 in breadth, annexed in 1742 to the domi- nions of the nabob of Arcot.—Alfo, the capital of the above-named province, fortified with {quare towers and pa- rapets, and well furnifhed with cannon. In 1757, this town was purchafed by the Britifh troops for 170,000 rupees. The pagoda of this place is one of the moit fuperb in Hindoo- ftan ; 80 miles S.S.W. of Tanjore. N.lat.9°52'. E.long. 78° 11!, Manura, an ifland and principality in the Eaft In- dian fea, reckoned the fixth empire of Java, though not properly belonging to it, as it’is a feparate ifland, divided from Java by a narrow ftrait. It is about 75 miles in length, and from nine to fifteen in breadth. It is very fer- tile in rice, for which it is one of the granaries of India; and while Java was in pofleflion of the Dutch (now, 7. ¢. 1811, furrendered to the Englifh) it was under the government of a prince, who was the vaflal of the Dutch company. Its capital of the fame name lies on the S. coaft. S. lat. 6° 44! to 7° 15'.. E.long. r12° 14!. MADZAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Cau- cafus\; 56 miles E.N.E. of Ekaterinograd. M/ECENAS, Carus Civnius, in Biography, an illuf- trious Roman knight, defcended from the kings of Etruria, has rendered himfelf immortal by his liberal patronage of learned men and of letters, and to his prudence and advice Auguftus acknowledged himfelf indebted for the fecurity which he enjoyed. His love of pleafure removed him from the reach of ambition, and he preferred to die, as he had been born, a Roman knight, to allthe honours and dignities which either the friendfhip of Auguftus or his own popula. I2 rity MAE rity could heap upon him. He attended the emperor through his various fortunes, and in fome military aétions he is faid to have difplayed both valour and rf He, however, chiefly ferved his matter in a civil capacity, ‘and was one of the three intimates, who were delegated by him to effect an accommodation with Antony when he had laid fiege to Brun- dufium. During a long period he held the important poft of prefe€&t of Rome, to which his political talents were pe- culiarly adapted, and with perfeét fidelity to the emperor, and vigilance to maintain his interefts, he was not chargeable with any aéts of cruelty and oppreffion. It is to the honour of Auguftus that he received the private admonitions of Mz- cenas in the fame friendly manner in which they were given, and he was not difpleafed with the liberty which he once took of fending to him a paper with thefe words written upon it, “ furge carnifex,” ‘ rife butcher,” while he was fitting on his judgment feat, and betraying revenge and impatience in his countenance. He was ftruck with the admonition, and left the tribunal without paffing fentence of death on the criminals. No minifter was more the perfonal friend of his fovereign than Mecenas ; for this it is thought he was partly indebted to the attachment of the emperor to his wife Terentia, at which the favourite difgracefully connived. It is faid that a coolnefs took place in his latter years between him and the emperor, but at his death, which happened about the eighth hes before the birth of Chrift, he inftituted him his general eir. Though a zealous patron of learning and learned men, he was a man addiéted to the purfuit of pleafure. “‘ Where vi- gilance was required,” fays Velleius Paterculus, ‘ he was fleeplefs, provident, and aétive, but as foon as a relaxation from bufinefs could be permitted, he diffolved in a more than feminine indolence and delicacy.”” The ftyle of his own compofitions was infeéted with the fame effeminacy which charaterized his manners, but the foundnefs of his judgment- with refpe& to the writings of others, feems apparent from the merit of thofe on whom he beftowed his patronage. His name is perpetuated by the two great Roman poets, Virgil and Horace: with the latter he lived upon a footing of free- dom ‘and familiarity, which does equal honour to both, and no name appears with fo much diftinétion in his works as that of Mezcenas. Virgil dedicated to him his Georgics, which appear to have been compofed at his requelt. So fignal were his good offices towards literary genius, that the name of Maecenas has ever fince been applied to its liberal patrons. OF his own writings a fingle fpecimen only has come down to our times, the fenfe of which is, that he would be con- tented to live, though oppreffed by almoft any bodily fuffer- ings and infirmities that could be accumulated, a fentiment which a Roman philofopher would defpife, but which has been avowed by perfons of our day, whofe names will be Ppp aay to diftant ages by the works which they have eft behind them: among thefe may be mentioned the cele- brated Dr. Johnfon, and the author of the Exra x1sQoerix ; the one from a dread of death, the other from an attach- ment to life: the latter, indeed, enduring much bodily pain, and very great infirmities for many years, in the midit of them all, never ceafed to wifh for a prolongation of life, nor to exprefs a lively fenfe of the obligations he was under for a large balance of happinefs in his favour; and on the tomb, intended by himfelt for his lifelefs body, he infcribed, while living, the expreffive epitaph, ‘* Contented and Grate- ful.”? The hiftorian Dio has attributed to Macenas the in- troduction of warm baths at Rome, and alfo the invention of a {pecies of fhort-hand writing, by theaid of which orations could be taken down from the mouth of the {peaker: other writers, however, afcribe this to Cicero’s freedman Tiro. He is fuppofed to have been the author ofa hiftory of ani- MAE mals ; a journal of the life of Auguftus ; a treatife on the different natures and kinds ©f precious ftones, befides the two tragedies of Oétavia and Prometheus, and other things that are loft. Univer. Hift. MAEGOA, or Fremona, in Geography, a town of Abyffinia ; 9 miles from Axum. MAEL-Caruaix, atownof France, in the department of the Northern Coalts, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié&t of Guingamp. The place contains 1767, and the canton 7395 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres, in eight communes. Maet Coronde, in the Language of the Celone/e, the flower- ing cinnamon-tree. This is a name given to a peculiar {pe- cies of the cinnamon-tree, whichis all the year round found full of flowers. The flowers are not eafily to be diftinguifhed from the very fineft cinnamon-flowers, but they produce no fruit, which the flowers of the fine cinnamon always do. The bark is much like that of the beft cinnamon, in exter- nal appearance ; but it has very little tafte or fmell. The tree grows very large, and the inhabitants fometimes tap it, by boring a hole in the trunk, at which it bleeds a thin watery juice, in the manner of our birch-tree. MEANDER, in Geography, ariver of Turkey, in Afia, which rifes N. of the ancient city of Apamea, and runsina winding ftream, about 250 Britifh miles, and not far from its mouth, is about 190 feet broad. It is called by the Turks Boone Minder, or Great Meander, to diftinguifh it from another little ftream, which refembles it in its courfe. MEAT, in Ancient Geography, a general name, which comprehended the following tive Britifh nations, viz. the Otodeni, Gadeni, Selgove, Nevante, and Dumnii, who poffeffed the country between the walls of Severus and Antoninus Pius. This name, ufed by the Greek and. Roman writers, was probably not unknown to the Bri- tons themfelves; and is fuppofed by fome to have been de- rived from two Britifh words, moi, aplain, and aitich, inha- bitants, and by others from mean, middle, and aitich, as being fituated in the middle, between the provincial and un- conquered Britons. We have fufficient evidence, that the Roman armies, under Julius Agricola and the emperor Se~ verus, penetrated a confiderable way into that part of Bri- tain which lies to the N. of the wall of Antoninus Pius, be- tween the firths of Forth and Clyde. Tacitus (Vit. Agric. c. 21 to 39.) givesa very diftin@ account of the firlt of thefe famous expeditions in Caledonia, and Dio Niceus of the fecond. (Xiphilin. e Dione in Sever.) Many Roman coins have been found in feveral parts of that country, and. there are ftill remaining in it very diflin& veftiges of feveral Roman camps. But it is no lefs evident, that the Romans. never formed any folid or permanent eftablifhment beyond the wall of Antoninus, which was always contidered as the utmoft limit of the Roman empire in Britain. ’ MALER, in Genes; avery beautiful lake of Swe- den, containing feveral iflands rich in wood and pafture, with. hilly fhores, diverfified with trees, villas, and farm-houfes. It is ufually frozen in winter, and opens an eafy communica- tion, by means of fledges, with Stockholm. See ArBoGA, CANAL, and TroLu#?ta. MAELLA, a/jtown of Spain,in Aragon; 15 miles E. of Alcaniz. MAELSTROM, a whirlpool in the North fea, near the ifland of Mofkoe. Its noife is heard at the diftance of fe- veral leagues, and it is fo violent, that a veflel which comes - near it is drawn irrefiftibly into the vortex, and carried im- mediately to the bottom, where it is dafhed to pieces againft the rocks. At flood tide the ftream runs up into the country witha boifterous rapidity ; and at ebb, it returns to the in Il wit MAE with a violence and noife not equalled by the loudeit cata- raéts. Whatever it carries down, it inftantly abforbs; but at the turn of ebb and flood, when the water becomes ftill, the fcattered fragments rife to the furface. When this whirlpool has been agitated by a ftorm, it reaches veffels to the diftance of five or fix Englifh miles, at a time when the crews have thought themfelves perfectly fecure. N. lat. 67° 40’. E. long. rr° 44!. MZMACTERION, Masoxrnpioyy in Chronology, the fourth month of the Athenian year. It contained twenty- nine days, and anfwered to the latter part of our September and beginning of OGober. The Beeotians called it a/- alcomenius. It took its name from the feftival Memaéteria, facred to Jupiter, kept at this time. MAMACYLON, in the Materia Medica, aname given by Diofcorides, and the ancients in general, to the fruit of the arbutus, or ftrawberry-tree. MENA, in Ichthyology, the name of a {mall fifth, caught in vaft abundance about the fhores of the Mediterranean, and common in the markets of Italy, where they are ac- counted but a poor fort of fifh, and fold at a very cheap rate. It is fomewhat of the figure of the perch, but broader and thinner, and is feldom above four or five inches in length. Mzwa Candida, a name given by many authors to the fmaris. It is not very improper, for they are both of the fame genus of the fparus, and are very nearly allied to one another; the principal difference confifting in the tail and belly fins of the fmaris being red. See Sparus. MANALUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia, mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, and Virgil. This mountain was particularly confecrated to Pan. Several towns were fituated on the extent of this, which were deftroyed, and whofe inhabitants aflembled at Me- galopolis, MEZONIA, acountry of Afia Minor, formerly com- prehending that part of Lydia which lay eaftward towards mount T'molus, and which was the fource of the Paétolus.— Alfo, a town of this province, fituated at the foot of mount T'molus. MOT, a Scythian people who inhabited the banks of the Palus Mzotis, and who gave their name to this lake. MZOTIS, or Mxoris Palus. See Sea o MAERHUET, in Geography, a town o Smaland; 31 miles N.W. of Calmar. an MAERNA, atownof the Tyrol; 23 miles W.S.W. of rent. MAERSE, a town of Holland, in the department of Utrecht ; 5 miles N.W. of Utrecht. MERUA, in Botany, fo called by Forfkall from its Ara- bic name Meru, is one of his genera, adopted by Juffieu, Vahl and Willdenow.—Vahl Symb. p. 1. 36. Willd. v. 2. 1168. Juff. 440. Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Planta incerte Jedis, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, tubular, coriaceous, four-cleft ; tube fquare, fhort, broader upwards ; fegments of the limb oblong, obtufe, reflexed, a little longer than the tube. Cor. none. Ne@ary at the mouth of the tube of the calyx, entire or divided, fhorter than the calyx, con- niving, covering the ftalk of the germen. Stam. Filaments numerous, at the bafe of the germen, thread-fhaped, twice as long as the calyx; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pift. Germen cylindrical, fhorter than the filaments, fmooth, on a thread-fhaped, fquare ftalk, the length of the tube, Azor. Sweden, in MAE {welling upwards; ftyle none; {tigma obtufe. Peric. and Seeds unknown. Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, with the neary in its tube. Corolla none. Stigma feffile. Obf. This genus is clofely akin to Grewia, as Vahl ob- ferves, but differs fufficiently from that in having a four-cleft calyx, a neGtary crowning the mouth of the tube, and a feflile ftigma. 1. M. uniflora. Vahl and Willd. (M. craffifolia; Forfk. Defer. 104.)—Stalks fingle-flowered. NeGtary many-cleft. A native of Arabia Felix —This /rub is furnifhed with round, {preading, very fmooth éranches, and a purplifh dark: Leaves alternate, on footftalks, feattered, often many from the fame bud, oval, entire, pointed, thick. Flowers axil- lary, each placed on a folitary, thread-fhaped ftalk, twice as long as the leaves. Neary divided into many thread-fhaped fegments. 2. M. racemofa. Vahl and Willd.—Flowers racemofe. NeGtary undivided.—Alfo a native of Arabia Felix,— Branches round and fmooth. Leaves on footitalks, remote, pendent, oval, pointed, retufe, entire, {mooth, half an inch long ; footftalk fhorter than the leaf. Cluflers of flowers terminal, drooping. Neary undivided. MAES, Goprrey, in Biography. Amidft thofe who practifed the art of painting in the Flemifh fchool, after the aftonifhing powers of Rubens were developed, this artift held a confiderable rank. He was born at Antwerp in 1660, and having received early inftruétions from his father, he improved and perfected himfelf by ftudying and copying the fine pic- tures placed in the great churches and cabinets of his native city. His works, when he began to practife upon his own in- vention, were highly approved ; and he was much employed both publicly and privately, till at laft he was appointed to the diftinguifhed ftation of dire&tor of the academy at Antwerp. MESA, in Botany, fo called by Forfkall, and by him alone ; all fucceeding authors having agreed that the plant in quettion is not generically diftin@ from Bxonorrys, (fee that article )— Willdenow, Vahl and Martyn call the Mefa of Forfkall B. lanceolata. —Juffieu fuggetts the affinity of this genus to Thunberg’s Aucuba. : MAESEYK, in Geography, atown of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Meufe, feated on the Meufe ; 39 miles N.N.E. of Liege. N. lat. 51° 4’. E. long. 5° 47% MAESLAND, or Marsianp Suuys, a town of Hol- land, on a canal that forms a communication between. Delft and the Meufe ; the inhabitants of which are principally oc- cupied in the herring and whale fifhery 3 7 miles S. of Delft. M/ESTLINUS, Micuarr, in Biography, a German aftronomer, was born in the duchy of Wirtemberg, and be- came mathematical profeflor at Tubingen, where he died in 1590, at the age of forty-eight, leaving behind him feveral works on mathematics and aftrofiomy. In early youth he made a {peech in fawour, of Copernicus's fy{tem, which is faid to have brought the afterwards celebrated Galileo over from the philofophy of Ariftotle and Ptolemy, to whofe fyftems he had: been previoufly devoted.. Kepler was one of the pupils of Meeftlinus, and has, in his own work entitled ‘« Aftronomia Optica,” commended feveral of his inventions. Martin. Biog. Phil, MAESTOSO, in: the /telian Mufic, majeltic, {pirited, but not quick. MAESTRICHT, in Geography, atown of France, and principal place of a diftriét, in the departmeat of the Lower s Meule 5 MAE ‘Meufe ; formerly one of the largeft, as well as the moft an- cient towns in the Netherlands, and belonging to the duchy of Lorrain. ‘The pofleffion of it was fecured by Charles V. in 1530, at the diet of Augfburg; and he united it to the ductiy of Brabant. Its magiftracy is compofed of two bur- gomalters,* one a Catholic, the other a Proteftant, and 20 echevins, half Catholics and half Proteftants. It was for- merly a bifhop’s fee ; but the fee was removed in 710, by St. Hubert to Liege. It has two collegiate, and feveral parifi churches, and before the revolution it had feveral re- ligious houfes : its town-houfe is handfome, and it has a good library. It has been fortified at different times by the Spa- niards, Dutch, to whom it was ceded by the peace of Ni- meguen in 1678, and French, when they had refpeétively poffeffion of it. The ramparts of Maeltricht confitt of the old inclofure, flanked with {mall towers and ancient baitions.. But the principal ftrength of the place lies in feveral detached baf- tions, fome great, fome fmall, in feveral horn-works, and a covert-place, in fome places double, and in others treble, the whole fupported by a vait number of mines. They can form two inundations round the town, to prevent: its being approached, one above, the other below the city; befides, on the fouth fide of the town, towards Liege, there is a very {trong entrenchment on the declivity of a hill, called fort St. Pierre, able to hold 13 or 14,000 men, which, with the help of feveral redoubts well planted with artillery, are capable of being a great obftruGtion to an army that would undertake the fiege of the town. This fort confifts ofa large battion with a very good cafemate, a counterfcarp, and two covert-ways ; the whole fupported with entrench- ments which extend right and left to the inundation formed by the little river Jeker. The fuburb of Wyck has a ram- part a quarter of a league in circumference, flanked with three large -baftions, joining to the body of the place. It has likewife another inclofure of earth, flanked with feveral baftions, ravelins; and a good covert-way. There are like- wife two ifles, one above, and the other below the bridge, which are ftrongly entrenched and defended with redoubts and other works. In fhort, Maeltricht is juftly looked upon as one of the ftrongeit places in Europe. Near it are large ftone quarries, in which are fubterraneous paflages of great extent, where the farmers frequently {tore hay, corn, and other articles. On the 23d of February 1793, it was bombarded by the French, under general Miranda; but being attacked by general Clairfayt on the 1{t of March, the republicans loft 2000 men, and nine pieces of artillery, and were compelled to raife the fiege. On the fourth of November, the city was taken by the French, the garrifon, confifting of between feven and eight thoufand men, furrendering themfelves pri- foners of war. The town contains 17,963, and its two cantons 29,245 inhabitants, on a territory of 120 kiliometres, in 22 communes ; 15 miles N. of Liege. N. lat. 50° 48'. E. long. 5’ 43’. MAESTRO, a town of Italy, in the Paduan territory ; 8 miles N.W. of Venice. Maestro, a matter; as Maeffro di sapped the maf- ter of achoir, or the compofer inacathedral. Itis likewife a title given, by courtefy, to the compofer of an opera, the matter who prefides at a harpfichord in a concert, and fometimes to a mere mufic matter. MAESWINES Bay, in Geography, a harbour of Ire- land, in the county of Donegal, being one of the many in- lets inthe bay of Doneyal. It lies W. of St. John’s Point and’ E. of the harbour of Killybegs, . MAF MAEVA,a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the Lena; 20 miles N.N.W. of Vercholenfk. MAFAMEDE, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea, near the coaftof Africa. S. lat, 16° 20!. aos aja cig a town of Egypt; 30 miles N.E. of ous. MAFF ZEUS, Vecio, in Biography, a Latin poet, was born at Lodi, in the Milanefe, in the year 1407. He was educated for the law, but foon fhewed an attachment to the belles lettres, and in future life had the happy art of blending the charms of poetry with the gravity of jurifpru- cence. He obtained the profefforfhip of tke law at Pavia, from whence he was called to Rome, where he held fome confiderable offices at the church of St. John de Lateran. He died in 1458: his chief works are, x{t, “« De Educatione Liberorum,”’ and, 2dly, Poetical Pieces,’ of which the moft remarkable was a poem called a continuation of the Aineid of Virgil, which has been tranflated into Englifh burlefque by Mr. John Ellis. Marraus, BERNARDIN, 2 learned cardinal, who died at Rome, at the age of 40, about the year 1553. Heis known as the commentator on Cicero's epiftles, and as the author of a treatife on medals and infcriptions. Moreri. Marrzus, or Marret, Joun Peter, was born at Ber- gamo in 1536, and was inftruéted by his uncles Bafil and Chryfoftom Zanchi, nobles of that city, in the ancient lan- guages, andin philofophy and theology. In 1563 he was ap- pointed profeffor of eloquence at Genoa, with an ample = lary. During the two years which he continued in that office he acquired great applaufe, and was chofen to the office of fecretary of ftate; in-1565, he returned to Rome, where he entered into the fociety of Jefuits. He {pent fix years as profeffor of eloquence in the Roman college, during which he tranflated, into the Latin language, the hiftory of the Indies by Acofta, which was publifhed in 1570; after this he was invited to Lifbon by cardinal Henry, to draw up, from papers and other documents with which he was to be furnifhed, a complete hiftory of the Portuguefe conquetts in the Indies, and of the progrefs of the Chriftian religion in thofe coun- | tries. He returned to Italy in 1581, and spent feveral years, partly at Rome and partly at Sienna, in learned labours, and at length was placed, by Clement VIII. in the Vatican, for the purpofe of continuing, in the Latin language, the annals of Gregory XIII. begun by him in the Italian. He died at Tivoli in Ogtober 1603. He wrote the life of Ignatius Loyola, but his principal work is entitled ‘* Hiito- riarum Indicarum, Lib. xvi.?? which has been frequently re- printed. ‘The bett edition is in two volumes 4to. printed at Bergamo in 1747. His works are chiefly to be regarded on account of the purity of the ftyle in which they are written. Moreri. ' Marrzus, Francis-Scieio, an Italian marquis, .an elegant writer in'his native language, was born at Verona in 1675. His early education was entirely conducted by his mother, a woman of very fuperior accomplifhments, but as foon as he was of a proper age, he was fent to the Jefuits’ college at Parma, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his at- tachment to poetry. . Having completed his ftudies, he vifited Milan, Genoa, and Rome, and at the laft named city he was admitted into the Academy degli Arcadi. He now de- voted himfelf to the purfuits of polite literature. Unitin: the {pirit of philofophy with that of gailantry, he maintained, before an aflembly of both fexes in the academy of Verona, certain “ Conclufioni d’Amore,’’ in which the clegance of his language and the vivacity of his fentiments were equally admired. For a fhort time he quitted the arts of peace and : joined MAF joined the army, in which he ferved asa volunteer at the battle of Donawert in 1704, under the command of his fecond brother, who was general of the Bavarian troops in alliance with France: during the campaign he had an op- portunity of faving his brother's life, by difarming au officer whofe piftol was pointed at him. At the conclufion of the campaign he returned to Verona, and refumed thofe literary occupations which he never after forfook. He fet himfelf to reform the ftage, and produced, by way of model, his tra- gedy of “ Merope.”” About the fame time he undertook the more important taflc of reforming the moral principles of his countrymen, efpecially with regard to the prattice of duelling, to which his brother had nearly fallen a facrifice. On this fubjeét he publifhed two works, of which the latter, entitled “ Della fcienza chiamata cavallerefca,’’ he dedicated to pope Clement XI. This was a performance of much learned refearch and folid argument, and fo well written in every refpeét, that it acquired general applaufe, and paffed through feveral editions. His «* Merope,’’ already noticed, was exceedingly popular, and was tranflated into moft of the modern languages. By fome of his contemporaries it was feverely criticifed and yiolently cenfured : among thefe was Voltaire, whe afterwards attempted to rival it by a tra- gedy of the fame name, which is reckoned one of-his bet pieces. Maffus foon after wrotea comedy, entitled «¢ Com- media delle Cerimonie’? and a drama, called «La Fida Ninfa.”’ He was indefatigable in his ftudies of antiquity and theology, with the view of promoting the honour of his native country, and the {preading of the Roman Catholic religion. One of his mott ufeful works on the fubjeGt of antiquities was his ‘* [{torta Diplomatica,”’ being an intro- duétion to the critical knowledge of pieces diftinguifhed under the name of diplomas, with a colleGtion. of feveral documents hitherto inedited. In 1732 he raifed a durable monument to the fame of his native city, by a learned work, entitled ‘¢ Verona Illuftrata.”’? This piece is comprifed in four parts, and is replete with curious information relative to the hiltory and antiquities of the north of Etaly, and ranks among the ablett and moft intereiting of topographical works. His principal object in a tour undertaken through foreign countries, was the colleétion of ancient in{criptions, with the defign of uniting them with thofe colleéted by Gruter, and other writers on the fame fubje&. In his jour- ney he vifited every place where the relics of antiquity and the cabinets of the curious were to be found. On his arri- val at Paris, he printed an account of what he had feen under the title of “ Gallie Antiquitates quedam felecte.” Here he was elected a foreign member of the Academy of In- {criptions, and was a frequent attendant on its meetings. The difputes concerning the bull Unigenitus interefted him fo warmly, that he ftudied the fubjects in difpute with the utmoft zeal, and in a fhort time produced an elaborate folio volume, the refult of his theological reading. In this he appeared as the champion of the Molinifts again{t the Jan- fenifts, and the defender of the bull Unigenitus. This was not publifhed till the year 174.2, and previoufly to it he pafled from Paris to London, where he was diftinguifhed by the notice of the royal family, feveral of the nobility, and by the moft eminent men of letters. He vifited both univerfi- ties, and received at Oxford, in compliment to his literary merit, the degree of door of laws. From England he went to Holland and Flanders, and proceeded through Germany to Vienna, where.he had a moft gracious reception from the emperor Charles VI. He returned to Verona in 1736, and immediately began to publith the « Offervazioni Letterarie,”” intended as a continuation of the Italian lierary journal. Several original pieces of Mafficus, relative to his hiftory and MAF antiquities, appeared in the fucceflive tomesof his works. The true members of the church of Rome having maintained, in oppolition to the Jefuits, that taking intereft of money to any degree was the crime of ufury, Maffeus oppofed this doc- trine ina work entitled “ Dell? Impiego del Danaro,” which was a learned and rational differtation on the employment of money in ancient times, and the true principles of morality and policy on this head. For this treatife he incurred the charge of herefy, and was banifhed the city : the ftorm at length paffed over, and he returned in triumph. _A fter this he publifhed many other pieces on various topics; among thefe was a metrical verfion of the two books of the Iliad; fome Hebrew poetry ; and enquiries into the generation of lightning and other phyfical phenomena in nature. Ever actuated by a defire of advancing the glory of his native city, in which he had already promoted the liberal ftudies, by tranfplanting a colony of learned teachers from the Ar- cadi at Rome, and eftablifhing a literary affembly in his own houfe, he exerted himfelf in laying the foundation ofa mufeum of antiquities and curiofities, which became confiderable, and was announced to the public by a catalogue entitled ¢* Mufeo Veronefe.’’ In 1749 he endeavoured to corre the popular notions concerning magic and witchcraft, by a treatife, “© Arte magica dileguata,” which brought upon hima hoft of enemies, of whom fourteen replied to his reafonings. .He was not, however, to be intimidated, and juftified himfelf by the publication of two other pamphlets on the fame fub- jeGt. His next work was entitled “ De? Teatri Antichi e Moderni,”’ in which he attempted a vindication of theatrical {peétacles, in oppofition to thofe who maintained that they were all unlawful. He continued to devife new plans, to augment and confirm his literary reputation till the year 1754, when the effects of old age and the feverity of winter threatened him with immediate diffolution. As foon as his danger was known in the city, the council ordered public prayers tobe put up for him during three days. His va- luable life was protracted a few weeks only, and on the 11th of February 1755, he expired, in the 79th year of his age. He was interred amidft a vaft concourfe of mourning fellow citizens, and a {tatue was erected to his memory in the prin- cipal {quare, by the fide of thofe of Fracaftoro, and others who had conferred honour on Verona. Gen. Biog. MAFFAH, Old and New, in Geography, two towns of the ifland of Madagatcar; the firft fituated.on the N. W. coaft, in S. lat. 15°22’. E. long. 51°; and the fecond, 25 miles 5.E. of the other. MAFFERSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ; 10 miles N. of Turnau. MAFFRA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Ef tramadura, containing about 1040 inhabitants ; near, which king Joha V. ereéted a magnificent building ; in confe- quence of a vow, made in a dangerous fit,of illnefs, to found a convent for the ufe of the pooreft priory inthe kingdom, which was found to ‘be that of Maflra. The building was defigned to exceed even the Efcurial; it is conftruéted of white marble, contains 37 windows in front, and is nearly a {quare of 728 feet; in the centre is the church, with the palace on one fide‘and the convent onthe other. This -{truc- ture was commenced by order of king John V.in 1777,,and finifhed in 1742, the architeét being a German, named John Frederic. ' In the whole building, it is faid, there are 870 rooms, and 5200 windows ; fiye miles N.W. of Lifbon, MAFMALA, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea, near the coaltof Africa. S, lat. 16° 20!. MAFORTIUM, among the Romans, a veil or head-drefs worn by the married women. MAFRAGG, in Geography, a river of Africa, in Algiers, 10 which MAG which runs into the Mediterranean, near Cape Rofa ; anci- ently called « Rubricalus.”” MAFUMO, or Encrisu River, a river of Africa, which runs into Delagoa bay, navigable for large veffels ; its channel is about a ante wide ; and fhips lie commonly about two miles up the river, where, in good depth of water, they are fafe from all winds and fupplied plentifully with pro- vifions, fuch as beef, goats, fowls, fifh, lemons, oranges, {weet potatoes, and other vegetables, with good water on both fides of the river. S. lat. 26°. MAGACELA, a town of Spain, in Eftramadura; 18 miles E.S.E. of Merida. MAGADA, in Mythology, a title under which Venus was known and worfhipped in Lower Saxony ; where this goddefs had a famous temple, which was treated with refpe& even by the Huns and Vandals, when they ra- vaged the country. It is faid to have been deftroyed by Charlemagne. MAGADINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the bailiwick of Locarno, on the lake of that name ; five miles S. of Belinzona. MAGADIS, Macas, from poryacdiLeiv, to fing, or play in unifon or -o@ave, the name of a mufical inftrument in ufe among the ancients. There were two kinds of magades, the one a ftringed in- ftrument, formed of twenty chords, arranged in pairs, and tuned to unifon or o€tave, fo that they yielded ten founds ; the invention of which is afcribed by fome to Sappho; by others to the Lydians; and by fome to Timotheus of Miletus. The other was a kind of flute, which, at the fame time, yielded very high and very low notes. The former kind was, at leaft, much improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is faid to have been impeached of acrime, becaufe, by in- creafing the number of chords, he fpoiled and difcredited the ancient mufic. Among all obfcure terms in the ancient Greek mnific, which have bewildered modern inquirers, few have perplexed them more than this, and its meaning is ftill fo far from fet- tled, that we have yet to learn whether it was a wind or a ftringed inftrument; or, indeed, whether it was any inftrument at .all, or any thing more than a monochord, or the bridge of an inftrument. Rouffeau affures us, that the verb, fo magadire, in the Greek mutic, implied to fing in the o&taves, as a man and a woman, or a boy, naturally do ; and adds, that as the word comes from magas, the bridge of an inftrument, by extenfion it was applied to an inftrument with double ftrings tuned o€taves to each other, like the unifons and oétave in our old double harpfichord. MAGADOXO, Macaposno, or Maldo/cho, in Geogra- phy, a kingdom of Africa, fituated along the coaft of the Indian fea, from the river Jubo, near the equino€tial line, to beyond the fifth degree of north latitude. Its name is derived from its capital, which is fituated in a large bay, formed b the mouth of a river of the fame name, called by the Arabs, «the Nile of Magadoxo,’’ on account of its annual over- flowing. The fource of this river is not afcertained, but its courfe is concluded to be long, from its confiderable channel and large bay, and alfo fromits extenfive inundations, which fupply various canals, and fertilize the country through which it runs, fo thatit produces in abundance wheat and barley, and a variety of fruits, and fupplies food for num- bers of horfes, oxen, fheep, and other animals which are bred near its banks, The city of Magadoxo is a place of great commerce, and vaft refort from Aden and other parts ; whence their merchants bring cotton, filk, and other cloths, fpices, and drugs, which they exchange with the inhabitants MAG for gold, ivory, wax, and other commodities. ‘The inhabit- ants are chiefly Mahometans, among whom are many Bedouin Arabs, who retain their ancient fuperftitions, and farther inland there is a greater number of Abyffinian Chriftians, fubje& or tributary to thatempire. The king and his court are Mahometans; his fubjeéts, of whom fome are white, others tawny and olive, and others black, all fpeak the Ara- bic tongue. They are {tout and warlike, and ufe, amon others, poifoned arrows and lances. The town is Stunted in N. lat. 2° 6'. E.long. 45° 50’. MAGALAWAUEK, atown of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Punganore. MAGALHAENS, Ferpinanp bs, in Biography, com- monly known by the name of Magellan, an eminent naviga- tor, was by birtha Portuguefe. He ferved with much re- putation during five years under Albuquerque, in the Eatt Indies, and particularly diftinguifhed himfelf at the conqueft of Malacca in the year 1510. After this, thinking his fervices had been but miferably requited by his own court, he entered into the employment of Charles V. kmg of Spain, who gave him the command of a fleet, with which, in 1519, he difcovered the ftraits called after himfelf at the extremity of South America. Soen after this he took poffeffion of the Ladrone and Philippine iflands in the name of the mo- narch in whofe fervice he was engaged. At one of the latter, named Zebu, Magalhaens obtained the converfion of the king, having affured him that by becoming a Chriftian he would be rendered fuperior to his enemies. Under the farther condition of his becoming a vaflal to Spain, the Portuguefe affifted him in his attempts to reduce to fub- jection the neighbouring chieftains, and the holy crofs was erected over the {moking afhes of fome villages that had been plundered and deftroyed. In one inftance his authority was fet at nought, and he determined to inflict a fummary vengeance on the rebellious chief: he accordingly landed with about fifty of his men upon the ifland of Matan, and was met by the chief and his people, who though rudely armed, and fubjeé to no regular difcipline, made a formida- ble refiilance during the greateft part of aday. At length the fire of the Spaniards flackened from want of ammuni- tion, and the iflanders prefling on, a retreat became necef- fary. Magalhaens received a wound frem an arrow in the leg, and being ul fupported by his men, he was beaten down and flain byalance. This happened in 1521, and by this a€t of imprudence he loft the honour of being the firlt circumnavigator of the globe. He has, however, fecured to himfelf ahigh reputation among maritime difcoverers, by the commencement of this great enterprize. Barney’s Difco- very in the South Sea. MAGALOTTI, Count Lawnence, a celebrated phi- lofopher and mathematician, was born at Rome in 1637. Having been initiated in the elements of learning, he was fent to the univerfity of Pifa, for the purpofe of ftudying jurifprudence, in which he made a great and very rapid pro- grefs, but the bent of his genius led him to devote his main attention to the ftudy of mathematics and _natu- ral philofophy. He cultivated thefe branches of {cience at Florence, during three years, under the celebrated Vin- cent Viviani, and was, by his recommendation, and that of Borelli, made fecretary to the Academy del Cimento, which had been eftablifhed, in 1656, by prince Leopold of Tufcany, for the exprefs purpofe of elucidating philofo. phical fcience by a feries of experiments. ‘The duties of this appointment Magalotti difcharged with the utmoft af- fiduity and care, and being direéted by the prince to draw up an account of the experiments made there, he aimed at rendering his work popular, as well from its ree as rom MAG from the perfpicuity of its ftyle. The work was ac- cordingly publifhed in the year 1666, and was received with univerfal applaufe by men of fcience. The fubjects which it embraces are the preflure of the air; natural and artificial freezing ; the various effects of heat znd cold; the compreffion of water ; magnetifm ; the nature of colours ; of founds; the projection of bodies, &c. While the fe- cretary was engaged in drawing up his account of the ex- periments of the academy, he obtained leave from Leopold to pay a vifit to his father at Rome, where he wifhed to confult the learned Angelo Rici on the fubje& of that work ; but che chief object of his journey was to obtain fome ec- clefiaftical promotion. Having failed in this object, he de- termired to return to Florence, and to apply for a place at the court of the grand duke Ferdinand II. In this he was fuccefsful; and fhortly after a penfion was given him by pope Alexander VII., to whom prince Leopold had prefented a confiderable part of the inftruments ufed in making the experiments at the academy. He attempted a work on electricity, but the fcience was too much in its infancy, and the facts known refpeéting it were too {canty to admit of much being done in it. While engaged in thefe purfuits he did not neglect his favourite ftudy aftro- nomy, and at the fame time paid fome attention to theology, particularly to the writings of the fathers. About the year 1666, he drew up and publifhed a {mall volume re- lative to the hiftory and peculiarities of China, which was received with great applaufe ; and at the fame time he pub- lifhed a fmall, but elegant Compendium of the Moral Doc- trine of Confucius. He was a good poet, and the firlt perfon who publifhed a good tranflation of the Odes of ’ Anacreon in Italian verfe. He was very converfant in many of the modern languages, and could write and fpeak French, Spanifh, and Englifh, with the correcinefs and eafe of the natives of thofe countries. Of this he gave abundant evi- dence in different vifits which he paid to them either in a private or official charafter. In England he was the in- timate friend and bofom companion of the illuftrious Mr. Robert Boyle, whom he attempted to convert from the errors of the Proteftant faith, but the Englifh philofopher was too well grounded in the evidences of his relig on to be moved by the eloquence of his Catholic friend. He was employed in feveral miffions to foreign princes, and at length, in 1674, he was appointed ambaflador to the imperial court. At Vienna he was received in the moft honourable manner by perfons of all ranks, and acquired the particular favour of the emperor. Here he formed an intimate connection with the men moft eminent for {cience and literature, and fpent his time agreeably in learned leifure, till he was em- barraffed by the delay of the necefflary pecuniary remit- tanees from kis court. He now determined to, return to Florence without waiting the permiffion of the duke. Shortly after, that prince fuperfeded him in his embafly to Vienna, and gave him apartments in his palace, with a confider- able penfion. ‘This was not exactly the thing which he wifhed, and which his fervices feem to have claimed; he therefore withdrew into retirement, and gave himfelf up en- tirely to his ftudics. In 1684, he compofed fifteen Italian odes, in which he has drawn the picture of a woman of noble birth, and exquilite beauty, diltinguifhed not only by every perfonal, but by every mental charm, and yet ren- dering herfelf chiefly the object of admiration and delight by her manners and condu&. Wot believing that fuch an original exilted in nature, he gave this piece the ttle of «The Imaginary Lady.’’ His next work confitted of Letters againft Atheitts, in which his learning and philo- fephy appear to great advantage. In the year 1689, he VoL. XXII. MAG was appointed a counfellor of ftate to the grand duke, who fent him his ambaffador into Spain to negotiate a marriage between one of his daughters and king Charles IJ. Soon after he had accomplifhed the objet of this miffion he funk into a temporary melancholy, which led him to ex- clude himfelf from all intercourfe with the world for nearly a year, till by the intreaties of the grand duke he was in- duced to return to his poft at court. He now refumed very fuccefsfully his literary labours, and publifhed works upon various fubjects, and left others which were given to the world after his ceceafe, which happened in the year 1712, when he had attained the age of 75. Magalotti was as eminent for his picty as he was for his literary talents; unimpeachable in his morals, liberal, beneficent, friendly, polite, and a lively ard cheerful, as well as very inflruétive companion. His houfe was the conttant refort of men of letters from all countries, whom he treated with elegant hofpitality. He was deeply conyerfant with the writings of the ancient philofophers, and waa a follower of the Platonic do@rine in his poems. In his natural and philofophical inveftigations he difcarded all authority, and fubmitted to no other guide but experiment. Among the moderns he was\ particularly attached to Galileo, After his death a medal was itruck in honour of his memory, with the figure of Apollo raifed on the reverfe, and the infcription OuntAa Lusrrat. In the General Biography is given a long lilt of his various publications, taken from the third vol. of the well known work entitled ‘* Fabronii Vit. Italorum doét. excell.’’ MAGAME, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cey- lon,'near the E. coatt ; 96 miles S.E. of Candy. MAGAN, a town of Spain, ia New Cattile; 8 miles N.N.E. of Toledo. MAGANJA, a river of Africa, which runs into the Zambeze, S. lat. 16° 20’. FE. long. 33° 40’. MAGAPERAM, a town of Hindoottan, in the circar of Cuddapa ; 14 miles N.N.E. of Combam. MAGARABA, a mountain of Afriga, in Algiers, ex~ tending about 30 miles along the cat of the Mediter- ranean, inhabited by a people called ‘ Magarabas,’’ de~ fcended from the Berberes, who live in tents, feed large flocks, and pay a tribute to the dey of Algiers. MAGARZAN, an ifland in the Red fea, near the coaft of Nubia; it is high, and the largelt of three forming a triangle, about five miles inlength. N. lat. 21° 10’. MAGAS, in the Ancient Mufc, is ufed to denote the bridge of any inftrument. See Macants. MAGASSA, in Geography, a town of Tyrol; 24 miles W.S.W. of Trent. MAGATTI, Ca#sar, in Biography, (or, as he was called in his Latin writings, AZagatus,) an eminent furgeon, was the fon of a refpedable citizen of Scandiano, in the duchy of Reggio, where he was born in 1579. He dittinguifhed himfelf by his early proficiency in philofophy and mediciue at Bologna, at which univerfity he received the degree of doétor in both thefe fciences, in March 1597, in the 18th year of his age. He {till remained at that place, however, attending the public hofpitals, under the direction of the moft eminent phyficians, for fome time; and afterwards went to Rome, where he united the ftudy of anatomy and furgery, with that of medicine. Returning to his native country, he commenced the practice of his profeflion, where he foon acquired fo much reputation, that the marquis of Bentivoglio induced him to fettle at Ferrara, as profeffor of furgery in the univerfity of that city. Here, however, he met with confiderable oppofition and -enmity from the eftablifhed practitioners, who interditted him from prac. K tiflag, MAG tifing, unlefs he would fubmit to their examinations; with , which-he at length complied, and gave abundant proofs of fuperior talents and acquirements. He foon attained the higheft profeffional reputation at Ferrara, and gained the greate{t applaufe from numerous claffes of ftudents by his able condu& in the chair, until he was feized with a fevere illnefs, under the impreffion of which he was induced to enter into the fraternity of Capuchins, and afterwards af- fumed the habit of the order. He ftill continued, how- ever, to practife medicine and furgery, in his new condition, with a fuccefs that acquired him the confidence of perfons of the firft rank, efpecially of Francis I. duke of Modena. But the feverity of his fufferings from the ftone induced him, in 1647, to repair to Bologna, for the purpofe of re- lieving himfelf by undergoing the operation of lithotomy ; but he furvived it a very fhort time, and died at the age of fixty-eight. Magatus was the author of a confiderable improvement’ in the art of furgery, by his work entitled “ De rara Medi- catione Vulnerum, feu, de Vulneribus raré_ traétandis,’’ Venice, 1616, which he alfo ftrenuoufly inculcated in his le&tures, and the good effects of which he had often wit- neffed during his attendance at Rome. This was the re- jeCtion of tents in the treatment of wounds, and the recom- mendation of a fimple eafy method of dreffing, without the irritation of frequently cleanfing and rubbing the tender granulation ; a praétice which he fupported at great length by found and rational arguments, tinétured a little, how- ever, by the Galenical theories. His work contains alfo a number of valuable obfervations re{pe€ting particular wounds ; and it has an appendix, relating to gun-fhot wounds, in which he refutes the notion of their being envenomed, or attended with cauterization. Sennertus publifhed a criti- cifm on his work, containing a defence of the ufe of tents ; to which Magatus, now a monk, replied, in the name of his brother John Baptift, (if that was not his own conven- tual name) by publifhing a pamphlet, with the title of *¢ Tractatus, quo rara Vulnerum deligatio defenditur contra Sennertum,”” 1627, which is to be found in the Venice edi- tion of the former work, publifhed in 1676.. Eloy Dict. Hift. de la Méd.. Gen. Biog. MAGAZINE, Lirerary, a mifcellaneous, periodical pamphlet, containing a variety of effays, in profe and verfe. The term, as applied to literature, is modern, but is now become of extenfive and popular import. In England it was firft employed in ‘* The Gentleman’s Magazine,” the firft number of which was publifhed January 1, 17313; and this has been regularly continued every month from that time to the prefent. This was not the earlieft periodical pub- lication in monthly numbers, as one had appeared in the year 1681, under the title of “ The Monthly Recorder of all true Occurrences both Foreign and Domettic.”” Soon after «* The Gentleman’s Magazine,” a rival work, under the title of “The London Magazine,’”’ was publifhed, but this was difcontinued in the year 1785. «« Thé invention of this new {pecies of publication,’’ ob- ferves Dr. Kippis, in his memoir of Edward Cave, in the. Biographia Britannica, “ may be confidered as fomething of an epocha: in the literary hiftory of the country. The periodical publications before that time, (i. e 1731) were almoft wholly confined to political tranfaétions and to foreign and domeftic occurrences: but the magazines have opened a way for every kind of inquiry. The intel- ligence and difcuffion contained in them are very extenfive and various ; and they have been the means of diffufing a general habit of reading through the nation; which ina sertain degree hath enlarged the public underftanding. MAG Many young authors, who have rifen to confiderable emi nence in the literary world, have here made their firft at~ tempts in compofition. If it were not an invidious tafk, the hiftory of them would be no incurious or unentertain- ing fubjeét.’’ In a former part of this diétionary, we have given a brief hiftory of Newfpapers, Magazines under the term ‘* Journal,’* but if the reader be defirous of obtain- ing an ample account of periodical literature, he will find it fully narrated in “ Nichols’s Literary Anecdotes of the eighteenth Century,”’ 6 vols. 8vo. ; Macazine, in the Military Art, a place in fortified towns, where all forts of ftores are kept ; and where carpen- ters, wheelwrights, fmiths, &c. are employed in making things needful to furnifh out the train of artillery. AGAZINE, Powder, is a building conftructed for keep- ing large quantities of powder. ‘Thefe magazines were formerly towers erected in the town walls; but many in- conveniences attending this fituation of them, they are now laced in different parts of the town. They were at firlt conftruéted with Gothic arches; but M. Vauban, finding thefe too weak, con{truéted them in a femicircular form, of the following dimenfions, viz. fixty feet long within, and twenty-five broad ; the foundation eight or nine feet thick; and eight feet high from the foundation to the {pring of the arch; the floor about two feet from the ground, to pre- vent damp; and confequently fix feet for the height of the ftory. ; The thinneft part or hanches of the arch is three feet thick, and the arch made of four leffer ones one over the other, and the outfide of the whole terminated in a flope to form the roof; from the higheft part of the arch to the ridges is eight feet, which makes the angle fomewhat greater than ninety degrees; the two wings, or gable ends, are four feet thick, raifed fomewhat higher than the roof, as is cuftomary in other buildings; as to their foundations they are five feet thick, and as deep as the nature of the ground required. The piers or long fides are fupported by four counter- forts, each fix feet broad, and four feet long, and their interval twelve feet; between the intervals of the counter- forts, are air-holes, in order to keep the magazine dry and free from dampnefs; the dices of thefe air-holes are com- monly a foot and a half every way, and the vacant fpace round them three inches, made fo, as the in and outfides be in the fame direction. The dices ferve to prevent an enemy from throwing fire in to burn the magazine, and for a farther precaution, it is neceflary to ftop thefe holes with feveral iron plates, that have {mall holes in them like a fkimmer, otherwife fire might be tied to the tail of fome {mall animal, anc fo drive it in that way ; this would be no. hard matter to do, fince, where this precaution had been neglected, egg-fhells have been found within, that have been carried there by weafles. To keep the floor from dampnefs, beams are laid long ways, and to prevent thefe beams from being foon rotten, large ftones are laid under them; thefe beams are eight or nine inches fquare, or rather ten high and eight broad, which is better, aud eighteen inches diftant from each other ; their interval is filled with dry fea coals, or chips of dry {tones, then over thefe beams are others laid crofs-ways, four inches broad, and five high, which are covered with two-inch planks. M. Belidor would have brick walls made under the floor, inftead of beams, and a double floor laid on the crofs-beams: which does not appear to be fo well as the manner propofed here ; the reader is, however, at liberty to shoofe the method he likes belt. : 12 To MAG To give light to the magazine, a window is made in each wing, which is fhut up by two fhutters of two or three inches thick, one within and the other without it; that which is on the outfide is covered with an iron plate, and is faftened with bolts, as well as that on the infide. Thefe windows are made very high, for fear of accidents, and are opened by means of a ladder, to give air to the magazine in fine dry weather. There is likewife a double door made of ftrong planks, the one opens on the outfide, and the other within; the outfide one is alfo covered with an iron plate, and both are locked by a ftrong double lock ; the ftore-keeper has the key of the outfide, and the governor that of the infide: the door ought to face the fouth nearly, if poffible ; in order to render the magazine as light as can be, and that the wind blowing in may be dry and warm. Sometimes a wall of ten feet high is built round the magazine about twelve diftant from it, to prevent any thing from approaching it without being feen. Mr. Muller has propofed fome alterations by way of improvement, in M. Vauban’s conftruction, for which fee his Praétical Fortification, p. 219, &c. If large magazines are required, the piers or fide-walls which fupport the arch fhould be ten feet thick, feventy- two feet long, and twenty-five feet high ; the middle wall, which fupports the two {mall arches of the ground floor, eight feet high, and eighteen inches thick, and likewife the arches: the thicknefs of the great arch fhould be three feet fix inches, and the counterforts, as well as the air-holes, the fame as before. Magazines of this kind fhould not be ereéted in fortified towns, but in fome inland part of the country near the capital, where no enemy is expected. It has been obferved, that after the centres of femicircular arches are ftruck, they fettle at the crown and rife up at the hanches ; now as this fhrinking of the arches muft be attended with ill confequences, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has been partly dried, and alfo by open- ing the joints~of the voufloirs at one end; Dr. Hutton, in his Treatife on Bridges, has propofed to remedy this incon- venience, with regard to bridges, by the arch of equilibra- tion; and as the ill effect is much greater in powder maga- zines, he has alfo propofed to find an arch of equilibration for them alfo; and to conftruét it when the fpan is twenty feet, the pitch or height ten, which are the fame dimenfions as thofe of the femicircle, the inclined exterior walls, at top, forming an angle of 113°, and the height of their angular point above the top of the arch equal to feven feet; this curious queftion was anfwered in 1775, by the Rev. Mr. Wildbore, and the folution of it may be found in Hutton’s Mifcellanea Mathematica. :; Maeazine, Artillery, or the magazine to a field battery, is ufually made about fifty or fixty yards behind the plat- form. This is a cavity dug in the ground about four feet deep, and the earth thrown between the pit and the plat- form ; the fides of the pit are fometimes planked round to keep it dry and to prevent the earth from crumbling in ; and the powder-barrels placed here are coyered with hurdles and earth, or tanned hides, to preferve the powder from wet or fire. ‘The communication to the magazine is by a floping trench beginning to defcend about five or fix yards behind the platform; and the earth is thrown on that fide where it will moft conveniently cover the perfons who remove the barrels of powder from the great magazine to the bat- tery or {mall magazine. When there are many cannons in the battery, and the fervice is quick, it is cultomary to have, for every two pieces, a {mall magazine to hold twenty or thirty barrels of powder ; this is placed about fifteen er twenty yards behind the platform, and againft the mer- MAG lon between the cannon ; and as thefe barrels are ufed, they are replaced by others from the great magazine. At each magazine a centinel is placed to prevent accidents; and in order to prevent perfons from coming into the battery and magazines who have no bufinefs there, a trench is fometimes dug behind the magazine and carried into the trenches, which communicate between the magazine and battery. Macazine, the apartment ufed to keep the powder in; which in large fhips is fituated forwards, and in {mall fhips ae It fhould always be fituated as low down as pof- ible. c MAGBOTE, or Mamczore, formed of the Saxon meg, z. e. cognatus, and bote, compenfatio, in our Old Writers, a com- penfation for the flaying or murder of one’s kinfman, in ancient times, when corporal punifhments for murder, &c. were fometimes commuted into pecuniary fines, if the friends and relations of the party were fo fatisfied. MAGDALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palef- tine, on the weftern bank of the lake Tiberias. MAGDALEINE, in Geography, the name of an ifland fituated at the bottom of Falfe bay, near the Cape of Good Hope, in which is a great refort of fea wolves, and of pen- uins, named Manchots.”’ MAGDALEN. Religious of Si. Magdalen, is a deno- mination given to divers communities of nuns, confifting, generally, of penitent courtezans; fometimes, alfo, called Masdalanettes. ; Such are thofe at Metz, eftablifhed in 14523 thofe at Paris, in 14923; thofe at Naples, firft eftablifhed in 1324 5 and endowed by queen Sancha, to ferve as a retreat for pub- lic courtezans, who fhould betake themfelves to repentance ; and thofe of Rouen and Bourdeaux, which had their original among thofe of Paris in 1618. Ineach of thefe monafteries there are three kinds of per- fons and congregations ; the firft confift of thofe who are admitted to make vows, and thefe bear the name of St. Mag- dalen ; the congregation of St. Martha is the fecond, and is compofed of thofe who it is not judged proper to admit to vows ; finally, the congregation of St. Lazarus is com- pofed of fuch as are detained there by force. The religions of St. Magdalen at Rome were eltablifhed by pope LeoX. Clement VIII. fettled a revenue on them, and farther appointed that the effeéts of all public proftitutes, dying inteltate, fhould fall to them ; and that the teftament of the reft fhould be invalid, unlefs they bequeathed a por- ae of their effects, which was to be at leaft a fifth part, to them. Macparen Hofpital. See Hospitav. Macpacen Jflands, in Geography, a clutter of iflands in the gulf of St. Lawrence, N.E. of the ifle of St. John’s, and N.W. of that of Cape Breton. They are inhabited by a few fifhermen, and are dangerous to fhips failing near them in foggy weather. The largeft, which gives name to the cluiter, is fituated in N. lat. 47° 25’. W. long. 61° 20!. Macpaen River, a river of Canada, which runs inte the river St. Lawrence. N, lat. 49° r2'. W. long. 6s°'ch MAGDALENA, a {mall ifland in the South Pacific ocean, being one of the Marguefas ; fituated nearly in S. lat. 10° 29. W. long. 138° 50’. See Marquesas. MacpAtena, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 30 miles S. of Havanna. Macpacena River. See MADALENA. Macpacena, Cape of, a promontory in the centre of Ca- nada, which has an iron mine abounding with ore and yield~ ing excellent metal. MAGDALEO, K2 MAG MAGDALEDO, a word ufed by difpenfatory writers, to exprefs any thing made up into a cylindrical form. The common rolls of plallers which the apothecaries make up to be ready for fpreading upon occafion, are thus called, as alfo the rolls of fulphur or common brimftone. MAGDALGAD, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pa- leftine, in the tribe of Judah. Joth. c. xv. MAGDALIL&, or Macpatipes, the fame as Magda- teones, rolls of fulphur, plafter, &c. MAGDALUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Egypt, on the coalt of the Red fea, between Baal-Zephen and Phi- hahiroth. ; MAGDEBURG, in Geography, a duchy furrounded by the Mark of Brandenburg, the duchy of Brunfwick, the principalities of Halberftadt and Avholt, the county of Mansfeld, and the electorate of Saxony. The country belonging to this duchy is, in general, level. Although fuel is {carce, it has feveral mines of pit-coal, and by means of its rivers, particularly the Elbe, which pervades the duchy, obtains wood from the neighbouring provinces. Its falt {prings afford a fupply of falt fufficient for the demands of all Germany. In 1703, the whole duchy contained 35 towns and 431 villages. From the years 1750 to 1756, the number of inhabitants, eftimated by the burials, amounted to 330,000. According to Hoeck’s account in 1801, the number is ftated at 275,262. The ftates of the country conlifted of prelates, the nobility, and the cities. The Re- formation was introduced into this duchy in the fixteenth century, and about the middle of the fucceeding century Lutheranifm was the only religion that was tolerated ; but fince that. time French and German Calvinilt refugees have been received, and under king Frederick-William, the pri- vate exercife of the Roman Catholic worfhip was tolerated both at Magdeburg and Halle. The bifhopric of Magde- burg was formed out of a Benedictine convent, founded by the emperor Otho I. in 937, and converted into an arch- bifhopric in 967. By the peace of Weltphalia, in 1648, the houfe of Brandenburg obtained, under certain ftipu- lations, the reverfion of this archbifhopric, and in 1680 the aétual poffeffion of it. The duchy had its own regency, which, in 1714, was removed from Halle to Magdeburg, and confilted of two fenates; but the cathedral chapter was afterwards excluded from any partinthe government. The annyal revenues amounted to above 800,000 rix-dollars. By the peace of Tilfit in 1807, that part of the duchy, which lies on the left fide of the Elbe, was ceded by the king of Pruffia to the new kingdom of Weltphalia. Macpesure, a city of Weltphalia, the capital of the above-mentioned province, in the circle of Lower Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe. This was formerly one of the principal trading towns in Germany. It is ftrongly for- tified, and has a citadel on an ifland in the river Elbe. It is well built, and the cathedral {quare is ornamented with large and elegant houfes. Among the principal edifices may be reckoned the king’s palace, formerly the epifcopal refidence, the armoury, the governor’s houfe, and the guild- hall, to which we may add the Lutheran cathedral, which is a fuperb {truGiure, in the antique tafte. The Lutherans have alfo three collegiate, and fix parochial churches, and a convent. The manufactures, which are numerous, conlilt of woollen cloths and ftuffs, filk ftuffs, cottons, linen, ftock- ings, hats, leathern gloves, tobacco, {nuft, &c. The fitu- ation of the Elbe, and the road conne¢ting High and Low Germany, render it convenient for trade. Magdeburg, as early as the time of Charles the Great, wasa place of fome note; and it attained a confiderable degree of profperity in later times, and became one of the Hanfe towns. In the MAG year 1807, it was taken by the French. The number of inha- bitants, in 1798, is ftated by Haffel at 30,611, and in rSoz, by Krug, at 32,000; 52 miles E.S.E. of Potzdam. N. lat, 52° 8’. E. long. 11°50’. MAGDELA, a town of Germany, in the principality of Weimar ; 7 miles S.. of Weimar. MAGDELAINE, a clufter of {mall iflands in the Me- diterranean, near the N. coaft of Sardinia. N. lat. 41° 11’. E. long. 9 36’. MAGDOLUS, or Macpor, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated towards the middle of the frontiers of toes Egypt, mentioned Jer. c. Ixvi. v. 14. Exod. c. xiv. v. 2. and alfo by Herodotus 1. xi. c. 49. It was not far) from the fea. The Itinerary of Antonine places it in the vici- nity of the Delta, E. of it, about 12 miles from Pelufium, near the moaft eafterly mouth of the Nile. MAGEDAN, a town of Judea, fituated E. of the lake of Gennefareth. i bb MAGEDO. See Mecinho. “Ae 4 Ze fou MAGEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan ; 25 miles E. of Benares. MAGEEYONCOLLA, a town of Burmah; 42 miles N. of Prome. MAGEGODEVICK, or Eastern River, a river of America, which falls into the bay of Paflamaquoddy, and fuppofed to be rhe true St. Croix, which forms part of the ealt boundary line between the United States and New Brunfwick. MAGEGOWN, atown of Hindooftan, in Concan; 25 miles S. of Severndroop. ‘ MAGELHOLM™M, a fmall iflard of Denmark, in the Baltic, near the S. coaft of the ifland of Zealand. N. lat. $4743). Je. long. 11> 17). MAGELLAN, Srrairs of, a paflage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, at the fouthern extremity of the continent of America; eftimated by Bougainville at 342 miles from Cape Virgin Mary, in the Atlantic, S. lat. 52 24’. W. long. 68° 22’, to Cape Pillar, in the Pacific, S. lat. 52° 45’. W. long. 75° 10’. The breadth of it is various in different parts ; and it has many capes and bays, affording places of anchorage and fecurity to fhips that pafs through it. On the north it is bounded by Patagonia, and on the fouth by Terra del Fuego. Thefe ftraits were firlt difcovered by Ferdinando Mageilan, or Magalhaens, in the fervice of the crown of Spain, who, in the year 1520, found a paflage through them from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, (fee his biographical article.) Admiral Drake alfo paffed thefe ftraits in his voyage round the world ; and they have been fince pafled by feveral other navigators, viz. com- medore Byron in 1764, Wallis in 1766, and Carteret: in 1767, Bougainville in 1768, &c. ‘hey have been care- fully examined by the naviyators juit mentioned, with regard to their bays, harbours, and headlands; the nu- merous iflands which they contain, and the coa{ts on both fides, that inclofe them; and the tides, currents, and found- ings that occur in them, through their whole extent. OF the tranfactions of Byron, Wallis, and Carteret in thefe ftraits, we have details in the accounts cf their refpective voyages, and thefe, together with the chart, founded on their obfervations and difcoveries, are a very valuable ac- ceflion to geography. Commodore Byron clofes his ae- count of the yoyage through thefe ftraits, with the fel- lowing general remarks. ‘It is probable, that whoever fhall read this account, of the difficulties avd dangers which attended our paflage through the {trait of Magellan, will conclude, that it ought never to be attempted again; but that all {hips which fhall hereafter fail a weltern courfe from Europe MAG. Europe into the South feas, ought to go round Cape Horn. I, however, who have been twice round Cape Horn, am of a different opinion. I think that at a proper feafon of the year, not only a fingle veffel, but a large’ {quadron might pafs the ftrait in lefs than three wecks ; and I think, to take the proper feafon, they fhould be at the eaftern entrance fome time in the month of December. One great advan- tage of this paflage is, the facility with which fifh is al- moft every where to be procured, with wild celery, fcurvy grafs, berries, and many other vegetables in great abun- dance; for to this [impute the healthinefs of my fhip’s company, not a fingle man being affected with the feurvy in the flighteft degree, nor upon. the fick’ lift for any cther diforder, notwith{tanding the hardfhip and labour which they endured in the paffage, which coft us feven weeks and two days, as we entered the ftrait on Sunday the r7th of February, and quitted it on Tuefday the gth of April. Wood and water are alfo to be procured almott at every anchoring place beyond Frefh-water bay. Our fufferings I impute wholly to our paffing the itrait juft as the fun ap- proached the equinox, when, in this high latitude, the wort “weather was to be expected; and indeed the weather we had was dreadful, beyond all defeription.” (Hawk{worth’s Voyages, vol. i.) Capt. Wallis’s account of his paffage through this ftrait terminates with this reflection: “Thus we quitted a dreary and inhofpitable region, where we were in almoft perpetual danger of fhipwreck for near four months, having entered the {trait on the 17th of December 1766, and quitted-it'on the rith of April 1767; a region where, in the mid{ft of fummer, the weather was cold, gloomy, and tempeftuous, where the profpects had more the appearance of a chaos than of nature, and where, for the moft part, the vallies were without herbage, and the hills without wood.’’ To the account of captain Wallis’s voyage is annexed, a table of the courfes and diftances from int to point, in this ftrait, as by compafs. MAGELLANIC Croups, in Afronomy, whitith appear- ances like clouds, feen in the heavens towards the fouth pole, and having the fame apparent motion as the ftars. They are three in number, two of them near each other. The largeft lies far from the fouth pole, but the other two are not many degrees more remote from it than the neareft confpicuous ftar, that is, about eleven degrees. Mr. Boyle conjectures, that if thefe clouds were feen through a good teleicope, they would appear to be multitudes of {mall ftars like the milky way. Boyle’s Works abr. vol.i. p. 295. Macetranic Goeofe, Anfer magellanicus, in Ornithology. See Ducx. MAGELLANICA Terra, in Geography. See Pa- TAGONIA. MAGERGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeith ; 54 miles S. of Indore. MAGGERI, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 21 miles W. of Bangalore. MAGGEROE, a large ifland near the coaft of Lapland, feparated from it by a ftrait of the North fea, called “ Magger Sund.”” This ifland is faid to be the moft nor- thern land in Europe. N. lat. 71°. E. long. 24° 55’. MAGGI, Jrnome, in Biography, a lawyer, philologift, and engineer, was born at Anghiari, in ‘Tufcany, in the earlier part of the fixteenth century; he ftudied at the principal Italian: univerfities, and while young acquired an intimate acquaintance with antiquities and polite literature. He had fearcely attained to the age of manhood, when he was felected by his townfmen as their embaflador at the court of Florence. ; In 1558, he was appointed judge at Amatrica, in the kingdom of Naples, but his i reli 8 MAG dence was in the city of Venice, where he wrote the greater part of his learned works. Of his legal ftudies, the fruit was ‘¢ A Commentary on the four Books of Juftinian’s In- flitutes.”” In general literature, his principal: work was “ Variarum LeGtionum feu Mifcellaneorum,” which was elegantly written, and which proves him to have been thoroughly acquainted with the beft ancient and modern authors. He appeared as a theologian, in a treatife « De Mundi exuftione, et de Die Judicii,’” commended by Dupin for its learning andelegance. He gave fignal proofs of his talents as a poet, but the work by which he acquired the greateft reputation, was relative to the fubjeé&t of mili- tary engineering, entitled «¢ Della Fortificazione delle Citta,” which contains a defcription of many ingenious machines, and inftruments of his own invention. Qn account of his. {kill in this department of {cience, he was fent to Cyprus, when: threatened with invafion by the Turks, and his fervices. as an engineer were of great ule in the celebrated fiege of that place, and enabled it to hold ont a long time, and with vait deftruétion to the enemy. At length it fell, and Maggi was carried by the Turks as a flave to Conftan- tinople, where he underwent much hardfhip. In the gloomy. folitude of a dungeon, he wrote two pieces, entitled « De Tintinnabulis,” and « De Equuleo,” the latter, «On the Rack,” was probably fuggelted to him by the refle@tion on the tortures to which he was daily liable. He was at length, and at the moment when negociations. were carrying on for his deliverance, ftrangled in his prifon, in the year 1572. Bayle. Mace:, Cuantes Marta, an Italian poet of the 17th century, and one of the reftorers of good tafte in Italy, after the barbarous ravages of the fchool of Marini. He was born-at. Milan in 1630, and was fecretary to the fenate of that city. He dicd in 16go, and his works were pub- lifhed in the following year by Muratori, at Milan, in four vols. 12mo. Maaa1, in Geography, a town of Tunis; 40 miles S.W. , of Gabbs. MAGGIA Vat, an Italian bailiwick, belonging to the Swifs cantons, containing 22 parifhes, and 245000 inha- bitants of the Catholic religion. ‘ It is partly bounded by the duchy of Milan, and the bailiwicks of Livenen and Lo- carno, and terminated by mountains of eternal fnow.—Alfo,, a town of Italy, in the bailiwick of Bellinzona; feven miles. W.S.W. from Bellinzona—Alfo, a river of Italy, which runs into lake Maggiore, at Locarno. MAGGIORA, Laco. See Laxr. MAGGIORE, an Italian adjective, from major, Lat. a word now naturalized in the Englifh language, aud fynony- mous with greater, a8 a major 3d implies a greater or fharp 3d, asa minor does a lets or a flat 3d. Thefe degrees of comparifon are of very frequent ufe in mulic, the variable intervals amounting to five; as the femitone, the tone, the 3d, the 6th, and the 7th. With regard to the tone and the femitone, their difference of major and minor can only be expreffed in numbers, as we have no notes to exprefs them in our fy{tem. ‘The femitone major is the interval of a fecond minor, as from B to C, or E. to F, and its ratio is 15 to 16. The major is the difference between the 4th and sth, and its ratio 8to9, The three other in- tervals, namely, the 3d, 6th, and 7th, differ conitantly from each other by a femitone from the major to the mi- nor. Thus, the 3d minor confilts of a tone and a_ half, and the 3d major of two tones. "There are fome {till {maller intervals, whichare called major and minor in theory, as the quarter tone, and. the comma; but as thefe intervals can ouly MAG only be expreffed in numbers, they are imaginary diftine- tions, and ufelefs in practice. A mode or key is alfo faid to be major, when tke 3d above the key note is major ; that is, confifting of four femitones above the bafe. ‘To modulate from a major key to a minor, and ¢ contra, are common mufical exprefiions. MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm, bred in flefh, from the egg of the great blue flefh-fly. Notwith- {tanding the diftafte for this animal, its figure and ftruéture of parts are greatly worth attending to, and may ferve as a general hiftory of the clafs of worms produced from the eggs of flies. This animal is white and flefhy ; its body is compofed of a number of rings, like the bodies of caterpillars, and other _ the like infeéts, and is capable, at the pleafure of the animal, of affluming different figures, being at times more or lefs extended in length, and confequently more or lefs thick. Notwithftanding that this creature has no legs, it is able to move itfelf very fwiftly, and, in its firft attempt to move its body, is extended to its greateft length, and affumes fomething of the figure of a pointed cone. The pointed part of this cone is the head ef the animal, and is not fepa- rated from the next ring by any deeper furrow than the reft of the rings are from one another. In fome ftates of the animal one may fee two fhort horns thruft out from the head; but what are more cont{tantly obfervable, are two brown fcaly hooks; thefe are, however, fometimes hid, and have each of them a fheath, or cafe, into which the animal can retraét them at pleafure. ‘[hefe hooks are bent into an arch, the concavity of which is toward the place on which the creature is placed, and they are thickeft at their infertion in the head, and thence diminifh gradually, till they terminate in a fine fharp point. Thefe two hooks are placed in a parallel direction, and can’never come together, and therefore cannot ferve in the place of teeth to grind the food between, but merely to pull and fever it to pieces, that it may be of a proper fize for the mouth of the creature. The creature has, befides thefe two hooks, a kind of dart, which is of about a third part of their length, and is placed at an equal diftance between them. This alfo is brown like them, and fcaly ; it is quite ftraight, and ter- minates in a fine point. The hooks have, as it were, two fcaly thorns at their points, and this dart feems intended, by reiterated ftrokes, to divide and break the pieces of flefh thefe have feparated from the reft, into {maller parts. Immediately below the apertures for the egrefs of the hooks, is placed the mouth of the animal; the creature does not fhew this little opening unlefs preffed ; but if the preffure be properly managed, it will fufficiently open it, and there may be difcovered within it a fmall protuberance, which may very naturally be fuppofed either the tongue, or the fucker of the animal. The hooks in this creature not only fupply the place of teeth but alfo of legs; fince it is by faftening theie hooks into the fubftance it is placed on, and then drawing up its body to it, that it pulls itfelf along. The back of the creature lowers itfelf by degrees as it approaches the extremity of the belly ; and near the place where the back begins to lower itfelf, are placed the crea- ture’s two principal organs of refpiration. One may per- ceive there two fmall roundifh brown fpots: thefe are very ealily diftinguifhable by the naked eye ; becaufe the reft of the body of the creature is white: but if we take in the affiftance of glaffes, each of thefe fpots appears to be a brown circular eminence raifed a little above the reft of the body. On each of thefe {pots one may alfo difcever three MAG oblong oval cavities, fomething in the fhape of button-holes ; thefe are fituated in a parallel direétion to one another, and their length nearly in a perpendicular dire&tion to that of the body of the animal. P _ Thefe apertures are fo many ftigmata or air-holes, open- ings deftined to admit the air neceffary to the life of the animal. ‘The creature has fix of thefe ftigmata, three in each fide of its body. The great tranfparence of the body of this infeét, gives us an opportunity alfo to diftinguifh that it has on each fide a large white veflel running the whole length of the body. It is eafy to follow the courfe of thefe veffels through their whole length, but they are moft diftin@& of all toward its hinder part, and they are always feen to terminate each in the brown {pot before defcribed ; this leaves us no room to doubt but that they are the two principal trachee. Thefe pofterior trachee have been well known to the la- ter naturalifts ; but there are two others befides thefe which they feem not to have diftinguifhed. Thefe are fituated in the anterior part of the animal, and are eafily difcovered by following the courfe of the trachez on each fide; for though thefe all the way diminifh in their diameters as they ap- proach the head of the animal, yet it may be eafily enough feen where they terminate, which is (taking the head fe one ring) in the junétion of the fecond and third ring. In this place the naked eye eafily difcovers a {mall {pot at the extremity of each, which viewed with a good microfcope appears to be a plain fligma, of the figure of a funnel with half of it cut off, and very elegantly indented, and as it were fringed at the edges. Thefe {tigmata in the anterior part of the body, are as conitant in this creature as the pofterior ones, but it feems to have none of thofe which the caterpillar clafs are fur- nifhed with along their fides; though it feems from the itructure of the fly it afterwards transforms itfelf into, that it ought to have them, fince that has ftigmata in their places. The ramifications of the two great trachee are very beautifully feen in this creature, efpecially on his belly ; and it is remarkable that no veffel analogous to the great artery in the caterpillar clafs can be difcovered in-thefe ; though, if there were any fuch, their great tranfparence muft needs make them very eafily diitinguifhable; nor could its dilatations and contra¢tions, if fo confiderable as in that clafs of animals, be lefs fo, Malpighi imagined that artery, in the caterpillar clafs, a feries of hearts; in its place, however, there may be feen in thefe animals a true heart. It is eafy to obferve in thefe creatures, about the fourth ring of the body, a fmall flefhy part, which has al- ternate contra¢tions and dilatations, and is not only difcover- able in the body by means of the creature’s tranfparence 5 but, on making a proper fection of them in the fecond, third, and fourth rings, will be thrown out of the body of the creature, and will afterwards continue its beats for fome minutes, Reaumur’s Hift. of Infeéts, vol. iv. p. 166, feq. See Larva, Pura, &c. under the article ENromoLocy. MAGHERA, in Geography, a polt-town of the county of Londonderry, Ireland; 96 miles N. from Dublin. MAGHERAFELT a poft-town of the county of Londonderry, Ireland, near Lough Neagh; 88 miles N. from Dublin. MAGHEREE, a clufter of iflands on the coaft of the county of Kerry, not far from Tralee bay. MAGI, or Macrans, a titie which the ancient Perfians gave to their wife men or philofophers. The learned are in great perplexity about the original of the word Magus, «ayo: Plato, Kenophon, Herodotus, Strabo, &c. derived it from the Perfian language, in which it MAGLI it fignified a prief, or perfon appointed to officiate in holy things ; as Druid, among the Gauls ; Gymno/ophifi; among the Indians; and Levite, among the Hebrews. Others derive it from the Greek peyes, great ; which they fay, be- ing borrowed of the Greeks by the Perfians, was returned in the form of pxyos; but Voffius, with more probability, brings it from the Hebrew 4M; haga, to meditate ; whence F=939M, maaghim, in Latin meditabundi, q. d. people ad- difed to meditation. See the fequel of this article. Magi, among the Perfians, anfwers to coo, or Pirocogor, among the Greeks; /apientes, among the Latins ; Druids, among the Gauls; Gymno/ophifis, among the Indians ; and prophets, priefts, among the Egyptians. The ancient Magi, according to Ariftotle and Laertius, were the fole authors and contervators of the Perfian phi- lofophy ; and the philofophy principally cultivated among them, was theology and politics; they being always efteemed as the interpreters of all law, both divine and human ; on which account they were wonderfully revered by the people. Hence, Cicero obferves, that none were admitted to the crown of Perfia, but fuch as were well in- ftruéted in the difcipline of the Magi; who taught ra BuciAsxx, and fhewed princes how to govern. Plato, Apuleius, Laertius, and others, agree, that the philofophy of the Magi related principally to the worfhip of the gods ; they were the perfons who were to offer prayers, fupplications, and facrifices, as if the gods would be heard by them alone. : They teach their doétrine concerning the nature and ori- gin of the gods, fays Laertius, whom they think to be fire, earth, and water; they rejeét the ufe of pictures and images, and reprobate the opinion, that the gods are male and female ; they difcourfe to the people concerning juftice; they think it impious to confume dead bodies with fire : they allow of marriage between mother and fon ; they prac- tife divination and prophecy, pretending that the gods ap- pear to them; they forbid the ufe of ornaments in drefs ; they clothe themfelves in a white robe ; they make ufe of the ground as their bed, of herbs, cheefe, and bread for food, and of a reed for their ftaff. Strabo alfo relates, that there were in Cappadocia a great number of Magi, who were called « Pyrethi,’? or worthippers of fire, and many temples of the Perfian gods, in the midft of which were altars attended. by priefts, who daily renewed the facred fire, accompanying the ceremony with mufic: But according to Lucian, Suidas, &c. this theology or worthip of the gods, as it is called, about.which the Magi were employed, was little more than the diabolical art. of divination ; fo that wayax, ftrictly taken, was the art of di- vination. Thefe people were held in fuch veneration among the Perfians, that Darius, the fon of Hyttafpes, among other things, had it engraven on his monument, that he was the mafter of the Magi. Philo Judeus defcribes the Magi to be diligent inquirers into nature, out of the love they bear to truth; and who, fetting themfelves apart from other things, contemplate the divine virtues the more clearly, and initiate others in the fame mytteries. The Magi, or Magians, formed one of the two grand feé&ts into which the idolatry of the world was divided be- tween 5 and 600 years before Chrift. Thefe abominated all chofe images which were worthipped by the other feét, denominated Sabians, and paid their worfhip to the Deity under the emblem of fire. Their chief doétrine was, that there were two pginciples, one of which was the caufe of all good, and the other the caufe of all evil. The former was reprefented by light, and the latter by darknefs, as their trueft fymbols ; and of the compofition of thefe two, they fuppofed, that all things in the world were made. The good god they called Yazdan, denominated by the Greeks Oromafdes ; and the evil god Ahraman, whom the Greeks called Arimanius. (See ARmmaNtus.) Concerning thefe two gods, there was this difference of opinion among them; that whereas fome held both of them to have been from all eternity, there were others who contended, that the good god only was eternal, and that the other was created. But they both agreed in this, that there will be a continual oppofition between thefe two, till the end of the world ; when the former fhall overcome the latter ; and that from thenceforth each of them fhall have his world to him- felf ; that is, the good god fhall have his world with all good men with him; and the evil god his world, with all evil men with him. The good god they always wor- fhipped before fire, as being the caufe of light, and efpe- cially before the fun, as being, in their opinion, the moft per- fect fire, and caufing the molt perfeét-light ; and for this rea- fon they had in all their temples fire continually burning on altars, ereéted in them for that purpofe. Before thefe facred fires they performed all their public a&ts of devotion, as they likewife praétifed their private devotions before their private fires in their own houfes. Such were the tenets of this fe€t, when Smerdis, who was the principal leader of it, having ufurped the crown after the death of Cambyfes, was flaim by feven princes of Perfia; and many of the Magians, who adhered to him, fhared likewife the fame fate. In confequence of this event, thofe who adopted the fentiments of this fet, were called, by way of derifion, Magians, from mige-gufb, which fignified, in the language of the country then in ufe, one that had his ears cropped. ‘The whole fect of the Magians would foon have funk into utter extinction, if it had not, in a few years after this period, been révived and reformed by Zoroatter. This celebrated philofopher, called by the Perfians Zerdufht, or Zaratuth, began about the thirty-fixth year of the reign of Darius to reftore and reform the Magian fyftem of re- ligion. He was not only excellently fkilled in all the learn- ing of the Eaft that prevailed in his time; but likewife thoroughly verfed in the Jewifh religion, and in all the facred writings of the Old Teftament that were then extant, whence fome have inferred, that he was a native Jew both by birth and profeffion ; and that he had been fervant to one of the prophets, probably Ezekiel or Daniel. (See Zoroaster.) He made his firft appearance in Media, in the city of Xiz, now called Aderbijan, as fome fay ; or according to others, in Ecbatana, now called Tauris. In- ftead, of admitting the exiftence of two firft caufes, with the Magians, he introduced a principle fuperior to them’ both, one fupreme God, who created both thefe, and out of thefe two produced, according to his fovereign pleafure, every thing elle. See Ifaiah, v. 5, 6, 7. In order to avoid making God the author of all evil, he taught that God originally created only light or good, and that darknefs or evil followed it by confequence, as the fhadow doth the perfon. According to his doétrine, there was one fupreme being independently, and felf-exiftiag from all eternity : under him there were two oe one the an- gel of light, the author and direétor of all good; and the other the angel of darknefs, who is the author and di- rector of all evil: thefe two, out of the mixture of light and darknefs, made all things that are; and they are ina {tate of perpetual confli& ; fo that where the angel of light prevails, there the moft is good; and where the angel of darknefs MAGI. @arknefs prevails, there the moft is evil: this ftrnggle fhall continue to’ the end of the world ; and then there fhall be a general refurreG@tion, and a day of judgment ; after which, the angel of darknefs and his difciples fhall go into a world of their own, where they fhall fuffer in everlafting darknefs the punifhment of their evil deeds; and the angel of light and his difciples fhall go intoa world of their own, where they fhall receive in everlafting light, the reward due unto their ood deeds: and henceforward they fhall for ever remain Aoecate. See Emanation. bel Plutarch, fpeaking of the improvement of the religious fyftem of the Magi by Zoroatter, fays, (lfis et Ofiris, tom. ii. p. 155.) “ fome maintain, that, neither is the world governed by blind chance without intelligence, nor is there one mind alone at the head of the univerfe; but, fince good and evil are blended, and nature produces no- thing unmixed, we are to conceive, not that there is one ftore-keeper, who, after the manner of an hott, difpenfes adulterated liquors to his guelts ; but that there are in na- ture two oppofite powers, counteraéting each other's opera- tions, the one accomplifhing good deligns, the other evil. To the better power Zoroalter gave the name of Oromafdes, to the worfe that of Arimanius; and affirmed, that, of fenfible objects, the former mott refembled light, the latter darknefs. He alfo taught, that Mithras was a divinity, who aéted as moderator between them, whence he was called by the Perfians the Mediator.” After relating feveral fa- bulous tales concerning the contefts between the good and: evil demons, Plutarch, {till reciting the doétrines of Zoro- after, proceeds, “* The fated time is approaching, in which Arimanius himfelf fhall be utterly deftroyed ; in which the furface of the earth fhall become a perfect plain, aad all men fhall fpeak one language, and live happily together in one fociety.”” He adds, on the authority of Theo- pompns, “ It is the opinion of the Magi, that each of thefe gods fhall fubdue and be fubdned by turns for 6000 years, but that, at lait, the evil principle fhall perifh, and men fhall tive in happinefs ; neither needing food, nor yield- ing a fhadow ; the God who direéts thefe things taking his repofe for a time, which, though it may feem long to man, is but fhort.”” Diogenes Laertius, after Hecateus, gives it as the doGrine of Zoroaiter, that the gods- (meaning,) doubtlefs, thofe of whom he lalt fpedks, Oromatdes and Arimanius) were derived beings. Thofe who remain of this fe&t in Perfia and India, in the prefent day, retain the fame doGtrines. Zoroatter alfo caufed fire temples to be erected wherever he came: for having feigned that he was taken up into heaven, and there in- Struéted in the doétrines he taught by God himfelf, out of the midit of a great and mott bright flame of fire, he taught his followers, that fire was the truett fhechinah of the divine refence ; that the fun being the moft perfeét fire, God had there the throne of his glory, and the refidence of his divine prefence in a peculiar manner; and next to this in our elementary fire: and, therefore, he ordered them to dire& all their worfhip to God, firlt towards the fun, which they called Mithra, and next towards their facred fires: and when they came before thefe fires to worfhip, they always approached them on the welt fide, that having their faces towards them, and alfo towards the rifing fun at the fame time, they might direct their worfhip towards beth. of their worfhip. Zoroalter alfo pretended, that he brought fome of the heavenly fire with him on his return, and placed it on the altar of the firlt fire-temple, which he ere&ted at Xiz, in Media, whence it was propagated to all And in this pofture they always performed every act the reft. And on this account, their priefts carefully watch it, and never fuffer it to be extinguifhed. Zovoaller, having afflumed the charaéter of a divine pro- phet and reformer of religion, retired into a cave, devot- ing himfelf to prayer i meditation, where he compofed the book called the Zend, in which his pretended revelations were contained. From Media he removed into DBaétria; and he went alfo into India among the Brachmans, and hav- ing acquired ail their knowledge in mathematics, philofophy, and altronomy, returned and communicated the knowledge he had acquired to his Magians; and thus they became fa- mous for their fkill in thefe fciences ; fo that a learned man and a Magian were equivalent terms. ‘lhe vulgar con- ceived of them as perfons actuated and infpired by fuper- natural powers; and hence thofe, who pretended to wicked and diabolical acts, aflumed the name of Magians; and the term magician acquired its evil meaning. However, this dittinguifhed knowledge was contined to thofe, who were by way of eminence, the Magi, or the prielts; whe, like thofe of the Jews, being of the fame tribe, appropri- ated their learning to their own families. Thefe privits were diltributed into three orders, viz. the inferior prietls, who conducted the ordinary ceremonies of religion; the {uperintendants, who governed them, and prefided over the facred fire; and the archimagus, or high-prieft, who pof- feffed fupreme authority over the whole order ; and their churches or temples were alfo of three forts, parochial or oratories, in which the people performed their devotions, and where the facred fire was kept only in lamps; fire- temples, in which fire was kept continually burning on a facred altar, where the higher order of the Magi directed the public devotions, and the people affembled to perform magical incantations, hear interpretations of dreams, and practife other fuperititions ; and laflly, the fire-temple in which the archimagus relided, which was vilited by the people at certain feafons with peculiar folemnity, and to which it was deemed an indifpenfible duty fer every one to repair, at lealt once in hislife. Zoroatter at length carried his religious fyitem to the royal court of Sufa, and made Darius a profelyte, together with molt of the great men of the kingdom. Darius was fo attached to the Magjan fyftem, that he became an archimagus, and ordered, that, among other titles, it fhould be engraven on his monu- ment, that he was majffer of the Magians. Hence the kings of Perfia were conlidered as pertaining to the facer- dotal tribe, and were always initiated in the facred order of the Magians, before they took on them the crown, or were inaugurated into the kingdom, . No images or ftatues were permitted in the Perfian worfhip. Hence, when Xerxes found idols in the Grecian temples, he, by the advice of the Magi, fet them on fire, faying, that the gods, to whom all things are open, are not to be confined within the walls of a temple. Zoroafter, after this fuccefs, returned to Balch, in Bac- tria, where, according to his own inftitution, he was ob- liged to refide, as archimagus or head of the fe&, and there he reigned in fpirituals, with the fame authority, over the whole empire, as the king did in temporals; and from hence probably arofe the miltake of making him king of Baétria. The principal temple erected at Balch by Zoroalter remained till the 7th century, when his fo'- lowers being driven by the Mahometans into Carmenia, another building of the fame kind was raifed, to which thofe who adhered to the ancient Perfian religion re- forted. Zoroatter, at length, fell a faerifice to his zeal; for having concerted an enterprize againit Argalp, king ° MAG ‘ of the oriental Scythians, who was a zealous Sabian, to draw him over to his religion; the Scythian prince in- vaded Baétria with an army, and flew Zoroafter, with all the priefts of this patriarchal church, to the number of eighty perfons, and demolifhed all the fire-temples in that province. This is faid to have happened in the 35th year of Darius. Pythagoras derived a great part of his know- ledge from Zoroafter, and his difciples the Magians. Pri- deaux’s Conn. vol. i. | i Their defcendants, the modern Magi, or fire-worfhippers, are divided into three clafles; of which the firlt and moft learned neither eat nor kill animals; but adhere to the old inftitution of abitaining from all living creatures. The Magi of the fecond clafs refrain only from tame animals ; nor do the laft kill all indifferently, it being the firm and diftinguifhing fettled notion of them all, ty perepdxuesw evs that there is a tranfmigration of fouls. See Merempsy- enosis and GanRes. The ancient Arabians, like the neighbouring Chaldzans and Perfians, feem to have had their wife men, by whom their knowledge, fuch as they had, was taught, and their religious ceremonies and fuperflitious arts were practifed. Pliny (Hilt. Nat. 1..xxx. c. 1.) mentions the Arabian Magi, and {peaks of Hippocus, an Arabian, as belonging to this order, One of the moft ancient fects of the Magi, as the Mofaic hiltory informs us (Exod. iv.), was among the Egyptians. Thefe Magi made ufe of {mall images, of va- rious forms, with which they pretended to perform many wonders, and particularly to cure difeafes. Z MAGIC, Macia, May, in its ancient fenfe, the fcience or difcipline and doétrine, of the Magi, or wife men of Perfia. The magic which Zoroafter invented was probably no- thing more than the performance of certain religious cere- monies, by means of which, good demons were fuppofed to be prevailed upon to communicate fupernatural proper- ties and powers to herbs, ftones, and other natural bodies, or to afford affiftance in other miraculous ways to thofe who invoked them. In war, it was fuppofed, that, by the help of magic, the forces of an enemy might be routed, or an army {truck with a general panic, as is faid to have hap- pened to Ninus, in his war with the Baétrians. In this art the kings of Chaldza and Perfia were inftructed, as one of the moft ufeful inftruments of government, among a people, whofe ignorance and credulity rendered them proper {ubjects of impofture. For it is juftly obferved by Plutarch (in Sertorio), that ‘barbarous nations are naturally prone to fuperftiticn; and a weak, illiterate, and fickle multitude, when they are once brought under its dominion, will be more obedient to their priefls than to their civil or military leaders.’ We have given fome account of it under the article CuaLp ans. : The Chaldzans, as we are informed by Diodorus Siculus (lib. i.) learned the art of aftrology and magic from the Egyptians, who were, from the earlieit times, adepts in thefe fidiiuious feiences, and by the cultivation of thefe arts, their priefls acquired an irrefiftible {way over an ignorant and fuperttitious populace. See the preceding article. Macic, in a more modern fenfe, is a f{cience which teaclies to perform wonderful and furprifing effeéts. The word magic originally carried with it a very innocent, nay, a very laudable, meaning; being ufed purely to fig- nify the ftudy of wifdom, and the more fublime parts of knowledge ; but in regard the ancient Magi engaged them- felves in altrology, divination, forcery, &c. the term magic, in time, became odious, and was only ufed to fignify an unlawful and diabolical kind of {cience, depending, as it was pretended, on the affiftance of the devil, and departed fouls. If any wonder how fo vain and deceitful a {cience fhould Vor, XXII. MAG gain fo much eredit and authority over men’s minds, Pliny ives the reafon of it. It is, fays he, becaufe it has poffefled itfelf of three fciences of the moft elteem among men, taking from each all that is great and marvellous in it. Nobody doubts but it had its origin in medicine, and that it infinuated itfelf into the minds of the people, under pretence of afford- ing extraordinary remedies. ‘T’o thefe fine promifes is added every thing in religion that is pompous and fplendid, and that appears calculated to blind and captivate mankind. And, laftly, it mingled judicial aftrology with the reft, perfuading people, curious of futurity, that it faw every thing to come in the heavens. Agrippa divides magic into three ‘kinds, natural, celeftial, and ceremonial or Juperflitious. Maerc, Natural, is no more than the application of na- tural active caufes to paflive things or fubjeéts ; by means of which many furprifing, but yet natural, effects are pro- duced. Macic, Celefial, borders nearly on judiciary aftrology ; it attributes to fpirits a kind of rule, or dominion, over the planets: and to the planets a dominion over men; and on thofe principles, builds a ridiculous kind of fyitem. Maaic, Superftitious, or Geotic, confifts in the invocation of devils, or demons : its effects are ufually evil and wicked, though very ftrange, and feemingly furpafling the powers of nature: they are fuppofed to be produced by virtue of fome compaét, either tacit or exprefs, with evil {pirits; but the truth is, thefe f{uppofed compacts have not the power that is ufually imagined ; nor do they produce half thofe effets ordinarily afcribed to them. Macaic Lantern, an optic machine contriyed by Kircher, (fee his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbre, p. 768, 769.), by means of which little coloured images are reprefented on an oppolite wall of a dark room, magnified to any bignefs at pleafure, and exhibited in their natural and vivid colours. Maaic Lantern, Conflrudtion of the. Suppofe ABCD (Plate X. Optics, fiz. 1.) a common tin lantern, to which is added a tube to draw out, FG. In H is fixed a metallic concave {peculum, of a foot diameter at moft, or four inches at leaft : or, in lieu thereof, near the extremity ef the tube, there mutt be placed a conyex lens, confifting of a fegment of a {mall {phere, its diameter not exceeding a few inches. The ufe of this lens is to throw a ftrong light upon the image ; and fometimes a concave fpeculum is ufed with the lens, in order to make the image ftill more vivid. In the focus of the concave {peculum, or lens, is placed a lamp L; within the tube where it is foldered to the fide of the lantern, is placed a {mall lens, convex on both fides, being a portion of a {mall {phere, having its focus about the dittance of three inches, ‘The extreme part of the tube, F M, is fquare, and has an aperture quite through, fo as to receive an oblong frame, N O, pafled into it ; in this frameare round holes, an inch or two in diameter. According to the bignefs of thefe holes are drawn circles, on a plain thin glafs ; and in thefe circles are painted any figures or images, at pleafure, with tranfparent water colours. Thefe images, fitted into the frame, and placed invertedly, at. a little diftance from the focus of the lens I, will be projected on an oppofite white wall of a dark room, prodigioufly magnified in all their colours, and in an ere¢t fituation. By having the inftrument fo contrived, as that the lens, I, may move ina flide, the focus may be made, and confequently the image appear diftinét, at almoft any diftance. Or thus :—Every thing being managed as in the former, into the fliding tube, F G, infert another convex lens K, the {egment of a {phere fomewhat larger than I. Now, if the picture be brought nearer to I than the diftance of the tocus, diverging rays will be propagated, as if they pro- ceeded from the object; wherefore, if the lens, K, 8 fo ‘ 4 placed, MAGIC SQUARE. placed, as that the objet is very near its focus, the image will be exhibited on the wall, exceedingly magnified. Maaic Lantern, Theory of the. The lamp being placed in the focus of *he concave fpeculum, or any convex glafs, the rays will be propagated parallel to each other, and the image will be ftrongly illumined, and will therefore emit a great number of rays upon the lens I. But, being fup- pofed to be placed near the lens I, the inverted image of the picture inverted muft be formed on the oppofite wall, exceedingly magnified, after its refraGtion through the lens ; and it will be ftill the more magnified, as the lens is a feg- ment of a lefs {phere, and as the picture is placed nearer the focus of the lens; in a dark place, therefore, the pic- ture will be reprefented prodigioufly large and extremely vivid. To heighten the light, {pecula are preferred to lenfes ; ‘the focus of a {peculum being nearer than that of a lens. De Chales orders the diameter of the lens, I, to be two, four, or five digits, and in a fubduple proportion to the other K; i.e. if I be five digits, K mult be ten; and the diameter of the fpeculum, according to the fame, is to be two digits. Zahnius choofes to have the diameter of I 5 of a foot ; and that of K one foot and a half, &c. Little animals being included in the magic lantern, in the manner obferved in {peaking of the microfcope, or any little tranfparent objects faftened to a flice of tale or glafs, and fubftituted inftead of images, the magic lantern will become a microfcope. A. view of the inftrument itfelf may be feen in fig. 2, in which b/c is the lens that throws the light of the candle or lamp, a, on the object de, and £/is the lens that magnifies the image, fg, on the white wall, FH, in a dark room. It is plain, that if the tube, dn £/ me, be contracted, and the glafs, £/, be brought nearer the object de, the image, fg, will be enlarged ; and hence, this lantern has been called the lanterna megalographica. On the contrary, 1 the tube be protracted, the image of the obje4 will be diminifhed. In fome magic lanterns, inftead of the fingle lens £/, two lenfes are ufed of lefs curvature, and fet at a little diltance from each other; and thefe produce a fomewhat better effect than a fingle lens. Between them is placed a perforated diaphragm. M. Euler propofed a fcheme to introduce vifion by re- flected light into the magic lantern, as well as the folar mi- crofcope, by which many inconvemences to which thofe in- ftruments are fubje&t, might be avoided. For this purpofe, he fays, that nothing is neceflary but a large concave mirror, perforated as for a telefcope, and that the light be fo fitua- ted, that none of it may pafs direGily through the perforation, fo as to fal! on the images of the objects upon the fereen. He propofes to have four different machines for objects of different fizes ; the firft for thofe of fix feet long, the fecond for thofe of one foot, the third for thofe of two inches, and the fourth for thofe of two lines. An idea of this con- trivance is given in fig. 3, in which O D reprefents the con- cave mirror, E the object, /, /, the lights, and A the lens, through which the rays are tranfmitted to the fcreen. Nov. Com. Petrop. vol. iii. p. 363. Macic Square, a {quare figure, formed of a feries of gumbers, in mathematical proportion, fo difpofed in parallel and equal ranks, as that the fums of each row, taken either erpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonally, are equal. The feveral numbers which compofe any {quare number (for inflance, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 25 inclufive, which com- pofe the fquare number 25), being difpofed after each other, in a fquare figure of 25 cells, exch in its cell; if then you change the order of thefe numbers, and difpofe them in the cells in fuch a manner, as that the five numbers whick fill an horizontal rank of cells, being added together, fhall make the fame fum with the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whether horizontal or vertical, and even the fame number with the five in each of the two diagonal ranks: this difpofition of numbers is called a magic fquare ; in oppofition to the former difpofition, which 1s called a natural {quare. See the figure following. Natural Square. Magic Square. rea Bs 14 | 15 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 One would imagine, that thefe magic [quares had that name given them, becaufe this property of all their ranks, which, taken any way, make always the fame fum, appeared extremely furprifing, efpecially in certain ignorant ages, when mathematics paffed for magic; but there is a great deal of reafon to fufpe&, that thefe {quares merited their name ftill farther, by the fuperttitious operations they were employed in, as the conftruétion of talifmans, &c. for, according to the childith philofophy of thofe days, which attributed virtues to numbers, what virtues might not be expected from numbers fo wonderful ? However, what was at firft the vain practice of makers of talifmans and conjurers, has fince become the fubject of ~ ferious refearch among mathematicians ; not that they ima- gine it will lead them to any thing of folid afe or advantage. Magic fquares favour too much of their original to be of much ufe ; but only as it is a kind of play, where the difli- culty makes the merit, and it may chance to produce fome new views of numbers, which mathematicians will not lofe the occafion of. Eman. Mofchopulus,a Greek author of no great antiqui- ty, is the firit that appears to have {poken of magic fquares : and, by the age in which he lived, there’is.reafon to imagine he did not look on them merely as a mathematician. How- ever, he has left us fome rules for their conftru@ion. In the treatife of Corn. Agrippa, fo much accufed of magic, we find the fquares of feven numbers, viz. from three to nine iuclufive, difpofed magically ; and it muft not be fuppofed that thofe feven numbers were preferred to all the other with- ext fome very good reafon: in effect, it is becaufe their {quares, according to the fyftemof Agrippa and his follow- ers, are planetary. The fquare of 3, for inftance, belongs to Saturn; that of 4,to Jupiter; that of 5, to Mars; that of 6,to the Sun; that of 7, to Venus; that of 8, to Mer- cury ; and that of g, to the Moon. M. Bachet applied himfelf to the ftudy of magic {quares, on the hint he had: taken from the planetary fquares of Agrippa, as being unac- quainted with the work of Mofchopulus, which is only in manufcript in the French king's library ; and, without the affiftance of any author, he Scat out anew method fer thofe {quares whofe root is uneven ; for inftance, 25, 49, &c. but he could not make any thing of thofe whofe root is even, After him came M. Frenicle, who took the fame fubje& in hand. A certain great algebraift was of opinion, that whereas the fixteen numbers which compofe the {quaremight 1 MAGIC SQUARE. be difpofed 20922789888000 different ways in a natural fquare (as from the rules of combination it is certain they may), they could not be difpofed in a magic fquare above fixteen different ways; but M. Frenicle fhewed, that they might be thus difpofed 878 different ways : whence it appears how much his method exceeds the former, which only yielded the 55th part of magic {quares of that of M. Frenicle. To this inquiry he thought fit to adda difficulty, that had not yet been confidered ; the magic {quare of 7, for inftance, being conftrugted, and its 49 cells filled, if the two horizontal ranks of cells, and, at the fame time, the two vertical ones, the molt remote from the middle, be re- trenched, that is, if the whole border or circumference of the fquare be taken away, there will remain a fquare, whofe root will be 5, and which will only confift of 25 cells. Now, it is not at all furprifing, that the fquare fhould be no longer magical, becaufe the ranks of the large ones were not in- tended to make the fame fum, excepting whentaken entire with allthe feven numbers that fill their feven cells ; fo that being mutilated each of two cells, and having loft two of their numbers, it may be well expected, that their remain- ders will not any longer make the fame fum. But M. Fre- nicle would not be fatisfied unlefs when the circumference or border of the magic f{quare was taken away, and even any circumference at pleafure, or, in fine, feveral circumferences atonce, the remaining fquares were {till magica! ; which laft condition, no doubt, made thefe fquares vaitly more magical than ever. Again, he inverted that condition, and required that any circumference taken at pleafure, or even feveral circum- ferences, fhould be infeparable from the fquare; that is, that it fhould ceafe to be magical when they were removed, and yet continue magical after the removal of any of the relt. M. Frenicle, however, gives no general demonftration of his methods, and frequently feems to have no other guide but chance. It is true, his book was not publifhed by - himfelf, nor did it appear till after his death, viz. in 1693. In 1703, M. Poignard, canon of Bruffels, publifhed a treatife of fublime magic {quares. Before him there had been no magic {quares made but for feriefes of natural num- bers that formed a f{quare ; but M. Poignard made two very confiderable improvements. 1°. Inftead of taking all the numbers that filla f{quare, for inftance, the thirty-fix fuc- ceflive numbers, which would fill all the cells of a natural {quare, whofe fide is fix, he only takes as many fucceflive numbers as there are units in the fide of the fquare, which, in this cafe, are fix ; and thefe fix numbers alone he difpofes in fuch manner in the thirty-fix cells, that none of them are repeated twice in the fame rank, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal; whence it follows, that all the ranks, taken all the ways poffible, muft always make the fame fum, which M. Poignard calls repeated progreffion. 2°. Inftead of being confined to take thefe numbers according to the fe- ries and fucceffion of the natural numbers, that is, in an arithmetical progreflion, he takes them likewife in a geome- trical progreffion, and even in an harmonical progreffion. But with thefe two laft progreffions the magic mutt necefla- rily be diflerent to what it was: in the fquares filled with numbers in geometrical progreffion, it confilts in this, that the products of ail the ranks are equal; and, in the harmo- nical progreflion, the numbers of all the ranks continually follow that progreflion: he makes {quares of each of thefe three progreffions repeated. This book of M. Poignard gave occafion to Mr. de Ja Hire to turn his thoughts the fame way, which he did with fuch fuccefs, that he feems to have well-nigh completed the theory of magic fquares. He firlt confiders uneven fquares all his predeceffors on the fubje&t having found the conitruc- tion of even ones by much the moft difficult ; for which reafon M. de la Hire referves thofe for the laft. This ex- cefs of difficulty may arife partly from hence, that the num- bers are taken in arithmetical progreffion. Now in that pro- greffion, if the number of terms be uneven, that in the middle has fome properties which may be of fervice; for inflance, being multiplied by the number of terms in the progreffion, the produ is equal to the fum of all the terms. M. de la Hire propofes a general method for uneven fquares, which has fome fimilitude with the theory of compound motions, fo ufeful and fertile in mechanics. As that confifts indecompounding motions, and refolvine them into others more fimple; fo does M. de la Hire’s method confift in refolving the fquare that is to be conftru@ed into two fimple and primitive fquares. It mutt be owned, how- ever, it Is not quite fo eafy to conceive thofe two fimple and primitive {quares in the compound or perfe& fquare, as in an oblique motion to imagine a parallel and perpendicular one. Suppofe a {quare of cells, whofe root is uneven, for in- ftance 7; and that its forty-nine cells are to be filled magi- cally with numbers, for inftance, the firft 7. M. dela Hire, on the one fide, takes the firft feven numbers, begin- ning with unity, and ending with the root 7 ; and on the other 7, and all its multiples to 49, exclufively ; and as thefe only make fix numbers, he adds o, which makes this an arithmetical progreffion of feven terms, as well as the other ; 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42. This done, with the firft progreffion repeated, he fills the {quare of the root 7 magi- cally: in order to this, he writes in the firft feven cells of the firit horizontal rank, the feven numbers propofed, in what order he pleafes, for that is abfolutely indifferent ; and it is proper to obferve here, that thofe feven numbers may be ranged in 5040 different manners in the fame rank. The or- der in which they are placed in the firft horizontal rank, be it what it will, is that which determines their order in all the reft. For the fecond horizontal rank, he places in its firft cell, either the third, the fourth, the fifth, or the fixth num- ber, from the firft number of the firft rank ; and after that writes the fix others in order as they follow. For the third horizontal rank, he obferves the fame method with regard to the fecond, that he obferved in the fecond with regard to the firit, and fo of the reft. For inflance, fuppofe thé firft ho- rizontal rank filled with the feven numbers in their natural order, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 73 the fecond horizontal rank may either commence with 3, with 4, with 5, or with 6; but in this inftance it commences wsth 3; the third rank therefore muft com- mence with 5, the fourth with 7, the fifth with 2, the fixth witha, and the feventh with 6. The commencement of the ranks which follow the firlt being thus determined, the other numbers, as we have al- ready obferved, muft be written down in the order wherein they ftand in the firft, going on to 5,6, and 7, and return. ing to 1, 2, &c. till every ell a an a hae 7 a Dal ak lanl [295s fa [i eat kd MAGIC SQUARE. every number in the firft rank be found in every rank under- neath, according to the order arbitrarily pitched upon at firt. By this means it is evident, that no number whatever can be repeated twice in the fame rank ; and by confequence, that the feven numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,6, 7, being in each rank, mutt of neceflity make the fame thats It appears, from this example, that the arrangement of the numbers in the firft rank being chofen at pleafure, the other ranks may be continued in four different manners : and fince the firft rank may have 5040 different arrangements, there are no lefs than 20,160 different manners of conitructing the magic fquare of feven numbers repeated. The order of the numbers in the firft rank being deter- mined; if in beginning with the fecond rank, the fecond number 2, orthe Jaft number 7, fhould be pitched upon, in one of thofe cafes and repeated; and, in the other cafe, the other diagonal would be falfe, unlefs the number repeated feven times fhould happen to be 4; for four times feven is equal to the fum of 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7: and, in general, in every fquare confifting of an unequal number of terms, in arithmetical progreffion, one of the diagonals would be falfe according to thofe two conftruétions, unlefs the term always repeated in that diagonal were the middle term of the pro- greffion. It is not, however, at all neceffary to take the terms in an arithmetical progreflion ; for, according to this method,-one may conftruct a magic fquare of any numbers at pleafure, whether they be according to any certain pro- greflion, or not. Ifthey be in an arithmetical progreffion, it will be proper, out of the general method, to except thofe two conttrutions, which produce a continual repetition of the fame term, in one of the two diagonals ; and only to take in the cafe, wherein that repetition would prevent*the dia- gonal from being julty which cafe being abfolutely difre- garded, when we computed, that the fquare of 7 might have 20,160 different con{tructions ; it is evident, that by taking that cafe in, it mutt have vattly more. To begin the fecond rank with any other number befides the fecond and the la{t, mutt not, however, be looked on as an uniyerfal rule: it holds good for the fquare of 7 ; but if the fquare of g, for inftance, were to be conftru&ed, and the fourth figure of the firft horizontal rank were pitched on for the firlt of the fecond, the comfequence would be, that the fifth and eighth horizontal ranks would likewife commence with the fame number, which would therefore be repeated three times in the fame vertical rank, and occafion other re- petitions in all the reft. The general rule, therefore, mult be conceived thus: let the number in the firlt rank pitched on, for the commencement of the fecond, have fuch an ex- ponent of its quota, that is, let the order ofits place be fuch, as that if an unit be taken from it, the remainder will not be any juft quota part of the root of the fquare ; that is, cannot divide it equally. If, for example, in the fquare of 7, the third number of the firft horizontal rank be pitched on for the firft of the fecond, fuch conftruétion will be juft ; be- caufe the exponent of the place of that number, wiz. 3, fub- tracting 1, thatis, 2 cannot divide 7. ‘Thus alfo might the fourth number of the fame firit rank be chofen, becaufe 4 — I, viz. 3, cannot divide 7; and, for the fame reafon, the fifth or fixth number might be taken: but in the fquare of g, the fourth number of the firft rank muit not be taken, becaufe 4 — 1, viz. 3, does divide 9. ‘The reafon of this rule will appear very evidently, by confidering in what man- ner the returns of the fame numbers do or do not happen, taking them alwaysin the fame manner in any given feries. And hence it follows, that the fewer divifions the root of any {quare to be conftruéted has, the more different manners of conitruéting it there are ; and that the prime numbers, i. e. thofe which have no divifions, as 5, 7,11, 13, &c. are thofe whofe fquares will admit of the moft variations in proportion to their quantities. The f{quares con{truéted, according to this method, have fome particular properties not required in the problem ; for the numbers that compofe any rank parallel to one of the two diagonals, are ranged in the fame order with the num- bers that compofe the diagonal to which they are parallel. And as any rank parallel to a diagonal muft neceffarily be fhorter, and have fewer cells, than the diagonal itfelf, by adding to it the correfpondent parallel, which has the num- ber of cells by which the other falls fhort of the diagonal, the numbers of thofe two parallels, placed, as it were, end to end, ftill follow the — fame order with thofe of the diagonal: be- fides, that their fums are likewife equal; fo that they are magical | on another account. Inftead of the fquares, which we have hitherto formed by horizontal ranks, one might alfo form thém by vertical ones; the cafe is the fame in both. All we have hitherto faid regards only the firtt primitive fquare, whofe numbers, in the propofed example, were 1, 2, 3, 4) 5» 6,73 here ftill remains the fecond primitive, whofe numbers _ are Firft Primitive. MAGIC SQUARE. are 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 355 42. M. de la Hire pro- ceeds in the fame man- ner here as in the for- mer; and'this may like- wife be conftructed in 20,160 different man- ners, as containing the fame number of terms with the firit. Its con- ftruétion being made, and of confequence all its ranks making the fame fum, it is evident, that if we bring the two into one, by adding to- ‘gether the numbers of the two correfponding cells of the two fquares, that is, the two numbers of the firft of each, the two numbers of the fe- cond, of the third, &c. and difpofe them in the forty-nine correfponding cells of a third fquare ; it will likewife be ma- gical, inregard to its rank, formed by the addition of equal fums to equal fums, which mutt of neceflity be equal among themfelves. All that remains in doubt is, whether or not, by the addition of the correfponding cells of the two firlt {quares, all the cells of the third will be filled in fuch manner, as that each not only contains one of the numbers of the pro- greflion from 1 to 49, but alfo that this number be diiferent Second Primitive. from any of the reft, which is the end and delign of the whole operation. As to this it muft be obferved, that if in the conftruétion of the fecond primitive {quare, care has been taken in the commencement of the fecond horizontal rank, to obferve an order with regard to the firft, different from what was ob- ferved in the conftruction of the firft fquare ; forinftance, if Parkes Senare the fecond rank of the aa firft {quare began with ain ae pen) “1a sclathe third..term’ of, the I | Ca a2 sal ls i ie Tc |W rank, and the fe- rooiLe he Ah ch igi ee cond rank of the fe- 24 | 32 )40 | 4 7 ; cond {quare commence ae a nine rT | || with the fourth of the 47 14] 15 | 23 | 31 | 39 | fet rank, as in the ex- alee oe |e esi le | ample at. actually does:; ar | 22 | 31 | 38146) 5 | 13 ay number of the firtt eee Poel ltt % fp. | iquarecmay [be ‘com- 37 | 47 | 4 | t2 | 20 | 20 | 29 | bined once, and only ey a ae aaa. ~~ | once, by addition with TH} 19°) 27 135-139) 4° 1 3°) all the numbers of the i) coo a a Se aa eee |e fecond. And as the Dap adenl Abed 2 LO')-18.).265) ee oP he Gril are here 15 25345 530575 and thofe of the fecond 0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, by combining them in this manner, we have all the numbers in the pro- greflion from 1 to 49, without having any of them repeated ; which is the erfet magic fquare propofed. The neceflity of conftruéting the two primitive {quares in a different manner, does not at all hinder but that each of the 20,160 conttructions of the one may be combined with all the 20,160 conftructions of the other : of confequence, therefore, 20,160 multiplied by itfelf, which makes 406425600, is the number of different con{tructions that may be made of the perfeét {quare, which here confilts of the 49 numbers of the natural progreffion. But as we have already obferved, that a primitive tae of feven numbers repeated may have above 20,160 feyeral conftructions, the number 406425600 muit come vattly fhort of expreffing all the poffible conftruétions of a perfect magic {quare of the 49 firll numbers. As to the even fquares, he conitruéts them like the uneven ones, by two primitive fquares; but the conftruction of primitives is different in general, and may be foa great num- ber of ways: and thofe general differences admit of a great number of particular variations, which give as many dif- ferent conftru€tions of the fame even fquare. It fcarcely f{eems poffible to determine exaétly, either how many general differences there may be between the conftruétion of the pri- mitive {quares of an even {quare, and an uneven one}; nor how many particular variations each general difference may admit of; and, of confequence, we are {till far from being able to determine the number of different conftructions of all thofe that may be made by the primitive fquares. See the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, for 1705 and 1710, where this fubjeét is almoit exhaufted by M. de la Hire and M. Sauveur. See alfo Saunderfon’s Algebra, vol. i. p. 354, &c. The ingenious Dr. Franklin feems to have carried this cu- rious fpeculation farther than any of his predeceflors in the fame way. He has conftrutted not only a magic fquare of f{quares, but likewife a magic circle of {quares, of which we fhall give {ome account for the amufement of our readers. The magic {quare of {quares is formed by dividing the great fquare, as Plate XI. Analyfis, fig. 6. The great {quare is divided into 256 {mall {quares, in which all the numbers from 1 to 256 are placed in 16 columns, which may be taken either horizontally or vertically. ‘The properties are as fol- low : 1. The fum of the fixteen numbers in each columa, verti- cal and horizontal, is 2056. 2. Every half column, vertical and horizontal, makes 1028, or half of 2056. 3. Half a diagonal afcending, added to half a diagonal defcending, makes 2056; taking thefe half diagonals from the ends of any fide of the fquare to the middle thereof ; and fo reckoning them either upward, or downward ; or fidewife from left to right hand, or from right to left. 4. The fame with all the parallels to the half diagonals, as many as can be drawn in the great {quare: for any two of them being direéted upward and downward, from the place where they begin to that where they end, their fums will make 2056. The fame downward and upward in like man- ner: or all the fame if taken fideways to the middle, and back to the fame fide again. N.B. One fet of thefe half diagonals and their parallels are drawn in the fame fquare up- - ward and downward. Another fuch fet may be drawn from any of the other three fides. 5. The four corner numbers in the great {quare added to the four central numbers therein, make 1028; equal” to the half fum of any vertical or horizontal column, which contains 16 numbers; and equal to half a diagonal or its parallel. 6. If a {quare hole (equal in breadth to four of the little f{quares) be cut in a paper, through which any of the fix- teen little fquares in the great {quare may be feen, and the paper be laid on the great fquare ; the fum of all the fixteen numbers, feen through the hole, is equal to the fum of the fixteen numbers in any horizontal or vertical column, ‘viz. to 2056. The magic circle of circles (fig. 7.), is compofed of a feries of numbers, from 12 to 75 inclufive, divided into eight concentric circular fpaces, and ranged in eight radii of numbers, with the number 12 in the centre ; which number, 6 like MAGIC SQUARE. like the centre, is common to all thefe circular fpaces, and to all the radii. The numbers are fo placed, that the fum of all thofe in either of the concentric circular {paces above mentioned, to- gether with the central number 12, make 360 ; equal to the number of degrees in a circle. The numbers in each radius alfo, together with the central pumber 12, make jutt 360. The numbers in half of any of the above circular fpaces, taken either above or below the double or horizontal line, with half the central number 12, make 180: equal to the number of degrees in a femicircle. If any four adjoining numbers be taken, as if in a fquare, in the radial divifions of thefe circular {paces ; the fum of thefe, with haif the central number, make 180. There are, moreover, included four fets of other circular fpaces, bounded by circles which are excentric with refpect to the common centre; each of thefe fets containing five f{paces. ‘The centres of the circles which bound them are at A,B,C, and D. The fet, whofe centre is at A, is bounced by dotted lines; the fet whofe centre is at C is bounded by lines of fhort unconnected ftrokes, and the fet round D is bounded by lines of unconneéed longer {ftrokes, to diflinguifh them from one another. In drawing this figure by hand, the fet of concentric circles fhould be drawn with biack ink; and the four different fets of excentric circles with four kinds of ink of different colours ; as blue, red, yellow, and green, for diftinguifhing them readily from one another. Thefe fets of excentric circular {paces interfect thofe of the concentric, and each other; and yet, the numbers con- tained in each of the excentric fpaces, taken all around through any of the 20, which are excentric, make the fame {um as thofe of the concentric ; namely, 360, when the central number 121s added. Their halves alfo, taken above or below the double or horizontal line, with half the central number, make 180. Obferve, that there is not one of the numbers but what belongs at leaft to two of the circular {paces ; fome to three, fome to four, fome to five: and yet they are all fo placed as never to break the required number 360, in any of the twenty-eight circular {paces within the primitive circle. ; To bring thefe matters in view, all the numbers as above- mentioned are taken out, and placed in feparate columns, as they ftand around both the concentric and excentric cir- cular {paces, always beginning with the outermoft and end- ing with the innermoft of each fet ; and alfo the numbers as they ftand in the eight radii, from the circumference to the centre; the common central number 12 being placed the loweft in each column. 1. In the eight concentric circular fpace. 2. In the eight radii. cular {paces whofe centre In the five excentric cir- is at A. | 3: 360 ‘ he ons =) SS im re) = 7) 2) ” vu vu > Ea) vu = ~ Cc ee . cular {paces whofe centre is at B. 4 cular {paces whofe centre In the five excentric cir- is at C, 5. cular fpaces whofe centre 6. In the five excentric cir- If now we take any four numbers asin a {quare form, either from No. 1. No. 2. (as fuppofe from No. 1.) as in the margin; and add half the central MAG ftumber 12 to them, the fum will be 1803 equal to half the numbers in any circular fpace, taken above or below the double horizontal line: and equal to the number of de- grees in a femicircle. Thus, 14, 72, 25, 63, and 6, make 180. See Franklin's Exp. and Obf. p. 350, &c. edit. 4to. 1769; or Fergufon’s Tables and Tratts, 1771, p. 318, &e. Macicat Pidure, in EleGricity, was firft contrived by Mr. Kinnerfley, and is thus made: having a large mezzotiuto with a frame and glafs, e. gr. of the king, take out the print, and cut a pannel out of it, near two inches diftant from the frameall round; with thin pafte or gum-water, fix the border that is cut off on the infide of the glafs, preffing it {mooth and clofe ; then fill up the vacancy by gilding the glafs well with leat-gold, or brafs. Gild likewife the inner edge of the back of the frame all round, except the top part, and form a communication between that gilding and the gilding behind the glafs; then put in the board, and that fide is Gnifhed. Turn up the glafs, and gild the fore- fide exaétly over the back gilding, and when it is dry, cover it, by pafting on the pannel of the picture that hath been cut out, obferving to bring the correfpondent parts of the border and picture together, by which means the picture will appear of a piece, as at fir't, only part behind the glafs and part before. Hold the picture horizontally by the top, and place a little moveable gilt crown on the king’s head. If now the picture be moderately eleCtrified, and another perfon takes hold of the frame with one hand, fo that his fingers touch its infide gilding, and with the other hand. endeavour to take off the crown, he will receive a terrible blow, and fail in the attempt. If the picture were highly charged, the confequence might be as fatal as that of high .treafon, The operator, who holds the picture by the upper end, where the infide of the frame is not gilt, to prevent its falling, feels nothing of the fhock, and may touch the face of the piture without danger. If aring of perfons take the fhock among them, the experiment is called the con- {pirators. Franklin’s Exp. and Obf. p. 30. MAGICIAN, one who prattifes the See Divination, Maaic, and Sorcery. The ancient magicians pretended to extraordinary powers of interpreting dreams, foretelling future events, and ac- complifhing many wonderful things, by their fuperior know- ledge of the fecret powers of nature, of the virtues of plants and minerals, and of the motions and influences of the ftars. Andas the art of magic among the Pagan na- _ tions was founded in their fyftem of theology, and the Magi who firft exercifed it were the priefts of the gods, they pretended to derive thefe extraordinary powers from the affiftance of the gods; which affiitance they fought by a t variety of rites and facrifices, adapted to their re- pective natures, by the ufe of charms and fuperftitious words, and alfo by ceremonies and fupplications: they pre- tended likewife, in the proper ufe of their art, to a power of compelling the gods to execute their defires ,and commands. An excellent writer has flewn, that the fcripture brands ali thefe powers as a fhamelefs impofture, and reproaches thofe who affumed them with an utter inability of difcover- ing or accomplifhing any thing fupernatural. (See Haiah, xlvil. 11, 12, 13. chap. viii. 18,19. chap. xli. 23, 24. chap. xliv. 25. Jerem. x. 2, 3. 8. 14. chap. xiv. 14. chap. xxvii. g, 10. chap.]. 36. Pf. xxi. 6. Jonah, ii. 8.) Neverthelefs, many of the Chriftian fathers, as well as fome of the hea- then philofophers, afcribed the efficacy of magic to evil demons: and it was a very prevailing opinion in the primi- tive church, that magicians and necromancers, both among the Gentiles and heretical Chriflians, had each their parti- art of magic. MAG cular demons perpetually attending on their perfons, and obfequious to their commands, by whofe help they could call up the fouls of the dead, foretel future events, and perform miracles. In fupport of this opinion, it has been alleged, that the names by which the feveral forts of di- viners are defcribed in f{cripture, imply a communication with fpiritual being’s ; that the laws of Mofes (Exod. xxii. 18. Lev. xix. 26. 31. chap. xx. 27. Deut. xviii. 10, 11. again{t divination and witchcraft, prove the efficacy of thefe arts, thoughin reality they prove nothing more than their execrable wickednefs and impiety ; and that pretenfions to divination could not have fupported their credit in all the heathen nations and through all ages, if fome inftances of true divination had not occurred. But the ftrongett argu- ment is derived from the fcripture hiftory of the Egyptian magicians who oppofed Mofes. With regard to the works performed by thefe magicians, fome have fuppofed that God himfelf empowered them to perform true miracles, and gave them an unexpected fuccefs; but the hiftory exprefsly af- cribes the effects they produced, not to God, but to their own inchantments. Others imagine, that the devil affifted the magicians not in performing true miracles, but in de- ceiving the fenfes of the fpe€tators, or in prefenting before them delufive appearances of true miracles: againft which opinion it has been urged, that it tends to difparage the credit of the works of Mofes. The moft common opinion fince the time of St. Auttin, has been, that they were not only performed by the power of the devil, but were genuine mi- racles, and real imitations of thofe of Mofes. In a late ela- borate inquiry into the true fenfe and defign of this part of {cripture hiitory, it has been fhewn, that the names given to the magicians feem to exprefs their profeffion, their affecta- tion of fuperior knowledge, and their pretences’ both to , explain and effe& figns and wonders, by obferving the rules of their art ; and therefore, that they are the perfons, whofe ability of difcovering or effe€ting any thing fupernatural the {cripture exprefsly denies. The learned author farther in- veltigates the defign, for which Pharaoh employed them on this occafion: which, he apprehends, was to learn from them, whether the fign given by Mofes was truly fuperna- tural, or only fuch as their art was able to accomplith. Ac- cordingly it is obferved, that they did not undertake to outdo Mofes, or to controul him, by fuperior or oppofite arts of power, but’ merely to imitate him, or to do the fame works with his, with a view of invalidating the argu- ment which he drew from his miracles, in fupport of the fole divinity of Jehovah, and of his own miffion. ‘The queftion on this occalion was not, are the gods of Egypt fuperior to the God of Ifrael, or can any evil {pirits perform greater miracles than thofe which Mofes performed by the affift- . ance of Jehovah? but the quettion was, are the works of Mofes proper proofs, that the God of Ifrael is Jehovah, the only fovereign of nature, and confequently that Mofes a&s by his commiffion ; or, are they merely the wonders of na- ture, and the effects of magic? In this light Philo, (de Vita Mofis, lib. i. p. 616.) and Jofephus, (Antiq. Jud. lib. ii. cap. 13.) place the fubjeét. Moreover, it appears from the principles and conduat of Mofes, that he could not allow the magicians to have performed real miracles : becaufe the {cripture reprefents the whole body of magicians as im- pottors ; the facred writers, Mofes in particular, defcribe all the heathen deities, in the belief of whofe exiftence and in- fluence the magic art was founded, as unfupported by any invifible {pirits, and utterly impotent and fenfelefs; the re- ligion of Mofes was built on the unity and fole dominion of God, and the fole divinity of Jehovah was the point which Motes was now about to eftablifh, in direét oppofition to the MAG the principles of idolatry ; fo that if he had allowed that the heathen idols, or any evil fpirits fupporting their caufe, enabled the magicians to turn rods into ferpents, and water into blood, and to create frogs, he would have contra- died the great delign of his miffion, and overthrown the whole fabric of his religion; befides, Mofes appropriates all miracles to God, and urges his own, both in general and feparately, as an abfolute and authentic proof, both of the fole divinity of Jehovah, and of his own miffion; which he could not jultly have done, if his oppofers performed mi- racles, and even the fame with his. On the other hand, it has been urged, that Mofes defcribes the works of the ma- gicians in the very fame language as he does his own, (Exod. Vii. 11, 12. chap. v. 22. chap. viii. 7.) and hence it 1s con- cluded, that they were equally miraculous. To this ob- jeGtion it is replied, that it is common to fpeak of pro- fefled jugglers, as doing what they pretend and appear to do; but that Mofes does not affirm, that there was a per- fe& conformity between his works and thofe of the magi- cians, but they did /2, or in like manner, ufing a word which expreffes merely a general fimilitude ; and he exprefsly refers all they did, or attempted in imitation of himfelf, not to the invocation or power of demons, or of any fupe- rior beings, but to human artifice and impoiture. The ori- ginal words, tranflated inchantments, (Exod. vii. 11, 22. and chap. viii. 7. 18.) import deception and concealment, and ought to have ‘been rendered, /écret flights or jugglings. Our learned writer farther fhews, that the works performed by the magicians did not exceed the caufe, or human arti- fice, to which they areafcribed. Farmer's Diff. on Miracles, 1771, chap. 3. § 3. chap. 4. § I. MAGIEROW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Belcz ; 22 miles S.S.W. of Belcz. MAGILLICUDDY'’s Rerks, high mountains in the county of Kerry, Ireland, lying near Killarney. They are fuppofed to be higher than Mangerton, which is 2500 feet above the level of the fea. MAGILLIGAN Pornt, a cape of Ireland, in. the county of Londonderry, at the entrance of Lough Foyle. N. lat. 55° 12’. W. long. 6° so’. MAGINI, Jonx Antuony, in Biography, an Italian ma- thematician and altronomer, was born at Padua in the year 1556. He acquired an early reputation for acquaintance swith the {ciences, and was appointed profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of Bologna. He was decidedly in favour of the Copernican fyftem, but had not courage openly to avow his opinions ; and to prevent any difputes that might occur, and to avoid the penalties of herefy, he taught the doctrine of Ptolemy. He was a praétical philofopher, and made the inftruments which he ufed with his own hands; among thefe were large concave mirrors, full five feet in diameter. He died in 1617, in the fixty-fecond year of his age, leav- ing behind him many works that refle¢t much credit on his memory: among thefe the moft important were his ‘ Ephe- merides,”’ in three volumes, from 1580 to 1630: ‘‘ Theoria Planetarum juxta Copernicas Obfervationes :”’ ** Problemata A ftronomica, Gnomonica, et Geographica :’’ ‘ Italie De- {eriptio Chorographica,”’ illuftrated with fixty maps. Bayle. MAGISI, in Geography, a town of Brazil, in the go- vernment of St. Paul; 36 miles N.E. of St. Paul. MAGISTER, Masren, a title frequently found in old writings ; noting the perfon who bore it to have attained fome degree of eminence in /cientia alqua, prefertim in li- teraria. In old times, thofe we now call doors, were called magiftri, or maflers. MAGISTERY, in Chemiftry, aterm formerly ufed to MAG fignify a precipitate. Since the new nomenclature of chentiftry has been introduced, it has become obfolete. Maaisrery of Bifinuth. See Bismutu. Maaisrerxy of Lead. See Leap. Maaisrery of Sulphur. See Surpuur. MAGISTRATE is the name of any public officer, or ruler, to whom the executive power of the law is committed, either wholly or in part. Of magiftrates fome are fupreme, in whom the fovereign power of the ftate re- fides ; others are fubordinate, deriving all their authority from the fupreme magiltrates, accountable to him for their conduct, and aéting in an inferior fecondary {phere. In all tyrannical governments, the fupreme magiltracy, or the right both of mafing and of enforcing the laws, is vetted in one and the fame man, or one and the fame body of men; and whenever thefe two powers are united together, there can be no public hberty. The magiftrate may ena& tyrannical laws, and execute them in a tyrannical manner, fince he is poflefied, in quality of difpenter of juitice, with all the power which he, as legiflator, thinks proper to give himfelf. But when the legiflative and executive authority are in diftin& hands, the former will take care not to entruft the latter with fo large a power as may tend to the fubvertion of its own independence, and therewith of the liberty of the fubjeé. With us in England, therefore, the fupreme power is di- vided into two branches; the one legiflative, viz. the parlia- ment, confiiting of king, lords, and commons; the other executive, confifling of the king alone. See Kine, Par- LIAMENT, SHERIFF, JUSTICE, &c. MAGIUS, At, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province of Farfifan; 45 miles 5.W. of Yezd. c MAGLASAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeitzan ; 66 miles W. of Tauris. MAGLEBIE, a town of Denmark, in the ifland of Zealand ; four miles S. of Copenhagen. MAGLIA, a town of the ifland of Candia; 16 miles E.S.E. of Candia. MAGLIABECCHI, Anrnonyy, in Biography, a perfon remarkable for his knowledge of books, was born at Flo- rence in 1633. Having attained the elements of the Latin language, he was apprenticed to the bufinefs of a gold- {mith and jeweller, but his paffion for reading induced him to employ every leifure moment in improving his mind, and in laying in large ftores of ufeful knowledge ; and at the death of his parents in 1673, he entirely abandoned trade, and devoted himfelf wholly to the purfuits of lite- rature.. By means of an aftonifhing memory, and almoit inceflant application, he became more converfant with li- terary hiftory than any man of his time, and was appointed librarian to the grand duke of Tufcany. He kept up a correfpondence with the moft learned men in Europe, from many of whom, even in the very higheft ranks of life, he received tokens of refpect and efteem. Lewis XIV. always commiffioned the French literati who vifited Italy to falute Magliabecchi in his name. ‘To thofe who vifited him through motives of mere curiofity, he was diftant and referved; but to the truly learned, no man was more communicative of his knowledge, and many of the moft eminent fcholars of the time have expreffed their obligations to him. He could mott readily direc an author to all the works which treated upon the fubjeé&t on which he was writing. So exvert and accurate was he in this refpect, that he has been called a living library. He was taken ferioufly ill in 1708, and upon his recovery Ferdinand wifhed him to lodge in the palace, and prepared for him a commodious apartment, and a large room for his books. Here he refided a few months, and then returned to his own cottage, where he died, at the age MAG age of eighty-one, in the year 1714. Magliabecchi was a “man of a moit forbidding and favage afpect, and exceedingly negligent of his perfon. His habits were folitary and cyni- cal, never indulging in the pleafures of fociety, or the gra- tifications of fenfe. He retufed to be waited upon, and rarely took off his clothes to go to bed. In the midit of the coldeft winter he made the fame cloak a covering for the day and the night. His dinner was commonly three hard boiled eggs, witha draught of water. He {pent fome hours in each day at the palace/library, but is faid never in his life to have gone farther from Florence than to Pratz, whither he once accompanied cardinal Norris to fee a manu- feript. He had a fmall window in his door, through which he could fee all thofe who approached him, and if he did not wifh their company he would not admit them. MAGLIANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Sabina, a bifhop’s fee; 28 miles N. of Rome. N. lat.. 42° zo’. E.long. 12 *28'.—Alfo, a town of Etruria ; 12 miles N.E. of Orbitello. A MAGLOI, atown of Bofnia, on the Bofna; 21 miles N. of Serajo. MAGMA, Mzyyux, among Chemifls, &c. the dregs or recrements Of a compofition remaining after all the more fluid parts are exprefled. It is a word ufed by medical writers on many occafions, fometimes in a very lax, and fometimes in a more appro- priated fenfe. Some writers ufe it to exprefs a mafs of any thing ; others for a thick ointment made up with very little fluid matter to prevent its running ; and others for the re- mains of an ointment after expreflion from its ingredients. Galen reftrains the word magma to exprefs only the faces of myrobalans. MAGNA ArreriA, in dnzatomy. ARTERY. ‘ ; Maena Afiza Eligenda, a writ directed to the fheriff to fummon four lawful knights before the juftice of aflize, there, upon their oaths, to choofe twelve knights of the vicinage, &c. to pafs upon the great a/fize between A. B. plaintiff, and C. D. defendant, &c. See AssIsEs. Macena Charta, the great charter of liberties of England, figned and fealed by king John ina conference between the king and barons at Runnemede, between Windfor and Staines, June rgth, A.D. 1215, and confirmed by Hen. III. and Edward I. f The reafon of its being termed Magua, or great, is either becaufe of the excellency of the laws and liberties therein contained, or becaufe there was another charter, called Charta de Foreffa, eftablifhed with it, which was the leffer of the two; or elfe becaufe it contained more than any other charters ; or in regard of the wars and troubles in the obtaining of it ; or of a great and remarkable folemnity in the denouncing excommunications againtt the infringers of it. Magna Charta may be faid to derive its origin from king Edward the Confeflor, who granted divers liberties and pri- * vileges, both civil and ecclefiaftical, by charter: the fame, with fome others, were alfo granted and confirmed by king Henry I., foon after his coronation and agreeably to an oath by which he had bound himfelf before he was crowned, by a celebrated great charter. See Aorta and By this charter he reftored the Saxon laws which were in ufe under Edward the Confeffor, but with fuch alterations, or (as he ftyled them) ‘‘emendations, as had been made in them by his father, with the advice of his parliament,’’ at the fame time annulling all evil cuftoms and illegal exac- tions, by which the realm had been unjuftly opprefled.” Some of thefe grievances were f{pecified in the charter, and the redrefs of them was there exprefsly enaéted. It Vor. XXII. ; MAG alfo contained very confiderable mitigations of thofe feudal rights claimed by the king over his tenants, and by them over their’s, which either were the moft burthenfome in their own nature, or had been made fo by an abufive extenfion. In fhort, all the liberty, that could well be confillent with the fafety and intereft of the lord in his fief, was allowed to the vaflal by this charter, and the profits due to the former were fettled according to a determined and moderate rule of law. According to the words of one of our greateft anti- quaries, fir Henry Spelman, “it was the original of king John’s Magna Charta, containing moft of the articles of it, either particularly exprefled, or in general, under the confirmation it gives to the laws of Edward the Confeffor.?’ So miftaken are they, fays lord Lyttelton, who have fup- poted that all the privileges granted in Magna Charta were ‘*innovations’” extorted by the arms of rebels from king John !—a notion which feems to have been firft taken up, not fo much out of ignerance, as from a bafe motive of adu- lation to fome of our princes in later times, who, endeavour- ing to grafp at abfolute power, were defirous of any pre- tence to confider thofe laws, which ftood in their way, as violent encroachments made by the barons on the ancient right of the crown ; whereas they were in reality reftitutions and fan¢tions of ancient rights, enjoyed by the nobility and people of England in former reigns; or limitations of powers which the king had illegally and arbitrarily ftretched beyond their due bounds. In fome refpeéts, fays our au- thor, this charter of Henry I. was more advantageous to liberty than Magna Charta itfelf. (See Henry I.) In confirmation of tir Henry Spelman’s opinion above-men- tioned, we may allege the teftimony of an ancient hiftorian. Matthew Paris tells us, that, in the year 1215, the barons came in arms to king John at London, and demanded of him that certain liberties and laws of king Edward, with other liberties granted to them, and to the kingdom and church of England, fhould be confirmed, “as they were con- tained and: fet down in the charter of king Henry I. and in the laws above-mentioned.’ And the fame hiftorian, where he mentions the ‘capitula,’’ or rough draught of the great charter, delivered to John by the barons, fays, that the ar- ticles thereof “ were partly written before, in the charter of king Henry I. and partly taken out of the ancient laws of king Edward.” Thefe paffages, and alfo what he fays before, of the barons having {worn at St. Edmund’s Bury, to make war on the king, till he fhould confirm to them, by acharter under his feal, the laws and liberties granted in the charter of Henry I., fufficiently fhew, that they underitood and intended this charter to be the original and foundation of that which-they demanded and obtained from John. With regard to another paflage that occurs in Matthew Paris, relating to the charter of Henry I. and connected with his account of a convention or fynod held in London under Stephen Langton, archbifhop of Canterbury, in the year 1213, it imports that the charter of king Henry was then a “ novelty’’ to the barons, and that they expreffed a furprife of joy athearing a copy of it read, which the arch- bifhop told them was “jult found.’? But from the fame hiftorian we learn that, after the charter was given, the king ordered as many tranfcripts of it to be made as there were counties in England, and to be laid up, as records, in the abbies of every county. Befides, the firft charter of Stephen “confirms the liberties and good laws, which his uncle king Henry gave and granted, and all good laws and good cuftoms, which the nation had enjoyed in the time of Edward the Confeffor,’? words which evidently refer to the charter. It was alfo confirmed more exprefsly by king Henry II. “ How is it poffible then,” fays lord M Lyttelton, MAG Lyttelton, “that in the reign of his fon it fhould be fo diffi- cult to produce a fingle tranfcript of it, and that even the remembrance of what it contained fhould be fo totaily lot among the principal nobles? The ftrong objections to fo ftrange a {tory did not efcape the penetration of the learned and judicious Dr. Blackitone. In his accurate edition of the charters, he takes notice of the great improbability of it; and further obferves, that it is mentioned by no other con- temporary hiftorian ; butthat, on the contrary, all of them aflign quite different reafous for the confederacy of the barons.” Our noble author adds, ‘that the credit of this ftory is {till more weakened, by its being only delivered upon common fame (ut fama refert), though it is faid to have patt in freretiz? —« How can one fuppote that the particular words of a fpeech made in fecret, could be accurately reported by common fame ?”?— That the archbifhop fhould produce to the barons a tranfeript of the charter, as a proper foundation for their confederacy, and for the demands, or claim of rights, they were to make to the king, I think (fays lord Lyttel- ton) is very probable. But that there could be any difficulty in finding fuch a tranfeript, or that it fhould be regarded by them as a novelty, appears to me quite incredible.” « How far Matthew Paris, er rather Roger de Wendover, (from whom the former has tranferibed this part of his hif- tory), is from being exaét in his account of thefe affairs, we need no better evidence, than the copy he gives us of the charter of king John, which is effentially different from the originals in the Britifh Mufeum and at Salifbury, and from the entry in the Red Book of the Exchequer. No hypo- thefis, therefore, can reafonably be built on this paflage in that writer ; though fome have been induced to infer from it, that the charter of Henry I. became obfolete almoft as foon as it was given, and was fo totally neglected, as to be ina manner forgotten.’ But to return from this digreflion, the fucceffors of Henry I. king Stephen, king Henry II. and king John, confirmed or re-enaéted the fame ; but the laft prince violating his charter, the barons took up arms, and his reign ended in blood. Henry III. who fucceeded him, after having procured an inquifition to be made by twelve men in each county, what the liberties of England were in the time of Henry I., confirmed, with fome alterations, the charter, obtained {word in hand from king John, in 1215, being the prefent Magna Charta; which he feveral times confirmed and as often broke again; till in the thirty-feventh year of his reign, he came to Weftmintter-hall, where, in the prefence of the nobility and bifhops, with lighted can- dles in their hands, Magna Charta was read, the king all the while laying his hand on his breaft, and at lalt fo- Jemnly {wearing faithfully and inviolably to obferve all the things therein contained, as he was a man, a Chriltian, a fol-' dier, anda king. Then the bifhops extinguifhed their candles, throwing them on the ground, crying, ‘¢ Thus let him be extinguifhed and {tink in hell who violates this charter.”” Neverthelefs, king Henry in the next year invaded the rights of his people, till the barons levied war againtt him ; and, after various fuccefs, he confirmed this charter and the charter of the forefts, in the parliament of Marlbridge, and in the fifty-fecond year of his reign. Afterwards, by flatute 25 Edw. 1. ealled Confirmatio chartarum, whereby the great charter is direéted to be allowed as the common jaw, all judgments co..trary to it are declared void ; copies of it are ordered to be fent to all cathedral churches, and read twice a year to the people ; and fentence of excommuni- cation is directed to be as con{tantly denounced againft all thofe that by word, deed, or counfel, aét contrary thereto, or in any degree infiinge it. Sir Edward Coke obferves, that it was confirmed no lefs than thirty-two times, from the MAG fir’ Edward to Henry 1V. Then, after a long intervaly. by the Petition of Right, by many falutary laws, particu- larly the Habeas Corpus a&t of Charles II. by the Bill of Rights, and laltly by the A& of Settlement. The Magna Charta is the bafis of the Englifh laws and liberties; befides thofe provifions, which redreffed many grievances incident to feodal tenures, care was alfo taken therein to protect the fubject again{t other oppreffions, fre- quently arifing from unreafonable amercements, from illegal ,dittrefs, or other procefs for debts or fervices due to the crown, and from the tyrannical abufe of the prerogative of purveyance, and pre-emption. It fixed the forfeiture of lands for felony in the fame manner as it {lill remains ; pro- hibited for the future the grants of exclufive fifheries, and the erectionof new bridges, fo as to opprefs the neighbour- hood. With refpeét to private right, it eltablifhed the tetta- mentary power of the fubjeét over part of his perfonal eftate, the reft being diftributed among his wife and children ; it laid down the law of dower, as it continued ever fince; and prohibited the appeals of women, unlefs for the death of their hufbands. In matters of public police and nationaf concern, it enjoined an uniformity of weights and meafures ; gave new encouragement to commerce, by the proteétion of merchant-{trangers; and forbad the alienation of lands in mortmain. With regard to the adminiftration of juftice ; befides prohibiting all denials or delays of it, it fixed the court of common pleas at Weitminiter, that the fuitors might no longer be harafled with following the king’s per- fon in all his progreffes ; and at the fame time brought the trials of iffues home to the very doors of the freeholders, b direéting affizes to be taken in the proper counties, and ef- tablifhing annual circuits ; it alfo corrected fome abufes then incident to the trials by wager of law and of battle; di- rected the regular awarding of inqueit for life or member ; prohibited the king’s inferior miniflers from holding pleas of the crown, or trying any criminal charge, whereby many forfeitures might otherwife have unjultly accrued to the ex- chequer ; and regulated the time and place of holding the inferior tribunals of juftice, the county-court, fheriff’s torn, and court-leet. It confirmed and eltablifhed the hberties of the city of London, and all other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports of the kingdom. And laltly, (which alone would have merited the title that it bears of the Great Charter) it prote&ted every individual of the nation in the free enjoyment of his life, his liberty, and his property, unlefs declared to be forfeited by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land. Blackit. Comm. vol. iv. MAGNAL-LAVAL, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Bellac; 24 miles N. of Limoges. ~ The place contains 2654, and the canton 6759 inhabitants, on a territory of 1623 kiliometres, in five communes. MAGNANINA, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall bird defcribed by Aldrovand, Geiner, and fome other au- . thors, and feeming to be the fame with our hedye-fparrow, commonly known among authors by the name of curruca. See Moraci.1a modularis. ; MAGNANO, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Piacenza ; 13 miles S.S.1. of Piacenza. MAGNENTIUS, Macnus, in Biography, a German by birth, bet who, from being a private foldier, rofe to the chief employments in the Roman empire. He owed his diltinguithed ttation to the circumftance of his having been made a prifoner of war. ‘To free himfelf from chains he joined the Roman troops, and became diflinguifhed for valour, He was commander of the Jovian and Herculean bands, ftationed to guard the banks of the Rhine, at the time MAG ‘teme when Conftans I. emperor of the Weft, had incurred ‘the contempt of the army on account of his indolence and voluptuoutnefs. In 350, he afcended the throne, and on the murder of Conftans, he was left without a-rival in the Gallic and Italian prefectures. At Rome, Magnentius acted with great tyranny, and by his various extortions, he was enabled to levy a very powerful army to maintain his ufurped authority. So formidable did he appear, that Con- itantins, emperor of the Ealt, and brother of the deceafed Conttans, fought a peace, on the terms of leaving him in pofleflion of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, but his propofals were rejected. Conftantius now determined to attack him ; a bloody battle enfued, which terminated in the total defeat of Magnentius. He fled to the foot of the Julian alps, and collected the {cattered remains of his army, pofted them ad- vantageoufly to defend the paffes, and {pent the winter in Aquileia. After this he went to Gaul, and obtained a victory over the van of the purfuing enemy at Pavia. His troops, however, foon fultained another defeat, after which he took refuge in Lyons, where he difpatched himfelf with his own fword. This event took place in the year 353, after a reign of nearly four years. The example of fuicide was imitated by Decentius, who ftrangled himfelf on the news of his brother’s death. A fevere inquifition was ex- tended over all who, either from choice or compulfion, had been involved in the caufe of Magnentius. The molt inno- cent people were expofed to exile and contifcation, to death and torture, and, fays Gibbon, ‘as the timid are always cruel, the mind of Conftantius was inacceflible to mercy.” Gibbon, MAGNES, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Can- dia, on the N. coait, fuppofed by Dr. Pocock to be the ancient Diciamnum, or Dittynna; 12 miles N.W. of Canea. Maenes Carneus, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by €ardan and fome other authors to a white earth dug in Italy and fome other places, and called alfo by many cala- mita alba. It is an indurated earthy fubftance of the hard- nefs of ofteocolla, and is of a white colour variegated with black lines. It adheres very firmly to the tongue, and is hence faid to attraét flefh in the fame manner as the magnet does iron. . It is even pretended, that if an iron ftylus be rubbed over with this flony earth, and then plunged into the flefh, the virtue of the earth will heal the wound as foon as made, and when the weapon is taken forth, there will remain no appearance of hurt. Cardan affirms that he faw this tried with fuccefs, but fufpects witchcraft in the cafe. MAGNESIA, in Agriculture, a fubftance which has not yet been found in a pure {tate in nature ; it is con{tantly combined either with acids in the form of earthy falts, or mixed with other earths, as /erpentine, /reatites, talc, afbeftos, &c. With a view to moit purpofes, it is commonly pre- pared by the decompofition of bitter falt, by the fixed mild alkalies, and fubfequent feparation of the carbonic acid by calcination. But the experiments of Mr. Tennant {eem to fhew, that this fubftance, when in combination with calcareous matters, fuch as that of lime, &c. is unfriendly to vegetation. It is, however, obferved by lord Dundonald, that it is found “in a variety of earths and ftones, and that it combines with acids, forming neutral falts, all of which are very foluble, and the greater part of them promotes, in a very confider- able degree, the growth of plants. Magnefian earths, he conceives, may be applied with peculiar advantage to foils generally, and not improperly, called four foils, containing green vitriol, arifing from the decompofition of pyrites. It will decompofe the metallic falt by fuperior affinity, and MAG form with the acid Epfom falt, known in a high degree to promote vegetation; while the earth of iron will be fepa- rated in the {tate of an ochre, or iron combined with fixable air.”’ In has been fuggefted by a writer, in the Farmer’s Maga- zine, likewife, that he tried the vegetative power of this fubftance, by fowing oats in a pot containing one-tenth part of magnefia, and the reft common earth, in which they grew and throve extremely well; but in another pot containing magnefia alone, they would not vegetate at all, which might, he thinks, be expected. It is likewife fuppofed to extir. pate forrel, when applied on lands that abound with it, pro- bably by neutralizing the acid, which is the cafe with lime. This writer has, however, applied it to lands overgrown with forrel, without its producing fuch beneficial effects. Macwesta, in Chemijiry, one of thofe fubltances that pafs under the general name of earths. It is lefs abundant in na- ture than lime, alumina, or filex, but more abundant than any of the other earths. It forms a confiderable part of the lime-ftone, commonly called magnefian, from which it may be obtained by diffolving the itone in muriatic acid, and pre- cipitating the magnelia with pure ammonia, This earth was little known before its nature was invefti- gated by the experiments of Dr. Black. It was before frequently confounded with lime. It exiils, in combination with muriatic and fulphuric acids, in fea water. The latter falt is found in fome mineral waters, particularly the waters in the vicinity of Epfom, known by the name of Epfom falt. It is from this falt that the magnefia of commerce is gene- rally procured. The falt is firlt diflolved in water; then to the clear folution a quantity of common carbonat of potath is added. ‘I'he magnelia is precipitated in the ftate of carbo- nat, which, when wafhed and, dried, conftitutes the mag- nefia commonly ufed in medicine. It is fometimes expofed to a {trong red heat, in crucibles, by which the carbonic acid is expelled. In this ftate it is called calcined magnefia. If the precipitation be made with pure ammonia inftead of potafh, the earth will be obtained in a {tate of tolerable purity. Magnefia, in a pure ftate, appears in the form of powder, foft to the feel, and perfectly white.. It has no tafte, but when taken into the nouth it excites a peculiar fenfation, arifing from the rapid abforption of the faliva. It is defti- tute of fmel!, but emits a peculiar odour when moifture is applied to it. Its f{pecific gravity, according to Kirwan, is 2.3. Like the alkalies, and the alkaline earths, it changes the blue colour of {ome vegetables to that of green. It does not undergo any rapid change by expofure to the air. It flowly combines with water and carbonic acid ; the former may be detected by diltillation, and the latter by its effervefcence with an acid. It is nearly infoluble in water; fince, according to Kirwan, it requires 7900 parts of water to diffolve one of magnefia. Like the other earths, when {tri@ly pure, it is not fufi- ble at any known degree of heat, although it is capable of fufion when mixed with other earths. Lime and magnefia, in the proportion of four to one, runs through the crucible at 150° Wedgewood. But one of lime to four of magnetia did not melt at 165°. In the proportion of one of the latter to three of the former; they melted into a greenifh-yellow glafs. For thefe fats we are indebted to Kirwan. Magnefia has long been fufpeéted to be a compound body, but not with much ground of probability, till the late interett- ing experiments by Mr. (fir Humphrey) Davy, in which the alkalies and {ome of the earths appear to be compounds. Ber zelius is {aid to have said decompofing magnefia by 2 the MAGNESIA. the agency of the Galvanic battery. The earth was placed in contaét with mercury, and he fuppofed that the bafe of the magnefia, which was thought to be metallic, combined with the mercury, forming a peculiar alloy. Mr. Davy has re- peated this experiment, with the fulphat of this earth, with a fimilar refult. Attempts have fince been made to decompofe magnefia in various ways, by Guy Luffac and Thenard, but without any fatisfaCtory refult. In the experiments of Mr. Davy, although he did not fucceed in obtaining the metal from the alloy with mercury, he found that magnefia was produced by throwing the alloy into water. It is highly probable, therefore, that this earth, like lime and barytes, is a compound, a peculiar metal united with oxygen, between which the affinity may be fo great as not to be obtained, but with great difficulty, It is, therefore, to future experiments that we mult look for the final eftablifhment of the compound nature of this earth. It is an ufeful medicine for taking up acidity in the fto- mach ; and has lately been recommended by Mr. Brandt as a folvent for the urinary calculus conftituted by the uric acid, Magnefia combines with fulphur, but very imperfetly : if two of the earth with one of fulphur be expofed to heat in a crucible, the mafs becomes yellow. It affords a {mall quantity of fulphuretted hydregen when thrown into water. If the heat at which it is formed be a little increafed, the fulphur is expelled, leaving the earth pure. It does not combine with phofphorus, carbon, nitrogen, nor the metals, nor with any of the metallic oxyés. : : There is no a¢tion between magnefia and the alkalies. “The folubility of magnefia by the carbonats of the alkalies, is occafioned by the carbonic acid which leaves the alkali and combines with the earth. Salts of Magnefia.—The greater proportion of the mag- nefian falts are of no known ufe, and have in confequence been little examined. The fulphat is the only one with. which we are much acquainted, from its well known virtues as a purgative. ; : Sood Sulphat of Magnefia.—This falt is found (native in fea water; in the waters of Epfom, from which it has been called Epfom falt, and in many mineral waters. That ufed in medicine is obtained from the above fources. Several fchiftofe {tones contain fulohur and magnefia, which being expofed to air with moifture, the fulphur is converted into fulphuric acid, and, combining with the maguefia, forms this falt, which is feparated from the heterogeneous matter by cryftallization. ; 4 pe The eflorefcence formed on brick walls is principally found to be fulphat of magnefia, fometimes mixed with nitre. Sulphat of magnefia diffolves in its own weight of water at 60°.. On evaporation and flow-cooling, this falt ery ftal- lizes in the form of four-fided prifms ; it has a bitter and difagreeable tafte. The cryftals have the property of double refraétion. When expofed to the air they foon lofe their water of cryftallization, and appear in the form of white powder. When expofed to a ftrong heat, it firft fufes in its water of cryftallization, which foon efcapes. If the heat be continued and raifed to high temperature, it melts into a vitreous md{s. It is compefed, according to the analyfis of Bergman, of 33 id, 19 magnefia, and 48 water ; according to Wenzel, 30.64 acid, 16.86 magnefia, and 52.5 water. Dalton makes the atom of magnefia to 34 + 17 _ 100 | 34—s«O7B which gives 67:8 acid, and 32.2 magnefias If we take the be 17, that of fulphuric acid 34. Then acid and bafe only, in the analyfis of Wenzel we fhall have 30.64 + 16.86 _ 100 36.04 64.5 This falt has the property of combining with fome other of the fulphats which form compounds, having peculiar properties. ‘Thefe, like the reft of the compounds called triple falts, perhaps in all cafes, owe their exiftence to the cir- cumfance of their cryftallizing together, from the analo- gous form of their cryftals, ard ought not to be conlidered as diltin& {pecies, fince on analyfis they are found to confitt of certain proportions of the two falts, rather than of two bafes united to one common quantity of acid. There is little doubt but that thefe falts, when in folution, would. poffefs the individual properties of the two falts, being in this fituation a mere mixture. The fulphat of magnefia and potafh is faid to be com- pofed of three parts of fulphat of potafh, and four of fulphat of magnefia. The cryftals are of a rhomboidal form. The fulphat of magnefia and foda is compofed of fix of » or 64.5 acid, and 35.5 magnefia. _fulphat of magnefia, and five of fulphat of potafh. Its eryf- tals are prifmatic. Sulphat of Magnefia and Ammonia is in the form of o€tahedrons, and conlilts of 68 of fulphat of maguelia, and 32 of fulphat of ammonia. F Nitrat of Magnefia.—This falt is formed by faturating the nitric acid with magnefia. On evaporating the folution to a certait extent, and fuffering it to cool, the falt eryftal- lizesein the form of rhomboidal prifms, which, when fmall, have the appearance of needles. ‘The talte of this falt is unpleafantly bitter, like moft other of the magnefian falts. ~ It diffolves in its own weight of water at 60°; it is alfo {cluble in nine times its weight of alcohol of the {pecific gravity of .84. When evaporated to drynefs, and expofed to the air, it {peedily becomes liquid, by attracting moif- ture from the airs When expofed to a ftrong heat, it affords oxygen and nitrous oxyd, the acid being decompoied, leaving the earth behind in a ftate of purity. Its compofition by the analyfis of Bergman is 43 acid, 27 magnefia, and 30 water; by Richter’s, €9.6 acid, and 30.4 bafe; by Kirwan’s, 46 acid, 22 bafe, and 32 water; and by Wenzel, 72 acid, and 28 bafe. . c The weight of the atom of acid is 19, that of the bafe 17- Then, fince the uitrats are fuper falts, we have 17 + 19 X 2 100 pd —f 7” = =, or 69 acid, and 31 magnefia, nearly. 19) kz by’ 9 3 Brena y Muriat of Magnefia.—This falt abounds in fea water, and in fome mineral waters. It may alfo be formed by adding carbonat of magnefia to muriatic acid, till the effer- vefcence ceafes. When the folution is evaporated to the con- fitence of fyrup, and expofed toa temperature of 32°, eryitals of a needle fhape are formed, although in {mall quantity and with difficulty. It has a pungent bitter tafte. It is foluble in one-half its weight of cold water, aid in almoft any proportion of boiling water. It is alfo very foluble in pure alcohol. 5 This falt is’ very deliquefcent from its great attraGtion for moifture. In confequence of the fame property, a portion of it is evaporated with the water in which it is diffolved, when expofed to a boiling heat. It is decompofable by heat, the acid being expelled. : By the analyfis of Kirwan, its compofition is 34.59 acid, 31.7 bafe, and 34.34 water. By Wenzel’s, 57 acid, and 43 bafe.. The atom of muriatic acid’ being 22, we have 22 22+ 17 100 Fi as Sie Soy The acid and bafe of Kirwan’s analyfis, reduced to the 100, will be 52 acid, and 48 bafe. Hyperoxymuriat of Magnefia.—When the oxymuriatic acid gas is pafled through a mixture of water and magnefia, we do not obtain an oxymuriat, but the common muriat mixed with the hyperoxymuriat. This:falt has fimilar pro- perties to thofe of the hyperoxymuriat of lime, the fubftance at prefent in. ufe for bleaching. Phofphat of Magnefia.—This falt may be formed by di- reGtly adding the bafe to the acid, as in the muriat of mag- nefia ; orit may be formed more perfetly, by adding a folu- Aion of fulphat of magnefia to a folution of an equal weight of phofphat of foda. In a few hours, the falt in queftion will appear in beautiful tranfparent cry/tals. Thefe crylftals are in the fhape of hexagonal prifms, folitble in 15 parts of water at 60. It has but little talte. When expofed to dry air, it foon lofes its water of eryttal- lization, and affumes the {late of white powder. It is not decompofed by heat, but melts and becomes vitreous. A compound falt, denominated the pho/phat of magnefia and ammonia, has been found by Fourcroy in the calculous con- cretions found in the colon of the horfe. It may be prepared by mixing folutions of the two falts together.. A falt of difficult folubility is precipitated. This falt is found to be an ingredient of urine, and will appear in eryftals, when that fluid is expofed in clofe veflels for fome time. It is partly from this falt that pho{phorus is obtained by the diitillation of urine. The ammonia is given out, leaving the‘phofphoric acid, which is deprived of its oxygen by the carbonaceous matter of the urine. According to the analyfes of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, it is compofed of 33 pholphat of ammonia, 33 phofphat of magnefia, and 33 water. : Fluat of emia nen magnefia is added to the fluoric acid, by a little at once, it is for fome time diffulved, but as it approaches faturation, it falls down in the’ {tate of white powder. This fhews that the falt is foluble in excefs of acid. In its neutral ftate, it is infoluble in water. No analyfis has been given of this falt. It ought, however, to be compofed in the neutral itate, of 15 acid to 17 acid, or he acid is theretore 56.4, and 43.6 bafe. : Ly OS B - by the 100 it will be 2— 17 — » or 47 acid aud 53 bi 15 47 4 5 bafe. Borat of Magnefia.—This falt may be formed by diffoly- ing magnefia in boracic acid. Jt affords erytlals by evapo- ration. It diffolves {fparingly in water, and is fojuble in acetic acid. Alcohol is faid to diffolve the boracic acid . from it, while the earth falls down. ‘This falt is found native in Germany. It has the property of becomig eleétri- cal by heat; the truncated angles being plus, and the op- pofite ones minus. Carbonat of Magnefia.—This falt may be formed by ad- ding a folution of carbonat of potafh to fulphat of mag- nefia. A white powder is precipitated, which, when wafhed and dried, con{titutes the magnefia ufed in medicine. | (See Carsonat of Magnefia.) Itis flightly foluble in water, at leaft more fo than the earth itfelf. If, however, the fuper- carbonat of potath be added to the folution of fulphat of magnefia, a fupercarbonat, of magnefia will be: formed, which is more foluble and capable of cryitallization by eva- poration, their form being that of hexagonal prifms. It is faid to be foluble in 48 parts of cold water, but lefs foluble in hot water. It is, however, in all likelihood much more {cales. ’ MAGNESIA. foluble when it is firft formed, or when the decompofition of the fulphat takes place by the fupercarbonat of potath. There appears much iaconfiftency in the analyfis by dif- ferent chemifts. The carbonat by theory fhould confift of 19.4 acid, to 17 bafe, or in the 100, 53.3 acid, and 46.7 bafe. The fupercarbonat confifts of 2 x 19.4 acid, and 17 bafe. Inthe 100, 69.5 acid, and 30.5 magnefia. Acetat of Magnefia.—This falt may be direétly formed, by diffolving magnefia in the acetic acid. It does not cryftallize when evaporated to drynefs, it foon attraéts moifture from the air. It is very foluble both in water and alcohol. bs Its component parts, according to Richter, are 70.65 acid, and 29.35 bafe. : Oxalat of Magnefia.—This {alt is nearly infoluble in water as well as alcohol. Yartrat of Magnefia.—The tartaric acid diffolves mag- nefia, forming a falt which cryftailizes in needles. Citrat of Magnefia.—This falt may be formed like the laft, by adding the bafe to the acid. It does not afford cryltals. It is compofed of 66.66 acid, and 33.34 bafe. Malat of Magnefia is a deliquefcent falt. Camphorat of Magnefiaa—When magnefia is boiled with cryftals of camphoric acid in water, they unite, forming a falt, which, on evaporation and cooling, falls down in {mall The reft of the magnefian falts are not known to be of any importance. Maeyesta Alba, P. L. 1783, Magnefic Carbonas, or Carbonate of Magnefia, in the Materia Medica, a fine white powder, which formerly at Rome bore the name of the Count of Palma; though many are of opinion, that the preparation was carried from Germany into Italy. It was, however, for feveral years, a celebrated fecret, in poffeffion of fome particular perfons, till the method of preparing it was made public by Lancifi in the year 1717, and after- wards by Hoffman in 1722. It was then extracted from the mother-ley, or the liquor which remains after the cryf- tallization of rough nitre; either by precipitation with a folution of tixedalkaline falt, or by evaporating the liquor, and calcining the dry refidzum, fo as to diflipate the acids by which the earth had been made diffoluble. As quick- lime is commonly much employed in moft of the German, French, and other European nitre-works, the fubftance obtained from the mother-leys of thofe works is rather a ca'careous earth than magnefia, and appears to be fuch by its burning into quick-lime, and forming a felenites with the vitriolic acid. Magnefia was called the miraculum chemicum, becaufe from two pellucid liquors a coagulum is formed, which contains this fubitance. From the experiments of Dr. Black, related in the Edin- burgh Phyf and Lit. Eff. vol. ii. art. 8. we learn, that magnefia is foluble, with effervefcence, in vitriolic, ‘nitrous, marine, and acetous acids; forming, with the vitriolic acid, eryitals fimilar*to thofe of the Epfom falt, and with the nitrous acids, cryftals which deliquiated in a moift air: with marine acid it formed no cryt{tals; but’ the faline matter be- ing evaporated to drynefs, foon deliquiated by expofure to air: with diftilled vinegar it formed no cryttals by evapora-« tion, but a faline mafs, vifcid when warm, refembling glue in colour and confiftence, and brittle when cold. Magnefia was found to lofe, by galeination, feven-twelfths of its weight, and was thus deprived of the power of effervefcing With acids; whence the fubitance loit by calcination was gas, or fixable air: neverthelefs this gas, and almoft the whole weight loft by calcination, were reftored to it by fo- lution in vitriolic acid, and precipitation from them by a mild fixed alkali, the gas of which it abforbed: in this laft re- {fpe& MAGNESIA. Ypet it {eemed analogous to the calcareous earths, but dif- tered from them in other properties ; particularly in thefe, that when calcined, it was not foluble in water, nor com- municated any fenfible impregnation to it, and that it did not, like them, when calcined, become-cauttic or acrid. Dr. Black alfo found, that magnefia was precipitated from acids by volatile.alkali; that, when uncalcined, it pre- cipitated calcareous earth from acids ; but when calcined, or in any other way deprived of its gas, it did not precipitate thefe earths: when uncalcined or united with gas, it pre- cipitated lime from lime-water; which fhews that the cal- careous earth had a ftronger power to combine with the gas, than the magnefia had, tince the former earth took this gas from the latter; by which means the former was rendered mild and unfoluble in water, and therefore was precipitated. This property fuggefted to Dr. Alfton a method of pro- -curing {weet water at fea, by adding magnefia to water, the putretaction of which has been prevented by the previous -addition of quick-lime. _M. Monnet obferves, that mag- vnefia, combined with fulphur, generally invelopes ftrata of coal: M. Margraaf has difcovered that the ferpentine earths in Saxony contain magnefia: and M. Monnet adds, that the marly and alfo the alum earths contain it. The direétions for preparing it, given in the laft London Pharmacopeia, are as follow: Take of fulphat of magnetia, fubcarbonat of potafs, of each a pound, and water three © gallons. Diffolve the fubcarbonat of potafs in three pints “of the water, and ftrain; diflolve alfo the fulphat of mag- nefia feparately in five pints of the water, and ftrain: then add the reft of the water to the latter folution; apply heat, cand when it boils, pour in the former folution, ftirring them well together; next ftrain through a linen cloth; laftly, wath the powder repeatedly with boiling water, and dry it upon ‘bibulous paper in a heat of 200°. The double de- compofition ef the falts ufed in this procefs yields carbenat of magnefia and fulphat of potafs, the firft of which it is the object to collect as free as poffible from the laft. Hence, as the newly formed fulphat of potafs requires a large pro- portion of water for its folution, fuch a proportion is di- rected in the firft inftance, and it is afterwards well wafhed with more. If water be impregnated with carbonic acid gas, it will diffolve carbonat of magnefia; and hence the liquor 1s made to boil, for the purpofe of detaching it. If the two folutions be mixed cold, and the precipitate left for fome days upon the filter without artificial drying, many large and perfe@ cryftals of carbonat of magnefia will be formed init. The fubfequent heat, by which the powder is dried, fhould not be great enough to detach any of the carbonic acid. The prefent suas will yield a pure and elegant preparation: its form is that of a white powder, ealily friable, and, according to Fourcroy, if the bafe be fully faturated with carbonic acid, as in the cryftals, (for in its ordinary form it is a fubcarbonat, ) 100 parts contain of carbonic acid 50, of magnefia 25, of water 25; and if not So faturated, but in its {tate of fub-falt, of carbonic acid 48, of magnefia 40, and of water 12. In commerce, the mu- riat of magnefia contained in the refiduary liquor, after the cryftallization of muriat of foda from fea-water, is decom- pofed by a fimilar procefs, and yields a large proportion of the ordinary magnefia of the markets. The dofe of car- bonat of magnefia to adults is from 3 to 3ii, and of ful- phat from 31 to Zi, See Carnonat of Magnefia, and the preceding article. Mr. Henry, an ingenious apothecary at Manchefter, has 2 each, MAGNET. each, fixed upright in the middle of each end, over againtt each other, at the diftance of fix inches from outfide to out- fide. Thefe pieces of iron may be about a quarter of an inch fquare, and fhould be filed pretty {mooth on the fides. Againit thefe are to be placed, with their edges towards them, the twelve magnetical bars, fix on one fide, with their fouth, or north poles one way, and fix on the other fide with the fame poles the contrary way. It is neceflary to obferve that thefe bars muft neither be taken out, nor put in, all, or too many on a fide at once ; for if two only be left, with their poles of the fame denomination the fame way, without one or more on the other fide to counter-balance their effeéts, they will damage each other: and if two of the fame fide be taken out together, or laid with their poles of the fame denomination together, after they are taken out they will alfo damage one another : and if this be the cafe it will be proper to reftore them before they are ufed, after the manner prefcribed for making of magnets. In order to make the marked ends of thefe bars fouth poles, and the other ends north poles, place fix of them in a line north and fouth, bringing the unmarked end of one, to touch the marked end of the next throughout; the marked ends lying towards the north, which will be fome advantage to them, Then take an armed magnet, and placing it with both poles upon one of the bars, the north pole towards the marked end, which is to be a fouth pole, and the fouth pole to- wards the unmarked end, which is to be a north pole, flide it backwards and forwards from-end to end of the whole line of bars three or four times, taking care that they all touch, Then taking it off, remove the two endmott bars into the middle, and pafs over them again three or four times. Having thus touched the bars, it will not be im- proper to turn them with the other fide uppermoft, and to touch them over again on that fide as before, omitting the endmott bars, till they are removed into the middle, where they alfo are to be touched. If an unarmed magnet, either natural or artificial, be ufed, lay the bars ina line as before ; place the fouth pole of the magnet upon the marked end of the endmoft bar, and flide it over the whole line to the end: then taking that pole off, place the north pole upon the fame bar in its room, not at the extremity of the bar,” but towards the middle, and flide it back again; then change the poles again, obferving to fet the magnet on at the middle of the bar, and flide it to the other end, as at firft. Having done this four or five times, remove the two endmoft bars into the middle, and placing the fouth pole of the magnet upon the marked end of them, flide it to the unmarkedend ; and then, placing the north pole upon the unmarked end, flide it t» the marked end. Let this be repeated three or four times; and turning the bars with the other fide upward, repeat the fame procefs again. When the magnets are weak, it may be neceffary to touch the bars, according to the preceding direction, before they are hardened, when they will receive the magnetic virtue more eafily; then, making the whole dozen magnetical, in the manner hereafter prefcribed, till they are as {trongly fo as they will be in their foft ftate, harden one half ; and having made thefe again magnetical with the oe half that are foft, harden thofe alfo, and proceed. But if the mag- nets are.too weak to perform properly, even in this cafe, re- courfe mutt be had to fmaller bars of fteel, which fhould alfo be foft; and if thefe fail, bars of iron mult be ufed. Having communicated a {mall degree of magnetifm to fix of the bars, let the other fix, oes are unmagnetical, be Taid in a line, in the fame manner as the former: and let A B, (Plate V1. Magnetifm, fig. 10.) reprefent this line, confifting of fix bars, though three only are delineated. The line drawn acrofs at the end of each bar, reprefents the mark diftinguifhing that end which is to be made the fouth-pole, from the other Let C D, E F reprefent the fix bars alrea- dy made magnetical: thefe lean againft each other at the top, and are feparated by a piece of wood, or other matter except iron, about the tenth of an inch at the bottom. The three magnets in C D have all their fouth poles downward, and are placed towards the unmarked ends of the bars in the line which are to be north poles ; and the three magnets in E F have all their north poles downward, and are placed to- wards the marked ends of the bars which are to be fouth poles. Slide thefe fix magnetical bars thu’ placed, back- ward and forward three or four times over the whole length of the line. Then taking them off, having frit brought them to touch at the bottom, remove the two endmoft bars of the line into the middle, and replacing the magnetical bars upon them, as before, pafs over thofe again. Then taking them off, and turning the bars in the line with the other fide upward, go over them again in the fame manner, except- ing the endmott bars ; which, when thofe in the middle are . touched, are to be removed thither, to be touched in their turn. Thus the bars in the line will give a ftronger power to that of the other fix, by which they were touched ; and, therefore, thefe latter may now be laid down in a line, and retouched, after the fame manner, with the latter: when this is done, lay thofe down again, and retouch them with the others: repeat this operation a few times, firlt touchin one fet, and then the other, till they have acquired as ae magnetifm as they will retain; or till they will receive no additional force by any farther repetition, The fix-inch bars, made magnetical after this manner, when properly hardened, will fingly lift, by one pole, a piece of iron, weighing a pound or better, if it be of a proper form ; and fix fuch bars will touch a line of frefh bars of the fame fize, to their full perfection, by three or four times fliding over them ; except the endmoft, which mutt always be removed into the middle. As feveral magnets laid together with their poles of the fame denomination the fame way, will greatlyinjure one another, un- lefs they have fomething to counteract them, it is abfolutely neceffary not to place two of them, of a fide, or together ; but fingly, one on one fide, and one on the other, making them to lean together, that they may reft againft one another at the top: at the bottom they are preferved from injuring one another, by being placed upon the bar whichis to be made maguetical. In like manner, they muft not be taken off two of a fide together, but fingly, firft on one fide, and then onthe other. But the readieft way of taking them off is firft to bring them to touch one another at the bottem, ia the fame manner as they do at the top, and then they may be removed at once, and upon occafion fet on again; only ob- ferving not to feparate them again at the bottom, till they are placed upon the bar which ehey are to touch, The rea- fon of removing the two bars at the ends of the line, in or- der to their receiving a greater virtue, feems to be, that the fix magnets, employed in touching, are endeavouring to make that part of the bar which 1s not included between them magnetical, in a contrary direétion from that which is included between them. As this lalt is the direétion of magnetifm defigned, the former endeavour would be injurious; and it is prevented by two caufes : one of which is the power, whereby the fteel refifts in a degree every endeavour, either to make it magnetical, or to deftroy its magnetifm; and the other is the power of the bars already in Gre meafure magnetical, which lie at both ends of the bar that is touched. Now this lait power is wanting at one extremity of thofe bars that are placed at the ends ; and confequently not having’a fufficient force fully to refift the contrary endea- E vour MAGNET. vour of the magnets employed in touching them, they become lefs magnetical than the others, which have a fufficient force. Though in the line of bars, when making magnetical, each bar has only one at each end to fupport it (thofe magnets that are planted at the ends of the others to preferve them being called fupporters) againft the contrary endeavour of the fix, made ufe of to touch it; and this does very well ; yet fome will receive an additional force by being fupported with larger magnets; or inftead of thefe, two or three of their own fize, at each end ; thofe at the marked end all with their north poles touching it, and thofe at the unmarked end all with their fouth pole touching it. And becaufe there will be two or three north poles, and as many fouth poles toge- ther amongft the fupporters, at the other end from the bar to be touched, that have nothing to counteraét them, it will be proper to place the fouth pole of another magnet among - the north poles, and the north pole of another among the fouth poles, that they may not hurt one another, which they otherwife will do. The manner above defcribed is called the double touch: and Mr. Michell obferves, that two magnets will give more ftrength to a bar of their own fize, when ufed after this. manner, than a fingle magnet equal to five of the former in itrength, when applied after the manner of the fimple touch. This ingenious writer has defcribed a frame, contrived for holding feveral of the fix-inch bars, when they are ufed in touching large bars, and when they cannot be conveniently held in the hand; for an account of which we muft refer to his excellent pamphlet, already cited, p. 45, Sc. ed. 2. He obferves, that the form of magnets is of very little con- fequence with regard to their receiving the magnetic virtue, provided that they have a fufficient length in proportion to their bulk. The ftraight bars may be made {quare, round, or flat: though the flat are moft convenient for touching ; and probably fomewhat itronger. Thefe may alfo be point- ed at the ends, as in fg. 11, 1n order to render them lighter, and to increafe their power of lifting ; though pointed bars are not fo proper for touching. The magnet may be made in the form of a horfe-fhoe, as in fig. 12, where a wedge of iron is fuppofed to be applied to the poles of it; and it will thus lie in a narrower compafs, a wedge of iron may be applied to its two poles, and it will lift by both poles at once. The magnet may be alfo made annular, which is a plain flat bar, bent flatways initead of edgeways; and a femicircular magnet may be bent flatways, like the an- nular, or edgeways, like the horfe-fhoe ; and two magnets of this kind may be conveniently placed together, in order to preferve each other. The poles of a magnet may be converted by placing the bars which are to retouch it, with their north poles towards its north pole, and the fouth poles towards its fouth pole. In doing this, they fhould be placed on at the middle, and flid once or twice backwards and forwards, before it is fup- ported ; and then that which was the north pole mutt be fupported as afouth pole by north poles: and that which was the fouth pole, as a north pole by fouth poles. In or- der to make a bar magnetical, fo that it fhall have feveral poles, fupport it at the places where the poles are defigned to be, with poles of acontrary denomination from thofe de- figned ; and if any placeis fupported with fouth poles, the next places on either fide muft be fupported with north poles, and vice verfa. Having done this, confider each piece included be- tween any two fets of fupporters,as a feparate bar, to be made magnetical, with its fouth pole towards the north fet of fup- porters, and its north pole towards the fouth fet, and touch itaccordingly. Magnets of this fort willnot dowell, unlefs they are very long; and at beft they are always weak, and will very foon be injured ; fo that they fhould only be mad? occafionally. Mr. Michell has alfo publifhed a method of obtaining magnetifm by means of three iron bars, without the afftit- ance of a natural load-ftone, for which we {hall refer to his pamphlet, p. 60, &c. and proceed to defcribe the method defcribed by the ingenious Mr. Canton. This gentleman has fucceeded fo well in his attempts to convey a confiderable magnetic virtue to bars of hardened feel, as to be able to impregnate fuch bars with this virtue to as high a degree, at leaft, as any bars of the fame weight and dimenfions, which he had feen or heard of ; and to as high a degree, as he apprehends, the fame bars, in their pre- fent ftate, are capable of being impregnated. Mr. Canton was able, in about half an hour’s time, to communicate to fix bars of hardened fteel, at firft entirely deftitute of any magnetic virtue, the utmoft virtue they were capable of receiving ; and that without the mediation or affiftance of any natural load-{tone, or of any artificial magnet. Mr. Canton has publithed the defcription of his procefs with fuch direétions, that any perfon may readily perform the fame. For this purpofe procure a dozen bars ; fix of foft fteel, each three inches long, $ inch broad, and th of aninch thick, with two pieces of iron, each half the length of one of the bars, but of the fame breadth and thicknefs ; and fix of the hard fteel, each 54 inches long,’ an inch broad, and .3,ths of an inch thick, with two pieces of iron of half the length, but the whole breadth and thicknefs of one of the hard bars; and let all the bars be marked with a line quite round them at one end. Then take an iron poker and tongs, or two bars of iron, (Plate VII. Magnetifm, fig. 1.) the larger they are, and the longer they have been ufed, the better ; and fixing the poker upright between the knees, hold to it near the top one of the foft bars, having its marked end downward, by a piece of fewing filk, which muft be pulled tight with the left hand, that the bar may not flide ; then gra{ping the tongs with the right hand a little below the middle, and laying them nearly in a vertical pofition, let the bar be ftroked by the lower end, from the bottom to the top, about ten times on ench fide, which will give it a magnetic power fufficient to lift a {mall key at the marked end ; which end, if the bar was fufpended on a point, would turn towards the north, and is, therefore, called the north pole, and the unmarked end is, for the fame reafon, called the fouth pole of the bar. Four of the foft bars bein impregnated after this manner, lay the other two (fg. a parallel to each other, at the diftance of about one-fourth of an inch between the two pieces of iron belonging to them, with a north and a fouth pole again{t each piece of iron; then take two of the four bars already made mag- netical, and place them together, fo as to make a double bar in thicknefs, the north pole of one being even with the fouth pole of the other; and the remaining two being put to thefe, one on each fide, fo as to have two north and two fouth poles together, feparate the north from the fouth poles at one end by a large pin, and place them perpendicularly with that end downward, on the middle of one of the pa- rallel bars, the two north poles towards its fouth, and the two fouth poles towards its north end ; flide them backward and forward three or four times over the whole length of the bar, and removing them from the middle of this, place them on the middle of the other bar as before directed, and go over that in the fame manner; then turn both the bars with the other fide upward, and repeat the former opera- tion: this being done, take the two from between the pieces ° of iron, and placing the two outermolt of the touching bars in their room, let the other two be the outermof of 6 the MAGNET. the four to touch thefe with; and this procefs being re- eated till each pair of bars has been touched three or ur times over, which will give them a confiderable mag- netic power, put the half dozen together after the manner of the four ( fig. 3s), and touch with them two pair of the hard bars, placed between the irons at thie diftance of about half an inch from each other ; then lay the foft bars afide ; and with the four hard ones let the other two be impreg- nated (jig. 4.), holding the touching-bars apart at the lower end near two-tenths of an inch, to which diftaace let them be feparated after they are fet on the parallel bar, and brought tugether again after they are taken off ; this being obferved, proceed according. to the methed already de- {cribed, till each pair has been touched two or three times over. But as this vertical way of touching a bar will ndt give it quite fo much of the magnetic virtue as it will re- ceive, let each pair be now touched once or twice over, in their parallel pofition between the irons (fig. 5.), with two of the bars held horizontally, or nearly fo, by drawing at the fame time the north of one from the middle over the, fouth end, and the fouth of the other from the middle aver the north end of a parallel bar: then bringing them to the middle again without touching the parallel bar, give three or four of thefe’ horizontal {trokes to each fide. The horizontal touch, after the vertical, will make the bars as ftrong as they can poflibly be made ; as appears by their not receiving any additional ftrenyth, whea the vertical. touch is giveu by a greater number of bars, and the hori- zontal by thofe of a f{uperior magnetic power. This whole procefs thay be gone through in about half an hour, and each of the larger bars, if well hardened, may be made to lift twenty-eight troy ounces, and fometimes more. And when thefe bars are thus impregnated, they will give to a hard bar of the fame fize its full virtue in iefs than two minutes ; and will, therefore, anfwer all the purpofes of magnetifm in navigation and experimental philofophy,-much better than the load-{tone, which is well known not to have fufficient power to impregnate hard bars. The half dozen deing put into a cafe (fig. 6.), in fuch a manner as that two poles of the fame denomination may not be together, and their irons with them, as one bar, they will retain the virtue they have received; but if their power fhould, by making experiments, be ever ‘fo far impaired, it may be re- dtored without any foreign affiftance ina few minutes. And if, out of curiofity, a much larger fet of bars fhould be required, thefe will communicate to them a fufficient power to proceed with, and they may in a fhort time, by the fame method, be brought to their full ftrength. Mr. Canton, by the fame procefs, communicated magnetic virtue to two large bars, each half an inch fquare, 10% inches in length, and weighing nearly ten ounces and twelve pennyweights, to fuch a degree, that one of them lifted by one of its ends feventy-nine ounces and nine pennyweights : and a flat femi- circular magnet, weighing an ounce and thirteen penny- weights, was made to lift, by applying its two ends toge- ther to an iron wedge, ninety troy ounces. The fame ingenious gentleman could alfo readily deprive his bars of their virtue; and change the poles of a natural load-{tone, by placing it in an inverted: direction, between the contrary poles of his larger bars, laid Gown at fome diftance from each other, in the fame ftraight liné continued at the diftance of about a quarter of an inch from either of the poles, with- out touching the ftone with either of the bars. The method in which the {teel he made ufe of was hard- ened is as follows: having cut a fufficient quantity of the leather of old thoes into very {mall pieces, an iron pan is provided, which a little exceeds the length of a bar, is wide enough to admit of two bars fide by fide without. touching each other on the pan, aud at leaft an inch deep. This pan is nearly half filled with the bits of leather, upon which are laid the two bars, having faftened to the end of each a fmall wire for taking them out: the pan is then quite filled with the leather, and placed on a gentle flat fire, being covered and furrounded with charcoal, The pan, being brought to fomewhat more than a red heat, is kept about half an hour, and the bars are fuddenly quenched in a large quantity of cold water. Mr. Horne, in his Effays on Iron and Steel, p. 147, claims the merit of direéting this procefs for hardening Mr. Canton’s bars. In order to communicate the magnetic virtue to a fteel bar, to the needle of a compafs, &c. by means of two mag- netic bars, place the bar or needle, A B ( fig.'7.), upon a table, then place the two magnetic bars CD, EF, ftraight up upon A B, at a little and equal diftance from the middle of the bar A B, and in fuch manner, as the fouth pole, D, of one of the bars may be nearelt fo that end of the bar, A B, which is required to become the north pole, &c. then thefe two bars muft be flid gradually towards one extremity of the bar, keeping them conitantly at the fame diftance from each cther ; and when one of the magnetic bars, for inftance CD, is arrived at A, then they mutt be flid the contrary way, till E F arrives at B ; and thus the bar, A B, mult be rubbed a greater or fmaller number of times, till it will be found by trial to have acquired aconfiderable power. When the magnetic bars are powerful, and the bar, A B, is of very good tieel, and not very large, a dozen of ftrokes are full fufficient. When the magnetic bars are to be removed from the bar A B, care mutt be had to bring them to the fame fituation where they were firft placed, viz. at a little and equal diftance from the middle of the bar A B, and then ~ they may be lifted up. In this operation, the effe&t of the bars may be improved feyeral ways, which will be found neceffary when the bar, A B, is proportionably large, and it is none to give it the greateft poffible power. This may be effected, firlt, by joining the magnetic bars at top, interpofing a pisce of wood or other fubfiance, except iron, to keep them apart, as fhewn in fig. 8; for in this manner, the upper poles of the bars being contiguous, will tend to frengthen each other, ‘and, of courfe, their lower poles will alfo be ftrengthened. Secondly, by placing the bar, to be rendered magnetic, be- tween two bars of foft iron, or two other magnets, as fhewn in fig. 9, or in the manner before directed, Thirdly, the magnetic bars may be inclined the contrary way, after the manner uled by Mr. Aépinus (fig. 10.); fo that the mag- nets CD, EI’, may make an angle of about fifteen degrees with the bar A B. The bar, A B, may, in the fame manner, be rendered mag- netic by means of an armed magnet, as fhewn in fig. 115 or by a horle-fhoe magnet, as fhewn in fg. 12, placing both the poles of the magnet in contaét with the bar, &e. In all thefe methods, the bar to be rendered magnetic mutt be ftroked on every fide ; and, in order to let the magnetic centre fall juit in its middle, care mult be had to ftroke one-half of tite bar juft as often as the other half. : Whenever a fteel bar, or in general a piece of ferrugi- , nous {ubltance, is rendered magnetic by applying two bars, or whenever two magnetic poles are applied to it at the fame time, as ufed in this and the preceding experiment, the operation is ufually called the double touch, in dittinction from the file touch, which is when only one magnetic pole is applied to it. i> I As ——— MAG As artificial magnets are frequently made in the fhape of a femicircle,ror like a horfe-fhoe, for the fake of bringing both poles in the fame plane, the crooked fteel bars of which they are conftruéted are made magnetic in the fame manner as the ftraight bars, excepting only, that the mag- netic bars which are ufed for it muit follow the curvature of the fteel bar; thus, if it be required to render mag- netic the piece of fteel A BC (fig. 13-), place it flat upon a table, and to its extremities apply the magnets D F, EG;; joining their extremities F, G, with the conduéior or piece of foft iron F G. Then apply the magnetic bars H, I, to the middle of the piece A BC, and ftroke-it with them, from end to end, following the direction of the bent fteel, fo that on one fide of it the magnetic bars may ftand.in the dire¢tion indicated by the dotted reprefentation ‘LK. Inthis manner, when the piece of fteel has been rubbed a fufficient number of times on one fide, turn the other fide upwards, and repeat the operation till it has ac- quired a fufficient degree of magnetifm. ; In this operation, the fame precautions mult be followed as were recommended for the method of communicating the magneti{m to ftraight bars, viz. the magnets DF, EG, as well as the magnets H,1, mult be placed fo that their fouth poles muft be towards that extremity of the bent fteel which is required to be mate the north pole, and their ‘ north poles towards the other extremity. The magnets, I, H, mutt be firft placed on the middle of the bent lteel ; and after having drawn them over one leg of it as often as over the other, in order to let the magnetic centre fall juft in the middle of the bent fteel, they are removed, &c. If a perfon have only one magnetic bar, or a terrella, with which he wifhes.to give magnetilm to a needle or other bar, the only way of effeéting it is, to apply one pole of the terrella, or magnetic bar, AB (fy. 14.), to one extremity, C, of the needle, and to draw it all along the furface of it till it reaches the other extremity D; then the magnet being removed, muft be applied again to the extre- mity C, and muit be drawn over the needle as before. Thus the needle muft be rubbed feveral times, by which means it will acquire a confiderable degree of magnetifm. It mult be obferved, that the extremity of the needle which the pole of the magnet touched latt, acquires the contrary polarity. Thus, in the prefent inftance, if B be the north pole of the magnet, the extremity, D, of the needle will afterwards be found to have acquired the fouth polarity, and the other extremity, C, the north. In this operation it is evident, that, after the firft ftroke, when the magnet is applied again to C, this extremity, hav- ing acquired the north polarity, will have that power de. ftroyed by the vicinity of the north pole, B, of the magnet ; fo that it feems that every {troke undoes what was done in the preceding. However, the fa¢t is, that by repeating the flrokes the power is increafed ; but, in general, this method will never be fo advantageous as when more than one mag- netic pole is ufed: hence it ought not to be ufed, excepting in cafe of neceflity, viz. when one has only one magnetic bar or terrella. Artificial magnets are preferable to the natural ones in a variety of refpects. Mr. Michell mentions particularly, that they may be had at much lefs expence and trouble, and in greater plenty ; that they are much fuperier to natural magnets in flrength, and better able to communicate the Magnetic virtue in proportion to their ftrength; that they are more eafily reltored to their former ftrength when they are at any time damaged; that they furnifh feveral poles ; and that they may be had in every form. Cavallo’s Mag- netifm, Cavallo’s Philofophy, vol. iii, MAG MAGNETICAL Ampuitupe, Azimuth, and Dens tion, fee the feveral fubftantives. Maeyetica L/land, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, near the N.E. coaft of New Holland, dif- covered by Capt. Cook in the year 1770, and fo named from its feeming to have fome effect on the compafs. §. lat. 19° 8. W. long. 213° 22", Macnericat Line, is that line in which a needle would place itfelf, if left at entire liberty to turn itfelf as well ver- tically, as horizontally. See Dirprne. Maenericat Meridian. See MERIDIAN. Maeneticat Needle. See Neepie. See alfo Mariner's Compass, Dippine, and the article MacGnrr. Macneticat Paradox. Upon the table B (Plate VI. Magnetifm, fig. 15.) place apiece of iron wire, not above 2 tenth of aninch long. Let the magnetic bar, E F, be held at about four or five inches above the table, with either pole 4 downwards, and in fuch a place, as that the perpendicalar let fall from it to the table may touch the table at G, viz. two or three inches diftance from the iron wire: thefe diltancesy, however, are fubje& toa good deal of variety, arifing from the power of the magnet. By the aétion of the magnet the iron wire will elevate one of its ends, as reprefented by C D, forming with the table an angle, which is larger the nearer the wire comes to the point G, where it ftands quite ere@. In this fituation, if you give gentle knocks to the table, the wire, CD, will gradually proceed towards G, every knock making it jump up and advance a little way. ‘The reafon of which a fuperficial obferver would immediately attribute to the attraction between the magnet and the iron wire, which, being not fufliciently ftrong to raife the wire from the table,. has juft power enough to draw it a little nearer to the point G, when the motion of the table lifts it up. Thus far the experiment fhews nothing extraordinary 3 but if it be repeated with only this variation, viz. that the mag- net, inftead of being heid above the table, be placed below it, viz. at HI, the event will be, that the wire, which will now’ make an obtufe angle towards G, as rewrefented by K L, on knocking the table, will gradually recede from the point G,, fhewing as if the magnet repelled it ; which has given to-this experiment the name of magnetical paradox ; for, in fact, the magnet attraéts the wire. : ’ This phenomenon refults from the directive property of the magnet atting at a greater diftance than the attractive. In order to explain the immediate caufe of this phenome- non, it muit be confidered, that the wire K L, (jig. 16.) being rendered magnetic by the action of the mag- net H, is inclined to it according to the above-men- tioned laws of the dippime needle ; but, on account of its weight, and becanfe it is {upported not in its centre, but by one end, namely K, which ftands upon the table, it does not incline fo much as it ought to do, if it were freely fufpended by its centre, the end, K, now being a little higher than its proper fituation. Let MN be the perpendicular, which pafles through the centre of the wire. Now, when by the motion given to the table, the wire is made to jump ; this, whil{t remaining in the air, will take its proper inclination, as fhewn by r Q, its centre remaining in the fame perpendicular MN; for the dire&tive power of the magnet, H, atts at a greater diftance than its attraction. In this fituation it is evident, that a perpendicular PO, let fall from the lower extremity, 15 of the wire, touches the table in a point far- ther from G than the point K.; and as the wire after the jump comes down to the table again with the proper jnclinatio#, viz. parallel to r Q, it follows, that now its lower end mutt touch the table at O: and thus every mean Ww MAG cwill force it to recede a little more from the point G, which lies juft over the magnet H. The fame explanation applied to the firft part of the ex- periment, will fhew that the wire muft in that cafe, viz. when the magnet is held above the table, approach conti- nually the point G. This experiment may be diverfified by ufing iron filings, inftead of the iron wire ; for, in the firft cafe, the filings difperfed over the table will be gradually colle&ted about the point G ; and in the latter cate, the filings placed about the point, G, will be gradually forced to recede from that point. Cavallo’s Magnetifm, chap. vii. Macyeticat Variation. See Variation and Decit- NATION. MAGNETIS Lapis, in the Natural Hiflory of the An- cients, the name given in different ages to two very different ‘fubftances. The earlieft Greek authors expreffed by it the load-ftone, which became afterwards called Heraclius lapis, (fee Iron, Ores of, and MaGner) ; and then the word magnes was applied to a very different {tone brought from the fame place, the neighbourhood of Magnefia in Lydia. This was a fine beautiful and bright fubftance, of a pure white, and fo very bright and gloffy, as to bear a refemblance to polifhed filver. It wasdug in large maffes, and was of a texture capable of being wrought into any figure. ingly it was in great efteem among the ancients, who had it wrought into veffels for the ufe of the table. It feemsto be wholly unknown at prefent among the na- tions we have commerce with. Hill’s Theophrait. p. 79. MAGNETISM, Maewerismus, that quality or con- ftitution of a body, and its pores, whereby it is rendered magnetical, or 2 magnet. Magnetifm is found to be a tranfient power, capable of being produced and deftroyed again, Macyetiso of the Zarth is that property of the terreftrial globe, fsom which the magnetifm of the ordinary magnets, the direGtiion of the magnetic needle, and other phenomena are derived, and upon which they neceffarily depend. This hypothefis is evinced by fo many obfervations, that no philofo- pher can be fceptical enough to difpute its truth. The prin- cipal reafons, fays Mr. Cavallo, which prove it, almoft to a demonitration, are, firft, that almott all the phenomena which may be exhibited with a-ufual magnet, may be alfo exhibited with the earth, as far as it may be tried ; and fecondly, that vait mafles of iron, or ferruginous fub- flance, actually magnetic, are dug out of the earth almoft in every part of it. «The phenomena of the compafs and of the dipping needle, in different parts of the world, and the magnetifm naturally acquired by foft iron when properly fituated, are exactly imitated by a common magnet, or a terrella ; but the only phenomenon, which has not been obferved with refpe& to the earth, and which is the principal pro- perty of the ufual magnets, is the attraction of a piece of iron, or other ferruginous fubftance. For inftance, if a piece of iron be as to either of the poles of a common magnet, it will be powerfully attraéted by it; but if it be prefented to the middle of the magnet, the attraGtion willbe found to be hardly perceivable, or at leaft incomparably weaker than at the poles; in conformity to which, it might be expeéted, that a piece of iron fhould be attra¢ted more powerfully downwards, when near the poles of the earth than when near the equator; which attraction, being combined with the attraction of gravita- tion, ought to be known by the difference of the weights of the fame piece of iron, when weighed near the poles, and sheu weighed near the equator; for, if the magnetic at- Accord- | MAG tra&tion of the earth upon it be at all fenfible, it ought to weigh more in the former cafe than in the latter. But this difference of weights has not yet been afcertained ; however, if it were to be tried with all the accuracy neceflary for fo ~ nice an experiment, I am inclined to think that it would be found to anfwer ; viz. that the fame piece of iron would be found to weigh fomewhat more in places nearer to the poles, than it does nearer to the equator: but, even in cafe no fuch difference of weights were obferved, it would be improper to infer that the earth does not exert any mag- netic attraétion towards the iron on its furface, and that this attraétion is not ftronger near the poles than near the equa- tor ; becaufe, firft, the magnetifm of the earth being very weak, the difference of the attraGtion in different places muft be likewife very f{mall, notwithitanding the direétive power is confiderably ftrong ; for, as was explained under the article Macner, the latter of thofe powers extends to a much greater diftance than the former. And, fecondly, it muft be confidered, that the equatorial diameter of the earth is longer than its polar diameter, and that the attraétion of gravitation, or the weight of bodies, decreafes in pro- portion to the fquares of the diftances from the centre of the earth ; in confequence of which, if we abfira& the mag- netic attra€tion, and confider only the attra€tion of gravita- tion, it will appear that the piece of iron muft weigh more when -weighed near the poles than when weighed near the equator; namely, becaufe when near the poles, it ftands actually nearer the centre of the earth than when near the equator. ‘ «<1 f the magnetic needle pointed always due northand fouth, _ or always within a certain diftance ef thofe points, it would fhew that the earth has two fixed magnetic poles, either coin- ciding with its aftronomical poles, or at fome diftance from the fame ; but the continual variation of the magnetic needle fhews, that thofe magnetic poles of the earth move with refpe& to the furface of the earth, and, on this account, many fuppofitions have been offered to the public by divers ingenious perfons, It was imagined, that there was a large magnet inclofed within the body of the earth, which being not fixed to the external part, moved with refpe& to it, and, confeqnently, occafioned the variation of the needle.” To this purpofe, Mr. Whifton alleges that the earth on which we live, includes within it a vaft fpherical magnet, concentrical thereto, having its own poles, meridians, equa- tor, and parallels; and all much of the fame general na- ture of thofe with {mall terrellz, or {pherical load-ftones, in the poffeffion of the curious amohg us. The power of a good terrella, or a {pherical load-ftone, fays this author, as it affects a needle a foot long, is equal to the magnetic power of that internal load-{tone about two and a hall, or three diameters of fuch load-ftone. From which confideration, the quantity of magnetic attraétion at all diftances from the internal load-flone, for needles a foot long, may be determined; and from the fame confidera- tion it appears, that the diameter of this internal load-{tone is about eleven hundred and fifty miles. To which we add, that, in regard fir Ifaac Newton has demonftrated, that the power of gravity diminifhes within the earth, and is lefs there than at its furface, nearly in the proportion of its greater nearnefs to the centre, the magnetic power, at two thoufand nine hundred miles diftance from us, and nearly one thoufand and fixty from the earth’s centre, which is 12 of the power of gravity here, will be fomewhat greater than the power of gravity there ; which limit is worthy our attention, gravity being ftronger than magnetifm on the one fide of it, and weaker on the other; we mean, as it affeéts needles of one foot diameter. At that limit, a es MAGNETISM. , leait near the magnetic poles, iron a foot long will be twice as heavy, and fall twice as faft, as any other natural body, viz. by the union of thofe two equal powers, gravity and magnetifm; and of confequence, above that limit, fuch an iron will be lefs than twice as heavy, below it more than twice as heavy, as any other natural bady. The earth’s internal load-ftone, he fays, is not fixed to our upper parts, but is moveable with refpet to them, and actually revolves on the earth’s axis, from eaft to weft, in a certain long. period of time; 2s appears beyond contra- diGion, from the conftant variation of the horizontal needle wettward ; as well as the regular increale of inclination of the dipping needle. The only way to render this motion, 7. e, the variation, poffible and intelligible (to ufe Dr. Halley’s words), is to {uppofe ic to turn about the centre of a globe, having its centre of gravity fixed and immoveable in the fame com- mon centre of the earth. This moveable internal furface mutt likewile be loofe, and detached frem the external part of the globe, which may be reckoned the fhell, and the other the nucleus. or inner globe, included within it, with a fluid medium between. Now, from the variation’s moving weft- ward, it is plain, that the forefaid nucleus has not precifely attained the fame degree of velocity with the exterior parts in their diurnal revolution : but fo nearly equals it, that in three hundred and fixty-five revolutions, the difference “is fcarcely fenfible ; and muft probably have arifen from hence, that the impulfe, whereby the diurnal motion was impreffed on the earth, was given to the external parts, and thence communicated to the internal. This internal magnet has one central pole northward, in the nature of the poles of our common load-ftones ; but its fouthern pole appears not to be central, but rather circular, and that at a great diftance from the fouthern pole of the earth. The northern magnetic pole is now fituate, fays Mr. Whitton, about the latitude of 76% degrees; i. e. 134 de- grees from the north pole of the earth, and about 30 degrees eaftward from the meridian of London. The fouthern magnetic circular pole has its centre, or central pole, nearly in the parallel of 60 degrees; and, ina meridian paffing along the eaft coaft of Borneo, about 117 degrees eaftward of London. Its radius is alfo an are of a great circle of about 44 degrees. , The refpeGtive motion of the internal magnet, or the ve- locity, v. g. of its north pole, appears to be 27 deg. omin. in 144 years, i.e. upwards of one degree in five years; fo that it makes an entire revolution in 1920 years. Hence, as the number of degrees in the upper earth’s diurnal revolution is to the number of days in the revolution of the internal magnet, i. ¢. as I 18 to 700,000, fo is the refpective motion of this magnet from eaft to weft to the real motion of the upper earth from weft to eat; or, to fpeak ftriély, fo is the difference of their motions from weft to ealt to the entire motion of the upper earth the fame way. This external fixed earth has therefore communicated almoft all its motion already to the internal magnet ; and can com- municate no more than this difference of their motion, and that only in an infinite term of years; or, in other words, this real internal motion can never be the feven hundred thoufandth part fwifter than it is at prefent. This internal motion, therefore, began with the commencement of the diurnal motion of the upper earth; and has gone on full fafter and fatter by the communication of that motion through the intermediate fluid. Since, therefore, a¢tion and re-action are equal, and tend to contrary parts, this internal load-ftone, thus accelerated by the upper part, mutt have all along re- Vor, XXII. tarded that upper earth, and made the diurnal rotation fill flower and flower. This acceleration on one fide, and re- tardation on the other, muft have been very great at the firft beginning of the diurnal motion, when the difference of their motion was equal to the entire motion itfelf, and muft have been diminifhing ever fince. To which caufe is probably owing that acceleration of the moon’s motion with re{peét to that of the earth, fince the time of the old aftronomers, * firft taken notice of by Dr. Halley, and embraced by fir Ifaac Newton. And the fame confideration feems to fug- geft a method for determining the age of the world; for, were the proportions of the quantity of matter in the upper earth to the internal magnet, with the tenacity of the in- termediate fluid, &c. known, one might go back from the known difference of their velocity now, and find thofe dif. ferences and quantities of motion themfelves, @ priori, in all pait ages ; or, were the velocity of the firft diurnal rotation of the upper earth known, we might geometrically deter- mine, @ priori, how long ago that rotation began, or how ancient our earth is. . The variation of magnetic needles from the azimuth of the meridians of the internal magnet is derived, fays Mr. Whif- ton, from the difference of the ftrength of the feveral parts of the internal maguet’s furface ; which as it is only to be known by experience, that variation cannot be determined before-hand, unlefs where there are good accounts how much it had formerly been; it being probable, that it returns round, and will be the fame in any year of the next revolu- tion of the internal magnet, that it has been in the like ‘year of any former revolution, or will itfelf have a revo- lution in about 1920 years. Mr. Whifton adds, that the two fixed magnetic poles in our upper earth firft intro- duced by Dr. Halley, as-neceffary to folve the irregu- larity of the variation of the horizontal needle from the meridians of the moveable internal magnet, feem not to have any juft foundation in nature, the like irregularities being found in the common terrellz, or {pherical load- {tones, and being beft accounted for from the compofition of the magnets, which are found to have parts of differ- ent degrees of purity, ftrength, and perfection ; fo that where the parts are weaker than ordinary, the ftronger neighbouring parts prevail, and draw the needle that way : not but Dr. Gilbert’s notion of prominent and deprefied parts on magnets may have fome room, and be allowed to contribute fomewhat,to fuch variations. See VArra- TION. ‘ On the fuppofition above ftated, the variation ought to be regular; that is, it ought to move in all parts of the world, fo as to anfwer to the two points of the large internal mag- net ; which, however, is not the cafe. In-order to fupply the deficiency of this hypothefis, it was farther imagined, that there were four magnetic poles within the earth, which were moyeable with re{peét to each other, and that, therefore, the variation of the needle ought to be derived from all their-a¢tions conjointly ; which would render the theory of the variation exceedingly intricate ; but, notwithftanding this difficulty, a set, pet within certain laws and limits, ought to be {till ob{fervable ref{pect- ing the variation; but no fuch regularity has been yet proved. In fhort, without detaining our readers any longer on this point, it will fuffice to fay, that no theory yet offered has been fufficient to foretel, with certainty, the variation of the needle for any future period of time, or for any place . diftant from thofe in which obfervations have been frequently made, See Deciination, Compass, and VARIATION. Mr, Cavallo is of opinion, that the magnetifm of the earth arifes from the magnetifm of all the magnetic fub- QO {tances MAGNETISM. {tances therein contained, and intermixed with other bodies; that the magnetic poles of the earth may be confidered as the centres of the polarities of all the particular aggregates of the magnetic fubftances ; and that thefe principal poles muft change place, relatively to the furface of the earth, according as the particular aggregates of magnetic fub- . {tances within the earth dre in fome manner or other altered, fo as to have their power diminithed, increafed, approached, or removed from the principal poles. Although no regularity has been eftablifhed with refpe& to the variation of the needle, yet as the different fituation of the magnetic poles within the earth oceafions a great variety of appearances, and as the right underftanding of thefe varieties may be of great ufe to thofe who wifh to in- veftigate this intricate fubjeét, the developement of which will be of valt ufe to mankind ; we fhall here fubjoin the principal cafes, as they are drawn up by Mr. aries which feem to be poffible, relating to the pofition of the magnetic poles ; conceiving, agreeably to the moft natural and molt generally received fuppofition, that they are two, and that they lie on the furface of the earth. 'Thefe cafes are no more than four, viz. Cafe 1.—If the magnetic poles of the earth had coin- cided with the true poles thereof, there could have been no declination or variation of the mariner’s confpafs in any part of the world, that is, if the earth be uniformly magnetical ; for, in that cafe, the needle, in pointing to the magnetic poles, would always have pointed to the true poles alfo; this needle would therefore be neceflarily dire&ted along the courfe of the meridian, or, in other words, it would have no declination or variation either to the eaft or weft thereof. Cafe 2.—If the magnetic poles were fituated in the fame meridian, and in oppofite parallels; upon that meridian which pafles through the magnetic and true poles, from the one of the magnetic poles to the other, and upon the oppo- fite meridian all along, there could be no declination, for the reafon mentioned in the former cafe. Likewife, upon the equator, there would be no declination; for though if one of the magnetic poles were only to a& upon the needle, in paffing along the equator to the diftance of go degrees in longitude eaft or weft, the declination would increafe, fo that at go degrees diftance from the line of no declination it would be equal to the angle contained between the magnetic and true poles ; yet, as the other magnetic pole, in this cafe, is always within the fame diftance of the needle, it will a& upon the oppofite end of it with equal force, and confe- quently, will keep it parallel to itfelf all round the equator. But in going from the equator north or fouth, the declina- tion would increafe fo as to be 180 degrees on the little arches or {paces of the meridian contained between the true and the magnetic poles, which is the greateft poffible de- clination in all cafes whatfoever. It muft be farther ob- ferved on this cafe, that the lines of no declination, includ- ing thofe arches of 180°, form two great circles of the globe along the meridian and the equator, crofling one another at right angles, and dividing the furface of this globe into four quarters, two in each hemifphere ; the one hemifphere having wett declination in the north, and eaft de- clination in the fouth haif thereof, and in the oppofite hemi- fphere it would be juit the reverfe ; fo that each of the arches or femicircles of no declination would have eaft declination on the one fide of them, and weft declination on the other. The {mall arches of 180° declination, which are between the true and magnetic poles, may be reckoned in all cafes as a part of the lines of no declination; for there indeed the needle conforms itfelf to the meridian as well as in the other parts of the circle, though its ends are reverfed, In fhort, 9 as all the lines of declination do coincide and terminate in the magnetic and true poles, fo thefe arches of 180 are a kind of limit, making with each of thofe lines, as in the prefent cafe, a curve line or figure returning into itfelf ; which figures, from 180° between the poles, to o declina- tion upon the equator, do each of them include a: fpace larger than the other, till at laft they fill up the whole quar- ter of the furface of the globe, and conform themfelves, as nearly as poffible, to the fhape and figure thereof. As a variety of this cafe, it may be added, that the mag- netic poles may be fituated in the fame meridian, but in parallels which are not oppofite. In that cafe, the only alteration which could happen is, that in the hemifphere in which the magnetic and true poles are neare{t to each other, the figures formed by the lines of declination become f{maller, and the correfponding figures in the oppofite hemifphere, larger. The line efwse declination, which, in this cafe, reprefents the equator, would alfo be proportionably nearer to thofe poles which are nearef{t to one another. Cafe 3.—If the magnetic poles were fituated in oppo= fite meridians, and in oppofite parallels ; upon thofe meri- dians which pafs through the magnetic and true poles there could be no declinations, for the reafons mentioned in the former cafes. But upon the equator, eaftward or weftward, to the diftance of go° in longitude, the declination would aétually increafe, fo as there to be equal to the angle which meafures the diftance between the true and the magnetic poles; and from thence it would, in the fame manner, de- creafe for the other go® to the oppofite meridian. The de- clination lines of 10°, 20°, &c. as far as the greateft declina- tion upon the equator, in this cafe, become arches or curves, which conform themfelves, as nearly as may be, to the courfe and dire&tion of the lines of no declination, and are called lines of the firft order. But the lines of the greateft equatorial declination crofs one another at the diftance of go° in longitude from the meridian or circle of no declina- tion, fomething in form like the letter X, or like two Gothic arches joined at the vertex. They are called lines of the fecond order, and may very properly be confidered as the boundary between the lines of the firit and third order, as the lines of no declination are always boundaries between the lines of eaft and weft declination. In this eafe, thofe lines of no declination, including the arches of 180°, form only one et circle along the meridian, dividing the furface of this globe into two hemifpheres, in the one of which there is eaft declination, and in the other weft declination. From the greateft equatorial declination to the arches of 180°, the declination lines of the third order are curves returning into themfelves, and in fhape nearly refembling parabolas ere&ted upon thofe arches of 180’. As a variety of this cafe, it may be added, that if the . magnetic poles were fituated in oppofite meridians, but in parallels which are not oppofite, then, in that hemifphere in which the true and the magnetic poles approached neareft to one another, the figure formed by the lines of declination would be fmaller, and in the oppofite hemifphere the cor- re{fponding figures would be larger in proportion. y Cafe 4.—This cafe 1s a very extenfive one, viz. when the magnetic poles are fituated neither in the fame nor in oppofite meridians; and this feems to have been the real potition of thofe poles ever fince any obfervations of the declination of the magnetic needle have been made. In this cafe, then, the lines of no declination cannot be either in the direétion of a meridian or along the equator, as in the former cafe, but in a kind of curves, which are varioufly inclined to both; and they divide the furface of the globe into two parts, but thefe parts are not hemi- {pheres, MAGNETISM. fpheres, as in the laft cafe, for they may be of a very dif- ferent extent. If the magnetic poles be fituated in meri- dians nearly oppofite, the curvature of thoie lines will not be fo great, that is, they become more like to Cafe 3. But as the magnetic poles approach nearer to the fame me- ridian, the curvature of the lines of no declination becomes greater, till they almoft touch one another, fomething in form like the figure of the number 8, and at laft they com- plete the two great circles, as in Cafe 2. The lines of the fecond order, which correfpond to the greateft equatorial declination, if the magnetic poles be fituated in meridians nearly oppofite, have a declination nearly equal to the angle formed between the magnetic and true poles, as in Cafe 3 ; but as the magnetic poles approach towards the fame meri- dian, this declination decreafes, till at laft it entirely vanifhes, as in Cafe 2, The other declination lines in this cafe are fo fimilar to the former, that they require only to be re- ferred to it. Laftly, it muft be obferved, that whether the magnetic poles be fituated in oppofite parallels or not, makes as little difference in this as in the former cafe. Hitherto the magnetic poles have been confidered to lie on the furface of the globe; but if we attentively confider the fituation which they may more likely have, it will ap- pear, that in all probability they are not fituated near the furface of this globe, but at fome depth below it ; at leaft this muft be the cafe with the fouth pole; for, fince the water of the fea is incapable of magnetifm, and the fouthern hemifphere, efpecially about the fouth pole, contains a vatt deal more fea than land; it is plain that the fouth magnetic pole mutt be fituated at leaft near the bottom of the fea; in confequence of which, the variation of the needle in that he- mifphere muft be different from what it would be if the magnetic pole were fituated on the furface of the terra- queous globe. ‘The fame may be obferved with refpeé to the fituation of the north magnetic pole. Befides this, we mutt alfo confider the irregularities arifing from the unequal and irregular fituation of land and fea; it being natural to conceive, that large tracts of land on one fide of the mag- netic needle will draw it away from the real meridian, whereas a large ocean can produce no fuch effect. This, however, is fubjecé to a great deal of variety, arifing from the nature of the land, the depth of the fea, the nature of the ground at the bottom of the fea, &c. It appears, therefore, that a great many caufes combine to aét upon the magnetic needle, otcafioning it to decline from the true meridian, and that it is almoft impoffible to form a ufeful theory upon it. Macnetism, Theory of. As for the caufes of magnetifm, er the manner in which attraétion, repulfion, and other magnetic phenomena are produced, we have yet no hypo- thetis, that will fatisfactorily account for them. Plutarch tells us, the magnet attraéts iron, by emitting fome fpiritual effluvia, whereby the contiguous air being opened and driven on either fide, does again drive that contiguous to it; and thus the aétion- being communicated round, the iron is thereby protruded ; but this is contradiéted by the equally vigorous aétion of the load-{tone in vacuo, and in the open air. Others of the ancients afcribe the action of a magnet to a foul that animates it; and others to an unknown ea pathy between the effluvia of the iron and thofe of the magnet. An opinion, that has much prevailed among the moderns is that of Des Cartes, maintained by Malebranche, Ro- haylt, Regis, &c. and even admitted and confirmed by Mr. Boyle, &c. In this it is fuppofed, that there is con- tinually flowing, from the poles of the world, a fubtle, impalpable, and invifible matter, channelled or ftriated ; which matter, circulating round the earth, in the planes of the meridians, re-enters at the pole, oppofite to that from which it iffued, and paffes again through the poles parallel to its axis: that the magnet has two poles anfwerable to thofe of the earth; and that out of thefe there iffues a matter like that juft mentioned ; and that this matter, en- tering at one of the poles, gives the impulfe, whereby iron tends to the magnet, and produces what we call attraction. Now, befides the magnetical matter re-entering the poles of the magnet, there is always a certain quantity thereof circulating round the magnet, compofing a kind of vortex about it. The fpace wherein this matter moves, is the {phere of activity of the magnet, within which its attrac- tive faculty is confined. ~ Dr. Gilbert, in his work «‘ De Magnete,’’ folio, printed 1600, concludes, from fome experiments which he made, that the needle is not attrafted by the magnet, but turned into its pofition, by what he calls a difponent virtue; which he fuppofed to furround the ftone, fomewhat in form of an atmo{phere. As to its direétive faculty, or the inclination of a needle touched with it to the poles of the world, and its dip to a point beneath the horizon, they follow from the fame prin- ciple ; fince, were the magnet or needle to have any other fituation, the magnetic matter would {trike on its other fur- face in vain; and, not being able to get admiffion, would, by degrees, change its fituation, till {uch time as its pores corre{ponded to the courfe of the magnetical matter; which fituation having once acquired, it would ceafe to move, the magnetical matter then ceafing to difturb it. The form or effence of a magnet, therefore, is fuppofed to confift in its being perforated by an infinite number of pa- rallel pores ; fome of which are difpofed to admit the ftriated matter from the north pole of the world, others that of the fouth: hence the north and fouth poles of the magnet. Mr. Hartfoeker maintains, that the magnet is no more than a common ftone, full of an infinite number of hollow prifms; which, by the diurnal motion of the earth, are ranged parallel to each other, and nearly parallel to the axis of the earth. Thefe prifms have their cavities filled with an extremely fubtle matter, which, by the diurnal motion of the earth, is paffed from prifm to prifm; thus making a circulation, and returning into the prifms, where it firft be- gan. From thefe principles he deduces all the phenomena of the magnet; and M. Andry does the fame, from the doGtrine of alkali and acid. As to the direGtive power of the magnet, Mr. Whitton inclines to think it mechanical ; and afcribes it to magnetic effuvia circulating continually round the load-ftone ; of which circulations, he thinks, there are evident indications in magnetic experiments ; as Mr. Boyle thinks there are of the magnetifm, or magnetic effluvia of the earth; though thefe effluvia are never yet rendered fenfible, as eleGric efluvia began to be in his time. But the attractive power Mr. Whiiton thinks entirely immechanical, as the power of paris not being able to devife any fuch motion of a ubtle fluid belonging to the load-ftone, as will account for the attractive power in the fefquiduplicate proportion of the diftances reciprocally ; though if he could, yet would that be no more than to remove the immediate power of the Supreme Being one ftep farther; the lait refort of all mechanical principles whatever being in the immechanical power and efficacy of the Deity. Dr. Knight deduces from feveral experiments the follow- ing propofitions, which he offers, not-~fo much to explain the nature of the caufe of magneti{m, as the manner in which it aéts; the magnetic matter of a load-{tone, he fays, Q2 moves MAGNETISM. moves in a ftream from one pole to the other internally, and is then carried back ina curve line externally, til it arrive again at the pole where it firft entered, to be again admitted; the immediate caufe why two or more magne- tical bodies attra&t each other, is the flux of one and the fame ftream of magnetical matter through them : and the im- mediate caufe of magnetic repulfion is the conflux and ac- cumulation of the magnetic matter. His opinion was, that this earth had originally received its magnetifm, or rather that its magnetical powers had been brought into action, by a fhock, which entered at about the fouthern, and pafled out at the northern tropic. This, according to his itate- ment, was the courfe of the magnetic fluid, and he fup- pofed, that the magnetic poles were at firft diametricaily oppofite to each other. But if this was the cafe at firlt, we are led to conclude from Mr. Canton’s doctrine, that they would not long have continued fo ; for, on aecount of the intenfe heat of the fun in the torrid zone, according to the principles itated under the article Dectination, the north pole muft foon have retired to the north-eaitward, and the fouth pole to the fouth-eaftward. (Phil. Tranf. vol. xliv. p.665, &c.) Mr. Michell rejects the notion ofa fubtle fluid ; but though he propofed to publifh a theory of magnetifm eftablifhed by experiments, no fuch theory has appeared. Signior Beccaria, from obferving that a fudden ltroke of ehtning gives polarity to magnets, conjectures, that a re- gular and conftant circulation of the whole mafs of the eleétric fluid from north to fouth may be the original caufe of magnetifm in general. This current he would not fup- pofe to arife from one fource, but from feveral, in the northern hemifphere of the earth: the aberration of the common centre of all the currents from the north poiat, may be the caufe of the variation of the needle, the period of this declination of the centre of the currents may be the period of the variation, and the obliquity with which the currents ftrike into the earth may be the caufe of the dipping of the needle, and alfo why bars of iron more eafily receive the magnetic virtue in one particular direction. Lettre dell’ Elettricifmo, p. 269, or Prieftley’s Hilt. Elec. vol. i. p. 409, &e. ; Similar to the laft hypothefis is that propofed by the in- genious /Epinus, (Tentamen Theorie Electricitatis et Magnetifmi, cap. i. § 3.) which, though labourmg under feveral objeftions, feems however to be the mott plau- fible. * 2 From the analogy of the eftablifhed or mere common. hypothefis of eleétricity, which goes under the name of Dr. Pranklin’s, Mr. AZpinus is led to imagine, that there ~ exifts a fluid productive of all the magnetic phenomena, and confequently to be called the magnetic fluid ; that this fluid is fo very fubtle as to penetrate the pores of all bodies ; and that it is of an elattic nature, viz. that its particles are repulfive of each other. He farther fuppofes, that there is a mutual attraétion between the magnetic fluid and ivon, or other ferruginous bodies; but that all other fubftanees have no aétion on this fluid; they neither attraGting nor repelling each other. He then obferves, that there is a great deal of refem- blance between ferruginous bodies and electrics, or non- conduétors of eleétricity ; for the magnetic fluid pafles with difficulty through the pores of the former, as well as the electric fluid paffes with difficulty through the pores of the latter, However, there is not a body that has any action on the magnetic fluid, and is, at the fame tinie, analogous to Aiertvpr seine for inltance, there is no body, the parti cles of which attraé&t the magnetic fluid; and yet this fluid can pervade its pores without any obftruétion. In iron, in- deed, a kind of gradation of this fort feems to take place 3 for, the fofter the iron is, the more freely does the mag- netic fluid pervade its pores; and, on the contrary, the harder it is, the greater oppolition i: offers to the free paf- fage of that fluid; fo that the iron, when foft, feems to be more analogous to non-eleétrics chan when hard. According to this hypothefis, iron, and all ferruginous fub{tances, contain a quantity ef magnetic fluid, which is equably difperfed through their fubftance, when thofe bodies are not magnetic; in which {tate they flew no ate traction nor repulfion againft each other, becaufe the re- pulfion between the particles of the magnetic fluid is ba- lanced by the attraétion between the matter of thofe bodies and the faid fluid, in which cafe thofe bodies are faid to be in a natural {tate ; but, when in a ferruginous body, the quantity of magnetic fluid belonging to it is driven to one end, then the bedy becomes magnetic, one extremity of it being now overcharged with magnetic fluid, and the other extremity undercharged. Bodies thus conttituted, wiz. rendered magnetic, exert a repulfion between their over- charged extremities, in virtue of the repulfion between the particles of that excefs of magnetic fluid; which is more than overbalanced by the attraétion of their matter. There is an attra¢tion exerted between the overcharged extremity of one magnetic body, and the undercharged extremity of the other,on account of the attraction between that fluid and the matter of the body; but to explain the repulfion, which takes place between their undercharged extremities, we mutt either imagine that the matter of ferruginous bo- dies, which deprived of its magnetic fluid, mult be repul- five of its own particles, or that the undercharged extre- mities appear to repel each other, only becaufe either of them attraéts the oppofite overcharged extremities ; both which fuppofitions are embarrafled with difliculties. p A ferruginous body, therefore, is rendered magnetic by haying the equable diffufion of magnetic fluid throughout its fubttance ditturbed, fo as to have an overplus of it in one or more parts, and a deficiency. of it in one or more other parts; and it remains magnetic as long as its imper- meability prevents the reftoration of the balance between the overcharged and undercharged parts. Moreover, the piece of iron is rendered magnetic by the vicinity of a magnet ; becaufe, when the overcharged part or pele of the magnet is prefentcd to it, the overplus of magnetic fluid in that pole repels the magnetic fluid away from the @earelt extremity of the iron, which, therefore, becomes: undercharged, or pofleffed of the contrary polarity, to the moit remote part of the iron, which confequently becomes overcharged, or pollefled of the fame polarity as the pre- fented pole of the magnet. When the piece of iron is rendered magnetic by prefenting to it the undercharged ex tremity-or pole of the magnet, then the part of the iron which is neareit to it, becomes overcharged, &e. becaufe that part of the magnet, being deprived of its: magnetic fluid, attraéts the magnetic fluid of the iron to that extre- mity of the iron which lies neareft to itfelf, In confequence of which it appears, that, in order to give magnetilm to a body, as a piece of fteel, the itrength of the magnet employed mutt be fuch as to overcome the refiftance, which the fubftance of the fteel makes againft the free paflage of the magnetic fluid; hence, a piece of foft {teel is rendered magnetic more eafily than a hard one ; hence, a ftronger magnet will render magnetic fuch ferru- ginous bodies, as other {maller magnets have no power upon, The aGion of two magnets upon each other is likewife ealily explained by this hypothefis. When two equal mag- nets MAG nets oppofe their contrary poles to each other, they thereby preferve and ftrengthen their power; but when the homo- logous poles of two magnets are placed near, then, if the ftrength and quality of thofe magnets be equal, they will only diminifh each other’s magnetic power; but, if they be unequal in power or other quality, as the hardnefs, fhape, &c. then the weakeft will have its power diminithed, dettroyed, or changed, in proportion to its foftnefs, weak- nefs of magnetifm, and other circumftances, which will eafily occur to the intelligent reader. Our venerable countryman, Mr. Cavendifh, had invented a fimilar theory, and had entered in many refpects more minutely into the detail of its confequences without being acquainted with the abovecited work of /&pinus ; although the publication of his paper on the fubjeét was 12 years later. Lambert, Meyer, Coulomb, and Robifon have alfo purfued inquiries of a fimilar nature, both theoretically and experimentally, with great fuccefs. See Young’s Phi- lofophy, vol. i. leé&. 55. Macyetism, Laws of. See Macnet, /fupra. Maenetism and Eleétricity, Analogy between. The well- known property of amber, by which, after being rubbed, it attra&ts {mall bodies, was, in an early period of the {cience of eleGtricity, defcribed under the appellation of the magnetifm of amber; fothat thefe two powers, the ele¢trical and the mag- netic, were confidered as the fame, or at leaft not fuffictently diftinguifhed. Ata later period thefe two powers have been regarded as quite diftin&t from each other, but in feveral fefietts exhibiting a mutual refemblance. We thall, there- fore, here ftate fome particulars in which they refemble one another, and others in which they differ. ‘Ihe power deno- misated by philofophers e/edricity (fee that article) is of two forts, viz. the pofitive, and the negative electricity. In the {cience of eleétricity, it is an invariable law, that bodies pof- feffed of the fame fort of electricity repel each other, whereas thofe which are poffefled of different electricities attract each other. Thus, in magnetics, there is a’north and a fouth pole ; thofe parts of magnetic bodies which are poffefled of the fame polarity, repel each other; but thofe which are pof- feffed of different polarities attract each other. In eleétricity, whenever a body in a natural ftate is brought within the {phere of aétion of an eleétrified body, it becomes itfelf eleCtrified, and poffefled of the contrary ele¢tricity, after which an attra¢tion takes place; fo that in truth there is no electric attraétion but between bodies pofleffed of dif- ferent ele¢tricities : for initance, if a piece of paper be brought fufficiently near a glafs tube, eleétrified politively, the paper will acquire the negative eleCtricity, and will then be attraéied by the tube; but if the paper be fo circum- ftanced as not to have it in its power to acquire the nega- tiye eleétricity, then no attraétion will take place. Thus, a ferruginous fubftance, which is brought within the fphere of aétion of a magnet, cannot be attracted by either pole of the magnet, unle{s it acquires tirft a contrary polarity. One fort of elegtricity cannot be produced by itfelf, but is always accompanied by the other; thus, if a glafs tube be eleétrified politively on its external furface, a negative ele&tricity mutt exilt, either on its internal furface, or on the air contiguous to the tube. In the fame manner, the two magnetic poles are always together ; nor was there a piece of ferruginous fubftance ever produced, which had one polarity, and not the other. The eleétric virtue can be retained and confined by certain bodies, like glafs, amber, relins, and others, called cleérics ; MAG but it eafily pervades other fubftances, called conductors, ov non-elecirics. The magnetic virtue is retained by ferruginous fubftances, efpecially thofe of a hard nature, like hard fteel, and the magnet: but it pervades ealily, and without the leaft per- ceivable impediment, all other forts of fubftances, On the other hand, the magnetic power differs fom the electric, firit, in its not affecting our fenfes with any light, {mell, tafte, or noife ; whereas; the eleétric fpark, fhock, -{mell, and tafte, are known to every one converfant in ele@tric experiments. Secondly, magnetifm attraéts only iron, or thofe bodies which contain that metal in fome {tate or other ; whereas, the eleétric power attra¢ts bodies of every fort. Thirdly, the ele&ric virtue refides on the furface of electrified bodies, whereas the magnetic is quite internal. Laitly, a magnet lofes nothing of its power by magnetifing other fubitances ; but an eleétrified body lofes: part of its ele@ri- city by electrifying other fubftances. Here, however, mu!t be remarked, that an eleétrified body lofes part of its power, when in electrifying another body touches it, and that body acquires then the fame fort of electricity; but when that other body is eleétrified by being only brought within the {phere of aétion of the former, in which cafe it acquires the contrary ele¢tricity, then the former body lofes nothing of its power ; for inflance, {uppofe that a body, A, poffeffes a certain quantity of pofitive electricity, and that another body B, in a natural ftate, be gradwally brought near A ; then the body B, when it comes within a certain diftancé of the eleétritied body A, acquires a negative ele&tricity, which negative electricity takes away nothing of ‘the power of the body A; but if the two bodies come very near, fo a3 to touch, or as that the eleétricity of the body, A, may leap from it to the other, then the body, B, will become electrified pofitively, and A tofes thereby part of its power. Indeed, if it be duly confidered, this lait cafe does not feem ever to take place with magnetif{m; for bodies appear to be rew- dered magnetic merely by the action of their fpheres of activity, or by that power which enables magnets to a& at fome diitance from their own bodies ; and therefore we may juftly fay, that eleétrified and magnetic bodies agree in this, viz. that they lofe nothing of their power, when other bodies are electrified or rendered magnetic in virtue of their {pheres of aétivity. When the aurora borealis, which has been thought to be an eleétrical phenomenon, forms a luminous arch towards the northern part of the horizon, the moft elevated part, or middle of that arch, is generally in the magnetic me- ridian. i Several other points of analogy, or of difference between magnetifm and eleGtricity, will, perhaps, occur to thofe perfons who examine both fubjects ; but if they be aiten- tively confidered, we think they will be found to be compre= hended in thofe which have been enumerated above. Ca- vallo’s Magnetifm, and Prieftley’s Electricity, ui /upra. Macnetism, Animal, an appellation given by fonie de- figning or felf-deceived operators upon the credulity and purfes of mankind, to certain practices, by which, under the pretence of curing difeafes, various efté&s were pro- duced on the animal economy, fuch as faintings, partial and even general’convulfions, &c. Thefe practices were princi- pally carried on in France, by aperfon of the name of Mefmer, and his difeiples, and were believed to influence the haman body through the medium of the magnetic principle. In confequence, however, of the appointment of a committee of philofophers for the inveftigation of the matter by the _Vvench king, the true nature of the operation was proved, in the moft unequivocal manner, and the effects of it traced, by M AG by the cleareft experiments, folely to the mind or imagination of the perfons magnetifed. An ample detail of this able inveftigation, as well as of feveral other facts and practices referrible to the fame fource, will be found under the article IMAGINATION. Macyetism is alfo ufed, by fome Chemifls, to fignify a certain virtue, whereby one thing becomes affected at the fame time with another, either in the fame or in a different manner. This amounts to the fame with what they other- wife call /ympathy. It has been obferved, that much confufion in the fcience of magnetifm has been occafioned by the application of the term magnetifm to other things which had no relation to it. Thus, the chemical affinity between metals has been called the magnetifm of metals by fome old authors. The vibra- tion occafioned by the found of mufical ftrings or pipes upon others which were tuned in concord with them has been alfo called the magnetifm of mufic. Some writers alfo {peak of the magnetifm of aftronomy, the magnetifm of water, &c. : MAGNICOURT, in Sear a a town of France, in the department of the ftraits of Calais, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of St. Pol; two leagues S.E. of St. Pol. MAGNIFYING, among Philofophers, is chiefly ufed in {peaking of microfcopes, which are faid to magnify objects, that is, to make them appear bigger than they really are, though im reality they do not, nor can, magnify any object, but only fhew it nearer, and difcover more of its parts than before were taken notice of. The magnifying power of denfe mediums of certain figures was known to the ancients, though they were far from underftanding the caufe of this effect. Seneca fays, that {mall and obfcure letters appear larger and brighter through a glafs globe filled with water; and he abfurdly accounts for it by faying, that the eye flides in the water, and cannot lay hold of its objet. Nat. Queft. lib. i. c. 6. Alexander Aphrodifienfis, the great commentator upon Ariftotle, who flourifhed near two centuries after Seneca, fays, that the reafon why apples appear large when they are immerfed in water is, that the water which is contiguous to anybody is affected with the fame quality and colour ; fo that the eye is deceived in imagining the body itfelf to be larger. But the firft diftin& account we have of the magnifying power of glaffes is in the writings of Alhazen, who flourifhed in the twelfth century ; and he was preceded by ourcountryman Roger Bacon, who, in his Opus Majus, demonttrates, that if a tranfparent body, interpofed between the eye and an objet, be convex towards the eye, the objet will appear magnified ; nor is it improbable, that from the obfervations of Alhazen and Bacon the con{truétion of {pectacles was derived. See SPECTACLES. Macniryinc Gla/s, in Optics, denotes a little fpherical convex lens; which, in tranfmitting the rays of light, in- fle&ts them, fo as that the parallel ones become converging, and thofe which were diverging become parallel; by means whereof, objeéts viewed through them appear larger than when viewed by the nakedeye. See Microscope. MAGNIN, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile; 12 miles S. of Shabur. MAGNISA, anciently Macnesta, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of Natolia, fituated near a mountain, whofe top is always covered with fnow. The town is large and populous, but has few Chriftians; 20 leagues N.N.E. of Smyrna. N, lat. 38° 44’. E. long. 27° 18’. MAGNISI Dect, a peninfula of Sicily, on the E. coaft, in the valley of Noto; fix miles N. of Siracufa or MAG Syracufe; formerly the peninfula of Tapfus. Oppofite to this peninfula are the ruins of a monument, faid to have been ereGed in memory of the victory of Marcellus. MAGNISSA, in Mineralogy, a name given by fome of the ancients to the white pyrites, called by others /eucolithos and argytholithos. See MARCASITE.. MAGNITUDE, any thing that has parts without (or extra to) parts conneéted together by fome common term, Magnitude is any thing locally extended, or continued ; or that has feveral dimentions. ’ The origin of all magnitude is a point, which, though void of parts itfelf, yet its flux forms a line, the flux of that a furface, and of that a body. Magnitude amounts to much the fame with what is other- wile called quantity. Maenitupr, Geometrical, may be ufually confidered as generated or produced by motion. ‘Thus lines may be conceived as generated by the motion of points ; furfaces, by the motion of lines; folids, by the motion of furfaces ; angles niay be fuppofed to be generated by the rotation of their fides. Geometrical magnitude is always underftood to confift of parts; and to have no parts, or to have no magnitude, are confidered as equivalent ir this fcience. ‘There is, however, no neceflity for confidering magnitude as made up of an infinite number of fmall parts ; it is fufficient that no quan- tity can be fuppofed to be fo fmall, but it may be conceived to be farther diminifhed ; and it is obvious, that we are not to eftimate the number of parts that may be conceived in a given magnitude, by thofe which in particular determinate circumitanees may be attually perceived in it by fenfe, fince a greater number of parts become fenfible, by varying the circumftances in which it is perceived. See Maclaurin’s Fluxions, art. 290, &c. Many of late have fuppofed geometrical magnitude to be compofed of infinitely fmall parts, and infinite in number ; and hence have raifed many paradoxes and mytteries in a_ {ciénce in which there ought to be none, Nay, infinitely {mall parts of infinitely {mall parts, &c. ad infinitum, have been introduced without the leaft neceflity. See Maclau- rin’s Fluxions, in the Introduétion, where he makes feveral remarks on Monfieur de Fontenelle’s Geometrie de I’ Infini. See ExTEnsIon. é' Macnitupe, Literal, denotes a magnitude exprefled by etters. MacnitupE, Numerical, is that exprefled by numbers. MaanitupeE, Broken, denotes a fraction. Maanitupe, Complex, is that formed by multiplication. _ Macyitupe, /ncommenfurable, is that which has no propor- tion to unity. MacnitupeE, Apparent, of a body, in Optics, is that mea- fured by the optic or vifual angle intercepted between rays drawn from its extremes to the centre of the pupil of the eye. It is one of the fundamental maxims in this {cience, that whatever things are feen under the fame or equal angles, appear equal ; and vice ver/a. The apparent magnitudes of an object at different dif- tances, are in a ratio lefs than that of their diftances reci- procally. The apparent magnitudes of the two great luminaries, the fun and moon, at rifing and fetting, are phenomena that have extremely eeahaeratied the modern philofophers. Ac- cording to the ordinary laws of vifion they fhould appear the leaft when neareft the horizon, as being then fartheft diftant from the eye; and yet we find the contrary to be true in fact. Thus it is well known, that the mean apparent PORE HLA 0 MAGNITUDE. of the moon is 30!.30", in round numbers 3o!, at a full moon in the midft of winter, and when fhe is in the meridian, and at her greateft northern latitude, and confequently at her utmott elevation above our horizon; it is alfo as well known that when fhe is in this fituation, being looked upon by the naked eye, fhe appears to be, accommodating her magnitude to our fenfible meafures, about a foot broad. But when fhe is looked upon as fhe rifes, fhe appears to be three or four feet broad, and yet if we take her diameter with an inftru- ment, both in the one fituation and the other, we fhall find that fhe is only 30’. Ptolemy, in his Almagelt, lib. i. cap. 3, has afcribed this appearance to a refraction of the rays by vapours, which actually enlarge the angle under which the moon appears ; juft as the angle is enlarged by which an object is feen placed under water ; and his commentator Theon explains diftin@ly how the dilatation of the angle in the obje& immerfed in water is caufed. But it was afterwards difcovered, that there is no alteration in the angle : upon which another folu- tion was ftarted by the Arab Alhazen; and foilowed and improved by Vitellio, Kepler, Peckham, Roger Bacon, and others. According to Alhazen, the fight apprehends the furface of the heavens as flat, and judges of the ftars as it would of ordinary vifible objeéts extended upon a wide _ plain ; the eye fees them under equal angles, but at the fame time perceives a difference in their diltances, and (on account of the femidiameter of the earth, which is interpofed in one cafe and not in the other) it is hence induced to judge thofe which appear more remote to be greater. Some farther improvement was made in this explanation by Mr. Hobbs, though he fell into fome miftakes in his application of geo- metry to this fubject. For he obferves, that this deception operates gradually from the zenith to the horizon; and that if the apparent arch of the fky be divided into any number of equal parts, thofe parts, in defcending towards the ho- rizon, will gradually fubtend a lefs and lefs angle; and he was the firft who exprefsly confidered the vaulted appear- ance of the fky as a real portion of a circle. Des Cartes, and from him Dr. Wallis, and moft other authors, account for the appearance of a different diftance under the fame angle, from the long feries of objeéts interpofed between the eye and the extremity of the fenfible horizon; which makes us imagine it more remote than when in the meri- dian, where the eye fees nothing in the way between the object and itfelf. This idea of a great diftance makes us imagine the luminary the bigger ; for any object being feen under any certain angle, and believed at the fame time very remote, we naturally judge it mutt be very large, to appear under fuch an angle, at fuch a diftance. And thus a pure judgment of the mind makes us fee the fun, or moon, bigger in the horizon than in the meridian; notwithftanding their images painted on the retina are lefs in the former fituation than the latter. James Gregory, Geom: Par. Univerf. p. 141, fubfcribes to this opinion: Father Malebranche alfo, in the firft book of his “ Récherches de la Verité,’”’ printed in 1673, has explained this phenomenon almoft in the expreffion of Des Cartes: and Huygens, in his treatife on the Parhelia, tranf- lated by Dr. Smith, Optics, art. 536, has approved, and very clearly illuftrated the received opinion. The caufe of this fallacy, fays he, in fhort is this; that we think the fun or any thing elfe in the heavens to be remoter from us, when it is near the horizon, than when it approaches towards the vertex, becaufe we imagine every thing in the air that appears near the vertex to be no farther from us than the clouds that fly over our heads; whereas, on the other hand, we are ufed to obferve a large extent of land lying between us and the objects near the horizon, at the farther end of ‘which the convexity of the fky begins to appear ; which, therefore, with the objects that appear in it, is ufually imagined to be much farther from us. Now when two objets of equal magnitudes appear under the fame angle, we always judge that objeét to be larger which we think is remoter. And this is the true caufe of the deception we have been fpeaking of. It is a wonder that an hypothefis fo rational as this fhould ever lofe its credit, after having been maintained by writers of reputation, and for a great number of years. But it was generally ima- gined, that the aGtual perception of thofe objeéts which divide the fpace that is intercepted betwixt the eye and the horizon was neceffary, in order to its fuggetting the idea of its extraordinary diftance: and thus philofophers were led to form much more objeétionable folutions of the phe- nomenon. Accordingly Gaffendus was of opinion, that the pupil of the eye, which is always more open as the place is more dark ; being more fo in the morning and evening than at other times, becaufe the earth is covered with grofs va- pours ; and befides, being obliged to pafs through a longer column or feries of vapours to reach the horizon ; the image of the luminary enters the eye at a greater angle, and is really painted there larger at tle former times than the latter. In anfwer to which it may be faid, that, notwithftanding this dilatation of the pupil, occafioned by the obfcurity, if the moor be viewed through a little pin-hole made in a paper, fhe appears lefs when in the horizon than in the meri- dian. Nor can any thing be more abfurd than the pofi- tion of Gaffendus, who afferts, that a dilated pupil magnifies an objet for the fame reafon as a convex glafs does. F. Gouye advances another hypothefis, which is, that when the luminaries are in the horizon, the neighbourhood of theearth, and the grofs vapours wherewith they then ap- pear enveloped, have the fame effect with regard to us, as a wall, or other denfe body, placed behind a column ; which, in that cafe, appears bigger than when infulate, . and encompafled on all fides with an illumined air. Farther, it is ‘obferved, that a column, when fluted, appears bigger than before, when it was plain; the flutes being fo many particular objets, which, by their multitude, occafion the mind to imagine the whole objet, whereof ‘they are com- pofed, of a larger extent. The fame thing may be faid of the feveral objets feen towards the horizon, to which the fun or moon correfpond at their ae and fetting. And hence it is, that they appear larger {till, when ey rife or fet between trees ; the narrow, yet diftin@, intervals whereof have the fame effeét with regard to the apparent diameter of the luminary, as a greater number of flutes with regard to the fhaft of a column. Bifhop Berkeley fuppofed, that the moon appears larger near the horizon, becaufe her appearance is then fainter, and her beams affe&t the eye lefs ; but this hypothelis is refuted by Dr. Smith. Mr. Robins has recited fome other opinions on this fubject, Math. Tracts, vol. il, p. 242. The commonly received opinion has been difputed not only by F. Gounye, who obferves, Acad. Par. 1700, p. II, that the horizontal moon appears equally large acrofs the fea, where there are no objeéts to produce the effect af- cribed to them; but alfo by Mr. Molyneux, who fays, Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. i. p. 221, that if this hypothefis be true, we may at any time increafe the apparent magnitude of the moon, even in the meridian; for, in order to di- vide the {pace between it and the eye, we need only to look at it behind a clufter of chimnies, the ridge of a hill, or the top of a houfe. He alfo makes the fame ob- fervation with F, Gouye, above-mentioned, and farther ob- ferves, MAG ferves, that when the height of all the intermediate ob- jets is cut off, by looking through a tube, the imagina- tion is not helped, the moon being ftill conceived-to be as large as before. However, Mr. Molyneux advances no hypothefis of hisown, Dr. Defaguliers has well illu trated the doctrine of the horizontal moon, Phil. Tranf, abr. vol. viii. p. 130, upon the fuppofition of our imagining the vifibie heavens to be only a fmall portion of a fpherical furface, and confequently fuppofing the moon to be far- ther from usin the horizon than near the zenith, and by feveral ingenious contrivances he demonftrated how liable we are to fuch deceptions, But the moft complete illuftration of this curious fubje& is given us by Dr. Smith. The ca- vity of the heavens, he fays, appears to the eye, which is the only judge of an apparent figure, to be a lefs portion of a {pherical furface than a hemifphere. In other words, the centre of the concavity is much below the eye, and by taking a medium among feveral obfervations, he found that the ap- parent diftance of its parts at the horizon was generally between three or four times greater than the apparent dif- tance of its parts over head. This he determined by mea- furing the actual height of fome of the heavenly bodies, when, to his eye, they feemed to be half way between the horizon and the zenith. In this cafe their real altitude was only twenty-three degrees. When the fun was but 30 high, the upper arch always appeared lefs than the under, and he thought that it was always greater when the fun was about 18° or 20° high. Mr. Robins, in his Traéts, vol. ii. p..245. fhews how to determine the apparent concavity of the fky in amore accurate and geometrical manner ; by which it ap- pears, that if the altitude of any of the heavenly bodies be 20° at the time when it feems to be half way between the ho- rizon and the zenith, the horizontal diftance will be hardly lefs than four times the perpendicular diftance ; but if that altitude be 28 , it will be little more than two and a half, Dr. Smith having determifed the apparent figure of the fky, _is able to give a fatisfaétary explanation of the phenomenon of the horizontal moon, and other fimilar appearances in the heavens. For fuppofing the arc A BC, (Plate X. Optics, Fg 4.) to reprefent that apparent concavity, he found that the diameter of the fun and moon would feem to be greater in. the horizon than at any propofed altitude, meafured by the angle A O B, in the proportion of its apparent diftances O A, OB. The numbers that exprefs thefe proportions he reduced into the following table, anfwering to the cor- refponding altitudes of the fun or moon, which 'aretalfo ex- aétly reprefented to the eye in the figure, in which the figures of the moon, placed in the So Renae Si F G, deferibed about the centre O, are all equal to each other, and reprefent the body of the moon in the heights here noted, and the unequal moons in the concavity A BC are terminated by the vifnal rays that come from the circumference of the real moon, at thofe heights, to the eye, at O. ‘The diameters of thefe Apparent dia- unequal moons at A and B meter or dif- The fun or moon's altitude in degrees. tances do, therefore, bear the fame proportion to each other, as 00 100 their apparent diltances OA, ey 68 OB; and they mutt appear 32 SE in the fame proportion that 45 AS they really have in this con- 60 34 cave, becaufe we judge all rh) 31 objeéts in the heavens to be go 3° in this furface: fo that the appearance to the eye is ex- aéily the fame, as if feveral moons were painted upon a real furface, A BC, in the proportions here afligned ; in which MAG “ . cafe we flould certainly judge the real magnitudes of the larger paintings of the hee moon to be really larger, though the vifible magnitudes of them all, anfwering to their equal images upon the retina, were exa&tly equal. For the fame reafon Dr. Smith obferves, that all the objeéts and diftances of ftars in the heavens, as well as the fun and moon, mutt feem to be greater in the horizon than in higher fitua- tions; which is known to be the cafe. He alfo obferves, that the apparent concave of the fky being lefs than an he- mifphere, is the caufe that the breadths of the colours in the inward and outward rainbows, and the interval between die bows appear leaft at the top, and greater at the bottom ; and by an eftimate of the apparent breadths of the inward rainbow, at two different heights, made by a friend, he dé- termined the apparent concavity of the fky to be much the fame as by the former methods. (See Hazo.) This theory of the horizontal moon is alfo confirmed by the- appearances of the tails of comets, which, whatever be their real figure, magnitude, and fituation in abfolute fpace, do always appear to be an arc of the concave fky ; and in farther confirmation of it, he gives us Mr. Cotes’s explanation of the optical ap- pearance of a remarkable meteor feen in the year 1716. Be- fides the general caufe above ftated of the appearance of the horizontal moon, Dr. Smith acknowledges, that, at different times, the moon appears of different magnitudes even in the fame horizon, and occafionally of an extraordinary large fize. ‘This, he is inclined to believe, is chiefly owing: to an extraordinary largenefs of her piéture upon the retina, which, in the preceding general theory, was fuppofed to be inva- riable. This, he fays, might beft be examined by taking the diameter of the moon with a micrometer, or by noting the year and day of the month, together with the heights of the harometer and thermometer. For if it fhould appear, by many fuch obfervations, that the largeft horizontal moons generally happen at her perigee, in the warmeft fummer evenings, the barometer being low, and the thermometer high ; fince thefe caufes are independent of one another, and all confpire to enlarge the piéture of the moon, we may rea- — fonably conclude that thefe extraordinary moons are chiefly owing to the concurrence of thefe circumftances. But fince the difference in the apparent magnitude of the moon is not increafed ;',th part of the whole in confequence of her being in her perigee, and the enlargement of the image in all the other cafes here, mentioned is very inconfiderable, it is pro- bable that when the moon is imagined to be fo much larger than ufual, the imagination is farther impofed upon by fome circumftances which have not been attended to, Smith’s Optics, vol. i. p.63,&c. Remarks, p. 53. MAGNOL, Perer, in Biography, a celebrated botanitt of Montpellier, was-born in 1638. He was bted to phy- fic, but, being a Proteftant, could not take his degree there, He was therefore obliged to have recourfe to fome more fen~ fible and more Chriltian univerfity, where fuch exclufive laws were unknown. Such are not the reproach of popery only. A few years ago fome members of the univerfity of Oxford propofed that one of their honorary degrees fhould be conferred on Mr. Kirwan of Dublin a propofal intended at leaft as much for their own honour as for his. But this was found to be impracticable, becaufe forfooth that illuf- trious philofopher and diftinguifhed character was a diffenter ! Wherever Magnol graduated, he practifed phyfic at Mont- pellier for a long courfe of years, and at the fame time very afliduoufly cultivated Botany, not only as an auxiliary to. medicine, but with the moft enlarged views to its advance- ment as a fcience of itlelf. He was beloved for his urbanity, and elteemed for his knowledge. Numerous botantits flocked at this time to Montpellishy that neighbourhood 2 being A MAG being famous for its vegetable riches; and thefe were all eager to enjoy the fociety, and to benefit by the guidance and inftruGtions of fo able aman. Hence the herborizations around Montpellier have become celebrated in fo many books ; and the fituations of the Aortus Dei at ?Efperou, the Mons Ceti, Caftelnau, wood of Gramont, &c. have become claffic fpots. Among the pupils of Magnol were Fagon and the illuftrious Tournefort, who regularly ftudied under him, and on many fubfequent occafions gratefully acknowledged their obligations to him. He was not chofen public profeffor till long after the years 1679 and 1681, when Tournefort was at Montpellier. He had in- deed been one of four perfons, nominated, and recommended to the king for the vacant profefforfhip, in 1667; but his religion was an infuperable obftacle to his appointment, as that of king Solomon himfelf would, in the fame cafe, have been. This difficulty was removed, by his affuming the guife at leaft of Catholicifm, before the year 1694, when he at length obtained the profefforial chair. In 1676, our author publifhed at Lyons his firft werk, the Botanicum Monfpelienfe, an o€tavo volume of 287 pages, with 22 plates. This fame edition was republifhed at Montpellier in 1688, with a new title-page, and 20 pages of appendix. In this book Linnzus reckons that 1366 plants are enumerated ; Haller fays 13543 all found wild about Montpellier, and almoit entirely gathered there by the author himfelf. Among thefe, very few of the clafs Cryptogamia are included, but fome of them are now ac- knowledged varieties, and the laft four of the appendix are exotics, inferted merely on account of their novelty. The arrangement of the work is alphabetical. The choice of the names is very feleét, and various criticifms or def{criptions are {ubjoined, with the particular places ef growth and medi- cal virtues of each plant. ‘lhe plates are rude, but original and chara¢teriftic. ‘This is in faét one of the moft original and authentic works of its kind, being to the Montpellier botanifls what Ray’s Synopfis is to thofe of Britain, the bafis of all their knowledge. They are neceflarily fuppofed to be able to give an account of every plant which it con- tains; hut their ideas are by no means as yet correct ref{peét- ing every one, and an accurate Linnean Flora Monjpelien/is is ftill a defideratum. . In 1689, Magnol publithed an o€tavo volume, entitled Prodromus Hiflorie Generalis Plantarum, in which he under- took a fcheme of natural arrangement. We have not feen this performance. Haller fays the method is that of Ray, deduced from alt the parts of a plant; and that the vege- table kingdom is difpofed in 76 families, fubdivided into genera. The author confiders the flowers and fruits as of primary importance, but has recourfe alfo to the roots and habit occafionally. Haller indicates a few miftakes. If they are the worlt he could difcover, the work mutt rank very high, evcéh at the prefent day. In 1697 appeared the Hortus Regius Monjpelienfis, an 8vo. volume of 209 pages, with 21 elegant plates. This is an alphabetical catalogue of the garden, in which feveral new or rare fpecies are defcribed as well as figured. In their generic diftribution the author conforms to ‘Tournefort prm- cipally, and his preface fhews how much he had contem- plated this fubje¢t and its difficulties. When we confider that Magnol had had the care of the garden only three years previous to the publication of this rich catalogue, and that he found the colleétion in a very poor ftate, the book is an honourable monument of his indultry as well as knowledge. The Garidella, Saxifraga hirfuta and umbrofa, Lathyrus Niffilia, and fome others, here appear for the frit time. a 1708, Magno) was admitted a member of the Academie Vor, XXIL. MAG des Sciences of Baris, in the place of his diftinguifhed friend Tournefort, who died that year. He continued to profe- cute his favourite ftudies, haviog prepared fome obfervatiors upow the Pinaz of Cafpar Bauhia, which however he did not live to complete. He communicated to the Academic des Sciences fome obje€tions to the opinion of a circulating fap in vegetables, and fome remarks on the importance ot their medulla or pith. He alfo gave an account of an ecafy method of tinging the flowers of the 'ubevofe with a folu- tion of fome kind of lake. Magnel died in 1715, at the age of 77. He left a fon. named Anthony, who was profeflor of pliyfic at Montpellier, but not of Botany. To this fon we are indebted for the publication of the Mowus Charader Plantarum, on which the fame of Magnol as a fy{tematic botanilt chiefly refts. This pofthumous work appeared in 1720, making a quarto volume, of 341 pages. The fyftem therein taught is much cele- brated by Linneus, who in his Clafés Plantarum, 375—403, gives a general view of it, expreffing his wonder that fo new and fingular a fyftem had not made more profelytes. It profeffes to be founded on the calyx; but that term is taken in a very wide, and, at this time of day, unauthorized fenfe; for it comprehends the pericarp as well as_peri- anth, the former being denominated the internal calyx, the latter the'external. It is neceffary to obferve that Linneus, in the work above-mentioned, p. 376, fe@. 2, « and 6, by an erroneous tranfpofition of the words perianthium and peri- carpium, has rendered his account totally unintelligible. — According to this fyftem, every plant is fuppofed to have. either an external calyx (enfolding or fultaining the flower) ; or an internal one, which is the pericarp; or both. It is more natural than moft early fyftems in its detail, but para- doxical in.fome of its primary chara&ters. That fort of fuppofed external calyx, which merely futtains the flower, is often fcarcely more than the receptacle of Linnzus, the real perianth being either pafled over, or taken for a corolla. The claffes devoted to trees and fhrubs are, as Haller ob- ferves, very imperfect ; but we can hardly fubfcribe to his decifion, that the work ought, for the fake of its author, to have been configned to oblivion. It is undoubtedly worthy the confideration of thofe who ftudy natural affinities, and is not the lefs eftimable for being holtile to the popular me- thods of its time, founded on the corolla; though that circum- {tance has probably contributed, more than any thing elfe, toits negle&. The corolJa in this method of Magnol affords fubordinate diftinGtions only, entering into none of thofe ob- {cure and evanefcent minutie, on which fome of the primary charatters in the method of Tournefort depend —Works of Magno]. Hall. Bib. Bot. Dryandr. Bibl. Banks. Dor- thes Recherches fur la Vie et les Ouvrages de Belleval. V. Brouffonet Corona Fl. Monfp. S. MAGNOLIA, in Botany, a noble genus of trees ar fhrubs, named by Plumier in honour of Peter Magnol, Bo- tanical Profeffor at Montpellier; fee the laft article. Linn. Gen. 275. Schreb. 373. Wiild. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1259. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. y Bul220, Juff 281. Plum. Gen. 38. t.7. Lamarck Tiluitr. r. goo. Gartn. t. 70.—Clafs and order, Polyandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Coadunate, Linn. Magnolia, Juil. Gen. Ch. Cal, Perianth inferior, of three ovate, equal, concave, petal like, deciduous leaves. Cor. of fix, nine, br more oblong, concave, obtufe petals, narrower at the bate. Stam. Filaments numerous, fhort, incurved, pointed, com- prefled and two-edged, inferted into the common receptacle of the piftils below the germens; anthers terminal, linear, of two cells, burfling longitudinally at the inner fide. Pi. Germens numerous, ovate-oblong, imbricated upon a cyliny R di ical MAGNOLIA. drical or ovate receptacle; ftyles recurved, very fhert ; ftigmas longitudinal, downy. Peric. Capfules numerous, fellile, crowded, coriaceous, compreffed, wedge-fhaped, of one cell and two yalves burfting outwards, permanent. Seeds one or two in each cell, roundifh-oblong, pulpy, coloured, at length hanging by a thread-like ftalk, out of the capfule. Eff. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Petals fix to twelve. Anthers buriting inwardly. Capfules of two valves, crowded into the form of acone. Seeds pulpy, pendulous. Obf. For the diftinétions between this genus and Lirio- dendrum, fee that article. 1. M. grandiflora. Liaurel-leaved Magnolia. _Andr. Repof. t. 518. (M. maximo flore, foliis fubtus ferrugi- neis; Trew Ehret. t. 33.)—Leaves perennial, coriaceous, oblong. Petals obovate.—Native of North America, from the northern limits of Carolina to the Miffiffippi. Michaux. It feems by the Hort. Kew. not to have been cultivated in this country before the year 1734. This is a very noble evergreen tree, fufliciently hardy, at leaft in the fouthern parts of England, or near the fea, only requiring plenty of water to bloffom freely. The eaves are {cattered, on fhort thick ftalks, elliptic-oblong, more er lefs pointed at each end, from four to ten inches long, and two or three broad, veiny, very rigid and coriaceous; {mooth, fhining, and of a full bright green, above ; opaque, and fometimes clothed with rufty down, beneath; their margin entire, thickened and fomewhat wavy. Stipulas folitary, convolute, fheathing, downy, foon deciduous. Flowers terminal, folitary, on thick downy ftalks, each as large as a pint bafon, white, delicioufly fragrant like the flavour of cold lemonade. The petals haye the texture and afpect of delicate white leather, and fhrink very much in ie Thefe fants come out in July. The variety with rufly leaves bloffoms at an early age, and is therefore moft popular; but the great {mooth- leaved kind, firft brought to this country, of which fine {pecimens may be feen at Chelfea, Sion houfe, and other old gardens, is vaftly preferable in itfelf, when it arrives at a fufficient age to produce its much larger flowers. 2. M. Plumieri. Welt Indian. Magnolia. Swartz. Prodr. 87. Fl. Ind. Oce. 997. Plum. Gen. as above. (Talauma; Juél. 281.)—Leaves perennial, coriaceous, roundifh-ovate, {fmooth on both fides. Flower-ftalks {mooth. Petals ten or twelve.—Native of the Weft Indics, obferved by Dr. Swartz in St. Lucia, Martinico, and Guadaloupe, where the French call it either Bois pin, or Bois Cachiman. This author defcribes it as one of the largeft of trees, often 80 feet high. ‘ Branches round, annulated, fcarred where the leaves have ftood, their bark of a greyifh-brown. Leaves alternate, ftalked, large, roundifh inclining to ovate, coria- ceous, reticulated with veins, fmooth on both fides. aot- flalks thick, round, flattifh above, fmooth and naked. Flowers terminal, folitary, very large, white and fragrant, on thick fmooth ftalks, marked with whitifh rings. Calyx of three large, ovate, concave, coriaceous, petal-like, veiny, deciduous leaves, externally glaucous. Petals from 10 to 12, rather longer than the calyx, oblong, obtufe, concave, thick, contracted at the bafe.’”? Dr. Swartz never met with the fruit. Plumier defcribes and figures the latter as hard and knobby, of a blue colour, lodging in its fubftance feveral oblong nuts, each of which contains a kernel of the fame fhape. . Juflieu, who founda fpecimen in Surian’s col- leétion, with the name of Ta/auma, defcribes it as ‘¢ large and ovate, refembling a //robilus or cone, compofed ex- ternally of thick, granulated, corky, permanent feales ; while the inner part is woody, hard, hollowed out in its circumference into numerous fingle-feeded cells, apparently 8 not burfling, fome of them abortive.”’ . Thefe are all the materials we have to judge by. Burman’s ignorance and mifplaced economy induced him to omit publifhing a figure of the plant in his Zcones of Plumier ; ie p- 161 of that book. Swartz feems to have had no fufpicion that it could be any thing but a Magnolia, though his charaéter and de- {cription prove it i difting from the grandiflora ; to which however it appears to be fo very nearly related, that we think it highly improbable there can be any real eneric diftinGtions in the feed-veffel. We find nothing in lumier or Juffieu, but what may be referred to a not quite ripe, or an ill-underftood, fruit of a genuine Magnolia. If it fhould prove otherwife, we have already (fee Lopetta) hinted the propriety of not difturbing the name by which the bulk of the fpecies are fo well known, and would rather retain for this, if a feparate genus, the appellation it has in Juflieu, though of barbarous origin. As the point in dif. pute is one of the moft interefting botanical problems, we me it may excite the attention of fome Welt Indian tra- veller. 3- M. glauca. Swamp Magnolia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 755. (M. lauri folio fubtus albicante; Trew Ehret. t.9. Dull. Elth. 207. 't. 168.)—Leayes elliptic-oblong, obtufe, glau- cous beneath. Petals obovate —Native of fwampy ground in North America. ‘ From New Jerfey to Florida.” A/i- chaux. It appears to have been the firlt of its genus intro- duced into the gardens of England, having been cultivated by Bifhop Compton, at Fulham, in 1688, This is a {mall tree, very defirable on account of its flowers, which come forth, at the ends of the branches, in July, and are cream- coloured, concave, about two inches wide, with a peculiarly rich vinous fragrance, to fome people rather oppreflive. The /eaves alfo are beautiful, about three inches long, vary- ing in breadth, veiny; bright green above; glaucous and fomewhat filky beneath. In the variety feen in our gardens they are deciduous ; in another, of which we have fpecimens on Carolina, they are evergreen, and of a longer narrower gure. 4. M. con/picua. Lily-flowered Magnolia, or Youlan. Ait. n. 3. Salif. Parad. t.38. (Mokkwuren1; Banks Ic. Kampf. t, 43.)—Leaves obovate, obtufe with a point, ap- pearing after the flowers are over.—Prefumed to be a native of China, where it has been cultivated for ages, forming a tree 30 or 4o feet high, with zigzag much divided branches, at the end of each i. which, in the early fpring, before any leaves appear, ftands an elegant white hiy-like flower, four inches wide, with fome of the cool lemon {cent of the firft fpecies, at leaft when brought into a warm room. The leaves expand in May, and are flexible, on flender ftalks, of a broad obovate or wedge-like figure, with a {mall tip, each three or four inches, or more, in length. Sir Jofeph Banks procured this fine plant from China in 1789. It is hardy in our climate, aud is at an early age cevered with flowers from February to April, though the fevere eaft winds of the feafon often injure its beauty, unlefs it be protected by a frame, or planted in a confervatory. 5- M. obovata. Purple Magnolia. ‘Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 336. (M. purpurea; Curt. Mag. t. 390. Andr. Repof. t. 324. M. difcolor; Venten. Malmais. t. 24. M. glauca 8; Vhunb. Jap. 236. Mokkwuren; Kempf. Amoen. 845. Banks Ic. Kempf. t. 44.)—Leaves obovate, pointed, appearing with the flowers. Petals oblong, bluntifh.— Native of China, from whence the late duke of Portland is faid to have obtained it in 1790. It is tolerably hardy, flowering in May and June, but appears to moft advantage in a confervatory. In the fhape and habit of its caves this agrees much with the lat, but the flowers are larger, of a fine MAGNOLIA. fine purple, darkeft at the outfide, and do not appear till the foliage is fully expanded; they have little or no fcent. Willdenow and Thunberg erroneoufly confider Kempfer’s Ic. t- 43 and 44 as one and the fame plant, nor has any one correéted their miftake till now. It is lamentable that Curtis’s appropriate name, purpurea, has not been preferred to that of Thunberg, whofe confounding the prefent plant with J. glauca, rather fhakes our confidence in his botanical obfervations and opinions. It muft be prefumed that his white-flowered variety is our AZ. confpicua ; but in neither of thefe plants are the leaves glaucous beneath. They are in both, efpecially their ribs and veins, more or le{s clothed with fhort brown hairs. 6. M. tomentofa. Slender Woolly Magnolia. ‘Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 336. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. (M. gracilis; Salif. Parad. t. 87. Kobus; Kempf. Amoen. 845. Ic. t. 42.)—Leaves obovate, pointed, downy be- neath, appearing after the flowers. Petals fix, oblong, ob- tufe.—Native of Japan and China, from which laft coun- try the late Mr. Greville is faid to have received a plant, which bloffomed with him in the fpring. Mr. Salifbury af- certained the fynonym of Kempfer, from his herbarium and papers in the Britifh Mufeum, and has well afferted this to be a diftin& fpecies from the laft. _ 7. M. pumila. Dwarf Magnolia. Ait. n. 6. Andr. Repof. t. 226. Sims in Curt. Mag. t.977. (Gwillimia indica ; Rottler MSS. Sampa Salaca, or Milk Flower, of the Malays.) —Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, {mooth, Petals fix, obovate, very blunt, concave. Flower-{talk and calyx fmooth, incurved.—Native of China, or rather, as we fufpe&t, of fome of the Eaft Indian iflands. It is cultivated in China, (from whence the late lady Amelia Hume received a plant about 1786,) as well as at Batavia and Madras, but is never known to produce fruit in any fituation in which it has come under the examination of botanifts, fo that the genus is by no means certain. See what we have already mentioned on this fubject under Lirtopenprum Uilifera. The prefent isa humble, fmooth, deciduous /brub, kept in the greenhoufe, where it blooms at various periods during fummer. The foliage has a glau- cous tinge, and is wavy, and finely reticulated with veins. Flowers terminal, drooping, globofe, cream-coloured, fhort- lived, very fragrant at night, moft like thofe of M. glauca in fhape, but f{maller, and with more of a greenifh catt. The cells of the anthers are clofe together, at the inger fide, and the whole anther is club-fhaped and obtufe, very unlike that of the other fpecies. Mr. Andrews alone has exprefled thefe moft important charaéters. 8. M. fu/cata. Brown-ftalked Magnolia. Andr. Repof. t. 229. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1008. Ait.n.7. (M. annonefolia ; Salif. Parad. t. 5.)—Leaves elliptic-lanceo- late, fmooth. Petals fix, elliptical, concave. Flower-ttalk erect, hairy, as well as the calyx.—Native of China, from whence it was procured by fir J. Banks, for Kew garden, in 1789. We faw and defcribed the plant about the fame time in lady A. Hume's collection. It flowers in the green- houfe from April to July. The /fem is of humble growth, with brown hairy branches. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, fome- times inclining to obovate, about three inches long, {mooth, veiny, deciduous except when kept in the flove. Flowers on lateral or axillary hairy rufty ftalks, of a dark dull pur- ple, {melling ftrongly like apples, much fmaller than thofe of M. pumila. Anthers with nearly marginal linear cells, opening inwards, as in true Magnolie. g. M. acuminata. Blue Magnolia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 756. Ait. o. 8. (M. flore albo, folio majore acuminato, haud albicante ; Catefb, Carol. v. 3. 195 with a plate.) —Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed; downy beneath. Petals more than fix, channelled, glaucous.—Native of North America from Pennafylvania to Carolina, upon the loftieft mountains. Michaux. Mr. Collinfon firft introdueed it alive into Eng- land, in 1736. His original tree was lately in fine per- feGtion at Mill Hill, and we hope ftill exifts there, having efcaped the devaftation which that inferefting {pot underwent on its firft fale, when ignorance and bad talte contended which fhould do the mott mifchief there. The place is now become a f{chool, and its few remaining treafures mutt te prefumed to be in great jeopardy. (See CoLiinson, Perer.) The prefent fpecics forms a large, umbrageous, deciduous ¢ree, whofe wood is yellow. Leaves . cluttered at the end of each branch, but on its fabfequent elonga- tion becoming alternate, ftalked, pointed at each end, fe- veral inches long, and nearly half as broad; green and fmooth above ; paler, and at firft downy, beneath. The flowers appear among the young leaves early in June, ftand- ing folitary, each on a fhort fmooth ftalk, at the end of the branches. They are neither fragrant nor beautiful, though remarkable for their pea-green very glaucous petals, which vary in.fhape, but are always concave, or channelled, and ufually about two inches long. The cap/ule, with its red Jeeds, hanging by long threads out of their cells, is fometimes ripened in England. We have feen it at Kew. 10. M. ¢ripetala. Umbrella Magrolia. Linn. Sp. PI. 756. Ait. n. 10. (M. foliis ovato-oblongis ad bafin et apicem anguitis, utrinque virentibus; Trew Ehret. t. 62, 63.) —Leaves lanceolate. Petals nine ; the three outermoft reflexed and dependent.—Native of Carolina; more rarely of Virginia. Miller appears to have had this tree at Chel- fea in 1752, nor is it now uncommon in curious colle¢tions. It loves a moift ftrong foil. The /eaves are deciduous, ob- long, {mooth, light green, tapering at each end, of avery large fize, ufually 18 inches long at an early period, and finally above two feet, fpreading in the form of an um- brella at the end of each branch. Among them, early in June, ftands an upright, very large, white flower, re- markable for the three pendulous outer petals, and for its peculiar fcent, which Munchaufen commends, but moit people find infufferable, from its ftarch-like overwhelming faint fweetnefs. Ehret compares it to a va{t quantity ot white lilies, The fruit is not known to have been ripened here. 11. M. auriculata. Ear-leaved Magnolia. Michaux Bo- real-Amer. v. 1. 328. Willd.n. 8. Ait.n. 12. Anar, Repof. t. 573. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1206. (M. Fra- feri; Walt. Carol. 159. t. 1. M. auricularis ; Salif. Parad. t. 43. )—Leaves fpatulate-ovate, acute ; heart-fhaped at the bafe ; fmooth beneath. Petals obovate.—Native of lofty mountains in Carolina, from whence it was firit brought to England alive by the late Mr. Frafer in 1786. This, like the laft, is a tree that flowers at an early age, and their habits are fimilar. The prominent rounded lobes at the bafe of the /eaves mark the prefent fpecies. The flowers appear in July, and are Jarge, of a yellowifh-white, and delightfully fragrant. Willdenow feems to have taken from the figure in Mr. Walter’s book his chara¢ter of “claws to the petals,’? for which there is no juft founda- tion, that figure having been faultily drawn, aa a dricd {pecimen. 12. M. macrophylla. Long-leaved Magnolia. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 327. Ait. n. g.— Leaves fpatulate- obovate ; heart-fhaped at the bafe; glaucous and downy beneath.—Native of North America, to the weit of the river Tennaflée. Michaux. Brought by Mr. Frafer and his fon, in 1800, “ from the wildernefs in Kentucky, on R 2 the MAG the banks of the fouth fork of the Cumberland river.’?— at flowers in June and July. We have feen but a leaf, which has a round, downy, f{triated foo/a/é, full of pith, as Michaux defcribes all the branches to be. ‘The “af itfelf is near 18 inches long, and nine broad, fomewhat panduri- form, being contracted above the dilated heart-fhaped bafe, and then again extended; the upper furface is green and {mooth ; the under fingularly glaucous, or nearly white, and finely downy ; both are minutely reticulated with innu- merable veins. Michaux fays the petals are fix, white, the lower ones purple at their bafe. 13. M. cordata. Weart-leaved Magnolla. Michaux Bo- real-Amer. v. 1. 328. Ait. n. 11.— Leaves heart-(haped, fomewhat downy beneath.’’—Native of dry open hills in Georgia and North Carolina. Michaux. Meffrs. Frafer are recorded as having breught itto Kew in 1801, but it has not yet bloffomed. Michaux fays it is allied to M. acumi- nata, and that the flowers are yellow. We have never feen aipecimen. S. Macwotta. in Gardening, contains plants of the ever- green and deciduous tree kinds, of which the fpecies ufually cultivated are, the laurel-leaved magnolia (M.’ grandi- flora) ; the {wamp deciduous magnolia (M. glauca); the blue magnolia (M. acuminata) ; ‘and the umbrella mag- nolia, or umbrella tree (M. tripetala.) The firlt fort has varieties with broad leaves, and with narrow leaves. And in the fecond kind there is a variety with long leaves, which is evergreen. Method of Culture.-- All thefe plants may be increafed by feed, layers, and cuttings of the fhoots. With regard to the firft mode, the feed, which is re- ceived annually early in the {pring from America, preferved in fand, fhould be fown, as foon after as poffible, in pots of light rich earth, half an inch deep, plunging them in a mo- derate hot-bed, to bring up the plants an inch or two in height, or in the common earth under a warm wall or hedge, or in a frame, in the full fun, till the middle or latter end of April, then replunging them in an eafterly border open to the morning fun; giving moderate fprink- lings of water in dry weather. The plants will rife the fame year; thofe in the hot-bed, probably in April, and the others in May, inuring thofe in the firft fituation timely to the full air. The plants fhould, all fummer, be regu- larly fupplied with water, and at the approach of winter be removed into a greenhoufe, or, rather, under a garden- frame, to be fheltered from fsoft all winter, indulging them with the open air in mild weather. If the pots be plunged in a bark hot-bed, &c. about March, under a frame, two or three months, it will forward the plants greatly ; being careful to give water, and harden them to the open air gradu- ally, fo as to be removed into it in their pots fully in June, to remain till the autumn, when they fhould be allowed fhel- ter in winter, as before. ‘The following fpring, they fhould be planted into feparate pots, and plunged into a hot-bed, zs before, to fet them forward, giving water, occafional fhade, and the benefit of free air; and in June remoying the pots to a fhady border for the remainder of the fum- met. In winter they fhould have fhelter as before, from fevere froft, but have the full air in all open weather. They require the fame care for two or three winters, when fome of them may be turned out of the pots with balls of earth about their roots, into the full ground, in a warm fheltered fitua- tion, particularly the deciduous kinds; but the firit, or evergreen fort, fhould not be too foon expofed to the win- ter’s cold, but be continued in occafional fhelter in the above manner four or five years, till two, three, or more feet MAG high; and when turned out, matted occafionally in fevere winters, retaining fome in pots to be managed as greenhoule plants of the more hardy kind. In the layering mode, the layers fhould be laid down in autumn or fpring, choofing the young pliable fhoots for the purpofe, giving them a gentle twit, or a flit in the part laid into the earth. Some will be well rooted in one year, others probably not in lefs than two; then take them off, and plant each ina pot in the early {pring, plunging them in a moderate hot-bed for a month or two, to promote their growth freely at firft, and they will generaliy form good itrong plants by the following autumn, allowing them- fhelter in winter for a year or two, when they may be planted) out. In the cutting plan, the cuttings fhould be made from the fhort young fhoots of the preceding year, and be planted in pots of good earth, plunging them to the rims in the common or ftove hot-bed, giving water and occafional thade ;. fome of them will be rooted the fame year, when they muft be inured by degrees to the open air, after which they may be managed as the layers. It may be noticed that the firft, or ever-green fort, is one of the molt beautiful trees m nature, both in its growth, and in the luxuriance of its noble leaves, which render it fingularly con{picuous at all feafons. And the deciduous forts are alfo highly ornamental trees, and may be intro- duced into clumps and fhrubberies, where, by their fine foliage, they exhibit an elegant variety. In common, all the different {pecies are cultivated in the nurferies, for fale, from which they may be taken up and planted out in the early fpring or autumn months; but the former is the better in moft cafes. With regard to their difpofition in the fhrubbery, as they are rather tender in their early growth, they fhould have a fheltered funny fituation, in a rather dry foil, being planted in the moft eon{picuous places, and not too clofely crowded with other fhrubs. But they have a good effect even when difpofed fingly in different parts, as in open {paces of fhort grafs-ground, in fheltered fituations ; efpecially the firft fort, from its evergreen nature. MAGNOLIA, in Botany, a natural order of plants, fo called from the genus Magnolia, which makes a principal figure among them, is the feventy-fifth in the fyem of Juffieu, and the fifteenth of his thirteenth clafs. See Gre RANIA. ; The Magnolia are thus charaGterized. Calyx of a definite number of leaves, fometimes bra¢teated. Petals generally . of a definite number, truly inferted below the germen. Stamens numerous, diftinG, with the fame infertion ; anthers coalefcing with the filaments. Germens feveral, either defi- nite or indefinite in number, placed on acommon receptacle 3. flyles either one to each germen, or wanting ; {tigmas one toeach germen. Cap/ules or berries as many as there are germens, of one cell, containing one or many feeds ; fome- times the pericarps coalefce. into one fingle fruit. Z£méryo of the feed itraight, deftitute of albumen. Stem fhrubby or arborefcent. Leaves alternate, moltly undivided, the younger ones fheathed by ftipulas which embrace the branch, being convoluted in the form of a horn, as in the Fig genusy and proteéting the bud, which is terminal. ‘Thefe itipulas, however, foon fall off, leaving a circular fear. The flowers are either terminal or axillary. The genera referred by Juffieu to this order are Bury- andra oF Forfter, which Schreber makes a Zétracera, lee Euryanpra ; Drymis of Fortter, the /Vintera of Schreber 3 Lllicium, Michelia, and Magnolia of Linneus ; Talauma of Juffieu, which is the original Magnolia of Plumier ; Lirta- : dendrum MAG dendrum of Linnzus; and Mayna of Aublet, Lam, Iluftr. t. 491. To thefe are fubjoined as akin to them, Dillenia, Curatella, Ochna, and Qua/ffia. MAGNON. Tow in Biography, a French poet and advocate, who exercifed his profeffion fome time at Lyons, and then quitted it for dramatic writing, was born at Tour- nay- He was affaffinated in 1662, in the ftreets of Paris. He is mentioned as the perfon who projected, but did not live to complete, an Encyclopédie in verfe. Moreri. _ MAGNOTS, or Marvors, in Geography, an appellation diftinguifhing Greeks, who inhabit the fouth part of the Morea, the environs of Sparta, and more particularly the part which extends from Mifitra to Cape Matapan. As remains of the Lacedemonians, they are as ardent as their anceftors in defending their liberty and maintaining their in- dependence. The Turks have fometimes obtained a trifling tribute from them, without ever having been able entirely to fubdue them. Cultivators or fhepherds, mariners or pirates, according to the exigence of their circumftances, they are always ready to quit the {mall towns which they occupy on the gulfs of Coron and of Colokythia, for the purpofe of penetra‘ing into the interior of the country, and eftablifhing themfelves on the mountains. With this energy and love of liberty, it is to be regretted, that there are among them rob- bers, who, net contenc with making war on the Turks, who have unjuftly difpoffefled them of a part of their territory, alfo go fometimes to plunder the unfortunate Grecks of the fmall iffands of the Archipelago, who ought rather, on ac- count of identity of religion and of interett, to unite againtt their common enemies. MAGNUM Os, in Anatomy, a name of one of the bones of the carpus. See its defeription in the article Exrre- MITIES. MAGNUS, Joun, in Biography, archbifhop of Upfal, in Sweden, was born in 1483. He oppofed moft ftrenu- oufly the Reformation in Sweden, and finding ‘his efforts inefleGtual, he retired to Rome, where he died in 1544. He wrote a hittory of Sweden, and lives of the archbifhops of Upfal: he had a brother Olaus, who was one of the per- fons at the council of Trent, where he difplayed confider- able talents for bufinefs. He died at Rome in 1560. His greateft work is a Hiftory of the Northern Nations. _ Macnus, organift of the church of St. Giles-in-the- Fields, who flourifhed about the year 1730, was elteemed; by his contemporaries, a great matter of harmony, and an admirable extempore player on the organ; of whofe great abi- lities many years after his deceafe we have often heard Rouin- grave and Dr. Arne {peak with rapture. Before Kelway and Stanley were arrived at great renown, which they after- wards acquired by their voluntary playing, Magnus drew crowds of young organifts to St. Giles’s every Sunday to hear him on the full organ, on which, defpifing fingle folo ftops, he had attained to fuch command, as to be able to conduét four parts in fugue, with as much correétnefs and facility, as others could two parts, without fugue or imita- tion. LExceffive {tudy and application brought on a diforder in his intelle@s, which put an end to his exiftence; at an early period of his life. MAGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Mantes; 12 miles N. of Mantes. ‘The place contains 1402, and the canton 11,149 inhabitants, on a territory of 2224 kiliometres, in 29 communes. MAGO, a town of the ifland of Ceylon, near the S.E. coalt ; 98 miles. S.S.E.of Candy, MAG MAGOAR, a town of France, in the department of the North Coafts ; 10 miles S. of Guingamp. MAGODUS, among the Romans, a name given to thofe players who fometimes aéted the part of men, and fometimes of women : the word is derived from May Oc, magic, aNd wea Jinger, and properly denotes thofe players who performed extraordinary feats and geftures. MAGOLSHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurtemberg ; 30 miles S. of Stuttgart, MAGON, a town of the ifland of Minorca, faid to have been founded by the Carthaginians. MAGONS, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon to the Macaragua of Marcgrave, Ray, .&c. and the great Tinamou of Latham. See Trerrao Major. MAGOPHONIA, formed from poy, magus, and Covazy Slaughter, the name of a feait among the ancient Perfians, held in memory of the expulfion of the Magians. The Magus Smerdis having ufurped the throne of ‘Perfiay upon the death of Cambyfes, 521 years before Jefus- Chrift, feven of the principal lords of the court confpired, to drive him out of it. Their defign was executed with good fuccefs: Smerdis, and his brother, another Magus, called Patizithes, were killed. Upon which the people alfo rofe, and put all the Magi to the {word ; infomuch that there would not have one efcaped, had not night come upon them. Darius, fon of Hyftafpes, was then eleG@ed king: and, in memory of this maflacre of the Magi, a fealt was inftituted, fays Herodotus, See Maat. MAGORA, in Geography, a town of Walachia ; 14 miles S.E. of Rufei.— Alfo, a fea-port of Arabia, inthe Red fea ; 150 miles N.N.W. of Loheia.. N. lat. 17° 40’. MAGOT, in Zoology, the name given by Buffon to the Barbary ape of Pennant, or the Simra Inuus 3 which fee. MAGOTTY Cove, in Geography, abay on the N. coatt of. Jamaica; one mile W. of Mufketto coves MAGPIE River, a river of Canada, which runs into the gulf of St. Lawrence, about: fix. miles: W. from the mouth of the river St. John. MAGPYE, in Ornithology, a well-known {pecies of the Corvus, or the corwus pica, in the Linnzan fyitem : it is a crafty, reftlefs, noify bird, called by, Ovid nemorum convicia pica. See Corvus Pica. MAGRA,,.in Geography, barren mountains of A frica, on the road from Tripoli to Egypt; 150 miles W. of Cairo. Maara, or Magora; a river of Italy, which rifes in the Apennines, and palling through a valley, called the ‘ valley of Magra,” runs into the fea, five milés.S. of Sarzana. MAGRACOTTA,.a town of Hindooitan, five miles W. of Palicaudcherry. MAGRE, a-town.of Hindooftan, in the Myfore coun- try, deemed by the Hindoos a; place of peculiar fanctity, and abounding. in pagodas and choultries ; fix miles from Savindroog. MAGREBIANS.. See Moerasrans. MAGUA, a. town of Hindooitan, in Dowlatabad ; five miles S. of Beder. MAGUALBARI, or Rio pas Gaurnes, a river of Africa,in Guinea, which runs into the Atlantic, N, lat. 7. MAGUANA, Sr. Joun of, a canton and town on the S. fide of the ifland of St. Domingo, on the left fide of the river Neybe. The capital of the ancient kingdom of Ma- guana ftood where the town St. John of Maguana is now fituated. This canton was pillaged by the Englifh-priva- teers in 1543. In 1764, the diftri of the new parih.con- tained 3600 perfons, of whom 300 were. capable of bear- 4 ing called Magophoniay- MAH ing arms. Its population now amounts to more than 5000 perfons. Macuana. See MAYAGUANA. MAGUARI, in Ornithology. See Ciconta Americana. MAGUDARIS, a name by which Diofcorides calls the filphium. MAGUELONE, in Geography, a lake of France, in the department of the Gard, near the Mediterranean, commu- nicating with it, and extending from Catte to Pecais. Its name is derived from that of an ancient town, which was a bifhop’s fee, transferred -in 1538 to Montpellier, Charles Martel deftroyed the town, becaufe it was an afylum for Saracen invaders. It was rebuilt in the year 1060, but is now a {mall place, fituated on a neck of land between the lake and the fea; five miles S. of Montpellier. N. lat. 43°30. E. long. 3° 58'. MAGUIBA. ariver of Africa, that runs into the fea, E. of cape Monte. MAGULLACONDA, 2a town of Hindooftan, in My- fore ; 30 miles from Chinna Balabaram. MAGUMBA, a province of Africa, in the N.W. part of the kingdom of Loango. MAGYDARIS, in Botany, a name ufed by Theophrattus, and other of the old authors, for the laferpitium or lafer- wort. MA-HA, or Ma-coupa, in Geography, a city of China, of the fecond rank, ia Koei-tcheou. N,. lat. 26°26’. E. long. 107°. MAHABARAT, an epic poem in the Sanfkrita lan- guage, by an author very celebrated among all fects of Hindoos, named Vyafa, to whom alfo is afcribed the facred romances, the Puranas. (See Vyasa and Purana.) The fabje& of the Mahabarat is the heroic adventures of the five fons of Pandu, called hence the Pandavas. (See Panpvu.) It is a work of great extent, amounting it is faid to upwards of a hundred thoufand metrical ftanzas, of which more than a third have been tranflated by Dr. Wilkins, librarian to the Eaft Indiacompany. This learned gentleman publifhed in 1785, an epifode of the great poem, under the title of « Bhagavat Gita, or Dialogues of Krifhna and Arjun.’ An extra& from that very curious work is given under the article Krisuna. The Mahabarat con- tains the genealogy and general hiftory of the houfe of Bhaurat, a named from Bharat its founder, the epithet Maha, or great, being prefixed in token of diftin&tion; but its more particular obje€& is to relate the diflentions and wars of the two great collateral branches of it, called from their anceftors the Kurus and Pandus (fee Kuru), both lineally defcended in the fecond degree from Vichi- travirya, their common anceftor, by their refpective fathers Dritrarafhtra and Pandu, In the dedication of the Bha- avat Gita, Mr. Warren Haftings, under whofe aufpices the tranflation was made, after noticing the banifhment of the Pandus, fays, “* The exiles, aftera ferics of adventures, worked up with a wonderful fertility of genius and pomp of language into a thoufand fublime defcriptions, returned with a powerful army to avenge their wrongs, and to aflert their pretenfions to the empire in right of their father. In this ftate the epifode opens.?? Without allowing the anti- quity of four or five thoufand years ‘as claimed by the indoo literati for their juftly admired Mahabarat, its great age is unqueftiouable. In general eftimation it ranks next to the Ramayana, if it be not fuperior to it, in reputation for holinefs: the Vedas and Puranas only precede thefe works in the eftimation of a great portion of the Hindoos, See RAMAYANA. MAH Mr. Moor, in his Hindoo Pantheon, after noticing the allegorical character of Oriental mythology, fays, ‘ This may ferve as a farther {pecimen of the endlefs allegories in which the poetical fabulifts have veiled the moral, {cientifie, and theological knowledge of the Hindoos; all of which, as well as hiftory, and even arts, if not buried in, are ob- {cured by, and intimately conneéted with, their wild and bold mythology. Thus, again, the Mahabarat is a con- tinued allegory of the confli¢ts between man’s virtues and his vices: the former perfonified under the names of the five fons of Pandu; of whom Bhima, Yudifhtira, and Arjun, faid to reprefent Jultice, Fortitude, and Prudence, were by one mother, Koonti; and the other two, Nakal and Sahadeva, perfonifications of Temperance and Wifdom, were by Maderi. (See Koontr and Manpert.) y Other legends attribute the virtues of Modefty and Tenderneis to Yudifh- tira; Strength to Bhima; and Skill or Courage to Arjun ; to Nakal, Beauty or Harmony ; and to Sahadeva, Wiidom and Penetration. The two lait brothers are by fome faid ta be the twin virtues of Temperance and Chattity. Man’s manifold vices are perfonated by the hundred fons of Kuru, the brother of Pandu: hence a near relationfhip exilts be- tween Vice and Virtue.”’ P. 92. MAHABELT, a name in Hindoo mythological legends of a monarch who, although reafonably virtuous on other points, was {till fo elated by his grandeur, that he omitted the eflential ceremonies and offerings to the deities; and Vithnu found it neceflary to check the influence of fuch an example, by refolving to become, for that purpofe, incar- nated in the perfon of a wretched Brahman dwarf. This incarnation, or avatara, is one of the ten principal defcents of Vifhnu, and is called Wamana, or the dwarf. "(See Vamana and Visuyu.) Sir William Jones furmifes the Belus of weftern hittory, to be the fame with the Beli of this article, for the epithet of Maha pretixed, merely means great in the Sanfkrita language. MAHABUTPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 33 miles S. of Dacca. MAHACKAMACK, a river of America, which falls into the Delaware from the N.E. at the N.W. corner of New Jerfey. i MAHACONDAPALLY, a town of Hindooftan; in Myfore; 15 miles S. of Ouffoor. , MAHADEDO, a temple of Thibet, fituated on the lake Manfaroar. i MAHA-DEVA, in Hindoo Mythology, isa name given to the god Siva, one of the périons m their divine triad. (See =! ptr In Sanfkrit it means literally the great god ; and although we might expect to find this name thus ap~ plied by the fe&t only, who exclufively worfhip Siva, indi- cating the pre-eminence of their deity, yet it 1s faid to be commonly given to him by other feéts, as well as by his own. MAHAKALA, a name of Siva, the deftrudtive attri- bute of the deity. The name feems to be the fame as Kal or Kala (which fee), with an epithet prefixed, meaning great, Mr. Paterfon, in the eighth volume of the Afiatic Refearchess thus defcribes this perfonification. ‘ Mahal Kal, as repre- fented in the caverns of Elephanta, had eight arms. In one he holds a human figure, in another a {word, or facrificial axe; in a third he holds a bafin of blood, and with a fourth he rings over it the facrificial bell. Two other arms are broken off; with the two remaining he is drawing behind * him a veil, which extinguifhes the fun, and involves the whole univerfe in one Shdifiingaifted ruin. One of the titles of this tremendous deity is Bhairava, the Terrific; but his principal MAH principal defignation is Kal-Agni-Rudra.” Thefe three words, we are told in the Hindoo Pantheon, are efpecially defcriptive of Siva, and may be rendered Time, Fire, Fate. See Kat. Niebuhr gives a print in his Indian Travels of the fculp- ture above defcribed, which Maurice has copied into his fixth volume of Indian Antiquities. In the Hindoo Pan- theon, the following defcription is given of this fubject from the perfonal examination of the author. ‘“ Having lately been in the Elephanta cavern, and when there made fome memoranda, I will thence extra& what relates to the fub- ject of Mahakala.—The compartment containing the group, of which Siva in this charaéter makes the principal figure, is on the right of the entrance, facing a compartment of like fize, containing what, in another part of this work, I have fuppofed to be a marriage ceremony. The figure is of Siva Vindex, fourteen feet high, but the lower extremities broken off ; his attention is from his attitude turned to his left, his afpe& is terrific, indicating the immediate execu- tion of fome avenging a€t,—he had eight arms ; the fuperior right and left ftretched upwards, and either fupporting a cloth or curtain, or putting it over the terrible event he threatens—the fingers grafp the cloth. The left upftretched arm is finely executed ; the right is broken at tHe elbow: the next right hand is broken off at the wrift; the cor- re{ponding left holds a bell, in good prefervation, over a cup in the palm of the next, having a ferpent twining near the elbow. A third right hand grafps a long ftraight {word, uplifted, perfect ; the two inferior hands, right and left, are broken off above the elbow: they were in bolder relief, and the left appears to have fupported, or to have grafped, the leg of a kneeling figure, the trunk only of which remains ; its legs, arms, and head being broken off. ‘This kneeling figure may have been between five and fix feet in height ; its back is toward the threatener, and leaning fo in his direc- tion, as to drop its blood, if {pilled, into the cup. before noticed. The head of the principal figure has a highly ornamented cap ; a fcull and ferpent are among its frontal ornaments. It has alfo a pendent necklace, and a chaplet, if it may be fo called, of human heads, of which only two or three are plainly difcernible, flowing over the left fhoul- der to the right thigh, where it is broken off: the Zennar, or holy thread (fee Zennar), and a broader belt, ran in nearly a like direction. On all the wrilts are bracelets, and above the elbows of three of the arms is the ornament called bazuband.. No figures remain in any prefervation to the right of the principal, or under him. On the left, near the fuppofed victim, are two bearded faces, expreffive of Pity ; a compaflionate female is juft above them, leaning forward over the victim; fhe holds her fcarf in her hands, and is an elegant perfon: below the bearded men are two or three females with pitying afpeéts: the fame emotion, intermingled with terror, is evident in every face of this compartment, where features can be traced. “ Over the fubje&s juft de(cribed, is a row of males and females of rather diminutive fize; in the middle of the row, nearly over the head of Siva, is a thing like a mitre, with a crofier cut deep in it, and furmounted with a crofs ; but the limbs of the crofs not exactly at right angles; two aged and emaciated figures are on the right (the Febasatta right) of the mitre, holding up their hands betokening pity and pain: on the other fide of the mitre are two fimilar figures; in front of each pair is a proftrate diltrefled male child, their heads near the mitre: beyond the laft men- tioned pair, on the fpectator’s left, are a male and female in great anxiety and diftrefs, holding fearfs in their hands. « The fubject, fuppofed to refemble a mitre, crofier, and MAH crofs, appears alfo in another compartment of this cayern. Fancy may, perhaps, have had fome fhare in making this refemblance ; but it is really curious, and I think ftriking, although, I believe, heretofore not remarked.” , Hin. Pan, p. 51. ; The great antiquity of the cayern wherein is this curious piece of feulpture is unquettionable, although no period ap- proaching to exaétnefs can be affigned for its origin. The Hindoos, and their Brahmans, with their aceutomed prone- nefs to hyperbole, throw it back into yery remote ages: and fome of our miffionaries and other European travellers, as if unwilling to be outdone in extravagance, have imagined the figure here defcribed of Mahakala deflroying a human being, typical perhaps of Time and the human race, to be a reprefentation of the judgment of Solomon! «Without {topping here to difcufs fuch ill-judged fpeculations, fimilar inftances of which will be found under our article Krisuna ; it may be fufficient to notice the progrefs that the art of fculpture had made in India in times certainly very remote in reference to art and fcience. The compartment defcribed in the preceding extracts is elaborate in figures powerfully exprefling one emotion of the mind; a precifion flrongly indicating great refinement and fkill. It may be reafonably queftioned if any fpecimen equal in age and execution can be elfewhere pointed out. Of the cavern temples of. India, fome account is given under the articles ELEPHANTA, ELona, and Karty. MAHAKALI, a name of Parvati, the confort of Siva, in his charaéter of Mahakala; under which articles, and Kal and Kali, farther information may be fought. MAHA-LAKSHMI, a name given by certain fes of Hindoos to Lak/hmi, the confort of Vifhiu. See thofe arti- cles, Under thisname fhe is worfhipped at a pretty temple on the weftern fea-fhore of the ifland of Bombay, which is much reforted to at the annual jatra, or fair. : MAHALEB, in the Materia Medica, the name of the fruit of a fort of wild cherry, called cerafus /ylveftris amara, or the wild bitter cherry, by Bauhin. The wood of the tree is of a greyifh caft, and fine grain, with a mix- ture of red in the veins, andis very firm, and of a {weet {mell, and ufed by the French in making cabinets; the leaves and flower carry a rude refemblance of thofe of the common cherry; the fruit is round, black, and refem- blesa cherry, having the fame fort of ftone in it, the ker- nel of which is like the bitter almond in tafte. It is com- ménded in external applications, and the perfumers of France ufe it in their wafhballs. It is to be chofen freth and {weet, for it very often has an intolerable {tinking fmell, like that of bugs. See Prunus. MAHALOULE Cassi, in Geography, a town of A fri- ca, in the kingdomof Tunis; g miles E. of Zunghar. MAHAMALL, atown of Algiers; 27 miles W.5.W. of Tipfa. MAHAMMA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen; 24 miles S.E. of Chamir. MAHAMUNDALA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic; 10 miles S. of Chittoor. MAHAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker- man ; 60 miles N.E. of Sirgian._ MAHANADA, or Mana-nuppy, a river of Hindoo- ftan, which rifes in the mountains of Berar, in the country of Ruttunpour, trayerfes the country of Oriffa, pailes by Cattack, where it is fometimes called the Cattack miver, and difcharges itfelf by feveral mouths into the bay of Ben- gal; go miles E.S.E. of Cattack. The fartheit point to which it is navigable from the fea is Arung. Near this river is the fort called Boad, and a town called Beiragur, eageh ec MAH {ee vefpetively. The mouths of the river, which form ar affemblage of low woody iflands, like the Ganges, and many other rivers, have never been traced, but are deferibed mere- ly from report. At the mouth of the principal channel, near Falfe point, is-a fortified ifland, named Cojung, or Codjung. Ptolemy's Adamas river anfwers perfectly to the Mahanuddy ; and the diftri& “ Sabarz,’’ on its’banks, is faid to abound in diamonds. MAHANZEDA, ariver of Hindooftan, which rifes on the borders of Bootan, and runs into the Ganges; 20 miles N. of Moorfhedabad. MAHANAGORE, atown of Bengal; 20 miles N. of Tflamabad. MAH ANAIM, or Mawar, ‘in Ancient Geography, a city of Paleftine, belonging to the Levites, of the family of Merari, in the tribe of Gad, on the brook Jibok. (Joh. xxi. 38, xiii. 29, 30. 1 Chron. vi. 80.) . Jacob gave it this name, becaufe he had here a vifion of angels. (Gen. xxxii. 2.) Inthe Vulgate it is fometimes called fimply ‘ Caltra,” or the camp. Gen. xxxii. 2, 2 Sam. ai.'8. 12. 29. xvii. 24. xix. 32. }AHANA SAN, in Geography, acity of Perfia, in the province of Mazanderan, compdled of three towns joined to- gether. In 1392 it -was taken, pillaged, and deltroyed by “Timur Bec ; 12 miles N.E. of Amol. MAHANDPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir- car of Chanderee; 35 miles W. of Chanderee. MAHANGANO, a province of Africa, in the king- dom of Angola, having a capital of the fame name. MAHANY, a river of Hindooftan, in Bahar, which runs into the Ganges, about 25 miles below Bar. MAHAPRALAYA, in Metaphyfics, is confidered among Hindoo philofophers as the grand confummation of all things: the great deftruction, as the word appears to mean. See hereon under Kat. MAHARSHIS, an appellation applied in Hindoo books “to departed fages or faints. “The terms Devarfhi, Rajar- fhi, and Maharfhi, feem nearly fynonimous with Rithi, meaning faint, deified faint, great faint, or great fage. There are differences doubtlefs, for Naredais reckoned the chief of the Devarfhis. Krifhna inthe Bhagavat Gita (fee Mana- BARAT) fpeaks of his “ holy fervants the Brahmans and the Rajarfhis,”’ and fays “Lam Brighu among the Maharfhis, and of all the Devarfnis Tam Nared,” p. 86. .(See Nane- pA.) Nareda and Brighu are generally called fons of Brah- ma. The term Maharfhioccurring in the fixth fection of the firlt book of the Ramayan, the learned tranflators fubjoin the following note—“ There are four kinds of fages or Rifhis: the Rajarfhi, or royal fage ; the Maharfhi, or great fage; the Brahmarfhi, or facred fage ; and the Devarthi, or divine fage: of thefe the firft is efteemed the loweft, and the lat the bigheft”? Hindoo Pantheon, p. 95. (See Risut.) ‘The names of thefe fages, and allufions to them, occur frequently in the writings of the Hindoos. MAHA-RUDRA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Siva. It means the great Rudra. See Srva and Rupra. MAHAUT Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W. coatt of the ifland of St. Vincent, S. of Cumberland bay. MAHAWA Gavut, a mountain of Bahar; 24 miles W. of Saferam. MAHBROOK, a town of Africa, inthe Sahara; 160 miles W.N.W. of Tombutoo. N. lat. 19° 10/. E. long. bas! MAYIBUB, in Commerce, a Turkifa gold coin. See SEQUIN. ; F MAUHDIA, in Geography. See Maanté. MAHE’, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan, on the coaft of Malabar. MAH Mount Dilla, which is a remarkable promontory, fituated in N. lat. 12° x', E. dong. 75° 2/, or 1° W. of Cochin, appears to be W. 33° 15’N., or nearly N.W. by W. from Mahé, diftant from it 28.4 geo- graphical miles. N. lat. 11° 45'18. E. long. 75° 26! 30". —AMNo, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea. S. fans 4° 4! E. long. 55° 301. MAHENDRA, a mame of the Hindoo deity Jndras which fee. MAHERNITA, in Botany, is of uncertain derivation, unlefs, as:profeflor Martyn fays, it be fancifully confidered as an anagrammatic inverfion of Hermannia; the two genera being very nearly allied, or rather, in reality, fcarcely to be feparated.—Linn. Mant. 8. Schreb. 208. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.t. 1564. Mart. Mills DiG&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. z.v. 2. 198. Juffl. 290. . Lamarck Illuttr, t. 218 — Clafs and order, Pentandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Columm- nifere, Linn, Tiliacee, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped, perma- nent, cut into five, awl-fhaped, longifh teeth. Cor. Petals five, heart-fhaped, oblong, {preading, twice as long as the calyx. Neétaries five, obcordate, on ftalks, furrounding the germen, fhorter than the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, capillary, placed upon the ne€tartes, fhorter than the calyx 3 anthers oblong ; pointed, erect. Pi/?. Germen on a fhort ftalk, obovate, five-fided ; ftyles five, briitle-thaped, ereét, the length of the petals; fligmas fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, of five cells, and five valves. Seeds few, kidney- fhaped. Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. , Petals five. Neétaries five, joined at the bafe, obcordate, placed under the filaments. Capfule of five cells. The following examples will be fufficient for the illuftra- tion of this dubious genus. ' M. verticillata. Linn. Maut. 59. Cavan. Diff. fafe. 6. 324. t. £76. f. 1. (Hermaania ciliaris ; Linn. Suppl. 302.) —Leaves in whorls, linear and pinnatifid. Flowers in pairs, on long ftalks.—A native of the Cape of Good Hope.—Linneus defcribes this plant in thefe words. ‘© Stem fhrubby, diffufe. Branches thread-fhaped. Leaves frequently from eight-to~ten in a whorl, linear, flighuy divided or pinnatifid. Jnflorefcence the fame as in Hermans nia, terminal, the ftalks generally two-flowered. Corolla yellow.—Take away the neétaries from the petals, and add them to the ftamens, and you will have a Hermennia, (paradoxical as it may feem) with whorled leaves. Whata ftrange generic metamorphofis !’’ " M. pinnata. Linn, Syit. Veg. ed. 14.308. Curt. Mag. t. 277.—Leaves three-parted, pinnatifid.—A native of the Cape, whence it was introduced by M. P. Miller, in 1752. It Howers from June to Augutt.—Svem fhrubby, nearly three feet in height. Branches flender and delicate, with a reddifh bark. Flowers in cluiters, lateral, of a lively red colour when firft expanded, drooping like little bells, moftly two together. Linnzus originally efleemed this a fpecies of Hermannia. M. incifa. Willd. n. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 353. Jacq. Hort. Schoenb. v. 1. 28. t. 54.—Stem ereét, rough. Leaves pinnatifid, cut and hairy.—A native of the Cape, flowering througmthe fummer and autumr.—Nearly allied to the lait in fize and habit, but differs in the fingular hairinefs of its ftalks, form of its leaves, and colour ofits fowers. Stem, when viewed with a magnifying glafs, befet with little protube- rances from whence iffue tufts of pellucid hairs. Leaves deeply jagged at their edges. /owers, when in bud, of a rich crimion colour, but, when expanded, of a deep oranges becoming yellow as they fade. M. glabrata. MAH M. glabrata. Willd.n.6. Ait. Hort, Kew. ed. 2. n. 4. (M. odorata ; Andr. Bot. Repof. t. 85.)—Leaves lanceo- Jate, pinnatifid and toothed. Staiks very long, bearing two flowers.— Found alfo at the Cape. It blooms in the fum- mer.—This f{pecies was firft fent to England about 1792.— Stem twiggy, and branched. eaves dark green, the upper ones fimple and oppofite. Flowers yellow, fragrant like the Jonquil. The remaining {pecies of Aahernia, enumerated by Will- denow, are, pulchella, diffufa, heterophylla and biferrata. Manerni, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the fhrubby exotic kind, for the green-houfe, of which the fpecies cul- tivated are, the wing-leaved mahernia (M. pinnata) ;. and the cut-leaved mahernia (M. incifa.) Method of Culture —Vhefe different plants may be in- creafed by planting cuttings of the young branches in the fummer feafon fingly, in pots of light mould, watering, and plunging them in a hot-bed till they have ftricken root. When they have been well rooted, they may be removed into the green-houfe for proteGtion during the winter feafon ; being managed as the lefs tender plants of this defcription. Allof them afford variety among other potted plants ofa fimilar kind in green-houfe colleétions. MAHESA and Manrswara, in Mythology, names of the Hindoo god Siva ; the fame, indeed, as J/a and Tfwara (which) fee) with the epithet Maha, or great, prefixed. Thefe names and allufions to them occur perpe- tually in Hindoo books. The following example from the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva, (fee JayapeEva,) as tranflated by fir William Jones, fhews their prevalence, and 1s deferip- tive alfo of the appearance and attributes of Mahefa, or Mahadeva, and of Krifhna. (See Krisuna.) The laft- named deity, agonized by the jealous anger of Radha, ex- claims “ Grant me but a fight of thee, O lovely Radhika ! for my paflion torments me. I am not the terrible Mahefa ; a garland of water lilies, with fubtile threads, decks my fhoulders, not ferpents with twifled folds: the blue petals of the lotos glitter on my neck, not the azure gleam of poifon : powdered fandal wood is fprinkled on my limbs ; not pale afhes. O god of love, miftake me not for Maha- deva ; wound me not again (fee the fable here alluded to, under‘article Kama) ; approach me not in anger ;_ hold not in thy hand the fhaft barbed with an amra flower. My heart is already pierced by arrows from Radha’s eyes, black and keen as thofe of an antelope ; yet mine eyes are not gratified by her prefence. Her’s are full of thafts ; her eyebrows are bows, and the tips of her ears are filken ftrings : thus armed by Ananga (or Kama) the god of detire, fhe marches, her- felf a coddefs, to enfure his triumph over the vanquifhed univerfe. I meditate on her delightful embrace ; on the ra- vifhing glances darted from the fragrant lotos of her mouth 5 on her nettar-dropping {peech ; on her lips, ruddy as the berries of the bimba.”? See Rapua. MAHESRA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat ; 15 miles S.W. of Cottila. MAHESWARI, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Par- vati, as the Sakti, or confort of Siva, in his character of Mabhefa, which fee. She is reprefented, like her lord, four- armed, holding a trident, with a vaft ferpent for a ring, a crefcent for a gem, and riding on a bull. She is rec- koned one of the Matris, or divine mothers of the celeftials, See Marni. MAHHRA, in Geography, a diltri& of Arabia, included by the Arabians within the province of Hadramaut. This diftrict feems, like Tehama, to bea fandy plain, extending in breadth from the fhores of the ocean, backward to the part Vou. XXII. MAH in which the hilly country commences. robably been once covered by the fea. MAHIDESER, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ; 78 miles S.W. of Hamadan. MAHIE, the name given by the inhabitants of Otaheite, or George’s ifland, to their bread-fruit when made into a kind of four pafte, which, in confequence of having under- gone a fermentation, will keep a conliderable time, and fup- ply them with food when no ripe fruit is to be had. When, therefore, they fee a great fhow of new fruit on the trees, they ftrip them all at once of their former crop, of which they make mahie. This fuccedaneum for ripe bread fruit is thus made. They gather the fruit before it be perfectly ripe, and laying it in heaps cover it clofely with leaves. In this ftate it ferments, and becomes difapreeably {weet ; the core is then taken out entire, and the reft of the fruit thrown into a hole in their houfes, dug on purpofe, and neatly lined in the bottom and fides with grafs. The whole is then co- vered with leaves, and heavy itenes are laid upon them. In this {tate it undergoes a fecond fermentation, and becomes four, after which it will fuffer no change for many months. Itis taken out of this hole, as it is wanted for ufe, and be- ing made into balls, it is wrapped up into leaves and baked, and thus drefled it will keep for five or fix weeks. It is eaten, bothcold and hot, and the natives of thofe countries feldom makea meal without it ; but to captain Cook and his company the tafte was as difagreeable as that of a pickled olive generally is, the firft time it is eaten. Hawkefworth’s Account, &c. vol. il. p. 145, 193- MAHIM, in Geography, atown of Hindoottan, in the northern part of the ifland of Bombay, with a cuftom houfe ; 17 miles N. of Bombay. Mauim, Mahem, Maihem, or Mayhem, in Law, a maim, or corporal hurt, whereby a man lofeth the ufe of any member, that is, or may be, of defence to him in battle ; as, befides arms and legs, the eye, hand, foot, fcalp of the head, fore-tooth ; or, asfome fay, a finger or toe : but the cutting off his ear or nofe, or lofs, of his jaw-teeth, are not held to be mayhems at common law, becaufe they do not weaken but only disfigurehim. (Finch L, 204. 1 Hawk, P.C. 111.) The word>comes from the French mehain, of mehaigner, to mutilate: the canonifts call it membri mutilatio ; and all agree it confifts in the lofs of a member, or of the ufe thereof. By the ancient law of England, he that maimed any man was fentenced to lofe the like part, (membrum pro membro) whichis fill the law in Sweden; but this was difufed, and mayhem, by the common law, (1 Hawk. P. C. 112.) was only punifhable by fine and imprifonment ; unlefs perhaps the offence of mayhem by caitration, which all our eld writers held to be felony. . But by fubfequent ftatutes the crime and punifhment of mayhem were put more out of doubt. By 5 Hen. 1V. cap. 5. cutting out the tongue, or putting out the eyes ofa man, to prevent him being an evidence againit thofe who beat, wounded, or robbed him, was an offence declared to be felony, if done of malice prepenfe, that is, as fir Edward Coke explains it, voluntarily, and of a fet purpofe, though done upon fudden oceafion. The ftatute 37 Hen. VIII. c.6. directs, that if a man fhall malicioufly and unlawfully cut off the ear of any of the king’s fubjes, he fhall not only forfeit treble damages to the party grieved, tobe recovered by aétion of trefpafs at common law, as a civil fatisfaétion ; but alfo 1o/. by way of fine to the king, which was his criminal amercement; and by 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 1, called the Coventry A@, it is enacted, that if any one fhallof malice aforethought, or by lying in wait, cut S out Thefe plains have MAH out or difable the tongue, put out aneye, flit the nofe, cut off the nofe or lip, orcut off or dfabl: any limb or member of another perfon, with intention iv fo doing to maim or disfigure him, it is felony without benefit of clergy in fuch offender, his counfellors, aiders and abettors; and, when the cafe is difficult to judge whether it be a mahim, or not, the judges commonly view the party wounded, and fome- times take the opinion of the furgeons. 2 Roll. Abr. 578. (See Examination.) By analogy to this, in an action of trefpafs for mayhem, the court (upon view of fuch maitiem as the plaintiff has. laid in his declaration, or which is certified by the judges who tried the caufe to be the fame as was given in evidence to the jury) may increafe the damages at their own difcretion. 1. Sid. 108. A perfon who maims himfelf, for the purpofe of begging, and alfo a perfon who difables himfelf, that he may not be im- preffed for a foldier, may be indicted and fined. The offenee of wilfully and malicioufly fhooting at any perfon, which may endanger either killing or maiming him, though no {uch evil confequence enfues, is made felony without benefit of cler- gy) by 9 Geo. I. c. 22. A horrible pra€tice having of late years prevailed among pickpockets and others, of lacerating thofe who were the objects of depredation or refentment, and the laws being found ina- dequate to reach and efficiently correét the evil, the legifla- ture interfered, and by the 43 G. III. c.58. (commonly called lord Ellenborough’s a&) which recites that divers cruel and barbarous outrages had been of late wickedly and wantonly . committed upon the perfons of his majefty’s fubjects, either with intent to murder, to rob, or to maim, disfigure or dif able, or to do other grievous bodily harm to fuch fubjects, and that the provifions by law made for the prevention of fuch offences had been found ineffeétual for that purpofe, it _ is ena@ed that if any perfon or perfons fhall willfully, mali- cioufly, and unlawfully ftab or cut any of his majelty’s fub- je&ts, with intent in fo doing, or by means thereof to mur- der or to rob, or to maim, disfigure, or difable fuch fub- je& or fubjeés, or with intent to do fome other grievous bodily harm, or to obitruét, refit, or prevent the lawful ap- prehenfion and detainer of the perfon or perfons fo {tabbing or cutting, or of any of his, her, or their accomplices, for any offences for which he, fhe, or they may refpectively be liable by law to be apprehended, imprifoned, or detained ; fuch perfons fo offending, their counfellors, aiders, and abettors, knowiny of or privy to fuch offence, fhall be felons, and fuffer death without benefit of clergy. Provided, that if it appear on the trial, that fuch aéts of ftabbing or cut- ting were committed under fuch circumftances as that, if death had enfued therefrom, the fame would not have amounted to murder, in fuch cafes, the perfon or perfons fo indi&ed fhall be deemed not guilty of the felonies whereof they fhall be fo indiéted, but be thereof acquitted. fr. If the maim come wot within any of the defcriptions in either of thefe acts, yet it is indiétable at the common law, and may be punifhed by fine and imprifonment ; or an appeal may be brought for it at the common law ; in which the party injured fhall recover his damages; or he may bring an aétion of trefpafs; which kind of aétion hath now generally fucceeded to the place of appeals in {maller offences not capi- tal. 2 Hawk. c. 23. Malicious maiming of cattle in the night time incurs a for- feiture of treble damages, by a¢tion of trefpafs, or upon the cafe, 22.& 23 Car. II. c. 7. Mauem, Appeal of. See APPEAL. MAHLBERG, in Geography, a town of Baden, with an MAH annexed lordfhip; 16 miles S.S.E. of Strafburg. 48° 19'._E. long. 7° 15% MAHLENDOREF, a town of Silefia, in the province of Neiffe ; g miles NW. of Neiffe. MAHMOODABAD, an ancient town of Hindooftan, formerly “the capital of Guzerat, and founded by fultan Mahmood, in the rith century. The Ayin Acbaree de- feribes the walls of it, as including a vait extent of ground, and {peaks of it, in the latter part of the 16th century, rather as an exiting city, than as a place in ruins; 17 miles S.S.E. of Amedabad. N. lat. 22°47. E. long. 72° 52/. MAHMORA, or Mamora, a fea-port town of Fez, fituated near the mouth of the river Seboo, which falls inte the Atlantic. The fort of Mamora, which is to the fouth of the Seboo, is the firft inhabited place in the province of Beni-haflen. It was begun by the Portuguefe in 1515, and deftroyed in the fame year by the Moors. It was re- built in 1604 by the Spaniards, from whom it was taken by Muly Ifhmael in 1681. This fortrefs, which was originally built at the mouth of the river Seboo, is now two miles diftant from it, in confequence of the drifted fand-banks and bars, which have rendered the entrance of this river fo diffi- cult and dangerous, as to be no longer of any ufe to com- merce or navigation. At this fort there are about 35 or 40 families, which gain a wretched fubliftence by the profits of their ferry, and fifhing for fhads, of which they take fuch numbers as to be able to fupply the whole neighbouring country between November and the end of March. Ma- mora is diftant about five leagues N.N.E. from Sallee, and about twenty leagues by land $. of Laracha. Between thefe two laft places the country is variegated by lakes, forelts, and vallies, which were formerly tolerably populous. Some of the lakes are nearly eight leagues in extent, and fupply great numbers of ducks and water-fowls, and a!fo of eels. The boats ufed by the fifhermen ave a kind of fkiffs, made of reeds and rushes, about fix feet long, and two broad, and will fearcely hold a fingle perfon. The fifherman guides them with a pole, and pierces the eels when he has them on the water, with a fort of dart. On the banks of thefe lakes are feveral fan€tuaries of the Maraboots, who are heid in great veneration for their fuppofed holinefs, and a number of camps of the Moors, who cultivate the adjacent lands, which are but moderately productive. This valiey is very pleafant in winter and fpring, but in fummer it is parched and difagreeable. At the fouthern extremity is a fanétuary, on an eminence, appertaining to which are habi- tations and gardens. N. lat. 34° 25'. W. long. 6 25’. MAHMOUD, in Biography, firft fultan of the Gazne- vide dynalty, and.a great conqueror, was fon of the go- vernor of Chorafan, and fovereign of Gazna. He was fixteen years of age when his father died in 997, and foon difplayed a vigour of mind which announced his future great~ nefs. Having fecured himfelf upon the throne of Gagna, he marched to Chorafan, which had been feized by the king of Turkeitan, drove him out, and took poffeffion of the province. In 1001, this heroic prince carried his arms into Hindooftan, and captured Gebal, a powerful prince in that country, who, in confequence, refizned his crown to his fon, and threw himfelf into the flames. In the following year, Mahmoud reduced Khalif, the revolted governor cf Segeftan, and aflumed the title of fultan. He repeated his invafion of India, but was foon recalled by the irruption of Ilek Khan, king of Turkeftan, into Choralan. lek was foon expelled ; but he called to his affiftance Kader Khan, who joined him with 50,0¢0 horfe. advanced to the city of Balk, where they were met by Mahmoud, N; ‘at. This combined and very powerful army on MAH Mahmoud, when a battle enfued, which was fought with great obltinacy, but Mahmoud was victorious, and the greateft part of the Turkifh army perifhed on the field. Mahmoud now extended his conque{ts far and wide, and acquired immenfe treafures. The emperor of Hindooftan, who had till now affumed the title of king of kings, dreading his arms, fent ‘to demand peace from him, which was granted, on the condition of the payment of a large tribute. In 1029, he added to his other extenfive dominions the great province of Perfian Irak, and fettled his fon Maffoud, whom he deftined for his fucceflor. He died in 1030, after a prolperous reign of thirty-one years. This great conqueror, who {tripped fo many neighbouring fovereigns of their ter- ritories, is extolled by Mahometan writers for his regard to jultice, and for his zeal in the propagation of his religion, which he fpread in India by the extermination of a vait number of idolaters, and the demolition of their temples. Several anecdotes are given of him which do honour to his forbearance, and his regard to juitice. In one inftance a widow preferred a complaint again{t fome perfons who had murdered her fon; the fultan replied, that the great diftance of Irak from Gazna rendered it very difficult for him to prevent fuch diforders: «* Why then,” faid the difconfolate woman, ‘do you conquer more territory than you can govern, and of which you can regder no account at the day of judgement.” The reproof awakened fuch impreflions in the mind of the monarch, that he caufed it to be proclaimed throughout Irak, that he would be refponfible for the lives _and properties of all who fhould, in future, travel, thence to India in caravans. Univer. Hitt. MAHMUDPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 14 miles S. of Boglipour.—Alfo, a town of Bengal, capital of the circar of Boofnah; 84 miles S.E. of Moorfhedabad. N. lat. 23° 35’. E. long. 89° 42’. MAHMUDSHI, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the N.E. and S. by Boofnah, on the W. by Shahjole, and on the N.W. by Ranjefhy, about 35 miles long, and 22 broad. Its capital is Nuldingah. MAHO Treg, in Botany. See Hrsiscus. MAHOBA, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in the circar of Gohud ; 20 miles S.E. of Raat. MAHOGANY. See Swierenia. MAHOMDY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Oude; 70 miles N.W. of Lucknow. N. lat. 27° 54'. E. long. 80° 32'. MAHOMEDABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 13 miles E. of Azimgur. MAHOMET, or Monammen, in Biography, the founder of that fyitem of religious impotture which is called Maho- metanifm (which fee), defcended from the tribe of Koreith, and the family of Hafhem, the mott illuftrious of the Arabs, the princes of Mecca, and the hereditary guardians of the Caaba: he was the grandfon of Aldalmotalleb (which fee), and the only fon of Abdallah (which fee), and Amina; and he was born at Mecca, four months after the death of Jutti- nian, and two months after the defeat of the Abyffinians, whole victory would have introduced into the Caaba the religion of the Chriltians, in the year 569 of the Chrif- tianera. As he was deprived of his grandfather, father, and mother in his infancy, and his inheritance confifted only of five camels and one Ethiopian female flave, the care and conduct of his youth devolved upon Abu Taleb, the mott re{pectable of his uncles, by whom he was initiated in the occupation of a merchant, and with this view he was taken with him into Syria at the age of thirteen years. Jn his 25th year he was recommended to Khadijah, a noble and rich widow, as her factor, who foon rewarded his fidelity MAH with the gift of her hand and fortune, and thus raifed him to an equality with the richeft perfons in Mecca. In his marriage contract he is defcribed as the moft accomplifhed of the tribe of Koreifh, and his dowry is ftipulated at twelve ounces of gold and twenty camels, which was fupplied by the liberality of hisuncle. In confequence of this conneétion, he was reftored to the ftation of his anceftors; and he pafled many years in the habits of domeftic life, until at length, in the goth year of his age, he affumed the title of a prophet, and proclaimed the religion of the Koran. According to the traditton of his companions, Mahomet was diftinguifhed by the graces of his perfon and manners, fo that before he {poke he engaged in attachment and intereft the affections of a public or private audience. His attendants applauded his commanding prefence, his majeftic afpeé&t, his piercing eye, his gracious fmile, his flowing beard, his countenance that painted every fenfation of the foul, and each gefture that enforced every expreflion of his tongue. In the inter- courfe of private life he blended, with refpe&tful attention to the affluent and powerful, condefcenfion and affability to the pooreit citizens of Mecca; the franknefs of his manner concealed the artifice of his views; and the habits of cour- tefy were imputed to perfonal friendfhip or perfonal bene- volence. His memory was capacious and retentive ; his wit eafy and focial ; his imagination fublime ; his judgment clear, rapid, and decifive. He poffeffed, fays one of his biographers, the courage both of thought and action; and although his defigns might probably expand with his fuccefs, the firit idea which he entertained of his divine miffion bears the ftamp of an original and fuperior genius. Educated amidit the nobleft race, he acquired a fluency of fpeech in the pureft dialect of Arabia; and he had the art, on proper occalions, of obferving a difcreet filence. Notwithitanding all thefe accomplifhments, he was an illiterate barbarian ; in- fomuch that his youth had never been inftruéted in the arts of reading and writing. Some, indeed, have queftioned this fact, among whom we may reckon Mr. White (fee his Sermons, p. 203, 204.) ; but his incredulity, founded more on conjecture and reafoning, than authentic teftimony, is contradicted by numerous and unexceptionable authorities. Availing himfelf of the charaGer of the age in which he lived, and of the circumflances of the people among whom his lot was cait, his fagacity led him to improve even his want of literature as a means of more fuccefsfully gaining profelytes and propagating his impofture. In his two journies to Syria, he reftriéted his attention to commercial tranfactions at the fairs of Boftra and Damafcus; and at the early age in which he made thefe journies, he could derive no great advantage with regard to the purpofes of his pretended miffion from fuch hatty and fuperficial excur- fions: nor could he have indulged his curiofity to any con- fiderable degree on account of his ignorance of the Syriac language. Whatever knowledge he acquired muft have been the refult of his intercourfe with thofe pilgrims who annually reforted to Mecca from various regions, with views of devotion, or of commerce; and from this fource he derived that acquaintance with the political ftate and cha- raéter of the feveral Arabian tribes, as well as the theology and ceremonial in{titutions of Jews and Chriftians. Befides, from his-earlielt youth, Mahomet was addicted to religious contemplation ; and he was accuftomed, during the month of Ramadan, to retire from the world to the cave of Hera, about three miles from Mecca, where he probably formed his fyftem of impo{ture; or, as Mr. Gibbon expreffes it, where he confulted the fpirit of fraud or enthufiafm, whofe abode is not in the heavens, but in the mind of the prophet. The faith, as the hiftorian adds, which, under the name of 52 **Tflam,”* MAHOMET. «Tfam,” he preached to his family and nation, is com- pounded of an eternal truth, and a neceffary fiction, ** That there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apoftle of God.” Itisimpoffible, at this diftance of time, and amongtt the variety of opinions that have been held on the fubjeé, to determine with certainty at what period of his life the idea of framing a new fy{tem of religion occurred to his mind ; nor can it be afcertained by what kind of refle€tion he was led among idolaters to form his idea of the unity of God, nor to what degree he blended the ambition of perfonal grandeur with that of the prophetic character. Hiftory furnifhes examples of perfons whofe conviétion of truth and ardour in the profecution and diflemination of it have terminated in ie Samar of enthufiafm, the rage of conqueft, and the violence of tyranny. Perhaps this might, in a degree, have been the cafe with Mahomet ; and he might have proceeded from the honefty of enthutiafm to the extreme of impofture and defpotifm, and with a view of extending the influence of his fyftem, he might find it necef- fary or expedient to accommodate it to'the paffions and pre- judices of his countrymen, to enforce it by the terrors of the fword, and to unite the charaSter of a conqueror with that of an impoltor. It was, however, in the year 609, and about the goth year of his age, called “the year of his miffion,”’ that he opened his pretended mithon. His firft convert was his wife Khadijah, to whom he communicated an interview, with which ‘he had been favoured by the angel Gabriel, who had told him, that he was appointed the apoftle of God; and to.whom he alfo repeated a paflage, which he pretended to have had revealed to him by the miniftry of the angel, together with fome other circumftances of this firft appearance, which are related by Mahometan writers. Khadijah received the news with great joy, and haftened to impart it to her coufin Warahah, who, being’a Chriftian, was well acquainted with the Scriptures, and who immediately became a profelyte. Cautious in announcing to the public the high and honourable office with which he was entrulted, he determined to ftrengthen his interelt by the converfion of the other branches of his family. His next profelyte was Zeid, a confidential fervant, to whom on this occalion he gave his freedom; and this circumftance eftablifhed a precedent for his followers. The convertion of Zeid was fucceeded by that of his coufin Ali, the fon of Abu Taleb, who has been commonly flyled, probably on account of his rank and zeal in the caufe, “the firft of be- lievers.’? But the principal acceffion to his caufe, with regard to refpe¢tability and influence, was that of Abubeker, a perfon of great authority in the tribe of Koreifh, who prevailed on ten other principal inhabitants of Mecca to follow his example. During three years Mahomet pro- ceeded without exciting public attention; but in the fourth year of his miffion, he openly affumed the prophetic office, and announced his having received a divine appointment for the illumination and converfion of his near relations. With this view he direéted Ali to prépare an entertainment, and to invite the fons and defcendants of Abdalmotalleb to a par- ticipation of it. When about 4o of the race of Hafhem were afflembled, Mahomet addreffed them with the offer of hap- pinefs both in this life and in that which is to come, for which he pleaded a divine authority and command ; and he then afked them who would be his companion and vizir ? Whilft a general filence prevailed, Ali exclaimed, ‘* O Pro- phet, I am the man: I will be thy vizir ; and I will inflic& vengeance on thofe who oppofe thee !’’ Upon this declara- tion of attachment and furious zeal in his fervice, Mahomet commanded all that were prefent to obey Alias his deputy : the company, however, treated the order with contempt, 10 and ironically exhorted Abu Taleb to refpeé the fuperior dignity of his fon. Ina more ferious tone, the father of Ali advifed him to abandon his impra¢ticable, romantic, and dan- gerous defign. Mahomet, however, was not intimidated, but behilutely told his uncle, ‘ that if they fet the fun againit him on his right hand, and the moon on his left, he would not relinquifh his enterprife.”” When Abu Taleb perceived that he was determined to proceed, he ufed no further argu- ments to diffuade him, but promifed to {tand by him againit all hisenemies. The Koreith, finding that reafoning and in- treaty were ineffectual, had recourfe to threats and violence ; fo that the followers of Mahomet could not continue any longer at Mecca with fafety ; upon which Mahomet, unable to proteét them, gave them leave to depart and feek refuge wherever they could find it. Accordingly, in the fifth year of the prophet’s miffion, fixteen, of whom four were women, fled into Ethiopia; and thefe were afterwards followed by others, amounting to the number of 83 men and 18 women, betides children. The king of Ethiopia received them with kindnefs, and refufed to deliver them up when the Koreifh fent to demand them ; and, as the Arab writers unanimoufl attelt, became himfelf a profelyte to the Mahometan reli- gion. Perfecution, inftead of retarding, accelerated the pro- grefs of this impotture. In the feventh year of the miffion of the pretended prophet, his friends had become more numerous and powerful, by the converfion of his uncle Hamza, and of the inflexible Omar, who had been once his moft violent oppofer; andthe Koreifh having formed a league againft the Hafhemites occafioned a divifion of their tribe into two faétions ; one of which adhered to the prophet | and the other combined againft him. For three years this variance continued, but in the tenth year of his miffion, Mahomet told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had fignally manifeited his difapprobation of theleague, which the Koreifh had formed againit them, by fending a worm to eat every word of the initrument, except the name of God. Whena deputation had examined the league, that had been laid up in the Caaba, and found that" Mahomet’s declaration was true, it was declared void. In this year Mahomet loft two very important and ufeful friencs, viz. his wife Khadijah, and his uncle Abu ‘Caleb; and for this reafon this year was called “‘the year of mourning.”” Upon the death of thefe two perfons the Koreifhites became more violent than ever, and determined on the death of the prophet; but bein warned of their purpofe byan angel or f{py, he retired haitily, and in the dead of the night, with his friend Abubeker, to the diftance of a league from Mecca, where he concealed him-. felf for three days in the cave of Thor, and where he and his friend received a fupply of food and of iutelligence from the fon and daughter of Abubeker. The Koreiih made di- ligent fearch for the fugitives, but being at the entrance of. the cavern in which they were hidden, their attention was diverted, as it is faid, by a {pider’s web, anda pigeon’s nelt, which led them to imagine that the place was folitary and inviolate. ‘* We are only two,’ faid the trembling Abu- beker : «¢ there isa third,” replied the prophet, “ it is God himfelf.’’ As foon’as they had opportunity for efcape, they mounted their camels; but on the road to Medina, they were overtaken by the emiflaries of the Koreifh, from whole hands they refcued themfelves by the influence of prayers and promifes. The flight of the prophet from Mecea to Medina has fixed the memorable era of the Hegira, which fee. At Medina the two fugitives foundan afylum. Some of the nobleft citizens had previoufly, in a pilgrimage to the Caaba at Mecca, been converted by the preaching of Maho- met, and on their return they had diffufed the belief of Godand his prophet ; and the new alliance was ratified by their depu- hes ‘ MAHOMET. ties in two fecret and no¢turnal interviews ona hill called Al Akaba, in the fuburbs of Mecca, when they protelted in the name of their wives, children, and abfent brethren, that they would for ever profeis the creed, and obferve the pre- cepts of the Koran. The fecond was a political affociation, the firft vital fpark, fays Gibbon, of the empire of the Sara- cens. Seventy-three men and two women of Medina held a folemn conference with Mahomet, his kinfmen, and difciples, in the thirteenth year of his miffion, and pledged themfelves to each other by an oath of mutual fidelity. After reciprocal engagements to each other, they reiterated the oath of allegiance and fidelity, and their treaty was ratified by the people, who unanimoufly embraced the profeflion of Iflam. Such were their circumftances, when they impatiently ex- pected the arrival of the prophet, at the fame time trembling for his fafety. After a perilous and rapid journey along the fea-coaft, he halted at Koba, two miles trom the city, and made his public entry into Medina, 16 days after his flight from Mecca. He was met by 500 of the citizens, and received with acclamations of loyalty and devotion. His bravelt difciples affembled ‘round his perfon; and his fol- lowers were’ diftinguifhed into two claffes, the fugitives of Mecca and the auxiliaries of Medina, under the deno- minations of « Mohagerians’’ and ‘* Anfars.’”? When Ma- homet was eftablifhed at Medina, he affumed the exer- cife of the regal and facerdotal office ; and having acquired either by gift or purchafe a piece of ground, he built upon it a temple of worthip, aud a refidence for himfelf. After a reign of fix years, 1500 Moflems, in arms and in the field, renewed their oath of allegiance ; and their chief repeated the affurance of protection till the death of the laft member; or the final diffolution of the party. Being now exalted by the choice of an independent people to the rank of a fove- reign, he was invetted with the prerogative of forming alli- ances and of waging offenfive or defenfive war, and accord- ingly affumed a fiercer and more fanguinary tone, than he had been accuftomed to ufe, when his moderation was the effe& of his weaknefs. In announcing his revelations, he pretended to have received commands for propagating his religion by the {word, for deltroying the monuments of idola- try, and with regard to the fanétity of days or months, for purfuing the unbelieving nations of the earth. In the firft months of his reign, he trained his followers for the warfare to which he intended to conduct them, and difplayed his white banner before the walls of Medina, but in the pro- grefs of his undertaking he fought in perfon at nine battles or fieges; and fifty military enterprifes were achieved in ten years by himfelf or his lieutenants. Uniting the profeffions of a merchant and robber, his petty excur- fions for the attack of a caravan, gradually prepared his troops for the conqueit of Arabia. ‘The diftribution of the fpoil was regulated, as he pretended, by a divine law; a fifth of the gold and filver, the prifoners, and the cattle, the moveables and immoveables, was referved by the prophet for pious and charitable ufes : the remainder was fhared in adequate portions by the foldiers who had obtained the vic- tory or guarded the camp ; the recompence of the flain de- volved to their widows and orphans ; and the increafe of ca- valry was encouraged by the allotment of a double fhare to the horfe and the man. From all fides, fays the hiftorian, the roving Arabs were allured to the {tandard of religion and plunder; the prophet indulged the difpofition of his countrymen by fanctitying the licence of embracing the fe- male captives as their wives or concubines ; and the enjoy- ment of wealth and beauty wasa feeble type of the joys of paradife prepdred for the valiant martyrs of the faith. «The {word,”’ fays Mahomet, ‘is the key of heaven and of hell ; \ a drop of blood fhed in the caufe of God, anight {pent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fafling or, prayer ; whoever falls in battle, hié fins are forgiven; at the day of judgment, his wounds fhall be refplendent as vermilion, and odoriferous as mufl; and the lofs of his limbs fhall be fupplied by the wings of angels and cheru- bim.”? By fuch declarations and profpects, the intrepid fouls of the Arabs were fired with enthufiafm ; the picture of the invifible world was ttrongly painted on their imagina- tion; and the death which they had always defpifed, became an object of hope and defire. The prophet, with a fagacity which diftinguifhed every part of his project, inculcated in the Koran the tenets of fate and predeftination, which have ferved in every age to exalt the courage of the Saracens and Turks. The tirit companions of Mahomet advanced to battle with a fearlefs confidence ; where there is no chance, there is no danger: they were ordained to perifh in their beds, or they were fafe and invulnerable amidit the darts of the enemy. The firit military expedition of any importance, and which in the event ferved to eftablifh the reputation of the prophet, was directed againit the Koreifh, This was the battle of Beder, which was fought in the fecond year of the Hegira ; for an account of which, fee Bepr. This was followed by a fecond battle, A.D. 623, on mount Ohud, fix miles to the north of Medina. On this occafion the Ko- reifh muftered a torce of 3000 men, 700 cf whom were armed with cuirafles, and 200 meunted on horfeback. Three thoufand camels attended their march; and Henda, the wife of Abu Sophian, the chief of the branch of Om- miyah, who had fucceeded to the principality of the re- public of Mecca, with 15 matrons of this city, inceflantly founded their timbrels to animate the troops, and to magnify , the greatnefs of Hobal, the molt popular deity of Caaba. The ftandard of God and Mahomet was upheld by only 950 believers. The Koreith advanced in the form of a crefcent, and the right wing of the cavalry was led by Caled, the fierceft and the mott fucce{sful of the Arabian warriors. The troops of Mahomet were fkilfully pofted on the declivity of a hill; and their rear was guarded by a detachment of soarchers. The contelt was vigoroufly maintained on both lides : it was fevere and {anguinary ; Mahomet was wounded, and 70 martyrs, as they were called, are faid to have died for the fins of the people. Their bodies were mangled by the inhuman females of Mecca; and the wife off Abu So- phian tafted the entrails of Hamza, the uncle of Maho- met. The Muffulmans rallied in the field ; and the Koreifh wanted ftrength and courage to undertake the fiege of Me- dina. Inthe year 625 the city was attacked by an army of 10,000 enemies ; and this third expedition is named from the ‘* nations” which marched under the banner of Abu Sophian, and from the * ditch’’ which was drawn before the city anda camp of 3000 Muffulmans, the battle of the ‘* Nations’’ or ‘ Ditch.”? Mahomet prudently declineda general engagement; and though the conteit was protracted for 20 days, the confede- rates were at length obliged to feparate. A tempett of wind, rain, and hail, overturned their tents; private quarrels were fo- mented by an infidious adverfary ; and the Koreifh, deferted by their allies, no longer hoped to fubvert the throne, or to check the conquetts, of their invincible exile. As foonas the “nations” had retired from the ‘ditch,’? Mahomet, with- out laying afide his armour, marched again{t the Jewifh tribe of Koraidha, who had incurred his refentment by ex- citing and joining the war of the Koreith ; and after a refiltance of 25 days, they furrendered at difcretion, It was in vain that they appealed to the judgment of a venerable elder ; he, pronounced the fentence of their death ; 700 of them were dragged in chains to the market place of the city ; and hav- ing MAHOMET. ing been compelled to defcend alive into the grave prepared for their execution and burial, the prophet beheld the favage feene without emotion. Plunder and cruelty marked his future footiteps; and the town of Chaibar, which was the feat of the Jewith power in Arabia, and its numerous ca(tles, were f{peedily reduced. It is fomewhat fingular, that a hatred of the Jews, to whofe Scriptures he was in- debted for the beft parts of his religion, formed fo diftin- guifhing a feature in the character of the Arabian prophet. Under the fubfequent reign of Omar, the Jews of Chaibar were tranfplanted to Syria; and the caliph alleged the in- junction of his dying matter, that one and the true religion fhould be profeffed in his native land of Arabia. Such was the fpirit of pected intolerance which atuated this impoftor. In the year 629 Maho irected his march, accompanied by 1400 men, towards ca: his views were peaceable ; 70 camels, chofen and bedecked for facrifice, preceded the van; the facred territory was refpected, and the captives were difmifled, without ranfom, to proclaim his _ clemency and devotion. But-on his approach to the city, the Koreifh oppofed his progrefs, and he determined to at- tack it; but on their fuing for peace, he concluded with them and with their allies a truce of 10 years, engaging to reftore the fugitives of Mecca who fhould embrace his reli- gion, and {tipulating merely, for the enfuing year, the pri- vilege of entering the city as a friend, and of remaining three days to accomplifh the rites of the pilgrimage. After the cultomary facrifice, Mahomet evacuated the city on the fourth - day. The people were edified by the devotion of the pro- phet, who on this occafion aéted the part of a crafty poli- tician ; the hoftile chiefs were awed, or divided, or fubdued; and both Caled and Amrou, the future conquerors of Sy- ria and Egypt, moft feafonably deferted the finking caufe of idolatry. The Arabian tribes fubmitted and thus in- creafed the power of Mahomet; 10,000 foldiers aflembled for the conqueft of Mecca, and the idolaters, being the weaker party, were eafily convicted of violating the truce. The fecret was preferved till 10,000 fires proclaimed to the aftonifhed Koreifh the defign, the approach, and the irre- fiftible force of the enemy. The haughty Abu Sophian prefented the keys of the city, obferved that the fon of Abdallah had acquired a mighty kingdom, and confefied, under the fcymetar of Omar, that he was the apoltle of the true God. Mahomet, initead of indulging his own paffion of revenge or that of his followers, forgave the guilt, and united the factions of Mecca. His troops, in three divi- fions, marched into the city and took poffeffion of it; the chiefs of the Koreifh fell proftrate at his feet; the people of Mecca merited their pardon by the profeflion of Iflam, and after an exile of feven years, the fugitive miffionary was enthroned as the prince and prophet of his native country. But the 360 idols of the Caaba were ignominioufly demo- lifhed : the houfe of God was purified and adorned; anda perpetual law was enaGted, that no unbeliever fhould dare to fet his foot on the territory of the holy city. The conquett of Mecca determined the faith and obedience of the Ara- 8 tribes; but an ob{tinate remnant {till adhered to the re- igion and hberty of their anceftors ; and the war of Honain derived its appellation from the idols,’”? whom Mahomet had vowed to deftroy, and whom the confederates of Tayef had {worn to defend. Four thoufand pagans advanced with fecrecy and fpeed to furprife the conqueror ; the banners of Mecca and Medina were difplayed by the prophet; and 412,000 Muffulmen entertained a rafh and finful prefumption of their invincible ftrength. They defcended without pre- caution into the valley of Honain; but their number was epprefied by the archers and flingers of the confederates who had occupied the heights, their difcipline was confounded, their courage was appalled, and the Koreifh anticipated with fatisfaction their impending deftruction. The prophet, on his white mule, was encompafled by the enemies; of ten faithful companions, who attempted to ward off from him the {pears of the affailants, three fell dead at his feet; and in this moment of danger, he called on his brethren and on the Almighty for fuccour, whilit his uncle Abbas joined in the acclamations of his followers. At length the fugitive Muffulmen rallied; the battle was renewed by the exhorta- - tion and example of the prophet ; and he animated his vic- torious troops to inflict a mercilefs revenge on the authors of their difgrace. From the field of Honain he haftened to the fiege of Tayef, 6o miles S.E. of Mecca; but after an ineffectual attack of 20 days, he was obliged to retreg. The fpoil of this expedition amounted to 60co captives, 24,000 camels, 40,000 fheep, and 4000 ounces of filver. Inftead of chattiling the difaffeétion of the Koreifh, he en- deavoured to fecure their attachment by extraordinary libe- rality ; Abu Sophian was prefented with 300 camels and 20 ounces of filver; and Mécca was fincerely converted to the profitable religion of the Koran. The temples and idols of <\rabia were every where demolifhed, and the ambafladors who proftrated themfelves before the throne of Medina were as numerous, according to an Arabian proverb, as the dates that fall from the maturity of a palm-tree. Henge this year was called “ the year of embaffies.’’ The nation fubmitted to the God and the fceptre of Mahomet; and 114,000 Moflems accompanied the lait pilgrimage of the apoitle. On this occafion he took with him all his wives, with a great number of camels intended for victims; and the ceremonial which he obferved at the facred city has ferved as a model to the Moflems of fucceeding ages. It was in the 7th year of the Hegira that Mahomet began to think of propagating his religion beyond the boundaries of Arabia, and deputed meflengers to invite the neighbouring princes toembrace Mahometanifm. The Perfians with their fovereign after fome helitation avowed themfelves profelytes. Theemperor Heraclius at firit treated hismeflage withrefpeét; and fome have faid, that he would have profefled the pew faith, if he had not been afraid of lofing his crown. Mahomet prepared for effeting by conquelt what he had failed to ac- complifh by a peaceful meffage ; but he was obliged to defitt from the undertakings, as too hazardous, and indeed impracti- cable. The firft confli& between the troops of Mahomet and the emperor Heraclius took place in the cighth year of the Hegira. A body under the command of Zeid advanced to the attack of Muta, a town of Paleftine, the governor of which had affaflinated one of the Moflem envoy. In the fharp conflié& that enfued, Zeid with the two next in com- mand was flain, and the death of Zeid was much lamented by Mahomet, his matter and friend. However, the aétive and intrepid Caled, denominated “ the Sword of God” {pread around the terror of his name: and the prophet re- ceived the fubmiffion of the tribes and cities from the Eu- phrates to Ailah, at the head of the Red fea. Mahomet, in the confidence of his power, hed declared war againit Heraclius; and with an army of 20,000 foot and 10,000 horfe, he marched towards the Syrian frontier, and his un- willing followers fuffered extremely from the heat of, the fummer and the drought of the defert. At Tabuc, a fer- tile {pot in the midway between Medina and Damafcus, they pitched their camp. The confequence of this toilfeme expedition was the fubmiffion of fome Arabian princes, who became tributaries ; but as the Imperialifts had retired to a diftance, without appearing to have any defign of making an attack upon Arabia, Mahomet fatisfied himfelf by writ- 6 ug MAHOMET. ing a letter to Heraclius urging his converfion, and then re- turned back to Medina. After his return he promulgated a new chapter of the Koran, revoking all former edicts in favour of the idolaters, and annulling all treaties that had been made with them. To his Chriftian fubjeéts, Mahomet readily granted the fecurity of their perfons, the freedom of their trade, the property of their goods, and the toleration of their worfhip. In this refpeét he purfued a conduc highly political, as it was the intereft of a conqueror to pro- pofe a fair capitulation to the molt powerful religion of the earth: and the fame wife policy has ever fince accompanied the Mahometan jurifdiation. Till the age of 63 years, Ma- homet retained a vigour of conftitution which enabled him to endure the corporeal and fpiritual fatigues of his miffion. The laft confpicuous aét of his Jife was his pilgrimage to Mecca, already mentioned. His health had been declining for four years previous to his death; and he afcribed this change not to the accefs of epileptic fits which fome writers have erroneoufly reported to have been the remote caufe of his growing infirmities, but to poifon adminiftered to him at Chaibar by a Jewith female, from a motive of revenge, as fome have faid, or according to others, from a defire of put- ting his prophetic charaCter to the teft. However this be, his mortal difeafe was a fever of fourteen days, which at in- terval: deprived him of the ufe of his reafon. During the intermiffions of his diforder he employed himfelf in haran- guing his difciples from the pulpit, and performing other reli- gious duties of his fundtion, and in giving inftruétions with regard to the meafures that were fit to be purfued after his deceafe. He beheld, it is faid, with firmnefs the approach of death, fatisfied the demands of his creditors, enfranchifed his flaves, direéted the order of his funeral, moderated the grief of his weeping friends, on whom he beltowed the be- nedi¢tion of peace, and regularly performed the exercife of public prayer till the third day before his diffolution; from all which circumftances it has been inferred, that he really believed the truth of his miffion, and that he derived confola- tion from the confcioufnefs of having conferred great bene- fits on mankind. This may be eafily accounted for by the confideration that enthufiafm was b'ended in a very con- fiderable degree with his impofture. The choice of Abu- beker to fupply his place mdicated his refpeét for this an- citnt and faithtul friend, as he feems to have thought him a fit fucceffor in the facerdotal and regal office. When his faculties were perceptibly impaired he wifhed to diGtate a di- vine book, which fhould contain the form and fubttance of all his revelations; but a difpute arifing in his chamber, whether he fhould be allowed to fuperfede the authority of the Koran, he was under a neceflity of reproving the in- decent vehemence of his difciples. If any credit may be given to the traditions of his wives and companions, he main- tained to the laft moments of his life and in confidential in- tercourfe with his family, the dignity of an apoftle and the faith of an enthufialt; defcribing the vifits of Gabriel, and expreffing his lively confidence, not only in the mercy, but the favour, of the Supreme Being. ‘In a familiar dif- courfe he had mentioned his fpecial prerogative, That the angel of death was not allowed to take his foul till he had refpeétfully afked the permiflion of the prophet. The requeft being granted, Mahomet fell into the agony of diffolution, and expired in the arms or on a carpet near the feet of his favourite wife Ayefha, the daughter of Abubeker, in the month of June, A.D. 632, Hegira 11, at the age of 63. Some of his followers would not for a time believe the reality or poffibility of his death, till Abubeker calmly reafoned them out of their delufion. He was interred at Medina, in a grave dug beneath the bed on which he layin the apartment of Ayefha,-over which a magnificent building was erected by one of the fucceeding caliphs. It is hardly neceffary to mention, unlefs with a view of expofing it, the vulgar and ridiculous ftory invented and propagated by the Greeks and Latins, that Mahomet’s tomb is fufpended in the air at Mecca, by the aétion of equal and potent load-ftones: for he was not buried at Mecca, and his tomb at Medina, which has been vifited by millions, is placed on the ground. The number of his wives, all of whom except Ayefta were widows, was at leat fifteen: by Khadijah he had four children, one of whom, Fatima, the beft beloved of his daughters, and married to - Ah, furvived him; and he had alfo a fon, by his Egyptian concubine, Mary, whofe name Ibrahim, and who died not long before hi Fo eve Eiontet might reftri&t the Incontinence of | ifciples by the precepts of his religion, he claimed a {pecial exemption for himfelf, and pretended a {pecial revelation which difpenfed with his obfervance ot the laws which he impofed upon his nation. During the life of Khadijah, who laid the foundation of his future fortune, and in the courfe of 24 years, he feems to have reftrained his ruling paflion within due bounds; but as he advanced in years and authority, this paflion gained ftrength, and he made his religion fubfervient to the illicit indulgence of it. Befides his numerous wives, he allowed himfelf in a variety of amours, which were prohibited by his own laws. His connection with Zeinah, the wife of his enfranchifed fer- vant and adopted fon, Zeid, gave creat offence to fome of his friends. Zeid, in order to cratify his mafter, confented to her being divorced ; and the prophet, whofe religion was eafily accommodated to his paflions and intereft, feigned a revelation from heaven, recorded in a chapter of the Koran, which authorifed him to marry her, notwith{tanding a de- gree of affinity that had been always regarded by the Arabs as an abfolute prohibition, Hafna, the daughter of Omar, who was one of his wives, difcovered him in an improper fituation with Mary, an Egyptian captive; but in order to filence her reproaches, he promifed never to repeat the of- fence. Finding, however, that the circumftance was di- vulged to his other wives, and that they concurred in refenting it, he withdrew from them all for a month, and {pent the time in company with Mary ; and in order to juf- tify his infidelity and violation of an oath, he recurred to his ufual practice of producing a new chapter of the Koran, containing a {pecial difpenfation. We may indeed be atto- nifhed that fucceffive forgeries of this kind, intended to: anfwer purpofes of perfonal and licentious gratification, fhould not have excited a prejudice in the minds of his fol- lowers and of his countrymen in general, which would have defeated all his efforts for propagating his impofture. But we fhould recolleé&t the difpofition and charaGer of the Arabs, whofe libidinous complexion has been noticed by the writers of antiquity. (Ammian Marcell. 1. xiv. c. 4.) Much has been faid by Mahometan writers in praife of the corporeal and mental endowments of the Arabian prophet 5 and though we cannot allow the very extraordinary qualities which have been afcribed to him, it mu{t be acknowledged that he poffeffed various accomplifhments, fome of which have already been noticed, and a verfatility of talents and charafter, that ferved to raife him above his contemporaries, and to qualify him for the undertaking in which he em- barked. ‘ Could I truly delineate,”’ fays Gibbon, * the portrait of an hero, the fleeting refemblance would not equally apply to the folitary of mount Hera, to the preacher of Mecca, and to the conqueror of Arabia. The author of a mighty revolution appears to have been endowed with a pious and contemplative difpofition: fo foon as marriage had MAHOMET. had raifed him above the preffure of want, he avoided the paths of ambition and avarice; and till the age of 40, he lived with innocence, and would have died without a name. The unity of God is an idea moft congenial to nature and reafon; and a flight converfation with the Jews and Chrif- tians would teach him to defpife and deteft the idolatry of Mecca.” Indeed, for every thing that is valuable in his religious fy{tem he was indebted to Judaifm and Chriftianity : but his rude and barbarous civil policy, being rendered im- mutable by its alliance with religion, an alliance that is in- congruous and unnatural, has prevented every kind of meli- oration and improvemement in thofe countries where his laws are received. ‘ It was the duty of a man and a citizen to refcue his country fi fin and error. The energy of a mind inceflantly bent On the fame objeét would convert a general obligation into a particular on the warm fug- geitions of the underitanding or the fancy would be felt as the infpirations of heaven; the labour of thought would ex- {pire in rapture and vifion ; and the inward fenfation, the in- vifible monitor, would be defcribed with the form and attri- butes of an angel of God. From enthufiafm to impofture the ftep is perilous and flippery: the demon of Socrates (fee Don) affords a memorable inftance how a wife man may deceive himfelf, how a good man may deceive others, how the confcience may flumber in a mixed and middle ftate between felf-illufion and voluntary fraud. Charity may be- lieve that the original motions of Mahomet were thole of pure and genuine benevolence; but a human miffionary is incapable of cherifhing the obitinate unbelievers who reject his claims, defpife his arguments, and perfecute his life ;’— hence ‘the paffions of pride and revenge were kindled in the bofom of Mahomet.’’— The injuftice of Mecca, and the choice of Medina, transformed the citizen into a prince, the humble preacher into the leader of armies.’?—* In the exercife of political government, he was compelled to abate of the ftern rigour of fanaticifm, to comply in fome mea- fure with the prejudices and paffions of his followers, and to employ even the vices of mankind as the inftruments of their falvation: the ufe of fraud and perfidy, of cruelty and injuftice, was often fubfervient to the propagation of the faith ; and Mahomet commanded and approved the affaffina- tion of the Jews and idolaters, who had efcaped from the field of battle. By the repetition of fuch aéts, the character of Mahomet mutt have been gradually ftained; and the in- fluence of fuch pernicious habits would be poorly com- penfated by the praétice of the perfonal and focial virtues which are neceflary to maintain the reputation of a prophet among his fe¢taries and friends. Of his laft years, ambition was the ruling paffion; and a politician will fufpect, that he fecretly {miled (the vitorious impoftor!) at the enthufiafm of his youth and the credulity of his profelytes.’’ Ma- homet, in his private and domettic life, feems to have defpifed the pomp of royalty, and to have fubmitted to the menial offices of the family. The interdi¢tion of wine was confirmed by his example, and his ordinary food confiited of barley-bread, milk and honey, dates and water. Although he indulged himfelf in fenfual gratifications, ‘the incontinence of his countrymen was regulated by the civil and religious laws of the Koran: their inceftuous alliances were blamed ; the boundlefs licence of polygamy was reduced to four legitimate wives or concubines; their rights both of bed and of dowry were equitably determined; the freedom of divorce was difcouraged ; adultery was condemned as a capital offence ; and fornication, in either fex, was punifhed with an hun- dred ftripes. {t is a natural inquiry how Mahomet, without literature, without pretending to the power of working miracles, and without a charaéter that entitled him to veneration among perfona who made any pretence to religion and virtue, fe- cured the fuccefs of a fyftem of do&trine and praétice, which muft have appeared to all but his prejudiced followers to have originated in enthufiafm and impotture ?—a fyftem which rettri€&ted the boundlefs licence of Arabian idolatry ; which impofed obligations of prayer, purification, and alms- iving, that were burthenfome ; and which undermined the intereit and influence of fome of the moft powerful and affluent of his countrymen? The bafis of his doétrine, we have already faid, was the truth of the unity and fpiritual nature of the deity: this truth mult have approved itfelf to the minds of the thoughtful; and the vulgar would be al- lured by the profpeéts which he held out to them of a future happinefs, adapted to their groffer apprehenfions and paf- fions, Whillt we admit that, in the early period of his pretended miflion, he might have been a¢tuated by a fincere defire of ameliorating the faith and manners of his country- men, and allow his character to have poflefied fome traits of the patriot and reformer, pride and ambition were his rulin principles; and his difcriminating character muft be that of an ufurper and impoftor, who owed his fuccefs more to the accommodating nature of his do&rine, and to the power of the fword, than to any other caufe. ‘* Are we furprifed,’’ fays Mr. Gibbon, “ that a multitude of profelytes fhould embrace the dostrine and the paffions of an eloquent fanatic ? In the herefies of the church, the fame feduction has been tried and repeated from the time of the apoltles to that of the reformers. Joes it feem incredible that a private citizen fhould grafp the {word and the f{ceptre, fubdue his native country, and ereét a monarchy by his victorious arms? In the moving piéture of the dynafties of the laft one hundred fortunate ufurpers, none have arifen from a bafer origin, furmounted more formidable obftacles, and filled a larger {cope of empire and conqueft. Mahomet was alike inftruéted to preach and to fight; and the union of thefe oppofite qualities, while it enhanced his merit, contributed to his fuccefs: the operation of force and perfuafion, of enthufiafm and fear, continually a€ted on each other, till every barrier yielded to their irrefiftible power. His voice invited the Arabs to freedom and victory, to arms and rapine, to the indulgence of their darling paffions in this world and the other. The reftraints which he impofed were requifite to eftablifh the credit of the prophet, and to exercife the obedience of the people: and the only objeGtion to his fuc- cefs was his rational creed of the unity and perfeétions of God. It is not the propagation, but the permanency of his religion that deferves our wonder ; the fame pure and perfeét impreffion, which he engraved at Mecca and Medina, is pre- _ ferved, after the revolutions of 12 centuries, by the Indian, the African, and the Turkifh profelytes of the Koran.""— The Turkifh dome of St. Sophia, with an increafe of {plendour and fize, reprefents the humble tabernacle erected at Medina by the hands of Mahomet. The Mahometans have uniformly with{tood the temptation of reducing the obje& of their faith and devotion to a level with the ane and imagination of man. 13'. MALDIVES, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Eaft In- dian fea, about 270 miles S.W. of cape Comorin, amounting in number, as it is faid, to more than 1000, and moftly un- inhabited. They form a kind of oblong inclofure, around a clear fpace of fea, with very fhallow water between one another. According to Mr. Dalrymple’s chart, they feem to be divided intu thirteen groups, nearly equi-diitant, and: each bearing its proper name. The inhabitants of thofe that are occupied appear to be a mixture of Arabs and Indians of Malabar, from which coaft thefe iflands probably: were originally colonized. They were difcovered in 1508 b the younger Almeyda, and conquered by the Portuguefe from the Moors, who had ufurped the fovereignty from the natives. The Portuguefe, however, were foon cut off by the original Maldives. Among the inhabitants, who are governed by a chief called 4tc/l, who are miferably poor, and who are governed in an oppreflive manner, there are fome Mahometans. Their language is the Singalefe : their articles of commerce are fai!s and cordage, cocoa-nuts, oil, honey, dry fifh, tortoife-fhell, and cowries,-and thefe ar- ticles are collectedin four ports. Thefe iflands lie in N, lat. 5°30! to 7°5'; and E. long. 72° 30! to 73°45’. MALDONADO, a town of South America, in the government of Buenos Ayres, on the river Plata; 100 miles W. of Buenos Ayres. S. lat. 34° 50. W. long. °o 6'. > ALDONAT, Joun, in Biography, a learned Spanifh Jefuit, was born near Lerena, in E:{tramadura, in the year 1534. He purfued his ftudies at the univerlity of Sala- manca, where he afterwards taught the Greek language and divinity with much fuccefs and applaufe. He Be the habit of the order when he was at Rome, in the year 1562. In the following year he was appointed profeffor of philo- fophy in the college at Paris, which the Jefuits pac founded in that city; after this he commenced a courfe of divinity in the fame feminary which occupied him four years. Thefe lectures were attended by a prodigious concourfe of fcholars, who would affemble two or three hours before the time in which the le€tures began to infure themfelves places, In 1570 he was fent with nine other Jefuits to Poitiers, with the view of forming an eftablifhment of the order in that city, but in this they were unfuccefsful, He next s turoe MAL turned to Paris, and refumed his leCtures with great fuccefs, but in the midft of his labours he was interrupted by the exhibition of certain accufations againft him, one of which was, that by his influence over the mind of the prefident St. Andre, he had obtained a fraudulent will, by which his eftates were bequeathed to the Jefuits, and the other was an accufation of herefy, for maintaining that the doétrine of the immaculate conception of the Holy Virgin was not a point of faith. After a regular hearing he was acquitted of both thefe charges, but his mind was unhinged, and he determined to relinquifh his leQures, and to retire in a good meafure from the world. In his retreat at the college of Jefuits at Bourges, he employed himfelf in commentaries on the fcriptures, till he was called out of his obfcurity by pope Gregory XIII., to fuperintend the publication of “The Septuagint,” at Rome. Here alfo he finifhed his Commentaries on the Gofpels, which was in 1582 ; and in the following year he fell fick, and died in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Maldonat was reckoned one of the ableft {cholars of the fociety to which he belonged: he was a capital linguift, an eloquent preacher, and a judicious com- mentator on the fcriptures. He is highly fpoken of by Dupin, father Simon, and other learned men. Simon, in reference to his qualities as a commentator and critic, fays, ‘he does not allow one difficulty to pafs without examining it to the bottom. When a great number cf literal inter- pretations of the fame paflage prefent themfelves, he ufually fixes on the beft, without paying too much deference to the ancient expofitors, or even to the majority, regarding nothing but Truth alone, ftript of all authorities but her own.” ‘The principal works of Maldonat are ‘* Commen- tarii in quatuor Evangeliftas ;’ «© Commentarii in quatuor Prophetas, Hieremiam, Baruch, Ezekielem, et Danielem ;” he was author of many other works, but they were all given to the world after the death of the author ; and fome pieces have been attributed to his pen, which were not only unworthy of his high reputation, but which have generally been regarded as {purious. Bayle. Moreri, &c. MALDUAR, in Geography, a {mall circar of Bengal, between Dinagepour and Purneah, about nine miles long, and fix broad ; which may be confidered as part of Rajemul. The chief town is Rahny. MALE, the chief and moft fertile of thofe iflands called the “ Maldives ;”’ fituated nearly in the centre of the group, about four miles in circumference, and containing a town, in which the princes refide. N. lat.6°20'. E. long. 73° 10!. MAtr, the fex which has the parts of generation without- fide, and which has ordinarily the pre-eminence over the other. : In this fenfe male ftands oppofed to female. For the proportion of males to females, fee MARRIAGE. Mate Balfam Apple, in Gardening. See Momorpica. MALEBAYE, La, in Geography, atown of Canada, on the river St. Laurence; 70 miles N.E. of Quebec. MALEA, in Ancient Geography, Capo Malio, a town of Laconia, fituated at the extremity of a chain of mountains, pects into the fea between the Argolic and Laconic gulfs. MALEBRANCHE, Nicnotras, in Biography, a cele- brated philofopher, was born at Paris in the year 1638, and inltruéted in the Latin and Greek languages by a domettic tutor. He afterwards profecuted the ftudy of philofophy at the college of de Ja Marche, and of divinity in the Sor- bonne. At the age of 22 years, he determined to embrace a monattic life, and was admitted into the congregation of the Oratory, Weary of the refearches of ecclefialtical hif- MAL tory, to which he firft directed his attention, he was advifed by father Simon to apply to oriental literature and biblical criticifm ; but when he had acquired fufficient knowledge of the Hebrew language to read the Old Teftament in the original, he defifted from the purfuit of ftudies of this kind ; and under the influence of a temporary enthufiafm, he feemed inclined to give himfelf up wholly to devotion, and filently to wait for divine illumination. But he was roufed from this ftate by the accidental perufal of Des Cartes’s treatife “On Man,” with the perfpicuous reafoning of which he was fo much pleafed, that he determined to make himfelf thoroughly acquainted with this author's fy item of philofophy. With this view, he devoted ten years to profound medita- tion, and to metaphyfical refearches, which led him, under the influence of a warm and exuberant imagination, into the very vifionary regions of enthufiafm. Conceiving the foul of man to be myfterioufly united to his body, and apprehending alfo that a no lefs myfterious union fubfifted between the , human foul and God, he publifhed, in 1673, the refult of his meditations and conclufions, in his famous treatife, enti- tled ‘* Recherche de la Verité,” or ‘ Search after Truth,” in three volumes, 12mo. In 1676, he attempted to evince the agreement between true philofophy and religion, in a work, entitled “* Chriftian’ Converfations, in which the Truth of the Religion and Morality of Jefus Chrift is vin- dicated,’ 12mo. In 16S8oappeared “ A Treatife on Nature and on Grace,’’ 12mo., which was the refult of a contro- verfy between him and M. Arnauld on the fubje& of grace ; and this treatife was fucceeded by feveral controverfial traéts, written by both thefe authors. He publifhed alfo feveral other pieces in vindication of his fy{tem announced in the “Search after Truth.’? Our author alfo publifhed « A Treatife on Phyfical Premotion,’? againit Bourfier's book, «On the AGtion of God,” and « Reflections on Light and Colours, and on the Generation of Fire,’’ and alfo other papers, inferted in the ‘* Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences,” of which body he was admitted an honorary member in the year.1699. By temperance he maintained a good ftate of health, notwithitanding the delicacy of his conftitution, till near the clofe of life, which terminated at the age of 77 years, in 1715. His manners in private life were fimple, cheerful, and complaifant. He paid Jittle re~ gard to thofe fubjects of erudition which employed the thoughts and time of other literary perfons; and which merely ferved to make them acquainted with the opinions of, different philofophers, without leaving them fufficiently at ° leifure to think for themfelves. For poetry hehad no tatte ; and it is faid, indeed, that he never read ten verfes without difguit. It was his cuftom to ftudy with his windows fhut, that he might not be difturbed by the light. The fpecula- tions of his retirement were the {ubje¢ts of his converfation, with regard to which he was communicative, and yet modeft and unaffuming. His company was much valued and defired 5 and no foreigner of learning vifited Paris without wifhing to be introduced to him; and we are informed by one of bie biographers, that an Englifh officer, being taken prifoner im the war between the king of France and William III., exe preffed his fatisfaction at being fent to Paris, becaufe he had long wifhed to fee Lewis X1V. and father Malebranche, See the next article. MALEBRANCHISM, the do@rine or fentiments of father Malebranche (fee the laft article) ; which is ina great meafure the fame with Cartefianifm. It muit be owned, however, that though TF. Malebranche thought the fame with Des Cartes, yet he does not fo properly feem to have followed him, as to have met with him, Aa 2 Malebranch. MALEBR ANCHISM. Malebranchifm is chiefly contained in the ‘¢ Recherche de la Verité,”’ of which M. Fontenelle fays, «* The Inquiry after Truth”? is full of God: God is the only agent, and that too in the ftriGeft4enfe.. All power of adting, all aftions, belong immediately to him. Second caufes are no caufes. They are only occafions that determine the aétions of God; er oecafional caufes. This work, which was firft publifhed in 1673, pafled through feveral editions ; the beft of which was that publifhed by himfelf in 1712, in two volumes 4to,, and four volumes 12mo., with confiderable variations and enlargements. F. Malebranche, however, does not here lay down his fyftem entire, with regard to religion, or rather the manner in which he would reconcile religion to his fyftem of philo- fophy ; that he referved for his ‘¢ Entretiens Chrétiens,”’ already mentioned, where he proves the exiftence of a God, the corruption of human nature by original fin, and the neceflity of a Mediator, and of grace. Dr. Enfield, in his Abridgment of “ Brucker’s Philo- fophy,”’ (vol. ii.) has given the following account of the fyftem of Malebranche. ‘ The doétrine of this book,’ “referring to his ‘ Search after Truth,’ ‘though in many refpets original, is raifed upon Cartefian principles, and is, in fome particulars, Platonic. The author reprefents, in ftrong colours, the caufes of error, arifing from the diforders of the imagination and paflions, the abufe of liberty, and an implicit confidence éa the fenfes. He explains the ation of the animal fpirits, the nature of memory ; the connection of the brain with other parts of the body, and their influence upon the underftanding and will, On the fubject of intelle&, he maintains, that thought alone is effential to mind, and deduces the imperfect ftate of {cience from the impérfe&ion of the human underftanding, as well as from the inconftancy of the will in ingniring after truth. RejeGing the ancient doétrine of fpecies fent forth from material objects, and denying the power of the mind’to produce ideas, he afcribes their produgtion immediately to God; and afferts, that the human mind immediately perceives God, and fees all things in him. As he derives the imperfeCtion of the human mind from its dependence upon the body, fo he places its perfeétion in union with God, by means of the knowledge of truth and the love of virtue.” ‘ “ Singular and paradoxical as the notion of ¢ feeing all things in God,’ and fome other dogmas of this writer, muft have appeared, the work was written with fuch elegance and fplendour of diétion, and its tenets were fupported by fuch ingenious reafonings, that it obtained general applaufe, and procured the author a diftinguifhed name among philofophers, and a numerous train of followers. Its popularity might, perhaps, be in part owing to the appeal which the author makes to the authority of St. Auguitine, from whom he profefles to have borrowed his hypothefis concerning the origin of ideas. The immediate intercourfe which this doc- trine fuppofes, hetween the human and the divine mind, has led fome to remark a ftrong refemblance between the notions of Malebranche, and thofe of the fect called Quakers.”? Dr. Reid ce ii.) does not allow, that either Plato or the latter Platonifts, or St. Augultine, or the Myfttics, thought, that we perceive the objects of fenfe in the divine ideas. ‘This theory of our perceiving the objects of fenfe in the ideas of tlie Deity, he confiders as the invention of Father Malebranche himfelf. ~ Although St. Auguttine {peaks in a very high ftrain of God’s being the light of our minds, of our being illuminated immediately by the eternal light, and ufes other fimilar expreffions; yet he feems to apply thofe expreflious only to our illumination in’ moral and divine things, and not to the perception of objeéts by the fenfes. Mr. Bayle imagines that fome traces of this opinion of Malebranche are to be found in Amelius the Platonift, and even in Democritus; but his authorities feem, as Dr. Reid conceives, to be ftrained. Malebranche, with a very penetrating genius, entered into a more minute examination of the powers of the human mind than afy one before him; and he availed himfelf of the previous difcoveries made by Des Cartes, without fervile attachment. He lays it down as a principle admitted by all philofophers, and in itfelf un- quettionable, that we do not perceive external objeéts imme- diately, but by means of images or ideas of them prefent to the mind, <‘ The things which the foul perceives,’”? fays Malebranche, ‘are of two kinds. ‘They are either in the foul, or without the foul: thofe that are in the foul are its own thoughts, that is to fay, all its different modifications. The foul has no need of ideas for perceiving thefe things. But with regard to things without the foul, we cannot per- ceive them but by means of ideas.’’ He then proceeds to enumerate all the poffible ways by which the ideas of fenfi- ble objects may be prefented to the mind: either, 1ft, they come from the bodies, which we perceive; or, adly, the foul has the power of producing them in itfelf; or, 3dly, they are produced by the Deity in our creation, or occa- ° fionally as there is ufe for them; or, athly, the foul has in itfelf virtually and eminently, as the ichools fpeak, all the perfetions which it perceives in bodies: or, sthly, the foul is united with a Being poffefled of all perfection, who has in himfelf the ideas of all created things. The jalt mode is that which he adopts, and which he endeavours to confirm by various arguments. The Deity, being always prefent to our minds in a more intimate manner than any other being, may, upon occafion of the impreflions made on our bodies, difcover to us, as far as he thinks proper, and according to fixed laws, his own ideas of the obje¢t; and thus we fee all things in God, or 1m the divine ideas. However vilionary this fyitem may appear on a fuperficial view, yet when we confider, fays Dr. Reid, that he agreed with the whole tribe of philofophers in conceiving ideas to be the immediate gbjeéts of perception, and, that he found: infuperable difficulties, and even abfurdities, in every other hypothefis concerning them, it will not feem fo wonderful that a man of very great genius fhould fall into this; and probably it pleafed {o devout a man the more, that it fets in the moft ftriking light our dependence upon God, and his continual prefence with us. He diftinguifhed more ac- curately than any philofopher had done before, the objeés which we perceive from the fenfations in our own minds, which, by the laws of nature, always accompany the per- ception of the objeét: and in this refpe&, as well as in many others, he had great merit. For this, as Dr. Reid appre- hends, is a key that opens the way to a right underftanding, both of our external fenfes, and of other powers of the mind. : : It is obvious, however, that the fyftem of Malebranche leaves no evidence of the exiftence of a material world, from what we perceive by our fenfes; for the divine ideas, which are the objects immediately perceived, were the fame before the world was created. Malebranche faw and owned this confequence, and therefore he refts the complete evi- dence which we have of the exiftence of matter upon the authority of revelation; by which we are aflured, that God created the heavens and the earth, and that the word was made flefh. No author, not even bifhop Berkeley, hath fhewn more clearly, that either upon his own fyftem, or upon the common principles of philofophers, with regard to ideas; we have MAL have no evidence left, either from reafon or from our fenfes, of the exiftence of a material world. It is no more than juttice to Father Malebranche to acknowledge, that bifhop Berkeley's arguments are to. be found in him in their whole force., ..,/».caee Malebranchifm, notwithftanding, appears to many perfons not only illufive and vifionary, but even dangerous, and de- ftruGtive to religion; and it has accordingly been vigoroufly oppofed by. many zealous ‘French authors. The firft was M. Foucher. After him came M. Arnauld; and in 1715, F. du Tertre, a Jefuit, publifhed an ample confutation (as he imagines) of his whole fyftem. It was alfo charged with atheifm by F. Hardouin, in the “ Atheifts Unmafked ;” though his fyftem, formed by a warm and exuberant imagina- tion, tends more to fanaticifm and enthufiafm than to atheifm. That part which relates to our feeing all things in God, was anfwered by Mr. Locke, in a fmall tract printed among his pofthumous works. Thofe who choofe to fee this fyftem, attacked on the one hand and defended on the other, with fubtilty of argu- ment and elegance of exprefiion, and on the part of Arnauld with much wit and humour, may find fatisfaction by readieg Malebranche’s Enquiry after Truth; Arnauld’s book of True and Falfe Ideas; Malebranche’s Defence; and fome fubfequent replies and defences. It fhould be remembered, however, that Malebranche was a Jefuit, and Arnauld a Janfenift ; and the antipathy between the Jefuits and Jan- fenifts left Malebranche no room to expect quarter from his learned antagonift. Bayle juftly remarks on this controverfy, that the arguments of M. Arnauld againft the fyftem of Malebranche were often unanfwerable, but they were capa- ble of being retorted againft his own fyftem; and his inge- nious antagonilt well knew how to ufe this defence. Mr. Norris, an Englifh divine, efpoufed the fyftem of Malebranche in his “ Effay towards the theory of the ideal or intelleGtual World,” publifhed in two volumes 8vo. A.D. 1701. MALECKH, in Geography; a town of the duchy of Stiria; eight miles N. of Fridaw. MALECOTTA, atown of Hindooftan; 42 miles E. of Cochin. MALEDICTION, Matenicrio, in Law, a curfe ufually annexed to donations of lands, &c. to churches and religious houfes ; imprecating the moft direful punifhments on thofe who fhould infringe them. MALEENSOONOO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the S.W. coaft of Palawan. N. fata Pelt) Eelonm es TLS 227, MALEEPOETHAS, one of the Soloo iflands, in the Eaft Indian fea, N. lat. 6°3'. EE. long. 120° 18/. MALEGHERY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 20 miles S. of Ouffoor. ' MALEK Suan, in Biography, third fultan of the Sel- jukian dynafty, and the mott powerful prince of his time, re in 1054, was fon, heir, and fucceflor of Alp Arflan. On the death of his father he found himfelf placed on a throne which had the rule of Afia from the banks of the Oxus to the borders of Syria. The caliph of Bagdad con- ferred upon him the facred title of commander of the faith- ful, which had never before been conferred on a fubordinate prince. Malek had many enemies to contend with, fome of whom were among his neareft relations. In 1075 one of his generals took Damafcus, and reduced a great part of Syria. He invaded Egypt the following year, but was compelled to retreat by the inhabitants of Cairo. In 1078 Malek Shah undertook to complete the conqueft of Tur- MAL keftan, which had been commenced by his father. He re- duced many cities to obedience, and extended a,nominal fovereignty over the Tartar kingdom of Cafhgar. And by allowing his generals to conquer diftriéts for themfelves, acknowledging his paramount authority, he ftretched his authority from the Chinefe frontier to the mountains of Georgia, the vicinity of Conftantinople, the Egyptian bor- der, and the coaits of Arabia. His aGtivity was fo great that he is faid to have vifited all parts of his dominions twelve times during his reign. In thefe wide and extenfive progreffes his favourite amufement was hunting, which he purfued with vaft pomp, and fometimes with a train of many thoufand horfemen. In 1088 he made a pilgrimage to Mecca, in which he difplayed more magnificence than any prince had done before on the fame occafion. He abolifhed the tribute ufually paid by pilgrims: he furnifhed them all with provifions, caufed a great number of wells and refer- \ .voirs to be made in the defert, and ereéted places for reft and refrefhment at the different {tages, and he took every means ef promoting the profperity of his dominions, by the erec- tion of public buildings, by diminifhing the taxes, and by attending to the exact and rigid adminiftration of juitice. The reformation of the kalendar was. one of the a&s which diflinguifhed His reign ; for which purpofe he affembled all the aftronomers of the Eaft to reétify the errors that had crept into the computations, and they inftituted the Jalalean era, fo named from Jalal, the firft word of one of the ful- tan’s titles, which era is reckoned to eémmence from March rs5th, 1079. Much of the {plendour and excellence of this reign was attributed to the illuftrious vizir Nizam al Molk, who towards the clofe of it fell into difgrace, though very undefervedly, and who was not only deprived of ‘his employments, but in the 93d year of his age fell by the hand of an affaffin. The wound, though fatal, did not pre- vent him previoufly to his death, from writing a dignified epiftle to his fovereign, afferting his fidelity, and recom- mending his fon to the fultan. Malek, proceeding to Bag- dad, with the intention, it is faid, of fixing there the feat of his empire, and removing the caliph to fome other place, was taken ill of a fever, which put an end to his life in 1092, in the 38th year of his age and the arft of his reign. ‘This prince is highly extolled for his mental and bodily qualities, and for many virtues that adorn a throne. The houfe of Seljuk attained its higheft greatnefs in his perfon, from which it declined at his death, or rather at the death of his minif- . ter Nizam. Gibbon. Univer. Hilt. MALEL, or MEZLLr, in Geography, a town of Nigritia, on a river which runs into the Niger. . N. lat. 13° 40!. E.long. ° 6'. : MALELA, or Maxetes, Joun, in Biography, amonk of Antioch, known chiefly by a chronicle, written in the Greek language, from the creation to the reign of Juftinian. It was publifhed from a manufcript in the Bodleian library, by Edward Chilmead, of Oxford. It has been republifhed as a kind of appendix to the Byzantine hiftorians at Venice, in 1733. MSLEMBO, in Geography, a fea-port of Africa, in the kingdom of Cacongo. It contains about 700 huts or houfes, and is furrounded by a wall conftruéted of rough {tones, without mortar. The king has a palace here in which he occafionally refides. The Dutch and Portuguefe haye warehoufes for ivory and raw minerals, which they ob- tain in exchange for European goods ; 15 miles S.W. of Cacongo. ; MALERMI, fometimes called Matersr, NicHo.as, in Biography, a native of Venice, and by profeffion a monk, is entitled to a fhort notice, as having been the author of ie r MAL firk printed verfion of the {criptures into the Italian Jan- guage, which was publifhed in two volumes folio, in the year 1473, under the title of “ Biblia volgare Iftoriata.” t was reprinted in 1477; and again in 148. He was au- thor alfo of « The Lives of all the Saints,"’ publifhed at Venice in 1475. MALESHERBES, Cunistiay-W1nut1AM bE Lamotc- Non pE, born at Paris in 1721, was fon of the chancellor of France, William de Lamoignon, a defcendant of an illuf- trious family. He received his early education at the Je- fuits’ college, and afterwards applicd himfelf with ardour to the ftudy of the law, and to other fubjeéts conneéted with political economy. At the age of twenty-four he was ap- pointed a counfellor m the parliament of Paris, and in De- cember 1750 he fucceeded his father as prefident of the ‘court of aids,’’ an important jurifdiétion, the duties of which were to regulate the public taxes. The fuperintend- ance of the prefs had been conferred upon Malefherbes by his father, at the fame time that he received the prefidentfhip of the court of aids, and this fun@ion, which had ufually been exercifed to the fuppreffion of all free enquiry, became in his hands the means of promoting it to a degree beyond all former example in that country. It was through his favour that the French Encyclopédie, the works of Rouffeau, and the writings of other eminent men, iflued from the prefs, notwithitanding the oppofition and anathemas of the hierar- chy. In this view of the fubjeét, Malefherbes, as well as the philofophical party with whom ‘he was affociated, may be charged with having been materially inftrumental in pre- paring the way for that revolution which has been the preg- nant fource of fo many calamities. In 1771, when the ty- ranny of the government had proceeded to the diffolution of the whole legal conftitution, and the banifhment of parlia- ments, the court of aids participated in the general deftruc- tion, which it provoked by its remonftrances. Malefherbes was banifhed to his country-feat by a *¢ lettre de cachet,”’ and the duke de Richelieu, at the head of an armed force, abo- lifhed the tribunal. He was diftinguifhed by his private vir- tues, and his time was occupied with his family and his books, and the cultivation of his grounds. His expenditure in public objets was large : he drained marfhes, cut canals, con- itruGted roads, built bridges, planted walks, and carried his attention to the comfort of the lower claffes fo far, as to raife fheds on the fides of the river for the fhelter of the * women at their domeftic labours. Thus he fulfilled the® part of the beneficent parent of a village, till the acceffion of Lewis XVI. recalled him to a public ftation, and in 1774 Male- fherbes received an order to appear at the place where the court of aids had fat, and refume the prefidentfhip of the reftored tribunal. On this occafion he pronounced a very affeGting and patriotic harangue, and afterwards addreffed the king in an eloquent f{peech of thanks. He particularly in- veighed aja that fpirit of defpotifm which had abrogated law and juitice, and abolifhed every, veltige of conftitutional li- berty. Such fentiments were in perfeét umifon with thofe of the young and uncorrupted king, and they procured for Male- fherbes the appointment of minifter of {tate in June 1775. This elevation was regarded by him only as affording an op- portunity of extending his {phere of ufetulnefs. One of his firft concerns was to vifit the prifons, and reftore to liberty the innocent victims of former tyranny, and his praifes were carried throughout France by perfons of all defcriptions re- turning tothe befoms of their families from the gloom of dungeons. He was defirous of abolifhing the arbitrary power of iffuing lettres de cachet, but not being able to ef- fect this great reform, he procured the appointment of a commiffion, compofed of upright and enlightened magiltrates, 8 MAL to which every application for fuch letters fhould be fub- mitted, and whofe unanimous decifion fhould be requifite for their validity. Malefherbes was alfo a great encourager of commerce and agriculture, in which he had the cordial co- operation of the illuftrious Turgot, at that period the comp- troller ef the revenue. The latter was foon difmiffed from his high office by the intrigues of courtiers, and the for- mer, owing to the rejeétion of fome important meafures, which his zeal for the public good led him to propofe, re- figned his poft in the month of May 1776. To obtain an accurate view of the manners and policy of other countries and foreign ftates, he fet out on his travels, and vifited Swit- zerland and Holland, and in the courfe of his journey he noted down every occurrence worthy of obfervation, and that might, hereafter, poflibly be ufeful to himfelf, and pro- mote the melioration of his country. On his return, at the end of a few years, he found his native country fo much ad- vanced in philofophical principles, that he was encouraged todraw up and prefent to the king two elaborate memoirs, one on the condition of the Proteftants, the other on the principles of civil liberty, and toleration in general, replete with the enlarged views of an enlightened itatefman, who was at the fame time a friend to the intereits and happinefs of mankind. Difficulties were now accumulating in the management of the government, and the king, in 1786, called Malefherbes to his councils, but without appointing him to any particular poit inthe adminiftration. He foon found it impoffible to aét with the men already poflefled of the powers of government, but he was determined, in this critical tate of things, to make one effort for opening the monarch’s eyes, and drew up two energetic memoirs ‘ On the Calamities of France, and the Means of repairing them;’’ but fuch was the afcendancy which the queen’s party had over the mind of the king, that he was prevented from even reading them, nor could he be prevailed upon to grant the writer one private interview ; he therefore took his final leave of a court, ap- parently bent on its ownand the nation’s ruin. He retreated to his country refidence, determined to confult the beft means of ferving his country by philofophical and agricultural pur- furts, and in 1790 publifhed « An Effay on the Means of ac- celerating the Progrefs of Rural Economy in France,’* in which he propofed an eftablifhment to facilitate the national improvement in this important point. He was perticularly. led to make his propofal at this period, with the hope that the revolutionary changes, though fo awful and fanguinary, would finally iffue in a free and well balanced conititution. The dreadful {cenes which very foon followed in horrible fuc- ceffion extinguifhed his hopes, and left him to mourn in fo- litude over the miferies of France. Every energy of his foul was, at length, roufed, by the decree of the national convention for the trial of the dethroned and imprifoned king. He now feemed wholly to forget the neglect which had been offered him by the court, at a time when his advice might have effentially fervedit, and he felt nothing but the defire of ferving the king and his family with the utmott ex- tent of his talents. He accordingly wrote tothe prefident of the convention, requefting the liberty of being permitted to act as one of the counfel of the fallen monarch. Three bad already been appointed, but one having, from prudential mo- tives, declined the office, Lewis, who wept at this proof of attachment from his old fervant, immediately nominated Ma- lefherbes in his ftead. Their interview was extremely aflect- ing, and Lewis, during the fhort interval before his death, fhewed every mark of affeétion for, and confidence in, his generous advocate. Malefherbes was the perfon who an- nounced to him his cruel doom, and was one ot the lait who took leave of him previoufly to his execution, After that cataltrophe MAL eataftrophe he again withdrew to his retreat, and with a deeply wounded heart, refufed to hear any thing of what was acting among the blood-thirfty Parifians. As he was one morning working in his garden, he obferved four favage looking wretches dire€ting their courfe to his houfe, and haftening home, he found them to be officers from the revolutionary tribunal come to arreft his daughter and her hufband, who had formerly been prefident of the parliament of Paris. The feparation of thefe perfons from his family was deeply affiting to his heart, and it is. probable that his own arreft fhortly after was a relief to his feelings. He had long been efteemed as father of the village in which he lived, and the ruftic inhabitants crowded round to take leave of their ancient benefactor with tears and benedictions. Four of the municipality accompanied him to Paris, that he might not be efcorted by foldiers like a criminal. He was fhut up in prifon with his unfortunate family : and ina few days the guillotine feparated his fon-in-law Lepelletier from his wife ; and the accufation of Malefherbes with his daughter and grand-daughter, ‘ for a confpiracy again{t the liberties of the people,” was followed, as a matter of courfe, by a fen- tence of death. The real crime, as it was bafely denomi- nated, of this excellent man and worthy patriot, and which the convention never pardoned, was his defence of the king, an aét in which he gloried to the lateft hour of his exilt- ence. He probably thought it an honour to die by the fame ruffian hands that had fpilt the blood of his mafter. The condemnation of the females almoft overcame the manly for- titude which he difplayed in every perfonal fuffering ; his courage, however, returned at the prifon, and they prepared for the death which was the lait and only important event that they hadtoencounter. His daughter had exhibited the noble fpirit with which fhe was infpired, for upon taking leave of Mademoifelle Sombreuil, who had faved her father’s life on the fecond of September, fhe faid to her, « You have had the happinefs to preferve your father, I fhall have the confolation of dying with mine.” Onthe fatal day, Maletherbes left the prifon with a ferene countenance, and happening to. ftumble againft a itone, he faid with much pleafantry, “a Roman would have thought this an unlucky omen, and walked back again”? hus perifhed the venera- ble Maletherbes in April 1794, when he had attained to his feventy-third year. He was unquettionably one of the moft fpotlefs and exemplary chara€ters of his time. The fubfe- quent government has fince made fome reparation for the in- jultice done him, by ordering his bult to be placed among thofe of the great men who have refle€ted honour upon their country. Gen. Biog. MALEsuersBES, in: Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Loiret, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Pithiviers; 10 miles N.E. of Pithiviers. The place contains 945, and the canton 6587 inhabitants, on a territory of 242+ kiliometres, in 22 communes. MALESTROIT, a town of France, in the depart- men of Morbihan, and chief place of a canton, in the dif- tri& of Ploermel; 7 miles S. of Ploermel. The place con- tains 1800, and the canton 11,734 inhabitants, ona terri- tory of 255 kiliometres, in two communes. N. lat. 47° 49’. W. long. 2° 18!. , MALEVANT, a {mall ifland in the Englifh channel, near the coaft of France. N. lat. 47° 22’. \ MALEUS Sinus, in Ancient Geography, the gulf of Ma- Jea, called by the pirates who infefted it the golden gulf, on account of the rich prizes which they captured here. MALEXANDER, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Welt Gothland ; 25 miles S. of Linkioping. MALEYA, atown onthe S. coal of the ifland of Ter- MAL nate, where the Dutch have a fettlement. E. long. 12° 14/. MALGARDEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhop- ric of Ofnabruck ; 3 miles W.S.W. of Vorden. MALGRATO, a town of Italy, in the department of the Lario; 10 miles N.E. of Como. MALHAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ;. 20. miles E. of Poonah. MALHATTY, a town of Bootan; 60 miles N. of. Dinagepour. MALHERBE, Francis pg, in Biography, a cele- brated French poet, was born about the year 1556 at Caen,, in Normandy. His father, who was an inferior law-efficer, embraced the Calviniftical dotrines a fhort time before his death, which fo much difpleafed the fon, whofe governing maxim on this point was, ‘ Thac a gentleman’s religion fhould be that of his prince,’’ that ne left his native pro- vince, and entered into the houfehold of Henry d’Angoue léme, natural fon of king Henry II., and governor of Pro- vence. Little is known of the fubjeé of this article, till he was mentioned by Perron to Henry IV., as one who had furpaffed all other compofers of French poetry : two or three years after this time, wiz. in 1605, Malherbe firlt came to court, being then about 50 years of age. The king received him into his fervice, and gave him a liberal. falary, and after the death of the monarch he had a penfion from the queen dowager. He died at Paris in 1628. He is reprefented as of a very unamiable temper ; {plenetic and farcattic, and as having little feeling for the common cha- rities of his kindred. He was perpetuaily engaged in law- fuits, and his bon mots were frequently rude and fevere :. to a young lawyer who fhewed him a poem of his own compofition, he faid, ‘¢ Had the alternative been given you: of being hanged or writing thefe verfes, you might have been excufed producing fuch a ridiculous piece.’? Dining. once with the archbifhop of Rouen, he fell afleep after. dinner : the prelate waked him to go and hear a fermon he was to preach: “ I can,’’ faid Malherbe, « fleep well enough without that.”? His ruling paffion was that of guarding the purity of the French language, of which he exhibited a proof almoft in his dying moments, when he reproved his nurfe for ufing a word that was-not of good N. lat. 8° 55% ,authority ; and it is, farther faid, that when his confeffor was defcribing to him the happinefs. of a future world in: mean and vulgar terms, he exclaimed, pray fay no mores your ftyle is too difgufting ta be borne. With-all his de- feéts Malherbe is revered as the father of cultivated French. ‘poetry. His works confift of odes, itanzas, fonnets, epi- grams, fongs, and other fhort pieces, fome of which are merely complimentary addrefles to the great, and fome are of a devotional caft. The beft editions of his works are in 3 vols. 12mo. 1722; and in octavo 1756, edited by St. Mare. Moreri. MALHEUREDX, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Mexico, near the coait of Weft Florida. N. lat.- 30° 6’. W. long. 89° 28’. MALIANA, or Maniana, a town of Algiers, much frequented by pilgrims, on account of the tomb of a faint, called «* Sede Youfeph;’’ 12 miles S.S.E. of Tefeffad. MALIC Acip, in Chemifiry, is a vegetable compound, which exifts ready formed in many unripe fruits ; and con- tributes, almoft exclufively, to give fournefs.to the apple, the barberry, the plum, aud the floe. It was difcovered by Scheele in the year 1785. He has given us the follow- ing procefs for ex'ra€ting it, in Crell’s Chemical Journal for that date. Saturate the juice of unripe apples with car- bonat of potash, and to the folution add acetat of lead till a turbid> MAL aturbidnefs ceafes to be produced. The precipitate, which is a compound of the malic acid with oxyd of lead, mutt be wafhed in a large quantity of water, and afterwards treated with dilute fulphuric acid; frefli portions being poured on, until the mixture has loft its faturnine flavour, and become perfeétly four. The malat of lead, by this treatment, will be decompofed, a fulphat being formed in its place, and the malic acid remaining free in the fuperna- tant liquor. To feparate them the fluid muft be paffed through a filter. Vauquelin has fince afcertained, that the acid in queftion may be obtained from the /empervivum teGo- rum, or common houfe leck, more advantageoufly even than from the apple. It exifts in this vegetable combined with lime ; and the mode of operating, which he has recom- mended, differs but little from the preceding, except in adding acetat of lead to the expreffed juice, without the previous intervention of carbonat of potafh. Annales de Chimie, t. 34. p. 127. Befides the above procefles for extra€ting malic acid, it may alfo be formed artificially by the action of nitric acid upon fugar. If equal quantities of nitric acid and fugar | be beat together, till the mixture aflumes a brown colour, two new acids will be found to have been created, having very different properties from the one originally employed. The moft abundant of thefe is the oxalic, or that which gives fournefs to the owalis acetofella, or common wood forrel, whence its name, and which will be more particularly treated of under that article, (See Oxatic acid.) The other is the malic ; and the mode of feparation employed by Scheele, who was the difcoverer of this fact, is as follows: Add lime-water till a precipitate ceafes to be produced; and after having filtered the liquor, prefent a farther quantity, fufficient to neutralize the malic acid. Alcohol muft next be poured in, which will caufe a coagulation to take place. The produ& is a malat of lime, which, when feparated by the filter, and wafhed with frefh alcohol, muft be re- diffolved in water. This, as before, muft be decompofed by acetat of lead; and the fame means reforted to, to col- le&t the free acid. Malic acid, obtained by any of thele methods, is a brownih-red liquid of a pungent and very four tafte. It is incapable of cryftallization, and prefents thus a particular diftin@tion from the other vegetable acids. When evapo-- rated, it becomes thick and vifcid; and if expofed in thin layers to an atmofphere tolerably free from moifture, it dries, forming a brilliant varnifh. By heat it is eafily decompofed, becoming firft of a deep colour, and exhaling a thick and pungent vapour. The coaly matter which it leaves behind is very light and {pungy, fimilar to that yielded by mucilage of fugar. The volatile produéts, when colleéted in clofe vef- fels, are, according to Fourcroy, (Syitem vii. 270.) an acid water, much carbonic acid, and fome carburetted hydrogen. The malic acid is liable to fpontaneous decompofition, when long kept in a fluid ftate. All the powerful acids a& upon it, and change its nature. By the fulphuric it is reduced to coal, and nitric acid changes it into the oxalic ; a proof of the latter containing the greateft proportion of oxygen. Malic acid unites with different bafes, and forms a clafs of falts denominated malats. 'Thefe have been but little ex- amined, except by their difcoverer Scheele. The malats of potafh, foda, and of ammonia are very foluble and deli- quefcent. The neutral malat of lime exifts in the form of irregular cry{tals, which are difficult of folution, even at a high temperature. The prefence of a flight excefs of acid, however, forms a fuper-malat, which is very readily dif- folved. It is this compound which is contained in the common houfe leek. Malic acid, on being added to barytic 10 MAL water, caufes an immediate precipitation; but no fuch ef- fe& occurs with ftrontian. The latter falt, therefore, we may infer, is confiderably more foluble than the former. OF its combination with the other earths, but little more is known, than that with magnefia it forms. a compound which is deliquefcent ; while its produét with alumine is very difficult of folution. It unites with fome metallic . oxyds; and precipitates mercury, lead, and filver from the nitrats of thofe metals. In this latter reipeét, it exhibits a” ftriking difference from the citric acid, with which it is al- moft always more or lefs mixed in vegetables; that.fub- {tance caufing no change in the folutions juft mentioned. (See Crrric acid.) Malic acid diffolves iron and zinc; the former of which yields a brown mixture incapable of cryttallization ; but the latter falt may be obtained in fine regular cryftals, It decompofes muriat of gold, the oxyd being reduced to the metallic ftate. This acid is not applied to any ufeful purpofe. MALICANDURGAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 19 miles N. of Allumbaddy. — MALICE, in Ethics and Law, is a formed defign of doing mifchief to another ; it differs from hatred. In mur- der it is malice makes the crime; and if a man, having a malicious intent to kill another, in the execution of his ma- lice kills a perfon not intended, the malice fhould be con- nected to his perfon, and he fhall be adjudged a murderer. The words ex malitia precogitata are neceflary to an in- diétment of murder, &c. And this malitia precogitata, or malice prepenfé, may be either exprefs or implied in law. Exprefs malice is, when one with a fedate, deliberate mind, and formed defign, kills another; which formed defign is. evidenced by external circumitances, difcovering that inten- tion; as lying in wait, antecedent menaces, former grudges, and concerted fchemes to do him fome bodily harm. (1 Hal. P. C. 451.) Befides, where no malice is expreffed, the law will imply it ; as where a man wilfully poifons an- other ; in fuch a deliberate a&t the law prefumes malice, though no particular enmity can be proved. And if a man’ kills another fuddenly, without any, or without a confider- able provocation, the law implies malice; for no perfon, unlefs af an abandoned heart, would be guilty of fuch an_ aét, upon a flight or no apparent caufe. See MurpER. MALI-CHAN, in Geography, a- {mall ifland near the coaft of China, in Quang-tong ; 10 miles S.W. of Macao. MALICHO, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of Mindanao. N. lat. 7° 48/. E.long. 124° 21". MALICIOUS Miscuier, in Law. See Miscuier. Matricious Profecution. See Insury. MALICORNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a canton, — in the diftri@ of La Fléche; fix miles N. of La Fléche. The place contains 1023, and the canton 10,226 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres, in 1x communes. MALICOY, a low {mall ifland in the Indian ocean, be- tween the Laccadive and Maldive iflands, furrounded with breakers, and dependent on a rajah of the Malabar coatt. N. lat. 8° 16! 30". E. long. 73” 9! 30". z MALICURGINAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 50 miles S. of Seringapatam. ne MALIDIA, a town of Africa, on the E. coaft of Tunis; 110 miles $.5.E. of Tunis. MALIGHERY, a town of Hindooftan, in Baramaul4 30 miles S.E. of Darempoory. MALIGNANT, in Medicine, that quality in a difeafe which renders it more than ordinarily dangerous, and diffi- cult of cure.” Malignant MAL Malignant is generally applied to fuch fevers as are epide- mical or infe€tious, and are attended with fpots and erup- tions of various kinds. See Malignant FEVER. MALIKERY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 18 miles N. of Seringapatam. MALIKUL, a lake of Ruffia. N. lat. 48°20’. E. long. 60° 14!. MALILLA, a town of Sweden, in the proviace of Smaland; 45 miles N.N.W. of Calmar. MALINES, or Mecu tin, a city of France, and prin- cipal place of a diftriét, in the department of the Two Nethes ; lately the capital of a province of the Netherlands, comprehending a {mall territory with about nine towns and villages. It was the fee of an archbifhop, and contains fix parifh churches. The number of inhabitants in the town is eftimated at 16,612, and in the two cantons at 24,640, in a territory of 871 kiliometres, in nine communes. The manufactures of the place, which are confiderable, are thofe of bed-quilts, thread, and particularly lace, which is in high eftimation all over Europe. In the arfenal is a foundery for cannon, and other inftruments of war. The town is diftant 12 miles N. from Bruffels. N. lat. 51° 1! o!, E. long, 4° 28! 45". MALINHEAD, the moft northern cape of Ireland, in the diftriét of Inifhowen and county of Donegal. N. lat. 5523!) JW. long: 179 :a6!. MALINOYV, an ifland in the mouth of the Volga, at its entrance into the Cafpian fea. N. lat. 45° 8!. : MALISTA, one of the fmall Weftern iflands, near the W. coait of Lewis. N. lat. 58°. W. long. 7° 4'. MALIT, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of ‘Timor. S. lat. 8° 24!. E. long. 125° 55’. MALIVAGONGA, a large river of Ceylon, in the country of Candy, which rifes at the foot of Adam's peak, .a high mountain S.W. of Candy, and taking a N.E. direc- tion, nearly furrounds the capital, and at length falls into the fea at Trincomalee. MALIUTO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra; 12 miles N.W. of Bifignano. MALKAR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Golconda ; 54 miles W. of Hydrabad. N. lat. 17° 17'. E. long. 77° 53’. MALKARABALA, in Zoology, the name of an Eatft Indian fpecies of ferpent found in the ifland of Ceylon. It is remarkably variegated with white and dufky brown, in various figures. MALKUITZ, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Breflau; nine miles S.W. of Breflau. MALL, or Marrer, a {maller kind of mace, a weapon ufed by our ancient Englifh archers for difpatching the ene- mies whom they had wounded with their arrows. Matt, or Sea-mall, in Ornithology, the Englifh name of the Larus Canus ; which fee. MALLA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the coun- try of Woolly ; 15 miles E. of Medina. MALLABAUQUEN, a lake of Chili; 60 miles N.E. of Valdivia. MALLAMA, a town of South America, in Popayan; 30 miles S.W. of Patto. MALLANCY Cuokry, a town of Affam; 50 miles E. of Rangamatty. MALLAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 42 miles N. of Venchatighery. Vor. XXII. _M sAiL SAE LORD, the Anas Bofches; in Ornithology. See UCK. ' MALLAWALLE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, N. of Borneo. N. lat. 7° 2/. E. long. 117° 29’. : MALLEABILITY, in Phy/ics, a property. principally confined to fome of the metals, by which their form can be changed by the action of the hammer. When the change of figure is effected by rollers, the fubftance is faid to be laminable: ‘when by wire drawing, it is called duéility. The property, however, is the fame in all thefe proceffes. Some bodies are malleable only at a certain temperature, fuch as glafs, and fome of the metals: others at all tem- peratures, to a certain degree. This is the cafe with moft of the malleable metals. Some bodies are not malleable till they have received a certain mechanical treatment. In fuch cafes, it is obferved, that when the body is brittle, it is under its cryftalline form, or that ftate in which its fracture exhibits fome regular figures. This is the cafe with iron and zinc. See Mrerarn and Zine. MALLEABLE, fomething hard and du@ile, and that may be beaten, forged, and extended under the hammer, without breaking. All metals are malleable, not excepting even quickfilver ; but gold is fo in the greateft degree of all. The chemitts have long fought the fixation of mercury, or to render it malleable. See Mercury, and Freezine. _ MALLEAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 24 miles S S.W. of Tritchinopoly. MALLEAMOTHE, in Botany, a low tree, or rather fhrub, growing in Malabar. Of the roots are made hafts for knives, the leaves ferve to drefs the ground, and being fried in oil of palm, furnifh a liniment for removing the im- petigo, and drying the puttules of the fmall-pox. A de- coétion of the fame, in common water, is ufed as a fomen- tation to mitigate the pains of the hemorrhoids. The root pulverized with ginger and faffron, and exhibited in an infufion of rice, cures the dropfy by powerfully pro- moting a difcharge of fuperfluous ferofities by the urinary paflage. Acofta commends the fhrub principally for two effects ; firft, againft fluxes of the belly, for which purpofe, however, it is of lefs efficacy than other medicines ; fecondly, for curing all kinds of eryfipelas, efpecially fuch as proceed from mere bile. They macerate the whole root or trunk, bruifed in a decoétion of rice, and fuffer them to remain there for fome hours, that the water may contract an acidity ; after which they anoint the eryfipelas with it, and order the patient to drink a fufficient quantity of the fame twice a-day, the ftomach being firft purged. ‘They give the fame water to thofe who labour under an inflammation of the liver, and the burning heat of a fever; and ufe it mixed with a {mall quantity of the juice of the leaves of tamarind, to anoint the lips of the wounds, in order to prevent an inflammation. MALLEI Exrernus, in Anatomy, the name given by Albinus and others to a mufcle of the malleus, fometimes called laxator tympani. See Ear. Mattei Jnternus, the name under which Winflow and others have defcribed the tenfor tympani mufcle. See Ear. Mattei Superior, is the mufcle defcribed by Albinus as the laxator tympani, and by fome others as the laxatorc tympani minor. See Ear. MALLEMANS, Craune, in Biography, defcended from a noble family, was born at Beaune, in Burgundy, Bb about MAL about the year 1646. He came to Paris while he was very young, where he purfued his early ftudies, and, in 1664, he entered among the priefts of the congregation of the Oratory, and afterwards attached himfelf to the univerfity of Paris. Here he fulfilled the duties of profeffor of phi- lofophy for more than thirty years with great reputation, and had the honour of giving inftruétions in this {cience to the duchefs of Burgundy. He died in 1723, at the ad- vanced age of feventy-feven, and in circumftances of diftrefs and great poverty. He poffeffed a very inventive genius, and was a zealous advocate for the philofophy of Des Cartes. He invented a machine for making all forts of dials, and was author of « A Phyfical Treatife on the World;”? “ A new Syftem of the Load-ftone ;”’ an attempt to folve «“ The famous Problem of the Quadrature of the Circle ;”” he publifhed many papers in the ‘ Journaux des Sgavans,”’ between the years 1674 and 1716. Moreri. MALLE-MUCKE, in Ornithology. See Furman and Proceitania Glacialts. MALLENOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hradifch ; 10 miles N.E. of Hradifch. MALLEOLARIS, in Anatomy, malleclar, an epithet applied to two {mall branches of the anterior tibial artery, diftributed on the ankle joint. They are diftinguifhed as external and internal. (See Arrery.) The term is fome- times ufed in {peaking of a procefs of the tibia, and one of the fibula. See MaLLeo.us. MALLEOLI, among the Romans, bundles of any com- buftible matter befmeared with pitch, and ufed by the Roman foldiers either for giving light in the night-time, or for fetting fire to fome of the enemies’ works. The malleoli were fometimes fixed to a dart or javelin, that they might be fure to catch firm hold, and communi- cate the fire wherever they happened to light. MALLEOLUS, in Anatomy, a technical term equiva- lent to ankle. Jt denotes the bony prominences, which prote& the joint of the ankle. The inner and fmaller of thefe (malleolus internus) is a procels of the tibia; the onter and larger (malleolus externus) isa part of the fibula. See ExTREMITIEs. Mattezotvs, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza and fome others, to the fifth called by Ariftotle and the other old writers, fphyrena, and by the Italians luzzo marino. It isa beautiful fifh, and feems to belong to the fcombri, or mackarel kind. Salvian has figured it under the name of fudis, a name by which it is alfo called by Varro and fome other old authors ; but Salvian’s figure is very imperfect ; he has omitted the back-fin. MALLEPALEAM, in Geography, a town of Hin- dooftan, in Myfore ; nine miles S. of Sankeridergam. MALLESUNDRUM, a town of Hindooftan, in My- fore; 10 miles E. of Sankeridergam. MALLET, Dava, in Biography, a poet and mifcella- neous writer, a native of Scotland, was probably born in Perthfhire. The name of his family was Malloch: little is known of him in early life, but in 1720 he was tutor to the children of a Mr. Home, near Edinburgh, and at the fame time attended leGtures in the univerfity of that city. He had already diftinguifhed himfelf by fome poetical compofi- tions, particularly by a paftoral, which brought him into notice among the Scottifh literati. The treatment which he met with at Mr. Home’s did not accord with his expeéta- tions, and in 1723, he gladly accepted the offer of accom- panying the two younger fons of the duke of Montrofe to Winchefter. About this time he printed in the * Plain- MAL Dealer’’ his admired ballad of « William and Margaret y” its fuccefs induced him to refume his poetical ftudies, and in 1728 he publifhed “* The Excurfion.”? About this time he changed his name from Malloch to Mallet, and in 1731 his bey of « Eurydice,’’ which had been planned fome years before, was brought on the ftage, and was favourably received. He had now attained to a fufficient degree of confequence to be admitted to the company of men of rank and literary eminence ; among thefe was Pope, whofe ridi- cule of critics and commentators he echoed, in a poem pub- lifhed in 1733, ‘On Verbal Criticifm.’? Immediately after this, the prince of Wales appointed him his fecretary, with a falary of two hundred pounds a-year. In 1734, he at- tended the prince of Orange on a vifit to Oxford, and pre- fented to him a copy of verfes written in the name of the univerfity, on which occafion he was admitted to the degree of M.A. His tragedy of « Muftapha’’ was brought on the {tage in the year 1739, and met with fome degree of tem- porary fuccefs. The longeft poem of this author is entitled *¢ Amyntor and Theodora ;’’ it is a pathetic tale in blank verfe, interfperfed with much poetical defcription, but it is generally deemed tedious. Among the profe pieces of Mallet, the moft important was * The Life of Lord Bacon,’ prefixed to an edition of his works, which appeared in 1740; this, though an elegant and judicious article of biography, is defeGtive in the difplay of what conttitutes the main point of that wonderful man's merit, his character as a luminary of {cience. After the death of Pope, lord Bolingbroke employed Mallet to blacken his memory, in revenge for clandetlinely printing his “ Patriot King’ In reward for this fervice, his lordfhip left him his works, which in 1754 he publifhed in five volumes quarto, but which not only involved hina in difficulties, on account of certain fenti- ments contained in them fubverfive of the principles of revealed religion, but which did not produce to the editor any profit. After this he was engaged to write the life of the great duke of Marlborough, for which he was liberally paid, with anannual penfion, though it is pretty well afcer- tained that he never made any progrefs in the bufinefs. He was next employed by the miniltry to attack admiral Byng, with the view, no doubt, of diverting the public odium from the real delinquents, and to throw it on the unfortunate commander. Byng was executed, and Mallet rewarded with a confiderable penfion. He died in 17655 he is defcribed as a man of agreeable manners and converfation, fufficiently attentive to his own intereft, but ready to ferve his friends. ‘* Nothing,’? fays his biographer, < elevated or dignified can be difcerned in his character or principles. As a poet he may lay claim to elegant dition, {plendid imagery, and pathetic fentiment, but he is deficient in energy and judgment.”? Johnfon’s Lives of the Poets. Maver, Epmeg, was born at Melun in the year 17133 and in 1751 we find him engaged in ferving a cure near his native place, wher he came to Paris, and was chofen profeffor of theology in the college of Navarre. He made himfelf known by various publications, of which the following were the principal; “ Principes pour la Leéture des Poetés ;"" «« Effai fur ?Etude des Belles Lettres ;’’ « Effai fur les Bien- feances Oratoires ;”? ‘‘ Principe pour la Leéture des Ora- teurs ;’’ «* A Tranflation of Davila's Hiftory of the Civil Wars of France.’ He engaged to furnifh the articles of theology, and the belles lettres for the Encyclopédie. His ftyle in all his works is neat, clear, and unaffeG@ed. In his Roveral treatifes on poetry and polite literature, he limited himfelf to an accurate expofition of the precepts laid down by the beft matters, illuftrated by feleét examples. As a man and ‘ a friend, MAL a friend, he was an obje& of efteem to all who knew him, on account of his mildnefs, moderation, and candour. Matter, James ANDREW, a profeffor at Geneva, de- {cended from a good family in that city, was born in 1740; he was deftined for a military life, but was prevented from purfuing it by an accident in his youth, by which the mufcles of his legs became contraéted, and he continued lame through the whole of his life. He was educated in the public {chool of Geneva, and difplayed an early attach- ment to the mathematics. From Geneva he went to Bafil, and ftudied with great fuccefs under the celebrated David Bernouilli. In 1764 he obtained a prize from the academy of Lyons for the beft anfwer to a mathematical prize quef- tion, and in the following year he made a tour to France and England, in the courfe of which he formed an acquaint- ance with Lalande at Paris, and the late Dr. Mafkelyne, at London, and the tafte which M. Mallet acquired for aftro- nomy, was no doubt a confequence of his intimacy with thefe eminent men. In this fcience he was greatly affitted by his profound knowledge of the mathematics, in which he was continually exerciling his genius and talents. He wrote two papers on the calculation of chances, which were inferted in the “¢ Aéta Helvetica;’’ and at the requeft of Lalande, he calculated a table of the aberration and nutation of the ftars of the firft and fecond magnitude, which was publifhed in the «* Connoiffance des Temps,’’ and afterwards in Lalande’s great work on aftronomy. On his return, he lived fome time in the bofom of his family, till he was ap- pointed by the academy of Peterfburgh, by the recommenda- tion of Lalande and Bernouilli, to ebferve the tranfit of Venus in 176g, at one of the northern ftations made choice of for that purpofe. He was accompanied by M. J.L. PiGet, but the object of their miffion was in a great meafure loft by the unfavourablenefs of the weather. On his return, he formed an intimate acquaintance with J. A. Piétet of Geneva, who affifted him in his aftronomical obfervations, with inftruments which Mallet had procured at his own expence from England. In 1777 he was eleéted a member of the commiffion appointed to draw up a plan for fettling the difputes by which the harmony of the little republic had for fifteen years been difturbed, and which were at length filenced for fome time, by the intervention of foreign powers. Though Mallet was not at all ambitious of literary fame, he was honoured with unfolicited marks of diftinétion by feveral foreign focieties. He was one of the members of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and fome of his beft altronomical obfervations may be found in the memoirs of that learned fociety. He maintained an epiftolary cor- refpondence with the moft learned aftronomers in Europe ; and at his country houfe, where he {pent the greater part of his time, he employed himfelf in making aftronomical ob- fervations, and in converfing with the neighbouring farmers on fubjeéts of rumal economy. While at Geneva, he led a retired life, but had a weekly meeting of literary friends at his houfe, and attended the fittings of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts. He was vifited by many foreigners of diftin¢tion, and was univerfally efteemed for his talents, integrity, and benevolence. He died in the year 1790, of an apoplexy. Gen. Biog. Matter, a large kind of hammer, made of wood ; much ufed by artificers who work with a chiffel, as {fculptors, mafons, and ftone-cutters, whofe mallet is ordi- narily round; and by carpenters, joiners, &c. who ufe it fquare. See HAMMER. There are feveral forts of mallets ufed for different pur- pofes on fhip-board, The caulking-mallet is chiefly em- ployed to drive the oakum into the feams of a fhip, where MAL the edges of the planks are joined to each other in the fides, deck, or bottom. The hegd of this mallet is long and cylindrical, being hooped with iron to prevent it from fplitting in the ci of caulking. There is alfo the /erving- mallet, wfed in ferving the rigging, by binding the {pun- yarn more firmly about it than it poffibly could be done by hand; which is performed in the following manner; the fpun- yarn being previoufly rolled up in a large ball, or clue, two or three turns of it are paffed about the rope, and about the body of the mallet, which, for this purpofe, is furnifhed with a round channel in its furface, that conforms to the convexity of the rope intended to be ferved. The turns of the fpun- yarn being {trained round the mallet, fo as to confine it firmly to the rope, which is extended above the deck, one man pafles the ball continually about the rope, whilft the other, at the fame time, winds on the fpun-yarn by means of the mallet, whofe handle, aéting as a lever, ftrains every turn about the rope as firm as poffible. Falconer. Mattet, Maule, or Mall, in Military Language, a weapon formerly ufed both by the Englifh and Scots. In the me- morable combat fought in Bretagne, in the year 1315, be- tween thirty champions on the part of the Englifh, and the like number on that of the French, one of the Englifh cham- pions, named Billefert, was armed with a leaden mallet weighing twenty-five pounds. We learn alfo from father Daniel, that the Englith archers {till ufed mallets in the time of Louis XII., who began his reign in 1515, and died in 1524. In the ancient poem of the battle of Flodden, the mention of leaden mallets often occurs; and from the following defcription there given of it, it feems as if the head of the mall was entirely of lead, hooped round at thé ends with iron : «© Some made a mall of mafly lead, Which iron all about did bind.’’ Ralph Smith equips an archer with a maule of lead, five feet long, and a pike with the fame, hamging by a girdle with a hook ; meaning, probably, by this defcription, that the handle of the mall fhould be of this length, the end armed with a pike or fpike ; and this implement, we may imagine, was worn at the back, hung bya hook fixed in the centre of its handle, with aloop, or fome other contrivance, to keep it nearly perpendicular. Father Daniel has engraved one of thefe mallets, which, in form, exa¢tly refembles the pre- fent wooden inftrument of that name, except that its handle is fomewhat longer. This weapon feems to have been of French extraétion; for we find, that in the reign of Charles VI., on occafion of a riot, the populace forced open the arfenal, and armed themfelves chiefly with mallets, whence they were ftyled ‘ Mailliotins.”? Mallets were tre- mendous weapons in the hands of ftrong aétive men, fuch as are defcribed to have wielded them in the following verfes ¢ <« Two Scotch earls of an ancient race, One Crawford called, the other Montrofs, Who led twelve thoufand Scotchmen ftrong, Who manfully met with their foes With leaden malls and lances long.” « Then on the Englifh part with fpeed The bills ftept forth, and bows went back ; The Moorifh pikes and malls of lead Did deal there many a dreadful thwack.” Grofe’s Mil. Ant. vol. 4. MALLETAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan ; Go miles E.S.E. of Cochin. Bbe MALLEUS, MAL MALLEWUS, in Anatomy, one of the {mall bones contained in the cavity of thetympapum. See Ear. MALLI, in Ancient Geography, the inhabitants of the country now called Moultan, which fee. Their capital was fituated not far from the river Rauvee (anciently Hydraotes), fomewhat below the prefent town of Toulumba, which isa famous pafs on the Rauvee, between Lahore and Moultan. MALLICOLLO, or Manicora, in Geography, one of the New Hebrides, which, to the S.E., extends N.W. and S.E., and in that direétion is eighteen leagues long. Its greatelt breadth, which is at the S.E. end, 1s eight leagues, the N.W. end is two-thirds this breadth, and nearer the middle one-third ; a contraétion which is occafioned by a wide and pretty deep bay on the S.W. fide. Captain Cook reprefents it as fertile and well inhabited: the land ‘on the fea-coaft is rather low, and lies with a gentle flope from the hills which are in the middle of the ifland. The inhabitants, forming what Cook denominates an ape- like nation, are defcribed as the moft ugly ill-proportioned people he ever faw, and different from any met with in this fea. They are a very dark-coloured and diminutive race ; with long heads, flat faces, and monkey countenances. Their hair, moftly black or brown, is fhort and curly ; but not quite fo foft and woolly asthat ofanegro. Their beards are very ftrong, crifp, and bufhy, and generally black and fhort. But what moft adds to their deformity is a belt, or cord, which they wear round their waift, and tie fo tight over the belly, that the fhape of their bodies is not unlike that of an overgrown pifmire. The men go quite naked, except a piece of cloth, or leaf, ufed asa wrapper. Few women were feen, but they were not lefs ugly than the men ; their heads, faces, and fhoulders are painted red ; they wear a kind of petticoat ; and fome of them had fomething over their fhoulders like a bag, in which they carry their children. Their ornaments are ear-rings made of tortoife-fhell, and bracelets, wrought with thread or cord, and ftudded with fhells, worn juft above the elbow. Round the right wrift they wear hogs’ tufks, bent circular, and rings made of fhells, and round their left a round piece of wood, defigned probably to ward off the bow-ftring. The bridge of the nofe is pierced, in which they wear a piece of white ftone, about 14 inch long, and of a curved form. As figns of friendfhip, they prefent a green branch, and fprinkle water with the hand over the head. Their weapons are clubs and {pears, made of hard and iron-wood, and bows and arrows. The bows are four feet long, made of a {tick fplit down the middle, and partly circular ; the arrows are a fort of reeds, fometimes armed with a long fharp point of bone, and the points were covered with a fubitance found to be poifon. Their arrows they carefully preferve in a quiver; and fome of them are armed with two or three points, each with {mall prickles on the edges, to prevent the arrow from being drawn out of the wound. Their language is different from that of any other nation: the letter R often occurs in their words ; and they exprefs their admiration by hifling like a goofe. ‘Their houfes are like thofe of the other ifles, low, and covered with palm thatcl). Their fruits, fuch as the bread-fruit, plaintains, and cocoa-nut trees, are not fo good as thofe of the Society or Friendly Ifles ; but their yams appeared to be very good. Their animals are pigs and fowl; they have not fo much as a name for a dog, and confequently they have none. Pieces of cloth, and marbled paper, were articles which they moit efteemed; but edge tools, noils, and beads, they feemed to difregard. The harbour, vilited by captain Cook, is fituated on the N.E. fide of Malicollo, not far from the §.E., and in S. lat. 16 25' 20’. E. long. 167° 57! 23”, and was called by MAL him Port Sandwich. It lies in S.W. by S. about one league, and is one-third of a league broad. A reef of BB extends out a little way from each point ; but the channel is of a good breadth, and has in it from forty to twenty-four fathoms of water. In the port the depth of water is from twenty to four fathoms ; and it is fo fheltered, that no winds can difturb a fhip at anchor there. Another great advantage is, that you can lie fo near the fhore, as to cover your people, who may be at work uponit. Two reddifh fifh, refembling a large bream, and of the fame fize, were caught in the harbour, which appeared, by their effects on thofe who partook of them, to be poifonous. This fort of fifh is mentioned by Quiros under the name of pargos. Cook’s Second Voyage, vol. ii. See New Hesries. MALLING, West, or Town Malling, a market-town and parifh in the hundred of Larkfield, lathe of Aylesford, and county of Kent, England, is fituated fix miles diftant from Maid{tone, and thirty from London. The manor was given, fays Lambard, “ to Burbicus, bifhop of Rochefter, by King Edmund, the brother of Athelftane, under the name of Three Plough-lands in Mealinges.’? After a tem- porary alienation, it was reftored to the bifhops of this fee, previoufly to the Domefday Survey, at which time “here were a church and a mill.” Inthe year 1090, bifhop Gun- dulph founded a Benediétine nunnery here, and endowed it with the manor, church, and other eltates: he governed it in perfon during his life, but direéted that in future it fhould be under the jurifdiction of an abbefs, fubordinate to the bifhops of Rochefter. In 1190, the abbey, as it was then called, and the village, fuffered by fire, but were foon re- ftored : in the time of king John, the abbefs had a grant of free-warren for all her demefne ; and Henry III. added the privilege of a weekly market, and three annual fairs. After the diffolution, the manor and abbey-buildings were exchanged with archbifhop Cranmer, and have fince pafled through various families to the Honeywoods. The late Filmer Honeywood, efy. pulled down the abbey-houfe, and — with the materials erected the prefent manfion, preferving, as much as poffible, the ancient ftyle and form. It is now the refidence of George Talbot Hatley Foote, efq. Many parts of the conventual pile are, however, yet ftanding, ~ being ufed as offices, together with a portion of the weit end of the abbey-church, which is an interefting remain of Norman architeéture, and is ornamented with {culptures of heads, animals, and interfeéting arches. ‘I'he abbey grounds are watered by a clear ftream, which flows from Nether- Well, in the hamlet of St. Leonard's ; where is yet ftanding the ruined tower of St. Leonard’s chapel, a very ftrong re- main, much refembling the keep of a Normar cattle: its prefent height is feventy-one feet ; the walls are feven feet in thicknefs. ; The town of Welt Malling confifts principally of one fpacious ftreet, well built, and about half a mie in length, together with feveral detached manfions belonging to re- fpeétable families. The parifh-church is a large fabric, con- fitting of a nave and chancel, with a Norman tower : the nave has been moftly rebuilt fiuce the year 1778, when the whole roof fell in, through the decay of the main columns. Here are fome ancient and curious braffes. A {mall free-fchool was built in 1632, by a bequeit of Mr, Francis 'Trefle. The population return in the year 1801, ftated the in- habitants of Weft Malling to be 1093, occupying 192 houfes. In Eaft Malling, a village about a mile diftant, is Brad- ‘bourne, the feat of fir John Papillon Twyfden, bart., which, though not particularly extenfive, forms one of the moft delightful refidences in Kent. Some good portraits of ne learne MAL learned judge Twyfden, who died here in 1666, are pre- ferved in Bradbourne-houfe. Hafted’s Hiftory and Topo- graphical Survey of Kent, twelve vols. 8vo. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. MALLOCOCCA, in Botany, fo called by Forfter and in the Upfal TranfaCtions, is a {pecies of Grewia. See that article. MALLOTUS, according to Loureiro, was fo named from pxrdwro:, hairy, the capfule of this plant being pro- fufely and remarkab'y befet with hairs. Loureir. Cochinch. v. 2. 635.—Clafs and order, Diecta Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Tricoccee, Linn. Luphorbia, Juff. Gen.Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of three roundifh, concave, woolly leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments nu- merous, fhort, inferted into the receptacle; anthers two- lobed, roundifh.—Female, Ca/. Perianth of three triangular, equilateral, hairy, expanded leaves. Cor. none. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh, three-lobed; ftylenone; ftigmas three, oblong, hairy, coloured, reflexed. Peric.. Capfule roundifh, of three lobes, fix valves, and three cells, fingle- feeded, covered with a multiplicity of long and foft hairs. Seeds roundifh on one fide, angular on the other, remaining on their proper ftalks upon the receptacle, after the capfule has fallen away. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of three leaves. Corolla none. Stamens numerous.—Female, Calyx of three leaves, infe- rior. Corollanone. Stigmas three. Capfule three-celled. Seeds folitary, ftalked. Obf. Loureiro remarks, that this genus is nearly related to Cliffortia, but that it differs in having the capfule fuperior and three-celled, as well as in having three feffile {tigmas. 1. M. Cochinchinenfis. Cay. Bet. of the natives. Loureir. —Found about hedges and negle¢ted gardens, in Cochin- china and China.—The only fpecies known.—This ¢ree is of middling height, with fpreading branches. Leaves alter- nate, roundifh, generally three-lobed, a few however are undivided, ovate, pointed, all of them ftand on footftalks, are toothed and downy. Flowers reflexed, in loofe clufters, ending in a fpike. Loureiro found the Male Flowers of Mallotus occafionally to vary, in having their calyx-leaves lanceolate, hairy, and fpreading. Filaments upwards of forty, fhorter than the calyx ; anthers ovate, ereét.—He met with this variety growing near Canton, but could find no female flowers in that neighbourhood. MALLOW, in Botany, &c. See Marva. Mat.ow, Baflard. See Marope. Mattow, Jews’. See Corcnorus. Mat tow, Jndian, See Urena. Mattow, Jndian, or Yellow. Matiow, Rojee See Axcea. Mattow, Sea, Malva marina, in Natural Hiflory, a name not very judicioufly given by fome writers to a {pecies of fubmarine fubftance, fuppofed in fome degree to refemble the leaves of the common mallow. It is very common in the places where they fifh for coral, and grows to the rocks without any regular root ; it is found at different depths, ’ but moft ufually far from the furface, and its height is ufu- ally about two inches ; it is of a dufky greenifh colour, with an admixture of faint yellow; it is compofed of feveral leaves about half an inch broad, and a little more than that in length: each of thefe is faltened to a pedicle of about an inch and a half long ; the leaves are of a fine thin membrana- ceous fubftance, but their {talks or pedicles are thick and rough hke horn, When examined by the microfcope many glandules difcover themfelves upon the furfaces of the leaves, See Sipa. MAL but the ftalks or pedicles are entirely covered with glandules in form of {mall protuberances, which make it as rough in thofe parts as the common fhagreen. The ftalks when cut tran{verfely fhew an infinite number of pipes or veflels run- ning up to every part of the leaves. Count Marfigli has given an elegant figure of this, both as it appears to the naked eye, and by the microfcope. Mattow, Syrian, in Botany. ‘See Hrziscus. Mattow, 7ree, varied-leaved, or Venetian. TERA. Mattow, Vervain, a {pecies of the malva, or common mallow. Some have called the alcea by this name. Mattow, Yellow. See Sina. Mattow, in Geography, a poft-town of the county of Cork, Ireland, fituated on the river Blackwater, over which it haga ttone bridge. It ismuch frequented on account of a foft and tepid {pring (difcovered in 1724), of the fame nature and efficacy as the Hot-wells of Briftol. Mallow was incorporated in 1688, and is governed by a provoft and burgeffes ; and it fends a member to parliament. It is 117 miles S.W. from Dublin, and 15 N. by W. from Cork. A traét of country on each fide of the river con- {titutes the liberties of Mallow, and is inhabited by feveral refpettable families. MALM, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to a fort of white marley clay. It isa fubftance that has been found beneficial on foils of the ftiff clayey kind when laid on in pretty large proportions, as about fixty tons er acre. In one inftance of this kind of foil, mentioned in the fourth volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, when applied in this proportion on a very large feale, the produce was full three times as great per acre, as in the ori- ginal ftate. Itis afferted that the quality of this fub{tance may be beft proved by common vinegar ; in which cafe a por- tion fhould be dried, and put into a wine glafs full of vinegar ; when, if it inftantly begins to effervefce and attract the acid, it may be depended on to be highly ufeful as a manure. It may be ufed in other cafes alfo with great benefit. MALMEDY, in Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a diftrict, in the department of the Ourte ; 23 miles E.S.E, of Liege. The place contains 4344, and the canton 12,007 inhabitants, ona territory of 232} kiliome- tres, in fix communes. ‘This town has fome mineral fprings, which are reckoned equal, if not fuperior, to thofe of Spa. Its principal manufacturers are employed in making cloth and drefling of cotton. The town was taken by the French in Oétober, 1794. N. Jat. 51° 24’. E. long. °o pl MALMESBURY, a borough, market-town, and parifh inthe northern part of Wiltfhire, England, is a place of note in the monaftic annals of the country, and {till retains fome interefting remains of its ancient fplendour. Its early hiftory is involved in doubt, and is fo blended with the romances of monachifm and fuperttition, that it is difficult to feparate the facts from the fables of old chronicles. Le- land ftates that a caltle was built here four or five centuries before the Chriftian era. Other writers fay that Dunwallo- Malmutius, king of the Britons, gave it the appellation of Caer Bladon, and that it was afterwards fucceffively deno- minated Ingleburne, Maildulfburgh, Aldelm{birig, and Meil- dunum. The hiftory of this town is intimately connected with the hiftory of its religious eftablifhents. A convent of Britith nuns, under the direction of Dinoth, is faid to have been fettled here towards the clofe of the fixth century, but its inhabitants being accufed of living in a {late of incontinency with See Lava- MAL with the foldiers in the caftle, it was fuppreffed by Augutftin, the firft archbifhop of Canterbury. About this time Me- dolph, a Scot, remarkable for his piety and ftrict holinefs of life, who had left his own country on account of perfe- cution, fixed his refidence here, and eftablifhed a {chool for his fupport. Having colleted a number of perfons difpofed to embrace a monattic life, he built a {mall monaftery, which was fhortly afterwards received under epifcopal jurifdiGtion. The town, at this period, feems to have been a place of con- fiderable importance, but no records in its fecular hiftory are extant prior to the year 875, when it appears to have been attacked and burned by the Danes. It afterwards fuffered again by fire in the reign of Edward the Elder, who contti- tuted it a borough by charter, fo that it is amongit the moft ancient corporations in the kingdom. In the time of his fucceffor Athelftan, two battles appear to have been fought in this neighbourhood, with the piratical invaders, already mentioned, in which the men of Malmefbury difplayed great valour, and in confequence received a confirmation of their charter, with additional privileges. The place was fubfe- quently the theatre of the conteft, which king Stephen had to maintain againft his turbulent barons, as well as again{t his competitor Henry of Anjou. The latter prince having laid fiege to, and took it in avery fhort time, together with the cattle, except one tower, which finding too ftrong to be taken by affault, he blocked it up with the view of reduc- ing it by famine, and notwithftanding the vigorous attempts of Stephen to produce its relief, ultimately effected his ob- je&. After this period nothing worthy of notice occurs in the hiftory of Malmefbury, till the era of the civil wars in the reign of Charles I. when it was feveral times befieged and taken both by the republicans and royalifts. This town is built on a commanding eminence, peninfu- lated by two ftreams which unite to form the lower Avon. According to the parliamentary returns of 1801, it then contained 207 houfes, and 1027 inhabitants, of whom 8 were returned as employed in different branches of trade, but this muft be erroneous. In former times it was much more extenfive than at prefent, many of the {ftreets defcribed in eld records being totally demolifhed. The principal manu- fa&ture carried on here is that of woollen cloth, for which it was famous at an early period, but a number of hands are employed in the leather trade, and in the manufaéture of gloves, parchments, glue, &c. Thereis a weekly market on Saturdays, and one alfo on the laft Tuefday of each month, called the great market. Befides the churches belonging to the eftablifhment, there are four places of public worfhip appropriated to the meetings of diffenters. ‘The only cha- ritable inftitutions are two alms-houfes, and two free {chools. It has been already mentioned that the original charter to this town was granted by Edward the Elder, and confirmed by his fucceffor Athelitan. Charters of confirmation, with ad- ditional privileges, were likewife beftowed by feveral fuc- ceeding monarchs. ‘The prefent one is dated in the reign of William III. and by virtue of it the government is vefted in an alderman, a high fteward, twelve capital burgeffes, and twenty-four affiftants. The alderman and high tteward, or their deputies, are juftices of the peace. The other perfons connected with the borough are flyled fandholders and commoners, In the latter charters the com- moners are denominated free-burgeffes, and conftitute the loweft members of the corporation. The landholders occu- py a fituation between them and the affiltant burgeffes, and are entitled by their office to the pofleffion of an acre of land for life. ‘I'wo members have been fent by this borough to MAL parliament, from the third year of the reign of Edward I. During the laft century it was celebrated ae its eleGtioncer- ing contefts, the higher branches of the corporation claim- ing the exclufive privilege of voting at eleCtions, while the lower members maintained their title to participate in the no- mination of their reprefentatives. ‘The point, however, was finally decided by a committee of the houfe of commons in the year 1796, in favour of the alderman and twelve capital burgefles, who will, therefore, probably enjoy their pri- vileges henceforth without oppofition. Malmefbury abounds with remains of antiquity, which fufficiently declare its former greatnefs, The moft extenfive and important of thefe is the abbey. By the donations and grants, both of princes and private individuals, this in- {titution foon rofe into great celebrity. The church was built in the form of acrofs, and the whole buildings are faid to have covered no lefs than forty-five acres of ground, including the garden and offices belonging to the monks. 'The church was a noble ftruéture of great extent, and furmounted by two magnificent towers, one of which ftood in the middle of the tranfept, and the other at the weft end. This, as well as every other portion of the monaftery, was built at differ- ent times, at leaft underwent fuch nea and repairs as, no doubt, changed materially the original edifice. The weftern front is faid by Brown Willis to have been an un- commonly fine piece of architeéture, and richly adorned with fculpture. Over the entrance, on this fide, was a very magnificent window filled with painted glafs. About a fourth of the building only now remains. Both the towers are long ago levelled with the ground, that at the weft end having Mis battered down during the civil wars, when, it is probable, the cloifters alfo were demolifhed, as no trace of them can be difcovered above ground. Part of a mofaic pavement, however, was found a few years ago, in a garden to the north-weft of the church which is fuppofed to have form. ed the floor of that portion of the monaftery. The fouthern porch of this church is a truly curious and interefting {pe- cimen of ancient architeGture. It confifts of two diftin& divifions ; an exterior arch, or coved recefs, with a feries of archivolt mouldings, charged with a great variety of f{culptured figures in baffo-relievo; within this is a fquare apartment, or veftibule, on each fide of which are large ftatues in baffo-relievo, and over the door is another com- partment, faid to be meant to reprefent the Deity on a throne, fupported by angels, and jutt within it is a*head, fup-. pofed to reprefent our Saviour crowned with thorns. Inthe interior, the nave is divided from the fide aifles by round co- lumns, with plain capitals, above which are three rows of arches. The groins in the vaulting are adorned with foliage and heads. On this altar-piece are carved griffins, dragons, and other grotefque figures. At the north-eaft of the church ftands a building, denominated the abbot’s houfe, the lower part of which is a remnant of that edifice. A particular hiftory and defcription of the abbey church, with feveral plates, illuftrative of its architeéture, have been publifhed in the firft volume of Britton’s “ Architeétural Antiquities of Great Britain.”’, The remains of the old parifh church of St. Paul ftands on the fouthern fide of the cemetery, and oppofite, on the fame fide, is the old vicarage houfe. ‘The building called Chapel-houfe, on the weftern fide of the town, is fuppofed to have conftituted the chapel of the ancient nunnery, alréady mentioned. ‘The White-lion inn, and the alms-houfe, toge- ther with the workhoufe, and fome other buildings, prefent remnants of more ancient ftructure, in general dedicated to religious purpofes, or conneéted with monattic eftablifhments, As MAL -As to the caftle, ere&ted by Roger, bifhop of Sarum, as fome fuppofe on the {cite of an older one, no traces of it .can now be difcovered with any certainty; but there is a well, ftill called the €aftle-well, which probably belonged to it. In the market place ftands a very beautiful market crofs of ftone, of an ottangular fhape, and much enriched with a va- riety of fculpture. About a mile fouth from the town lies a field, called «¢ Cam’s Hills,’’ in which are twe enclofures, one of them perfeétly fquare, and the other of an oblong fhape, both of which are ufually efteemed veltiges of a Ro- man encampment. ; Malmefbury no lefs claims the attention of the biographer than of the antiquary, fome of the g-eateft luminaries of remote and modern times having been born here. Among the more ancient worthies may be reckoned Meydulph, Aldhelm, Johannes Scotus, and Roger le Poer, all of them men diftinguifhed for their piety and learning. William of Malmefbury is one of the moft celebrated hiftorians this country can boaft of ; and Thomas Hobbs, whatever preju- dice may reply ‘to the affertion, was undoubtedly a philofo- pher of great acutenefs. He it was who laid the founda- tion of that moral and metaphyfical fyftem, the illuftration and developement of which have beltowed immortality on the names of Hartley, Hume, and Priettley. Moffatt’s Hiftory, &c. of Malmefbury, 8vo. 1805. MALMIGNATTO, in Natura! Hiffory, a name given by the inhabitants of the ifland of Corfica to a f{pecies of animal, or large infeé, called by fome tarantula, and igno- rantly fuppofed to be the fame with the tarantula of Apulia. (See Tarantuta.) This ifland produces neither wolves, ferpents, nor many other of the mifchievous and deftruétive animals which infeft the neighbouring countries : but it pro- duces two fpecies of this venomous infect, called the mal- mignatto ; the one of thefe has a round body, and the other an oblong ene, refembling that of our large kind of ant ; it has alfo fix legs, not eight, and never makes any web: from all which it appears not to bea {pider, but truly of the ant kind, though a monttrous fized one, and very venomous. The round-bodied kind, by its bite; occafions violent pains, a fenfation of coldnefs and cramps all over the body ; and the long-bodied one is yet more venomous. Its fting occa- fions an immediate lividnefs of the flefh, with intolerable cramps and convulfions over the whole body ; fometimes the natural evacuations by {tool and urine are alfo wholly ftopt by it. The cure, in both cafes, isto be attempted by cut- ting and cauterizing the wound, and drefling it with Ve- nice treacle, as alfo by giving the fame in large dofes dif- folved in wine. MALMISCH, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the overnment of Viatka, on the Viatka; roo miles S. of Wisk N. lat. 56° 44'. E.long. 50° 14!. MALMO, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N lat. 63° 13’. E. long. 18° 40’. MALMOE, a fea-port town of Sweden, reckoned by fome writers the capital of Scania or Schonen, fituated on the Sound. ‘This town is furrounded with walls, moats, and baftions, and is defended by feveral fortifications and a caftle towards the fea. Here are two burgo-matters, a good {chool, one Swedifh and one German church, an orphan- . houfe, a large market-place, fine regular ftreets, and fe- veral woollen manufactures; nine miles S.W. of Lund. Ni lat: §5° 36! 37". EB: long. 13° 2! 4!" MALMSAS, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ; 23 miles W.N.W. of Nykoping. MALMSEY, or Matvasy, a rich lufcious kind of wine brought from Greece or Candia; fo called from Mal- 12 MAL vafia, acity in Peloponnefus, the ancient Epidaurus, whenee this celebrated liquor was firft brought. That brought from Candia is now efteemed the beft. Maumsey, or Malvify, is alfo the name of a kind of muf- cadine wine brought from Provence. MALNAIR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of Sirhind; 40 miles S.W. of Sirhind. N. lat. 30° 26! E. long. 75° 25'. MALNOS, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sir- hind ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Sirhind. MALO, a town of Italy, in the Vincentin; 31 miles W. of Vicenza.—Alfo, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fonia. Mato, or Maloes, St. a fea-port town of France, and principal place of a diftrict, in the department of the Ille ‘and Vilaine, fituated on a {mall ifland joined to the conti- nent by a mole, at the head of which is a {trong fort. Be- fore the revolution, it was the fee of a bifhop fuffragan of Tours, who was lord of the town. The harbour is large, and much frequented, though difficult of accefs on account of the rocks which furround it. It is {trong by ite fituation on a peninfula, conneéted with the land by a narrow mole about fix or feven hundred yards in length, and by the de- fence of 250 pieces of cannon mounted on its ramparts. But as it has no outworks, its fortifications could not long refilt a regular fiege; its ftrength both by nature and art lies towards the fea.. Several attempts have been made againt{t it, at different times, but without fuccefs. It hasal- ways been a port for privateers, and on this account has been injurious to the trade of England. N. lat. 48° 39! 3"". W. long. 2° 1! 26”. Mato-de-la-Lande, St., a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié&t of Coutances, The place contains 449, and the can- ton 10,252 inhabitants, on a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 13 communes. MALOBATHRUM, among the Romans, a precious kind of ointment, brought from the Indies through Syria to Rome. MALOGOGCZ, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Po- land, in the palatinate of Sandomirz 3 60 miles W. of San- domirz. N. lat. 50° 4’. E. long. 20° 18). MALOGRANATUM. See Pomegranate. MALOIAROSLAVETZ, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the government of Kaluga ; 32 miles N. of Ka- luga. N. lat. 55°. E. long. 36° 14!. : MALOKETSKOJ, a town of Ruffia, in the governe ment of Tobolfk ; 30 miles S.W. of Kam{koi. MALONG, a town of Hindoottan, in the Carnatic; 18 miles S. of Madura. MALOOD, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ci- cacole; 16 miles N.E. of Ganjam. MALOPE, in Botany, is thought by profeffor Martyn to be a corruption of 2x1, & mallew.—Lion. Gen. 355. Schreb. 467. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.799. Mart. Mill. Did. v.3- Juffl. 272. Cavan. Diff 2.84. Desfont. Atlant. y. 2.120. Lamarck Illuttr. t. 583. (Malacoides, Tournef. t. 25.)—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Polyandria. - Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvaceae, Jul. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, double; outer of three, heart-fhaped, acute, permanent leaves; inner of one leaf, more erect, permanent. Cor. Petals five; inverfely heart- fhaped, abrupt, affixed at the bafe to the tube of the {ta- mens. Stam, Filaments numerous, united below into a tube, feparate and loofe above ; anthers nearly kidney-fhaped. Pift. Germens fuperior, roundifh ; ttyle fimple, the length ef MAL of the ftamens ; ftigmas many, fimple, briftle-fhaped. Pe- ric. Capfules roundifh, of many cells, equal in number to the ftigmas, forming a ‘little head. Seeds folitary, kidney- fhaped. Eff. Ch. Calyx double, the outer one of three leaves. Capfules irregularly heaped together, fingle-feeded. 1. M. malacoides. Linn. Sp. Pl. 974. Cavan. Diff. t. 27. f. 1.—Leaves oblong, obtufe, undivided, notched, fmooth above. Stalks folitary, axillary. —A native of mea- dows in Tufcany and Algiers.—Root annual. Stem ere&, hairy, rough. Leaves fomewhat heart-fhaped ; the lower ones obtufe ; the upper generally three-lobed. //owers rofe-coloured ; the petals wedge-fhaped, truncated. Fruit colleéted into a head, like the blackberry.—The whole plant has greatly the appearance of a mallow, efpecially in the fhape and colour of its flowers. Desfontaines notices a va- riety of this, whofe leaves and corolla are twice the ufual fize. 2. M. parviflora. Mart. Mill. Di&. L’Herit. Stirp. Nov. fafe. 5. 105. t. 50.—Calyx fimple. Leaves almoft heart-fhaped, even. _ Peduncles fearcely longer than the pe- tiole. Avnative of Peru, where it was difcovered by Dom- bey.—Root annual. Stem about a foot high, much branched, red, villofe. Leaves alternate, on footftalks, nerved, bright green. Flowers axillary, on ftalks, folitary, occafionally two together, purple.—Profeflor Martyn obferves that “there are other Peruvian {pecies with a fimple calyx, which might therefore conftitute a diftinct genus.” 3. M. multiflora. Willd. n. 2. Cavan. Diff. 2. 85.— Leaves roundifh, undivided, notched, villofe. Stalks three or four together, axillary.—A native of Spain.—Cavanilles deferibes it thus. “ Stem about fix inches high, not much branched. Flowers {mall and white. #ruit proportionably larger than in the other fpecies.”” 4. M. trifida. Willd. n. 3- Cavan. Diff. t. 27. f. 2. —Leaves oblong, three-lobed, pointed, toothed, {mooth. Stalks folitary, axillary.—Found in meadows both in Spain and Barbary. —Willdenow fays it differs from the lait in having its eaves three-lobed, more acute, and thicker. Matopr, in Gardening, contains a plant of the herba- ceous kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is, the betony- leaved malope (M. malacoides. ) : Method of Culture.—This plant may be increafed by fow- ing the feeds, in the places where the plants are defigned to remain, as it does not bear tranfplanting well; when they are fown upon a warm border in Auguit, the plants alfo frequently ftand through the winter, and flower early the following feafon, fo as to produce good feeds; but when fown in the fpring, this is rarely the cafe. It is moftly neceffary that the plants fown in the {pring in pots fhould be proteéted in winter under a frame. ‘They feldom continue longer than two or three years at moft, as good plants. All of them afford variety among other plants in the bor- ders, clumps, &c. of ornamented grounds. MALOPINGOVSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the province of Ufting ; 108 miles N. of Ulting. . MALORN, a {mall ifland in the N. part of the gulf of Finland. N. lat. 65° 32’. E. long. 23° 27!. MALO-RUSSIANS, the denominatiog of thofe people who inhabit the country between the Dnieper and the Do- netfk, calledin the maps Little Ruffia. They are defcribed by Dr. Clarke (Travels in Ruffia) as a race much fuperior tothe Ruflians 5 being not only of a better afpect, but more induftrious, more courageous, more cleanly, and mere polite. With regard to their cleanlinefs, a traveller might fancy him- it MAL felf tranfported from Ruffiato Holland. In their features, the Malo-Ruffians refemble the Coflacks; and the fimili- tude which both bear to the Poles, feems to imply a defcent from a common origin. In one point, however, viz. the love of liquor, the Malo-Ruffians are unfortunately as grofs delinquents as their neighbours to the ealtward. MALORY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 13 miles N.E. of Onffoor. MA LOSCHANY, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Pfkov ; 24 miles N.E. of Pfkov. MALOUCA, a town of Syria, which has two churches ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Damafeus. MALOUR, a town of Hindooflan, in Baramaul; 13 miles N. of Namacul. MALOWITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Ko- nigingratz ; feven miles E. of Gitfchin. , MALOWPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 48 miles W. of Lucknow. MAL-PADDY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 11 miles W. of Tripatore. MALPARTIDA, a {mall town of Spain, in the pro- vince of Eitramadura, containing a population of about 1300 inhabitanjs. It is tolerably well built; and has a handfome parifh church,’ built with granite, fupplied from an adjacent quarry ; about three miles from Placentia. MALPAS, a mountain of France, through which the Languedoc canal paffes. Matpas, a market town and parifh in the hundred of Broxton, and county palatine of Chefter, England. It is fituated on a lofty eminence at a fhort diftance from the river Dee. The name of this place is fuppofed to have been derived from the term Mala-platea, illuftrative of the fteep, narrow, and intricate road by which it was anciently ap- proached. The manor was one of the baronies granted, at the time of the conqueft, to Hugh Lupus, earl of Chetter, from whem the prefent noble tamily of Cholmondeley is defcended. The magnificent cattle by which it was adorned for feveral centuries, is now fo entirely demolifhed, that fcarcely a veftige of it can be difcovered. ‘Three ftreets, tolerably well built and paved, form the chief part of the town, which, according to the parliamentary returns of 1801, contained 191 houfes, and go6 inhabitants. In the church is a vault, appropriated as the burying place of the earls of Cholmondeley, who derive their title of vifcount from this town. ‘Te living is a rectory, and being very va- luable, is divided into two portions, fupporting two reétors, and the like number of curates. Malpas has a Prec grant f{chool and alms-houfe, both of which were founded by fir Randle Brereton. Adjoining the town is Cholmondeley Hall, the magnificent manfion of earl Cholmondeley, a mo- dern building, feated on a pleafant, and fomewhat elevated {cite. The ancient ftruéture, though venerable in appear- ance, and moated round, was a very difagreeable refidence, - from being placed in a low and marfhy fituation. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. ii. 4to. MALPICA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 16 miles S.S.E. of Caftel Branco. MALPICO, a town of Spain, in Galicia, on the fea- coalt ; 20 miles W. of Corunna MALPIEV, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 25 miles W. of Toledo. MALPIGHI, Marcetto, in Biography, a celebrated Italian naturalift, was born at Crevalcuore, near Bologna, in 1628. Having devoted himfelf to the ftudy of medicine, which he felected for his profeffion by the advice of Natalis, his tutor in philofophy, he began to apply himfelf te ana- tomy MA EG EL tomy with great zeal under Maffari, who had a fchool for diffeGtion in his own houfe. He foon became diftinguithed by the philofophical {pirit of obfervation with which he purfued his enquiries, and his ardent zeal for natural knowledge was accompanied with fingular modefty. His merit procured him, in 1653, the degree of door in medicine, and the ap- ointment of profeffor of phyfic, in the univerfity of Bo- Jogna, in 1656: foon after which he was invited to Pifa by the grand duke of Tufcany, Ferdinand II. This prince, partly from his own hereditary tafte, and partly at the infti- gration of his accomplifhed brother, the cardinal Leopold de Medici, was very defirous of encouraging the arts and {ciences in his dominions. Here he formed a friendfhip with the celebrated Berelli, to whofe communications he ac- knowledges himfe'f indebted for the difcovery of the futility of the philofophy*of the fchools, and of the neceffity of ex- periment as the fo'e foundation of a true philofophy. The air of Pifa, however, did not agree with Malpighi, whofe health was always delicate, and he was obliged to return to Bologna in 1659, where he was immediately re-appointed to the profefforfkip of medicine. Here he refumed his inquiries with great diligence, and was the firft who employed the mi- crofcope in examining the circulation of the blood. In 1662, on the death of Cattelli at Meffina, Malpighi. was invited by the magiftracy to fucceed him as profeffor of medicine in that fchool, with a large falary. He cccupied this poft almoft four years with confiderable reputation ; but as he paid little refpeét to the do&trines of the Galenifts and Ara- bians, and excited much jealoufy in his colleagues, he be- came involved in controverfies, which rendered his life very uneafy. He therefore refolved to return to Bologna in 1666, and accepted the offers of his countrymen to continue among them, notwithftanding the preffing invitations which he received from Meffina to refume his chair in that city. His anatomical purfuits now occupied a great portion of his time, at a villa, in the vicinity of Bologna; and his reputa- tion extended throughout Europe, as a philofophical in- quirer ; fo that, in 1669, he was eleéted a member of the Royal Society of London ; which body afterwards teltified their regard for him by printing his works at its own expence. At Boldgna, he continued to teach others, and to inftrué& himfelf, with great reputation, till the year 1691. Car- ‘dinal Pignatelli, who had known him, during his own refi- dence as legate at Bologna, being that year raifed to the papacy, by the name of Innocent XII. chofe Malpighi for his chief phyfician and chamberlain. The latter of courfe gave up his academical appointments, and removed to Rome, where, having previoufly fuffered from gout and nephritic complaints, he died of an apoplexy at the palace of Monte Cavallo, November 29th, 1694, in the 67th year of his age. His remains were embalmed, and conveyed to Bologna, where they were interred with great funeral honours in the church of St. Gregory, and a ftatue was erected to his me- mory. He was married to the filter of his preceptor Maf- fari; but left no iffue. Malpighiis defcribed as a man of a ferious and melancholy temperament, which is confirmed by his portrait in the meeting-room of the Royal Society at So- merfet houfe. He was indefatigable in the purfuit of know- ledge, on the fure ground of experience and obfervation, ever candid in his acknowledgments to thofe who had given him any information, and devoid of all oftentation or preten- fion on the fcore of his own merits. He ranks very high among the philofophers of the phyfiological age in which he lived, the age of Harvey, of Redi, of Rudbeck, and of Bartholin, when nature bezan to be ftudied inttead of books, and the dreams of the {chools gave place to practical enqui- ries and obfervations. Hence arofe the ailkoverics of the Vor. XXII, circulation of the blood, the abforbent fyftem of the animal body, and the true theory of generation. To fuch im- provements the inveftigations of Malpighi, relative to the anatomy and transformation of infe&ts, particularly the filk- worm, and the developement of the chick in the egg, lent no fmall aid. From thefe enquiries he was led to the ana- tomy and phyfiology of plants, in which he is altogether an original, as well asa very profeund, obferver. His line of itudy was the fame as that of Grew, but thefe philofophers laboured independent of each other, and their frequent coin- cidence evinces the accuracy of both. See Grew. The firft work which he pubhfhed in 1661, and which was afterwards frequently reprinted, comprifed his microfco- pical obfervations relative to the intimate ftruéture of the lungs, and was entitled * Obfervationes Anatomic de Pul- monibus,”? fol. He publifhed feparate traéts eoncerning the brain, the tongue, the external organ of touch, the omentum, throat, and the adipofe ducts, between the years 1661 and 1665; and {ubfequently, other traéts refpeting the Rructure of the vifcera, the kidnies, fpleen, liver, mem- branes of the brain, &c. Malpighi became a fellow of our Royal Society, as we have already mentioned, in 1669, in which year his eflay “de formatione pulli in ovo’ was frit printed, at London, in quarto, as well as his remarks-on the ‘ Bombyx’? or filk- worm, and ‘ De Glandulis conglobatis,” forming his three « Diflertationes Eviftolice.’ His Anatome Plantarum,” addreffed to the Royal Society, accompanied by obferva- tions on the incubation of the egg, was publifhed by that learned body in folio, with many plates, in 1675 and 1679. His works were republifhed at London in 1686, making two folio volumes ; and more correétly at Amfterdam, in 1687, 4to. anda pofthumous volume appeared here, accompanied with an account of his life, in 1697, of which a’re-impreflion was given at Venice, and another at Leyden, the enfuin year. Some other differtations are to be found in the « Bib- liotheca Anatomica,” publifhed by Le Clerc and Marget at Geneva in 1685 ; efpecially « De Cornuum Vegetatione,” “ De Utero et Viviparorum Avis ;"’ and « Epiftole quedam circa illam de ovo diflertationem.”? His only medical work, “ Confultationum Medicinalium Centuria prima,’’ was edited by Gafpari, in 1713, gto. Patau. He is not, indeed, dif- tinguifhed as a practitioner, but he deferves praife for point- ing out the mifchiefs of blood-letting, in the malignant epi- demics prevalent in Italy in his time. An edition of the whole of his works was printed at Venice, in 1733, in folio, by Gavinelli. The merits of Malpighi as a vegetable anatomift are of the higheft and moft original kind. The ftru€ture and compo- nent parts of plants had been little attended to before he en- tered upon his enquiries. His illuftrations of their anatomy, as well as of their external configuration, even of fuch of their difeafes as arife from the attacks of infeéts, whence the various kinds of galls are formed, (fee Gatts,) are all no Jefs faithful than original. Asa vegetable phyfiologitt, too, he doubtlefs advanced very far ; and that fubje& being fo entirely new when he and Grew entered upon it, nothing could be more unju{t than to complain of the errors into which they have fallen. he principal of thefe, however, requires to be mentioned. They both conceived the woody fibres of plants to tranfmit the fap, though no perforation could be difcovered in them. If this hypothefis now excite our wonder, we mutt recolleét that no lefs a philofopher than Du Hamel adopted, and laboured with all his might to fup- port, the fame opinion. Grew went a ttep nearer the truth than Malpighi, when he obferved what they both took for trachea, or air-veffels, to be fometimes filled with fap ; but Ce he MAL he did not hence-correét his: original idea, of thofe {piral- coated veflels being the lungs of plants, nor were they, till very lately, known to be the real fap-veffela, or arteries of the vegetable frame. (See CincuLATION of ued GREW, and Du Hamer.) Malpighi Opera. Hall. Bibl. Bot. Dryandr, Bibl. Banks, Dit. Eloy Di&. Hift. de la Meéd. MALPIGHIA, in Botany, was named by Plumier in commemoration of the fcientific attainments of Marcello Malpighi, profeffor of medicine at Bologna, the celebrated vegetable anatomilt ; fee the laft article. Plum. Nov. Gen, 46. t. 36. Linn. Gen. 227. — Schreb. 306 and 803. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 731. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Aut. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 102. Juff. 253. Cavan. Diff. 8. 405. Lamarck Llluitr. t. 381.—Clafs and order, Decandria Trt- gynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn. Malpighia, Juff. r Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply five- cleft, ereét, very fmall, permanent, converging ; with two honey-bearing, oval, gibbous glands, adhering to three, four, or toall the fegments, on the outfide at the bottom. Cor. Petals five, orbicular, large, plaited, fringed, {fpreading, concave ; with long, linear claws. Stam. Filaments ten, sethepeds fhort, ere&t, forming a cylinder, combined at the bafe ; anthers ovate, or rather heart-fhaped. Pi/f. Ger- men fuperior, ovate ; ftyles three, two, or only one, fhort ; ftigmas globofe. Peric. Drupa globofe, torulofe, large, one-celled. Seeds three or two, bony, oblong, obtufe, an- gular, fingle-celled ; occafionally folitary, globofe, and three- celled. Kernels oblong, obtufe. Eff. Ch. Calvx of one leaf, very deeply five-cleft, with two honey-bearing pores at the bale of the fegments exter- nally. Petals five, roundifh, with claws. Filaments co- hering at thebafe. Drupa of one cell, with three feeds. Obf. Moft authors have defcribed the calyx of Malpig- hia as compofed of five leaves, but it is rather to be conii- dered as of one leaf only, very deeply cloven.—We find nine fpecies in Linnzus, thirteen in the new edition of Hortus eepantis and twenty in Willdenow, from which we feleét the following as {ufficiently iliuftrative of the genus. Many of them are beautifully figured in Jacquin’s works. M. glabra. Smooth-leaved Barbadoes Cherry. Linn. Sp. Pl. 609. Curt. Mag. t. 813.— Leaves ovate, entire, fmooth. Peduncles umbellated. —A native of the Welt India iflands, where it is cultivated for the fake of its acid pulpy fruit, in fize and fhape fomewhat refembling our cherries. Jacquin fays that the froit is ufually made into a preferve with fugar; but that he has eaten it in a crude ftate without fuffering any inconvenience. This tree flowers in the winter and fpring, and grows to the height of fixteen or eighteen feet, feldom however exceeding ten feet in this asad Trunk ere&, delicately branched. Leaves oppofite, nearly feffile, Flowers in terminal, axillary clufters, of a beautiful ink colour, and {weetly-feented, fomewhat like a jafmine. M. polyflachia. Many-{piked Barbadoes Cherry. Ait, Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 103. Andr. Repof t. 604.— Leaves entire, oblong, {mooth, fhining, with two glands at the bafe underneath. Clufters axillary. Flower-ftalks with one gland.—A native of ‘T'rinidad, and one of thofe {olendid plants fent over by lord Seaforth when he was go- vernor of Barbadoes, It flowered in the ftove of A. B. Lambert, efq. at Boyton, in Wilthhire, in the month of April, whence Andrews’s figure was taken.—A fh ub of free growth. Branches twiggys covered with a browaifh hark. Leaves oppolite, large and handfome, on filky briftly ttalks. Flowers in a {piked clufter, yellow, appearing in November, but not expanding till the {pring. MAL M. glandulifera, Quadriglandular Malpighia. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3.103. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 3. t. 469. — Leaves elliptic-ovate, acute, undulated, downy, with four glands at the bafe underneath. Clufters axillary on uniglandular ftalks.—A native of woods in the Caraccas, flowering in our fteves about July or Auguft, but never bearing fruit.— This /brub is about twelve feet high, branched. Leaves op- pofite, on fhort footitalks, from three to five inches long. Clufters axillary, folitary. Petals yellow, crifped at their edges. with furrowed claws and roundifh borders. M. urens. Stinging Barbadoes Cherry, or Cowhage Cherry. Linn. Sp. Pl. Gog. Cavan. Difl. 8. t. 236. f.11. (Mefpilus americana 5; Tournef, Init. 642.)—Leaves oblong- ovate, with rigid, decumbent briitles underneath. Stalks fingle-flowered, aggregate.—Native of -South America, flowering from July to Odtober.—Stem about three feet . high, covered with a brownith daré, much branched. Leaves — acutely pointed, feffile, very finely clothed beneath with de- preffed needle-like briftles. Flowers of a light purple co- lour, on long, flender ftalks, four, five, or fix together in a fort of whorl. Seed not perfected in England, M. crafifolia. Thick-leaved Barbadoes Cherry. Linn, Sp. Pl. 610. Brown. Jam. 231. Aubl. Guian. t. 182.— Leaves obovate, acute, entire, downy beneath. Clutters terminal. — Found in the Welt India iflands, and at Guiana. —The trunk of this free is fixteen feet or more in height, branched at the fummit. eaves oppolite, thick, fomewhat rigid, {mooth and green above, downy and rufty-coloured beneath. Flowers in a long, terminal, cluitered fpike, yel- low. Among the Caribbees this plant is called Moureila. M. volubilis. "V'wining Barbadoes Cherry. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3., 105. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 809.— Branches twining. Leaves oval, acute, fhining. Clulters corymbofe, terminal—A native of the Welt Indies, flower- ing is our ftoves during the Autumn. — Stem thrubby. Bark befet with warty excrefcences, of am extremely fmall fize. Leaves oppofite, drooping, on weak, flattith footitalks, Flowers chiefly terminal, yellow, of very fhort duration.— « This fhrub (fays Dr. Sims) is known in our ourferies by the name of Hirea reclinata, but does not at all correfpond with the charaéter of that plant in Jacquin’s Hifforia Stir- pium Americanarum.” r M. coccigera. Linn. Sp. Pl. 611. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 470. —Leaves {ubovate, toothed, or {piuous.—Found alfo im the Welt Indies—Stem two or three feet high, branched. Leaves lucid, cut off apparently at the ends, thorny, Plowerg lateral, on fingle-flowered /fa/ks, pale blufh-coloured. Profeffor Martyn has added five {pecies from Jacquin, which are unnoticed by other authors, though perhaps com- prehended by them. Thele are called martinicenfis, diphyl- la, odorata, grandifolia, and altiffima.—Jacquin fays alfo that the fruits of feveral {pecies of Malpighia are gathered pro- mifcuoufly and eaten in the Welt Indies. They havea plea- fant acid flavour, which is always grateful to the inhabit. ants of hot climates. M. glabra however is molt efteemed on this account.—This genus is well deferving of attention from cultivators poffeifed of ftoves or hot-houfes, becaufe many of its fpecies retain their leaves alb the year, and con- tinue flowering from December to March, when there is the greatett {earcity of other flowers. : : Matprieuia, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the exotic, evergreen, fhrubby kind for the ftove, of which the {pecies cultivated are, the {mooth-leaved Barbadoes cherry (M. glabra); the pomegranate-leaved Barbadoes cherry (M. punicitolia); the flinging Barbadoes cherry (M. urens); the narrow-Jeaved Barbadoes cherry (M. an- gultifolia) ; the fhining-leaved Barbadoes cherry (M. niti- da) 5 MAL da); the thick-leaved Barbadoes cherry (M. eraffifolia); the mullein-leaved Barbadoes cherry (M. verbafcifolia) ; and the {carlet grain-bearing Barbadoes cherry (M coccigera). ~ Method of Culture. —All thefe forts of plants may be in- ereafed by fowing the feeds in the {pring in pots of light rich earth, and plunging them in a hot-bed. When the plants have attained a few inches in growth they fhould be planted out into feparate {mall pots, re-plunging them in a bark hot-bed in the ftove ; where they fhould remain the two firft winters, being afterwards placed in a dry ftove, and kept ina moderate warmth, water being occafionally given in {mall quantities at atime. They all afford ornament among collections of plants of fimilar kinds in hot-houfes. MALPIGHIA, in Botany, fo called from the principal enus among them, a natural order of plants, the 67th in _ Juffien’s fyitem, or feventh of his thirteenth clafs. For the charaéters of this clafs, fee Gerania and GuTTiFER&. The Malpighia ave thus defined. Calyx in five deep divilions, permanert. Petals five, al- ternate with the calyx, furnifhed with claws, and inferted into a glandular dif placed under the germen. Stamens ten, inferted into the fame difk, five of them oppofite to the pe- tals, the five alternate ones oppofite to the fegments of the calyx ; the filaments are fometimes united at their bafe, an- thers roundifh. Germen either fimple or three-lobed ;_ ftyles three; ftigmas three or fix. uit either confilting of three capfules, or of three cells, the capfules or cells fingle-feeded. Corculum deltitute of albumen, with a ftraight radicle, thé lobes reflexed at their bafe. The plants are either {mall trees or fhrubs. Leaves oppofite, fimple, with more or lefs ap- pearance of ftipulas. F/ower-/lalks {ometimes terminal, more frequently axillary, either fingle-flowered and feveral together, or folitary and many-flowered, the flowers either fomewhat umbellate, or {piked, or panicled, their partial flalks being, for the molt part, jointed in the middle, and furnifhed there witha pair of {mall {cales. The firlt feGticn, with a three-lobed germen, and a fruit of three capfules, contains Banifferia and Triopteris. The fecond fection, with a fimple germen.and fruit, confifts of Malpighia alone ; fee the preceding article. A third fection, of genera allied to the above, comprifes77i- gonia of Aublet, and Lrythronium of Browne and Linnzus. Cavanilles refers the genera of this order to the clafs Mo- nadelphia of Linneus, on account of a flight, and by no means univerfal, combination of the bafes of their filaments ; or rather perhaps from the infertion of thofe parts into one common anuular dif or receptacle. This appears to us to be not only forcing nature, but to lead to much inconve- nience in practice. It is the error of thofe who, undertak- ing the ftudy or explanation of any particular tribe, or fa- mily, of natural productions, are ever defirous of augment- ing it by all poflible means, and perhaps, with prejudiced eyes, fee almott every thing as appertaining to their favourite fubject. MALPLAQUET, in Geography, a village of Hainaut, famous for a battle fought there Sept. 11, 1709, between the allies under the command of the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, and the French under marfhals Villers and Boufllers. Vi¢tory was valiantly and obftinately con- telled ; tall at lenyth the field of battle was abandoned to the confederates, who loft on this occafion 20,000 of their belt troops, whereas the vanquifhed enemy did not lofe half the number; 8 miles S.IE. of Mons. MALPOLON, ia Zoology, the name of a fpecies of ferpent found in the ifland of Ceylon, and beautifully va- siegated with red marks in the form of ftarss MAL MALSARA, in Hindoo Mythology, a manifettation of the goddefs Parvati to accompany her lord Siva, in his avata- ra, or incarnation, under the name and formof Kandeh Rao, which fee. She and her lord are very popular deities in the country of the Mahrattas, where, at the elegant temple of Jejury, they are propitiated by numerous pilgrims. (See Jesury.) It does not, however, appear that the tales re- lated of this avatara are extenfively known, or that they are to be found in any very ancient books. MALSCH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Ba- den ; ten miles E. of Spire. “ MALSESENA, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe; 18 miles N.N.W. of Verona. MALSKAR, two fmall iflands in the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 55’. E. long. 21° 7'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 55’. E. long. 2aP 7! MALT, in Agriculture, a name applied to barley, after it has undergone the procefs of malting ; as by this means it becomes fit for making ale, beer, or other fimilar liquors. It is faid, that the foil on which barley grows makes a confiderable difference in the grain, and that the barley fitteit for malt 1s that which grows ona rich, light, or gra- velly foil, and which has been raifed from feed brought from a farm of a different foil and fituation. The fulleft and largef{t grained parts of fuch crops fhould be cliofen for making mait. It fhould be heavy, and perfectly found, and fuch as has not fuffered any accident in the field. Its being a very little heated in the mow is by fome confidered rather an advantage, as the grain will be more equally dried, and will confequently the more equally imbibe water ; but when it has been fo much hurt in the mow as to look blackifh when broken at the thick end, it is unfit to make good malt. It is alfo found by experience, that barley taken immediately from the field does not malt fo kindly as that which has been fome time in the houfe or mow. And particular care fhould be taken that it is free from the feeds of weeds; for thefe in the malting are apt to give the grain a bad tafte, which cannot afterwards be got rid of. It is noticed that in the procefs of germination, all the principles of the grain are put in action. ‘The heat which it undergoes feparates and divides its parts ; and the vifcidity which it before poffeffed, 1s removed or converted intoa {weet principle, or fugar. But in order to its being malted, the barley is put intoa ciftern lined with lead or ftone, and covered with water about fix inches deep above the barley, to give room for its {well- ing. All the good grains fink in the water, but after ftir- ring it, the imperfeét or diftempered ones rife to the furface. Thefe fhould be fkimmed off, arid given to poultry or hogs, for they will never make good malt. By the water’s gaining admittance into the barley, a great quantity of the air is'ex- pelled, as appears from the number of bubbles which rife on the furface. It is ufual for the barley to be left in the water two or three days, more or lefs, in proportion to the heat of the weather and the drynefs of the grain. A judgment is form- ed that grain is fully faturated with water, from its appear- ing turgid, and eafily giving way to an iron rod, dropped perpendicularly into it. Or, by taking a cern from the middle of the ciftern, and holding it fteadily, by the two ends, between the fore-finger and thumb ; prefling it gently, and if it continues firm when fo prefled, and the {kin does not break, it muft foak longer ; but if it crufhes together and feels mellow, and tbe ikin crack, it is watered enough, Nicety in this is a material point, and can be learnt only by experience. If the grain fhould be fuffered to remain too ca long MA long inthe water, it would begin to lofe part of its fweet- nefs. When it has been fteeped fufficiently, the water is drawn off. And the water ufed for this purpofe fhould be that of a clear running ftream, or rain-water; or if fuch cannot be had, pond-water, provided it be fweet and clean, wall do very well ; or pump-water, which fhould be rendered foft, if it be naturally hard. If the water made ule of is any way tainted, it communicates to the malt a tafte which it never lofes. When taken from the ciflern, the barley is laid ina regu- lar heap, where it muit remain thirty hours, or till it con- traéts a heat. It mutt then be worked in one or more heaps, and turned every four, fix, or eight hours, according to the temperature of the air ; and as it comes, as its {piring is com- monly termed, the beap mutt be fpread thinuer to cool it, left it be heated too mich, and the germination be carried on too falt. The turning of it mult be continued in proportion as it is more or lefs flow in growth, fo that it may be brought tolerably dry tothe fkin. When the {pires begin to deaden, the couch mult be thickened again, and often turned, that the growth of the fprout may not revive. At this time the {pire fhould be near piercing through the outer fkin of the barley ; as if it grows quite out, the {trength of the melt will be too much confumed. After the malt is made thus far, the common practice is to lay it at once on the kiln: but the beft way is to gather it all up in one heap, to let it lie in that {tate for bata hours, and then to turn it every fourth hour during the fpace of twenty-four hours. No perfon fhould be Fffered to tread on the malt with their fhoes while it is onthe floor, becaufe many grains are inevi- tably bruifed thereby, and thefe, vegetating no longer, af- ford the roots of the other grains a fub{ance into which they extend their fibres, and are by that means entangled in bunches: and befides this, the bruifed corn acquires a de- gree of putrefaction which taints the liquor made from the malt. Equal care fhould alfo be taken, that the grain be not bruifed by any other means. According to fome, the time moft proper for malting is, when the temperature of the air is fuch, that the grain naturally begins to germinate. How far the limits may be extended, experience alone can determine, The warmer the weather is, the greater muft be the difadvantage under which the malt{ter labours ; becaufe the motion of the fluidsis then fo ftrong, that the procefs goes on too quick, and the finer parts are apt to fly off, the confequence cf which is, that initead of a {weet, the malt inclines to a bitter tafte. This is fo univerfally experienced, that brewers carefully avoid purchafing what is termed latter made malt. The grain thus prepared for drying is fpread on the kiln, where, meeting with a heat greater than is fuited to vege- tation, its farther growth is ftopped. It is {pread on the kiin three or four inches thick, and turned every three or four hours. The laying of it thicker is attended with in- conveniences, among which is particularly its being unequally dried ; and therefore that fhould be avoided. The ftrength and duration of the fire are different, according as the malt is intended to be dried pale, amber, or brown. ‘(he pale malt requires more leifure, and lefs fire, than the amber or brown. Pale aud amber malt are dried with coke or culm, which not emitting any fmoke, give it a brighter colour, and do not communicate that bad flavour which it has when dried with wood, ftraw, &c. Coke is belt, as it affords a fleady and conftant heat, whereby the malt is dried more uniformly. Where wood, or any vegetable fuel is ufed, it fhould be extremely well dried, in order that, being as free as poflible from moifture, it may yicld lefs fmoke, L T. An ingenious and attentive maltfter found the degree of: heat in the malt whilft on the floor to be, during the firft ten days, between fifty and fixty degrees, During the next three or four days, from fixty to fixty-five, and feventy-feven degrees; and during the laft days of its being there eighty, eighty-four, and eighty-feven ; which laft was the degree of heat when the malt was put on the kiln, ‘There cannot be any abfolute rule as to the difference of heat durin the different times in the procefs of malting, becaufe it mut be fuited to the heat of the air; at leaft we have not yet fufficient data whereon to found fuch a calculation, The heat of the malt on the kiln, when fit for pale malt, was 120 degrees, and when it was fit for krown malt, 147. The obfervation, that malt is fit for what is called pale, when its heat is 120 degrees, fuggefls a caution which fhould be carefully attended to, namely, that whatever colour it be intended to give the malt, the heat at firft fhould be the fame : thus, for example, malt which is dried to the degree of high brown, fhould firlt be rendered pale malt, then am- ber, and fo on progreflively ; not by a fudden increafe of the fire, but by a longer continuance of it. In this manner the whole body of the grain is equally and gradually dried; whereas a {trong and quicker fire would parch, or as it were, finge the outfide, while the internal parts remained moift ; and as that moifture is afterwards evaporated, it muft crack the furrounding hardened cruit, and damage the grain in an- other refpeét. As foon as the malt is dry, it muft be removed from the kiln, and fpread thin, that it may cool to the temperature of the air. It cannot be fuppofed that any of its parts are capable of retaining the heat in fuch a manner as not to fuffer it to efcape, though fome have conceived that to be the cafe. In proportion as malts are dried, their particles are more or lefs feparated, and coming in conta@t with water, they ftrongly attract from it particles which fill up their interflices. In mafhing, this atiion between the malt and the water generates a {mall degree of heat, but not dura- ble; though from hence arofe the opinion, that brown malt is full of tire or heat. . Tt fhould be {tated that the fize of the malt-kiln fhould be proportioned to the quantity of malt for which it is in- tended. Some build their kilns fquare, ard others make them round; but this lait is undoubtedly the beft form, as. the heat of the fire is more equally diffufed therein, and the grain is of courfe more equally dried. Various fubftances have been made ufe of for covering the kiln, {uch as tiles, plates of tin, and wire: of thefe the wire is to be preferred, becaufe it does not contraé& fo great a degree of heat as to parch the grain in contaét with it; but for this very reafon, hair-cloth is probably preferable to any other covering ; as when any part of the malt is in immediate contact with a fub{tance much more folid than itfel’, and therefore capable of receiving a proportionably greater degree of heat, the malt in contact wiih that heated body is parched or burnt, by the heat which is not equally diffuled through the whole mafs; which mafs cannot, therefore, be all equally heated. The hair-cloth is {pread upon {mall wooden rafters, and thefe are fupported by bars of iron laid acrofs the kiln. See Kin. There can be little doubt that the grain may, at a me- dium, be faid to lofe by malting one-fourth of its weight, including what is feparated from it by the {pires fereened off; but this proportion varies according as it is more or lefs dried. ‘The condition of the barley, as to its green- nefs or ripenefs, at the time of its beng gathered in, is clearly difcernible when it is malted. It it was gathered green, it rather lofes than gains in quantity ; the malt be- comes MA comes of a fmaller body, appears fhrivelled, and often is unkindly hard ; whilft, “on the contrary, that which was cut at full maturity increafes in malting, appears plump, bright, and clear, if properly carried through the procefs, and on being cracked, readily yields that fine mealy fub- ftance fo much defired by the brewers. Malt which has not had a fufficient time to fhoot, fo that its plume, or acro/pire, as the adepts in malting call it, may have reached the inward {kin of the barley, remains charged with too large a quantiry of its unattenuated matter. All thofe parts which have not been put in motion by the act of germination being, when laid on the kiln to dry, fo hardened as not to be readily foluble in water, and confe- quently will be loft to the ftrength of the liquor. When it is fuffered to grow too much, or until the {pire has fhot through the {kin of the barley ; though all that is left be malt, yet, as too large a portion of its effential part will have been expended in vegetation, the malt mult be greatly diminifhed in proportion to what it ought to have been, and what remains cannot be fo fit for brewing drink for long keeping. And fuch as has been duly worked on the floor will, if it has not been fufficiently dried on the kiln, be apt to germinate or fprout afrefh, perhaps take en a very great heat; and fhould it continue long with a mo- derate degree of heat, the jealt evil that can be expected is, that it will grow mouldy and have an ill favour. When it has been weil worked, but over dried, it will be fo hardened, that it will not imbibe from the air that moifture which is neceflary to mellow it, and render it fit for brew- ing ; for when it has been previoufly foftened by the moifture of the air, it mixes more eafily and more inti- mately with the water, and by that means yields a more copious extract than it would otherwife do. Such malt as has juft, or but lately been taken from the kiln, remains warm a confiderable time. Until it becomes as cool as the furrounding air, it does not mellow by the addition of a due quantity of moilture from the air ; and the wort made of fuch malt requires a much longer boiling before it breaks, than that which is made of malt fome months old. The praétice of fprinkling water upon malt newly taken from the kiln, to give it the appearance of having been made a proper time, or to plump it, is highly prejudicial, as tending not only to defraud, as lefs grain fills the bufhel, but if not ufed {peedily, heats, foon grows mouldy, and fuffers great damage. ¢ It is obvious, that malt dried on a kiln not fufficiently heated mult require a proportionably longer time for it to receive the due effect of the fire; for want of which it will be in the fame ftate as that not thoroughly dried. Or if the fire be too quick, or too fierce, initead of gently eva- porating the water from the corn, it fcorches the outward fkin, and feparates it from the body of the grain. The malt to which this happens is called brown malt, and is very bulky ; and if fuch a fire be continued, it changes fome parts of the grain into fo brittle a fubltance, that the malt 1s faid to be glafly. The particles which are thus hard- ened will not diffelve, or but in fmall proportion; fo that they frequently occafion au almo{t total want of extract, which, in the phrafe of the art, is termed the fetting the rift. t It is fuggefted that the goodnefs of malt may be known by the following marks: when a grain of itis broken, and it taftes mellow and fweet, breaks foft, and is full of flour from one end to the other, itis good. If it has a round full body, and upon putting fome grains into water, they {wim on the furface, it is good, Barley finks in water, and i fi: malt that is not well made will do the fame: but it is to be obferved that this is not an invariable proof, becaufe, if the malt be broken, or in the leaft cracked, it will take in water, and fink. Malt that is rightly made will not be ‘hard, but of fo mellow a nature, that if drawn over an oak board, acrofs the grain, it will leave a white line upon the board, like a mark of chalk. Its fmell alfo may be con- fulted ; for malt, though otherwife good, may have con- traéted an ill fcent from the fuel, or from the water ufed in the fteeping. In refpe&t to the changing the water in fteeping, fome maltiters think it no wife necefiary ; others, on the con- trary, approve of it, but do it indifcriminately in the fame proportion during the whole feafon, They are probably in both refpects wrong ; for the times when the water re- quires to be changed ofteneft, are the beginning and latter end of the feafon, in autumn and fpring, when the weather is warm; for in the middle of the winter the weather is too cold to admit of the water being at all changed to any advantage. Suppofe the barley to be left in [teep forty- eight hours in the {pring ; if the weather is inclinable to be warm, the water may in that fpace of time be changed three times ; in other cafes twice may be enough; but the beft rule is, as it is well known, that in the autumn and fpring, if barley is left too long onthe fteep in the fame water, the water will grow flimy, and fometimes four: the malt{ter fhould watch the changes of the water, and when he finds that it is {mooth and oily to the touch, and that it is inclinable either to fmell or tafte four, let him by all means have it inftantly changed; but he muft obferve, if he regards his intereit, a particular method even in doing this. The ufual way of changing the water is, firft to draw off that in which the barley was {teeping, and afterwards, by pails full, or by pumping, fill the ciltern again. But it is advifed, as a better method, to have fome water in readi- nefs to pour on immediately after the firft is withdrawn, as by that means the danger of heating is prevented. Much mifchief eften arifes from the not changing the water at thefe feafons. In converting this fubftance to the purpofe of brewing, it fhould be freed from the tails and dutt before it is ground, which would otherwife heighten the colour of the wort, render the liquor muddy, and give it a bad tafte, which cannot afterwards be got rid of. A cylindrical fieve will be ufeful for this purpofe. In grinding, when too {mall, its flour will mix too freely with the water, and caufe the wort to run thick. Many are of opinion that the beft way is only to crack it, fo that none of the grains may come out whole; for the intent is, that the water fhould draw out an extra¢t, but not be mixed with the mealy part, in the manner of a pafte or gruel, Some think that malt is better ground by a ftone-mill than by a fteel one, becaufe the former bruifes it, and the latter only cuts the grains. After it is ground it fhould lie fome time to mellow in acool room, where no fun comes. The time for this is different, according to its kind. Brown malt may be ground as from three to tour or five days before it is ufed, in order that the corn, which is rendered uncommonly hard by the degree of drying, may be gradually foftened by the moifture of the air; by which means it will become the more foluble in water. The pale malts require only one or two days. Atter lying thus in the air, lefs mathing fuffices ; the ftrength of the malt is more perfedtly ex- tracted, and the beer will be confiderably ttronger than it would be with the fame quantity of malt taken direétly from the kiln; but care muit be taken that it get no damage MA Further experiments on thefe points, -damage in lying. See however, are wanting to render them fatisfatory. Brewinc. «In addition to what has been ftated above, on the drying of malt, an experienced malt{fter remarks, that his conitant practice has been to give his malt as much drying as he could on the floor; this is not only a great faving of fuel, but alfo attended with feveral other advantages. ‘The malt, by being thus gradually divetted of its outward moilture, does net fhrink fo much when it comes to be laid on the kiln ; and of courfe it meafures to more advantage, and is befides of a better quality, having acquired no foreign tafte. It is fuppofed that where malt is laid very damp on the kiln, a thick {moky vapour immediately arifes from the fur- face of it, which, being repelled and condenfed by the cold circumambient air, falls again on the malt, where, by the heat from the furnace, it is a fecond time rarefied, and afcends in clouds of fleam: and that this alternate rare- faction and condenfation of the moifture is of great differ- vice to the malt, by often giving it a difagreeable mutty flavour, and making it more unfit for keeping. But by the method of fuffering the malt to receive a part of its dry- ing on the floor, this inconvenience is, it is believed, in a reat meafure avoided; as the grofs moilture is evaporated efore it is laid on the kiln, and that which remains creates no great SG of fteam, provided the fire in the furnace is not at firft made to burn too fierce. "he above malttter ftates that with this precaution he has often made pale malt as fie as he has feen any where, fuch as was cont{tantly praifed. In drying it, he took care that there was, during the whole time it was on the kiln, but a very moderate, yet equal, fire in the furnace. It is fuggefted in the fifth volume of the Farmer’s Ma- gazine, that the beft pale malt, for making beer, is only capable of being produced by drying it with fteam ; and thet fuch grain as is intended to be malted, fhould have its dampnefs corrected, and be rendered fit for keeping only by the heat of fteam, as it is known that expofure to a naked fire, however cautioufly managed, deftroys a great part, if not the whole, of the embryo germs of feeds. In order to have malt highly dried, as fome like brown malt better than pale, when the moifture was nearly eva- porated, the above-mentioned maltiter caufed the fire to be gradually increafed till it roared in the furnace, taking care that the malt fhould be properly ftirred, lett it proved kiln- burnt ; and by this method ‘he had a fine, {weet, brown malt, fit for making harveft beer, fuch as fome farmers are very fond of brewing. It is the opinion of fome, that brown malt, ufed in the fame proportion with pale, will make the itrorgeft beer ; but this is certainly a miftake, as the above maltiter has often made the experiment with great precifion, but could never find any material difference, and what difference there was at any time, feemed to him to be rather in favour of the pale than the brown malt: this may eafily be accounted for, as the flour in the pale malt always remained found and uninjured in the drying ; while the brown malt fometimes, notwithitanding all the care of the maltiter, is liable to be injured or saiehed by the fire, and that part mult, of courfe, lofe much of its virtue. It is, however, noticed, that fuch pale malts as are flack dried make a raw, unwholefome li- quor, which will not keep well, but if pale malt be gra- ‘dually and flowly dried by an uniform gentle heat, it will certainly anfwer the charaéter he has given of it, and be- fides, keep as well as any brown malt whatever, as he has fully experienced. It is ftated, that inthe fpring and autumn, the making I y Te of malt in all its branches is a very critical bufinefs ; as it is then particularly neceflary that the beds, or couchies, fhould be frequently turned, or the malt will not come kindly : as the firft reot will be apt to fhoot forth vigor- oufly, ftarving the other roots, and preventing them from accompanying it in its growth: this muft be checked, and the remedy is, to turn the couch often, {pread it thin, and give it a fufficient quantity of air, at the fame time keep- ing it cool and temperate. This will {top the progrefs of the firft root, give the others time to f{prout, and the barley will then malt kindly and more regularly. A thin-fkinned fine-coated barley is faid to be beft for making malt, and it is not worfe for not being very fuil- — bodied ; but a lean, half-itarved, unripe grain fhould not by any means be recommended. And fuch as has grown on lands highly manured is not fo good for making malt as that which has been produced on land of a moderate rich- nefs without it. In fact, a luxuriant foil, whether naturally fo or enriched by art, is not, in general, beft for yielding barley for the maltiter’s ule. Some prefer, for malting, a grain which is the produce of a foil that is rather poor than rich, rather light than ftrong, and more inclined to a gravel than a clay; as this grain is clean-coated, taper, and ele- gant in its form, is full of flour, moltly tranfparent when watered, and will be fufficiently wetted in forcy-eight hours. It alfo increafes in the malting, fills the buthel well, and makes a fine, fweet, wholefome, clean, full-bodied malt, from which the beft beer may be brewed, either brown or pale, according as the malt has been dried higher or lower. ‘ Mixed grain, or fuch as is grown on various foils, and in different fituations, fhould never be purchafed when it can be avoided, as it will be apt to difappoint the buyer, from the kernels fpiring at different times, and fome of them not at all; fo that after the couch is dried, fome part of it will only be half malted, and a great deal not malted at all. The following method is recommended to difcover malt that has been made of mixed, or-ia part unripe barley. Take a bowl of water, throw into it a couple of handfuls of the malt, giving it a gentle ftirring, and the barley which has not been malted will fink to the bottom; the half- malted grains will have one end funk, being in a vertical pofition; and the true good malt fwim. It is, however, remarked, that the fame barley, though ever fo good, will not malt alike well at all times : for inftance, take it as foon as it is houfed, it comes well, but while it is m its f{weat, by no means fo; yet after it has done fweatipg, it comes well again, and bar‘ey which has been got in early in a very dry feafon, makes but indifferent malt ; while the fame barley, if it is left abroad till rain falls on it to loofen the hufk from the kernel, malts very well, and yields a large increafe. Alfo old barley, mixed with that of the laft har- velt, does not malt well, as it does not all {pire or put forth its beard, at the fame time. ‘Thefe niceties, though little attended to, are of importance in the making of good malt in all cafes. , Several regulations relating to the manufacture and fale of malt are enacted by various and fucceflive atts of the Britifh legiflature; of which the principal are as follow. By 12 Ann. ftat. 1. cap. 2, continued yearly, and by 33 Geo. II. cap. 7, there fhall be paid by the maker for all malt made in England, except it be made for exportation only (12 Geo. c. 4.) a duty of nine-pence a buthel: and by 19 Geo. III. c. 25, an additional duty of 15/. per cent.. which duty is under the management of the commiflioners and officers of excife. (See Tax, JMalt.) By 43 Geo. II. c. 695 MA ¢. 69, additional duties are likewife impofed. The laft an- nual malt att is the 50 Geo. III. c. 1. Every maltiter fhall take out a licence from the office of excife annually, paying for the fame 5s., if the quantity of malt made by him fhail not exceed within the year, ending the 23d of June in each year previous to his taking out fuch licence, the quantity of 50 quarters. £. s. d. If above 50 and under roo ———- 0 10 Oo 100 ————— 150 ——— 0 I5 0 . 150 200 ———- I 0 O —— 200 250 ————- I 5 0 250 300 ———- 1 10 0 300 350 ——— I I5 o 350 400 ———- 2 0 O 400 450 ———- 2 5 0 450 500 ——— 2 Io O 500 550 ———- 2 15 0 See Soles and a furcharge. And every perfon who fhall firft become a maltiter, tor every fuch licence 5s. and within ro days after the 5th of July next after taking out fuch licence, fuch further addi- tional fum as with the faid 5s. fhall amount to the duty hereinbefore charged, according to the quantity of malt made by him within the preceding year. (13 Geo. III. c. 69.) If he thall negleét to take out fuch licencé and re- new the fame annual'y, to days at leaft before the end of the year, he fhall forfeit 10/. (24 Geo. III. c. 41.) No malt fhali be imported, on pain of forfeiting the fame and its value. (12 Ann. ftat. 1.c. 2.) By the fame a& places for making malt are to be entered, on pain of Sol. The maltiter is réquired to give 24 hours notice within a city or market town, and elfewhere 48 hours notice in writing to the officer, of the time of the day when he intends to wet the corn to be made into malt; and he fhall not begin but between eight in the morning and two in the afternoon: nor empty any grain out of the ciftern, &c. ufed for wetting or fteeping, except between feven in the morning and four in the afternoon: the omiffion of fuch notice, &c. incurs a forfeiture of 1oo/. by 3 Geo. III. c./13,-42)\Geo. [DIvc. 38. 48 Geo IIli.c. 74. Out of every 20 buthels of malt, gauged and charged upon the floor, after the fame {hall have been taken out of the ciltern or other utenfil, by the {pace of 26 hours or more, and before it fhall be dried upon the kiln, fhall be allowed yo bufhels, and fo in proportion for any greater or lefs quan- tity. But if corn be continued under water for 40 hours, before the water be taken from it, the maltfter thall not be entitled to the faid allowance. (42 Geo. III. c. 38. 33 Geo. Il. c.7.) Every round buthel, witha plain bottom, 184 inches wide throughout, and eight inches deep, fhall be deemed a legal Winchetter bufhel. (12 Ann. ftat. 1. c. 2.) No maltiter fhall wet, fprinkle, &c. any corn or grain in the procefs of being made into malt, after the fame has been emptied out of the fteeping veffel, until the expiration of 12 days, or 285 hours, on pain of 200/. (48 Geo. III. c:74-) And if malt be wetted after it hath been taken from the kiln, and before it be delivered to the brewer who may have agreed for the fame, except in the ordinary procefs of brewing beer from fuch malt ; every fuch offence {hall incur a forfeiture of roo/. (42 Geo. III. c. 38.) And by . 48 Geo. III. c 74, the penalty incurred by every workman, who hall wet corn contrary to the provilions above-mentioned, is 50/., and in default of payment, commitment to the houfe of correction for a term, not exceeding 12 months. But 6 LF a maltfter may drain water from grain whilft feeping before the expiration of 40 hours after being firft wetted ; provided that no fuch water fhall be drained unlefs the maltfter fhall have given notice of the fame and the precife time between eight in the morning and four in the afternoon; nor fhall the water be drained more than once during the faid fpace of 40 hours, and fuch corn or grain fhall be again completely covered with water within one hour from the begianing fo to drain. (42 Geo. III. c. 38.) Servants of maltiters be- ginning to wet or remove any corn or grain, in a manner contrary to this a¢t, may be fined 5o/. by any juftice, who may commit him for non-payment. (48 Geo. III. c. 74.) By 42 Geo. III. c. 38, excife officers may at all times enter every malt-houfe or place ufed for the making of malt, and furvey ; and the penalty of obftruGion is 200/. (Seé 44 Geo. IIT. c. 34.) And if the officer fhall refufe or negle& (after demand in writing, 12 Geo. II. c. 28.) to leave a copy of the gauge for the maker at the time of taking it, he fhall forfeit 40s. The officer fhall meafure corn making into malt by the gange only, and not by the bufhel. (12 Ann. ft. 1. c. 2.) By 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 10, no perfon’ fhall make any barley malt, except in June, July, and Auguit, which fhall not be three weeks at leaft in making ;. nor in thefe months, under 17 days, (unlefs it be for his-own houfe,) on pain of forfeiting for every quarter 25.3 and felling of malt, which has. not been well dreffed, fo that there may not be fanned out of one quarter half a peck of duft or more, incurs a forfeiture of 20d. for every quarter ¢ and mixing bad malt with good for fale is liable to a for= feiture of 2s. for every quarter. In the procefs of malting, prefling of malt in the ciftern to prevent its {welling, :mix- ing corn of one wetting with corn of a former wetting, and mixing malt with unmalted corn, incur each of them a pe-- nalty.of 5s. a bufhel. (1 Geo. III. c. 3. 2 Geo. Il. c. 1. 1 Geo. I. c. 2. 48:Geo. III. c. 74.) Again, mixing~ of malt that has been gauged with the ungauged, fubjects toa forfeiture of 200/. (1 Geo. III. c. 3.) By 48 Geo. III. c. 74, if any maltfter fhall tread, ram, or otherwife force together in the ciftern, &c. any grain {teeping or fteeped in order to its being made into malt, he fhall forfeit 100/. .in- ftead of the fum of 5s. for every bufhel of corn or grain. fteeping or tteeped, that fhall be fo trodden, &c. mentioned in 48 Geo. III. ¢. 2.5; and if any corn or grain, in the pro» cefs of making malt, be found fo hard and compa@, -as to. manifett its having been forced together for preventing its rifing and {welling, the maltfter, &c. in fuch cafe fhall forfeit 100/. If any maltfter, &c. fhall fraudulently conceal any graiti making into malt from the view of the gauger, or officer appointed to take an account of the fame,-he fhall forfeit 200l. (48 Geo. III. c. 74.) And any maititer fraudulently conveying away from the ciftern, &c. any ‘fteeping or part of any iteeping of corn making into malt, fo that no gauge can be taken in the back by the officer, thall forfeit. rool: (1 Geo. III. c. 3. 48 Geo. III. c. 74.) By the latter act, the penalty for erecting or extending cilterns, &c. for the ma- nufacture of malt, without previous notice, is 200/’ The malt{ter is required to make monthly entry at the office of excife of all the malt made by him in fuch month (for fale or not for fale), on pain of too/. (12 Ann, Rat. 1. c. 2, 44 Geo. III.c. 34.) By 48 Geo. IIL. c: 74, every maltiter fhall within the pace of 14 days, next after the time of entry (as before) clear away all the duties, unlefs fecurity fhall have been given, to the fatisfaCtion of the commiflioners of excife, by bond in double the value of fuch duties as are likely to become due within any five months, for the due payment MAL payment at the end of every four months at the day of entry, and if fuch fecurity be not given, and any maltiter, &c. negle& to clear off at the end of 14 days fuch fums as fall have become due, he fhall for every fuch offence forfeit double the duties. A drawback of the duty is allowed for malt damaged in exportation, and alfo for malt deflroyed by fire or water. (12 Ann. ftat. 1... 2.) By the 12 Geo. c. 4, and 33 Geo. II. c. 7, no malt entered and made for exportation fhall be liable to the duties, and no drawback fhall be allowed for any malt exported. By 1 Geo. ILI. c. 3, and 44 Geo. III. ¢. 16, there fhall be allowed for every 20 quarters of grain made into malt for exportation 30 quartters of malt and no more, on exportation: and notice fhali be given of fteep- ing and the quantity, on pain of so/. and this fhall be kept feparate from that defined for home confumption, on pain of 5s. a bufhel, (12 Geo. c. 4.) and the corn of one fteep- ing thall be keptfeparate from any other, until it hath been meafured. on pain of 50/, (3 Geo. II. c. 7.) Perfons op- pofing officers fhall forfeit so/. (12 Geo. c. 4.) Notice of meafuring fhall be given; and the malt carried on fhip-board, or kept feparate and locked up, on pain of 5o0/. (12 Geo. c.4. 3 Geo. Il. c. 7. 50 Geo. IIL. c. 1.) Opening fuch locks, and carrying away the malt, without confent of the officer, or notice given to him, incur a forfeiture of rool, (3 Geo. Il. c. 7. 50 Geo. III. c.1.) The officer having received 40 hours notice fhall attend, keep an account of the malt delivered out, and of the perfon to whom it be- longs, and give a certificate to the officer of the divifion to which it is to be removed, who fhall file the fame and make entry thereof: and if the proprietor neglect to de- liver fuch certificate, he fhall forfeit so/. (12 Geo. c. 4.) Thofe intending to fhip malt for exportation fhall give 45 hours notice to the officer of the port in writing, with the name of the fhip, on pain of 5s. a bufhel. ‘The fhip fhall be locked, and perfons breaking open the hatches, for- feit 5o/. The landing of malt after fhipping for exportation, fubjeéts, befides the penalty of the bond for its exportation, to a forfeiture of the fame, and creble the value. (1 Geo. ILI. c.3. 50 Geo. III. c.1.) Storehoufes fhall be cleared out ia 15 months, on pain of so/. Unmalted oats or barley mixed among malt for exportation incurs a forfeiture of 5s. a bufhel. (6 Geo. c. 21.) If ground malt fhall be ex- ported, it fhall be computed at fo many bufhels as it con- tained before it was ground. (12 Ann. ft. 1.c. 3.) The penalties relating to this article (unlefs otherwife directed ) fall be fued for, levied and mitigated as by the laws of excife, or in the courts at Weftminiler; half to the ule of the king, and half to him that fhall fue. (6 Geo. c. 21. 24 Geo. II. c. 40. 44 Geo. III. c. 38.) Perfons aggrieved may appeal to the next quarter feflions, giving fix days notice in writing. (12 Ann. ft.1.c.2. 1 Geo. II. ft. 2. c. 16.) The a&t 48 Geo. III. c. 74. has made feveral alterations of the penalties and regulations pertaining to the making of malt, and enaéted feveral provifions by which maitfters and makers ef malt are to afcertain, and make entry of the quantity of barley in their poffeffion, and alfo other provifions for rendering appeals more certain; for which we refer to the aét itfelf. (See Bartey and Corn.) The infufion ef malt has been much recommended as an antifcorbutic. See Scurvy and Wort. Good malt may be made of the grain of the maize or In- dian corn, but then a particular method mutt be taken for the doing it. Our barley malt makers have tried all their {kill to make good malt of it in the ordinary way, but to no purpofe; that is, the whole grain will not be this way MAL malted or rendered tender and floury, as in other malt; for it is found, by experience, that this corn, before it be fully malted, muft {prout out both ways, that is, both roof and blade, to a confiderable length, that of a finger at leaft and if more the better. For this purpofe it mutt be laid in a heap a convenient time; and in this procefs, if it be of a fufficient thicknefs for coming, it will quickly heat and grow mouldy, and the tender fprouts will be fo entangled, that the leaft moving of the heap will break them off; and the farther maturation of the Serain into malt, will be hin- dered by this means; and on the other hand, if it be laid thin, and often ftirred and opened to prevent too much heat- ing, thofe fprouts which have begun to fhoot ceafe prowing, and confequently the corn again ceafes to be promoted to the mellownefs of malt. Phil. Tranf. N- 142. To avoid all thefe difficulties, the following method is to be ufed: take away the top of the earth in a garden or field, two or three, inches, throwing it up half one way, and half the other; then lay the corn for malt all over the ground fo as to cover it; the earth that was pared off is now to be laid on again, and nothing more is to be done till the field is all over covered with the green fhoots of the plant. The earth is then to be taken off, and the roots of the grain will be found fo entangled together, that they will come up in large cakes or parcels; it mutt be gently wafhed in order to take off all the dirt, and then dried ona kiln, or on a clean floor expofed to the fun. Every grain of the maize will be thus tranf{muted into good malt, and the beer brewed with it will be very pleafant and very wholefome, and of an agreeable brown colour, but very clear. It may be worth trying whether the fame procefs is not with due care applicable to the malting of turnips, pota- toes, carrots, par{nips, and the like. Ic might poffibly be of fervice alfo to attempt this lefs laborious way of making malt of barley and other fmall grains: the difadvantages would be the not fo eafily feparating the dirt from the grain as in the larger kind ; and as barley requires the root ouly, not the ear, to fhoot in order to the making of malt, it would be fome difficulty to know the exact time of taking it up ; but.with all thefe difadvantages the method is worth a trial. Matt-Du/?, in Agriculture, the dat or fubftance that feparates from the aie in'the a&t of drying, or during its preparation. It is fometimes called malt-combs, and has been found ufeful as a manure, in leffening the cohefion of {iff heavy foils. But it may probably be made ufe of to the greateft advantage, as a top drefiing when fown over crops in the early fie feafon. ‘he folowing experi- ments are recorded, with refpec&t to the difputed point of its being more adapted to barley than wheat crops. It has . often been afferted, by fome, that malt-dult is much better fuited as a manure to barley than wheat; as from the latter lying a whole year in the ground, and the malt-duit being fown with it, the virtues of the manure are ex- haulted [ong before the fummer, when the corn principally wants nourifhment ; being too early advanced in is growth, and rendered winter-praud by it ; while others, contradiGing this affertion, fay itis belt for wheat, making it appear, that it often caufes very good crops of corn, particularly after a hard winter. In order to make fome experiments to afcer- tain this matter, a field of ten acres was fixed upon, which had borne a good crop of horfe-beans; after which it was fown with turnips which, being fed off, it was fummer- fallowed, being intended for wheat. The foil was a flifith loam, in good heart, and tolerably clean, It was divided by MAL by deep furrows into ten equal parts, each containing one acre, and numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, and 10. The whole field during the courfe of the fallowing had four ploughings given it, which reduced it to a fine tilth or mould. As wheat-feed time came, No.1 was fown broad- caft, with three bufhels of wheat, and ploughed in, lay- ing on no manure whatever. No. 2 was fown with the fame quantity of wheat, after which ten quarters, or eighty bufhels, of malt-duft were ftrewed over it, and that and the feed ploughed in together. No. 3 was alfo fown with wheat in the fame manner, except that the ftrewing on the malt-duft was deferred till the latter end of January. No. 4 had a dreffing of dung in the ordinary way, and was fown with three bufhels of wheat like the other parts.’ No. 5 was dreffed by fheep-folding, and was alfo in like manner fown with wheat. No..6 was town with wheat in the fame quantity: and in February, after fowing, re- ceived a half drefling of very rotten dung which had been feveral times turned and mixed. No. 7, after receiving a ploughing in the {pring, was fown with ten pecks of barley, which was harrowed in, and no manure at all applied. No. 8 was fown with barley, as above, but had ten quarters of malt-duft laid on it. No. g had in the winter a good drefling of dung, and was in the {pring fown with the fame quantity of barley. No. 10 was fown with barley, like No, 8, only it*had five inftead of ten quarters of malt- daft laid on it. It is obferved, that all the pieces of wheat were fown the firft- week in OGtober, and all the barley the fecond week in March. In January, on examining the wheat, it was found that the acre marked No. 2 looked moft for- ward and flourifhing; though there was in appearance but little .difference between that and No. 4. The Nos. 1, 3, and 6, neither of them looked fo vigorous as thofe al- ready-noticed ; and No. 5 feemed rather thin on the land ; but the wheat-plants were in good condition and healthy. And on another examination in May, of the wheat-crops, it was found that No. 1 was tolerably clean and promifed well; and No. 2 gave hopes of a large crop, and was furprifingly clear of weeds. No. 3 was greatly improved fince the laying-on of the drefling of malt-duft. No. 4 looked very vigorous and ftrong, but was very foul, having feveral forts of weeds not to be met with in other parts of the land. No. 5 was thin of plants, and they did not branch much : however, they {till feemed healthy and ftrong. No. 6 was like No. 3, greatly improved ; but it was foul, and what appeared {trange, had many weeds of a nature quite different from hake with which No. 4 was infefted, though the dung laid on both thefe parts was taken from the fame heap. And at this time, on looking at the pieces fown with barley, No. 7 was found promifing and clean. No. 8 was forwarder, and afforded the profpeét of a large crop. No, 9 was forward and fine, but foul with weeds. No. 10 bore much the fame appearance as No. 1, and promifed well. At harveft, No. 2 of the wheat was firlt fit to reap, after which fucceeded No. 4; the reft were ready nearly at the fame time. Of the barleys, Nos. 8 and 1o were firft ready to mow. It is almoft unneceflary to obferve, that thofe crops which were cleareft of weeds were the fooneit fit for carrying. Thefe crops were all laid feparately, as well as all fe- parately threfhed, and drefled as early as poffible in the winter. The produce of the feveral crops, on being diftinétly noted, were the following ; Vor. XXII. MAL Produce. Crops. Bufhels. Pecks. No. 1, manured, wheat - = 20 I — 2, manured with malt-duft when fown' 28 3 — 3, manured with malt-duft after Chrift- mas, by way of top-drefling - 40 £ — 4, manured with dung in the ordinary wa = = - - 32 2 — 5, folded with fheep - - AD 3 — 6, dreffed with rotten dung in February 30 ° — 7, unmanured barley - - - s — 8, manured with ten quarters of malt- duft when fown Fy A Shi - 48 ° — 9, manured with dung in the winter - 4o 2 — 10, manured when fown, with five quar- ters of malt-duft = - - - 44 ° From thefe trials it is concluded, firft, that when malt- duft is ufed as a manure for wheat, it is the beft to lay ic on by way of top-dreffing after the corn is come up, as the crop of No. 3 yielded above twelve bufhels more than that of No, 2; and it is fuppofed that the virtue of the malt- duft laid on No. 2 was exhaufted before it could be of any effential fervice to the crop, whereas, in No. 3 the manure began to yield forth its virtues juft as the wheat-plants began to be in want of a frefh fupply of nourifhment. It was alfo evident, that the grains of wheat which grew on No. 2 were thinner and had lefs fubftance than thofe of No. 3, the grain of which was fine, plump, and heavy. It was alfo clear, from the produce of No. 4, that malt- duit is, in many cafes, a better manure for wheat than dung, not only as it gives a larger increafe, but alfo becaufe it does not ftock the land with deftruétive and devouring weeds. The wheat grown on No. 5, was as fine as that of No. 3, but confiderably lefs in quantity, as appears by the account. The method purfued in No. 6 is not defirable: it is a good alternative, if the farmer happens to have too little dung to drefs all his fallow-lands with. It is alfo fuppefed that malt-duft is a very good and pro- fitable manure for a barley crop ; but the yielding of No. 10 being forty-four bufhels, and of No. 8 only forty-eight bufhels, which laft is not an increafe in proportion to the additional quantity of manure laid on, it may be concluded, that eight quarters, or fixty-four bufhels, of malt-duft is the proper quantity to lay on an acre for a barley crop, and that at the time of fowing. In {peaking of malt-dutt, it is meant the kiln-duft, or that which falls from the malt in drying: as to the tail-duft, that falls through the fereen whilft the malt is cleaning before it is put in facks, that may be applied to a better ufe, being generally given to pigs, and often to cows, in which laft cafe it makes them give a great deal of milk. It has been fuggefted that the virtue of malt-duft, as a manure, lafts only for one crop; but this is a miftake, for when the manure is laid on in January or February, a good crop of the green kind may be had after the wheat. This manure is fuppofed to be of a very warm nature ; this has induced many farmers to think that it may burn crops; and it may, perhaps, do fo on a hot gravelly foil ; but on clay land or a ftiff loam, it feldom or ever does any damage : and indeed the only danger is a dry time enfuing after it is fpread on the land, for the firft fhower of rain wafhes it in, and fecures the crop from all hazard of being burnt or injured in that way. It is fuppofed by fome, that malt-duft is for a ftiff foil Dd a better MAL a better manure than dung; but the difficulty is, whether it is moft profitable to lay it on when the wheat is fown, or by way of top-drefling in January or February. ‘The ° above experiments feem to fhew, that the beft time to drefs heavy land with it, is in January or the following month, It is alfo ftated, that nothing furpaffes this manure when laid on cold grafs grounds, to the amount of about eight quarters or fixty bufhels an acre. Its effects in this way are {aid to be very great. In an experiment of Mr. Bedford’s, in which a piece of land wae manured with this fubftance at the rate of four quarters to the acre, and fown with barley and clover, the barley was very luxuriant, producing near feven quarters er acre, and the clover extremely fine ; from which it is concladed, that it is a valuable fort of manure, being cheaper than rape-duft or any other fort of top-dreffing, as it only cofts about twelve fhillings the acre. About Dunftable this fort of manure colts one fhilling a bufhel, is fown by hand at the rate of from twenty-four to thirty-two bufhels the acre over the barley land, and har- rowed-in with the feed. It is feldom ufed to wheat in that diftri&, but would probably anfwer well to it as a top- dreffing, in the proportion of about thirty bufhels to the acre, Ben over the crops in March, The black malt-duft, or that which falls through the kiln-plate, is preferable to the white, from the feeds of weeds being deltroyed by the heat in drying. Matt, for the manner of preparing liquors of, fee Brew- ING. Matr Liguors have different names as well as different virtues, properties, and ufes, both from the different man- ners of preparing the malt, whence they are diltinguifhed into pale and brown ; and from the different manners of preparing or brewing the liquors themfelves, whence they are divided into beer and ale, flrongand fmall, new and old. Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the malt is more or lefs dried on the kiln ; that which is the flendereft dried, tinging the liquor leaft in brewing, and therefore being called pale: whereas that higher dried, and as it were roafted, makes it of ahigher colour. A mixture of both thefe makes an amber colour; whence feveral of thefe liquors take their name, Now, it is certain, the pale malt has moft of the natural grain in it, and is therefore the moft nourifhing ; but for the fame reafon, it requires a fronger conttitution to digett it. Thofe who drink much of it, are ufually fat and fleek in their bloom, but are often cut off by fudden fevers ; or, if they avoid this, they fall early into a diftempered old age. The brown malt makes a drink much lefs vifcid, and fitter to pafs the feveral itrainers of the body ; but, if very itrong, it may lead on to the fame inconveniences with the pale; though a fingle debauch wears off much more eafily in the brown. Dr. Quincy obferves, that the beft pale malt liquors are thofe brewed with hard waters, as thofe of fprings and wells, becaufe the mineral particles, with which thele waters are impregnated, help to prevent the cobefions of thofe drawn from the grain, and enable them to pafs the proper fecretions the better; as the vifcid particles of the grain do likewife defend thefe from doing the mifchief they might other- wife occafion. But fofter waters feem beft fuited to draw out the fubftances of high-dried malts, which retain many fiery particles in their contexture, and are therefore bett loft in a {mooth vehicle. For the differences in the preparation of malt liquors, they MAL chiefly confift in the ufe of hops, asin beer; or in the more {paring ufe of them, as in ale. The difference made by hops is beft difcovered from the nature and quality of the hops themfelves: thefe are known to be a fubtle grateful bitter: in their compofition, there- fore, with this liquor, they add fomewhat of an alkaline nature, i.e. particles that are fublime, aétive, and rigid. By which means, the ropy vifcid parts of the malt are more divided and fubtilized ; and are, therefore, not only rendered more eafy of digeftion and fecretion in the body, but alfo, while in the hquor, they prevent it from run- ning into fuch cohefions as would make it ropy, vapid, and four. For want of this, in unhopped drinks, that clammy fweetnefs, which they retain after working, foon turns them acid, and unfit for ufe; which happens fooner or later, in proportion to the ftrength they receive from the malt, and the comminution they have undergone from fer- mentation. It is a common opinion, that ale is more diuretic than beer, that is, liquor lefs hopped more than that witha greater quantity of hops init; which may hold in fome con- ititutions, becaufe ale being more fmooth, foftening, and relaxing, where urine is to be promoted by enlarging the paflage, asin thin, dry conflicutions, this is the moft likely to effe@tit. But where the promoting bf urine is to be done by attenuating and breaking the juices, and rendering them more fluid, it is certainly beft anfwered by thofe drinks which are well hopped. As to the difpute, whether or no hops tend to breed the ftone, it is too long to enter upon here. Quincy is of opi- nion, there is but little reafon for the affirmative fide of the queltion ; and, in general, makes no ferupie to fay that, for one conftitution damaged by beer, there are numbers fpoiled by ale. This laft manifeftly fouls the glands, ftuffs the vefleis with flime and vifcidity, makes the body un- wieldy and corpulent, and paves the way for cachexies, jaundice, afthmas, and at laft incurable droplies. The urinary paflages, alfo, which itis fuppofed to clear, will, in time, be filled by it with flough, and matter of as ill con- fequence as gravel. The different ftrengths of malt liquors alfo make their ef- feéts different. The {tronger they are, the more vifcid parts they carry into the blood ; and though tke {pirituous parts make thefe imperceptible at firft ; yet when thofe are eva- porated, which will be in a few hours, the other will be jenfibly felt by pains in the head, naufeoufnefs at the {tomach, and laflitude or liftleffnefs to motion. This, thofe are the moft fenfible of, who have experienced the extremes of drinking thefe liquors and wines; for a de- bauch of wine they find much fooner worn off, and they are much more lively and brif afterwards, than after intem- perately ufing malt liquors, whofe vifcid remains will be long before they be fhaken off. i Malt liquors, therefore, are, in general, the more whole- fome for being {mail, i. e. of fuch a: ftrength as is liable to carry afmall degree of warmthinto the ftomach, but not fo great as to prevent their being proper diluters of the ne- ceflary food. Indeed, in robuft people, or thofe who labour hard, the vifeidities of the drink ma broken into a con- venient nourifhment 3 but in perfons of another habit and way of living, they ferve rather to promote obftruétions and ill humours. The age of malt liquors is the la(t thing by which they are rendered more or lefs wholefome. Age feems to do nearly the fame thing as hops; for thofe liquors which are longeft kept are certainly lefs vifcid ; age breaking the ei cM EE MAL cid parts, and, by degrees, rendering them fmaller, and fitter for fecretion. j But this is always determined according to their ftrength ; in proportion to which, they will fooner or Jater come to their full perfeétion, as well as decay ; for, when ale or beer is kept till its particles are broken and comminuted as far as they are capable, then it is that they are beft ; and, beyond this, they will be continually on the decay, till the finer {pirits are entirely efeaped, and the remainder becomes vapid and four. Matt Difillery. This is an extenfive article of trade, and by which very large fortunes are made. The art is to convert fermented malt liquors into a clear ieflanimable fpirit, which may be either fold for ufe in the common ftate of a proof ftrength, that is, the fame ftrength with French braady ; or is rectified into that purer {pirit ufually fold under the name of {pirit of wine; or made into compound cordial waters, by being diftilled again from herbs and other ingredients. See BrewinG, Spirits, and WAsH. i To brew with malt in the moft advantageous manner, it is neceffary, 1. ‘That the fubject be well prepared ; 2. That the water be fuitable and duly applied; and, 3. That fome certain additions be ufed, or alterations made, according to the feafon of the year, andthe intention of the operator ; and by a proper regulation in thele refpects, all the ferment- able parts of the fubjeét will thus be, brought into the tincture; and become fit for fermentation. i The due preparation of the fubje& confifts in its being juftly malted and well ground. When the grain is not fuf- ficiently malted it is apt to prove hard, fo that the water can have but very little power to diffolve its fubftance ; and if it be much malted, a part of the fermentable matter is loft in thateoperation. The harder and more flinty the malt 1s, the finer it ought to be ground ; and in all cafes, when in- tended for diftillation, it is advifable to reduce it to a kind of finer or coarfer meal. When the malt is thus ground, it is found, by experience, that great part of the time, trou- ble, and expence of the brewing is faved by it, and yet as large a quantity of {pirits will be produced; for thus the whole fubftance of the malt may remain mixed among the tinéture and be fermented and diltilled among it. This is a particular that very well deferves the attention of the malt diftiller, as the trade is at prefent carried on; for the difpatch of the bufinefs, and the quantity of {pirit procured, are more attended to than the purity or perfection of it. The fecret of this matter depends upon the thoroughly mixing, or brifkly agitating and throwing the meal about, firfl in cold, and then in hot water; and repeating this agitation after the fermentation is over, when the thick turbid wath being immediately committed to the itll, already hot and dewy with working, there is no danger of burning, unlefs by accident, even without the farther trouble of ftirring, which in this cafe is found needlefs, though the quantity be ever fo large, provided that requifite care and cleanlinefs be ufed; and thus the bulinefs of brewing and fermenting may very commodioufly be performed together, and reduced to one fingle operation. Whatever water is made choice of, it muft ftand ina hot ftate upon the pre- ared malt, efpecially if a clear tinéture be defired, but a best and very confiderable inconvenience attends its being applied too hot, or too near to a flate of boiling, or even fcalding with regard to the hand. To fave time in this cafe, and to prevent the malt running into lumps and clods, the beft way is to put acertain meafured quantity of cold water to the malt firit; the malt is then to be fuirred very well with this, fo as to form a fort of thin uniform patte or MAL pudding ; after which the remaining quantity of water ree quired may be added in a ftate of boiling, without the leat danger of making what, in the diftillers language, is called a pudding. In this manner the due and neceflary degree of heat in the water, for the extracting all the virtues of the malt, may be hit upon very expeditioufly, and with a great deal of exactnefs, as the heat of boiling water is a fixed ftandard which may be let down to any degree by a pro- portionate mixture of cold water, due allowances being seg for the feafon of the year, and for the temperature of the air. This little obvious improvement, added to the method juft above hinted for the reducing brewing and fermentation to one operation, will render it practicable to very confiderable advantage, and the fpizit improved in quality as well as quantity. A much more profitable method than that ufually prac- tifed for the fermenting malt for diltillation, in order to get its {pirit, is the following: Take ten pounds of malt re- duced to a fine meal, and three pounds of common wheat- meal: add to thefe two gallons of cold water, and ftir them well together, then add five gallons of water boiling hot, and ftir all together again. Let the whole ftand two hours, and then ftir it again, and when grown cold, add to it. two ounces of folid yeaft, and fet it by loofely covered in a warmifh place, to ferment. This is the Dutch method of preparing what they call the wath for malt fpirit, whereby they fave much trouble, and procure a large quantity of fpirit : thus commodioufly reducing the two bufinefles of brewing and fermenting to one fingle operation. In England the method is to draw and math for fpirit as they ordinarily do for beer, only ing ftead of boiling the wort, they pump it into large coolers, and afterwards run it into their fermenting backs, to be there fermented with yealt. Thus they beftow twice as much labour as neceflary, and lofe a large quantity of their {pirit by leaving the grofs bottoms out of the ftill for fear of burning. All fimple f{pirits may be confidered in their different {tates of low wines, proof fpirit, and alcohol, the interme- diate degrees of ftrength being of lefs general ufe; and they are to be judged of only according as they approach to, or recede from, thefe. Low wines, at a medium, contain a fixth part of pure inflammable fpirit, five times as much water as fpirit neceflarily arifing in the operation with a boiling heat. Proof goods contain about one-half of the fame totally inflammable fpirit ; and alcohol entirely confitts of it. See Spirits. Malt low wines, prepared in the common way, are ex- ceedingly naufeous ; they have, however, a natural vino- fity, or pungent agreeable acidity, which would render the {pirit agreeable to the palate, were it not for the large quan- tity of the grofs oil of the malt that abounds init. When this oil is detained in fome meafure from mixing itfelf among the low wines, by the ftretching a coarfe flannel over the neck of the flill, or at the orifice’of the worm, the {pirit be- comes much purer in all refpeéts ; it is lefs fulfome to the talte, lefs offenfive to the {mell, and lefs milky to the eye. (Shaw’s Effay on Dittillery.) When thefe low wines, in the re¢tification into proof fpirits, are diftilled gently, they leave a confiderable quantity of this grofs fetid oil behind them in the ftill along with the phlegm; but if the fire be made fierce, this oil is.again raifed and brought over with the fpirit; and being now broken fomewhat more fine, it impregnates it in a more naufeous manner than at firit. This is the common fault belt of the malt diftiller and Ddz or MAL of the rectifier ; the latter, inftead of feparating the fpirit frgm this nafty oil, which is the principal intent of his pro- cefs, attends only to the leaving the phlegm in fuch quan- tity behind, that the fpirit may be of the due ftrength as proof or marketable goods, and brings over the oil in a worfe {tate than before. To this inattention to the proper bufinefs of the procefs, it is owing that the fpirit, after its feveral re€tifications, as they are mifcalled, is often found more {tinking than when delivered out of the hands of the malt diftiller. All this may be sia by the taking more time in the fubfequent diftillations, and aa the fire low and regular, the fudden ftirring of the fire, and the hafty way of throwing on the frefh fuel, being the general occafions of throwing up the oil by fpurts, where the fire in general, during the procefs, has not been fo large as to do that mifchief. The ufe of a balneum Mariz, inftead of the common ftill, would effeétually prevent all this mifchief, and give a purer fpirit in one reétification, than can otherwife be pro- cured in ten, or indeed according to the common methods at all. Malt low wine, when brought to the ftandard, or proof {pirit, lofes its milky colour, and is perfe€tly clear and bright, no more oil being contained in it than is perfeétly diffolved by the alcohol, and rendered mifcible with that proportion of phlegm, which is about one-half the liquor ; its talte alfo is cleaner though not more pleafant; there being lefs of the thick oil to hang on the tongue in its own form, which is not the cafe in the low wines, where the oil, being undif- folved, adheres to the mouth in its own form, and does not pafs lightly over it. When proof fpirit of malt is diftilled over again, in order to be reétified into alcohol, or, as we ufually call it, fpirits of wine, if the fire be raifed at the time when the faints begin to come off, a very confiderable quantity of oil will be raifed by it, and will run in the vifible form of oil from the nofe of the worm. Thisis not peculiar to malt fpirit, but the French brandy fhews the fame phenomenon, and that in fo great a degree, that half an ounce of this oil may be ob- tained from a fingle piece of brandy. Malt fpirit, more than any other kind, requires to be brought into the form of alcohol, before it can be ufed in- ternally, efpecially as it is now commonly made up in the proof itate, with as much of this naufeous and vifcous oil as will give it a good crown of bubbles. For this reafon it ought to be reduced to an alcohol, or totally inflammable fpirit, before it is admitted into any of the medicinal com- pofitions. If it be ufed without this previous caution, the odious tafte of the malt oil will be diftinguifhed among all the other flavours of the ingredients. Malt fpirit, when it has once been reduced to the true form of an alcohol, is afterwards more fit for all the cu- rious internal ufes than even French brandy, it being after this purification a more uniform, hungry, taftelefs and im- pregnable fpirit, than any other fpirits which we efteem fo much finer. A pure fpirit being thus procured, fhould be kept care- fully in veffels of glafs or ftone, well ftopped to prevent the evaporation of any of its volatile part. If preferved in eafks, it is apt to impregnate itfelf very ftrongly with the wood. The quantity of pure alcohol obtainable from a certain quantity of malt, differs according to “pei eae of the fubjeét, the manner of the operation, the feafon of the year, and the {kilfulnefs of the workman; according to which variations, a quarter of malt will afford from eight or nine, to thirteen or fourteen gallons of alcohol. This fhould encourage the malt diftiller to be careful and diligent MAL in his bufinefs, as fo very large a part of his profit depends wholly on the well conducting his proceffes, After every operation in this bufinefs, there remains a quantity of faints, which in their own coarfe flate ought never to be admitted into the true fpirit; thefe are to be faved together, and large quantities of them at once wrought into alcohol. It is ee to reduce thefe to fuch a ftate, that they will ferve for lamp fpirits. ‘Their difagreeable flavour being corrected by the adding of aromatics during the dif. tillations, the reducing them to a perfeét and pure alcohol is practicable, but not without fuch difficulties, as render it fcarcely worth the trader’s while. One way of doing it is by diftilling them from water into water, and that with a very flow fire. By this meansa pure alcohol may be made out of the fouleft faints. The malt diftiller always gives his {pirit a fingle re@tifica- tion per fe, in order to purify it a little, and make it up proof, but in this ftate it is not reckoned fit for internal ufes, but ferves to be diftilled into geneva and other ordinary compound ftrong waters for the vulgar. The Dutch, who carry ona great trade with malt fpirit, never give it any farther reétification than this, and it is on this account that the malt {pirit of England is in general fo much more in efteem. ‘The Dutch method is only to diftil the wafh into low wines, and then to full proof fpirit ; they then direétly make it into geneva, or elfe fend it as it is to Germany, Guinea, and the Eaft Indies, for the Dutch have little notion of our reétification, Their fpirit is by this means rendered very foul and coarfe, and is rendered yet more naufeous by the immoderate ufe they make of rye meal. Malt fpirit, in its unreétified ftate, is ufually found to have the common bubble proof, as the malt dittiller knows that it will not be marketable without it. The whole matter requifite to this is, that it have a con- fiderable portion of the grofs oil of the malt well broke and mixed along with it; this gives the reétifier a great deal of trouble if he will have the fpirit fine; but in the ge- neral run of the bufinefs, the retifier does not take out this oil, but breaks it finer, and mixes it fafter in by alka- line falts, and difguifes its tafte by the addition of certain flavouring ingredients. The fpirit lofes in thefe pro- ceffes the vinofity it had when it came out of the hands of the malt diftiller, and is, in all refpe&s, worfe, except in the difguife of a mixed flavour. Shaw’s Effay on Dif- tillery. The alkaline falts ufed by the retifier, deftroying the na- tural vinofity of the fpirit, it is neceffary to add an extra- neous acid in order to give ita new one. The acid they generally ufe is the /piritus nitri dulcis ; and. the common way of ufing it is the mixing it to the tafte with the rectified {pirit: this gives our malt f{pirit, when well rec- tified, a flavour fomewhat like that of French brandy, but this foon flies off ; and the better method is to add a proper quantity of Glauber’s ftrong {pirit of nitre to the fpirit in the ftill, The liquor in this cafe comes over impregnated with it, and the acid being more ipti- mately mixed, the flavour is retained. See Spiritus nitri dulcis. . MALTA, in Geography, anciently Ogygia and Melite, from which latter the Saracens haye formed Malta, an ifland in the Mediterranean, about fifty miles from the coaft of Sicily, twenty miles long, and twelve miles in its greateft breadth, and about fixty miles in circumference. It con- fits of an immenfe white foft rock of free-ftone, covered with a thin ftratum of earth, moft of which has been brought from Sicily, feldom more than a foot above the furface of the rock ; and this earth is removed onee in ten years, MALT As years, in order to clear the rock of a thick cruft which forms, and prevents the moifture from fufficiently penetrating, it was anciently reckoned a part of Africa, but now be- longs to Europe. The foil, watered by the night-dew and well cultivated, produces cumin-feed, anife-feed, cotton, ex- cellent fruits, fuch as melons, oranges, lemons, and parti- cularly figs, vegetables, and paftures; but it yields nei- ther grain nor wine fufficient for its inhabitants, who are eftimated at about 63 or 64,000, ane thofe in the neighbouring iflands. It furnifhes plenty of excellent and finely-flavoured honey, fea-falt, confiderable fifheries, and a profitable coral-fifhery. The ifland is divided into {mall inclofures of free-ftone, is well planted, and contains fe- veral towns and villages; the principal of the former are La Valetta, Citta Vittoriofa, Senglea, Barmola, Citta Nuovo Cottonera, and Malta. The coaft is for the moft part fecured by fhelves and perpendicular rocks, without one port or fafe road for fhips; but on the eaft and weft fhorea there are feveral commodious harbours. The two moft confiderable are thofe on the S.E. fide, one called Marza Murzet, and the other Marza, which fignifies port, and is the largeft of the two. They are divided by an ob- long peninfula, on which is built a {trong fort or cattle, called St. Elmo, which defends the entrance into both. Within that of Murzet lies a {mall ifland, near which the fhips fufpeéted of infection are obliged to perform quaran- tine. Thofe places which are acceflible are defended by fortifications of great ftrength, fo that it would be very difficult to reduce it by force. Mortars, the mouths of fome of which are fix feet wide, are cut out of the rocks near the different creeks, where a debarkation might be attempted. Confiderable quantities of fea-fhells and fifh- bones petrified are found all over the ifland, even in parts mott elevated and remote from the fea. During fummer Reaumur’s thermometer is generally below 25°, and feldom above 28”, or from about 88° to 95° of Fah- renheit. In the winter it is feldom lower than 8° below zero of Reaumur’s, or 14° of Fahrenheit. The alternate changes from heat to cold are often very fudden. Cold is occafioned by the north and north-weft winds ; and a fouth wind brings heat. This wind, pafling over the barren fultry continent of Africa, is dangerous, but is of no long duration, and frequently fucceeded by a calm, during which the heat is fuffocating. Whilft the firocco continues, iced beverages are copioufly ufed ; and, therefore, {now is confidered at Malta as one of the neceflaries of life. It is brought from Sicily, and adminiftered to the fick ; and whenever there is a fearcity, all that remains in the ice-houfe in entirely re- ferved for the ufe of the hofpitals. Cold bathing is alfo fuccefsfully ufed as a prefervative againft the ill effets of the firocco. This ifland has often changed its matters. Its original inhabitants were the Phxacians, who were expelled by the Pheenicians, and thefe again by the Greeks. It next became fubjeét to the Carthaginians, and they were fucceeded by the Romans, who eftablifhed in it a prefe&, as he is called in the Ads of the Apoitles, ch. xxviii. 7, and this pre- feét was dependent on the prextor of Sicily. Upon the de- clenfion of the Roman empire, it fell under the dominion of the Goths, and afterwards of the Saracens. Roger, the Norman, earl of Sicily, took poffeffion of it about the year 1190; and from that time it continued under the dominion of the kings of Sicily, till it fell under that of Charles V., by his conqueft of Naples and Sicily, who gave it in 1525, by a grant which was ratified by the pope in 1530, to the knights of Rhodes, afterwards of Malta. (See the next article.) Charles V. was induced to make this grant by an ambition of becoming the reftorer and fecond founder of an order, which for many ages had been devoted to the defence of Chriitians, and alfo by the hope of thus pro- tecting the ifles of Sicily and Sardinia, the kingdom of Naples, and the coaits of ‘Italy from the incurfions of the infidels ; {tipulating with the knights that they fhould main- tain a perpetual war againft the Turks and Corfairs. Thefe knights, after their eftablifhment in Malta, fortified the ifland. Solyman, incenfed by obferving that his fhips were conitantly expofed to the attacks of enemies, which he had, in his own imagination, deftroyed when he drove them from Rhodes, determined, in 1565, to make an at- tempt againit Malta. or this purpofe he fent 30,000 men againit the town of Malta, which was defended by 700 knights and 8000 foldiers, under the command of the grand mafter John de Walette, at the age of feventy-one years. When fome of his friends faw that their brave commander was wounded, they intreated him to retire; but he replied, «¢ At feventy-one, can I finifh my life more glorioufly than by dying with my brethren??? After having fuitained a fiege of four months, they were relieved by a force of 6000 men, fent from Sicily to their fuccour, and the Turks were compelled to raife the fiege. Hence this town obtained the name of “ Citta Vitto- riofa,’”’ which it retains to this day: La Valetta was built by La Valette, and called after his name. One of his fuc- ceflors made a magnificent aquedué in 1616, to bring wa- ter to this new city ; and others conftructed various works of importance to the fafety of the place. When the town was finifhed, the convent and habitation of the knights were removed hither. ‘That the work might not be inter- rupted, when money failed, they paid in copper, which was afterwards called in at its full value. The infcription on it was, “ Non es fed fides,’’? not money but loan. In pro- cefs of time this ifland maintained itfelf againft the whole Ottoman power; but the order was never rich enough to attempt foreign conquefts, nor to equip numerous fleets. They were, however, as liberal as they were brave in affift- ing their neighbours, and alfo in defending themfelves againft the Turks and the Corfairs of Algiers and Tripoli. In the year 1724, a truce was concluded with the Turks for twenty-one years, fubje& to renewal if both parties fhould think proper. While it continued, the Maltefe were to enjoy inthe ftates of the grand feignior the fame privileges as the French. hey alfo ftipulated for the exchange and ranfom of flaves. The fultan agreed not to give any affift- ance to the {tates of Barbary ; and the treaty was to be void when any of the Chriftian princes were at war with the Porte. In 1798 the ifland furrendered to the French, and the knights were difperfed; and in September 1800, it was taken by the Britifh, who retained the poffeffion of it.. The principal difadvantages, fays Barrow (Travels in Southern Africa, vol. ii), that would refult to England by leaving Malta in the poffeffion of the French, appear to be, in the firft place, the power it would give them of excluding our fhips from that port, undoubtedly the beft in the Mediterranean, and of increaling their forces here to the complete deftruction of our Mediterranean trade ; and, fecondly, the means it affords of facilitating their views upon Egypt, by enabling them to throw into that country a force fufficient to renew their projeét upon India. See the next article. Before the knights took poffeflion of that iflagd, it was fo barren and uninviting, that when Charles V. offered it to them, they fent commiflaries to examine, and after their report, they could hardly be induced to accept the grant. But by fubfequent exercifes of ficill and indultry, they have 9 effected MALTA. éffefted a furprifing alteration, not only in its means of de- fence, but in its internal cultivation. ‘The capital of the ifland is “ La Valetta,” or Citta Nuova, which is fituated on the ealt coaft, and was founded, as we have already ob- ferved, in 1566, on an elevated peninfula, having at its extremity the cattle of ‘St. Elmo. This town contains the palace of the grand matter, the arfenal, the infirmary, the church of the prior of St. John, and hotels for the knights of different languages. On either fide of the peninfula is a good harbour. ¢ Citta Vittoriofa’’ is a fortified town on a narrow point of land that projects into the Marza, or great harbour, oppofite to Valetta, and is defended by the {trong caftle of St. Angelo, ftanding on a high rock, and com- municating with the town by a bridge. In this town was the palace of the inquifition, an arfenal, and a lodgment of flaves; the Greeks have alfo a church here. Senglea,”’ or the ifle of St. Michael, is a confiderable town on a pe- ninfula, feparated from Citta Vittoriofa by the canal Porto della Galere, and joined to the harbour by the canal Porto della Rennella. But we mutt not confound this Malta with old Malta, called “Citta Vecchia.” Melita, or Medina, the capital, was a confiderable town previous to the arrival of the knights of Rhodes ; it is now a fmall fortified place and bi- fhop’s fee, containing a cathedral and feveral religious houfes, on an eminence near the centre of the ifland. In its vi- cinity are extenfive catacombs, which form a labyrinth. « Barmola” is a little town of 700 houfes behind Senglea. « Citta Nuovo Cottonera” is a regularly fortified town, including the old fort of St. Margherita. The five towns above enumerated, may be confidered as portions of one large city, feparated from each other by havens, and con- taining 20,000 inhabitants. The houfes are built of ftone, flat-roofed, and covered with plaifter. The harbours are capable of receiving whole fleets; and, as the fituation is naturally ftrong, no art 1s wanting to render the fortilica- tions impregnable. « Forte di S. Thomaffo” ftands on a point of land pro- jecting into the fea, 2bout two miles S.E. of the capital, « Malta.” « Forte Roffo”’ ftands on a peninfula oppofite to the ifland of Comino. ‘The climate of Malta-is not infalubrious: the exceffive heat being mitigated by the welterly and north-welterly winds. Although there are no’ rivers in the ifland, there are interfperfed fome excellent {prings of frefh water ; but where thefe fail, the people are forced to dig wells in the rock. Their towns are commonly fupplied by rain-water, which they preferve in cilterns. Fuel is very fearce, as there is little wood upon the ifland; fo that the common people are under a neceffity of ufing dried cow-dung or wild thiltles to drefs their meat, heat their ovens, and warm their apartments in cold weather. Although patturage is f{earce, they breed here a great number of fheep and goats, whofe fiefh is exquilite, as they chiefly feed on aromatic plants that grow on the rocks. Here are hogs in abund- ance, and good afles, mules, and fome horfes that are fed with barley and chaff. The poultry are large ; thofe of the wild kind, particularly partridges, come from other coun- tries in large flights, efpecially in the months of March and Oober. The Maltefe refemble the inhabitants of Barbary ; and their language is nearly the fame, being the old Punic or Arabic, which is very differently {poken in different places. But in the city of Valetta and among perfons of rank the lan- guage moft in ufe is the Italian. The natives are indultri- ous, active, economical, and brave ; but they are mercenary, affionate; jealous, fupertlitious, and vindiétive, Their drefs an general confilts of a cotton fhirt, a velt, a cloak, with a girdle round the waift. They alfo wear trowfers, and a ort of fhoes called « korch,’”’ which is merely a leathern fole, with f{trings to fatten it round the leg. Their cap is white or coloured. They are remarkably temperate; a clove of garlic, or an onion, anchovies dipped in oil, and falted fith, being their ufual diet. On great feftivals they eat pork. Their principal trade is in cotton; of which a great quantity is annually exported. ‘The imports are corn, bey wood, oil, wine, brandy, &c. As they are feldom with- out cruifers at fea, their captures af the Turkifh and Bar- bary corfairs conititute the principal branches of their com- merce; for they are thus able to furnifh Sicily and other parts of the Levant, with fpices, fugar, and other commo- dities, in return for which they bring back grain, pulfe, fleth, both frefh and falted, wood, oil, falt, and other ne- ceflaries. But the chief profit of thefe goes to the order, the native inhabitants having no other fhare than by the ex- change they make of them with the produce of their own Janis and induftry. The forces of the ifland, exclufive of the knights and thofe who belong to the order, confifl of thofe who are able to bear arms, and who are in general robuft and well difciplined. They are obliged, at the firing of the fignal cannon three times, to appear under their pro- per ftandards, in all their martial accoutrements. Under the difcipline of the Maltefe knights, they are become ex- pert in the ufe of fire-arms. They are alfo reckoned good horfemen. Every knight that has four feudi fer day is oblized to maintain a horfe for his own ufe and at his own charge. ‘The number of gallies which the order furnifhes is greater or lefs, according to the exigence of the occa- fion. Thefe gallies are ftrongly built, well manned and commanded ; having ufually each 100 warriors and 2 knights on board; and that, which is called the * Capi- tania,”’? and carries the ftandard of the order, has moft com- monly 30 knights. Betides thefe, they have a number of galleons, and other inferior veffels, the crews of which confift chiefly of flaves, of whom they have feldom lefs than two or three thoufand. All along the coaft the ifland is well garrifoned and fortified ; and on the leaft appearance of danger, beacons are fet on fire on the high grounds, and thefe fignals are anfwered by the firing of the city guns; fo that the alarm is foon f{pread through the whole ifland. The grand mafter has the whole revenue of Malta, as well as of Gozo, over which he is invefted with the fovereign power during his life. His revenues arife from a certain tax upon the ifland, and include the duties on falt goods im- ported and exported, and fuch like imports. Thefe, with fome additional perquifites, formerly amounted, aommunibus annis, to about 60,000 crowns. Boifgelin’s Ancient and Modern Malta, &c. 3 vols. gto. Malta keeps accounts in fcudi of 12 tari, each taro be- ing fubdivided into two carlini, 20 grani, or 120 piccioli. Thefe monies of account are valued both in filver money and copper money ; meaning by copper money (not metal) but the current value of the coins of the ifland, and by filver money their value in foreign exchange. Silver money is to copper money as three to two. The gold coins ate double, fingle, and half Louis-d’ors, coined by the grand matter Rohan, at 20, 10, and § feudi, copper or cur- rent money. ‘The filver coins are ounces and half ounces, coined by the fame grand mafter, at 30 and 15 tari; fcudi and halves, at 12 and 6tari; pieces of one, two, and four tari, all in current money. The real copper coins are tari, and pieces of 10, 5, 2!, and grani. Spanifh quadruples pafs for 38} feudi; Venetian fequins for 6 feudi; Dutch ducats for 5} {cudi; Sicilian ounces for 6} f{eudi ; Spanifh dollars, MAE dollars for 30% tari; current or copper money. The finenefs both of gold and filver is expreffed in carats ; but the gold is divided into 24 carats, and the filver into 12. Gold and filver are weighed by the pound of 12 ounces; the ounce is divided into 16 parts, or 32 trapeli; and the trapefo into 18 grani. This pound weighs 4888 Englith grains ; fo that 720 lb. or oz. of Malta is = 611 |b. or oz.troy. According to the rate of coinage, the double Louis-d’or is to weigh 33 of an oz. of Malta, or 260! Eng- lifh grains ; and the gold is to be 20! carats fine. The ounce or piece of 30 tari is to weigh 1' oz. of Malta, or 458 Englith grains, and the filver is to be ro carats (or +$ths) fine. The f{cudi and inferior filver coins are almoft 9 carats, fine. The fingle Louis-d’or is worth 1gs. 8d. iterling ; the piece of 30 tari, or 24 {cudi, 1s worth 53,d. Thus the feudo current money is worth 21}d. fterlmg. The commercial weights are the heavy and the light can- taro; the former confifting of 111 heavy rottoli, each of 23lb.; the latter of 100 light rottoli, each of 2£lb. The heavy cantaro is = 213lb. avoirdupois, and the heavy rot- tolo = 30L0z. do. ‘The light cantaro = 175lb. avoir- dupois; and the light rottolo = 28 oz. do.; rolb. of Malta = 7lb. avoirdupois. The meafures are a falma of corn, nearly equal to an Englifh quarter, or 64 falma = 63 Englifh quarters: the caffifo, a meafure for oil, contains 54 Englifh gallons. The canna, a long meature, is divided into 8 palmi, and is 922% French lines, or 81,9; Englifh inches; hence 4o canna = 91 Englifh yards. The foot of Malta is 114 Englifh inches, and 72 feet of Malta = 67 Englifh feet. The Sicilian weights and meafures are likewife ufed here, for which fee Sictry. ' In 1808 the Sicilian dollar of 24 f{cudi or 30 tari was exchanged for 56} pence fterling, in government bills in England at 30 days fight. Kelly’s Univerfal Cambitt, vol. i. N. lat. 35° 42'.. E. long, 14° 10'. Matra, atown of America, in Saratoga county, New York, taken from the weltern part of Stillwater; four miles E. of Balltown fprings. Matra, Knights of, an order of military religious, who haye borne various other names; as Hofpitalers of St. John of Jerufalem, knights of Sv. John, knights of Rhodes, order of Malta, religion of Malta, &c. About the year 1048, fome Neapolitan merchants found- ed a church after the Latin rite at Jerufalem, giving it the name of Santa Maria della Latina, or St, Mary of the Latins. They alfo founded a monattery of religious after the order of St. Bennet, for the reception of pilgrims ; and afterwards an hofpital near the monattery, to take care of the difeafed, under the direétion of a matter or re&tor, to be nominated by the abbot of Santa Maria della Latina. Befides which, they alfo built a chapel in honour of St. John Baptilt. In 1099, Godfrey of Bulloign, having taken Jerufalem, endowed this hofpital with fome deme!nes, which he had in Trance ; and others imitating his liberality, the revenues of the hofpital became confiderably augmented.. Upon this, Gerhard de Didier, a native of Provence, their reGior, in concert with the Hofpitalers, refolyed to feparate from the abbot and religious of Santa Maria, and to form a diltiné congregation, under the name and prote¢tion of St. John Baptilt : and hence it was that they had the name of « Hof- pitalers, or Brothers of St. John of Jerufalem.”’? Their habit was black; and they wore on their breafts a white crofs of eight points, in token of the cight beatitudes. Pope Pafeal II. by a bull in the year 1113, confirmed the donations made to this hofpital, which he. fettled un- MAL der the protection of the holy fee ; ordering, that the ree-- tors, after Gerhard’s death, fhould be chofen by the Hofpi- talers. Raymond du Puy, Gerhard’s fucceflor, took the title of ‘ mafter ;”’ and he gave a rule to the Hofpitalers, which was approved by pope Calixtus II. in 1120. Such was the firft rife of the order of Malta. Their firft grand-malter, finding the revenues of tle hof- pital vattly to exceed what was neceffary for the entertain- ment of poor pilgrims, and difeafed perfons, refolved to employ the furplus againit the infidels; and with this view he offered himfelf to the king of Jerufalem. He divided his Hofpitalers into three claffes; the firit conlifted of nobles, whom he deftined to the profeffi.n of arms, for the defence of the faith, and the proteétion of pilgrims ; the fecond confifted of priefts or chaplains, who were to fay mafs; and the third of fervitors, who were not noble, but were alfo appointed for the war. He alfo regulated the manner of admitting knights brothers : and had the whole confirmed in 1130, by pope Innocent II. who commanded that the ftandard of the knights fhould be ‘¢ gules, a full crofs argent.” After the lofs of Jerufalem, they retired firft to Margath, then to Acre, which they defended very vigoroufly in 12g0. After the entire lofs of the Holy Land they withdrew to Cyprus, where king Henry of Lufignan, whom they had followed thither, gave them the city of Limiffon. Here they continued eighteen years, when, taking the ifland of Rhodes from the Saracens in 1308, they fettled there. And now it was that they firlt took the name of “ knights,”* and foon after ‘ knights of Rhodes.” Andronicus, emperor of Conttantinople, granted to their grand matter, Fulk de Villaret, the inveititure of this order , and the donation was confirmed by pope Clement. The year following, with the affiitance of Amadeus IV. duke of Savoy, they defended themfelves, and their ifland againit an army of Saracens. In 1480, their grand maiter d’Au- buffon made a vigorous defence againit Mahomet [I-and preferved the ifland in f{pite of a formidable army, which befieged it for the {pace of three months. But in 1522, it was attacked by Solyman II. with an army of 300,000 men, and taken by him, after having been in the pofleffion of the knights 213 years. After this lofs, the grand mafter and knights retired firlt into the ifle of Candia. Some time after pope Clement VIE. gave them Viterbo. Laltly, Charles V. in 1525, gave them the ifland of Malta, which grant was confirmed by the pope in 1530: and hence they obtained the appellation of * knights of Malta ;”? though their proper name is that of “ knights of the order. of St. Johnof Jerufalem ;’’ ‘and ; their grand mafter among his other titles, {till retains that of “ ma{ter of the hofpital of St. John,’? and “ guardian of the.poor of our Saviour Jefus Chrift.” The badge of the order isa ‘gold crofs of eight points enamelled white, and worn by all the knights at their breaft, pendant to a black ribbon.” The knights of this order, whether novices or profeffed, when they go to war with the Turks, .wear over their coats ‘a red jacket or tabard, charged both be- fore and behind with a great full white crofs, without points.”” See the preceding article. The order of Malta have no other dominions befides their ifland, and fome other little places in the aeighbour- hood, the chief whereof are Gozo and Comino. The government is both monarchical and ariftocratical, . the grand mafter being the fovereign, and thé chapter the fenate., It is monarchical with regard to the inhabitants of Malta, and the ifles adjacent, and even with regard ta the knights in every thing relating to the.{tatutes and ata their MAL their order ; and it is ariftocratical with regard to the deci- fion of any important affairs, which are not to be difpatched but by the grand mafter and the chapter. There are two councils; the one ordinary, compofed of the grand matter, as chief, and the grand crofles ; the other complete, conii{t- ing of the grand mafter, the grand croffes, and the two fenior knights of each language. By he Intgtinges of Malta are meant the feveral nations of which the order is compofed. Of thefe, authors have reckoned eight, viz. Provence, Auvergne, France, Italy, Arragon, Germany, Catftile, and England. The pillar (as he has been called) of the language of Provence is the ¢rand commander of the order; he of Auvergne the grand marfhal; he of France the grand hofpitaler ; he of Italy the grand admiral; he of Arragon grand confervator, or draper, as he was anciently called ; the pillar of the language of Germany is grand bailiff ; and he of Caftile grand chancellor ; the language of England, which has been extin& fince the time of the Reformation under king Henry VIII. had for its pillar or chief, the grand turcopolier, or colonel of the cavalry. The language of Provence is the firft, on account of Gerhard, a native of Provence, or of Raimond du Puy, their firft grand matter, who was a Provengal. In each language there are feveral grand priories, and capital bailiages. ‘To each language belongs a hall, where the knights eat, and hold their ordinary aflemblies. Each grand prior has a number of commanderies. The commanderies are either magitterial, or elfe by right, of, finally, by favour. The agile are thofe annexed to the grand mafterfhip, of which there is one in each grand priory: commanderies by right are thofe which come by right of feniority ; their feniority is computed from the time of their admiffion; but they muft firft have lived five years at Malta, and have made four caravannes, or cruifing voyages, on the Turks and Corfairs: commanderies by favour are thofe which the grand mafter, or the grand prior, have a right of conferring ; one of thefe they confer every five years on whom they pleafe. The noble knights are called knights by right; and none but thefe can be bailiffs, grand priors, or grand mafters. Knights by favour are thofe who, not being noble of themfelves, are raifed on account cf fome great exploit, or fome notable fervice, into the rank of nobles. The fervitors, or ferving-brothers, are of two kinds; 1. The fervitors of war, whofe fun@tions are the fame with thofe of the knights. 2. The fervitors of religion, whofe whole bufinefs is to fing the praifes of God in the conventual church, and to officiate each in his turn as chaplain on board the veffels and gallies of the order. The brothers of obedience are priefts, who, without being obliged to go to Malta, take the habit of the order, make the vows, and attach themfelves to the fervice of fome of the churches of the order, under the command of a grand prior, or commander, to whom they pay obedience. The knights of majority are thofe who, according to the ftatutes, are admitted at fixteen years of age. The knights of minority are thofe who are admitted from the time of their birth ; which, however, cannot be done, with- out a difpenfation from the pope, The chaplains can only be admitted regularly from ten to fifteen years of age: after fifteen they muft have a brief from the pope ; till fifteen, the grand mafter’s letter is fufficient. Thefe are called diacos, and muft give proof of their being born of creditable families. For the proofs of nobility to be made before the admif- fion of knights, in the language of Germany, they go back MAL fix generations ; in the reft, it is fufficient to go back to the great grandfather on the father’s or mother’s fide. There are alfo female hofpitalers of the order of St. John of Jerufalem, fometimes alfo called chevaliereffes, or fhe-knights, whofe bufinefs was to take care of the women-pilgrims, in an hofpital apart from that of the men. This was inftituted in the year 1107, by Agnes, abbefs of the hofpital of St. Mary Magdalene, who, with her companions, made profeflion of the fame rule, took the fame habit, and bound themfelves to obferve the fame vows, as Gerhard de Didier had done in the year 1099. The badge of this order was the fame with that of the knights of Malta. Since treaties of alliance between Chriftian and Infidel powers are now as common as between Chriftian powers alone ; and fince the Barbary Corfairs are lefs formidable and injurious to commerce than they were formerly, the | order of Malta, notwithftanding its claim to the gratitude of European powers for a long, long feries of paft fervices, feems to have declined in importance and eftimation. Under the grand mafterfhip of Rohan, indeed, the poffef- fions belonging to the order of St. Anthony were added to thofe of Malta ; feveral commanderies, fituated in Poland, were reftored ; and a new language was inftalled, the Anglo- Bavarian ; to which was afterwards united the grand priory of Ruflia, created by the emperor Paul, who, enamoured of chivalrous exploits, and well aware of the commercial and political advantages which Ruffia would derive from the pofleffion of Malta, affumed the title of proteétor of the order, and was invelted, together with the whole imperial family, with the grand crofs of Malta. Neverthelefs, the European powers were very indifferent as to the independence of the order. That the legiflative aflembly of France fhould pafs a decree, annulling the order of Malta, was not matter of fur- prife: it was the natural confequence of a previous law, that every Frenchman, who was a member of any order of knighthood which required proofs of nobility, fhould no longer be regarded as a French citizen. Nor can it be matter of furprife that, by the fame decree (Sept. 19, 1792), all its property fhould be annexed to the demefnes of France. The original hofpitalers, and the firft knights were French- men; out of the eight languages France had three, befides commanderies fituated in Alface, Roufillon, and French Navarre, which were all dependencies of the two languages of Germany and Arragon. The confifcation of -all this property was quite confonant with the prevaling atrocious {yftem of revolutionary policy and morals. The enormous deficit which this plunder occafioned, ought to have excited the compaffion, if it had not called forth the generolity, of other {tates ; inftead of which we find the aoe affeffed to fupport the coalition againft France. Thus, between two armies, the knights of Malta bear the blows of both! The Spanifh and Portuguefe commanderies, which had never before paid any taxes to their refpeétive governments, were now called upon for a tenth of their revenue ; thofe in the kingdom of Naples and in Sicily were fubjected to heavier ones ; and the order was treated ftill worfe in Piedmont, where part of the property of the knights of Malta was ordered to be fold. The revenue of the order in the year 1788 amounted to 3,156,719 French livres, and the expenditure to 2,967,503, leaving a furplus of 189,216. To the confifcation of its property in France, yielding an annual revenue of 1,392,974, livres, and its taxation by different fovereigns in fupport of the war againft France, muft be added the enormous lofs which the treafury fuftained by the depreciation of paper money, when it became neceflary to realize the revenues due MAL due from Spain and part of Italy. The left bank of the Rhise being ceded to the French by the treaty of Campo Formio, the order was deprived of all its property in thele four new departments; and the different new republics, formed on every fide, fucceflively robbed it of what it pof-- feffled in Helvetia, and the Ligurian and Cifalpine republics. Malta, by thefe accumulated loffes, was deprived of two- thirds of its revenne. It was compelled to borrow to the amount of fix millions of livres; and at laft its credit was fallen fo low, that no one could be found to advance more. In the year 1796, the plate belonging to the men of war and to the gallies was melted down, and coined into money, as was alfo part of the grand mafter’s, together with fome of that employed for the ufe of the fick in the hofpital. It was very evident, therefore, that this noble order, which for feven hundred years had been the terror of infidels and the bulwark of Chriittendom, was no longer held in that eftimation and refpect by the European potentates, which the remembrance of its valorous achievements might have been expected to infpire. Ruffia, under Paul I., certainly manifeited a defire to afford Malta relief:,the order alfo expected the pay- ment of about a hundred thoufand crowns from Spain, which moft unfortunately did not arrive till a few days after the French had landed in the ifland, and which, of courfe, became a prey to them. Notwithitanding the low ftate of the finances, Malta, at the time the French fleet made its appearance, was perfectly able to have made a formidable refiltance againft any attempt at landing ; and if a landing had been effected, a ftill more powerful defence of the city Valetta. ‘ Never to reckon the number of the enemy” made a part of the oath of every knight, on his admiffion into the order; and ‘to die at his pott was a firft principle of honour.’?? The bulwarks of the ifland were matter-pieces of fortification, and if the knights and the Maitefe had been as faithful to themfelves and to each other as at the fiege by Solyman, Bonaparte would have retired from this rock of refiftance abafhed, confounded, and defeated. The treacherous furrender of the ifland gives an ample verification to the {tatement of the Maltefe deputies: ‘ The defection,’’ fay they, ‘and treafon of which the order was guilty, will form an epoch in the annals of the world as ttriking as that by which we are again thrown under its defpotic dominion, after it had aban- doned us to an army unfaithful to all its promifes and en- gagements,’’—‘* No one is ignorant that the plan of the invafion of Malta was projected in Paris, and confided to the principal knights of the order, refident at Malta. Letters in cyphers were inceflantly pafling and re-pafling, without, however, alarming the fufpicions of the deceafed grand matter de Rohan, or of the grand-mafter Hompefch.”” On the evening of the gth of June, 1798, the French landed their troops at Magdalen creek, and on their approach “ one fingle cannon fhot” was fired from fort St. George! At day-break their fhallops were feen advancing towards feven different points, Gozo, Cumino, La Malleha, Salmon, St. George, St Julian, and La Trombrella, none of which made any refiftance, except Goza, which was attacked by general Regnier, and defended by the commander de Megriny. A dreadful fcene of flaughter enfued: the Mal- tefe people fought with a two-edged {word ; they attacked the invaders with valour, and flew, without difcrimination, the knights of the order, by whofe treachery they had been fuffered to effect a landing. That fome among the Maltefe were deluded by the promifes univerfally lavifhed by the French, of liberty, equality, &c. cannot be doubted ; but by their fubfequent condu& it is fully proved, that the bulk of the people were moft determinedly hoftile to the VoL. XXII. MAL admiffion of the French, and. that their deteftation of the order was inexpreflibly increafed by a deteétion of its trea- chery on this occafion. _When Bonaparte fet fail, fome of the knights a¢tually enlifted under his banners ! It is unneceflary to give an account of the conduét of the French on their pofleffion of Malta: every thing in the public buildings, ‘* which bore the ftamp of nobility, or re- called to mind the celebrated exploits performed by illuf- trious chiefs, was broken and deftroyed.’’. The arms of the order, together with thofe of the principal chiefs, were effaced not only in the principal inns, but in the palace of the grand matter, himfelf being prefent on the occafion! The knights who were not in the French interelt, were ordered to quit the ifland in three days, and a difgraceful falary was voted to Hompefch, as an equivalent for the pro- perty annexed to the grand mafterfhip. The knights who were attached to the French intereft had but little reafon to applaud the wifdom of their political fpeculations: expofed to the rage ef the Maltefe, and unprotected by their new friends, they were fhut up in different fortreffes, fome fled, fome abfolutely perifhed from want, and all were defpifed and hated. They who remained faithful to their duty were f{cattered in different places. Hompefch retired to Triefte, feparated himfelf from the companions of his flight, and refigned the office of grand matter, which he had foinglorioufly filled. Many retired to the dominions of the emperor of Ruffia, who took upon himfelf the title of grand mafter, and created a new Ruffian priory for the benefit of the nobles in his dominions, who followed the rites of the Greek church. Notwithftanding the flight cf Hompefch, and the knights who accompanied him, and notwithftanding the treachery of thofe apottate members of the order who remained behind, attached to the provifional government eftablifhed in the ifland by the French, the brave inhabitants rofe in arms again{t their invaders, who were fhut up within the gates of Valetta, without daring to iffue forth and face the ter- rible vengeance of the people. The blockade of Malta by the Englifh lafted two years; namely, from September 2, 1798, to September 4, 1800, when the city furrendered. The fituation of the city was fo deplorable from the alarm- ing mortality among the troops and inhabitants, arifing doubt- lefs from the f{carcity of provifions, that a furrender appeared abfolutely certain. In September, 1799, a fowl, which before the blockade, ufed to fell for 6d. fold for from 2/. 3s. to 2/. 10s. Englifh; a pigeon was worth ros.; a rabbit about the fame; a rat from is. to 1s. 6d.; frefh pork fold for 7s. a pound, and cheefe for the fame. The flehh of mules and affes was in fuch requeft, that the people com- plained bitterly whenever they were deprived of it. The French, however, raifed vegetables, bred poultiy, rabbits, é&c. ; and, under the vigilance and unceafing encouragement of their general Vaubois, contrived, as much as_ poflible, to relieve their wants and fupport their {pirits. The gar- rifon was put upon half-pay in the month of Auguit ; in the following December it was entirely ftopped, as was their allowance of wine and brandy. To the honour of ‘the French troops, for it is impoffible to contemplate fuch con- du& without admiration, not a murmur was heard, and during a whole twelve-month there were fcarcely twenty deferters, and the greateft of thefe were either volunteers or failors! The fituation of the inhabitants now became every day more and more difaftrous; and fuch were the effects of poverty, difeafe, and frequent emigration, that of 40,000 fouls in September 1798, there only remained 13,000 in 1799: thefe were reduced to-10,000 in the fol« lowing Otober, and to 7500 in March 1800, In the laft Ee period MAL period of the blockade provifions rofe to an incredtble price : a bottle of oil fold for a guinea, a pound of coffee for 2/. 8s. and a pound of fugar for a few fhillings lefs; affes, mules, horfes, dogs, and cats, were almoft all confumed; and ge- neral Vaubois was at la!t compelled, by famine, to propofe terms of capitulation. He received from the Englifh fuch as were due to fo perfevering and courageous a refi{tance, and fuch at the fame time as proved that Britons pay jutt homage to the bravery of an enemy. The native Maltefe were the only party who had reafon to complain of the capitulation, and ftill greater of the treaty of Amiens, which again configned them to the order which had given fuch irrefragable proofs of cowardice and treachery. By the treaty of peace between Great Britain and the French republic, concluded at Amiens 27th March 1802, it was ftipulated, that the iflands of Malta, Gozo, and Cu- mino, fhould be reftored to the order of St. John of Jerufa- lem, to be held on the fame conditions on which it pofleffed them before the war, and under the following ftipulations. 3. The knights of the order, whofe languages fhall continue to fubfitt after the exchange of the ratification of the pre- fent treaty, are invited to return to Malta as foon.as the ex- change fhall have taken place. They will there forma ge- neral chapter, and proceed to the eleGtion of a grand matter, chofen from among the natives of the nation which preferve their language, 7. e. a right of eleCtion, as belonging to a particular Catholic nation, unlefs that eleGtion has been al- ready made fince the exchange of the preliminaries. It is underftood that an eleétion made fubfequent to that epoch, fhall alone be confidered valid, to the exclufion of any other that may have taken place at any period prior to that epoch. 2. The governments of the French republic, and of Great Britain, defirous to place the ifland and order of Malta in a ftate of entire independence with refpeét tothem, agree that there fhall not in future be either a French or Englifh lan- guage, and that no individual belonging to either the one or the other of thefe powers fhall be admitted into the order. 3. There fhall be eftablifhed a Maltefe language which hall be fupported by the territorial revenues and commercial du- ties of the ifland. This language fhall have its peculiar dignities, an eftablifhment, and an hotel. Proofs of nobility fhall not be neceflary for the admiffion of knights of this language ; and they fhall be moreover admiffible into all offices, and fhall enjoy all privileges, in the fame manner as the knights of other Janguayes. At lealt half of the mu- nicipal adminiftration, civil, judicial, and other employments depending on the government, fhall be filled by inhabitants of the iflands of Malta, Gozo,-and Cumino. 4. The forces of his Britannic majelty {hall evacuate the ifland and its de- pendencies, within three months from the exchange of the ratifications, or fooner if poffible. At that epoclvit hall be given up to the order in its prefent ftate, provided the grand matter or commiflaries, fully authorized according to the ftatutes of the order, fhall be in the ifland to take poffeffion ; and that the force which is to be provided by his Sicilian ma- jelty, as is hereafter ftipulated, fhall have arrived there. 5. One-half of the garrifon at leaft thall be always compofed of native Maltefe ; for the remainder the order may levy re- cruits m thofe countries only which continue to poffefs the languages. The Maltefe troops fhall have Maltefe officers. The command in chief of the garrifon, as well as the nomina- tion of the officers, fhall pertain to the grand matter ; and this right he cannot refign, even temporally, except in favour of a knight, and in concurrence with the advice of the coun- eilof the order. 6. The independence of the ifles of Mal- ta, Gozo, and Cumino, as well as the prefent arrangement, Siall be placed under the protection and guarantee of France, i MAL Great Britain, Auftria, Spain, Ruffia, and Prufiia. 7. The neutrality of the order, and of the ifland of Malta, with its dependencies, is proclaimed. 8. The ports of Malta fhall be opened to the commerce and navigation of all na- tions, who fhall there pay equal and moderate duties ; thofe duties fhall be spplied to the cultivation of the Maltefe lan- guage, as fpecified in paragraph 3; to that of the civil and military efteblifhments of the ifland ; as well as to that of a general lazaretto, open toa!l enfigns. g. The ftates of Bar- bary are excepted from the conditions of the preceding para- graphs, until, by means of an arrangement to be procured by the contra¢ting parties, the fyftem of hoftihtics which fubfiits between the itates of Barbary and the order of St. John, or the powers poflefling the languages, or concurring in the compofition of the order, fhall have ceafed. 10. The order fhall be governed, both with refpeét to fpirituals and temporals, by the fame ftatutes which were in force when the knights left the ifle, as far as the prefent treaty fhall not derogate from them. 11. The regulations contained in the paragraphs 3, 5, 7, 8 and ro, fhal! be converted into laws and perpetual ftatutes of the order, in the cuftomary manner + and the grand matter (or if he fhall not be in the ifland at the time of its reftoration to the order, his reprefentative ), as well as his fucceffors, fhall be bound to take an oath for their punétual obfervance. 12. His Sicilian majetty hall be invited to furnifh 2000 men, natives of his ftates, to ferve in ‘ garrifon of the different fortrefles of the faid iflands. That force fhall remain one year, to bear date from the reftitution of the knights ; and if at the expiration of this term, the order fhould not have raifed a force fufficient, in the judgment of the guaranteeing powers, to garrifon the ifland and its de- pendencies, fuch as is fpecified in the paragraph, the Neapoe litan troops fhall continue there until they fhall be replant a force deemed fufficient by the faid powers. 13. The dit- ferent powers defignated in the fixth paragraph, viz. France, Great Britain, Auitria, Spain, Ruffia, and Proffia, fhalt be invited to accede to the prefent itipulations. The Maltefe remonftrated in {pirited and indignant terms againtt that portion of the treaty of Amiens which configned their ifland to the order: and demanded that it might be re« ftored to them ; or that the expences they had incurred might be paid to them, or that they might be indemaified for the lofles occafioned by the war, and by the plunder of the French. They then conteft the title of the knights to the pofleffion of the ifland, and placing, as they ftate their cafe, a full reliance in the fincerity of the Britifh government, and in the faith of the Britifh nation, the Maltefe were more de- firous of becoming fubjeéts of the king of England, and of enjoying all the advantages of free fubjects of a monarchy. who is the fathey’ of all his people, than to affert and main- tain their own independence ; but never did they fufpe&, nor can they now for a moment believe, that, violating alk the laws of jultice, divine and human, they are to be forci- bly delivered up by their auxiliary allies, as a conquered peo- ple, or as vile flaves fold for a political confideration to other matters, to matters, ‘* whofe tyranny, extortion, and facri- lege, have rendered them the execration of evéry virtuous: mind, and to whom, whatever horrible calamity may enfue, the Maltefe nation will never fubmit.’’ The reprefentation proceeds to affert, that if the ifland were again delivered up to the order, it would virtually be in the hands of the French, fince they are not (even including thofe of the new Anglo- Bavarian language), more than'a ¢birtieth part of the knights who are not at the blind difpofal of France. Indignantly isit obferved, ‘* if the knights of the order, in poffeffion of an independent fovereignty and revenue, enjoying every eale and pleafure that imagination can form, engaged in oe ————EeE———eeE MAL of luxury, careffed and reverenced as fo many fovereigns ; if in this cohdition the French could command them to quit their terreftrial paradife, to wander in the wide world, and could induce them to become partifans of their caufe, what muft not the power of the fame French over them be, de- pendent, degraded, difhonoured, reduced to beggary, in whom is extiné&t every fpark of honour, and who have been guilty of the blackeft, the moft horrible infidelity, apoftacy towards their God, and violation of the facramental ordi- nances ???—“* With refpect to the guarantee of this or that power, but too well is our ifland acquainted with the French and the order, not to be convinced of the fallibility of fuch a propofition. ‘The firft war, whether of length or fhort duration, puts anend toit entirely. If ever a third power were to occupy fome parts of the fortreffes, the troops would be corrupted by French money and French principles ; and immenfe are the fums that would be expended for that pur- pofe. The military pofts are dependent one upon the other, Weare able to point out,’' fay the reprefentatives, ‘ the utter impoffibility of occupying a part, without the whole. We can clearly demonftrate how they can, and will obtain their feveral ends. Wecan make it evident, that there is no fecurity for the inhabitants, unlefs Britifh troops are placed in poffeffion of all the fortreffes, and unlefs the adminiftra- tion of juttice is placed in the hands of a Britifh civil go- vernment.”’ Boifgelin's Anc. and Mod. Malta. Marva, or Medina. See Civita Vecchia, and Matta, upra. f Maura Earth, in the Materia Medica. SIs terra. MALTEPEC, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the province of Mechoacan ; 60 miles E.S.E. of Mechoacan. MALTESE, in Biography. The proper name, the birth- place, and the education of the ingenious painter who bears this appellation, are alike unknown; but his works, which confilt chiefly of objets in ftill life, are valued for their ex- hibition of freedom, boldnefs, and truth. They are gene- rally compofed of fruit, carpets, jewellery, thells, tapeltries, &c. to which, by a judicious management in their compofi- tion, a brilliant colour, anda ready and powerful touch, he produced a {trong and brilliant relief ; and often a moft en- chanting éffe&t of chiaro-ofcuro. MALTHA, Mar$x, in Antiquity, denotes any cement, or glutinous body, which has the faculty of binding things to- gether. See Cakareous\CemMENT. Ancient writers make mention of divers forts of maltha, native and faétitious ; one of the latter much in ufe was compofed of pitch, wax, plafter, and greafe. Another kind, with which the Romans plaftered and whitened the infides of their aqueducts, was made of lime flaked in wine, incorporated with melted pitch, and frefh figs. Sail maltha is a kicd of bitumen, called “ mineral pitch,’ with which the Aliatics platter their walls. When thisis once fet on fire, water will not quench it; but ferves rather to make it burn more fiercely. See Brrumen. Maxrus, in Ichthyology, the name of a voracious fifh of the fhark kind, called the forrat, and the /amiola by fome au- thors, a diminutive of Jamia, fignifying a {mall fhark. Its tecth are broad and pointed, like thofe of the fhark ; the fifh has alfo many rows of thefe; the nofe is fhort, and its flefh lax and foft. See Squatus. MALTHOCODE, a termby which the Greek writers exprefs the emollient topical remedies prepared with oil. Hippocrates exprelsly forbids the ufe of thefe in old ulcers. MALTON, or New Marton, in Geography, a borough and market-town in the wapentake of Ryedale, North See Metiten- MAL Riding of the county of York, England, is fituated 18 miles diftant from York, and 217 from London, on an eminence overlooking the river Derwent, which runs through a beau- tiful vale on the fouth-eaft fide of the town. Malton was of fome note in the Saxon times. Immediately before the Norman conqueft, it was poffeffed by a nobleman named Colebrand, from whom it was taken by the Conqueror, who gave it to Gilbert Tyfon, one of his followers. Inthe reign of Henry I., Euftace St. John poffeffed this lordfhip by in- heritance from his mother, who was grand-daughter and heirefs of Gilbert Tyfon. In the contett between the em- prefs Maud and king Stephen, the town was reduced to afhes. It was rebuilt by Euftace, and then acquired the name of New Malton. In the reign of James I., Ralph, lord Eure, who was then in,poffeflion of the manor, built a magnificent houfe here ; but leaving no iffue, his eftates came to his uncle William, lord Eure, who left two daughters, co- heireffes. Theie difagreeing about this noble manfion, it was, after a tedious and expentive litigation, determined that it fhould be pulled down, and its materials divided: and fo {crupuloufly was the divifion made, that the “ {tones were even fhared one by one.”? But it feems that fome compro- mife took place before the dilapidation was completed, as the lodge in the front, with three arched gateways, are yet ftanding. The manor was afterwards conveved to ir Thomas Wentworth, and from him defcended to Thomas, marquis of Rockingham, who was fucceeded in titles and eltares by his fon Charles, the late marquis; after whofe death; the eltates devolved on his nephew, earl Fitzwilliam. Malton is about half a mile in length from eaft to weft. The entrance at the ealt end is by a fpacious ftone-bridge over the Derwent, whence the principal ftreet rifes with a continued, but gentle afcent through the town. The houfes are mottly built of ftone; and in the year 1801 were in number, aecording to the population furvey, 604, and were occupicd by 3047 perfons. ‘Ie town comprizes two pa- rifhes, St. Michael’s and St. Leonard’s; cach having its refpective church: the fpire of the latter has a fingular ap- pearance, Malton is a borough by prefcription, and has fent two members to parliament ever {ince the 23d year of Edward J.; the right of cle@ion being vetted in the holders of about 100 burgage tenures. The town is governed by a bailiff. Markets are held on Tuefdays and Saturdays; and a brifk trade is carried on in corn, of which a great quan- tity is fent into the weftern parts of Yorkshire, and to {e- veral other places. The Derwent is navigable to Malton, where the quantity ‘of corn fhipped in the year 1796 amounted to 56,065 quarters. Here are three annual fairs, which exhibit a great {how of horfes and cattle, and are much frequented by farmers, graziers, and horfe-dealers. Hinder- well’s Hiftory of Scarborough. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, MALTOY, a town of Hindooftan, in Goondwana; 60 miles N.W. of Nagpour. N. lat. 21° 45'. E. long. 78° 58. MA LTRA, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland; 42 miles N.N.W. of Hernofand. MALVA, in Botany, is thought by Ambrofinus to have obtained its name from mollis, alluding to the foothing’ or emollient qualities with which it is endued. The ancients reckoned it an excellent ftomachic, frequently mixing it with La@uca in their fallads. Its Greek name porzxx is of finilar origin, being derived from uxrzsrw, to fofien. Ho- race, as every body knows, fpcaks of « deves malve,” ap- parently meaning light of digeftion; and Martial fays, *© Utere laGucis, et mollibus utere malvis.’? Linn. Gen. 354. Schreb. 466, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 774. Mart hea Mill, MAL Mill. Di@. v.3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 740. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 446. Juff. 272. Lamarck Tlluttr. t. 582: Gartn. t. 136 —Clafs and order, Monadelphia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvaceae, Jul. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth double, inferior; the outer generally narrower, of three ovate or heart-fhaped, acute, permanent leaves ; the inner of one leaf, five-cleft half way down, larger, broader, permanent. Cor. Petals five, ob- cordate, abrupt, flat, fixed by their bafe to the tube of the {tamens. Stam. Filaments numerous, united below into a tube, feparate and loofe at the top, and along the furface ; anthers kidney-fhaped. Pif. Germen fuperior, orbiculate, deprefled ; ityle cylindrical, fhort; ftigmas many, briftly, as long as the ftyle. Peric. Capfule roundifh, compofed of the fame number of two-valved cells as there are ftigmas, placed in a whorl about a columnar receptacle ; finally de- ciduons. Seeds folitary, occafionally two or three, kidney- fhaped. Eff. Ch. Calyx double; the outermoft of three leaves. Capfules numerous, circularly arranged. *Seeds moftly folitary. Obf. Schreber remarks that fome fpecies have only two leaves to the outer calyx, and that in AZ. caroliniana each capfole is divided into two cells by a tranfverfe membrane. This extenfive genus furnifhes many ornamental plants, though chiefly of exotic growth. We feleé& the following fpecies to illuftrate its hiftory. Linnzus has defined only twenty-fix in the 14th edition of his Syflema Vegetabilium. Profeffor Martyn however has thirty-four, and Willdenow defcribes fifty-five. They are arranged under two feétions, namely, fuch as have undivided leaves, and fuch as have angular leaves, all our three native Mallows belonging to the Jatter fe€tion. Se&t. 1. Leaves undivided. M. /picata. Spiked Mallow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 967. (Al- thea fpicata, betonice folio villofiflimo; Sloan. Jam. v. 1. 219. t. 138. f. 1.)—Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, notched, downy. Spikes oblong, hairy.—A native of barren, rocky lands in Jamaica, flowering in September and Oétober. Stem two or three feet high, pale green, branched. Leaves roundifh, on footftalks, pale green and fmooth. Flowers in fpikes at the fummits of the twigs and branches, orange- coloured. M. /coparia. Small yellow-flowered upright Mallow. Willd. n. 4. L’Herit. Stirp. t.27. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 139.— Leaves ovate, notched or ferrated. Flowers axillary, crowded together. Stem fhrubby.—A native of Peru, dif- covered near Lima by Dombey, flowering late in the fum- mer. The inhabitants of Spanifh America make brooms of its branches, whence the fpecificname. Stem about fix feet high, upright, round, {moothifh, much branched. Leaves rather drooping, fomewhat heart-fhaped, acute, entire at the bafe, downy, rugged, pale green. /owers on fhort ftalks, of a yellow colour {potted with red. Se&. 2. Leaves angular. M. fylvefiris. Common Mallow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 969. Engl. Bot. t. 671. Curt. Lond, fafe. 2. t..51. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. al Stem upright, herbaceous. , Leaves with feven fharpifh lobes. Leaf-ftalks and flower-ftalks hairy.— By hedges and paths both in cultivated and wafte ground all over England, flowering from May to September—Root perennial, fpindle-fhaped, branched, whitifh. Stem generall erect, branched, round, hairy, many-flowered. Leaves mt ternate, on footftalks, heart-fhaped, folded, feven-lobed, roughifh, notched; the upper ones nearly palmate. Stalks crowded together, hairy, fingle-flowered. Flowers reddith- purple or Hlaciaotoured, veined with a deeper tinge ; petals 10 MAL obcordate, thrice as long as the calyx, which is hifpid. « The whole herb,” fays Dr. Smith, «efpecially the root, abounds with a pure mucilage, and poflefles the emollient qualities of the Marfh Mallow, lthza, though perhaps in an inferior degree. It has, however, the advantage of being much more common, and within every body’s reach.”? M. rotundifolia. Dwarf Mallow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 969. Engl. Bot. t. rog2. Curt.’ Lond. fafe. 3. t. 43.—Stems proitrate. Leaves roundifh heart-fhaped, five-lobed. Fruit- italks bent downwards.—Common in waite ground, flower- ing copioufly from June to September. oot annual, branched, whitifh, mucilaginous. Stems numerous, pro- ftrate, almoft fimple. Leaves {maller than in /y/veffris, five or feven-lobed. F/owers flefh-coloured. A variety of this is fometimes found with fmaller petals, indeed not longer than the calyx. This was confidered as a diilinét {pecies by Mr. Hudfon, who called it parviflora, and Dr. Smith figured it in Engl. Bot. t. 241, under the name of pufilla, but he afterwards was fatisfied of its being a mere variety of MM. rotundifolia. M. mofchata. Mufk Mallow. Linn. Sp. Pl. g71. Engl. Bot. t.754. Curt. Lond. fafe. 4. t. 50.—Radical leaves kidney-fhaped, cut; thofe on the ttem in five deep pinnatifid and finely divided fegments. Calyx hairy.—Not uncom- mon by the fides of fields and roads ina gravelly foil, flower- ing in July and Auguft. Root perennial, fomewhat woody, tenacious, Stems ereét, rather branched. Lower leaves heart or kidney-fhaped, lobed; upper divided to the bafe into five fegments, which are deeply pinnatifid, cut and channelled. Flowers large, handfome, rofe-coloured. The whole herb gives out a ftrong, mufky odour, which is {carcely perceptible, however, in cold or damp weather. M. Alcea, was once reckoned a Britifh {pecies, and Will- denow {fill mentions it as fuch, but without reafen. Some variety of mo/chata, with broader leaves than ufual, is fup- pofed to have been taken for it. Matva, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the herba- ceous, annual, biennial, perennial, and fhrubby kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated are, the fpiked mallow (M. {picata) ; the American mallow (M. americana); the Pe- ruvian mallow (M. peruviana); the creeping mallow (M. caroliniana); the oriental mallow (M. orientalis); the whorl-flowered mallow (M. verticillata) ; the curled mallow (M. crifpa) ; the palmated mallow (M. egyptia) ; the ver- vain mallow (M. alcea) ; the mufk mallow (M. mofchata) ; and the goofeberry-leaved or cape mallow (M. capenfis). In the laft or Cape fpecies, thereare varieties in which the ftems are thicker and higher, of a brownifh-red colour ; the leaves hirfute, broader, with wider fegments, lefs deeply cut, but with the toothlets fharper and ferrate ; the whorls of fruit a little larger, and not muricated, and in which the hairs of the leaves and ftem are fimple, not com- pound ; the flowers almoit upright, not drooping or bending downwards. Method of Culture.—-\t may be obferved that the ten firft forts are all capable of being raifed from feeds, which, in the hardy kinds, fhould be fown in the fituations where the plants are to grow, in patches of four or five in each, in the {pring or beginning of autumn, covering them to the depth of half an inch. They may likewife be fown upon a bed of fine earth, and be afterwards removed to the places where they are to flower. Thofe which are natives of hot cli- mates fhould be fown in pots, and plunged in a hot-bed. In the two latter modes, when the plants have attained fome growth, they fhould be removed into: their proper fitnations, or into other pots, to be afterwards managed ac- cording to the difference of the kinds. And MAL And the laft fort and varieties may be raifed alfo by feed, which fhould be fown upon a hot-bed, or in pots, and plunged in it. When the plants have attained fome growth, they fhould be removed into feparate pots, replunging them in the hot-bed till frefh rooted, when they fhould be gra- dually inured to the full air, managing them afterwards in the fame manner as other exotics of the green-houfe kind. The hardy forts afford a pleafing variety in the fhrubbery and other parts, while thofe of the more tender and fhrubby kind produce a good effeé&t in the green-houfe, and among potted colleétions in other places. Matva The duodenum of the Jama is wide at the commencement, forming an oval fac ; the other {mall inteftines are puckered by the mefentery. The cecum has a conical fhape, and no contraétions: the internal membrane of the {mall inteftines has fome tranfverfe folds; that of the colon longitudinal ones. In other refpeéts the inteltinal canal of the /ama re- fembles that of the ov, as does alfo the alimentary canal of the other ruminants without horns. The great inteftines are much more capacious in the Jox/e, ofs, &c. than in the ruminating quadrupeds ; more particu« larly the cecum, which is of a prodigious fize. This gut is nearly as wide as it is long ; and when the excrementitious parts of the food are allowed to accumulate in it and the colon, the abdomen has that tumid appearance which is feen in affes and in horfes, that are fed only upon hay or ftraw. The colon begins with a dilatation, not much inferior in fize to the cecum: it is doubled upon itfelf, and in its courfe through the abdomen it forms other curves or arches. The great inteflines are drawn up into facs: thefe are larger in the firft portions of the colon. For a more detailed account of the inteftines of the horfé, we fhall refer the reader to the anatomy of that animal in this diGionary. It is faid, that in the morfe (trichecus rofmarus) the cecum is fituated in the left fide of the abdomen. There is no other inftance of the kind in mammalia, except in cafes of tranf- pofition of the vifcera. The cacum in this animal is very inconfiderable, refembling a mere knob of the inteftine. Both the fmall and great inteftines have very nearly the fame diameter. In the fouthern lamantin the cecum has a very peculiar figure ; it forms the fegment of the outfide of a circle, or has a crefcentic appearance. The ileum communicates with the middle, from which alfo the colon arifes. This intef- tine is wider at firft than the cecum, and forms fome clofe convolutions ; it afterwatds proceeds as a flightly twifted canal, and becomes again enlarged near the rectum, which Jaft gut is wider than the colon. The cetacea are ftated by Cuvier to want the cecum: Henter, however, afferts that it exifts in the pifed and large whale-Lone whales. In the genus delphinus there is certainly no dilatation correfponding to the cecum: the laft inteftines are diftinguifhed by their having a {maller diameter, and thicker mufcular coats. In the porpoi/e the internal mem- brane forms fome longitudinal folds, which are not very eminent in the {mall intelftines, and decline in the colon and the rectum. The grampus has tranfverfe and longitudinal folds, which produce in fome degree the appearance of mefhes: thefe are moft plain in the duodenum, and gradually diminifh until they difappear. For about ten inches above the anus, the inteftine is lined with a thick white cuticle. All the cetacea, we believe, have the termination of the rec- tum covered with cuticle, and contraGted in fize. In the piked whale the inner coat of the duodenum has longitudinal ruge, at a diftance from each other, which receive lateral folds: thefe decline in the other inteftines, and appear to correfpond with the mefhes of the grampus. "The duodenum in the bottle-nofe whale {wells into a large cavity, which might be called an additional ftomach, if it were not that the hepatic du&s terminated in it. The whole of the intef- tinal canal in this {pecies nearly has the inner coat forming facs or cells, which are again fubdivided into fmaller cells. Thefe open, or have their mouths direéted towards the anus, or in the courfe of the food through the canal. : The cetacea, as alfo all other animals that inhabit ex. clufively the water, never have any flatus in their inteflines. The fpermaceti whale, however, produces a curious excre= ment, which is called ambergris. ‘This fubflance is fome- times found floating on the furface of the feas that are frequented by thele qwhales, and at others is taken from their great inteftines. When whalps are in a healthy ftate, their excrements are liquid, and of a black colour ; but when fickly, the feces are folid, and accumulate in fuch quantity in the inteflines as to produce a tumour of the abdomen. It is in thefe cafes that the ambergris is obtained from the whales MAMMALIA, whales themfelves: it is found in the great inteftines, about from two to fix or feven feet from the anus. When taken out, it has the fame f{mell and the black colour of the fluid feces; but after expofure to the air, it becomes harder, whiter, and acquires its peculiar odour. The pieces of am- bergris are of various fizes, from half an ounce weight to too lbs. or more. Dr. Swediar relates that one piece weighed 182 Ibs.,-and another 130 lbs., which was worth 5oo/, The ambergris is found largeft and pureft in the male whales. Mr. Hornby found that human feces, by being long digetted, acquired fo ftrong a f{mell of ambergris, that the veffel was obliged to be removed out of the la- boratory. Plate V. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, reprefents the moft remarkable varieties in the form of the inteftines. Fig. 1. is the cecum and appendix vermiformis of the ourang-outang : a is the ileum ; 4, the cul-de-fac, which takes the place of cxcum ; ¢,the colon; d, the appendix vermiformis. Fig. 2. fhews the fame parts in the pha/colomys. The appendix is feen to communicate with the gut by a valvular opening. Fig. 3. is the origin of the great inteftines in the /emur macaco: aia the {mall intettine; 3, the colon; ¢ is the long convoluted vermiform procefs, correfponding to the cecum, Fig. 4. is taken from the ornithorhynchus para- doxus : a, the {mall inteftine ; 5, the colon; c, the ftraight appendix, which has been confidered analogous to the ver- miform. Upon the fame fide of the gut a number of black {pecks are vifible, which are produced by the mucous glands, they appearing of a dark colour in this animal. Fig. 5. exhibits the cecum and parts adjacent in the rabbit; a, the {mall inteftine ; 2, the cecum; ¢, the colon. The figure being drawn from a dried preparation, the courfe of the {piral membrane is feen through the coats of the great inteftines. ig. 6. reprefents fome coils of the fmall intef- tine, and the commencement of the great intefline, with a portion of the latter in the ¢hree-toed ant-cater : a, the {mall ‘inteftine, very irregularly formed; 4, the great inteftine ; ¢,c, the two curious czxca peculiar to this animal. Fig. 7. is intended to fhew the cecum in the Cape cavy: a is the ileum ; 4, the fac, correfponding to cecum from which the colon arifes ; ¢, the colon doubled upon itfelf at its origin. Fig. 8. reprefents the two additional proceffes which are produced by the great inteftine of this animal: a,a, are fome of the fpiral turns of the colon at this place; 4, 5, the two fharp proceffes, refembling the cxca of birds; c, the con- tinuation of the gut, after it has furnifhed thefe two ceca, Liver.—This vifcus is, in proportion, rather lefs bulky generally in mammalia than it isin man. It is ufually di- vided more deeply into lobes, and thefe are alfo, in many fpecies, more numerous. The divifion of the liver into feveral, almoft diftinét lobes, has been chiefly obferved in the beaits of prey, and an opinion has been entertained by fome, which was firft advanced, we believe, by Monroe, that it was neceflary, on account of the fudden and ex- tenfive ficxions of the {pine in thefe animals when running. Cuvier has inferted the number of lobes that are found in a great many fpecies, from which we have compofed the following table. Animals, No. of Lobes in the Liver. Two large and one {mall, Ourang-outang « - i ania Simia panifcus . - - Five. S. pates . ° - Three. 8. fabea - - - Three. Animals, Simia cynomolgus - Howling ailiey - Lemur macaco - - L.. mongooz - - L.. tardigradus - L. tarfius - - L. catta - - Galeopithecus variegatus = Vampyre bat . - The other bats - -— Brown bear - - Racoon - - Coati - - - Hedge-hog - - Badger - - Mole - - Water fbrew - - Otter - - - - Weazels - . - Cat genus - - Jaguar - - - Lynx - - - Dog kind - - Mufk animal (viverra xibetha) Viverra genetta - Opoffums Porcupine - - Ditto of Hudfon’s Bay . Hare - - - Pika ~- - Lepus, laste Pallag ee Lepus ogotona - - Beaver + - - Paca - - - Agouti - - - Cavy - - - Guinea-pig - - Common fquirrel - Palm Squirrel ~ Flying fquirrels - - Bobac - - - Marmot - - Water rat - Short-tailed rat (M. anemic) - Hamfler - = Black and Ni orway rats = Moufe - - Sand rat - ~ Lemming, or Lapland marmot Mus lagurus 2 e Mus agrarius - - M. economus - Dormoufe - - - Ondatra, or mufk rat ~ Kangurao - - Phafcolomys - : Ant-caters - . Ornithorhynchus - = Echidna * = a Armadillo - - - Ory Geropus - - Hog - fo . Pécari ~"> - a a Ie] ACee yay a Ne SN HO pa 0 cm rest. a naa Ee 8l ap, Bile 1 Coyed 8 ee mem ts No. of Lobes in the Liver, Four large and one {mall, Four. Two large and one {mall. he fame. Four unequal fize. _ Three large and one {mall. Two large and one {mall. ‘Two, the left is again fub- divided into five lobes. Four large and one fmall, Three. Five. Four. Three, Five, Five to feven generally. — Four. Eight. Five, fometimes fix. Four. Five. Three to four. f Four large and three fmall. Four large and two {mall. - Three largeandtwo f{mall, Five. Seven. Four. Three large and one fmall. Four. Two large and one fmall, Five. Three. Five Three. Five. Six. Four great and one little, Three. Seven. Five. Four. Five large and one {mall. Four. ; Three. Three large andtwofmall, Four. Three, Four. 4 Ekphant MAMMALIA. Animals, No. of Lobes in the Liver. Elephant sai tine - J Rhinoceros - - | Horfe ae ‘i x The two lobes have only Stag - - a b Antilope i ’ * two notches. Dalphin i e | Porpoife - = i. Gazelle - = 2 } Chamois = - Rots Lehi Nyda ( Three. Goat - - - Seal - - - =iy, GD1%, Northern lamantin - - Two large and one {mall. Whales - - = - Two large and one {mall, ‘ : Refemble the human Ruminants without horns - i fubjeé. The lobes of the liver in mammalia, from being more diftinét, are thinner in their form, and have fharper edges than in the human fubjeé&t.. Differences in the figure of this vifcus are, however, immaterial, as they do not affect its funétions. ~The intimate ftru€ture of the liver is effentially the fame ia man and mammalia. The laft branches of the vena portx terminate in both in the fame manner, and give origin to the excretory ducts. The chief varieties in the biliary fyf{tem of mammalia are produced by the number and fituation of the trunks of the ° hepatic ducts, and the abfence of the gall-bag. _ The gall-bag is not found in the following inftances ; viz. many of the faltigrade order, as the common rats and moufe ; the ham/fer, the mus talpinus, mus minutus, mus agra- rius, mus fongarus, mus pheus, mus arenarius, mus acredula ; in the Hudjon’s Bay porcupine (hyftrix dorfata) ; all the tardi- grade mammalia ; amongit the many-hoofed quadrupeds, the elephant, the rhinoceros, the daman, and the pecari. Of the ruminants, the camel, dromedary, and Stag 5 all the /olipeda ; the northern lamantia ; and the cetacea, according to Hunter, although Cuvier only {tates the porpoife and dolphin as want- ing the gall-bag. In fome mammalia there is a dilatation in the courfe of the bile to the inteftine, which may anfwer fome of the pur- pofes of the gall-bag. This dilated part is moft remark- able in the elephant, on account of the numerous divifions in it. Upon the biliary duct entering the coats of the duodenum, it becomes enlarged into an oval fac, which is irregularly divided interiorly: fome of the fepta are placed nearly tranfverfely, but in fuch a manner as to pro- duce the effeét of a fpiral valve. They create four prin- cipal apartments : two other fepta placed at the feparation of the firft, in the longitudinal direction, formas many more pouches. There is at laft a {mall cell which precedes the four principal ones, and which opens into the firft of thefe. It receives the orifice of the pancreatic du&t upon its Side, and that of the biliary duct in the direction of its axis. This refervoir of the bile and pancreatic juice opens into the inteftine by a moderately {mall orifice. In the Aorfe, the aft, &c. the biliary duét becomes very much dilated before it reaches the duodenum. In the northern lamantin the hepatic du& likewife is greatly enlarged, and receives the pancreatic duct before it pafles into the inteftine. _ We have obferved that the biliary duct of the grampus enlarges, before its termination, in what has been called the fifth ttomach, The fame has been noticed by Hunter in the selacea generally. Vou. XXII. There are fometimes dilatations of the common dué of the liver and of the gall-bag, even when the latter organ exifts. In the cat genus, the du€tus communis choledochus forms, in the parietes of the duodenum, a fac, which is divided by a membranous feptum into two cavities, one of which re- ceives the pancreatic duct. In the otter, the common du@ {wells into an oval facon the outfide of the duodenum, and becomes contraéted again to the original fize before it penetrates the inteftine. In the kanguroo, the common biliary dué& of the liver and gall-bag is large, and joined to the pancreatic before it reaches the duodenum. It is deferibed by Cuvier as having thick glandular coats, and being furnifhed with {trong bands inter- nally, which render its innerSurface cavernous. The cells thus produced are deep, and have their mouths dire@ed to- wards the inteftine. The pancreatic du, although con- joined for a certain diftance with the other, is fmooth in- ternally. Theorifice of thefe dudts in the duodenum has neither dilatation nor valve. The fituation of the ga//-bag, with re{pe& to the liver, appears to be the fame in \all mammalia, _ In fome {pecies, however, it is more imbedded into the fub{tance of that vifcus than in others. Cuvier ftates, that the gall-bag of the opoffum is buried as far as the 2ths of its furface in the parenchyma of the liver. The figure of the gall-bag is moft, commonly pyriform. Cuvier ftates it to be elongated, and approaching a cylin- dric fhape in the badger; coali, otter, weafels, and civet. Although, in fome others of the fame order, it tends to a round figure, as in the bear, hedge-hog, mole, and racoon. It is alfo round in many Jats. The fize of the bag varies alfo in animals that are al- lied to each other in other parts of their anatomy. Thus, it is large in the dear, coati, and hedge-hog, and {mall in the mole, porcupine, Sc. The ducts which carry the bile from the liver, form a greater number of trunks on the outfide of that vifcus in many mammalia than in the human fubjeGt. This appears to be the neceflary confequence of the divifion of the liver into a greater number of lobes than exift in man. In fe- veral mammalia thefe trunks do not unite to form a fingle duct, but communicate feparately with the cyftic dua. In the monkies with prehenfile tails, the hepatic du&s form three trunks, which open in fucceffion in the cyttic duct, and the duétus communis choledochus appears to be the continuation of the latter; although, in the human, fubje@, the common du¢t is evidently, both in dire¢tion and ftru€ture, the continuation of the hepatic duct. , In the /emur tarfius, there are alfo three hepatic dués which unite with the cyttic, in order to form a du€tus com- munis. In the variegated flying lemur there are feveral hepatic ducts, terminating in the cyilic du&s. The mole has two hepatic duéts ;.one, which comes from the middle lobe, receives the cyftic du&t. The two hepatic dus afterward unite to form a du&tus communis. The hedge-hog has feveral duéts from the liver that join with the cyttic. In the cat kind, there are many hepatic duéts united to the cyftic du€&t, which is {mall’ ‘The du€tus communis under- goes, in the parietes of the duodenum, the dilatation al- ready defcribed. In the dag genus, the hepatic duét opens into the cyttic, near the neck of the gall-bag. The armadillos and ant-eaters have one trunk from the liver, which joins the cyftic at a very acute angle. The common dué is the continuation of the hepatic. li Ir MAMMALIA. In the echidna there are three hepatic duéts joined to the ey'tic, near the neck of the gall-bag. The cyitic is large, and appears to form the ductus communis. In the ornithorhynchus there are two hepatic duéts which end in the cytticin the fame manner. The elephant has nine or ten branches from the liver : tkefe form three trunks, which unite again, and make but one. It is inferted into the duodenum, and there fuffers the re- markable dilatation previoufly defcribed. In the fal one hepatic duct joins the cyftic near the neck of the bladder, the other at fome diftance from it. In fome fpecies the hepatic duéts terminate directly in the body or neck of the gall-bag. This has been particularly re- marked in the ox and /hecp, imywhich animals there are feveral fhort duéts leading from the liver chiefly into the neck of the gall-bag, refembling what is found in fome fifhes. A fimilar ftruéture has alfo been defcribed in the wolf, dog, hedge-hog, and hare ; but in thefe animals the hepatic ducts rather fhould be confidered perhaps as entering the origin of the cyftic du& than the gall-bag itfelf. In the wampyre Lat there is but one hepatic duct. It terminates in the com- mencement of the cyitic. In all thefe cafes the cyftic dué mutt be confidered as fupplying the place of the ductus com- munis choledechus. The defign of the hepatic ducts open- ing into the body or neck of the gall-bag, is obvioufly to produce a more concentrated {tate of the bile by retarding its progrefs into the inteftine ; but it is difficult to explain why this effeé fhould be neceflary to animals in whom the organs of digeftion, and the quality of the food are fo very dif- ferent. The exiftence of a gall-bag, whether the bile be conyeyed dire@ly into it, or by regurgitation through the fame duct that carries the cyftic bile out again, has neceflarily the con- fequence of increafing the peculiar properties of the bilious fluid ; it being found that all fecretions, when accumulated in refervoirs, become more concentrated by having their aqueous parts abforbed. It would feem that the prefence of cyftic bile is required more efpecially to carnivorous animals that have a rapid digeltion, as the gall-bag is only wanting ia vegetable eaters, if we except the cetacea. The diftance from the pylorus at which the bile is poured into the inteftine, was formerly confidered as determining the digeftive powers of the animal, it being fuppofed that the biliary duct opened neareft the pylorus in the moft carnivo- rous quadrupeds. A further reales of comparative ana- tomy has fhewn that no general conclufion of this kind can be drawn. There is great variety, even among{t animals nearly allied in other circumftances, with refpe& to the fituation of the orifice of the biliary du in the duodenum. Cuvier ftates that it is nearer the pylorus in the /altigrade quadrupeds generally, than in other mammalia, and at the fame time the farthelt removed in the £anguroo, which belongs to the fame order. In Plate VI. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, jig. 3. repre- fents the fac into which the biliary and pancreatic fluids are poured in the elephant : ais the hepatic dud, formed by two branches, which are compofed of nine or ten leffer ones ; 2, the pancreatic duét which paffes to the cellular receptacle of the. bile ; cis that receptacle laid open, in the cavity of which the fepta and apartments already defcribed are to be perceived ; d, the parietes of the duodenum. Fig. 2.° ex- hibits the receptacle of the bile and pancreatic fluids in the otter : a, the biliary du&t ; 4, the pancreatic dué& 5 c, the ex- ternal form of the receptacle; d,a portion of the duode- nun. Pauercas.—In moft mammalia this vifcus has lobes, branchies, or proceffes, which make its form different from thac of the human fubje@. : In the ourang-outang the pancreas refembles, in its figure, the fame gland in man. It has an irregular form in the Bar-, Lary ape. In the other monkies, the end towards the riglit fide 1s divided into feveral proceffes. In the mole, hedge hog, racoon, and bear, there are two branches or proceffes in the right end of the pancreas. The badger has it bent into anarch. In the /hreqw, the left end is feparated into two forked proceffes. The cat genus has the pancreas compofed of two irregular fhaped lobes, the fmaller one accompanies the duodenum from before backwards. The larger lobe is fituated tranf- verfely. The dog has the gland formed nearly in the fame way. The martin (mujflela foina) has the pancreas doubled upon itfel, fo as to refemble, according to Cuvier, an over- thrown figure of 6, thus a. In the viverra genetta, and vi- verra zibethica, this gland is a thick, compaét, broad band, which reaches from the duodenum to the {pleen. In the deaver, the pancreas is long and thin, and accom- panies the convolutions of the duodenum. Inthe qwater rat the pancreas has three long thin branches. The echidna has feveral branches or proceffes. The pancreas of the elephant is long and narrow, and with- out any offsets ; it 1s faid to: be 64 feet long. sapped st In the ox this gland has the figure of a lozenge. The pancreas of the hor/e has an irregular figure, and three procefles. eee of In the fea/ the pancreas has diltinG lobes. The northern lamantin has two branches to the pancreas. In the cetacea, at leaft the genus delphinus, there is an irre- gular fhaped pancreas, confittin mH Rh roundi{h lobes maffed together. The gland is {mall, in proportion to the fize of the animals. However the form of this gland may differ in the various genera of mammalia, the organization 1s uniformly the fame in all, and does not differ from that of the human pan- creas. As the pancreas of mammalia has frequently branches or lobe, the excretory duct is often found made up of feveral others. The ourang-outang has the dv& formed as in man, and ending in common with the duétus communis choledochus. The pancreatic and biliary duéts are in the other monkics. united in fome f{pecies, and diftin& in others. The dog has commonly two pancreatic duéts, one unites with the common biliary duét, and the other pafles into the duodenum, a little diftance farther on. In the cat, the biliary and pancreatic duéts enter together. The panther has them feparate, and the dué& of the pancreas penetrates the intef- tine after the other. The biliary and pancreatic duéts unite, however, generally in the carnivorous quadrupeds. They are diftin& in the porcupine, and enter the intefline at fome diftance from each other. They are alfo remote in the Aare. In the marmot the duéts arefeparate, but enter the inteftine near each other. The flying Squirrel, hanguroo,' and many other /alligrade mammalia, have but one orifice for the biliary and pancreatic du€ts. In the ekphant the pancreatic dué& has two principal branches, one opens into the beginning of the dilated part of the biliary du€@t, and the other paffes into the duodenum at a little diftance. > ' In the cloven-footed quadrupeds the biliary and pancreatic duéts are commonly united. In the dor they are feparate, although clofe to each other. ia 2 Te MAMMALIA. Tn the northern Jamantin, and in the genus delphinus, thefe ducts are united. If one may judge from the variety that is to be obferved, with refpeét to the infertion of the biliary and pancreatic duéts, both as to their conjun&tion, and the diltance of their orifices from the pylorus; thefe circumftances are unim- portant in themfelves, and have very little concern with the funétions of the pancreas or liver. In fg. 5. Plate 1V. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, the letter 4 indicates the pancreas of the porpoi/e. In Plate VI. fig. 3. exhibits the curious form of the pancreas in the mar- tin (muflela foina). Spleen.— The fituation of this organ is as nearly as poffible the fame in all mammalia. It is always attached to the great or left end of the ftomach, when the latter is a fimple cavity ; and when it is compofed of more than one cavity, the {pleen is conneéted, with the firft Romach, or that in waich the efophagus terminates. ‘Thus, in the ruminating quadrupeds, the fpleen is placed on the left fide of the paunch, and in the c:tacea upon the firft cavity, or that which is the receptacle of the food in thofe animals. It is retained in its fituation by reflexions of its peritoneal coat, and is likewife connected by its blood-veffels with thofe of the fir cavity, or of the great end of the ftomach. The form of the fpleen is very various, and is likewife’ f{ubjeét to a change of bulk, and, in a degree, of figure, ac- cording to the different ftates of the diftenfion or fulnefs of the ftomach ; it being well known that the {pleen, from its fpongy {truéture, is eafily comprefled by the adjoining vif- cera. Cuvier has inferted the figure of the fpleen, as he found it in feveral fpecies. We fhall extract the following from his «« Anatomie comparée.”” The monkey kind differ much with refpeét to the fhape of this organ ; thus it is triangular in the /ong-armed ape, the ribbed-nofe ape, the baboon, the fimia apella, the orange ape, and the fajou, &c. It is broad polteriorly, and divided into two lobes in the Chinefe ape, and Barbary ape. It is long and narrow in the qweeping monkey, and in the ring-tailed ma- caco, the lemur mongox, and the lemur macaco. It is broader potteriorly than before in the fardigrade lemur. It is very long, and has the figure of a triangular prifm, in the howling baboon. In the lemur tarfius, the {pleen has the fhape of an irregular leaf, notched upon the edges. The carnivorous quadrupeds generally have this vifeus long and narrow, prifmatic or flattened. It has a fimilar form in the bats, the mole, chryfocloris, hedge hog, &c. In the galeopithecus variegatus, and Virginian opoffum, it is triangular. In the brown phalanger it is in three lobes, and has a fimilar figure in the Mexican opoffum, and the marmofe (didelphis murina). * he {pleen is large and oval in the wea/el. This organ is triangular, broad, and flat, in the danguroo rat, water rat, and guinza-pig. Very long, narrow, and thin in the great Languroo ; long and narrow mm the marmot, com- * mon rats, and hare. ‘The figure of the fpleen is faid to vary in different individuals of the porcupine. The echidna has three branches to the fpleen. It is larger than the {tomach in the ornitharhynchus, and fquare. The {pleen is very long in the elephantand hog ; broad and flat in the rhinoceros ; of a femilunar form in the daman. It is round and flat in the flag; thin and oval in the ga- zelle ; flat, large, and femilunar in the Jama. It is broad and thin in moft of the other ruminating quadrupeds. The hor/e has a flat triangular f{pleen. The moit remarkable deviation of {truGture is found in the The porpoife and dolphin have, according to Cuvier, ectaceda. feven {mall round fpleens of various fizes, from the bulk ofa chefnut to that of a grain of corn. We have counted but five fpleens in the porpoife. tis probable they vary both in number and fize. They are {cattered over the firft Romach in the courfe of its blood-veffels, from which they receive their branches. In the grampus we did not obferve thefe {mall fpleens, but found a long ftripe of a fpongy fubftance which appeared to be the fpleen. We do not with, however, to {peak pofitively, as it was paler and clofer in its texture than the {pleens of other anima!s, and the parts {urrounding it were fo much injured in being taken out of the Sninsals that we could not fatisfactorily make out their conne@ions, This ftripe was two feet long, and about one inch broad for its greateft extent. Towards the root it becomes gradually wider, and where it appears to originate, it is three inches broad. Hunter ftates the fpleen in the whales to be very fmall. The variations as to bulk are not very material in the {pleens of mammalia ; the herbivorous quadrupeds appear to have the organ largeft, and perhaps the cetacea fhould be con- fidered as having the {malleft f{pleen. The colour of this vifcus is generally deeper in mammalia than in the human fubjeé. _ No fatisfactery account has yet been publifhed of the in- timate texture of the fpleen in mammalia. As far as our obfervation extends, the organization is effentially the fame in this clafs of animals as in man. In the fpleen of the Oxy Sheep, horfe, and bog, &c. the cellular ftru€ture defcribed by Malpighi and Stukely is more apparent than in man, of the fmall quadrupeds ; and the ramification of the blood- veffels upon thefe cells is difeoverable. Mr. Home relates that he faw thefe cells very diftin@ly when in a diftended ftate. He fays that the roots of the fplenic vein arife from the outfide of the cells at right angles to their circumference, like radii. When the injection has not been very minute, they are‘feen to arife at fo many points of the capfule: but when the injection has got into fmallsr branches, their number is fo much increafed, that they appear to form plexufes round the cells). Mr. Home alfo found invariably that the grains deferibed as glands by Malpighi, and called corpufcles by Cuvier, are diftin® cells, which contain a flutd, when the ftomach had received an unufual quantity ~ of liquids. This fluid was evacuated by pundturing the cells when their membranous coat became vifible. Mr. Home further afcertained, that the trunk of the {plenic vein, compared with that of the artery, was in the propor- tion of five to one in its fize, by which it appears that the veins of the fpleen exceed the fize of its arteries in a greater degree than is obferved in the other organs of the body. Much, however, remains to be done in order to ex- plain the anatomy of the fpleen. T'o us the cells have ap- peared of different fizes, and to have a very free communi- cation with each other, by which the organ, particularly to- wards the furface, refembles a good deal the texture of a {ponge. We are doubtful whether the cells have coats pro- per to themfelves, or whethér they are not formed by the interfpaces of the parenchymatous fubfance. The blood. veffels appear to communicate with the cells only by their ul- timate and moft minute ramifications. Cuvier ftates that the texture of the fpleen is very loofe in the ornithorhynchus, and that its veflels are much developed. Fig. 5. Plate 1V. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, cives a view of fome of the fpleens of the porpoife upon the firft ftomach, as pointed out by the letters §, i, i, i. Peritoneum and its Proceffes—This membrane has the fame {truéture in mammalia as in man ; but the refleGtions of it, which form the omentum, and the envelopes of the in- li 2 teltinal MAMMALIA, teftinal canal, differ confiderably in their figure and extent in fome quadrupeds. The form and extent of the mefen- tery, mefocolon, and meforectum, depend upon the length and convolutions of the {mall and great intellines, and may be in fome meafure calculated from the previous defcription of the inteftinal canal. The ules of thefe parts are precifely the fame as in man. The great omenium varies in length in different mammalia, but in moft of them it is longer than in the human fubject. In fome fpecies it not only covers the front of the inteftines, but extends into the pelvis, and is reflected forwards the length of the reum, This reflection of the omentum is attached to the bladder, rectum, meforectum, and to the fides of the peritoneum. ‘The omentum is thus extended in many fpecies of monkey, but the length of this membrane does not correfpond with the aperemnee of the animals in general ftruéture. Species nearly allied have it very dif- ferent; for inftance,, in the drown bear, it does not pafs below the middle of the abdomen, and in the racoon and badger it reaches to the pubis. The layers of the omentum have not always the fame origin and connections a8 in man, which arife from the want or the prefence of the tranfverfe mefocolon. There is no ementum to the colon, or appendices epiploice in the carni- yorous mammalia. 4607 The ruminating quadrupeds have the cavity of the princi- pal omentum very large. It inclofes the four ftomachs, the duodenum, and the pancreas. The fat, which is depofited between the layers of the omenta, is found in all mammalia, but in greater quantity in the herbivorous than in the carnivorous tribes. Some of the hibernating quadrupeds ; for inftance, the Alpine and Polifh marmots, the fuflic (mus citellus), the fat /quir- rel (myoxus glis of Gmelin), and the jerdoa, have lateral omenta in addition to thofe of other mammalia. Thefe arife from the loins, cover the fides of the abdomen, fome- times even coming as far as the middle of the belly. About the period of hybernation, thefe procefles of the peritoneum become, as well as the other omenta, loaded with fat, which is expended during the time that the animals remain torpid. The ufe of the lateral omenta is, therefore, fufficiently ob- vious, and yet it is very extraordinary, that they fhould be wanting in other fpecies that fleep during the winter, fome of whom alfo are nearly allied to thofe above mentioned ; as, for inftance, the garden /quirrel (myoxus nitela), the com- mon dormou/e (myoxus mufcardinus), &c. Abforbent Syflem.—This part of the anatomy of mam- malia fo much refembles what has been difcovered in the hu- man fubje&, that there has been no inducement to inyelti- gate it minutely ; we, therefore, poflefs uo detailed account of the abforbent fyftem of this clafs of animals, The chief varieties which have been obferved, relate to the number and fituation of the abforbent glands, and the form of the thoracic duc. The glands are lee numerous, generally {peaking, in quad- rupeds than maa: they are alfocommonly larger. ‘The me- Jfenteric glands are perhaps in molt quadrupeds aflembled to- gether into one or more matfes ; befides thefe mafles, there are often fome diltin& glands in the mefentery. It is atthe root of the mefentery that the glands are congregated into the chief mafs. They are conneéted with each other by means of cellular fubftance, and prefent an unequal furface exter- nally. The aflemblage of the mefenteric glands was miltaken for a pancreas by Afellius, and have ever fince retained the name of pancreas Afellii. In the dear, the mole, the brown pha- larger, &c. there is only one mafs. The cat kind, and perhaps all the digitigrade quadrupeds, have one principal mafs or clufter at the root of the mefentery, and near this fome fmaller ones. Cuvier ftates them to be the fame in the dolphin... The pancreas Afellii is very large, and of an elongated figure in the feal. There are two maffes of the mefenteric glands in the wea/é/. ‘ In the flying lemur, the common rat, and the cloven-footed quadrupeds, the glands are difperfed over the mefentery- We have found them fo likewife in the grampus. It is pro- bably the fame in the other cetacea. The cellular ftruc- ture of the abforbent g'ands is very apparent in the hor/e, afs, &cs A very fingular ftru€ture has been defcribed in the me- fenteric glands of the whale by Mr. Abernethy. He repre- fented them as forming round bags, about the fize of an orange: thefe facs contained a flimy fluid, which was ap- parently a fecretion of their own. terminated in thefe bags, but formed a plexus upon their furface. Che blood-yeflels likewife ramified upon the coats, and communicated with the cavity of the bags, fo that a waxen injection paffed into it. We feel inclined to confider the cyits defcribed by Mr. Abernethy on the mefentery of the whale as a morbid ftructure, as we have found nothing of the fame kind in thofe cetacea we have diffeGted, and as it has not been obferved by Hunter, Cuvier, Blumenbach, or any other comparative anatomilt, as far as we know. The thoracic dud has generally in mammalia a confider- able dilatation of its origin, or a large receptaculum chyli. The bulk and courfe of the thoracic du& are liable to vary’ amongft individuals of the fame {pecies, more particular] in domeftic quadrupeds. Sometimes there is an annular di- latation at the upper part of the thoracic duct in the dog, which has been reprefented by Vans Bilis as a conftant ftruéture, which he called the receptaculum tortuofum. The thoracic duét is double in fome quadrupeds. It is fo in the dog. Cuvier defcribes the dué in the dolphin as bein . complicated, and at laft terminating in two branches, whic open befide each other into the jugular vein. Mr. Home found in the /ea otter the receptaculum chyli large, and the thoracic duct compofed of two tortuous branches, which make many convolutions and communications with each other, and terminate feparately. Mr. Bracy Clarke has ftated, that he found the thoracic duét of the Aorfe forming feveral lateral communications at the lower part with the lumbar veins. (See Anatomy, Veterinary, in this di€tionary.) We cannot, however, help doubting the accuracy of the obfervation, as this fa& would form fo extraordinary an exception to the fyftem of © abforption, as it has been proved to exift in all the higher claffes of animals. Doubtlefs there are many varieties in the form of the thoracic du, and the diftribution of the abforbent veffels in mammalia, which have not yet been obferved: but as they probably would not throw any light upon the func- ~ tion of abforption, they are but of little importance. Heart. —This orgau in mammalia correfponds in all ma- ~ terial circumftances with the heart of the human fubjeé. It is in every inftance enclofed in a pericardium, notwith-— ftanding Blalius, Peyer, Harder, Tozzetti, &c. have re- ported that this membrane is wanting in the hedge-hog. Blumenbach accounts for thefe sinner having made fuch a miltake from the thinnefs of the pericardium in the hedge- hog ; but to us this membrane has appeared not to be un- ufually thin, confidering the fize of the animal. The pofition of the heart in the body is rather different — It is fituated more in the direGtion of © from that of man. the animal’s body, and refts rather upon the fternum than the diaphragm, We ought to except from this obfervation 2 ~ the The laéteals not only _ MAMMALIA. the heart of the ourang-outang, which is placed obliquely in the breaft, with the point turned towards the left fide, as in man. It muft have been from the diflection of quad- rupeds, that the cavities of the heart firlt received the names of right and /cft, which are not ftriétly applicable to’ their fituation in the human fubjest. There are fome differences in the relative fize of the cavities of the heart, and in the thicknefs of the parietes of the right and left ventricles in mammalia, which are pointed out by Cuvier. He has alfo defcribed fome varieties in the form of the valves. As thefe are unimportant, we fhall refer the reader to Cuvier’s “¢ Anatomie comparée,’’ tom. iv. for the details. It is neceflary to ftate that the valve of Euttachius is not found to exift in certain fpecies ; as the /ion, the bear, and the porcupine. It is ftrong and mufcular in the /ea/. In the elephant this valve is fpiral, and is continued for the length of the fuperior parietes of the finus, with the left and pofterior extremity of another broad fernilunar valve, that feparates the orifice of the right and anterior vena cava from the cavity of the appendix of the au- ricle. There are two fuperior, or more properly {peaking an- terior, vene cave in the elephant; one left, the other right. The firft opens into the finus of the auricle, near the mouth of the ventricle. The fame is obferved in the porcupine. The danguroo has alfo two fuperior or anterior cave. Mr. Car- lile ftates, that the Aybernating quadrupeds have the fuperior cava divided into two trunks; the left pafles over the left auricle of the heart, and opens into the inferior part of the auricle near to the orifice of the inferior vena cava. In fome of the ruminating quadrupeds, and in the pig, there are two {mall flat bones at the origin of the aorta from the heart. It has been fuppofed that they fupported the aortic valves. See C. J. Keuchen de Officulis et Cordibus Animalium. A yery common error, with refpeét to the anatomy of the heart, is the fuppofition that the quadrupeds which inhabit the water, and the cetacea, have the foramen ovale fo much unclofed, that the two auricles communicate. The opinion has received fome fupport from this communication being actually found to exift in a very few inftances. Blaumenbach relates that he was prefented with the heart of a /eal, in which not only the foramen ovale, but the dudétus arteriofus remained unclofed. Seger found the duétus arteriofus open alfo in the fame animal. (Ephem. Nat. Curiof.'dec. r. an. 9.) The foramen ova'e has been feen in an open {tate twice by Mr. Home, in the /ea otter. In the other numerous diffections which have been made by the molt expert anatomilts of the diving quadrupeds and the cetacea, the heart has been obferved to pollefs the four cavities feparate, as in man and the other mammalia. Our own experience is amply fufficient to enable us to conclude that any communication between the cavities of the heart in thefe animals is not a natural or neceffary ftructure. ‘That it may occafionally exilt is not improbable, and that thefe animals may be particularly liable, from their habits, to fuch malfor- mations of the heart, feems alfo not unlikely ; but it would be abfurd to found an opinion upon the exceptions to what is fo well known to be the general rule. We might further add, that the foramen ovale is frequently found more or lefs unclofed in the human fubje&, without having occafioned any embarraffment or peculiarity in the pulmonary circula- tion during the life of the perfon, We have obferved, that it is even more commonly imperfeétly clofed than otherwife in the human fubjeét. In moft dead bodies that we have examined, we could at leaft pafs a probe obliquely from the right into the left auricle. - » The offer has been reported to have three communications between the auricles; but thefe were nothing more than the foramina Thibefii, perhaps in an enlarged ftate. The external form of the heart is in fome {pecies elon- gated, in others broad. The point is blunter or rounder in fome than others, but thefe varieties do not merit a parti- cular notice. In the Jamantin the figure of this organ is, however, very peculiar. It is much broader than it is long. The ventricles are actually feparated half way from their end, fo that there are two points or apices to the heart. Arteries.—The ttru€ture of thefe veffels is perfe@ly fimi- lar in man and mammalia. They confift of the fame number of coats, and in general have a fimilar relation in their diame- ter and the thicknefs of their parietes. The quadrupeds that inhabit rivers or the fea, and the cetacea, are diftinguifhed by a large fize of their blood-veffels, in proportion to that of the entire bulk, or the fize of the other organs of the body. In fome cetacea the principal trunks have a diameter nearly equal to that of the inteftinal canal. The branches " of the blood-veffels alfo in thefe animals are very large in pro- portion to the trunks from which they arife. The circula- tion appears to be much lefs free in aquatic animals than others, and hence the great fize of the veflels and the accu- mulation of blood in hes, which circumitances are alfo to be obferved in a lefs degree amongit thofe mammiferous animals that live in the water. It -feems to us, that the arteries of the cefaceous mammalia have thinner coats than in other animals of the fame clafs, according to the fize of the veflels. The pulmonary artery in the cetacea, however, has nearly as ftrong coats as the aorta. The chief varieties to be noticed in the arteries of mam- malia are the different origins of the trunks; the greater fize of particular veffels; and the plexufes that are formed in certain fpecies. The aorta in the ruminating quadrupeds, the hor/z, the rhi- noceros, the hog, the pecari, and probably in other inftances not yet difcovered, divides almoft immediately upon its ori- gin into two large trunks. One of thefe, which is the {maller, proceeds upwards, or more properly forward, in the body of a quadruped; and it correfponds to the arch of the aorta, and furnifhes the fame branches. The other trunk goes backwards, and takes the place of the defcending aorta. The firft branches of the aorta have different origins in mammalia. In the marmot and guinea-pig, the arch fur- nifhes only two primary branches. One of thefe fends off the two carotids, and then ends in the right fubclavian. The other is the left fubclavian artery. Sometimes the firft of thefe branches very foon feparates into two others, one of which is the left carotid, and the other produces the right carotid and fubclavian. In other cafes, the firit of the pri- mary arteries of the aorta furnifhes a branch which divides into the two carotids. ‘The remainder of the artery is the right fubclavian. ‘This lait mentioned diftribution exifts in the lion, dog, cat, and dear. In the dolphin, each of the two primary branches of the arch of the aorta furnifhes the arteries of thé* head, and fuperior extremity, on its proper fide. The fal has three principal branches from the arch of the aorta: the firlt is the common trunk of the right carotid and fubclavian, the fecond the left carotid, and the left fubclavian. The elephant has three branches from the arch of the aorta alfo.. The lateral veffels are the two fubclavian arteries. The middle one divides into the two carotids. The goat has the aorta divided, as already defcribed, into the afcending and defcending, or the anterior and pofterioy, more properly called. ‘The anterior divides into three branches : MAMMALIA. branches: the left fubclavian; the right ; and a trunk that forms the two carotids. The anterior aorta of the Aor/e foon bifurcates into two branches; the trunk of the two carotids and the right fub- clavian arife from one branch: the other terminates in the left fubclavian. The inferior thyroideal artery is not commonly in quadru- peds a branch of the fubclavian, but of the carotid higher up. This diftribution arifes from the length of the neck . removing the thyroid gland fo far from the ufual origin of this veffel. In the opoffums, the Languroo, and as it would appear in all the mar/upial quadrupeds, the Lrachial artery divides very high up into the ulnar and radial arteries ; in {ome in- ftances as high as the middle of the humerus. The ulnar ts a large veflel, and pafles through a hole formed in the inter- nal condyle of the os humeri, end proceeds from the back of the arm to the front, where it is diltributed im the ufual manner. Cuvier {tates that the brachial artery forms feveral branches for the fupply of the portion of the fin correfpond- ing to the fore arm in the dolphin. The very remarkable plexus which the brachial artery furnifhes in the tardigrade guadrupeds, will be noticed hereafter, along with the other ar- terial plexufes. Daubenton has defcribed in the d/cending or pofferior aorta of the pecari a large dilatation, which appears to have been an aneurifm. Tyfon found in the fame animal three dilatations in the courfe of this veflel. They were divided interiorly into cells. Thefe enlargements were probably allo a morbid ftruéture, as they have not fince been obferved by other anatomitts. There are fome varieties to be noticed in the branches of the celiac and mefenteric arterigs. In the cat the ceeliac fends off a branch to the right renal capfule, previous to its fup- plying the Aepatic, the coronary of the flomach, and the /plenii. In the porcupine the cceliac divides into two branches; one furnifhes the artery of the {pleen, and a large branch to the pancreas; the other gives the hepatic and coronaria. The two mejenterics always are found ; but when there is no marked diltinétion of great and {mall inteltines, the one correfponding to the inferior mefenteric is very f{mall. This veffel is almoft exclufiveiy diflributed to the re€tum in the bear. In the ruminating quadrupeds the primary branches of the fuperior mefenteric artery are numerous. They do not confequently form fuch frequent anaftomoles as exift commonly. The inferior, or, as it fhould be called in quad- rupeds, the po/ferior mz/enteric artery, is {mall in thefe ani- mals, and a)Jmoit confined to the rectum. ‘The remarkable analtomofis between the two mefenterics on the colon is not found. In the fal, the left kidney receives two arteries from the aorta, and the right only one, according to Cuvier. This not improbabiy may have been.a variety. The middle artery of the facrum, which is fo inconfiderable in man, is often very large in mammalia, as it conveys almolt the whole of the biaod to the tail. In the kanguroo, bear, lion, dog, &c. it has been obferved not to arile from the aorta, but to be furnifhed by a thick fhort trunk proceeding from the bifurcation of the aorta, which alfo in thele cafes fends off the facre laterales and the hypopajfric arteries. The artery of the tail is as large in the Aanguyoo as the internal iliac. This veflel is of srreat magnitude alfo in the cetacea, It runs along the under furface of the tail, protected by a number of {mall bones, which are attached to the caudal vertebre, to near the extremity of the tail, and form by their oppofition a fort of triangular conduit, fimilar to that inclofing the termination of the aorta in the tail of fithes. The artery of the tail might properly be confidered the con. tinuation of the rote aorta in the cetagea; it fends off a great many branches which anaftomofe HEA each other, and unite again in afmall branch under the two laft caudal vertebra. The primary iliac arteries frequently do not exit in the © cloven-footed quadrupeds, the cat and dog kind, the bears, the danguroo, &c, ‘Vhe external iliacs are formed by the bi- furcation of the aorta, aud the internal iliacs arife from a com- mon trunk, as already mentioned. They are much {maller than the external iliacs, and feparate into two principal branches, which fend off the cu‘tomary arteries of the internal iliac, except the ileo /umbalis, which comes in thefe inftances from the external iliacs. In the /ea/ the ileo-lumbales arife from the aorta before the primary iliacs are produced. In the cetacea there aré no arteries analogous to the ex- ternal iacs. The aorta fends off arteries which correfpond to the internal iliacs, but which only fupply the bladder and genital organs. We thall now netice the different plexufes which the ar- teries form in mammalia. In the digtigrade quadrupeds, fome of the ruminants, &c. the branches of the carotid, which go to meet the batillary, form fo remarkable a plexus, that it was called by the clder anatomilts rete miradile. ‘Uhefe branches of the carotid are fuddenly diffclved into an immenfe number of fmall veflels, which are twifted and united together like a plexus of neryes. Thefe plexufes fill up the fides of the fella turcica, and afterwards reproduce the two branches that, uniting with the bafillary artery, eltablifh what is called the circle of Wilis. It is not known in how many {pecies the rete mi- rabile exills; it was formerly fuppofed to be univerfal in mam- malia. ‘Ihe Parifian diffectors did not find it in the monkey, and Cuvier fays it does not exift in the elephant and beaver. Mr, Car‘ile has mentioned a fimilar plexus of the carotid artery near the jaws in the /ion. ox, and fheep. We have obferved in the grampus a very intricate plexus of veffels around the articulation of the lower jaw. We did not afcertain whether the veffels were arterial or venous ; they appeared to. be both, and were loft in the apppearance of ligamentous cells, : ‘ The intercoftal arteries in cetacea form a very remarkable plexus. It appears to be made by the convolution of one veflel, which meafures feveral hundred feet in length. The arteries of the fpinal marrow alfo in cetacea, are con- verted into aclofe plexus throughout the greater part of the fpinal canal. In the grampus, the feCtion of the fheath of the fpinal marrow exhibits a number of the orifices of thefe vef- fels all round it. : But the moft interefting arterial plexufes, are thofe de- feribed by Mr. Carlile in the limbs of the /low-moving ani- mals. In all thele, as well as the tardigrade lemurs, as the Sloihs, the axillary and iliac arteries produce a plexus of un- dulating branches, which vary in number accordiuig to the fpecies. Mr. Carlile defcribes the trunks of the arteries as being expended in the formation of the plexufes; but we have afcertained that the trunk of the veflel is continued be- neath the plexus, in the fame manner as in the plexus of the anterior tibial artery in birds where the trunk is fearcely di- minifhed. ‘The veflels compofing the plexus in the anterior extremity of the /emur tardigradus amount to 23. In the inguinal fafciculus there are 17. hefe veffels have the fame fize throughout their courfe, and occafionally anafto- mofe with each other. The brachial and inguinal plexufes are larger in the great American floth than in the tardigrade lemur. a the firft Mr. Carlile counted 42 veflels, and computed from the bulk that there MAMMALIA, flere might have been above 26 more concealed in the mid- dle of the fafciculus. He reckoned only 34 in the thigh, and thofe of the firft feries were larger than the reft. The plexus of the axillary artery in the two-toed floth is very inconfiderable, and difappears in the upper part of the humerus, although in the other inftances it reachesto the elbow. The ingut- nal plexus alfo in this animal contains but eight veffels, which foon begin to ramify in the ufual arborefcent form. In the Jori: (/emur gracilis) there are brachial and inguinal plexufes, the veflels of which appear to form fewer anafto- mofes than inthe other animals. From the agreement in the diftribution of the arteries in the limbs of the flow-moving animals, it is impoffible aot to admit Mr. Carlile’s fuppoti- tion, that this peculiar arrangement of veffels is neceflarily conneéted with the flow operation of the mufcles in thofe quadrupeds, although we cannot perceive why fuch a con- ne&tion fhould exitt. The rete mirabile has evidently the effe&t of retarding the current of the blood to the brain, which may be more ne- ceflary to quadrupeds, from the frequent low pofition of the head, than in man and the monkey, where this plexus does not exilt. Itis difficult to account for the intercoftal, fpinal, and maxillary plexufes of the cefacea, unlefs we fuppofe that they ferve as refervoirs of the bleod, or rather prevent an accu- mulation of blood in larger veflels, which might arife from their continual refidence in the water, and frequent fufpen- fion of their refpiration. In Plate VI. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, fig. 4. repre- fents the rete mirabile of the carotids in the ca/f, fomewhat above the natural fize: a, the fella turcica, a httle pared away, to fhew more plainly the plexus, 4, on each fide ; c, c, are the carotid arteries ; d, the bafilar. Fig. 5, of the fame plate, is to fhew the axillary plexufes of the tardigrade lemur: ais the trunk of the axillary artery ; 4, the plexus ; c, ¢, the arteries of the fore-arm refuming their proper form. Fig. 6. exhibits the plexus of the iliac artery in the fame animal: a, the trunk; 4, the plexus; c, c, diftin& veffels for fupplying the leg. “Fig. 7. fhews the axillary plexus in the three-toed floth: ais the fub-clavian vein; 4, the trunk ef the artery behind the large veins; c, the remarkable plexus which the artery forms ; d, the median nerve. Jig. 8. reprefents the brim of the pelvis and groin of the three-tocd floth, with the plexus of the inguinal artery : ais the bifur- cation of the aorta into the two iliacs; J, apart of the in- terual iliac mufcle ; c, part of the bony margin of the pel- vis, leading down to the pubis. Veins. —Thefe vetfels agree in general exaétly in mamma- lia with thofe of the human fubject. Even where the ar- teries deviate in their origin from what is obferved in man, the veins purfue the ordinary courfe. We have already mentioned that there are two fuperior or anterior cave in the porcupine, elephant, the kanguroo, and the Aybernating mammalia. Mr. Carlile has {lated, that, in ad- dition to the cave forming two trunks before approaching the heart inthe quadrupeds that remain torpid during the win- ter, there are alfo two trunks to the vena azygos, which each open into the fuperior cava, on its own fide of the thorax. He likewife remarks, that the intercoftal arteries and veins are particularly large in thofe animals. Mr. Carlile wifhes to infer from‘this diftribution of the venous trunks, that it is neceflary, on account of the languid circulation that is car- ried on when the animal is torpid ; but we believe it is vain to attempt the explanation of the phenomena of hybernation by the anatomical {truéture of the animals concerned. The habit of retiring to reit during the winter is common to ani- mals whofe anatomy is extremely different, and if the dimi- nifhed a€tion of torpid animals were to depend upon any par- ticular organization of their vafcular fyftem, it would in. terfere with their perfect circulation at other feafons. Hy- bernation is accompanied by a fufpenfion of funétions, not a different mode of exercifing them. In the fea/ the inferior vena cava is dilated into a large finus, as it paffes the liver, into which five large hepatic veins enter. This dilatation may be either the confequence of the animal living in an element in which its refpiration, and confequently free circulation is fo often interrupted, or it may be an original provifion of nature, to relieve the right fide of the heart, when the current of blood through the lungsis impeded during the moments the animal is under the water. A fimilar contrivance feems to exift in the horfe. There is a dilatation of the jugular vein behind the jaws in this ani- mal, which may ferve to relieve the brain from the preffure of the venous blood during the time this animal is feeding. The ruminating quadrupeds do not require a provifion of this-kind fo much as the horfé, as they often eat lying, and generally ruminate fo, The veins of the vifcera appear to be provided with valves in fome mammalia, like thofe of the members in man. Ac- cording to Haller, there are valves found at the origin of the branches of the mefenteric and hemorrhoidal veins of the horfe 5 and they have been obferved alfo in the /plenic veins. They exift in the pudmonary veins of the dog and /heep. Molt pro- bably they may be found in many other initances, where they have not yet been obferved. The texture of the coats of the veins is apparently the fame in man and in mammalia. Cuvier fays he found the proper membrane to tear, like felt, into long filky filaments, in the axillary vein of the elephant, which he confiders an ex- ample of the ftruéture of this coat generally. Vital Temperature —That degree of heat which an animaP fultains molt commonly, or when not expofed to extremes of external temperature, we have called the natural fandard. The ftandard heat of mammalia is feveral degrees higher than in man, although ftill below what is found to be the natural temperature of birds. The thermometer, when introduced into the re@um or urethra of a man, (for the ftandard can only be afcertained in the cavities,) rifes to 97°. The following experiments were made by Mr. Hunter, and fhew the difference in quadrupeds. The ball of the thermometer [in every cafe we are to be underftood as fpeaking of Fahrenheit’s fcale] being intro- duced two inches within the reétum of a healthy dog, the quickfilver rofe to rook? exaGly.. The chett of the dog was opened, and a wound made into the right ventricle of the heart. Immediately on the bulb being introduced, the quick~ filver rofe to 101°. A wound was next made into the fubftance of the liver, and the initrument being inferted into it, rofeto 100% It was next introduced into the cavity of the ftomach, where it ftood exaétly at 101°. The thermometer was introduced into the re@tum of an ox, and the quickfilver rofe to g94°. When inferted into the reétum of a rabbit it ftood alfo at 99. ane Martine, in his Effays upon Thermometers and Heat, ftates that the temperature of the furface of the body is from 100° to 102°, or fometimes 103°, or a little more, in ordinary quadrupeds, as dogs, cats, Sheep, oxen, fwine, &e. in which he is certainly incorreét. We have been led to afcertain the ufual temperature of feveral quadrupeds, pre- vious to making different experiments that would be irrele~ vant MAMMALIA. vant to our prefent purpole, if related here; but we may ftate that we have always found the heat of the cavities of the body to be about g9*, 100°, or tor, when the quadrupeds were placed in a medium natural to them, and that of the furface of the body, two, three, or more degrees, according to cirqum{tances, below that of the inte- rior of the body. In quadrupeds, generally, we conceive the fandard temperature {hould be {tated to be 100°. The heat in cetacea we fhould fuppofe to be equal to that of quadrupeds, or perhaps higher. The quantity of oil in- terpofed between their internal parts and the water would feem to be fufficient to prevent the abftraétion of heat, and that circumitance, joined. with the want of evaporation from the furface, might even tend to exalt the temperature of the interior part of the, body. | Boerhaave confidered the heat of cetacea to be the fame as in quadrupeds, but he rates it in both too low, Mr. Richer found the blood of the por- poife to be as warm as the blood of land animals. . Du Ham. Hilt. Ac. Sc. P. M. 157, and Mem. de l’Acad. des Sc. 1666—1668. Dr, Martine reiates that he found upon trial the heat of the {kin of the /ea-calf (phoca vitulina), to be near 102°, and in the cavity of the abcomen it was about a divifion higher. We may fafely conclude from the fats before us, that the itandard temperature in all mammalia furpaffes the hu- man by a few degrees. In what manner can this fat. be ex- plained ? fhould it be attributed to there being lefs evapora- tion from the fin; orthe natural integuments of mammalia being better calculated for retaining the vital heat? Wedo not pretend to an{wer thefe queries, but we fhall obferve that although the natural clothing of an animal evidently tends to preferve its temperature from the influence of external cold, it does not feem capable of giving a higher ftandard. We cannot believe that the itandard of a écar could be altered by depriving the creature of its fur. Mammalia have, both from their ufual coverings, and the high natural ftandard, great powers of refifting the ef- fe&ts of external cold. Many of them are expofed to great extremes of temperature in the northern climates, in which they fuffer more than birds, from fleeping on the ground. Mr. Hunter failed to freeze a dormoujé, when furrounded by a freeging mixture, until he wetted its hair with water. And in another experiment, a mou/? which he had placed in an atmofphere as low as 13° above o during anhour, had not its heat diminifhed more than 16 at the diaphragm, and only 18° in the pelvis. Like ‘all other animals, however, which poffefs a high ftandard, when this is brought very low in mammalia they perifh. When in a torpid ftate they fuffer a great reduc- tion of their natural temperature, with the fame impunity as the more imperfeét animais. Thus, in an atmofphere of 26°, a torpid hedge-hog was only 30°, although the fame animal, when roufed, was expofed for two days to the fame atmo- {phere, and the internal heat, as tried by the rectum, did not fink below 93°. Lungs —Vhefe organs have their general figure regulated, in fome degree, by the fhape of the thoracic cavity. In thofe fpecies which have the chelt fhort it is commonly wide in proportion, and the convexity of the diaphragm is not confiderable ; and, on the contrary, where the thorax is long, it is often uarrowed and diminifhed in the longitudinal direction, by the diaphragm being very convex, or pro- jecting far into the cheft, In the rhinoceros, horfe, elephant, and /wo-toed floth, the diaphragm pafles up into the thorax, far beyond the margin of the ribs, fo that it receives a part of the abdominal vifcera. The volume of the lungs is, therefore, ftill preferved in due proportion to the fize of the animal, notwithftanding the external form of the cheft might fometimes make it feem otherwife. The lungs of mammalia are commonly divided into a greater number of lobes than thofe of the human fubjeé, although there are fome fpecies which have them lefs fo, or eyen not feparated into lobes at all. The number of the lobes of the lungs is not conformable to any natural claffi- fication of mammalia, but varies even amongtt individuals of the fame {pecies. Cuvier has given in his ‘¢ Anatomie comparée,”’ tom. iy.-a very full table of the divifions of the lungs of mammalia by lobes and fiflures, from which we fhall feleé& the follow- ing account. , In the ourang-outang, there are three lobes in the right lung and two in the left, as in man. The Jong-armed ape has four in the right, and only a fif- fure in the left. The re(t of the monkey genus have com- monly four lobes in the right, and two in the left lung: in fome of thefe there are fiffures. , The /emurs have four or.three lobes to the right, and two or three in the left lung. The flying lemur and the common bat have the lungs undi- vided, except by fiffures. The great or ternate bat of Ed- wards, has four lobes in the right, and three in the Jeff, lung. Rab ger oye” The plantigrade mammalia have generally four in the right, and two or three in the left. ‘Che common hedge-hog has, however, four in the right lung, and no divifion of the left. i In the digitigrada there are four lobes in the right, and three or two in the left. The mar/upial quadrupeds (except the Languroo-rat) have the left lung undivided, or flightly fo, by one fiffure. The phafcolomys has no lobes, but two fiffures in the right lung. The kanguroo-rat has four lobes in the right lung, and two in the left. The Virginian opofum has three in the right lung: the other f{pecies of dide/phis have either three lobes or two and a fiffure to the right lung. rhe. The /altigrade quadrupeds have moft commonly the right lung divided into four lobes, and the left is frequently en- tire. When the left lung is divided, it is ufually into two lobes ; but in the Hud/on’s ‘prs there are four lobes, and in the jerboa three. The porcupine has fix lobes to the right lung, and five to the left. In the edentata there are two, three, or four lobes to the right lung, and either two or none in the left. In the elephant and rhinoceros, both the right and left lungs are without lobes. The daman has two fiffures ‘to each lung. The wild boar has three lobes in the right lung, and two in the left. The Siame/e hog has four in the right, and two in the left lung. The ruminating quadrupeds have generally four lobes in the right lung, and two in the left. The Jama, however, has the left lung only divided by a fiffure. In the /olipeda there are no lobes to the lungs of either fide. The feal has two lobes in the right lung, but none in the left. ‘The /amantin is without lobes. The cetacea have not their lungs divided into lobes. - Some of the mammalia are faid to have the lungs ad- hering to the parietes of the cheft. The elephant is reported to be an inftanée of this kind, and Tyfon has alfo fated it to be the cafe in the web-footed and cetaceous mammalia. In thofe fpecies we have examined the lungs have been free, as in the human fubjeét. In the cetacea the coats are ftrong, and the lung altogether feels firm and flethy. Hunter flates, that the lungs of cetacea poflefs fo much elafti- city, MAMMALIA. city, that they are of themfelves fufficient to exprefs the air from their cells. He alfo reprefents the air-cells as being fmaller than they are in quadrupeds. The intimate organization, which confifts m the diftri- bution of the arteries, veins, and the air-tubes, is perfectly the fame in all mammalia and in man. Bronchial Gland —The ufe of this part not being efta- blithed by anatomilts, it cannot have a proper place affigned to it according to any phyfiological arrangement. We fhall, therefore, defcribe it next to the lungs, from its contiguity to thefe organs in the body, without endeavouring to fhew any conne¢tion between the funétions of the bronchial gland and refpiration, The fize of the bronchial gland is greater in the human fubje& than in any other animal. In proportion to the entire bulk, there is very little difference obferved in mam- malia, except in the £anguroo, which has a particularly {mall bronchial gland. This gland is compofed of two lobes, as in man ; but they are {ometimes quite unconneéted with each other, as in the bat, infome [pecies of rat, the elephant, the daman, the /oli- peda, and the feal. Mott commonly the two lobes are con- joined by one or fometimés two thin {tripes, which pafs over the front of the trachea. The form of the lobes varies in different fpecies. They are broader above than below in the dat, elongated in the plantigrada, long and flattened in the cat kind generally, ftill longer and cylindrical in the genus viverra. In the falti- grada the lobes are elongated, and not quite cylindric, being thicker above than below, he figure of the gland varies in the ruminants. It 1s round and tolerably large in the lama, \onzer in the ox, fheep, and antilope. In the /olipeda the gland is but little elongated, and fituated far below the larynx. x Hunter denied the exiflence of the thyroid gland in the cetacea, but Cuvier aflerts that he found it very diltin@ly in many porpoifes ‘and dolphins, confifting of two parts fuf- pended to the trachea, oppofite to the fupericr, or rather anterior edge of the fternum. We have not perceived it in the porpoife or grampus, perhaps, from not feeking it far enough from the larynx. In man and the monkey the cellular fubftance conneés the thyroid gland clofely to the fides gf the trachea, but in the other mammalia this connection ts loofer. It is fo much fo in the rabbit, guinea-pig, and {ome other of the /altigrade quad- rupeds, that the thyroid gland is moveable. The internal ftructure of the thyroid gland appears to be the fame in man and mammalia. The obfervations that have been made upon it in the elephant have tended to explain its organization, as from the fize of the animal the gland is large. It is furrounded by a thick aponeurofis, in the fub- ftance of which the thyroid veffels divide before they pene- trate the gland. Each lobe of the gland is compofed of about thirty lobules having a firm texture, and feparated by pecuiar cells, which are made by an extremely fine mem- brane. Thefe cells are but flightly conneéted with each other, and with the lobules which furround them, fo that they appear to ferve only as the foundation for the {mallett ramifications of the veffels that enter the gland. It is by means of thefe veflels, rather than the cellular tiffue, that the different lobules are joined together. According to Steller, the northern lamantin has the thy- roid gland very large ; it contains two fluids, differing from each other in colour and confiltence. The external part of the gland is compofed of a number of very {mall grains, and of a fluid refembling milk in colour and confiftence, and hav- Vou. XXII. ing a {weet tafte. There is a,membranous fac in the middle of the gland, containing a thick and rather bitter fluid. It ae, to be fecreted by the grains, and depofited in the ac. The exiftence of cells fo plainly proved in the thyroid gland of thefe large animals, feems to juftify the opinion entertained by fome anatomilts, that the cellular ftruéture. obferved in bronchocele is produced by the natural cells of the part becoming enlarged. It is a remarkable circumftance, which may throw fome licht upon the funétions of the thyroid gland, that it only exifts in man and mammalia. Cuvier feems inclined to con- fider a round cellular gland placed before the heart in the Jerpents as analogous to the thyroid of mammalia. It does not feem probable, however, that an organ fhould be want- ing in dirds, and re-appear in certain animals of a clafs one ftep farther removed from mammalia. Kidnies and Urinary Bladder.—The pofition of the kid- nies in the abdomen is different in man and mammalia, inaf- much as the latter commonly have the right kidney higher than the left. The kidnies of mammalia ufually poffefs the figure of the human. In the cat Lind, the coati, the armadillo, the ga- zelle, &c. they are more or lefs round. In the ruminating quadrupeds, the paca, the hog, and the porcupine, &c. accord- ing to Cuvier, they are long-fhaped. The /ama has them nearly cylindric. They are fhort and triangular in the hor, ee { man and fome mammalja the kidnies before birth are in feparate lobules. In thofe mammalia that inhabit, or fre- quently vifit, the water, and in a very few others, thefe glands preferve the diftinétly lobulated appearance during hfe. The original lobules can, however, be always per- ceived, and reekoned from the number of their papillz. They may be injeéted alfo with different’ coloured fluids, ° and not occafion any confufion, although they are confo- lidated into one mafs. The elephant is one of the animals which have lobulated kidnies. They are, however, not much divided, there being only four lobes to each in this animal. The texture of the elephant’s kidnies is loft, and the diftintion of the cor- ticaland medullary fub/tances is not plain. There are three papillz, and as many infandibula, which join together with- out forming a pelvis. The kidnies of the ov are ftill more divided than in the elephant, having from 23 to 30 lobes. It is in the ofters, bears, feals, and cetacea, that the lobu- lated ftruéture is moi{t dittinét. The lobes are numerous and {mall in proportion, according to the fucceflion of thefe animals. Thus, in the offer there are ten lobes ta each kidney ; in the dear there are from 50 to 60; the feal has 120 to 140; and inthe porpoi/e, dolphin, grampus, &c. there are upwards of 200. In the cetacea, the lobules or glands of which the kidnies are compofed, are particularly diftiné and {mall in proportion to the fize of the vifcus. ‘They are conneéted almott entirely to each other by means of their veffels alone, in the manner of a bunch of fruit, and have a good deal of motion upon one another. In the other animals they are more preferved in their proper fituation, and in contaét with each other by means of their cellular fubftance. No fatisfactory phyfiological reafon has yet been given for the kidnies being divided into numerous diftin& glands in certain animals and not in all. It has been con- je@tured that this flructure was in fome way connected with the habit ef diving, on account of its being met with in all the aquatic mammalia ; ey we have before tated, it 1s . net MAMMALIA. not peculiar to them. Like many other peculiarities of ftru@ture it mutt remain unexplained, until it be inveltigated by experiment. The number of papilla indicate both the original und the aftual number of lobes that compofe the kidney. There is Lut one papilla in the fanrec and the coati; in the /guirrel, the hare, the guinea-pig, the daman, and many other of the faltigrada. There are two in fome rats, three in the elephant, four in the echidna, and five in the hedge-hog. In the otters, bears, fin-footed and cetaceous mammalia, each feparate lobe has its proper papillz. The papille regulate in a certafn degree the number of infundibula. When there is but one papilla the infundibu- lum is commonly abfent, being confoundéd with the cavity called the pelvis of the kidney. This is particularly to be feen in the cat, the dog, the armadillo, &c. m which the medullary fubftance that forms the papilla does not projec into the cavity, but is flat or fometimes hollow : therefore, the cavity which receives the urine, and is the origin of the ureter, cannot fend off any procefles or funnel-fhaped re- fletions of its membrane. The pelvis of the kidney in thefe cafes is not vifible on the outfide. The lobulated kidnies have a calyx or infundibulum to each of the glands that compofe them. ‘They unite to form trunks of veffels, which make at laft fomething like a pelvis for the ureter to arife from in the dears, olters, and feals. In the cefacea there is no pelvis; the ureter is formed by the junction of fome branches from the anterior infundibula, and receive the branches of the other infundibula after- wards, without forming any dilatation correfponding to the elvis. The renal arteries and veins do not enter at one place always: this is occafionally feen in man. The adipofe ar- teries alfo are of various fizes, but in the lobulated kidnies, the veffels penetrate the organ at the neareft place, inftead of paffing in preference at the finus, or the part where the excretory duéts come forth. The veins of the kidnies in the cat kind have their princi- pal trunks and branches renning in an arborefcent form upon the furface. They receive the branches from the internal par: of the gland, as the finufes of the dura mater colleé the bload from the brain. The intimate ftru€ture of the kidnies in all mammalia ap- pears to be the fame as in the human iubject. The chemical compofition of the urine appears not only “to vary confiderably in animals refembling each other, but even to differ in the fame animal at different times. In this way one may account for the difagreement in the analyfis pebhithed by the French and Englifh chemitts. The urine in the came/, according to Mr. Brande’s expe- riments, is compofed as follows : Water - - - vy Phofphat of lime 7) Muriat of ammonia Sulphat of potath 6 Urat of potath Carbonat of potafh Urea ~ - < 6 Muriat of potafh - - 8 95 Rouelle ftates the camel’s urine to be compoled of car- bonat of potafh, fulphat of potath, muriat of potafh, urea, and water. Mr. Brande found the following component parts in the urine of the cow: ‘ Water : - = - ©) 65 Photphat of lime - = 3 Muriat of potafh ‘ — ammonia 3 BES Sulphat of potafh - Worl eG Carbonat of potafh -——— ammonia ont Urea x =, = - 4 97 But from Rouelle’s examination, it confilts of carbonat of potafh, fulphat of potafh, muriat of potafh, urea, and benzoic acid. Bath thefe chemilts agree that potath is the only fixed alkali in the urine of the coz. The urine of the rabdit, according to Vauquelin, is com- pofed of the following parts: carbonat of lime, carbonat of magnefia, carbonet of potafh, fulphat of potafh, fulphat of lime; muriat of potafh, urea, gelatine, and fulphur. The fame chemilt found that the urine of the guinea-pig depofited carbonat of lime ; that it changed the colour of fyrup of violets to green; and that it contained carbonat and muriat of potafh, but not any phofphat, nor the uric acid. From thefe examinations it would appear that foda and its combinations do not form any part of the urine of the camel, cow, guinea pig, and rabbit. In the urine of the Aorfe the following component parts have been difcovered by Fourcroy and Wauquelin : Carbonat of lime - - =e ay —foda - - - 9 Benzoat of foda - - Pam ye Muriat of potafh - - - 9 Urea = - . - 9 Water and mucilage a - . 940 1000 Mr. Brande found the urine of the Aerfe to contain the following falts, viz. carbonat of lime and of foda, fulphat of foda, muriat of foda, benzoat of foda, and phofphat of lime, which parts amounted to about {th of the urine. The urine of the a/s, according to the fame chemift, ts mucilaginous, but at the fame time tranfparent. Like that of the dorfe, it changes vegetable blues to green, but de- pofits no carbonat of Jime. Ir differs in compofition from that of the horf, by containing a much greater relative proportion of plofphat of lime and urea: it alfo contains carbonat, fulphat, and muriat of foda, and there appeared to be a'fmall quantity of potafh, which is probably united to muriatic acid. He did not difcover any benzoic acid. It deferves to be remarked, that the urine both in the horfe and afs is deftitute of ammonia. The urine of quadrepeds appears to have generally more confiltence than in man. It feels particularly un€isous or mucilaginous in the horfe, a/s, and cow. Fig. 1. Plat®V1UL. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, exhibits the lobulated kidney of the dear. The urinary ladder exifts in ali mammalia, and refembles, in general very clofely, that of the human fubje&t. Its me coat is particularly ftrong in fome quadrupeds ; it is moft itrikingly fo in the carnivorous fpecies, and a few herbivorous sani tea The fafciculi of the bladder are, in MAMMALIA. in thefe inflances, very thick, and generally contract the bladder when the animals die; by which it is fuppofed to have a fmaller cavity than it really pofleffes during life. In ‘ the Jarge graminivorous quadrupeds: the mufcular coat is generally weak, and hence the great diftention that the bladder admits in thefe animals by inflation. The bladder of the ech'dna and the ornithorhynchus termi- nates in a long neck or tube, which opens by a {mall foramen into the cloaca, as in the fortoi/2. The ureters and vafa de- ferentia open clofe to each other into this tube, before the bladder. The urine, therefore, mutt return, or regurgitate into the bladder, in the fame manner as in the fortoi/e. This fa&t is difplayed in fig. 5. Plate VII. of the dna- tomy of Mammalia. 'The letter g indicates the tube; i, 7, are the orifices of the ureters before the neck of the bladder; & is the opening of the tube into the cloaca;~ & is the urinary bladder. Renal Capfules.—The French academicians have fated, that thefe parts are deficient in the Canada flag; but this appears to have been a miftake, as no inftance of their being wantirg in mammialia is mentioned by other writers. The relative fituation of the capfules to the kidnies is nearly the fame as in man. Sometimes they adhere to the kidnies, but, almoft conftantly, the right is attached to the vena cava, The magnitude of thefe bodies differs very much accord- ing to the fpecies, belides the variations depending upon age, which feem to be lefs than in man; and in the guinea-pig the capfules are even larger in the adult than the foetus. The relative bulk of the renal capfules to the kidnies is as great in the money as in man. Cuvier found it to be as 1 to 16 in the waried ape (fimia mona), and as I to 12 in the fimia patas. THe found it to be jd in a young howling baboon. In the digitigrada, Cuvier found the renal glands to be ith the fize of the kidnies inthe figer, and in the lynx the .' th. They are the ~,th in the hedge-hog; the ith in the kanguroo ; but the other /a/tigrada in general have the renal capfules large. In the guinea-pig they are in the propor- tion to the kidnies of 1 to 5: they appear to be largeft in fome of the raf genus, in which they equal the 3th of the kidnies during the whole life of the animal.’ The opoffim has them only amounting to the .,th of the fize of the kidnies. In the orfe they are the .7,th. Cuvier found the renal glands fmaller in the /ea/ than in any of the whole clafs. This animal has them only the <}.th part of the fize of the kidnies. The form of the renal capfules is very various, but cor- refponds, in fome degree, with that of the kidnies; thus, when the latter are lobulated, the capfules are commonly fo alfo. In the ruminating and /olid-footed quadrupeds, thefe parts refemble the renal capfules of the human fubjeét, being flat and triangular. In the elephant they are long, conic, and have their bafe turned backwards, and divided into two round lobes. In the paca and the porcupine, they are elongated and cylindric. In thefe, and a great many manimalia, they re- femble very exaétly the kidnies. In the coati and the daman, they have a finus like the kidnies. In the feal and the cetacea, they are flat and triangular, but divided into many lobes, which coalefce in the centre. The lobules are more feparate in the cefacea than in the eal. The ftructure of the renal capfules is the moft intereft- ing part of their hiftory, but it is involved in fome ob- {curity. The vein which colleéts the blood of the capfule commonly fornts a dilatation in the centre, which feems to have been fometimes miftaken for a peculiar cavity. Cuvier however, has de{cribed three little pouches in the revit gland of the elephant, which he found to be covered with a very delicate, {mooth, white membrane, that exkibited no orifice cf any blood-veffels. This membrane appeared to be moiftened with a clear mucous fiuid. ‘The béttom of one of the pouches had a little hole, which communicated with a fourth pouch, occupying the internal and pofterior lobe of the capfule. . _ The appearance of two fubftances compofing thefe glands is generally the fame in mammaliaas in man. The external or yellow portion of the capfule appears to correfpond with the cortical fubftance of the kidnies. Itis ofa brighter co- lour generally in animals than’ man, and is often {o thick as to occupy more than the half of the gland. Cuvier fays that it is compofed of fibres or tubes fituated in a perpen. dicular direction with refpeé to the internal fubftance. This laft is foft, and of a deep brown colour, In the coati three fubttances have been obferved: one grey which forms the nucleus. It is encompafled by a {tripe Ge thin layer of a brown coloured fubftance ; and external te thefe there is another thin layer of a bright yellow colour. The fame diftinétions of fubftances exift in the Suinea pig the rat, and fome other /a/tizrade quadrupeds, or rather a divifion into five fubitances, according to J. T. Meckel who reckons every fhade of colour as a difting fubftance compofing this gland. It is remarkable that in the elephant, which has the ‘corti- cal and medullary fubftances of the kidnies indittin@, the two fubftances of the renal capfules are fo likewife, which marks the great analogy and conneétion which exift between the kidnies and thefe bodies. This is ftill further fhewn by the renal capfules having an uniform colour and fubftance in birds, which want the diftinétion of cortical and medullar fubftances in their kidnies. ms Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, and Jig: 2, fhews the relative magnitude and form of the renal capfule and kidney in the common rat: ais the capfule to the kidney, Fig. 3, of the fame plate, exhibits a fe¢tion of the renal cap- fule of the raf, in order to expofe its different coloured fub- {tances : a is the central fubitance ; 5, the intermediate one = ¢, the cortical or external fubitance. Fig. 4. is a fection of the renal capfule of the ox, to exhibit the cavity in the in- terior ; a, the vein of the capfule ; 4, the cavity. Glands for peculiar Excretions. — The moft of thefe in mam- malia are lituated in the neighbourhood of the anus, or the external parts of generation, and fecrete an odorous fluid, the natural ufe of which appears to be that of a defence pias hoftile animals. Neverthelefs, many of the produéts of the excretory glands are employed by mankind as pers fumes, or as medicines. There appears to be a very con- fiderable refemblance amongit thefe excretions of quadru- peds, not only in their colour and confiftence, but their effects upon the fenfations of other animals. The fetid matter furnifhed by the pole cat, and the civet or mufk, ave equally offenfive to many individuals of the human {pecies, and are probably univerfally difagreeable to beatts, except thofe that firnifh them. All thefe odorous excretions likewife have a fimilar effeét upon the nervous fyftem though differing in the degree of that effe@. < In feveral quadrupeds, befides the finall follicles which fure nifh the febaceous matter of the prepuce, the odour of which is rather calculated to invite the oppofite fex than to difgult other animals, there are two glands of confiderable Ik k fize MAMMALIA. fize on the fides of the penis, which are eorlomerate and formed of different lobules united together, and producing a common excretory duct, which opens within the prepuce either of the penis or the clitoris. ‘Thefe are very remark- able in the raf tribe, in whom they are large, flat, oval mafles of granular bodies. Cuvier ranks the apparatus which furmfh the ca/lor amongtt the glands of the prepuce, but they are much larger than would be neceflary for the feeretion of a fub- {tance to be ufed merely on the penis or clitoris. They are fituated under the integuments, between the pubis and the common aperture of the anus and prepuce, which exiils in the beaver. The number of thefe glands is apparently four ; but there are two others involved in the lower facs. The two firit glands are conjoined together, and have, when thus united, the figure of a heart. Their internal coat is {mooth, thin, and of an afh colour, ftreaked with fome white lines. They contaia a cavity internally, the parietes of which are thick, and formed into irregular folds or wrinkles, upon which a grey odorous fubitance is found to adhere. The afh colour of the external coat is derived from the inner one. Thefe two glands or pouches meafure acrofs about two inches in each dire€tion, Where they are ap- plied to each other, there is an aperture of communication between them of an inch in fize. Both glands difcharge their contents into the prepuce by a fingle orifice. Underneath thefe facs there are two others, which are dif- tinét, and have the figure of a pear, fomewhat flattened. They are two inches and a half long, and about ten lines broad. There are placed, between their coats, a number of {mall glandular bodies, each of which contains a cavity, in which there is a fluid fecreted, that is ftrongly odorous, yellow, unétuous, and combuttible. At the lower part of thefe pear-fhaped pouches the third ‘pair is found. They are about fourteen lines in length, and fix in breadth. ‘They are full of a fluid, which is yel- lower than the contents of the other glandular facs, and has alfo a different fmell. Thefe pouches have likewife little glandular bodies on their furface, fimilar to thofe of the fecond pouches. The membranes of the two lower pair of pouches are intimately united to each other. Both thefe pair open into the common aperture of the anus and pre- puce. An ancient error prevailed with refpe& to the caflor : many of the old anatomilts believed that it was taken from the tefticles. Some abfurd ftories alfo are told of it; fach as the deaver preffing this fubitance out with its paw, and eating it to create an appetite, &c. The apparatus for the fecretion of the mu/k in the mo/chus mofchiferus, is perfectly fimilar in ftructure to that above defcribed in the beaver. The pouch containing the muflc is fituated under the fkin of the abdomen. Its figure is oval, and it is hollowed below into a groove, in which the penis comes forth ; its parietes are apparently membranous, but the inner furface prefents many irregular folds. The pouch has a {mall orifice, which is at the fore-part of the prepuce. The membrane furrounding it contains fome feba- ceous follicles. Betwéen the pouch and the {lcin of the belly there is a flefhy fubftance, apparently glandular. The mufk does not exift in the females, nor in the young males. The antilope gutturofa has alfo been defcribed by Pallas as pofleffing a fimilar membranous pouch to the foregoing, but it does not contain the mufk. Mott of the antilopes have a pouch at the fide of each nipple, formed by a fold of the {kin, which contains an oily, odorous matter. The inguinal glands of the hare appear to belong to the _clafs of thofe olithe prepuce. They are fmall oval bodies ; their orifices are on two feieiacas {pots of the fkin, which are deprived of hair, and are fituated one on each fide of the prepuce of the penis, or of the clitoris. Thefe glands, which Cuvier has called the anal, are ca- pable of furnifhing the moft powerful of the odorous excre- ‘tions. ‘Theyare thefe which afford the fubftance called civet, and thofe offenfive difcharges of others of the quea/él tribe, the effluvium of which fearcely any animal can bear to ap- proach. Thefe anal glands are two pouches cf a round or pear-fhape, the coats of which are glandular. ‘The interior of the facs is lined apparently by the continuation of the fin. They are the refervoirs of the odorous matter which is difcharged by a large opening from each fac, ufually into a cell or cavity formed by the integuments either around the anus, or in the neighbourhood of it. ‘There are peculiar mufcles for comprefling thefe bags. Bartholinus figured four mufcles; the French academicians found but three 5 one which paffed acrofs from one pouch to the other, and two mufcles which arofe from the ifchium : each came to be joined to its antagonift at the middle of the two pouches, and was faitened to the pouch over which it went to make this conjunétion. Cuvier merely reprefents fome fafcieuli, wiich cro{s between and furround the pouches. ‘The odorous mat- ter found in the civet bags is of a yellow colour, and refem- bles oil in compofition and conliltence. /It hes the fmell of mutk. Thefe kinds of anal glands are met with in many of the digitigrade and faltigrade quadrupeds, and fea/ tribe; Blu- menbach alfo alcribes them to the opgfums. "Chere are three of thefe pouches in the marmot, but imaller than the ufual fize : they open upon the edge of the anus, in the centre of three papilla which project trom the anus when the animal. is excited. In feveral quadrupeds, befides the ftink bags above de- fcribed, there are numerous fmall glands placed in the pa- rietes of a large cell or cavity, which the integuments form either around the anus or in the neighbourheod of it, or, in rare inftances, in other parts of the body. Thele frequently make a part of the excretory apparatus alread deferibed, but they exift alfo without the anal facs, or ihink bags. In the civet, this cavity is fituated between the genital or- gans and the anus: it opens by a longitudinal flit, the edges and infide of which are furnifhed with long hairs, that ftand inwards. The inner iurface of the cavity is grooved in the tranfverfe direction. The glandular cavity of the ichneumon {urrounds the anus; the internal furface of it exhibits a great number of foramina along the margin. ‘Thefe are the orifices of the follicular glands, which are each about the fize of a fmall pea, and lie upon the external part of the parietes of the cavity. They furnifh a thick, yellow, oily fluid. On the fuperior part of the circumference of the anal cavity there is a triple row of little conglomerate glands, which fecrete a whitifh matter, and have larger openings than the preceding glands. This cavity further receives the contents of the large glandular facs above deferibed. ‘The anal cavity is comprefled by the ufual {phinéter ani. The guinea-pig has a {quare fhaped cavity below the anus. It is much puckered internally, and receives the product of two febaceous glands, which has a peculiar {mell. The anal cavity in the Ayena has a narrow tranfverfe open- ing. This flit, fays Cuvier, leads firft to two lateral pouches, which are’the central cavities of two glandular maties com- pofed of lobes and lobules. Thefe two pouches commu- nicate with two other glands, of which the lobules are more detached, and are even aflembled round a central cavity, in which their excretory canals terminate, and which opens into MAMMALIA. into the firft pouches, as we have mentioned. There iffued from the left anterior pouch a yellow-brown matter, although that in the right held a grey matter, as well as the two pof- terior pouches. In the badger there is a tran{verfe fifflure between the anus and tail, which is the mouth of a cavity, the parietes of which are furnifhed with a number of {mall glands, that fecrete into it an unétuous fluid. [tis this which the badger mixes with its urine, and with its tail throws againlt its affailants. The pecari, or Mexican hog, has a large gland or pouch fituated under the fkin of the back. It is compofed of lobes and lobules, the excretory ducts of which terminate in a fingle orifice inthe back. This gland furnifhes an odorous matter, and mult be removed immediately after the animal is killed, it is faid, to prevent the flefh being tainted with the fmeil. There is a gland under the fkin of the temple in the elephant, which fecretes a vifcid fetid matter, and fheutd be ranked with thofe juft defcribed, though placed in a differ- ent fituation. It has am oval fhape, andis interiorly of a red, fungous ftructure. The fluid it fecretes paffes off by a canal, which defcends obliquely from behind forwards, and opens midway between the eye and the ear. ‘The parietes of the canalrefemble the fkin. The fluid of this gland is lefs abundant in females than males ; in the latter it is very copious when theanimalisin heat. After death it becomes like wax. In the antilopes and deers there is a cell near the inferior and internal part of the eye ; it is covered internally by a continuation of the fkin, and is lodged in an excavation of the fuperior maxillary bone. The parietes of this fac are provided with febaceous follicles which fecrete a thick, black, unétuous fubflance. Thefe facs openbya flit. They have no conneétion with the lacrymal gland, or the tears, as has been fuppofed, but feem to belong, whatever may be their ufe, to the clafs of glands at prefent under confi- deration. The /heep, and feveral of the cloven-hoofed quadrupeds, have glandular cavities in the feet. Thefe are covered with hair internally, and have an excretory duét, which opens at the junétion of the toes. When this is obitru¢ted from wet weather, it occafions difeafe in the fheep. In fig.6. Plate VIL. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, there is a view of the three different kinds of anal glands in the ichneumon. he letters o and p indicate the pyriform facs ; qq are the {mall glands which are upon the outfide of the two-thirds of the cavity that furrounds the anus: thefe furnifh the yellow unctuous fluid: r,r, are the conglomerate glands, fituated farther in upon the anal cavity, and which fecrete the whitifh matter. Some mutfcular fafciculi are feen to pafs between and furround the anal glands o and , by which their cavities are comprefled, and their contents forced into the common cavity that includes the anus, and receives the fecretions of the three orders of anal glands in this animal. Organs employed in the Exercife of the Generative Fundions. Male Parts of Generation—TVhe penis is a more complex organ in many mammalia than in man. The peculari- ties in its formation do not correfpond with a fimilarity of Bae ftruéture in different animals, but are often perfeétly pecilic, which feems to be defigned, in fome meafure, to pre- vent that promifcuous intercourfe which the blind appetites of fome animals might lead to. The penis has its figure and magnitude in many cafes de- termined by the prefence of a bone init. ‘The os penis, by giving firmnefs and fhape to the member, renders the-corpora cavernofa and the glans lefs neceflary: we accordingly find thefe parts diminifhed in thofe fpecies which poffefs a bone in the penis. The os penis has been found in fome f{pecies of monkey, but not in others: in moft of the dat hind, in the dear, the badger, the racoon, the weafel, the ichneumon, the otter, the dog kind, except the hyena, the cat kind, the hamffer, and feveral of the genus mus, the /eal, the true whales amongtt the cctacea. It is denied to the Jamantins by Cuvier, but Blumembach ftates that it exilts in the walrus. We poflefs a preparation of an os penis, which we have every reafon to fuppofe belonged to that animal. It is two feet long, thicker than the thigh-bone of a man, andas folid as ivory, except at the root and where the glans is attached, at which places it is fomewhat fpongy inits texture. Camper is faid to have a preparation of this bone, which had been fractured, as he fuppofed, during coition, for the penis of this animal is not expofed to injury unlefs when erected. The os penis is grooved in the lower furface for holding the urethra in the dog kind. It ends in a hook in the weafels. It is curved into the form of an S in the ra- coon. Inthe /guirrel, it is {pirally twifted at the extremity. It is large, rounded, and terminates like a club in the whales. This bone forms the principal part of the penis in the bear, otter, racoon, badger, dog, and wea/el; but in the bats, caty ichneumon, and molt of the rat kind, it is fmall, and ferves as an acceflory part to the corpora cavernofa. The direction and attachment of the penis are different from what is obferved in man; none bu: the quadrumana, the cheireptera, and the armadillos, have the penis pendulous, or at all times projecting from the body, and covered witha fin proper tortfelf. In the other genera, the penis, when employed, is conceaied more or lefs in a fheath formed by the {kin of the abdomen. In the carnivorous andthe /arge herbivorous quadrupeds, the fheath of the penis opens for- wards, near the umbilicus. When the penis is long in thefe cafes, it forms curves or folds upon itfelf in the fheath. According to Cuvier, the penis of the elephant makes, when retracted within the fheath, the curves of a double italic S. Thofe quadrupeds which have the penis fixed in this man- ner under the belly, have two addu@or mufeles to the fheath: : they arife from below the aponeurofis and the flefh of the abdominal mufcles by feveral fafciculi, and having joined their fafciculi, are inferted into the fides of the anterior part of the fheath. Thefe draw the fheath forwards upon the belly. There are alfo two mufcles for retra@ing or opening the fheath, which come from the firft caudal vertebre: they terminate in the digitigrada, either upon the external part of the corpora cavernofa, or upon the os penis; and in the ruminants they are inferted upon the fheath of the penis. In the former thefe mufcles muft bring back the penis itfelf, In the /olipeda, the retractor mufcles accompany the infe- rior part of the urethra, and are loft in fafciculi that are diltributed upon the mufcle which covers this canal. In thefe animals Cuvier thinks the retractor mufcles reftrain the elongation of the penis when it is ereéted, and .contribute to withdraw it into the fheath. Thefe mufcles appear to be fupplied in the elephant by the levators of the penis, to be defcribed hereafter. In fome of the /altigrade quadrupeds, the penis comes firft as far forwards as the anterior brim of the pubes, and then turns back, the orifice of the prepuce being near the anus. But in moft of the /u/tigrada, and in the opofums, the MAMMALIA. the penis goes backwards from the time that it comes out of the pelvis. Several quadrupeds have been obferved to void their urine backwards. It was, therefore, thought by the ancient na- turalifts, that they alfo copulated in the fame direétion, but later obfervations have proved the contrary. The figure of the penis is very various in mammalia. It is determined either by the fize and fhape of the os penis, when that bone exits, or by the form of the glans, and the thicknefs of the corpora cavernofa. The penis is lender in the boar and cloven-footed quadrupeds. It is thick and long in the Jolipeda, the elephant, and the lamantins ; thick and conic in the porpoife and rhinoccros ; thick, conic, and flat in the dolphin ; nearly cylindric in the. monkies and lemurs ; fhort in the opoffim, and molt of the faltigrada, the digiti- grada and the feal; long and cylindric in the hedge-hog ; twilted like a {crew in the fguirrel, and bent like an S in the racoon. The corpora cavernofa are commonly formed of two dif- tin& branches ariling from the ifchinm, as in man, and af- terwards joined apparently into one body ; but the interior di- vifion of this part of the penis by a feptum is often lefs diftin& in mammalia, and fometimes is wanting. It is in- complete in fome fpecies of monkey and in the lemurs. It is totally wanting in the dear and the badger. It is alfo abfent in molt of the many-hoofed quadrupeds: the elephant and rhinoceros, however, have it. The /olid and cloven-hoofed quadrupeds and the cetacea want a feptum between the corpora cavernofa, In thefe cafes the ligamentous lamine arife from within the circumference of thé united cavernous bodies, and meet in the centre. The corpora cavernofa in the opfoffums arife by two long {mall branches, which are on!y connected to the ifchium by means of the mufcles called the eredores penis. They unite without any feptum, and then branch into two, in order to form the bifid penis of thefe animals. In the fanguroo there are at firlt four corpora cavernofa, which unite to form a conical-fhaped penis. The urethra runs in their centre. They are comprefled by a mufcular inyeftment. The dire&tor mufcles of the penis, or i/chio- ecavernofi, ferve to conneét two of the roots of the corpora cavernofa to theifchium, The two other roots are enveloped by a mufcle which takes the place of the accelerator urine, or bulbo-cavernofus. The interior of the corpora cavernofa, during the ere¢tion of the penis, has been defcribed by Cuvier in the elephant, and other large quadrupeds, as being compofed of the branches of the veins anaftomofing frequently with each other, fo as to form a clofe and inextricable plexus, refembling cells. We have difcovered the fpongy part of the urethra to be compofed of ramified veffels in man and quadrupeds, ‘but we ‘thave not been able to fatisfy ourfelves, that the. cor- pora cavernofa are made in the fame way. The firft membranous portion of the urethra is in pro- portion to the reit of the canal, commonly longer in mamma- lia than in man. The monkey kind have it thort and almoft entirely enveloped in the proftate gland: it is particularly long in the hedge-hog, opoffum, kanguroo, civet, and the cat hind, in moft of which it is more than half the entire length of the urethra. The part called verumontanum, on which the feminal duéts terminate, contains in the e/ephant and fome: others a deep cell. There are frequently other folds of the membrane which form longitudinal eminences befides the verumonta- num; and in the marmots these are twelve prominent folds, which go off on each fide of the longitudinal projection. The fecond portion of the urethra in the cloven-footed quadrupeds and the hog, has a cul-de-fac at its origin, or at that part correfponding to the bulb. This cecum receives the femen and the fluid of Cowper’s glands, In the /quir- rel and marmot, the dilatation in the bulb merely receives the dudts of Cowper’s glands, and is continued into a narrow canal, which opens into the urethra as far forward as the middle penis. The fpongy texture of the urethra in the ofoffun and phafeolomys, all the marfupial quadrupeds, and in the water rat, ariles in two branches diflin& from each other, and in- clofed in their proper mufcle. There is alfo fome appearance of two branches to the bulb in the camel. There is a large corpus fpongiofum in the /arge herbivorous quadrupeds, and a {mall one in the carnivorous, more parti- cularly the offer, bear, &c. It is fearcely apparent at the part of the urethra which runs along the os penis. The corpus fpongiofum, as already mentioned, is com- pofed of an intricate plexus of. veins. This is very evident where it forms the glans penis of the Aor/é, in which the vef- fels are very plainly feen. They likewile communicate with a vait mafs of veins upon the dorfum of the penis in this ani- mal, which increafe the bulk of this member very much when they are diftended with blood during ereétion. The glans penis varies very much in mammalia, both with refpeét to form and the nature of its integuments: even the animals of the fame genus-do not agree in thefe refpects. The glans of fome monkies, as thofe with prehenfile tails, forms a large tubercle, like the head of a mufhroom. In the daboons and apes it is oval, and {plit into two tubercles at the end where the urethra opens. In the Chine/e ape a are feveral tubercles, which produce a fingularly formed glans. In the ring-tailed maucaco, (lemur catta), the glans is thick behind, but merely covers the os penis at the end. It is covered with horny fpines, which have their points turned backwards. The vefpertilio ferotinus has two tubercles or bulbs upon the fides of the glans. The inferior furface forms a fort of edge, and is clothed with {tiff hair-like procefles. ; The hedge-hog has a piece of cartilage upon the top of the lans. 2 In the racoon the os penis has two tubercles at the end, which give the fame form to the glans. In the cat kind the glans is conic. ‘The point is made by the os penis which projects beyond the orifice of the urethra. In mott of this genus, the glans is armed with refleGed fharp hard f{pines. Cuvier fays they are few in the /ion, and moft numerous in the Meican cat (felis pardalis). In all the long-bodied or vermiform quadrupeds, and in the dadger, bear, and racoon, the glans takes the form of the 0S penis. In the dog genus, the back of the glans forms a very re- markable bulb of the fhape of a chefnut, the bale of which is pofterior. Itis compofed of venous cells, which are only diltended when the penis is erected, and is comprefled behind the glans, there being two large trunks of veins running backwards, which carry off the blood from the bulb. It 1s by means of this apparatus that the penis of the dag is re- tained in the female organs, feemingly againit his will. The fphincter of the vagina fuffers a {pafmodic contraction, ‘and comprefles the veins behind the bulb, and thus maintains it in a {tate of diltention. To obviate the effects of compreflion upon the urethra, that part of the canal is lodged in a groove of the os penis. The femen of the dog pafies in jets for fome time after he bas turned off, as it has been fuppofed, in con- fequence of his wanting veficule feminales. Inthe opoffian kind, the glans is neceflarily bifid, as the corpora ae MAMMALIA. corpora cavernofa are fo whichit covers. The two branches of the glans penis are fhort, and are dire€ted outwards in the Vircinian opoffum, but in the Mexican opoffum and the marmofe (didelphis murina), they are long, and grooved upon the inner fide fo as to form a perfeét canal when they are applied toeach other. This canal forms a continuation to the urethra. : The phafcolomys has the glans penis forming four lobes at the-end: the urethra opens in the centre. The kanguroo has a long, taper, fharp-pointed glans, formed chiefly by the corpora cavernofa. The urethra emerges near the end of the penis from the united corpora cavernofa, acquires the fpongy coat, and ends-.in a kind of fac, which has its orifice under the point of the glans. The formation of the glans, as well as all the other parts of generation, is fingular in gad Pec mammalia. In the guinea-pig the orifice of the urethra is under a flat os penis; and behind and below it there is a cell, in the bot- tom of which are attached by their bafe two long hooks of a horny fub{tance: the glans and furface of this pouch are covered with hard fcales. When the penis is erected, the pouch is turned infide out, carrying with it the horny hooks, and forming a projection preceding confiderably the orifice of the urethra. The glans is drawn in again by two fafci- euli of mufcles, which arife from the two crura of the cor- pora cavernofa, and pafs under the bulb of the urethra, to which they are alfo attached. They furnifh two tendons that run along the under part of the penis, and are inferted oa the outfide of the fac or pouch already mentioned. The glans of the agouti is fill more curious, It has a pouch fimilar to that above deferibed, and horny {feales upon the furface ; and in addition to thefe, two horny plates upon its fides, which adhere to the glans by one edge, and have the other edge notched like a faw. The alpine marmot has the glans conical, and ending in a fine point, which is formed by the os penis. ‘The urethra opens on the right fide of this point, and on the left there is" a {mall deep cell. In the common rat there is the appearance of a fecond prepuce at the end of the glans, when the penis is not erected: this is produced by the edge of a cavity that en- clofes the os penis. This bone comes forth by preffure, and exhibits upon each fide two little cartilaginous appendices, in the form of wings. The urethra opens under this ex- tremity, and has upon the inferior edge a valve formed like a gutter. The other fpecies of the genus mus have the glans con- flructed upon the fame plan: its furface is armed with pa- pillz, or with fine hairs, as in the hamfter. The dormice haye a conical and fharp-pointed glans: the urethra opens at the end. There are two cells at its bafe. In the elephant the glans is at firll cylindric, as the reft of the penis: the lips of the orifice of the urethra open to each fide. Vhe glans of the rhinoceros has a fingular conformation : it is dilated at the end like the mouth of a bell, in the centre of which there arifes a peduncle, fhaped like a muthroom, with a broad, flat, oval furface, upon the inferior edge of which the urethra opens. In the Joar, and inany of the ruminating quadrupeds, the gians is taper and pointed, and has a fiffure upon its fide, in which the urethra terminates. The ram has it oval, witha tran{verfe fiffure at the end. ‘The orifice of the urethra is at the left fide of the flit, and near it there is a long flender procef, of a tendinous fub{tance. The glans of the camels, which is long and taper, ends in a hard appendix, which is bent tranfverfely from left to right, by which its edge ig turned forwards, and the point to one fide. The folipeda have a cylindric glans, which contains a ca- vity or large cell, that is found to have a quantity of a brown oily fubftance, for defending the glans from the irritation of the urine, and lubricating the end of the penis. This fecree tion appears to be fimilar to that of the glands furrounding the glans in other animals, but is in gréater quantity in the Aorfe than inthem. ‘here is a fecond cell, according to Mr. Clarke’s defcription, which is fmaller than the firft, and {eparated from it by a membranous partitien: it nearly fur. rounds the urethra, which opens at the end of a pyramidal eminence of the glans. The northern lamantin has the glans and all the penis fimilar to that of the hor/e, according to Cuvier, except the exiltence of a bone; although he denics that the /amanting have an os penis in another place. The glans of the porpoife is broad at the bafe, diminifhes. fuddenly, and ends in a flender point, at which place the urethra opens. In the dolphin it is broad, conic, and flat. The canal of the urethra runs diftinétly along its under furface, and opens at its extremity. The mufcles of the penis are commonly more numerous in mammalia than the human fubje@. The ere@ores penis, or, as they are more properly called by Cuvier, i/chio-cavernofi, do not materially differ from thofe of man, except in the mar/upial quadrupeds: they, however, vary with refpeét to flrength. Cuvier has ob- ferved them to be particularly thick in the Jon; they are weak in the horfe; and are divided in the elephant into four diftin& flips. In the opofum tribe thefe mufcles form an oval mafs around the roots of the corpora cavernofa, which in thefe animals are not attached immediately to the bones of the pelvis. The bulbous enlargement of the mufcles is made of feveral layers of concentric fibres, which furround: and comprefs the long roots of the cavernous bodies. 'The origin of the mufcles is from the ifchium by tendon. : The accelerator urine (bulbo-cavernofus of Cuvier) varies generally in thicknefs, -in proportion to the difficulty of ejecting the urine and femen, as depending upon the ftruc= ture of the urethra. In the Aor/e this mufcle is not confined. to the bulb, but forms a layer of tranfverfe fibres, which, cover the urethra the whole way to the glans. The bulbo-cavernofus confills of two portions in the rats,” all the mar/upial animals, the elephant, and the camel. In the two firit tribes, thefe cover the branches of the bulb, and. alfo extend to the corpora cavernofa and pelvis: they are, therefore, not ftriftly mufcles of the urethra in thefe ani- mals. ‘The bulb of the urethra is fingle in. the elephant and. camel, notwithftanding its mufcle is. double. The bulbo-cavernofus, in fome in{tances,, has no effe& upon, the urethra; the contents of that canal. being expelled by a {trong layer of mufcle that furrounds the firit portion of the urethra. ‘Thus in the marmot and fguirrel, the bulbo-caver- nofus compreffes the cul-de-fac of the urethra, into which the fluid of Cowper’s glands is poured; and in the ichneumony, this mufcle con{titutes rather a thin layer, which furrounds both the glandulez Cowperi, and performs no other office than that of exprefling the fluid from thefe bodies, Many mammalia have a mufcle for raifing and fuftaining the weight of the penis. It has been defcribed in the baboons as compofed of two thick flefhy portions, arifing from thé arch of the pubis» its tendon is extended along the back of the penis; and towards the extremity it becomes incorporated with the corpora cavernofa. In the bare, marmot, cavy, &c. it is twilked backwards, in order to give ’ the MAMMALIA. the proper direGtion to the penis during coition. This mufcle is remarkably large in the elephant: it is attached to the pubis by two diftinét flefhy portions, and partly to the roots of the corpora cavernofa; they proceed upon the dorfum of the penis, and their tendons uniting into one, it runs in a ftrong ligamentous fheath to the end of the penis. There is no mufcle of this kind in the horfe, which is the reafon that manual afliftance is given to that animal in coition. In the Sear, racoon, the dog, &c. there is a {mall mufcle arifing from each of the roots of the corpora cavernofa, and conjoined by a middle tendon, which is inferted into the feck of the penis under the pubis. This mufcle comprefles the dorfal vein in the fimia callitrix, in which animal the middle tendon is not found. In the difulca there is a mufcle on each fide, which arifes from the tuberofity of the ifchium, and afcends obliquely inwards, and is inferted into the bulbous part of the urethra. It brings the bulb downwards and forwards, and contri- butes, as Cuvier thinks, to tlongate the penis. The arteries and veins of the penis are fimilar in mammalia and man, except where there are plexufes formed, as al- ready defcribed. The nerves of this member are ftated by Cuvier to be very large. He difcovered that-they formed in the elephant a net-work upon the veins of the back of the penis, in the fame manner as they have been obferved to do on ar- teries. The ornithorhynchus and echidna feem to form a link be- tween mammalia, birds, and reptiles, with refpe@ to their anatomy. Their alliance with the two la{t mentioned claffes is decidedly fhewn in the ftru€ture of the organs of generation. Thefe two anim. shave a fpur upon the heel of the male, for the purpofe of holding the female during copulation. The fpur contains two {mall bones or phalanges: one is very fhort, flattened, and joined to the aftragalus; the other is long and pointed, and ferves as the mould of the horny fpur, in a manner fimilar to the {purs of cocks. There is no other inftance in mammalia of the male poffefling any prehenfile organ, exclufively defigned to be employed during coition. The penis of the ornithorhynchus and echidna is attached to the margin of the cloaca, as in birds and reptiles. It is covered with the continuation of the lining of the cloaca, and is compofed interiorly of a plexus of blood-veffels, which become more clofe and intricate towards the extremity of the penis. This plexus makes up the whole bulk of the organ: it is only furrounded by a fibrous fheath, and the in- teguments already mentioned. There is no urethra in the penis of thefe animals; that canal terminating fhort of it, as will be prefently fhewn. ‘The penis is nearly cylindric in its form, and fhort: it terminates in the echidna, in four emi- nences or proceffes, which are hollowed out in the centre, like cups. Thefe correfpond to the glans of other mam- malia, and no doubt are endowed with a greater fenfibility than the reit of the organ. Cuvier thinks the concavities of thefe eminences or papille are unfolded during ere¢tion. In the ornithorhynchus Balgen us the penis terminates in two papille, which have denticulated edges; and the furface of the penis is more rough and wrinkled than in the echidna. The erection of the penis in thefe animals is accomplifhed by the diftenfion of the vafcular flructure of the interior part of the organ, and by the contra¢tion of the fphinéter mufcle of the cloaca. The penis is retracted by a particular mufcle, which arifes from the fphinéter ani, and pafles along the under furface of the penis, and is attached to its extremity. When retraéted, it is received into a fac. The urethra in thefe animals is fimply a mufcular canal, continued from the bladder to the under part of the cloaca, into which there is a {mall round hole, not quite at the ex- tremity of the urethra; that canal terminating in a fort of cul-de-fac. The vafa deferentia open into this canal at the neck of the bladder. ‘There is a layer of mufcular fibres arranged obliquely, and meeting upon a middle line, like the conttritors of the pharynx, which encompaiffes the rectum and urethra together, and affifts the mufcular coat of the urethra in ejecting the femen and urine into the cloaca. There are two {mall oval bodies, containing each a cavity, from which there departs a long excretory duct to the fide of the cloaca when jt opens. ‘lhefe glands appear to cor- refpond to Cowper's. The margin of the anus is furnifhed with a row of well marked follicular glands, fimilar to thofe deferibed in birds. The ¢eflicles are originally formed and fituated in the lumbar region, next the kidnies, in all mammalia, and in man. In ad of the former they remain in that fituation during life, as inftances of which we may mention the orni- therhynchus, the echidna, the elephant, the daman, the neélo- podous or feal tribe, and the cetacea. Thefe aninials are cons f{equently without a /crotum and cremajler mufcles. The tellicles are retained in their proper fituation by peritoneum, in the fame manner as the other abdominal mufcles. In a number of mammalia the ¢e/icles leave the loins, and ‘are placed behind the opening of the abdominal ring, which is fo large that thefe bodies can eafily pafs backwards and forwards through it, as occafion may require. ‘The teflicles have been obferved to come out of the abdomen in this man- ner, particularly in the feafon for pairing, in the bat, moe, Shrew, hedge-hog ; in many of the murine tribe, as the com- mon rats, hamfler, mu/k rat ; and in the guinea-pig, porcupine, beaver, /quirrel, &c. In thefe animals the pailage from the abdominal cavity to the tunica vaginalis is permanently opens and of great width. The fituation of the tetticles is fubje& to vary in mam-~ malia, when they are on the outfide of the abdomen: thus they are fufpended in a fingle bag or /érotum, behind the penis, in the guadrumana, the digitigrada, and many planti- grada. The fcrotum is long, and fufpended before the pelvis, and wants the /eptum feroti, in the opoffum kind, the kanguroo, and phafcolomys. he fcrotum forms two diltin& pendulous bags in the hare, jerboa, and molt of the cloven- footed and in the folid-hoofed quadrupeds. — The figure of the tefticles varies but in a few fpecies from that obferved in man. The racoon, badger, and elephant, have thefe glands of a globular form; and in the neclopodous and cetaceous tribes they are very much elongated. The magnitude of the telticles is remarkably great in the mole and in the faltigrade quadrupeds, being even more con- fiderable than that of the kidnies. In thefe, and in feveral other quadrupeds, the tefticles become much larger at the feafon for procreation than they are at other periods. The interior ftruGure of the teftes in man and mammalia is effentially the fame. In moft of the latter that have been examined, the tubuli sper are in feparate packets. In the greater number of the faltigrada, however, they are diftin& from each other, and are very large. In the ram, the feminiferous tubes have been obferved to be very diftinét, and to have a ferpentine or undulating courfe. . In feveral quadrupeds the real ftruéture is clearly feen of the part called corpus Highmori. It is nota canal, nor does 6 it —— = ro) MAMMALIA. it poffefs the ftru€ture defcribed by the older anatomifts ; but is formed by the tunica albuginea, and paffes like a liga- mentous ftripe or band along the tefticle, from which the famine or fibres that pafs downwards and feparate the femi- niferous tubes of this gland arife. The principal arteries alfo of the tefticle are fuftained by this band. The epididymis is very large in the /altigrada and the echidna ; in moft of the former and in the opoffum tribe, it is not attached along the back of the tefticle, but is free, ex- cept at its origin. The vafa deferentia have thinner parietes in thofe animals that retain the tefticles always in the abdomen, than in thofe inftances where they occafionally pafs into the {crotum, or are always outfide the belly. They likewife proceed lefs direétly to their termination in the urinary paflage ; thus in the elephant, the echidna, the daman, and the ant-eaters, their courfe is very tortuous. Very frequently the vafa deferentia become thicker, or are dilated before their termination. In the otter and /eal, and in many of the /altigrada, as the hare, cavy, beaver, hamfler, and the rat tribe, thefe tubes acquire ftrength, and in the /altigrada juft mentioned, they are alfo wider as they pafs behind the bladder. In the dear, badger, and racoon, their coats are much thicker, and the two vafa deferentia touch each other, and appear as one canal, but do not really communicate. In the a aya the va/a deferentia, where they pafs befide the veficule feminales, are dilated into glo- bular facs, the furfaces of which adhere to each other. The vafa deferentia of the horfe are dilated to about the fize of the human thumb, for five or fix inches before their termi- nation. This dilated part confifts of a number of cells, refembling thofe of the corpora cavernofa of the penis, which, when preffed, pour out a milky fluid. Mr. Bracy Clarke ftates, that the vafa deferentia run in the centre of thefe cells, with each of which they communicate by {mall pores. See Anatomy of the Hor/e in this dictionary. There is a fimilar dilatation in the vafa deferentia of the ram, in which there are tranfverfe lamine that form a mefh work, The vafa deferentia are ftill more dilated in the buffale than in the ram or horfe. They are not divided into cells or mefhes, but there are little cavities that fecrete a fluid. They are dilated alfo in the other ruminants. The defign of this ftruéture feems to be to add a peculiar fecretion to the femen before it paffes into the urethra. Cuvier mentions a curious variety in the courfe of the vas deferens, from the fcrotum into the pelvis, in the Chine/e monkey ( fimia finenfis.) In this animal, that canal does not pafs through the abdominal ring, but through the crural arch, and afcends between the internal and external oblique mufcles to join the cremafter mufcle near the ring. In a very few inftances, the two va/a deferentia have but one opening into the urethra. Jn the badger they terminate in a cul-de-fac, which contains the verumontanum. The veficule feminales are wanting in the following mam- malia, viz. in all the plantigrada, except the coatis and the hedge hogs; in all the digitigrada ; the genus didelphis, the te der ienchih and echidna; the doo tanfed quadrupeds ; in the fea/ tribe, and the cetacea. The veficule feminales are nearly fimilar in the monkey and the human fubjeét. In the vampyre bat they are large, and form three convolu- tions. The firft third of their canal is without cells or reticulation, and opens into a round body which is fituated upon the neck of the bladder, and has the interior divided by membranous laminz into a great number of cells, which are found filled with a feminal fluid. This cellular refervoir Vout. XXII. alfo receives the vafa deferentia, and has two {mall openings into the urethra. The remainder of the tube of the veficulze is cellular, as ufual. In the common bats they are round white facs, with a fimple cavity : their coats are glandular. In the hedge-hog, the veficule appear as bundles of con- voluted tubes ; ufually four in number on each fide of that part of the urethra which contains the verumontanum: each of thefe bundles of tubes ends in one tube, which either opens feparately, or conjointly, with that of fome of the other bundles or parcels in the verumontanum. Thefe different bundles or veficule, when taken together, exceed in bulk that of the two tefticles of the hedge-hog. The veficule of the guinea-pig are two long conical tubes, becoming much thinner towards the extremity: they have fome dilatations in their fecond half. In the agouti they are alfo large tubes, and have fome fmaller branches. In the marmot of the alps the veficule are {mall; their cavity is very intricate, and thtir coats glandular. They are fimilarly formed in the éobac, according to Pallas; but he defcribes the veficule of the fu/lic (mus citellus, Pall.) as being compofed of a little puckered tube, which adheres to a mafs formed of f{maller tubes. The rat tribe have the veficule feminales enormoufly large, particularly during the feafon of procreation. They project even beyond the pelvis. They are membranous bladders, conical in their figure, but twifted, and having ef cavity rendered unequal by dilatations on their convex edge. The common hare and rabbit have one fac in place of the veficule feminales. This is of a confiderable fize, and of a reCtangular figure. The external corners are fometimes extended from the body of the fac, and reprefent the two veficule. The coats of the fac are membranous, except in the two-thirds of their fuperior fide, which are very thick and glandular, and fimilar to the fubftance of the proftate gland. The opening of this fac into the urethra is fingle. In the kpus pufillus, ogotona, and alpinus of Pallas, the veti- culz are two, and feparate, as in other animals. In the /guirrel the veficule are {mall, wrinkled, convoluted tubes, with glandular coats. In the daman, according to Cuvier, the veficule are very large and ramified. The rhinoceros has the veficule making two tolerably large bladders: their cavity is irregular, from a number of dilatations on their external fide. In the doar, the veficule are remarkably large, and com- pofed of lobes and lobules which contain cells interiorly, that communicate with each other. All the lobes pour out their contents through a common canal, which opens in the verumontanum, The veficule feminales of the elephant are very large. Their figure is nearly oval, there being a contra€tion which feparates the top from the reft of the fac. The internal furface of the top and middle portions is provided with irregular columns or projections of the internal membrane of the veficule, which is much thicker towards the top or end of the facs than elfewhere. The veficule are furnifhed with a mufcle for exprefling their contents in this animal. It arifes from the neck, and extends as far as the middle part of the fac, its fibres {preading as they proceed. In the Aorfe and afs, the veficule are two long mem- branous bladders, like portions of an inteftine. They are wider at the end or fundus than the neck, which ends in a large excretory canal, that opens intg the urethra by a com- mon orifice with the vas deferens. jy Some MAMMALIA. Some anatomifts have fuppofed that the proftate glands of the cloven-footed quadrupeds were the veficule feminales. The only part pee rit to the veiicule in thefe animals, is a ligamentous bridge extending between the ends of the two vala deferentia, and ferving to unite the bafes of the proftate glands. This ligament has been obferved in the ram, the axis, &c. But in the fallow deer, the place of the ligament is taken by two little capfules, which appear to be oradulat’ and their cavity to lead to the verumontanum, by the fame orifices with the vafa deferentia. The parts fupplying the place of the proffate gland, are very different in their ftruture and number in different genera of mammalia. The termination of the proftatic du& or duéts alfo is various; they are found to open into the origin of the urethra, or throughout its extent, or towards the end of that canal. In fome of the /altigrada, in the hedge-hog, and in the mole, the parts peer ae to the profate glands are defcribed by Cuvier as a diitiné& feries of glands, which he, calls weficules acceffoires, on ac- count of their having a ftructure fimilar to that of the vefi- cule feminales, and becaufe they are obferved to enlarge during the feafon of procreation; but their being found in thofe animals which have not proftate glands of the ufual ftruture, and yet are remarkable for the magnitude of all the genital organs, would lead us to receive thefe veficular bodies as DS to the proftate glands of other mam- malia; we fhall therefore defcribe them as fuch in the proper order of the animals to which they belong. The proftate gland in the monkey tribe is fimilar to that of the human fubject, except that it is fomewhat different in fhape. Inthe mandril, there are fome additional lobes to the proftate. This gland in the /emurs has two offsets, which furround the excretory duéts of the veficule feminales. There are two in the /emur oa kg which form diftin& tubercles before the veficulz upon the fides of the urethra. In the vampyre bat, the proftate is fimple, as in man and the monkey ; but in the common bats, this gland confifts of a great number of lobules. In the dear, the fubftance of the proftate appears to be confounded with the enlargement of the united vafa defe- rentia. In moft of the vermiform quadrupeds, as they are called, fuch as the wea/el, and in the ofter, this gland appears like a layer upon the urethra. In the ichneumon, however, it is of a confiderable fize. The hedge-hog, as before obferved, is one of the animals which has the proftate formed of a number of tubes. It has four bundles of thefe tubes, which are fmaller than thofe of the veficulz feminales, and arranged parallel to each other, branching into {till {maller tubes In the mole, this gland is alfo compofed of a mafs of tubes, ramified and convoluted upon each other. During the feafon for copulation, thefe tubes enlarge fo much, that they form a bundle, according to Cuvier, of a greater bulk than the urinary bladder. In the agouti and guinea-pig, the proftate is formed of ramified and convoluted tubes, ‘The former animal has thefe tubes ending in veficular proceffes. The rat tribe and lagomys have alfo tubular proftates, and in addition to them have two glands, which are attached to the inner fucface of the aA feminales. "They are com- pofed chiefly of one tube. In the other fa/tigrada, the proftate gland is a fingle mafs, often divided pofteriorly into two lobes. The proftate is fingle alfo in the digitigrade and pedimanous quadrupeds, as far as they have been examined. In the doar, it is divided into lobes, and there is befides a layer of glandular fubftance, which furrounds the origin of the urethra. ' The elephant has four proftate glands, which are fmall in proportion to the other parts of generation. They are of different fizes with refpeét to each other. Some mufcular fibres are {pread over them which ferve to prefs out their fecretion. Each gland contains one principal cavity, with which fmaller cavities communicate: thefe laft fill the in- diftin& lobes that are feen upon the glands externally. The chief cavity of each gland produces a dué&, and thefe duéts terminate feparately at the fide of the verumontanum. The cloven-hoofed quadrupeds have two proftates poffefling the fame cellular ftru€ture as thofe of the elephant. The lobes are {till more diftin in the ram and bull. There are four proftate glands in the /olid-hoofed order. The two firft are paler, and have larger cavities than the others, They are covered with mufcular and tendinous fibres, which are extended to them from the veficule feminales and the bladder. The dus from this pair of glands have many orifices in the urethra. The fecond pair of proftates are fituated towards the end of the membranous portion of the urethra. They are enclofed by mufcular and tendinous fibres. They have each twelve du€ts, which open by as many orifices, arranged in a row in the urethra. The feal tribe have the fame fort of proftate as that de- feribed in the ofter. The cetacea have the proftate in a fingle mafs, and cel- lular internally, as in the human fubjeét, &c. The mufcle which furrounds it is very ftrong. The glands called Cowper’s are much larger, and con- fequently of more importance, ap, in mammalia thanin man. They are wanting in fome genera, and prefent in others clofely allied to them, Thefe glands, therefore, as well as the veficule feminales and proitate, are not fub- je&t to any general rule, or regulated, either as to their exiftence or magnitude, by the anatomical rank or charaéter of the animals. Cowper’s glands are not found in the dear, racoon, hedze-hog, mole ; and are wanting, according to Cuvier, in all the plantigrade, except the ichneumon; in the do genus ; the vermiform quadrupeds ; in the hare and rabbit ; in many other of the per ige ch tribe ; the horfe and afs ; in the fea/, and in the whale tribe. Thefe glands become larger than in man, in proportion to the fize of the animals, in the guadrumanous and chierop- tereus Mammalia. They are alfo very large in the civet and cat; of a ftill greater fize in the hyena. The mufcle that furrounds them in thefe animals is very thick. In the ichneumon, the glands of Cowper are very remark- able. They are covered by a layer of mufcle, and each of them is befides inclofed in a mufculo-tendinous fac. Each gland confifts of a number of veficles, which communicate with each other, and furnifh a fingle excretory dua, that % runs along the lower part of the urethra, and terminates by a diflinct opening in the bottom of the cell at the end of the penis, in which alfo the urethra itfelf finifhes. .Thefe glands have an egg fhape, and are of great fize. In the mar/upial animals there are feveral Comics 8 glands, and it is remarkable that they are never wanting in this tribe, although the other glands are in fome of the genera. The Mewican and Surinam opoffums (dideipl cayopollin, d.-* orientalis), the phafcolomys, and the great kanguroo, have fix Cowper’s glands. ‘he danguroo raty and Virginian opofum, have four. In all thefe animals they are compofed of tubes which lie in the longitudinal direétion of the glands. In the echidna, there is a gland analogous to Cowper’s 9 on MAMMALIA, on each fide of the cloaca. They are fmall oval bodies, containing a narrow cavity internally, from which a long du& proceeds. It paffes through the conftrictor mufcle of the cloaca, and goes to join the little canal by which the urethra opens into the cloaca. Thefe glands are furrounded by a very {trong mufcle, which urges their fluid out when occafion requires. The /guirrel has two large veficles, cone-fhaped, and coiled upon themfelves. The top of thefe has thick glan- dular coats, and is divided, interiorly, into a number of little cells. The glands both open into a cavity in the bulb of the urethra, which is continued into a canal that extends to the bend of the penis when it opens into the urethra. The alpine marmot, and the bobac, refemble the /guirrel in the ftructure of their Cowper’s glands. ; The doar has thefe glands in the form of long flattened cylinders. Their fubftance has a firm texture ; it contains {mall cells, which open into larger ones, and they again join to form a common cavity, from whence a canal proceeds to open upon the fide of the urethra, within the bulb. Their mufcle has oblique fibres. The glands of Cowper are very large in the elephant, in proportion to the proftates, as before-mentioned. They have an irregular form, as if lobu- lated. There is a diftinétion of two portions to be obferved : the firft is fituated next the bulb of the urethra, and is {mall : it is divided internally into cells, which are of different fizes, the {malleft being external, and the larger opening at lalt into a common cavity in the centre of this part of the gland, which furnifhes a dué to join the principal du& that comes from the reft of the gland. he larger portion of the gland contains two central cavities, which each give origin to a du&. Thefe two duéts concur to form the principal duét above-mentioned. It proceeds, for fome way, in the parietes of the urethra, before it opens into the canal. The glands of Cowper havea very thick mufcle in this animal; the fibres of which are colleéted upon a tendon that is attached to each fide of the corpora cavernofa. In the camel, the glands of Cowper refemble, in figure and fize, pigeon’s eggs ; their texture is clofe: and their fingle excretory duét terminates within the bulb of the urethra. The fame {tructure is obferved in the other cloven-hoofed quadrupeds which poffefs thefe glands. The mufcle for comprefling them in this tribe is very ftrong. The figures which illuftrate the male organs are found in Plates V11. and VIII. of the Anatomy of Mammalia. Fig. 7, in Plate Vi1., exhibits the os penis of the dog: a points out the groove in which the urethra is inclofed for fome diftance. Fig. 8, of the fame plate, is a view of the os penis in the fquirrel. Fig. 1, in Plate VIII., fhews a tranfverfe feCtion of the penis of the £anguroo, in which the canal offthe urethra, as indicated by a, is feen in the middle of the united corpora cavernofa. Fig. 2, of the fame plate, is a fimilar fe¢tion of the kanguroo’s penis nearer the end, in which the urethra is feen to be gaining the fide of the penis. Fig. 3, of the fame plate, is a longitudinal feétion of the penis of the dog, after the cellular ftructure had been injected with quickfilver, dried, and emptied: a, the glans penis; & is the bulb behind it ; c, the trunks of the veins going backwards from the bulb, which are comprefled by the {phinéter vagine of the female during the coitus. Fig. 4. is a view of the penis of the guinea-pig: a fhews the glans, armed with horny feales ; 4 are the hooks that come forth from the pouch in which the urethra terminates; ¢, ¢, the mufcular fafciculi that retraé& the pouch. ig. 5. is the penis of the cat: a, the glans furnifhed with reflected horny fpines. Fig. 6, of this plate, reprefents the male organs of the dan- g4roo; s is the urinary bladder; g, the ureters; r, the vafa deferentia ; 9, the firft part of the urethra, which is inclofed in the proftate gland; a, 6, and ¢, are the three glands of Cowper, on each fide; d, d, are the two branches of the bulb of the urethra, each enveloped in its proper mufcle ; €, e, are the two branches of the corpora cavernofa, inclofed by their mufcles ; that on the right fide is laid open lon- gitudinally to expofe its interior, and the fe&tion of the muf{cle ; g is a portion of the {phiner ; and & is a portion of the levater ani mufcle ; 7, the re&tum; /, the anus; o is the pointed glans of the penis. Jig.6, of Plate VII. exhibits the male parts of the ichneumon: ais the bladder ; bb, the ureters; c, c, their orifices in the neck of the bladder ; dd, are the vafa deferentia; e, e, their orifices in the urethra ; hf fi fr the different lobes of the proftate gland; 4 is Cowper’s gland of the left fide expofed, the mufcular fac in which it is inclofed being laid open; 7, the oppofite gland, covered with its mufcle ; £ is the excretory du& of the left Cowper’s gland; 4, an opening feen at the lower part of the glans penis, which leads into the cell where both the urethra and excretory duts of Cowper’s glands ter- minate ; 7 is a part of the ifchio-cavernofus mufcle of the right fide; nn, the reétum, at the lower part of which the anal glands are feen, which are already defcribed and re- ferred to under the head of the excretory glands in this article. Fig. 7, of Plate VIII. exhibits the male organs in the pha/- colomys (didelphis urfina of Shaw): a, the urinary bladder ; b,b, the ureters; cc, the vafa deferentia ; dd, the teftes, of which the one on the left has the tunica vaginalis flit open ; hk, the firt portion of the urethra; -/,/, the branches of the corpora cayernofa enveloped in their mufcles; m, m, the branches which form the bulb of the urethra, covered alfo by mufcle ; 2, 0, two of the glands of Cowper, feen on each fide ; the third are concealed by the branches of the bulb of the urethra; g is the glans penis; r,7, the retraétor mufcles; s is the rectum. Fig. 5, of Plate VII. is a view of the organs of generation in the male echidna hy/frix ; aa, the fingular termination of the penis in this {pecies; 4, the body of the penis; c, the cloaca; dd, the reCtum, flit open and divided, to fhew the canal which conduéts the urine and femen to the cloaca; g is that canal laid open ; f, f, orifices of glands ; e, e, Cowper’s glands; &, urinary bladder ; 7, its opening into the urinary canal; //, the vafa deferentia; nn, the epidydimis of each fide; m, m, the two tefticles. Fig. 8, in Plate VIII. reprefents one lobe of the veficulz feminales of the hedge-hog, which is {een to be compofed of convoluted tubes.. Fig. g, of the fame plate, fhews the fingle veficula feminalis of the Aare ; a, the penis; 4, the urinary bladder ; c, the veficula, with its two horn-fhaped procefles. Fig. 10. is a view of one of the lobes of the prottate, or, as Cuvier calls it, acceflory gland of the hedge-hog. Female Organs of Generation—The orifice of the vulva is not provided, in mammalia, with either the eaterna/ or inter- nal labia.. It is a fimple fiffure in moft cafes, taking the direétion of the body. The Ayena, however, has this flit placed tranfverfely. In the /altigrada, the orifice of the vulva is circular, and in many of them, and in the mar/upial animals, it is furrounded by a iphinGer, common to it and the anus. The vulva is not a mere entrance to the vagina, as in the human fubjeét, but forms moft commonly a canal of fome length, preceding the true vagina. In the prehenfile-tailed, and other American fpecies of monkey, this canal is, ac- cording to Cuvier’s obfervations, as long as the vagina. In the bear, it is even much longer. In ae cafes, however, the vulva is little more than the aperture of the vagina. It has been obferved to be fo in the /emur, the agouti, paca, and guinea-pig. Inthe baboon alfo, it isa very fhallow cavity. TSli2 The MAMMALIA. The internal furface of the vulva has ufually flight ruge, which difappear upon the part being ftretched. In the tiger they are oblique in their direétion, and very {mall. They are tranfverfe in the difulca and the hyena, in which they are numerous, fine, and undulating. The daman has the interior of the vulva fmooth. There are glands analo- gous to thofe of Cowper, the du&s of which pafs into the fides of the cavity of the vulva. Thefe glands are remark- ably large in the cat genus and mar/upial tribe of mammalia. They are compreffed by a mufcular inveftment. r The clitoris of mammalia is of various figures, fizes, and ftructures. Its fituation in all quadrupeds is neceffarily the reverfe of that in the human fubjedt : the part of the vulva next the pubis being the loweft in all animals whofe ftation is on four legs. The clitoris is fituated farther in where the vulva forms acanal, than in other cafes. Inthe dear it is inclofed in a pouch, which opens into the vulva by a fmall orifice. In the baboon, and in the rat tribe, the clitoris is fituated exter- nally to the vulva: in the latter animals, the fkin before the vulva forms a projection, which ferves as a fort of prepuce to the clitoris, at which place alfo the urethra terminates ; there are, therefore, in the rats three apertures in fucceffion; the orifice of the urethra, the opening of the vulva, and that of the anus. 3 The clitoris of quadrupeds fo generally refembles the penis of the males in the fame fpecies in form and ftruéture, that it has been fuppofed they were fimilarly conftruéted in every inftance. There are, however, exceptions to this rule : the clitoris in the guadrumana, the civet, and the dog, wants a bone, although there is an os penis in thefe animals. The fize of the clitoris is frequently greater in proportion than in the human fubje&: it is particularly fo in the monkies, lemurs, moft of the digitigrade and faltigrade quad- rupeds, It is very long, and curved upon itfelf, in the dear. In the mar/upial mammalia, which have a bifid penis, the clitoris is alfo double. The prepuce of the clitoris fometimes forms a deep fac, in which the latter is nearly concealed, as in the dog genus. This prepuce is furnifhed with numerous febaceous glands, like thofe of the penis, and in the rat kind they are ex- tremely large. The Bates of the urethra is found pretty uniformly upon the extremity of the inferior part of the vulva; it is, con- fequently, often much deeper feated in mammalia than in the human fubje&. In the prehenfile-tailed monkies, and fome others of the new continent, the urethra opens in the fubftance of a ftrong fold, extended from the hymen. Sometimes this canal is found to open in a flit between two tubercles, or folds, of the inner membrane of the vulva, which are fometimes ex- tended upon the fides of the groove on the back of the clitoris, to condu& the urine out. In other cafes, the ure- thra opens in the middle of a papilla. This orifice is in the bafe of the clitoris in the agouti and paca ; but in the lemurs, properly fo called, and the /ori, the urethra paffes along the back of the clitoris, and opens near its end. A general opinion has prevailed that the Aymen is peculiar to the human fubje&, which feems to have arifen from fup- pofing this part to be formed for the fole purpofe of proving the virginity, and, confequently, the purity of the mind in the female of the human fpecies. Similar obftacles, however, to the congrefs of the fexes, are found in a confiderable number of mammalia, and probably exift in many other {pecies that have not yet been examined for this circum- lance. ll In the fimia paniftus, and flriated ape (fimia jacchns), the Aymen confifts of two femi-lunar folds of membrane, the pointed corners of which unite, above and below, on two columns of the fuperior and inferior parietes of the vulva. Thef: folds were found to be nearly effaced in an o/d monkey (fimia panifeus ). The northern lamantin bas been defcribed by Steller as having a {trong femi-lunar membrane fituated at the inferior part of the opening into the vagina from the vulva. Cuvier found a very decided membranous partition of the vulva from the vagina in a young daman. It was a circular fold of thin membrane, nearly of equal breadth at every part. The fame author difcovered in the brown bear a thick fold of the internal membrane, which projeéts in fuch a manner from above, as to convert the aperture of the vagina into a fimple tranfverfe fiffure. In the Ayana there is alfo a thick broad fold of membrane, which forms two finuofities, the one above the other, pro- jeCting from the fide of the vulva, and having the figure of a beak, between which there is a narrow tran{verfe flit, that leads from the vulva into the vagina. The otter, the ditch, the cat, and the cloven-hoofed quad- rupeds, have been obferved to have the vulva feparated from the vagina by a membranous circle, which approximates, or umtes, either direétly, or by means of little tranfverfe bands, the longitudinal folds of the vagina that arife from this circle. The vagina varies very much with refpeét to its fize. This is chiefly regulated by the length of the vulva, and the magnitude of the fetus. It is ufually lefs wide than the vulva in thofe mammalia which have not had any young. The length of the vagina, in proportion to that of the vulva, varies in different fpecies of the fame genus: thus, in the prehenfile tailed monkies, and fome other fimie, it does not ex- ceed the vulva in length, but in the dadcons it is much. longer. The vagina is about half the length of the vulva in the brown bear. tis twice the lengthin the cat and dog genera. In the latter there isa remarkable dilatation, which is adapted to hold the bulb of the dog’s penis. There are generally longitudinal rugz to be obferved upon the internal furface of the vagina. The ftruGture of the vagina is very curious im the dears. ‘The longitudinal ruge are interfeéted by deep fiffures, which divide them into ridges. There is one circular fold that entirely conceals the os uteri. It has a crucial opening, or one im the form of a T, which does not altogether correfpond with the orifice of the uterus. This ftru€ture, added to the form of the hymen already men- tioned, muft produce great obftruction to the reception of the male dear, and to the paflage of the femen“nto the uterus, The ruge of the vagina are tranfverfe in the genus def. phinus, and in the hyena, although Blumenbach denies that, any of the mammalia have the ruge tranfverfe, except the monkey and the mare. He feems to have miltaken the folds of the vulvainthe mare for the ruge ot the vagina. In the whales, the vagina is defcribed by Hunter as bein fmooth upon the internal furface for the firlt half of its length, and afterwards valvular. He ftates the number of thefe valves to be from fix to nine; to be direéted outwards, and each of them to refemble an os. tince. At firft they do not go quite round, but afterwards make complete cir- cles. The Ayena has alfo tranfverfe rugz in the firft half of the vagina. The vulva and vagina feem to be confounded with each other MAMMALIA. \ other in the tardigrada, and in the edentata, the canal which condu&s to the uterus in thefe orders being extremely fhort. The uterus, in a few tribes of mammalia, poffeffes the fame triangular form as in the human fubje& ; fuch is the cafe in the tardigrade quadrupeds, the ant-eaters, the pangolins, and the armadillos. It is nearly fimilar in the monkey kind, but in thefe the body is more round, and the neck is diftinguifhed from the reit of the uterus by a contra¢tion. In all the remaining orders of mammalia, excegt the mar/u- pial animals, the body of the uterus is more or lefs prolonged on each fide, and forms what have been called cornua. The extent of thefe lateral divifions is, in many in{tances, very confiderable ; they often reach into the loins, in which cafes the éroad ligaments of the uterus are much {pread out, and in the large quadrupeds there are mufcular fibres placed between their lamine. According to Cuvier thefe form dif- ferent fafciculi in the cow, one of the ftrongett of which ex- tends from the ovary to the neck of the uterus. It approxi- mates thefe parts, but for what purpofe is not known. Be- fides thefe there are fome tranfverfe fibres, which go from one horn of the uterus to the other, in the firft third of their length, The round ligaments alfo poflefs, in general, mufcular fibres. Thedivifion into cornua is lefs marked in the /emurs than any other genus. They have the uterus ra- ther formed into two lobes than cornua. The neck of the uterus is very fhort in fome fpecies ; in the agouti, the paca, and the guinea-pig, it can fearcely be faid to exift, and in the Aare and rabbit there is no part cor- refponding to the neck, but the two branches or cornua of the uterus open immediately by two diftinét orifices into the vagina. In the ornithorhynchus and echidna there is no neck or body, properly fpeaking, to the uterus. ~The organ confifts merely of two large convoluted tubes, which terminate by two diftiné& orifices in a common canal, which leads from the bladder to the cloaca, and appears to ferve alfo the purpofe of the vagina. ‘The firft portion of thefe tubes is the wideft. This corre{ponds apparently to the cornua uteri. ‘The fuc- ceeding part is the moft contraéted; but terminates in a wide mouth that feems to fupply the place of the Fallo- pian tube, which is wanting in thefe animals. The plan on which the uterus is formed in the mar/upial animals is very peculiar. There are parts corre{ponding to the cornua, and to the body of the uterus, and in addition to thefe, two lateral canals. ‘The cornua are oval cavities con- tinued into fmall canals that extend to the ovaries, and are the Fallopian tubes. The oval cavities have been generally confidered as the dilatations of thefe tubes, but Cuvier aflerts that they are very diftin&t from the {mall parts of the canal which are really the Fallopian tubes. The openings of the cornua into the part correfponding to the body of the uterus are feparate from each other, and are guarded by val- vular folds. The body of the uterus is a itraight canal, which is wideft at the fundus, or the part that receives the horns, and becomes gradually lefs capacious as it approaches its termination, which is in the vagina, clofe to the orifice of the urethra. ‘Lhe body of the uterus is a fingle cavity in the kanguroo, phafcolomys, and the leer: ; but in the Vir- ginian opoffum, the wombat, and koala, the uterus is double, or conlifts of two cavities. Mr. Bell has defcribed thefe in the wombat as having a pyramidal form. The right was confiderably the largelt, being about the fize of a pullet’s egg. It fhould be obferved, however, in this inftance, that the right uterus was gravid. From the fundus of each of thefe uteri there was a Fallopian tube, nearly three inches long, which terminated at the ovarium. This tube had no dilatation at its jun@tion with the uterus, which ap- pears to confirm Cuvier’s opinion of the dilatations in the fanguroo, &c. anfwering the purpofes of the cornua uteri. The double uterus of the wombat hada common neck half an inch long, and of confiderable breadth and thicknefs, which however had two orifices in the vagina. In the Vir- ginian opoffum, the two cavities of the uterus are formed by a longitudinal feptum of the part correfponding to the body, and each of thefe cavities has a feparate opening into the va- gina. Inthe sanguroo, phafcolomys, and phalanger, there is but one opening from the uterus into the vagina, which is {tated by Mr. Home to be fo {mall in the virgin sanguroo as to be fearcely difcernible. By comparing the number and fituation of the communi- cations of the uteriin the vagina, with the form of the male organs in the mar/upial mammalia, it will be fufficiently plain that the femen pafles, as in other cafes, into the uteri direGly, and not by the circuitous courfe of the lateral canals, as fome have fuppofed. The /ateral canals arife in the kanguroo from the fundus of the body of the uterus where the cornua terminate, and in the wombat from the pofterior furface of the common neck of the two uteri, near its junction to thofe uteri. The canals defcribe a femicircular curve, and terminate in the vagina, on. each fide of the orifice or orifices of the uterus. The ufe of thefe lateral canals it is difficult to explain. It has been obferved, that the ovum of the mar/upial animals had no connection with the parietes of the uterus, but were inyolved in a {pecies of jelly, which has been fuppofed to fup- ply the nourifhment of the foetus. Mr. Home has conjec- tured that the jelly is fecreted by the lateral canals, becaufe they become fhut towards the vagina, enlarged throughout, and maintain a free communication with the uterus after impregnation. We are not, however, fufficiently acquainted with the hiftory of geftation in thefe animals, to determine whether the changes in the canals fubfequent to impregna- tion, may not be required for other purpofes than the fecre- tion of the jelly found in the uterus. The uterus has but rarely, in mammalia, that projection around its orifice which is called the os ¢ince in the human fubjeét. Moft commonly the os uteri is a tranfverfe flit at the end of the vagina, and fo much on the lower part of that canal, that the hipsiar parietes form a cell or cul-de-fac above it. In the porcupine the os uteri has fo flight a promi- nence, that it appears as an opening of the inferior part of the vagina. In the dear, cow, and others, the vagina makes a projection which tends to obftruét the paflage into the uterus. The frrudure of the uterus is the fame in the monkey and the human fubjeét ; but in the other mammalia the parietes are thin, and generally compofed of layers of red mufcle, fuperadded to the internal membrane, and external coat in the fame manner as the alimentary canal is formed. Thefe mutcles are particularly plain in the double uterus of the large quadrupeds. There is a tranfverfe layer of mufele upon the cornua covered by a thin layer of longitudinal fibres. The neck of the uterus has commonly the tranfverfe layer only. The principal thicknefs of the neck of the organ in the cow is, however, compofed of a white hard texture, refembling the fub{tance of the human uterus. The internal membrane of the body of the fingle uterus, and of the cornua of the double uterus, ufually exhibits longitudinal folds, but in the civet they are tran{verfe, and inferted into each other. The changes of ftructure which the uterus undergoes after impreg- MAMMALIA. impregnation will be defcribed under the head of Ovum, Hiftory of, in viviparous animals, in the fubfequent part of this di@tionary. The ufes of thefe changes will be more eafily underftood, by being contemplated in conjunétion with the parts imme- diately conneéted with the embryo. We fhall alfo referve the account of the mamma, and marfupia, or fuckling pouches, for the fame head, as thefe organs are likewife fubfervient to the dependent ftate of exiftence of the young animal. In Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, the ftructure of the unimpregnated female organs is exemplified. Fig. 1. reprefents the uterus, vagina, and vulva of the bear, a por- tion of the parietes of the two latter parts being removed, to expofe their internal furface: a is the mouth of the vulva ; 6 is the clitoris, half concealed in its prepucial pouch; c, the internal furface of the vulva ; d, the valvular fold correfpond- ing to the hymen, under which the orifice of the vagina is feen ; e, the vagina laid open; it is fhorter than the vulva, and its longitudinal folds are crofled by grooves ; f, the cru- cial flit that leads to the uterus ; g, the body of the uterus ; h, h, the two cornua. Fig. 2. fhews the double uterus of the rabbit: ais the vulva opened; bis the clitoris ; c, the vagina laid open ; d, d, the orifices of the two uteri or cornua in the vagina. Fig. 3. exhibits the female organs of the ornithorhynchus paradoxus: a, the cloaca laid open; b, the+ vagina, or canal which receives the urine, and the two lateral tubes or oviduéts ; c, the opening into the bladder ; d, d, the two orifices of the oviduéts ;. e, e, the dilated parts of the du&s, which apparently correfpond to the cornua uteri ; F.f, the contracted portions of the duéts which reprefent the Fallopian tubes; g g, the termination of the duéts, which probably fupply the place of the infundibula of the Fallopian tubes. ig. 4. is a view of the female parts in the Languroo : a is the fhort canal correfponding to the vulva and vagina laid open ; 4 is the clitoris ; c, the meatus urinarius; d, d, the lateral canals arifing at the fundus of the body of the uterus, and terminating in the vagina ; e, the middie canal which correfponds to the body of the uterus in other mam- malia ; f, f, the dilated parts which Mr. Home has confidered as belonging to the Fallopian tubes ; but which Cuvier, more correétly, in our opinion, calls the cornua ofthe uterus ; Ls the parts of the tubes which really reprefent the Fallopian ; 4, h, the ovaries ; i, i, the ureters. If we except the formation of the tubes which corre{pond to the Fallopian in the marfupial mammalia and the ornithor- Aynchus, and the echidna, there is fearcely any peculiarity to be remarked in the Fallopian tubes in mammalia. Blu- menbach ftates that they are found to be convoluted, fome- times fo as to form a knob, as in the pygmy (fimia /ylvanus), and in the spofion. The fimbriated extremity of the tube 1s conftruéted like a funnel in the rabbit, &c. The ovaries of mammalia poffefs the fame {tructure, as to all material circumftances, with thofe in the human fubjeét. The figure of thefe bodies is frequently more round in their fhape than in woman. In general, the veficles containing the ova are buried in the fubftance of the ovaries, as in thofe of the human fpecies ; but in fome quadrupeds they are found near the furface, fo that the ovaries appear tubercu- lated : this has been obferved in the pig, the civet, and in the spoffum, the ovary of which laft is entirely made up of the vefi- cles. The moft unufual form of the ovary is in the hedge-hog. The weficule Graafiane are contained in capfules, which are diftinét externally, but conneéted together by their foot- ftalks, fomewhat like the racemus vitellorum of birds. The corpora lutea grow much larger than the cells of the ovary from which the veficles have been expelled, at leaft in fome quadrupeds. We have obferved them, in the /beep, to be compofed of a folid, firm, flefhy fubftance, interfeAed by membranous lines, fomewhat like a carcinomatous tu- mour, and to be about the fize of a {mall cherry. Fig. 5. Plate 1X. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, exhi- bits the ovary of the hedge-hog, which appears like a cluf- ter of ova bound together. Fig. 6. reprefents a portion of the ovary of the /heep, from which an ovum had been recently difcharged : a is the vacant cell. Fig. 7. is another portion of the ovary of a /heep, in which the depofit above deferibed had been made ina cell, after the ovum had left it: a is the fection of the fubltance of the ovary ; 6 is the fetion of the new fubftance, or, as it is called in other cafes, the corpus luteum. Bones.—The fkeletons of mammalia exhibit many import- ant peculiarities, not only as compared with that of the human fubjet, but with each other. ‘This clafs has great varieties in the modes of locomotion ; and confequently in the organs by which thefe are effeGed. In all the deviations in the me- chanifm of the fkeleton, the guadrumanous tribe feems to be the model. Thus, the parts which conttitute the arm and hand, or are neceflary to make a prehenfile member, are found in thofe that employ the extremities for walking, fly- ing, or {wimming, in a greater or le{s degree obliterated, changed, or concealed ; although the members have fo dif- ferent a form externally. The long tail alfo feems to be the model from which the fhort coccyx of fome mammalia and of man is the deviation. The interior compofition of the bones of mammalia is ge- nerally the fame as in man. Their texture is moft clofe and denfe in the fmall quadrupeds. We have obferved the bones to be particularly hard and fragile in the danguroo, but this might have been from the manner in which they had been prepared. The bones of the cetacea exhibit very plainly the fibrous ftructure, it being more loofely arranged than in the terrefrial mammalia. In the long bones, the offeous fibres can be eafily feparated, and the cells of the fpongy bones are exceedingly evident. Both in the /ea/s and t cetacea, there are no large medullary cavities in any of the bones. The texture of the bones in thefe animals has the ef- feét of rendering them lighter than thofe of other mamma- lia ; and therefore better fuited to locomotion in the water. The vertebre of the whale tribe, efpecially thofe towards the end of the tail, are much more denfe in their ftruéture than the other bones. All the cells of the bones in thofe animals are filled with fluid oil. It has been attempted to eftablifh a regular gradation in the proportions of the magnitude of the cranium to that of the face amongtt the different mammalia, with the view of fix- ing the relative fize of the brain, and confequently the degree of intelligence poffeffed by the animal. Daubenton and Camper propofed meafuring the relative fize of the cranium, by fuppofing two flraight interfecting lines to be drawn upon the cranium and tace. The angles which they exhibit in different {pecies determine the relative bulk of thefe parts. Camper's method was the moft accu- rate. He drew one line upwards, which touched the incifor teeth of the upper jaw below, and the greateft projection of the forehead above ; this he called the facial line. ‘Che other line was fuppofed to pafs along the.lowelt part of the cra- nium. It was taken in the plane corre{ponding to the exter- nal meatus auditorius and the floor of the nottrils, and was called the da/filar line. The angle formed between thefe two lines determines, according to Camper, the differences of the crania of animals, as well as the national phyfiognomy of the various races of mankind, 1 t MAMMALIA. It is obvious, however, that the projection of the frontal finufes in many of the large quadrupeds, efpecially the ele- phant, mut, ina degree, interfere with the accuracy of this mode of meafurement. The great fize of the nafal cavity in fome fpecies, and the prolongation of the jaws in others, will alfo form exceptions toarule founded upon this princi- ple of meafurement. Blumenbach ftates that about three- fourths of all the fpecies of quadrupeds with which we are acquainted, whofe crania differ extremely in other refpects, have the fame facial line. Neverthelefs it muft be admitted, that the proportions which the cranium (as indicating the bulk of the brain) bears to the face, ferve in general to determine the mental endow- ment of animals. It is ftrikingly proved by the monkey tribe, which moft nearly approach the human fubjeé& in the form of the head, poffeffing fo much more of the mental character of man than any other animalin the clafs. The following table will fhew the number of degrees of the facial angle in feveral {pecies of mammalia. Young ourang-outang = = : 67° Sapajous, or prehenfile-tailed monkies - 65 Talapoin monkey - - - - 57 Young mandril = = - - 2 Coati - - - - - 28 Pole cat - - - - - 31 Pug dog - : ‘ : f 35 Moaftiff dog, the tangent taken at the external =: furface of the cranium - - - a Ditto, at the internal furface “ i= 30 Hyena, at the external furface : - 40 Ditto, at the internal é 3 - 25 cannot be drawn to the external furface, on Leopard, at the internal furface: a scan 28 account of the convexity of the nofe_ - Hi are - - - = las 30 Marmst - = = - Ed 25 Porcupine = - = = 23 Thefe three laft are meafured by the internal furface of the cranium, it not being poffible to bring a tangent to the exter- nal. Pangolin - = 2 2 iy 39° Barbirouffa - - - - 29 R am - - - - - 30 ait - - ~ = $C aE i= 23 Dolphin - - - - - 25 According to this table, the facial angle of the ourang- outang does not differ materially from the human, the adult negro having itonly 70°. Inthe European head it is 85°, a difference generally confidered as accompanying a gradation of the ‘ntalleétual powers in thefe races of mankind. This opinion is not a modern one, but feemed to have been en- tertained by the ancients, who always made the cranium, in the ftatues of their gods and heroes, projeét more than is ob- ferved in any human head. The facial angle of many of the antique {tatues is 100° Another method of arriving at the relative bulk of the cra- nium and face, is to meafure and compare the area of each, after there has been a vertical and longitudinal fection made of them. ‘The areaof the fe&ion of the European human cranium is four times as large as that of the face ; the lewer jaw not being included. In the negro, the cranium remain- ing the fame, the area of the face is increafed about 1th, To the Calmuc only ;'.th. In the ourang-outang the propor- tion of the face is further increafed, It is nearly equal to the half of the cranium, in the other monéies and the digitt- grade quadrupeds. In the other orders, the area of the face is generally larger than the cranium. The are and marmot have it id larger. It is nearly twice as large in the cloven-footed quadrupeds ; ftill more than double the fize in the porcupine ; nearly three times in the Aippopotamus, and almoft four times the fize in the horfe. The cetacea have the face fo much flattened, in confe- quence of wanting the nafal cavity, that it does not admit of a fair comparifon with the cranium. Thefe modes of meafuring the cranium only indicate the extent of its circumference in one direétion. In order to ar- rive at the real bulk of the cranium, or of its contents, it would be neceflary to make a vertical fe€tion from one fide to the other, and atranfverfe feGtion, fo as to detach the upper half of the fkull from the lower, as is done for the dif- feétion of the brain ; or, what would be ftill more fatisfaGtory, to weigh the brain, firft having afcertained the variations in the weight of a given bulk of brain in different fpecies, if any do exilt. The number of bones compofing the cranium in mamma- liais frequently different from what is found in man. In fome fpecies certain bones remain during life in feparate pieces, while in others, the futures that are always found in the human cranium are fo early obliterated, that two, three, or more bones are confolidated into one. The guadrumanous, and all the hoofed mammalia, have fre- quently the {phenoid bone in two parts. The future of the middle of the os frontis is found in the digitigrada, faltigrada, the hog, tapir, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, feal, and morfe. In the cloven and folid-footed quadrupeds it exifts for a confi- derable time. The bone containing the cavity of the tym- panum is divided by a future from the reft of the temporal bone in the cat, dog, and civet genera; the /altigrada, the ruminants, folipeda, feal, lamantins, and cetacea. The offa parietalia are united into one bone in the chierop- tera, digitigrada, hare, cavy, porcupine, marmot, rat, and Squirrel ; the hog, tapir, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, the rumi- nants, the folipeda, and /amantin. : In the cetacea the parietal, occipital, and temporal bones are united together; although the fphenoides is long, dif- tiné&t, and even divided into feveral pieces. All the futures of the cranium are very foon obliterated in the elephant. The bones of the cranium in mammalia have not always the fame connections with each other as in man. Even the ourang-outang, whofe head bears fo ftrong a refemblance to the human, does not agree in this refpe&. This animal, as well as many other {pecies of monkey, has the temporal wing of the os {phenoides very narrow, and not extended to the parietal bone: the temporal bone is partially joined to the frontal. The jocko has the temporal bone articulating by its {quamous portion immediately with the os frontis, the tem- poral ala of the {phenoides not being connected with either the frontal or parietal bones. In the /apajous, or monkies with long prehenfile tails, the parietal bone is articulated with the osmale. Inthe hoawling baboons, and the digitigrade quadru- peds, the bones of the cranium have the fame conneétions as in man. In all the faltigrada, the armadillos, pangolins, and floths, the {phenoid does not articulate with the parietal bone ; but in the ant-eater thefe two bones are extenfively con- nected. In the ruminants the os fphenoides has the fame connections as MAMMALIA. as in man, but in many of the pen Ae ti quadrupeds the {phenoides is not joined with the parietalia. The futures of the cranium of mammalia, in general, are apparently lefs marked than in man. Their denticulations are, however, very plain in the ruminating quadrupeds. The off triquetra are not often met with. Blumenbach reports that he poffeffes {pecimens of them in the ourang- outang and the hare. All the futures in the cetacea are {quamous. There are confiderable varieties in the form of the dif- ferent bones of the cranium. In the ourang-outang the os frontis has a more irregular outline than in man ; its pro- cefles are more eminent, and the orbitar arches are more elevated. This bone pated in the monkies, with long prehenfile tails ; but in the other fpecies of /imia it is oval, and the arches of the orbits are flattened fuperiorly, and pro- minent. The orbits of the monkey tribe, although opening anteriorly like the human, are much clofer together. The orbits are firft obferved to incline outwards in the Lemurs. In many of the quadrupeds which have the orbits directed to each fide, the os frontis has a fquare figure. The /altigrada and the hog, however, have a notch or vacancy in the orbitar arch, which gives, in a degree, a rec- tangular figure to their frontal bones. The orbits of the beaver look upwards. In the digitigrada, the cloven and /olid- footed quadrupeds, the orbitar arch has alfo a deficiency at the poiterior part. The frontal bone forms a vault over the orbits in the i of the ruminants, and the horfe. n the mole, ant-eaters, and cetacea, the orbits are fo fhal- low, that they can hardly be faid to exift. There are alfo no orbitar arches, properly {peaking, in the hedge-hog, /hrew, Jfeal, morfe, or rhinoceros. In the cetacea the frontal bone is narrow from before backwards ; the proceffes correfpond- ing to the orbitar defcend below the maxillary bone. The parietal bones of the ourang-outang have the inferior anterior angle very prominent, on account of the {mall ex- tent of the fquamous portion of the os temporis. It is the fame, or more fo, in the other monkies. This angle of the parietal is {till more prolonged in the lemurs. It is very broad and much extended in the ant-eater, the /guirrel, &c. There is a feparate piece of bone fometimes found in the faltigrade mammalia, between the parietal and occipital bone. It has been defcribed in the common moufe by Meyer, under the name of the os tranfverfum. The fingle parietal bone of the ruminants has the occipital creft before it in the antilope bubalis, and refembles a ribbon furrounding the back part of the head. The occipital bone departs more from the form and pofition it has in the human head, than any other bone of the cra- nium. The occipital ridge or creft is not more marked in the purang outang than in the human fubjeé&t; but in the other monkies, e{pecially thofe with elongated jaws, the es occipitis begins to form the angle at the creft, which is fo ftriking in molt quadrupeds. ‘The tranfverfe occipital ridge is very prominent in the carnivorous quadrupeds, whether digitt- grade or plantigrade, making the upper part of the occiput angular, and beneath this the cranium flat or concave. The Jongitudinal occipital ridge is very {trong in the badger. The ruminating quadrupeds, likewife, have a very pro- yeCting occipital ridge, and the beavers are remarkably fo. In the P the occiput has the figure at the upper and back part of a very acute angle. The occiput is round in the ant-eater and cetacea ; f{mooth and without proceffes in the mole. The elephant has the occiput nearly fquare, and the con- dyles at the pofterior extremity. There is no occipital pro- tuberance, but a depreffion in place of it, containing a longi- tudinal ridge for the infertion of the ligamentum nuche. The mafloid procefs belongs to the occipital bone in all mammalia, except the monkey, in which it is an appendix of the os temporis, as in man. This procefs in the vee and moft of the monkey kind, is nearly obliterated. Moft of the digitated quadrupeds want the mattoid procefs, and merely have a flight protuberance from the projeéting part of the cavity of the tympanum ; or this cavity itfelt fup- plies the place of the maftoid procefs. The cavy, hog, guinea-pig, the cloven and folid-footed quadrupeds, &c. have a long mattoid procefs behind the cavity of the tympanum. The pofition of the foramen magnum is remarkably dif- ferent from that of the human fybject ; it removes from the under part of the head, even in the monkey tribe, and in the true quadrupeds is found at the poiterior part of the cra- nium, and fituated fo, that the edge, which is pofterior in man, is direéted obliquely upwards. This edge is in fome quadrupeds turned direétly upwards, or, as in the alpine mar- mot, is even turned more forwards than the other edge of the hole. ‘Lhe relative pofition of the occipital foramen was employed by Daubenton to determine the gradations of the crania of different animals. He drew one line from the edge of the hole, which is pofterior in man, but fuperior in moft quadrupeds, as already mentioned, through the lower edge of the orbit: another line was taken in the direétion of the foramen itfelf, beginning at its pofterior edge and touching the articular furface of the condyles. The angle formed by the interfeCtion of thefe two lines, was confidered by Daubenton as indicating the variations of form and magnitude of different crania. It has been objected to by Blumenbach, upon the fame ground that he difapproved the facial angle of Camper, namely, its not exprefling all the variations that exift. ' The /guamous portion of the ¢emporal bone, as already no-~ ticed, is much lefs extenfive in mammalia, even in the ourang- outang, than in man. The principal part of this bone, as it appears externally in many quadrupeds, is the zygomatic procefs. ‘The petrous portion of the os temporis will be defcribed along with the other parts of the organ of hearing, to which it properly belongs. The zygoma is not merely formed by the jun@tion of the proceffes of the temporal and malar bones, but has an in- termediate piece of bone in the otter, opoffum, beaver, gut- nea-pig, &c. Cuvier alfo mentions a particular bone which fupplies the place of the zygomatic angle of the os male in the green ape, but which bone is foon anchylofed with other malar. The zygoma is remarkably broad in the opoffums and the hanguroo. In the mole, it is a ftraight procefs, not much thicker than a needle. In the cetacea, at leaft the genus de/phinus, the zygoma is a very flender offeous bar. In proportion to the extent and ftrength of the maffeter mufcle, the zygoma forms a curvature in an upward di- rection, and when this mufcle is lefs confiderable, the zygoma is either horizontal, or makes a convexity down- wards, The zygoma is univerfally arched upwards in the carnivorous quadrupeds. The faltigrada have the convexity downwards, and in the cavy and the paca, it even extends below the diftance of the molar teeth. a ’ ie it is MAMMALIA. The zygoma of the /us ethiopicus is nearly horizontal, but is extremely broad and thick, and forms all the broad-part of the cheek under and before the eyes. i The curvature of the zygoma outwards, which gives it properly the name of an arch, depends upon the magnitnde of the temporal mufcle which paffes under it. We, there- fore, find the zygomatic arch very wide in all the corni- vorous tribe of quadrupeds, and particularly fo in the cat genus, upon which depends the round fhape of the head of the éiger, leopard, cat, &c.' in a gréat meafure. : The large herbivorous quadrupeds, in general, have the zygoma but little arched outwards. It isthe fame in moft of the /altigrada. : f The zygoma is quite itraight in the mo/e, and in the _cetacea. ; It is not found to form an arch outwards, of any confe- quence, in the edentata, In the Cape ant-eater it is perfectly ftraight. In the pangolins and American. ant-caters, the zygomatic arch is incomplete; the latter animals have merely two tubercles in place of the procefles, which ufually form the zy goma. I The zygomatic arch, alfo, is not complete in the /loths. The os malz terminates pofteriorly in two angles ; the one fuperior, which extends above the zygomatic procefs from the os temporis ; the other inferior, which paffes obliquely downwards, and is unattached. We fhall defcribe the ethmoid bone, more particularly, under the head of the organ of f{melling, by which its ufes will be ‘more apparent. ; The large foffz, or depreffions upon the inner furface of the bafe of the cranium, are fhallow in proportion as the ‘animal is removed from man. Even the howling-baboons have the pofterior and inter- “mediate foffe, and the fella turcica; in the fame plane. Many quadrupeds want the fella turcica, as the digitigrada, ‘and moit of the faltigrada. Inthe cavy, the rhinoceros, and the cloven-footed quadrupeds, the part having the fituation of the fella turcica is even deprefied, inftead of being ele- vated. Some of the fpinous ridges on the internal. part-of the cranium, are often more eminent in mammalia than in man. In the greater number of the carnivorous {pecies, there is a thin projection of bone from the petrous portion of the os temporis, which ftrengthens the tentorium of the cere- bellum. It is ufual to {ay that thefe animals have a bony tentorium, and to fuppofe that it is neceflary to defend their brain from concuffion, during the rapidity of their motions, which does not feem probable, as fomething of the fame {traéture is found in other fpecies whofe movements are flow. ‘ The limits between the middle and potterior foffa of the cranium is formed in the pangolin by a large vertical offeous feptum, with an oval hole in the middle. In the rhinoceros, the part correfponding to the pofterior clinoid proceffes 1s not attached to the bafe of the cra- nium, but extends like a bridge from one middle foffa to another, while the depreflion that is in place of the fella turcica communicates under this bridge with the cuneiform procefs of the occipital bone. The foramina upon the infide of the cranium are often lefs diftin&, and confequently lefs numerous in mammalia than in man, The optic foramina are clofe together in the agouti, being only feparated by a thin offeous plate. They are unite into one hole next the feull in the Aare, the four-toed ant- Vole XXII. eater, and the elephant. The chevrotin (mofchus) tras but a fingle optic foramen, which is divided by the vomer. The fpheno, or-fuperior orbitar fiffure in the curang-outang, is fimilar to that of the human fubje&; but in almoft ail the other mammalia it is nearly a round hole.» In many of the JSehigrada, and the rhinoceros, elephant, and hippopotamus, it is incorporated with the foramen rotundum. «They are alfo confounded in the cloven and folid-footed quadrupeds. The foramen rotundum in the monkey is marked with a fur- row for fome way before it leaves the cranium. | This hole is very large, and more of an oval than a round fhape in the digitigrade quadrupeds. The foramen ovale of the bear, cat, civet, &c. is defended at the external edge by an offeous lamina. The bear, badger, Jeal, and vampyre bat, have this fo- ramen united into one with the foramen rotundum. The foramen ovale is thrown into one with the anterior foramen lacerum in the cavy and porcupine. In the ten-banded armadillo, and the four-toed ant-eater, it is confounded either with the foramina lacera, which are united, or with the fo- ramen rotundum, which is thus rendered very large, and of an oblong form. [t is conjcined with the anterior foramen lacerum in the elephant and hippopotamus. It is very large in the ruminating quadrupeds, and does not exift as a feparate hole in the /olipeda. The foramen lacerum anterius is not found in the monkey kind, the digitigrade, the /guirrel, and the ruminating quad- rupeds, It is very wide in feveral of the faltigrada. It is con- founded with the poflerior foramen lacerum in- the armadillo, the Aippopotamus, and Solipeda. The canalis carotideus is much fhorter and lefs tortuous in the digitigrada thanin man. There is no canal in the /alti- grada ; the carotid paffing immediately through the foramen lacerum. In the hippopotamus the carotid canals are loft in the foramina lacera. The foramen lacerum poflerius is a very {mall round hole in the pangolin and floth ; and in the elephant it is very large. In the two firit of thefe animals the anterior condyloid fora- men is remarkably large; and in the laft there is no hole before the condyles, which fhews the conneétion that exifts between thefe two foramina. The foramen laeerum pofterius is confounded with the anterius in the rhinoceros ; and the anterior condyloid hole is very large. There are fometimes two condyloid foramina on one lide, which are united into one. The two tables of the cranium are in general lefs diftin® in mammalia than in man, or appear to be more perfeétly offified ; but in the elephant, the magnitude of the cranium depends in a great meafure upon the feparation of the two tables, between which are interpofed a number of large cells of a very irregular figure, which are filled with air initead of medullary fubftance, and communicate with the Euitachian tube, and by that means with the external air. The cellular ftruéture of the cranium in the elephant is fimilar to that found in the head of the ow/, and defigned in both to pro- duce an increafe of bulk, without an additional weight. The bones of the face differ very much in this clafs, both in their forms and conneétions, frem thofe of man, in con- fequence of the great prolongati6n of the jaws, and the lateral pofition of the eyes, in moft mammalia. The form of the upper jaw atifes in a great degree from the prefence of two bones, which are placed between the two offa maxillaria. 'Thefe have received different names, fuch as intermaxillary or labial bones; or frequently they are called the or incifivum, from the circumttance of their belaing the incifor teeth, when they exift: they are called alfo os - Mm palate MAMMALIA. palati by Blair, and os mavillaire interieur by Vitel. ‘The in- termaxillary bones have been confidered by fome anatomitts as forming a diftinGtion between all mammalia and man; but they have not been found in feveral fpecies of monkey ; and Fifcher, who wrote a treatife on this fubject, ftates that he did not find an intermaxillary bone in the ¢hree-toed floth, and in the hor/e-/hoe bat ; but he admits that the bone might have been broken off, at leaft in the /foth.. Cuvier fays that the loths have very {mall intermaxillary bones. Vic d’Azir has afcribed thefe bones to the human fubjeét, confidering the {mall tranfverfe filfure, feen within the incifor teeth of the human foetus, as the future conne&ting the intermaxillary bones or bone with the upper jaw; but all other anatomiits deny the intermaxillary bones to man. 3 Thefe bones vary much in different {pecics, with refpeé& to form and fize. They are {mall in fome of the diyitigrade quadrupeds, in the rhinoceros, and in the walrus; although Cuvier {tates them to be large in the /amantin. They are articularly large in the /altigrada, in which they make the whole front of the upper jaw, and contain the large upper gnawing teeth of thefe animals. They are large alfo in the elephant, hippopotamus, porpoife, and phyfeter macrocephalus. In the ornithorhynchus thefe bones exiit, although there are no incifor teeth; and the form of the jaws is fo very pe- culiar, refembling in this animal the bill of a duck. The intermaxillary bones confift of two hook-fhaped pieces, united by a broad cartilage. The proper maxillary bones contain ftill in mammalia the pofterior teeth of the upper jaw. Thefe bones contribute more than any other to the compolition of the face: even in the monkey tribe they begin to be prolonged, and affume fomething of the figure they poffefs in the true quadru- eds. In the cheiropterous, digitigrade, plantigrade, and pedimanous mammialia, the nafal procefies of the maxillary bones become fo broad as to feparate the orbits fufficiently, to give them a lateral pofition. The /altigrada have thefe bones carried fo far back by the great fize of the intermaxillary bones, that they form a confiderable portion of the orbit, the pala- tine bones having but little concern in the compofition of it. The maxillary bones of the ffoths alfo extend to the orbits. In the ant-eaters thefe bones are very long and narrow, refembling a portion of a cylinder; but they do not contri- bute to the formation of the orbits. The maxillary bones of the ¢apir pafs backwards, and make the floor of the orbits: they alfo extend to the orbit in the rhinoceros. In the Aippopotamus thefe bones have no fhare in the orbit ; they are very itrong inferiorly, in order to accommodate the fuperior tufks, which are placed in them, and not the inter- maxillary bones. The daman has the inferior furface of the orbit formed by the fuperior maxilla: it makes a {mall part of it on the ruminants. In the /amantin the maxillary bones conftitute the bafe of the orbit, and afterwards extend a contiderable way be- hind it. : In the cetacea they are much elongated, and reach to the very end of the flattened fuout of thefe animals: they afcend upon the fide of the blow-hole, and cover that part of the os frontis which forms the arch of the orbit. The malar bone, in a great number of mammalia, is lefs in proportion than it is in man, and does not articulate with either the orbitar procefs of the os frontis or the {phenoides, hut merely forms a part of the zygoma and the lower margin of the orbit, In thefe cafes, the frame of the orbit is ine complete at the pofterior part, and communicates with the folfa for lodging the temporal mufcle. It is thus with the cheiroptera, digitigrada, plantigrada, faltigrada, pedimana, edentata, and multungulata. In the faltigrade the os malz is placed in the middle of the zygoma; the fuperior maxilla - fupplying the anterior zygomatic procefs, in place of the malar. The temporal foffa is completely thrown into one cavity, in the rhinoceros and elephant. The frame of the orbit is completed externally by the union of the malar and frontal bones ; but there is an open ing behind this from the orbit into the temporal foffa. In the felbess the malar and frontal bones unite by a pro. cefs of the latrer, which defcends on the outfide of the orbit, and furnifhes the margin of this cavity ; but it is open. - behind into the temporal foffa, as in the ruminants. The na/fal bones are commonly prolonged, in proportion to the other parts of the face in mammalia. In fome of the monkey tribe they are united into one bone, which is yery narrow. In the Jong-prebenjile-tailed monkies the interfpace between the orbits is very narrow, and poiteriorly merely forms a feptum. ; Thefe bones are longeft in the true quadrupeds, and moft fo in the faltigrada, whofe external nares open immediately above the incifor teeth. t In the hog, the rapir, Aippopotamus, and the rhinoceros, the nafal bones are not conjoined with the jaw at their anterior extremity, but form a diftiné& procefs, which {tands out above the intermaxillary bone. This procefs fuitains the probofcis of the ¢apir and hog, and the horn of the rhing- ceros, or the anterior one when there are two, as in the Jz. cornis. The procefs which fupports the trunk of the edphant is {till more unlike the common nafal bones. The nafal bones of cetacea are two {mall tubercles im- planted in the os frontis. The lachrymal bone is fometimes wanting, as in the e/e- phant: in other inftances it is remgrkably large, in the ant- eater, the opoffum, the ruminating quadrupeds, efpecially the antilope. It advances a little upon the cheek in the fying lemur. According to Cuvier, the ethmoid bone has no fhare in forming the orbit in the cheiroptera, digitigrada, plantizrada, and pedimana: its place is fupplied by the orbitar procefs of the palatine Lones, which are very large in thefe animals. The palatine bones alfo conftitute, in the /ong-no/ed edentata, the lower part of the furface of the depreffion correfponding to the orbit. The pterygoid proceffes alfo are produced by two laminz,, which are continued with the offa palati, and which, having joined each other inferiorly, prolong the canal of the nares to the foramen magnum of the occiput. In the above defcription of the bones of the upper por- tion of the face, we have anticipated molt of the cireum- {tances refpecting the na/al and orbiiar foffe. It fhould be mentioned, that the 4og has two {mall pe- culiar bones, fituated between the point of the offa nafi and the correfponding intermaxillary bones. Thefe ferve to {trengthen the {nout, and are therefore called by Cuvier the bones of the fnout. ; The nafal fof, although always opening nearer the front in quadrupeds than in man, are liable to vary with refpect to their fituation. In the /altigrada the external nares are quite at the end of the fnout, as already mentioned. In the elephant, the nafal fofl are at about an equal diftance from the top of the cranium and the edge of the alveoli. In the feal, they are direGted upwards. They are far forwards in the mor/fe. In the cefacea, the openings into the be ae whic MAMMALIA. which correfpond with the nafal fof, are immediately be- fore the os frontis, and open upwards and backwards. ; We have already mentioned the figure of the margin of the orbit in feveral fpecies. In the cetacea there is a fofla correfponding to the orbit, although the eye of thefe animals is furrounded only by the foft parts. ‘This foffa has a femi- circular roof, formed by the os frontis ; but it is quite open below, down to the lower jaw. The /pheno-maxillary fifure is thorter in all the monkey tribe than in man: it is contracted to the fhape of a hole in the Jong-prehenfile-tailed monkies, and is clofed altogether in the Aozwling baboon. In the other mammalia, which have the orbitar and temporal foff united, it does not exift. The /ub-orbitar foramen is fingle in moft mammalia, ‘as in man; but in fome there are two, or three, or more holes under the orbit ; in which cafes they are {mall. There are, according to Cuvier, two in the ourang-outang and the pre- hen/ile-tailed monkies, three in the common monkies and Barbary apc, four or five in the ribbed-nofed ape and hair-lipped ape. Phere are three or four holes in the cefacea. From the poti- tion of the orbits in thefe animals being fo low, the maxil- lary bones are above them, and contain the holes corre- {ponding to the fub-orbitar. The fub-orbitar foramina are large in moft of the whi/Rered quadrupeds, for the tranfmiflion of the great nerves that are diltributed to thofe parts. In the cavy, agouti, porcupine, and many of the rat tribe, they are prodigioufly wide; and in the jerboa, nearly equal in fize the orbits themfelves. The greateft deviation from the human fubjeé&t, with refpeét to the foramina of the face, is to be obferved in the foramen incifivum. This hole is {mall and fingle in the ourang- outang and chimpanfee, but enlarges a little in the other {pecies of fmia. There are two foramina very diftinét from each other in almoft all the other mammalia: they are remarkably Jarge in the faltigrade and cloven-hoofed quadrupeds ; in the hare they even exceed the extent of the folid part of the palate. It is fingle and large in the tapir, rhinoceros, horfe, and Zamantin ; it is nearly obliterated in the morfe; {mall and far from the alveolar procefs of the jaw in the dugong; and wanting altogether in the cetacea. Peculiarities of the /ower jaw are to be found in its compofition, general form, direction of its afcending ramus, and the figuce and relation of the condyloid and coronoid procefles. abe The inferior maxilla remains, during life, in two pieces, united by cartilage or ligament at the front, in moft mam- malia. Thefe are anchylofed together, as in man, at an early period, in the monkey kind, the vampyre, and feveral other dats, the phatageri (manis tetradactyla), and the elephant. The two inferior maxillary bones are united into one very foon; alfo in the many-hoofed and Jfolid-footed quadrupeds, and in the mor/e and lamantin. The general figure of the lower correfponds ufually with that of the upper jaw, already defcribed. In the faltigrada it is commonly a little fhorter than the upper jaw, on ac- count of the inferior incifor teeth being fo long. In the armadillo and four-toed manis, the two fides of the jaw ap- proach each other, and form a very acute angle at their fymphyfis. The ornithorhynchus has the two pieces of the jaw joined to each other betore their termination, and then bifurcate again. In the echidna the extremities are again joined ; they are thin, flat, and round, or fpoon-fhaped. The lower jaw of the elephant is rounded in the front, and refembles the human jaw more than could be fuppofed, from the general outline of the head in each. Lhe afcending ramus of the lower jaw forms nearly aright angle with the body of that bon® as iit man, in the /:mur, cat, hedge-hog, fquirrel, hare, beaver, kanguroo, and mott of the faltigrada, rhinoceros, elephant, &c. 3 in fine, in moft mam- malia: but the mechanical operation or the jaw depends upon the fituation of the condyle on which this hozg moves, and the coronoid procefs by which it is chiefly moved, witlt re{peét to the body of the bone. The condyle projects commonly back beyond the line of , the angle tormed by the body, and the afcending branch of the jaw. The more it is out of this line, or, in other words, the more the condyloid procefs approaches to the continuation of the body of the jaw, the more difadvan- tageous is the lever which this bone forms. The condyle, therefore, departs leait from a right angle with the body of the bone in the carnivorous quadrupeds ; a very little more in the graminivorous ; and {till more in the monkey kind. In the ant-eater, manis, armadillo, ornithorhynchusy and the evhale tribe, the condyle does not form an angle, but is nearly in the fame line with the body of the jaw, thefe animals not having any afcending branch to the lower jaw. The nature of the lever, and the force of the movine power, depend chiefly upon the fituation of the caroncid pro- cefs, and the height and extent of this part. « This procefs is {mall in the monfies. In the /emurs and the digitigrada it is large, and pafles up into the temporal foffa, its point ftanding higher than the zygoma, and than the condyle, confequently the power of the temporal mufcle is diminifhed, but the difadvantaye of the pofition of the coronoid procefs is more than counterbalanced by the enor- mous fize of the temporal mafcles in the digitigrade quad« rupeds, In the faltigrada, the coronoid procefs, in many inftances, is fhort, and fo far from the condyle, that it paffes before the polterior grinding tooth, which is thereby placed between the moving power, and the pdint on which the jaw moves. The defign of the force of the temporal mufcle being carried fo far forwards in the faltigrada, is to increafe the power of the gnawing teeth. The fare, Squirrel, and kanguroo, how= ever, have the coronoid procefs lefs advantageoutly fituated, but they do not employ their teeth, like the ras and the beaver, as mechanical inftruments. In the elephant, the coronoid procefs advances upon the molar tooth, and paffes on the outfide of it as far as the one-third of the length of thetooth. It is a broad and very fhort procefs. In the rhinoceros, this procels is at an equal diftance from the condyle and laft molar; and in the other animals of this order, it is generally nearer the back. teeth than the condyle. The ruminating quadrupeds have the coronoid procefs af- cending into the temporal fofla, and its point pafling nearly into a line with the condyle. The folipeda have it nearly the fame : its point is not fo far removed from the molar teeth. In the edentata it is obferved to approach very nearly to the condyle in. the armadillo. It is dire&ted outwards, in place of upwards, in the echitha and the ant-eaters. Inthe Sour-toed manis it is not to be perceived. There isa fhort coronoid procefs in the genus delpbinus, and the true whales, which is directed backwards, and only forms the fuperior angle of the long triangle which egch fide of the jaw prefents in thefe animals. l'here is no trace of the coronoid procefs in the cachalats (ehs/feter-) The kind of motion of which the lower jaw is fufceptible, is determined by the figure of the condyles, and the cavities, called gleneid, which receive them. In the carnivorous mammalia, the condyle is longeft in the tranfverfe dire&tion, and the glenoid cavity is adapted to it in fhape and fize; in many of thefe animals the articulation Mm 2 of MAMMALIA. ef the lower jaw forms a perfec& hinge, and only permits the feparation of the lower from the upper jaw in the direétion downwards. This is particularly to be obferved in the badger, where the glenoid cavity has a projeétion before and be- hind, by which the condyle is partially inclofed in the joint: it even remains fo after the parts are macerated, and the ligaments and cartilages are deltroyed. alia In the monkies, the condyle is tranfverfe, and a little ob- lique: the glenoid cavity is wide and fhallow, and permits a degree of retraStion, protrufion, and lateral motion of the lower jaw. The freedom of motion in different direGtions is increafed in the other quadrupeds, and is moft fo in the ruminating and gnawing tribes.. In thelatter, the figure of the condyle is exaGtly oppofite to that of the carnivorous quadrupeds. It is a very thin oval tubercle, the length of which is from before backwards. The glenoid cavity is larger than the condyle, and fo little concave, that the jaw has a very free lateral motion. In the elephant, the condyle is fhort and round: the glenoid eavity, in place of being concave, is elevated in the middle. There is another condyle formed by the bafe of the zygo- matic procefs: a joint, thus conftructed, enables the ani- mal to protrude and retra& the jaw in a peculiar manner. The glenoid cavity of the bippopotamus is fituated behind the zygomatic procefs, in fuch a way as would feem to prevent any protrufion of the jaw. , In the rhinoceros, although the furface of the glenoid ca- vity is nearly flat, it is bounded pofteriorly and internally by a long procefs, which muft reftrain its horizontal mo- tion. The articular cavity of the ‘apir has pofteriorly an oblique procefs which oppofes the lateral motion of the aw. : The condyloid furface in the ant-eater is plane, and fi- tuated at the pofterior extremities of the jaw. There is no glenoid cavity, but an articular furface correfponding to that of the jaw. In the other edentata, the condyle 1s a diftin@ eminence, f{mooth upon the furface, and applied to a fimilar furface of the zygomatic procefs, which fup- plies the place of the glenoid cavity. ; ; The condyle of the cefacea is round, and very little emi- nent. ‘The furface correfponding to the glenoid cavity is adapted to the figure of the condyle; they are united to- gether, not merely by ligaments externally, but the articu- lating furfaces furnifh many ligamentous bands, which con- folidate the joint, and preclude every other motion of the jaw ex¢ept that downwards. The os Ayoides of mammalia differs from that of the hu- man fubjeét with refpeét to the figure of the body of the bone, the relative magnitude of the cornua, and the exift- ence of an additional offeous piece in place of the ftyloid ligament. This laft is found in all the genera, with the exception of the monkey tribé: it is ufually a long, flender bone, and is fometimes articulated in a particular depreflion fituated at the place correfponding to the ftyloid procefs of the os temporis. In other cafes it does not reach fo far as the cranium, but is conneéted to it by ligament or cartilage. The cornua, which are called the large, in the human fub- je&, are often confolidated with the body of the os hyoides, and thofe called the fmall cornua are fometimes very large. Cuvier has treated of all the varieties of the os hyoides, at great length, as he has of all the parts conne¢ted with the organs of deglutition or of voice. We fhall notice fome of the moft remarkable deviations in the conformation of the os hyoides, from its ftru¢ture in the human fubject, and refer the reader to Cuvier’s ‘* Anatomie comparée”’ for details of the lefs important circumftances, The os hyoides of the ourang-outang and ohimpanfee refem- bles, almoft exa@tly, the fame bone in man. In the other monkies, the body of the bone is broader, and either fquare or triangular. Inthe common monkies with long tails, not pre- henfile, the bere ig? monkey, and the baboon, it is convex in the front, and forms a fort of cavity upon the internal furface. In the howling baboons this bone is yery remarkable : it forms a bony fac under the root of the tongue. The pa- rietes of the fac are thin and very elaltic; they furnifh a number of thin projeétions interiorly, by which the fac is divided into feveral irregular fhaped apartments. This fac communicates pattettody by a canal with the larynx. It is, therefore, fubfervient to the funétions of that part, and - enables the animals that poffefs it to produce that loud cry for which they are fo diftinguifhed. ‘ The os hyoides of the digitigradais compofed, in general, of flender pieces : the body 1s cylindric, and nearly Kraight, ‘The anterior cornua are longer than the pofterior: they are. formed of two pieces; the’ fecond is ine the ityloid bone, ‘Ibis laft is ufually larger than all the other parts of the os hyoides ; the end next the temporal bone is broad, and covered with an articular furface. The os hyoides of the opoffums is flat, and nearly fquare : the cornua are joined to the angles ; the large cornua are very broad at their bafe, and bent anteriorly, and end in a point: the {mall cornua are longer, cylindric in their form, and en- larged at the pofterior extremity. In the faltigrada, the figure of the os hyoides and its branches vary in their fhape ; in fome genera they are broad 3 in others, narrow and flender. The deaver has a ftrong long oval procefs defcending from the inferior edge of the body of the os hyoides. The anterior cornua are {mall and car- tilaginous. Several of the other /altigrada have alfo a pro- cefs or projeétion from the body of the bone. The os hyoides has a peculiar ftru€ture in the echidna hyftrix. The body is formed of a flat, ftraight piece. ‘Lhe extremities of its anterior edge fuftain the anterior cornua, which are cylindric, direéted forwards, and compofed of but one piece. The /lyloid bone defcends almoft perpen- dicularly to meet thefe cornua. The pofterior cornua are arched before: they are broad, flat, and articulated upon the fides of the body of the bone. The end of the pof- terior edge is convex, and is attached to a fecond piece, ~ which defcends parallel to the firft as far as behind the body of the os hyoides, where it is joined to the one of the op- pofite fide. Two other pieces are added to thefe, about the place of their junétion, and feparate from ‘them upon the fides. In many of the multungulata and bi/ulca, the poflerior cor- ~ nua are confolidated with the body of the bone. In the elephant this bone has the figure of a flattened lamina, a little — arched upwards. The potterior branches are alfo flat, af-— cend obliquely backwards, and bend a little inwards. ‘The {tyloid bone is bifid. Its pofterior branch is arched, long, and ends in a point. ‘The anterior is ftraight, fhorter, and is articulated with the anterior cornua. , The os hyoides of the cetacea is both peculiarly fituated and formed. ‘The ftyloid bone is long; it proceeds very ob- liquely forwards and inwards, under the bafe of the tongue, where it is joined to the anterior corner of the fame fide. The anterior cornua are fhort ; they pafs dire@tly backwards, to articulate with the middle of the convexity on the bod of the bone: this laft is flat and anchylofed with the pol-- terior cornua, and reprefents the figure of a crefcent, the points of which are turned Babe pata! and are not attached ~ by ligaments to the thyroid cartilage. ‘ 2 The MAMMALIA. The number of vertebrz that compofe the different re- l Soames he ii nie tat autyyirialicy rebels dimen lerreatreaticey Sperics: | Dorfal paumpbar Sacral Caudal eth the peers of thofe of the ei shih ae es oe fs lis ost Thistle lie cane number in man and all mammalia, befides the three-toe Z . Sloth, which has nine cervical vertebre. When the neck is putes on eLatadatt \ 13 | 3 22 remarkably fhort,-as in the whale tribe, the bodies of the Ca ‘ 5 zn 13 7 3 BS cervical vertebrz are very thin, and a certain number of them Dog ” ib iy 3 6 3 BE confolidated by anchylofis into one bone, in which the dif- Wolf o = ef 13 7 3 c tinGtions of their original number and their proceffes can ia F. a Ht 13 7 3 e barely be feen. ; more The following table of the number of the vertebra = j Hyena - = 7 16 4 2 { than 8 the other parts of the fpine, befides the cervical, isextraGed |! from Gunecs “ faecal Anatomy,”’ and will render any noe ¥ #2 Ue er re 13 6 5 ehaavé further obfervations upon the numbers unneceflary. Marmofe or rite? ; ape fiien 2 i -f | 33 6 I 29 Taste of the Number of Vertebre in mammiferous Phalanger or ier ent 13 6 1 5 Animals. i Oe aol Pa e Porcupine = - 14 5 4 { hah 8 ‘ . Dorfal | Lumbar| Sacral Caudal Han é a 2 12 2 Species. Verteb. | Verteb. | Verteb. |. Verteb. Rabbit = uu - 12 i ‘ : ve ———— more a Eeiveq= leust= 2 5 5 Boog ssh a eas *3 6 54 ee 4 urang-outang - = 12 4 3 , ; ri ike FuaitS = 13 5 4 Guinea-pig 3 = "3 6 iit ea 6 Long-armed ape 5 14 3 6 Paca or aN cavy - 1 6 Coaita or four-fingered : oN st 2 Azouti # oe 4 8 5 é monkey - 2 9 Beaver - - : 15 5 3 2 Weeping monkey - 14 7 4 Flying fquirrel - = 12 8 3 13 Silky monkey — - - 12 7 I Marmot - - - 13 7 6 22 Red monkey = - 12 7 3 Field moufe - — - ug) 7 3 15 Water rat - - 13 7 4 23 Rib-nofed ape - - 12 Y] I Black rat - - 13 7 3 26 Hare-lip monkey = 12 7 I Norway rat - - 13 7 4 23 Chinefe monkey - - II 7 3 Common moufe - - r2° We 4 24 Baboon - - 12 7 T Field or harveff rat - | 12 7 3 23 Magot or Barbary ape 12 7 I Hamffer - a - 13 6 4 15 Mi andril = - 12 7 3 Fat dormoufe - - 13 a | 2 18 Pongo - = = 12 4 3 ; Garden dormoufe - 13 7 4 2 Howling baboon - 14 4 5 \ Ant-cater - g - 16 2 4 40 Maucauco - = 12 7 3 , Pangolin - = z 15 5 3 28 Lori - - - 15 9 I Long-tailed manis - 13 5 2 45 Tarfier or woolly jerboa 14 5 3 Armadillo i : au 4 3 3p | ¢ more Vampyre or ternate bat 12 4 I | Two-toed floth - - 23 a: 4 { than 7 Common bat - — - a 5 4 Three-toed floh - = 14 4 3 13 Noétule or great bat - 12 7 3 Elephant - me TE 20 3 4 2 Horfe-/hoe bat - - 12 6 3 . f more Flying lemur - - 12 6 I | Hog te P a 3 3 | than 4 Hedge-hog = = 15 7 4 Tapir - - - 20 4 3 12 Tanrec - = = 15 6 3 Rhinoceros - - 19 3 4 22 Shrew - : A 12 7 3 Canel hens en 7 4 17 Mole - > ? 13 6 7 Dromedary - sik ee 7 4 18 White bear - = 13 6 7 Stag g - - 13 6 3 II anne : Camelopard ~~ - os 14 18 Brown bear 14 6 5 i hs : i ‘ 3 ; z i Badger - = i 15 5 3 Gazelle - - - 13 5 5 It Glutton - - - 16 5 3 : more ak paler ap are Chamois - - - 13 5 4 than 7 \ ice : thantol | Goat - 13 6 4 12 Racoon - : “ 14 7 3 20 Sheep — - - - 13 6 4 16 Ogres taal hey) ve 14 6 3 21 Op AUIS wht IAT. 13 6 4 16 Martin - - <5} DAL 6 3 18 Horfe- . - 18 6 2 A Wesafel since i O- Aodaaper \it 6 Give Inwenttig Chiaga* ihrer yp at | zg 6 7 18 Giver - : - 13 6 3 20 Seal 2 - - 15 5 Za ca. Mee Svch jb Flee 9 13 6 3 23 Dilphin = - = 13 In all 66 Tiger 6 + a 13 7 4 19 Porpoife - - = 13 t re oe Panther - - - 13 7 3 24 MAMMALIA. The cervical vertebre of the monkey tribe refemble thofe of the human fubjeét, except that their {pinous proceffes are {tronger and not forked. They are very long in the fpecies of baboon called pongo, in confequence of the large pro- jeCting face of this animal requiring an extenfive attachment for the mufcles, which raife and fupport the head. In the digitigrada the f{pinous procefs of the fecond verte- bra is very high, and extends upwards, or rather forwards, upon the atlas, and backwards upon the third vertebra. The tranfverfe proceffes of the atlas are very large and flat on the front and back. Thefe two vertebre are altogether large. The pendent pofition of the head, in moft of the digitigrada, makes the exiftence of ftrong mufcles neceflary for its fupport ; the ligamentum nuchz not being large in this family of quadrupeds. The fhort mufcles at the back of the head contribute to the opening of the mouth of quad- rupeds, and therefore fhould be ftrong in this carnivorous tribe. . The cervical vertebre have no fpinous proceffes in the mole and brews. They appear, efpecially in the middle of the neck, as fimple rings of bone, which admit of as free a motion upwards as in any other dire¢tion ; their ligamentum nuchz is offified in parts. In the ant-eaters and armadillos the bodies of the laft fix cer- vical vertebrx are large and comprefled. They are confoli- dated to each other by anchylofis. All the edentata have a gutter in the anterior part of the bodies of the cervical ver- tebrz, in which the efophagus is placed. In the camel, camelopard, and other quadrupeds with len and flexible necks, the {pinous proceffes are fmall, or almoit obliterated. In the fhort-necked ruminants, as the common cattle, the tranfverfe procefles form two angles or double tranfverfe proceffes. In both the ruminants and folipeda the bodies of the cervical vertebra have a longitudinal ridge along their front. ; The large quadrupeds, in confequence of the great weight of their heads, have that peculiar. elaftic fubftance which is called ligamentum nuchz of a great ftrength. In the horfe, the attachment of this part to the dorfal vertebrae ie two hands broad. It is alfo conneéted by procefles to fome of the cervical vertebre. In the e/ephant it is of an enormous fize, and is inferted into a foffa at the back of the occipital bone. In the porpoi/e and dolphin, the two firft vertebre are offi- fied together. In the grampus, the firit three or four are an- chylofed, and in the cachalots (phy/eter), the fix laft are united into one mafs, and the bodies of the five middle vertebre are reduced to an extreme thinnefs. : The dorfal vertebre want {pinous proceffes in fome fpecies of dat, and in others there are little tubercles in the place of the {pinous proceffes. In all this genus the canal for lodging the fpinal marrow is very wide where it pafles through the dorfal vertebrae. In all the long-necked and heavy-headed quadrupeds, the fpines of the dorfal vertebrz are remarkably large and long, particularly in the elephant, camel, camelopard, and hor/e. The fize of the {pinous proceffes in thefe animals is neceflary for the attachment of the ligamentum nuche. The dorfal vertebra of the whale tribe have at firft the ar- ticular preceffes at the root of the tranfverfe, but towards the ninth vertebra there are only the fuperior ones; for at this diftance thefe articular procefles turn backwards to the bafe of the f{pinous procefles next the head, and form a kind of groove, which receives the preceding f{pinous procefs. In the lumbar vertebra there is great variety with refpe& to number, as is fhewn by the foregoing table. When a quad- ruped is diftinguifhed by a long body, it is ufually found to be occafioned by the number of the vertebra of the loins. The fpinous procefles are long in the dog and cat genera, and have an inclination towards the head. This likewife takes place in fome degree in the monkey kind. The motion of the lumbar vertebre is more or lefs reftrained in mott quadrupeds, by the external fide of each pofterior articular procefs having a point direéted back- ward, fo that the anterior articular procefs of the next vertebrz is received between two prominences. The tranfverfe proceffes are very large in the ox, horfe, &c. ; but are particularly fo in the whale tribe, for the pur- pofe of affording a furface for the attachment of the great mufcles which move the tail, and give thefe animals the’ figure of fifhes. There is a gradual change of form and fize in the vertebra of the pofterior portion of the {pine in the cetacea, but no marked diftinétion into the lumbar, facral, and caudal vertebre. The breadth of the /acrum in man evidently arifes from the ere& pofition of his body. The few mammalia that oc- cafionally ftand upon the poiterior extremities, as the monkies and bear, have it broader than quadrupeds in general. In thefe la{t it is an elongated triangle, and is the continuation of the {pine. ‘This bone has large lateral proceffes at its anterior extremity in the hore. The fpinous procefles are ufually more eminent upon the facrum in quadrupeds, than in man or the monkey. They nearly join to form a high fharp ridge in the rhinoceros, and many of the di/u/ca. This crett 1s very remarkable in the mele. The vampyre bai is the only example in mammalia of a total wafit of fail or caudal vertebrae. The facrum of this animal terminates in a long point. The vertebre of the tail are ulually very numerous in mam- malia. Thofe next the facrum have the fame procefles as the vertebre of the other portions of the {pine, and alfo a canal for holding the medulla fpinalis. "The vertebra towards the extremity of the tail want the fpinal canal, and have only {mall eminences or tubercles in place of the tran{verfe or {pinous procefles. Thofe animals that employ their tail in {wimming, as the cefacea; in building, as the beaver; or for progreflion by leaping, as the Languroo, have the proceffes of the caudal vertebra large and ftrong. The beaver has the breadth of the tail increafed by the fize of the tranfverfe proceffes, and has alfo inferior {pinous pro- ceffes, which are larger than the fuperior, for the purpofe of giving attachment to the great mufcles by which this animal’s tail is fo forcibly ceprefled. The tranfverfe pro- ceffes only difappear very near the extremity of the tail in the cétacea. In thofe quadrupeds that make much ufe of the tail, there is generally found a feries of {mall double bones upon the under furface of the joints of the vertebrx, from the third or fourth to the feventh or eighth. In the cetacea they are very remarkable, and defigned to perform the fame offices as the inferior fpinous proceffes of fifhes’ tails, - They are fometimes anchylofed in pairs; but, generally, their edges touch, and each pair forms a fort oF inverted Gothic arch fomewhat fimilar to the inferior caudal {pines of fifhes. Thofe that have prehenfile tails, as one divifion of monkies, have upon the inferior furface, and at the bafe of each body of the caudal vertebra, t-vo little tubercles, between which the flexor mufcles of the tail pafs. The rids of mammalia, both the true and the falfe, are very various with refpeét to number. They appear, how- ever, to be not fewer in any inftance than twelve, the number found in the human fubje¢t; as will appear by the following table, extraéted from Cuvier’s * Comparative Anatomy.” TasLe MAMMALIA, Taste of the Number of Ribs in mammiferous Animals. Falfe. True. Species. Man - - - 12 al 5 Sai, or weeping monkey - 13 9 4 Ourang ~ - - 12 Vi 5 Pongo ~ - - 12 7 5 Ternate bat ~ - - 13 7 6 Common bat - - 12 7 5 Mole - - - 13 cs) 5 FHedge-hog - - - 15 O/ 8 Bear | = - - T4 9 5 Seal - - - 15 10 5 Glutton - = - 14 9 5 Racoon - - - I4 9 5 Otter es - - T4 9 5 Lion - - - {s, 13 9 4 Cat nls ES - ¥3 0) 4 Wolf - - - 13 9 4 Opoffum - - = 13 7 6 Hare - - = 12 7 5 Guinea-pig - aig - 13 6 7 Three-toed floth = - 16 8 5 Long-tailed manis = - 13 6 Gi Elephant - - - 29 7 13 ces = 5 . If 7 7 Rhinoceros - - - 19 7 1g Dromedary - - - 12, 7 5 Camelopard - - - 14 8 6 Ox - - Ge pes 8 5 Stag - = - 13 8 5 Flor fe - - - 18 8 10 Dolphin S = - ria 6 7 Porpoife— - ~ - 13 6 7 The ribs are thick and broad in the large herbivorous quadrupeds, which are employed as beaits of labour; the itrength of the fpine, and its capability of fultamning great weights, depending very much upon the fize of the ribs, and the figure they give to the trunk of the body. : In all the quadrupeds that prote& themfelves by rolling the head and extremities under the belly, when attacked by other animals, the ribs are remarkably itrong, and clofely fet together. This conformation is to be obferved in the common hedge-hog, but much more in fome of the edentata, as the armadillo and the ant-eaters. The two firlt ribs of the armadillo are exceflively !arge in proportion to the others, and in the tqwo-toed ant-eater the ribs are fo broad, that they overlap or relt upon each other, which gives this animal a greater fecurity than it could derive from having the parietes of the thorax formed of one piece of bone. The ribs of the ornithorhynchus paradoxus and echidna Ayftrix ave curioufly formed. The fix true ribs are each compofed of two pieces united by an intermediate cartilage, like the ribs/of birds: the piece conne¢ted with the {pine is longer than the other. The falfe ribs of thefe animals ter- minate in broad, flattened, oval plates, which are conneéted together by elaftic ligaments. The ribs have lefs curvature upon their fides in thofe quadrupeds that want clavicles than in the others. 'Thofe with clavicles have a cheft fhaped more nearly like the human, but in the quadrupeds which never ufe the anterior extre- mity as a prehenfile member, the cheft is flattened or nar- rowed upon the fides, efpecially towards the fternum., The sctaceay however, notwith{tanding they have no clavicles, have a cylindric thorax, or one rather wider from fide te fide, than from above downwards. The flernum ia mammalia differs from the human generally in being longer in proportion to the body, being a rounder and narrower bone, and compofed of a greater number of pieces. The ourang-outang and the pongo have a flat broad fternum like man, but in all the other monies it is narrow, and com- pofed of feven or eight bones. -In moft quadrupeds it proje&s a little forwards beyond the line of the firft rib, but in the mole this projetion is very extraordinary ; it pafles forwards for almoft as great a diftance as the bone makes a part of the cheft. This an- terior portion is comprefled upon the fides; is like a plough- fhare, and fuitains upon its fides the clavicles: by this itructure the anterior extremities of the mo/e are carried forwards under the neck, occafioning the appearance of a want of neck, and the animal is enabled to excavate the earth for the admiffion of its body by the fore feet with extraordinary rapidity. The anterior end of the fternum is curioufly formed in the éafs ; it is enlarged into the figure of a T’, the fuperior branches of which pafs over the ribs and are joined to the clavicles. The hog has the fternum narrow anteriorly, and large behind. In the cetacea, the fternum is fhort, thin, and even broader in proportion to its other dimenfions, than in man. The clavicle is a bone required for the motions of the anterior extremity in the outward or inward direction. It exifts neceflarily, therefore, in all animals that employ the arm as a prehenlile or mechanical member, or as a wing, There is a perfect clavicle in all the monkey tribe, the chet- roptera, the opoffum family : in the mole, Jhrews, and hidge- hogs, amongit the plantigrada: in the fquirrels, rats, beavers porcupine, and kanguroo: in the armadillos and ant-caters ¢ in the floths, &c. The digitigrada, and fome of the faltigrada, have an im- perfect clavicle, (os claviculare of Vic d’Azir.) This is a fhort bone iufpended merely by the mufeles, and not at- tached either to the fternum or the feapula. The clavicle is entirely wanting in the quadrupeds which employ their anterior extremities for progreffive motion, as all the hoofed quadrupeds, the daman, the cavy, the pango- lins, and in all the cetaceous tribe. ‘ The clavicles of the ourang-outang refemble thofe of the human fubject. In the dat, they are ee elie long and ftrong. The clavicle has an extraordinary thicknefs in the mole. It is nearly fquare, being more broad than it is long. In the ¢zwo-toed ant-eater, this bone has the figure of a rib.’ In the /loths, the clavicle has a procefs from the extre- mity next the fternum, which forms nearly a right angle with the axis of the bone. The /capula exitts in all mammalia, but its pofterior angle is molt elongated in thofe {pecies which have the moft com- plicated motions of the anterior limbs or the arms. It is in the monkies and /emurs a triangular bone, of which the inferior or pofterior edge, and that next the fpine, are larger than the anterior fide, but not fo much larger as they are in man. The cheireptera or flying mammalia, have the edge of the fcapula next the {pine very long, and the polterior very acute. The body of the feapula in the Aedpe-hog is narrow, and the edge next the {pine not extenfive, but the whole is con= fiderably elongated. + an MAMMALIA. In the mole, the feapula is a long narrow bone, which does not exhibit the diftinétion of fupra-fpinous and infra- fpinous furfaces upon the back ; there being no fpine-except near the pofterior margin, and before the tubercle which correfponds to the acromion. The fcapula of the mo/e lies arallel to the vertebre, and refembles a good deal both in form and pofition the fame bone in birds. In quadrupeds, generally, the edge of the fcapula next the {pine is rounded, and the pofterior angle thus rendered blunt. The fpinous procefs of the bone is fituated about the middle of the body, or even lower. In thofe quadrupeds that want clavicles, the acromion fcapulz is not fo prominent as when thefe bones exift, and _ there is another procefs which points backwards almoft per- pendicular to the {pine. This procefs is alfo found in the hedge-hog and opofums which have clavicles. In the hare the recurrent procefs is very long. The coracoid procefs of the fcapula is commonly wanting in thofe that have only the rudiments of clavicles, and more conftantly where thefe bones do not exift. In the ruminants and folid-footed quadrupeds, the feapula has neither acromion, coracoid, nor recurrent procefs. The cetacea have a thin flat feapula. The edge next the vertebrz is round and broad, fo that the whole bone has much the figure of a faw. In the genus delphinus the {pinous pro- cefs is near the cervical edge of the bone, and does not form an angle with the infrafpinous furface, of which it feems the continuation. The fuprafpinous foffa has a deep concavity, which appears to arife from a deficiency in offifi- cation. Above the humeral angle, there is a projecting plate continuous with the fpinous procefs, which appears to correfpond with the acromion. In the other genera of the whale tribe, the fuprafpinous fofla is ftated by Cuvier as being lefs diftin&. _ The Aumerus of mammalia varies in length and thicknefs, and in the elevation of its procefles. This bone is longer im the Jat and the tardigrade quadru- peds, in proportion to the reft of the anterior extremity, than the humerus of the human fubjeé&t. In quadrupeds, ge- nerally, however, it is much fhorter. Thofe that have the metacarpal bones long, have the humerus fo fhort, that itis concealed in a great meafure by the mufcles of the limb and the {kin of the thorax, from whence the ancient anatomifts fellinto the error of fuppofing, that the elbow was turned forwards in quadrupeds, the joint of the carpus being mif- taken for that of the elbow. It is cuftomary with people ignorant of comparative anatomy, ftill to muifcall the part correfponding to the waift in quadrupeds the elbow. This bone is alfo very fhort in the cefacea, and has a large {pherical head. The fhorteft humerus, and the thickeft with refpe&t to its length, is found in the mole, which animal is diftinguifhed by many peculiarities in its fleleton. It has befides a very fin- gular form. The two ends of the bone are fo much ex- panded and changed from the ufual appearance of thefe parts, that they are with difficulty recognized. Thereis a {mall procefs which takes the place of the head of the bone, and is articulated with the f{eapula. There is another articu- lar furface, apparently correfponding to the great tuberofity, which alfo forms a joint with the clavicle : between thefe two the top of the humerusis deeply hollowed. The creft of the little tuberofity is fo large, that it refembles a {quare placed vertically, with the linea afpera at top. The body of the bone is bent towards the top, fo that the part which forms the joint withthe ulna points direétly upwards ; by which means the elbow of this animal ftands above the fhoulder, and the palm of the hand is turned outwards. This forma- tion of the arm enables the mo/e to throw the earth to each fide when it buries itfelf. The humerus of the deaver is confiderably enlarged at the condyles. the diftance of one-third from the top. In the hog, tapir, and rhinoceros, the humerus has the great tuberofity divided into two parts. The linea afpera alfo of the rhinoceros terminates in a very high tubercle. Something fimilar exilts in the hor/e. The difulca generally have the great tuberofity very high, and the lineaafpera prominent. vive In moft quadrupeds, the great tuberofity 1s elevated above the head of the humerus. In thofe mammalia that employ the upper extremity for other purpofes than walking, the bones of the fore-arm exilt diftin@ly, and preferve nearly their proper proportions, as in man. But in the true quadrupeds, the a/na declines in fize, and becomes in fome a mere appendage to the radins, which is the principal bone of the fore-arm in moft quadru- peds. The exiftence of two bones in the fore-arm is only neceflary on account of the motion of fupination. Where the fupine {tate of the member would be inconvenient in the progreffion of the animal, we find the ulna either anchy- lofed to the radius, or entirely abfent. The udnain the ourang-outang refembles that of man. In the monkey tribe, generally, the coronoid procefs of the ulna is narrower, and the bone is more comprefied than in man. The articular furface of the radius alfo is deeper. . There is often a hole found in the cavity at the back of the humerus, which receives the olecranon. : In the digitigrada, the olecranon is compreffed, and pro- jets more backwards ; and the coronoid procefs is dimimfh- ed before. In the dog there is a little cavity in the end of the radius, for the reception of the external procefs, or leffer head of the humerus, and a ridge for the furrow that divides it from the anterior part of the pulley, by which the rotation of the radius is a good dealreftrained. In fome of the /altigrada, as the cavy, the hare, the rat, and others, the coronoid procefs of the ulna is entirely obli- terated, and the radius covers the front of the articulation. The head of the latter bone formsa hinge-like joint, having a cavity for the lefler head of the outtide of the humerus, and a ridge for the anterior part of the pulley, that is occu- pied inman by thecoronoid procefs of the ulna. In the rhinoceros, the tapir, and hog, the ulna is entirely behind the radius. "They move as one bone upon the pulley of the humerus. The leffer head of the latter bone is quite effaced inferiorly. The ulna and radius of thefe animals are notwithftanding diftin&t, but ftill are incapable of rotation. In the elephant, the coronoid procefs is divided into two ridges with hollow furfaces, which revolve upon the pro- jecting parts of afingle hinge. Between thefe the head of the radius is placed. It is fmall, and fuftained by the ex- ternal ridge, and the middle channel of the hinge or pulley : for as itis oblong, it cannot turn upon it. The lower part of the radiusis direéted towards the inner fide of the leg, which is therefore always in the pronated pofition. The inferior head of the ulna is larger than that of the radius, which Cuvier res does not occur in any other animal in this whole clafs, In the cloven and /olid-footed quadrupeds, the ulna is united immoveably to the radius almoft throughout its whole length. This union is offeous after a certain period, fo that they might be confidered as one bone. ‘They form together a hinge-like joint, with the pulley on the end of the hume- rus, which does not admit of any rotatory movement. Where the anchylofis is incomplete of the two bones in thefe It has alfo a large tranfverfe procefs, at about ee MAMMALIA. thefe animals, there is a fiort fiffure to be feen between them. This exifts above and below in the camelopard, flag, and ga- elle; only at the upper part of the bones in the hor/e, /heep, and oa, and is not perceived in the camel and dromedary ; but in all thefe animals the original diftin€tion between thefe bones is marked by a furrow or groove. All the hoofed quadrupeds have the anterior extremities petmanently in the {tate of pronation ; that is, with what is called the back of the wrift turned forwards. In the Jat and galeopithecus, there is only one bone in the fore-arm, or at leaft a mere ftyliform rudiment of the other. This fingle bone Blumenbach has called the ulna, and Cu- vier the radius. The latter is certainly the proper appellation. The motions of the anterior'extremity, as a wing, require the part correfponding to the fore-arm to be conttantly in a flate of pronation. j In the mole, the olecranon is very long, and terminates in a tranfverfe plate: the whole ulna is very thin. The edge of the head of the radius is prolonged under the little head of the humerus, and feems to be incapable of rotation. The pofition of the fore-arm and hand of the mole is fingular. The elbow, as before obferved, is turned upwards; the a of the hand outwards, and the thumb downwards. "his is pronation carried to an extreme, which is the moft fuitable pofition of the hand for its peculiar office in this ani- mak of fcooping out the earth. The eal, inftead of the concavity for furrounding the pul- ley of the humerus, has upon the ulna one furface, which ~ forms a joint with the humerus, and another oblique one for the radius. This laft has a large head, the inner edge of which runs in a pulley. The body of the radius is very broad downwards. In the /amantin, the radius and ufna areanchylofed toge- ther at both ends. In the cetacea, the bones of the fore-arm are placed clofe to each other, but aot united by offific fubftance: they are flattened, and conneéted fo intimately with the humerus and the carpus by ligaments and cartilage, that they have none ef the motions of aregular articulation. They merely admit of a degree of flexion, forwards and backwards, fufficient to communicate the neceffary pliancy to the fin. The number and the figure of the bones compofing the carpus differ from what we find in the human fubje&, and amongit the different tribes of mammalia themfelves. In the monkey tribe there are nine bones in the carpus, which is one more thanin man. According to 'Tyfon, however, there are but eight in the ourang-outang. ‘The pifiform bone of thefe animals is elongated, and appears like a heel when they walk upon all fours, or ufe the anterior extremities as feet. Certain offified points of the tendons pafling into the hand, have been miftaken for fupernumerary bones in the monkey kind. The flying fquirrel is mentioned by Blumenbach as pofleff- ing a very curious fharp-pointed bone on the outer part of the carpus, conneéted to that part by two {mall round bones, and inclofed in the lateralexpanfion of the integuments. In many carnivorous quadrupeds, the feaphoides and lunare are united intoone. The eat has at the radial edge of the carpus a little fupernumerary bone, fimilar in figure to the pifiform bone of the human fubje&t. The real os pififorme of the igitigrade is long, and ferves as a fort of heel to the fore- fect. The os magnum is very {mall towards the back of the carpus. ‘Thofe that have the thumb imperfeé have alfo the trapezium much diminifhed. The ur/us gulo has this bone alfo mall, and a ftyle-fhaped procefs below the os fcaphoides. The mole bas nine bones inthe carpus, and an additional VoL. XXIL bone which refembles the blade of a feythe inits figure. Tt defcends on the radial fide of the hand, the furface of which it is defigned toextend, in order to fit it for fhovelling back the earth when this animal burrows. Amongtt the faltigrada, the hare has nine carpal bones. The Leaver, marmot, fquirrel, and rat tribe have the fcaphoid and lunar bones formed into one. Thefe animals lhkewife have, like the digitigrada, a {upernumerary bone, which is often larger than the pifiform. In the jerboa and marmot, it bears upon it another fupernumerary bone. In the porcupine there is an additional carpal bone, attached to the os unci- forme, between the os pififorme and the metacarpal bone of the fmall toe. The cavy and guinea-pig have one bone for the fcaphoid ‘and lunar; and the latter animal has a {mall fupernumerary carpal bone. The two-toed ant-eater has fix bones in the carpus. There are feven in the pangolin. ‘There are eight found in the nine- banded armadillo. The three-toed floth has but five carpal bones. The elephant has eight bones. The os pififorme is length- ened, and the other bones of a wedge fhape. In the rhinoceros the trapezium does not exift, but there are two fupernumerary bones ; one on the edge of the fca- phoides, and the other upon the os unciforme. In the other many-hoofed quadrupeds the trapezium is very {mall. In the cloven and /olid-footed quadrupeds the carpal bones are narrow. The firft tribe have, in general, four bones in the firft row, and two in the fecond. ‘The /olipeda have four in the firft and three in the fecond row. In the cetacea the bones of the carpus are flat-fhaped, and intimately united to each other by cartilage and ligaments We have found the carpus of the grampus to contain a greater proportion of cartilaginous fubftance than of offeous, the bones appearing like fpots of offifieation in the centres of mafles of cartilage. he furface of the carpus in cetacea is fmooth on both fides. ‘There are five carpal bones, three in the firft row and two in the fecond. The metacarpus confifts of the fame number of bones as the fingers, (or, as they are more commonly called, toes, in quadrupeds,) perhaps without exception; it being under- {tood, that the pollex is not reckoned amongft the number of fingers, for it is a queftion amongtt anatomilts, whether the firft joint of the thumb, in the human fubject, fhould be confidered as a metacarpal bone, or as a real phalanx. We believe it is the latter, which opinion feems to be fup- ported not only by analogy of ftructure in mammalia, but in birds. The cloven and folid-hoofed quadrupeds have been cited as giving examples of a difference in the number of the meta- carpal bones and the digiti. This difference, however, is more apparent than real. The cloven-hoofed have, it is true, but one bone in the metacarpus after a certain age, which is called the cannon bone (gamba of Vegetius), but this bone is originally compofed of two parallel pieces, which are formed into one by a curious procefs, The two fides of the pieces - that are applied to each other are rendered thinner by being abforbed: thefe are next portions of the fides removed, leaving holes between the cavities of the two pieces ; and ultimately the fides in contact difappear, forming a common medullary cavity, and a fingle bone, which remains grooved at the line of the juntion of its original parts. The cannon bone of the falipeda is compofed of three pieces ; the two lateral are flender and ftyliform, and are called, very appropriately, the /plent bones. Thefe have been confidered analogous to the metacarpal bones of digiti which do not Na exilt, MAMMALIA. _ exift, but they fhould rather, perhaps, be viewed as the rudiments of both metacarpal bones and digiti. In other cafes where there are veltiges of digiti, they appear as ftyli- form bones. The length of the metacarpal bones depends upon the offices of the anterior extremity. When it is employed folely for progreffion, as in the true quadrupeds, the meta- carpus ts very long, but when ufed as a prehenfile member, this part is proportionally fhort. Cuvier itates, that in the thyree-toed floth there are three metacarpal bones united into one at their bafe, and that there is a rudiment of a fourth bone added to them. The metacarpal bones of cetacea, from contributing to the formation of a fin, are much flattened. : The digiti of the guadrumanous mammalia, and all thofe with claws) are five in number. — In the firlt, the pollex is free in its motions, and capable of being brought oppofite to the other fingers, which conftitutes one of their moft ftriking re- femblances to, man. . Even in the monkey tribe, however, the thumb is fhorter and fmaller, in proportion to the other fingers, than the thumb of the human fubjeét; and a. particular fpecies of monkey, the fimia panifeus; has it imperfe@t, and concealed beneath@he fkin. The digitigrada have the thumb parallel to the reft of the toes: in many it is fhort, and in the Ayzna it is Nearly oblite-- rated, confifting only of one phalanx. In the cat genus, there is a peculiar ftrufture of the two laft phalanges, by which the claws are thrown upwards in the: extended flate of the toes. The defign of this appears to be, to avoid the blunt- ing of the claws againft the ground. The lait phalanx but one is three-fided, having an inferior and two lateral furfaces ; that on the infide appears in fome degree twifted and hollewed out. The phalanx, which is terminated by the claw, is, of courfe, hooked at the end, but at its bafe, nearer the root of the claw, in a fort of hood or fheath. The pofterior part of the phalanx rifes almolt vertically, andis only. articulated at its moft inferior part. Beneath the joint there are two appendices, in which the mufcles which bend the phalanx are inferted. Thefe alfo- bring “the point of the claw forwardsand downwards, The fame mufcular power which puts the toes into a flex pofition, thus ferves alfoto urge downwards the points of the claws into the prey of thele animals. When the claws, are retracted, the laft phalanx is received by the lateral depreffion on the radial fide of the fecond. The pollex is fhort.in the are, beaver, and jerboa. It is more diminifhed in the /quirrel, rat, porcupine, paca, and agouti.. It is nearly loft in the cavy, marmot, guinea-pig, é&c. 2 Amongft the edentata the thumb is obliterated in the great and the four-tocd ant-eaters. Both it.and the little toe are loft in the three-toed floth. In this animal the three perfeét toes are often incorporated at their roots with the metacarpus. When they form a joint with the metacarpal bones, it is fuch a one as does not per- mit any lateral motion. The phalanges. themfelves likewife are articulated witheach other by hinge-like furfaces, which only admit of flexionand extenfion. Another peculiarity of the hand: of this animal is, the laft phalanx, being the longeft. In the tawo-toed ant-eater and tewo-tocd flth, the thumb, fore, and little finger-are the different parts. The multungulata have either four or five toes. In the elephant there are five perfe&t, but they are nearly enveloped in the ikin of the foot, There are but three perfe& in, the rhinoceros. The hog has but two perfeé and two im« perfedt. The tapir and hippopotamus have four perfe&, and the rudi« ment of a thumb, : The cloven-hoofed have two perfe&t, and in fome two im- perfe& toes. ; The /alid-hoofed have one perfect and two imperfect. By imperfect toes, or digiti, are meant thofe little horny excrefcences which do not reach the ground, but are placed at the back, and are fometimes covered with nails or hoofs, and contain under the fkin the proper bones of a toe. The moft remarkable deviations from the ufual {truéture are found in the flying and aquatic mammalia. ‘The very extenfive wings of the dat are {upported upon the elongated phalanges of the four fingers, the thumb being fhort, and armed with a hooked nail at the extremity. ; In the eal and /amantin the fingers are elongated a good deal, and {pread out, that the hand may the better perform the office of an oar. In the cetacea the digiti are rather elongated, and are much flattened. They are conjoined with the metacarpus and each other by cartilaginous fur- faces, that do not permit any motion beyond the gentle way- ing one of the fin, in which they are concealed. ‘The digité are clofe together at their bafes, but {pread a little afunder towards their extremities ; but they are all bound together by means of the ligamentous fubltance which fupports and. {trengthens the different parts of the fin. The offa innominata are more elongated and narrow: in mammalia generally than in-man. They do not in any inftance form a bafon-fhaped cavity, like the human, _ pelvis. In many quadrupeds, the cavity of the ofla innomi- nata wants the diltinétion of the large and {mall pelvis, and is placed in the direGtion of the {pme ; and in fome this ca- vity looks obliquely upwards, that is to fay, backwards, if we were {peaking of the human fubject. The monkey and dear moft nearly refemble man with re {pect to the form of the pelvis, but even they have the offa ilii elongated, and the cavity of the pelyis much narrower than in man, and not opening fo much forwards. Thofe mon- hies that have the'callofities on the buttocks, have the éubero- Jities of the i/chium very large, and fpread out. In ¢he vampyre Lat, the tuberofities of the ifchium and the extremity of the facrum are confolidated together by. Se lofis, of which there is no other example in this whole clafs. The pelvic bones. are lefs elongated in the dats, generally, than in quadrupeds. The digitigrada have the abdominal furfaces of the ileum, turned towards the fpine, and fo much narrowed, that the dor- fum of the bone is not larger than the neck, The concavity, is alfo uponthe external furface. The crifta of the ileum is fo fhort, that it bears no refemblance to that part in the bus man fubje&. The form of the pelvic bones is neater fimilar in the plantigrade and faltigrade quadrupeds, with fome ex- ceptions. In the mole, the offa innominata are nearly cylins dric ; they are long, andilie almoft clofe to the fpine: the cavity of the pelvis is fo very narrow, that it can only re- ceive the re&tum, the organs of generation and bladder being placed externally toit. The deaver and sanguroo have the ofla pubis not united by cartilage, but are anchylofed together. ( In the cpofum tribe and. the Languroo, the brim of the pel- vis has but little extent, and there are two additional bones the ufe of which is to fupport the abdominal pouch. Thefe bones ftand up from the edge of the pubis on each fide of the fymphyfis.". They are, at leaft in the angurao, of an elongated, tapering figure. They are connected ae ic — MAMMALIA. the pubis by ligament, which allows’ the free extremities of the bones to be moved up and down upon the belly. Thefe bones exift alfo in the ornithorhynchus. The tardigrada have the offa ilii broad, with a large cir- cular pubis. The opening of their pelvis is, therefore, very wide, and but little oblique. In thefe animals, and the armadillo, pangolin, and ant-eaters, the tuber ifchii is placed near the facrum, and in fome-cafes they are even offified to- gether. In the ant-eaters, the offa pubis have no fymphyiis, but are feparate from each other, in which circumtlance they refemble the bones of the pubis in birds. It is worthy of remark, that we difcern the moft frequent analogies of - flru&ure between the toothlefs tribe of mammalia, and the other claffes of animals. > Inthe ruminating quadrupeds the furface of the ileum, which in the human fubje¢ is internal and anterior, has a contrary afpe&, being turned towards the fpine. The if{chiatic notch excavates the ileum deeply. In the ox, duf- fal, and other ftrong-backed ruminants, the anterior part of the ileum is very large. The {pine of this bone, and the tuberofity of the ifchium, are difcernible under the integu- ‘ments, and produce that rugged outline of the rump of cattle. The dorfum of the ileum is very large in the hor/é, as in fome of the ruminants, and the neck of the bone is very fhort: in both, the external furface of the ileum is con- cave. In the elephant, the furface of the ileum next the belly is hollowed ; the crifta is round: both the anterior portion of this bone, and that which unites with the ifchium, are very large, and the latter moft fo. The rhinoceros ha8 a fimilar pelvis, but the pofterior branch of the ileum 1s lefs in proportion. : There is a fimilitude.in the pelves of the fwimming quad- rupeds, as the /éa/, otter, &c. they are long and narrow. In the cetacea there are two bones on each fide of the anus. They are conjoined by cartilage before that aper- ture. Thefe bones have a good deal the figure of two flat fhort horns united at their root. The ends of the horns are direéted towards the fpine, and correfpond to the offa ilii: near the root there are two {mall conical projec- tions which fupply the place of the ifchium of each fide, and the conjoined parts of thefe bones reprefent the pubis. Thefe bones are fufpended in the flefh, and have no con- neGtion with the fpinal column, and do not form any cavity ; they, therefore, ‘properly do not conttitute a pelvis. Their ufe is to give attachment to the penis and clitoris, and fome of the mufcles of thefe parts. Cuvier ftates, that -the pee bones of cefacea are not united to each other, but we ave found them as above defcribed in the grampus. The os femoris, in the monkey tribe, refembles the fame bone in man. It, however, is {moother and rounder, having fcarcely any /inea a/pera upon it. In quadrupeds, generally, the femur has a fhorter neck, and the great trochanter is lefs eminent, and the bone alto- gether is fhorter in proportion to the other parts than in man. The femur is particularly fhort in the quadrupeds that have a long metatarfus, as the caté/e and the horfe.e In thefe the bone is enveloped fo much by the flefh of the but- tock, that the part which is really the leg is commonly called the thigh. This bone is alfo remarkably fhort in the {wimming \quadrupeds, as the otter, beaver, and feal. In the lat, Cuvier fays the arttcular extremities make more than half its length. The bone does not appear to.be quite fo fhort, according to our obfervation. Some quadrupeds poflefs a hook-fhaped procefs upon the external fide of the femur. It has been obferved in the tapir, rhinoceros, armadillo, and beaver. \ Tt is the termination otf a prominent ridge of the bone about the middle. In the rhinoceros this uncitorm proce!s and the great trochanter are much prolonged, and clofe again, fo as to have a hole be- tween them and the body of the bone. The dones of the leg ave very fimilar in the monkey kind to thofe of the human fubje@t. In fome fpecies the tibia is a little bent anteriorly, and more round in its fhape. In the dats the fibula is a delicate bone. ‘The pofition of the bones of the leg is changed inthefe animals. ‘Phe thighs are direéted backwards, by which means the fibular, or ex- ternal fide of the leg, is fituated internally. The #dia in the dear is a little bent forwards: the ante- rior tuberclity is very prominent, and the furfaces for arti- culation-with the femur zre placed far back. The pofition of the fibula is pofterior in the faliigrada. In the opoffum tribe, the long-tailed manis, the armadillo, and the /loth, the fibula is large and curved outwards, by which fome {pace is left between it and the tibia. _ The fibula has a Singular formation in the wombat, which has been defcribed by Mr. Brodie. “It is proportionably larger, he fays, than in other animals; At the upper ex- tremity it is broad and has two diltin@ articulating furfaces ; the anterior of which is joined to the tibia, and the pofterior to a {mall bone of a pyramidal fhape, which is conneéted to the tendon of the external head of the galtrocnemius mulcle, hke a fefamoid bone. The lower extremity of the fibula is large, and forms about half of the articulating furface for receiving the tarfus. An inter-articular cartilage is here in- terpofed between. the tibia and fibula, and there is another between the fibula and the tarfus. The fibula has a flight degree of motion on the tibia at its upper end, and a half rotatory motion on it at its lower end, Mr. Home fup- pofes, and we thmk with great probability, that this rota- tory motion of the bones of the hind leg is defigned to enable the animal to bury itfelf in the ground. The fibula in many quadrupeds declines in fize, and is anchylofed with the tibia, in which there is an analogy be- tween it and the ulua in the fore-arm. It is united to the tibia for about the lower third in the mole. It is conneéted to the tibia the whole length potte- riorly in the dog. It is oflified with the tibia at the inferior third of the bone in the raf kind. The fibula is flat, and united throughout by offification with the tibia, in the edephant, the rhinoceros, and the hog. 'Thete is merely a rudiment of the fibula in the 4or/e, which is anchylofed with the top of the tibia after a certain age. "In the cloven-footed quadrupeds, there is a {mall bone fitu- ated on the external edge of the aftragalus. It forms the external malleolus, and is the only veltige that exilts of the fibula in this tribe of animals. The bones of the tarfus, and metatarfus, aveanalogous in their varieties to the carpus and metacarpus of the fore-arm of the fame animals. The hind-feet of the momnkies, lemurs, and opoffums, ave really hands: the metatarfal bone of the great toe is, there- fore, fhorter than the reft, and capable of being moved out- wards. The projection of the os calis, which forms the heel, and is fo ufeful to fome quadrupeds in walking, is alfo diminithed in thefe animals, with the exception of the Bata- vian pongo. ‘There are other peculiarities in their tarful bones. The articulation of the aftragalus with the bones of the leg is fo conltructed in the monkey tribe, that the foot re{ts more on the external fide than what is cilled the bot- tom; a pofition of the member well adapted for its being employed in climbing, but unfavourable in walking. In the kemur tarfius and dmur galago, the os calcts and fea ‘ Nn 2 phoides MAMMALIA. phoides are extremely elongated, by which the foot affumes the appearance of a hand and fore-arm., In the opoffum tribe, the afragalus is very {mall, and arti- culated almoit exaétly between the tibia and fibula. The Virginian opofum has a little fupernumerary bone upon the edge of the hirtt cuneiform bone. The os calcis is of a confiderable length in the common bat. It hasa ftyle fhape, and is inclofed in the membranes of the wing at that part. In the vampyre bat, the part of the bone that forms the heel turns under the foot. The os calcis is much elongated in the /altigrada, parti- eularly in the Aanguroo, in which the bone of the heel ttands back a confiderable way from the tarfus. The beaver has the os {caphoides in two pieces; one is placed before the aftragalus, and the other at the internal fide of that bone. There is a flat fupernumerary bone upon the inner edge of the tarfus. A fimilar ftru€ture exifts in the marmot. The {caphoides is divided alfo in the porcupine and paca, but the fupernumerary bone is wanting. In the /guirre/ it is divided, but the inner portion is fmall. . In all this order of quad- rupeds, the fcaphoides forms a tubercle in the fole of the foot. This, in fome fpecies, is very long, as in the jerboa of the Cape, &c. Many of the faltigrada, that have only three or four toes, have fome {mall bones, which are the rudiments of thofe that are deficient. In the three-toed floth the tarfus confifts of four bones, the aftragalus, os calcis, and the twocuneiform bones. There is a depreffion in the fuperior part of the aftragalus for the arti- culation with the lower end of the fibula, which is of a cone fhape. Upon the inner fide of the aftragalus there is a con- vex articular furface, which rolls upon the outer fide of the end of the tibia. The confequence of this fort of joint is, that the foot of the animal cannot be bent.or extended in the ufual direétion, but from the outfide inwards. ‘The os calcis is articulated with the aftragalus by a fingle tubercle, which is received into a depreffion of the latter bone, which alfo facilitates the lateral motion of the foot. The elephant has the tarfus and metatarfus both very fhort. In the dog there are three cuneiform bones, but in the tapir and rhinoceros only two. In the cloven-footed order, the cuboides and fceaphoides are united together, except in the camel. 'Thereis a {mall bone on the outfide of the aftragalus, and articulated with the es calcis, which takes the place of the fibula, and corre- {ponds with the one defcribed in the fore-foot as fupplying the ulna. ‘There are only two cuneiform bones in this tribe, and even they are anchylofed in the camelopard. The me- tatarfus is formed of two pieces before birth, as the meta- carpus. In the Aorfe the metatarfus, as in the clowen-footed tribe of quadrupeds, is called the cannon bone. It has, like the metacarpus of the fame animal, two {tyles upon its fides, which are the rudiments of the metatarfal bones, and pha- langes of the fecond and third toes. In the jerboa (mus fagitta) and the mus jaculus, the three middle metatarfal bones are offified together, like the com- mon bone of the cloven and /olid-hoofed quadrupeds. The orders of guadrumanous and pedimanous mammalia, as before-mentioned, have the power of moving the great toe in the manner of a thumb. Cuvier thinks the aye-aye, or Madagafcar fquirrel, can do fo likewife. The number of the toes on the pofterior feet of quad- rupeds varies from five to one. The great toe, or pollex, - is the firft that difappears. Some of the digitigrada have the great toe diminifhed, and a few, as the sai and dog genera, have it entirely obli- terated, i Among the /altigrada there is confiderable variety in the number of the toes, and the fize of the great toe when it does exif. Many of the edentata and the tardigrada receive fpecific names, according to the number of their toes, which in thefe are always lefs than five. In the armadillos the great and little toe are fhorter than the rett. Amongft the many-hoofed quadrupeds, as they are called, the elephant has five toes, the hog four, and the tapir and - rhinoceros three. The bifulca have two perfeé& toes upon the cannon bone, and two imperfect. The /olipeda have one perfe& and two imperfe&t ; the latter ° are merely ftyloid procefles. It is hardly neceflary to obferve here, that the pofition of the toes gives the name to two orders of mammalia. Their number, and their fuftaining the animal in walking, or not, determine the charaéter of feveral natural tribes of this clafs : the titles we have ufed for the orders of mammalia through- out the prefent article, are of themfelves explanatory of their foundation : for more full information, fee the article Cras- SIFICATION. In Plate X. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, there are figures given of the three moft diffimilar fkeletons found in the clafs. Fig. 1. is a front view of the fkeleton of the dat, which is taken as the example of a flying f{pecies. Fig. 2. reprefents the fkeleton of the mo/e, the mechanifm of which is the moft curious found amongft: quadrupeds. Fig. 3. exhibits the fkeleton of the porpoi/e, as an inftance of the aquatic tribe of mammalia. In each of thefe figures fimilar letters are employed to indicate fimilar parts, but when any of thefe parts are out of view, or do not exilt in the fke- letons, the corefponding letters are of courfe omitted: a is the lower jaw; 6, the upper jaw; ¢, the inter-maxillary bone; d, the malar bone; e, offa nafi; f; lacrymal bone ; g, {phenoid bone; 4, temporal bone ; 7, os frontis; j, pa= rietal bone; £, occipital bone ; /, cervical vertebra ; m, dor- fal vertebre ; nm, lumbar vertebre ; 0, facrum; p, caudal vertebre ; g, fupernumerary bones on the lower furface of © the tail; r, fternum, which is fingularly formed in the dat and mole; s, ribss ¢, the clavicle, erlormoufly thick in the mole; u, the fcapula, greatly elongated in the mele; v, the humerus, fhort in the porpaife, almoft fquare in the mole; zw, the ulna, with an enormous olecranon in the mole; y, the radius, which makes the fingle bone of the fore-arm in the bat ; x, the carpus; 1, the metaéarpal bones; 2, the digiti, prodigioufly elongated in the dat ; 3, the fupernumerary bone of the hand in the mole; 4, the os innominatum : the bones correfponding to the pelvis are very fingular in the porpoife ; 5, the femur; 6, the tibia; 7, the fibula; 8, the tarfus; 9, the metatarfal bones; 10, the digiti of the pofterior extremity. ‘There are no bones analogous to thofe of the pofterior member in the porpoi/e. A Mufcles.—The mufeles of the head and face are formed upon different plaxs in man and mammalia. In the former, befides moving the eye-brows, ears, cartilages of the nofe, and lips, they are defigned to exhibit the various expreffions of human fentiment. But inthe latter, the mufcles of thefe parts are almoft exclufively confined to thofe motions which arife out of the mechanifm of the organs of fenfe in different kinds of animals, and are confequently very different in their , formation: thus, fome mammalia have the external eara greatly developed, others the nofe,~and others the lips. The occipito-frontalis mufcle exilts in the monkey, dog, and other genera, without any rematkable variety, except that it is thinner, The corrugator fupercilii alfo is found in thefe animals; Monkics “MAMMALIA. Monkies very frequently move the fkin of the forehead, and frown, without however feeming to intend to exprefs the fame feelings which thefe a¢tions indicate in the human fpecies. The mufcles of the cheeks and lips, which give the principal expreffions of countenance in man, are often weak and in- diftin& in mammalia, or rather replaced by a layer of muf- cular fibres, refembling the panniculus carnofus. In the monkey, the fubcutaneous mufcle of the face arifes from below the orbit and the zygoma; it is continuous with the cutaneous mufcle of the neck, It envelopes longitudi- nally the fnout, and terminates on the two lips, which it opens. Below this expanfion of mufcle the éuyccinator is very diftinGtly found, particularly in thofe f{pecies that have jaw-facs. There are alfo to be perceived a levator anguli oris, an orbicularis oris, and fometimes a fa/ciculus corre{ponding to the zygomaticus. In the dog, the upper lip is moved by an expanfion of muf- cular fibres which comes from the anterior angle of the eye, and fpreads all over the upper lip, and by another little mufcle which defcends from the ala of the nofe, near the feptum in the middle of the lip. Beneath this layer there are found the orbicu/arts and buccinator. ‘The lower lip is de- preffed by a very thin mufcle. The ruminating and folid-footed quadrupeds have the mufcles of the lips large.and diftiné. In the /beep Cuvier reckons feven of them; orbicularis, depreffor labii inferioris, buccinator, a very large zygomaticus, the levator anguli oris, a nafalis of the upper lip, and a Judcutancous expanfion of fibres arifing in the neighbourhood of the orbit, and f{preading over the bucci- nator. : In the horfe, in addition to thefe, with the exception of the two lait, there are the /evator labii fuperioris ; the pyra- midalis of Bourgelat, or /upramawillo-na/alis magnus of Girard; a peculiar mufcle for raifing the angles of the lips, and a fhort mufcle to each lip, that are called by Bourgelat medius /u- perior, and medius inferior. It is unneceflary to give any de- tailed account of thefe at prefent, as they are mentioned again, and are defcribed under the Anatomy of the hor/e in this dictionary. Thefe animals require an extenfive and varied ation of the lips as organs of mattication, but the form of their face in other refpects prevents their having much expreflion of countenance. The mufcles of the nofz are fubje& to confiderable variety inmammalia. In the monkey they appear to have their place fupplied by the fubcutaneous mufcle already mentioned. In the digitigrada, of which we take the dog as an ex- ample, the /evator labii fuperioris aleque nafi is {pread over the whole cheek, in a manner fimilar to the fubcutaneous mufcle of the monkey. When the cartilages of the nofe and the lips are prolonged together, to forma {nout, the mufcles have a peculiar form and arrangement. In the mo/e, the mufcles which move the fnout are eight in number, four on each fide. They all arife from above the ears, and fend off each along tendon to the fnout. ‘The two deepelt feated of thefe sate furnifh the tendons to the fuperior part of the fnout, upon which they unite and form a broad aponeurofis that covers it for fome diftance. The two tendons that belong to the moft fuperficial of the mufcles unite in a band upon the inferior part of the fnout. All the tendons are ultimately inferted into the elaflic flefhy difk, which terminates the cartilaginous tube of the fnout. In addition to thefe there is a {mall mufcle that arifes from the alveolar edge of the intermaxillary bone, and depreffes the fnout. here are annular mufcular fibres furrounding thofe 7 already defcribed: thefe feem to be the continuation of the orbicularis oris. The mufcles of the fnout in the dog are fimilar to thofe of the mole, but they are fhorter, and arife from different places. The firft two come from the lachrymal bone: their tendons do not unite. The next four arife from the fuperior jaw before the zygoma; the two lalt are fmall, and arife from the offa nafi: their tendons are not joined. There is alfo the circular mufcle, as in the mole. The probofcis of the elephant is moved by a very compli- cated mufcular apparatus, of which the belt and lateft defcription has been given by Cuvier, in the additions to the sth vol. of his “ Anatomie comparée.’”? It was compofed from the difleétion of two elephants. He divides the numerous mufcles found in this organ into two principal orders ; viz. thofe which form the body, or interior part of the trunk ; and thofe which envelopeit. The firft order are more or lefs tranfverfe, and interfe& the in- ternal part cf the probofcis in various direftions. The fe- cond have more or lefs of alongitudinal courfe, or that from the bafe to the point of the probofcis. Cuvier again divides the longitudinal mufcles into anterior, pofterior, and lateral. The firft arife from the anterior part of the os frontis, above the cartilages, and proper bones of the nofe, by a large femicircular line, which defcends on each fide as far as before the orbits. ‘They form an innumerable multitude of fafciculi, which all defcend parallel to each other, and*are contraéted by tendinous interfeGtions cc- curring at very fhort diftances. The pofferior divifion of the longitudinal mufcles arife from the pofterior furface, and in- ferior edge of the intermaxillary bones. They form two layers, each of which is divided into a multitude of little fafciculi, which have an oblique direétion. The fibres of the external layer are directed from above downwards ; thofe of the in- ternal take a contrary courfe, that is, from without inwards ; and the fafciculi of the two layers, when they meet, form a middle line, which extends along the middle of the under part of the probofcis throughout its whole length. Finally, the longitudinal mufcles that make the /atera/ divifion form two pairs, of which the one is in fome meafure a con- tinuation of the orbicularis oris, or it might perhaps be rather ~ confidered as analogous to the nafal mutcle of the upper lip ; it comes from the commiffure of the lips, and defcends between the anterior and pofterior mufcles as far as the middle of the probofcis ; it foon divides into feveral flips, which are inferted obliquely between the lateral fafciculi of the inferior mufcles. The fecond lateral mufcle is analogous to the /evator labii fuperioris ; it arifes from the anterior edge of the orbit, and proceeds, becoming broader, to be {pread over the root of the preceding. Blair has confidered the zygomatic mufele as a continua- tion of the firft of thefe lateral mufcles; and becaufe the {terno-cleido maltoideus is attached to the zygoma alfo, in confequence of the want of the maftoid procefs, Blair thought that thefe three mufcles were but one, and there~ fore pretended that the depreffors of the probofcis came from the fternum. e : The ufe of the longitudinal mufcles of the elephant’s trunk is fufficiently plain. When they all a& together, they fhorten the whole probofcis. When thofe of one fide aét, the trunk is bent towards that fide. The divifions and ten- dinous interfeétions of the anterior longitudinal mufcles, enable the animal to put particular parts of the trunk into a contracted or bent ftate, whilft other parts are elongated, or even hentin a different direction, and thus the prodigious : variety MAMMALIA, variety of forms and curvatures that this wonderful inftru- ment affumes can be accounted for. . Perrault fuppofed that the interior tranfverfe mufcles pro- ceed as rays from the circumference of the two canals to the external furface of the trunk. Cuvier has fhewn this to be incorreét. Thofe of the anterior part proceed nearly like radii from the centre to the circumference ; in the region of the axis behind the two canals there are fome fafciculi which pafs direGtly from right to left; thefe are furfounded by others, which go more or lefs obliqnely to the circumference. It is eafily perceived that the firft and lait tend much to di- minifh the diameter of the external envelope of the trunk, without abridging the capacity of the canals; but when the mufcles of the region of the axis are put into aétion, they contraé at the fame time the canals and the external envelope. Thefe latt feries of mufcles appeared not to have been known by Perrault ; and Stukely did not deferibe them, although he delineated them in his figure of the elephant’s trunk, All thefe little mufeles which form the body of the pro- bofcis are very diftin& from each other, and terminate each in flender tendons, of which fome pafs through the layers of the longitudinal mufcles to gain the external envelope, and others go to be inferted into the membrane of the canals. All thefe mufcles are imbedded in a cellular tiffue uniformly filled with a white and homogeneous fat. The tranfverfe mufcles are evidently the antagonifls of the longitudinal, and in contracting the trunk they alfo elongate the whole, or parts of it, according to the animal’s plea- fure. If the number of fhort mufcles be reckoned as they appear on a tranfverfe fection of the probofcis, and-if the breadth of a line which is more than their. thicknefs be allowed for the fucceeding ones, the total number may be in fome de- -gree calculated, which, when added to the number of fafci- culi compofing the longitudinal layers, will amount, Cuvier fays, to between 30 and 40,000. The ftrength, the va- riety, and the delicacy of the motions of the clephant’s trunk, far furpafs thofe of any other organ with which animals are endowed, and are fully explained by the mufcula: ftruéture above deferibed. The aftonifhment of the vulgar in feeing elephants, that are exhibited by fhow-men, ufe their trunk in tthe manner of a hand, arifes from their conceiving this moft wonderful inftrument to be nothing but a common prolonga- tion of the fnout, which, in quadrupeds, generally is a part incapable of performing any confiderable motion. The probofcis of the ¢apir, although much fhorter than that of the elephant, is formed upon the fame plan. The lon- gitudinal mufcles are in two fafciculi, and take their origin below the eye. he tranfverfe mufcles are attached to the membrane covering the tubes, and to the external envelope, as in the elephant ; but the sapir has an additional mufele, fimilar to the /evator labii fuperioris of the horfe. It arifes from the neighbourhood of the eye, and unites above the noftrils in a common tendon with the fame mufcle of the other fide. The occipito-frontalis in the tapir alfo fends off a tendon to the bafe of Sars sea te which is thereby ele- vated. The mufeles of the nofe in the cloven-boofed quadrupeds are two on each fide. They arife from the inferior part of the os maxillare fuperioris above the anterior molar teeth. Two of them are fuperior, and two inferior ; the firft fend off each two tendons, one to the upper edge, and the other to the pofterior angle of the noftril: The mufcles divide each into three portions; they are all inferted into the in- ferior edge of the noltril, There is alfo a mufcle for depreffing the nofe ; itis fituated anteriorly. The mufcles which operate upon the nares of the /olipeda are much more complicated than in the preceding tnbe. The falfe noftril is dilated by a mufcle which veterinary ana- tomifls have called the pyramidalis. It arifes from the upper jaw, near the anterior part of the zygoma, by a {mall tendon. Its flefhy part becomes broader, and expanded upon the convexity of the falfe noftril, and in the orbicularis eris, There is another mufcle fituated above the preceding. It arifes from the maxillary bone near to the notch of the offeous part of the nares; it penetrates into the fold placed between the bone and the falfe nofiril, and is inferted into a cartilaginous prodution of the inferior turbinated bone. The femilunar cartilage is made to approach the feptum, and the noftril is dilated by a mufcle which is common to both nottrils, This is the ¢ran/verfalis of Bourgelat. It appears to be an extenfion of the orbicularis oris, Superiorly there are fomie fibres which arife from. the nafal bone, and are in- ferted into the fuperior convexity of the falfe nares; thefe are the drevis of Bourgelat. There is another mufcle called maxillaris by Bourgelat, which arifes from all the anterior part of the forehead, proceeds obliquely downwards, and divides into two branches. The external paffes over the py- ramidalis, is intermixed with it, and is inferted in the exter- nal convexity of the falfe nofteil. The /evator labit fuperioris alfo a&s upon the noftrils: it arifes from the lachrymal bone, Its tendon unites with the oue of the other fide, to form an aponeurofis, which covers: the end of the nofe, and is inferted into the upper lip. The mufcles which move the external ear in quadrupeds are much more numerous than in man. In the defcription which Cuvier has given from the hore, /becp, rablit, and dog, he reckons twenty-one, fome of which are peculiar to certain quadrupeds only. He divides them into four claffes : ft. Thofe which pafs from the head or neck to the third cartilage of the ear of quadrupeds, which he has called the Jeutum. The 2d are thofe which arife from fome of the parts of the head, or the cervical ligament, and are inferted into the concha or its tube. ‘The 3d clafs contains mufcles which unite the feutum to the concha, or to the tube of the ear, The 4th clafs confilts of thofe that extend from one part of the concha to another. In the firft clafs there are three mufcles: the wertico- feutalis, the jugo-feutalis, and the cervico-fcutalis, The firlt comes’ from the crown of the head, and draws the ear up- wards and inwards, ‘The fecond arifes from the zygoma, and draws the ear forwards and a little upwards: it is wanting in the hare and fheep. The third comes from the cervical ligament, and makes the one ear approach the other potteriorly ; it is peculiar to the dog and rabbit. The fecond clafs contains feveral mufcles. ) 1. The vertico-auricularis avifes from the vertex of the head, and is inferted on the concha, which it elevates and approximates to the other: it is peculiar to the sorfée and cep. - The fupercilio-auricularis takes the place of the pre- ceding in the are and dog. It arifes from the fuperciliary arch. 3: The cervico-auricularis arifes from the cervical ligae ment, and is inferted upon the concha, which it pulls back- wards and to the other fide, 4. The occipito-auricularis pafles from the occiput to the concha, which it draws upward and backward: it is not found in the Aare. ; ‘ 5. The cervico-tubalis profundus pafles from the cervical ligament —— ae MAMMALIA. ligament to the tube of the ear, which it draws backwards: it is double in the Aorfe, and wanting in the hare. 6. The occipito-auricularis rotator avifes from the occiput, and terminates in the concha, near its tube: it exifts in all Jong-eared quadrupeds, and turns the ear upon its axis. 7. The parotido-auricularis pafles from the parotid gland to the concha, near the tragus: it depreffes the ear, and is a mufcle conftantly found, 8. The jugo-auricularis goes from the zygoma to the concha: it 1s large in the /heep, double in the dog and hor/e, and does not exift in the Aare. 9. The jugo-auricularis profundus arifes from the pofterior part of the zygoma, and is inierted into the concha, near the tube: it fhortens the tube. 10. The vertico-auricularis rotator goes from the vertex of the head to the anterior part of the concha, near the tube: it rotates the ear, fo as to bring the hollow part forwatds and inwards. : 11. The wertico-auricularis profundus arifes along with the preceding, and 1s inferted into that part of the concha nearett the tube, which is inward when its concavity is direéted out- ward: its ufe appears to elongate the tube of the ear. Thefe laft two mufcies Cuvier only found ia the hor/e. The third clafs contains two fuperficial and one deep- feated mufcle. 1. The /cutalis anterior paffes from the lower edge and anterior angle of the {cutum, to the front of the concha: it turns the latter on its axis, and dire&ts it upwards and for- wards when horizontal. It does not exift in the dogs that have hanging ears. 2. The fcutalis pofterior has nearly the fame origin as the preceding, but is inferted into the back of the concha: it raifes the concha. ‘The Aare wants this mufele. 3. The feutalis: rotator is deep-feated, aud arifes under the feutum, and terminates behind the concha next the tube: it rotates the concavity of the concha towards the earth, and backwards, when it is horizontal. © This mufcle is double in the hare: The fourth clafs of the mufcles of the ear do not exift in the /ocep ; and there is only one of them in the horfe, which 3s the fragicus: it contraéts the opening of the external meatus. It is found in the dog and hare. In the Aare there isa mufcle which fhortens the tube: it is ealled by Cuvier tubo-helicus. In the dog there*is a mufcle analogous to thofe on the helix in the human fubje&t. Cuvier calls it plicator auris. In the dog and horfe there are forne mufcular fibres upon the back of the concha, analogous to the éran/verfus auris. : By means of the mufcles above defcribed, quadrupeds are enabled to give almoft all poffible attitudes to the external ear, befides collecting the founds which approach in various dire&tions, The external ear is fometimes employed in ex- preffing the fenfations of animals: thus, or/es throw back their ears, when difpleafed ; and moft quadrupeds fhew their fatisfaction by an ereét pofition of thofe parts. The mufeles which move the jaws in mammalia are, except in fome of the /zitivrada, the fame in number, and bear the fame names as thofe in man. ‘They differ chiefly with refpect to their relative ftrength. ‘This circumftance has been in a great meafure already explained, in deferibing the form and extent of the bones to which thefe mufcles are attached. As a general obfervation, it may be ftated, that the maffiter and pterygoid mufcles are largelt in the derbivorous quadrupeds, and the temporal in the carnivorous. In the ant-eaters, the pofition of the ma/éter is very unfa- vourable to its aétion, The tubercle that fupplies the place of the zygoma is anterior to the part of the lower jaw, to which tlt other extremity of the maffeter is affixed; confe- quently the fibres of the mufcle pafs in a dire@tion contrary to that in which their force is exerted. In the mus typhlus, the temporal mufcle is very ftrong, al- though it is thin in this tribe generally. The typhlus has it fo much extended as to be intermixed with the one of the oppofite fide, upon the upper part of the head. The mole has the temporal mufcles very thick and elon- gated, fo that their greateft extent is from behind forwards. ‘They touch each other upon the crown of the head. In the carnivorous digitigrada, efpecially the cat genus,. the temporal mulcles have fo great a bulk in every di- rection, that they make up the chief part of the bulk of the head. An additional mufcle on each fide, for raifing the lower- jaw, has been difcovered in the cavy, and other /altigraday, by Mr. J. F. Meckel, which is defigned to aid thefe ani- mals in their particular’ mode of comminuting their food.. This mufcle has received the name of mandibulo-mavillaris; In the cavy it commences as a thick mafs, from the molt anterior part of the fuperior maxillary bone, proceeds back- wards and downwards acrofs the great fub-orbitar foramen,. which it fills, and changes there into a ftrong tendon,. which defcends to the lower jaw, to be inferted on the outfide of the pterygoideus externus mufcle, oppofite the firlt molar tooth, that is, in the moft anterior part of the canal, in which the pterygoid mufcles are inferted. Thefe mufcles are generally fimilar in the other gnawing quadrupeds :. they are mufcular throughout in the ras, in whom they are very ftrong. The a&ion of the mandibulo-maxillaris mufcle has a direct effet upon the incifor teeth, or upon the extremities of both jaws; and hence the exiftence of this mufcle in thofe Jwtigrada that gnaw hard fubftances. The mandibulo-maxil- lares are wanting in the dare and marmot, which live on foft herbs. The digaffric mufcle, except in the monkey, is differently formed than in man. The name of majflo-maxillarisy impofed upon it according to the modern fyltem of nomenclature, is peculiarly proper. It generally wants the middle tendon, which forms it into a mufcle with two bellies, ora diga/= tricus. ‘In the mandril (fimia maimon), the tendons of the maftoid portions of each fide become intermixed above the hyoides, fo that thefe two portions appear to make a digaf- tric mufcle. S In the digitigrada this mufcle has but one belly,. and it is inferted into a procefs at the poiterior angle of the branch» of the jaw. In the /altigrada there are two portions.. This mufcle is wanting in the ant-eaters and’ armadillos. Thefe animals have its place fupplied by a long flender mufcle, that arifes from the middle of the top of the fter- num, and is inferted at the inferior and middle part of the ramus of the lower jaw. This mufcle is called by Cuvier the /lerno-mawillaris, In the floths the digaftric is conne&ted with the flerno- Ayoideus mulcle. * The ow has the middle part of this mufele covered above and upon the internal edge by an aponeurofis, which pives attachment to a fquare mufcle, thar extends from one di- gaitrie to the other. The mufcles of the os hyoides exhibit no very ftriking pe- culiarities, except in fome of the edentata. The flerno-hycidei mufcles in the /ion arife fo far within the flernum as the third piece compofing that bones In the; Leak MAMMALIA. feal they arife from the firft ribs, and are ftrengthened by a flip from the little tuberofity of the humerus, which corre- {ponds to the omo-hyoideus. “The tternum is narrow in thofe animals, to which Cuvier afcribes the flerno-hyoideus as having an unufual origin. The /erno and omo-hyotdean mufcles are incorporated, and make a very large mufcle in the dolphin. j The /lylo-hyoideus is only perforated by the digaftric mufcle in the monkey, as in man. In the pace the fylo-hyoideus is wanting: the ftyloid bone Js not conneéted with the cranium; and the middle portion of the digaltricus adheres firmly to the body of the os hyoides. The mylo-hyoideus is an active mufcle in bringing forwards the hyoides, when this bone is placed far back, and the jaw is much elongated, The pofition of the os hyoides being fo near the fternum in the ant-eaters, the mufcles which aét upon it have many peculiarities. There is a very fmall mufcle which is analo- gous to the /lylo-hysideus : it arifes from the middle and an- terior part of the {tyloid bone; it defcends inwards and backwards, to be united to the edge of the genio-hyoideus. The mylo-hyoideus is neceflarily very long: it does not touch the os hyoideus, but its laft fibres afcend to the bafe of the ftyloid bone, to which they are affixed; and, more an- teriorly, fome of thefe fibres even afcend to be inferted into the tranfverfe procefles of the middle cervical vertebra. Thofe which precede the la{t mentioned are inferted more internally, into the membrane of the bottom of the mouth. It is only the portion correfponding to the two anterior thirds of the jaw, that is attached to the edge of that bone. There is no middle tendinous line in this mufcle, and all its fibres are tranfverfe in their direGtion. The genio-hyoideus is a fingle mufcle: it is attached to the angle of the chin by a very thin tendon, which extends to the oppofite angles of the jaw, accompanying the middle of the mylo-hyoideus : its fiethy part commences there. It is very thin throughout, and is at firlt narrow, but it afterwards enlarges, and then is compofed of two portions: it contraéts again, before it is attached to the body of the hyoides. "Tht /ferno-hyoidei mufcles extend upon the fternum, as far as the middle of the -bone. ‘ In the echidna the mylo-hyoideus is attached in a great mealure to the palatine membrane: the moft diltant portion afcends-wpon the fides of the occiput. In the ornithorhynchus the mylo-hyoideus has a tendinous line in the middle, from which the mufcular fibres depart on each fide, and proceed obliquely from behind forwards, and are inferted into the inferior border of the jaw. There is a fecond portion of this mufcle, which appears to fupply the place of the genio-hyoideus in this animal. Its fibres depart from the hyoides and the bafe of the tongue, and advance more obliquely outwards, as far as the moft diftant part of the branches of the jaw, to the lower edge of which they are attached, ‘The /lerno-hyoideus is prolonged upon the fter- num, as far back as the middle of that bone, both in the echidna and ornithorhynchus. t is difficult to conceive the ufe of the extenfion of the mufcle in the latter arimal. In the echidna and the ant-eaters it is fubfervient to the motions: of their tongue. The mufcle called by Cuvier /ylo-mafloideus is peculiar to mammalia, in which it appears to exilt pretty regularly. It is a {mall mufcle, arifes from the external furface of the maf- toid procefs, and is inferted upon the internal furface of the temporal end of the ftyloid bone. When the ftyloid bone, as in the ¢loven-hoofed quadrupeds, has an angle prolonged pofteriorly, this mufcle is inferted into it, and moves the fty- loid bone as a lever, and brings its lower end upwards and outwards. When the ftyloid bone is not attached to the cranium, this mufcle ferves to fufpend it. In the paca, the /lylo-maffoideus feems to form a part of the digaltric, with which it defcends to the os hyoides, and is afterwards extended upon the fides of the pharynx, by which it fupplies the place of the /fylo-pharyngeus. In the digitigrada, there is another additional mufcle: it is thin, flat, and fills up a part of the interval of the two horns of the os hyoides of the fame fide. The mu/eles of the pharynx refemble thofe of man fo much, that a defcription of them becomes unneceffary. There is a pharyngeus proprius in the elephant, bear, &c. which has been already mentioned. The flylo-pharyngeus has fome peculiarity of dire€tion and effe&t, in confequence of the horizontal pofition of the pha- rynx. It defcends a'moft perpendicularly from the ftyloid procefs, or bone, upon the upper furface or fides of the pha- rynx, and it is only after it has pafled under the conftrictor muf{cles that it proceeds backwards along the pharynx. Its operation is rather to dilate the bag of the pharynx than to bring it forwards. : The peculiarities of the mufcular ftruture of the tongue are already noticed in the firft part of this article, where that member is defcribed as an organ of maitication. ' The fubcutaneous mufcles are much more remarkable in quadrupeds than the human fubje&t. In the latter, they are weak, and confined to particular places; but in the former, almolt the whole of the fkin can be moved; and in thofe fpecies that roll themfelves up when they are in danger, the {ubcutaneous mufcles are of great magnitude, and complicated in their arrangement. The cutaneus ov latiffimus colli, (thgraco-facialis of Cuvier) is inconfiderable in many quadrupeds. It is intermixed with fome mufcular fibres that lie under the fkin of the face in the monkey kind, as already obferved. In the marmot, this mufcle has another placed under it, which is thicker, and ex- tends to the fide of the head, and to the face and {nout. There is a cutaneous mufcle upon the abdomen, and under the {kin of the thighs of quadrupeds, which is inferted, along with the peétoralis major, into the humerus by one or two tendons. Befides aéting upon the fin of the lower fur- face of the body, it concurs, with the ations of the petoral, mufcle, in bringing the arms inwards, and in the true quad- rupeds is a mufcle of progreffion, by affifting to move the body forwards upon the anterior extremities, Cuvier gives the name of dermo-humeralis to this mu{cle. In the raceon: it is attached to the prepuce, which it retraéts. Where it covers the belly of this animal, it is very thin. In the marmot this muf{cle covers the back as well as the under furface of the body: it is inferted into the arm by two, tendons; the one with that of the latiflimus dorfi; the other with the tendon of the pectoralis major. Thofe animals that have the power of rolling themfelves up, poffefs a number of curious mufcles for the purpofe. Thefe are the moft numerous and ftriking in the hedge-hog. In this animal there is a very extenfive fubcutaneous muf- cle upon the back of the body. Its fibres adhere clofely to the fkia of the back and the ends of the fpines. The fhape of the mufcle is oval: the middle of it is thin, and has the fibres moftly arranged longitudinally ; but around. the edge they are thick, and have a circular direétion, and refemble a fphin&ter mufcle. In the ordinary pofition of the hedge-hog, the dorfal muf- cle is contracted, and entirely carried upon the back ; a whea MAMMALIA. when the creature is coiled up, the longitudinal fibres of the mufcle are fo much relaxed, that it is capable of being extended over the top of the head, the tail, and potterior legs; after which the {phinéter or marginal fibres are put in aétion, by which the whole body is inclofed, as it were, in a round bag. There are feveral {mall diftin@ mufcles which ferve to connect this flefhy oval expanfion to different parts of the body, and which contribute to bring the head and limbs into their proper pofition, after they have been doubled up by the mufcles fituated upon the inferior part of the body. ‘Two pair of thefe mufcles arife from the anterior extremity of the oval mufcle. They are inferted into the nafal and intermaxillary bones, and the lateral parts of the nofe. One pair of mufcles arifes from the pofterior part of the oval expanfion ; they are broad, pyramidal, and inferted by tendon into the fides of the tail, near its end. There are three diftin& portions of mufcles under the fkin, upon the lower furface of the body. The firft cor- refponds to the cutaneus colli; it arifes from the top of the fternum, and is inferted behind the ears. The fecond is potterior to this; it arifes from the middle of the iter- hum ; it pafles over the top of the fhoulder, and is inferted into the oval or orbicular mufcle of, the back. Thefe two mufcles, with their fellows of the oppofite fide, produce the figure of two cones, having their points turned backwards, and the one being received into the bafe of the other. The third mufcle covers with its fellow the furface of the ab- domen, It is attached to the tail, the top of the thighs, the arm, and the dorfal mufcles, by fo many diflinét flips or divifions, This mufcle is analogous to the dermo-humeralis of other quadrupeds. There are, befides thofe already defcribed, fome deep- feated mufcles fituated under the great oval one of the back. One arifes from the potterior edge of the meatus auditorius externus, and proceeds backwards to be loft in the fore- part of the orbicular mufcle. Another arifes from the la‘t cervical vertebra, and is alfo inferted into the orbicular muf- cle. Underneath the great oval mufcle there is a thin layer of tranfverfe fibres: the anterior ones are attached to the inner and upper part of the humerus, and the pofterior to the external procefs of the ventral or dermo-humeralis mufcle. When the orbicular mufcle is entirely contraGted, and car- ried upon the back of the hedge-hog, it ferves as the fixed attachment of the mufcles, which go from it to the head, neck, and tail; andthefe parts are confequently raifed or fuftained by them; but when the animal wifhes to roll itfelf up, it relaxes the orbicular mufcle, and puts into operation the flexors of the head and limbs, by which they become fixed points, and all the flraight mufcles conneé&ted with the oval or orbicular mufcle of the back are enabled to a& upon it, and fpread it over the body ; and when the latter is brought over the head and tail, the margin of it contracts feparately from the reft, by which even the head and feet of the animal are completely inclofed. The conneétion which the great oval mufcle has with the roots of the {pines of the fkin, puts the fpines into a ftate of ereCtion in different direétions, which renders the animal unaflailable at every point. See Himly’s account of the rolling up of hedge-hog, printed at Brunfwick, 1801, 4to. The mu/cks that aét immediately upon the ribs have no pe- culiarities in mammalia worth remarking. The abdominal mufcles are longer and narrower in mam- malia than man. ‘This depends, in fome degree, upon the difference in the fhape of the trunk, but not entirely, as Vor. XXII. ' the firaighi and pyramidal mufcles are generally the mot elongated. In many of the digifated quadrupeds the py- ramidales are wanting, and the re@i extend as far as the anterior part of the fternum. The diaphragm exhibits, in general, no difference of ftruc- ture in mammalia from what is defcribed in man. Ac- cording to Cuvier, it has in the ats two very ftrong crura, which form a kind of flefhy feptum placed longitudinally on the {pine within the abdomen. Thofe animals that have an abdominal pouch for con- taining the mammz and the young during the period that they are fuckled there, have two additional bones attached to the pelvis, as already mentioned. Thefe bones are moved by two mufcles, long fince defcribed by Tyfon, and called by him triangulares. Thefe fibres arife in different direGions from the fide of the marfupial bones néxt the fymphyfis pubis, and both mufcles unite with each other, in the middle of the interval, between the two bones, by means of a ten- dinous line. Thefe mufcles fuftain, elevate, and approxi- mate the marfupial bones, in doing which they are affitted by the abdominal mufcles, which are likewife connedted with thefe bones. The mufcles which move the head upon the {pine, and the different vertebra upon each other, ex- hibit but fery deviations from the ftru€iure defcribed in man, that are worthy of remark. In moft mammalia, the obliguus capitis inferior, and the reélus capitis poflicus major, are much larger than in man, in proportion, on account of the magnitude of the two firft vertebre of the neck being greater. The monkey and ceta- ceous tribes, however, form exceptions to this obfervation. The diventer cervicis is commonly not divided by tendon into two bellies: the new name of trachelo-dor/alis given to it by Cuvier is particularly proper. In the digitigrada it is interfected by tranfverfe tendons throughout. It is quite diftin& from the complexus, although it lies upon it. The horfe has thefe two mufcles joined together at the upper art. e The /plenius is Jarger in mammalia than in man, and is particularly ftrong in the mole. In thofe that have the li- gamentum nuchz elevated above the vertebra, the /plenius colli is inferted into it. There is no part of the muicle inferted into the tranfverfe procefles of the cervical vertebrae in the digitigrada. The mufcles of the dorfal {pine conform {till more clofely in general, than thofe of the cervical, to the plan obferved in man. In the dat, however, thefe. mufcles are nearly obliterated. The mujcles of the tail, in almoft all mammalia, are larger and more complicated than they are in man, but in parti- cular {pecies they are very remarkable for their number, or their ftrength. Cuvier has reckoned eight pair of mufs cles in mammalia, but if the portions of which thefe are compofed be counted in any of the long-tailed {pecies, they: will be found to be vaftly numerous. Mery ftated that he met with 280 caudal mufcles in a prehenfile-tailed monkey’ The cetacea have the mufcles of the tail fo large as to give to thefe animals the figure of fifhes. The deaver has the flexor mufcles of the tail prodigioufly ftrong, in order that it may be able to employ that member in the manner of a trowel for plaftering its habitation. The %anguroo has the extenfors very {trong, as the animal ufes the tail to project the whole body from the ground in its fingular mode of pros greffion by leaps. In deferibing the caudal mufcles we fhall follow Cuvier and Vic d’Azir. The facro-coccygei fuperiores of Cuvier, or lumbo-/upra- Oo caudales MAMMALIA. eaudales of Vic d@ Azir, are fituated upon the upper fide of each other in different parts of the tail, are capable of commu- the tail. They arife, by flefhy flips, from the three or four nicating to this member all poffible dire€tions. The effeés laf lumbar vertebrz, he facrum, and from thofe caudal -of this co-operation are ftrikingly difplayed in the tails of vertebra that have proceffes. Small tendons pafs off from certain monkies, marfupial animals, ant-eaters, &c. in which the common mafs oppofite to the flefhy digitations. The~ this member is epi of performing moft of the opera- firft tendon is the fhorteft, and is inferted into the bafe of tions of a hand. the firft caudal vertebra. The fecond tendon to the next There are feveral pecaliarities to be noticed in the mu/cles vertebra, and fo on tothe end. There are thirteen of thefe of the anterior extremity, particularly thofe of the fhoulder tendons. They enter ligamentous grooves or fheaths, which and upper arm of quadrupeds. are conneéted together by a ligamentous web that inclofes The /erratus major has not only the digitated attachments them ina fort of cafe. ‘Thefe mufcles have the effe&t of di- to the ribs, but to fome or all the tran{verfe procefles of the rectly railing the tail. cervical vertebra. In the dolphin, and probably in all eetacea, The inter/pinales (/pinales obliqui of Cuvier,) (/umbo-facro- this mufcle has no attachment to the cervical vertebrz ; the eoccygei of Vic d’Azir), fhould be confidered as the conti- greater extent of the ferratus major appears to be required nuation of the erga mufcles of the back. They co- for progreffion on four feet. operate with the laft defcribed in the elevation of the tail. The pedoralis minor does not exift in the digitigrade and There are four pair of mufcles for deprefling the tail. hoofed quadrupeds. Another mufcle fupplies its place in The ilio-fubcaudales (ilio-coccygei of Vic d’Azir) arife the Aor/e. ‘This ia united to the peétoralis major, and isin from the internal part of the ileum; form two long flefhy part inferted into the humerus. The peétoralis minor of mafles in the pelvis ; andare inferted into one of the V fhaped the dolphin is narrow, and arifes by one digitation from bones of the under furface of the tail. Sometimes they are near the top of the fternum, and is inferted at the glenoid inferted between the fifth and fixth of thefe bones, at others cavity of the fcapula. between the feventh and eighth. The levator fcapule is inferted into the fpine of the fea- The facro-fubcaudales (facro-coccygei infetiores of Vic pula in the monkey, the digitigrade and /a/tigrade quadrupeds. a’ Azir) refemble exa&ly the facro-coccygei fuperiores, ex- In’the dog and dear it arifes from the firft cervical vertebra cept that they are placed upon the oppofite fide of the tail. only, and in the rabbit from the cuneiform procefs of the They arife from the facrum, and from the tranfverfe procefles caput, and has been called by Vic d’Azir acromio-bafillaris. of the fuperior caudal vertebre. Their tendons are long In the /beep it arifes from the firft cervical vertebra, and and numerous, and inclofed in ‘a fheath, like thofe of the is inferted into the pofterior part of the fpine of the {eapula. facro-coccygei fuperiores. They begin in the long-tailed The /evator /capule is wanting in the hor/e. In the dolphin fpecies to be inferted into the feventh caudal vertebra, it comes from the firft cervical vertebra, and its tendon is and fo on. {pread over the whole external furface of the feapula. Thefe mufcles, with the fuperior coccygeal, operate upon The ¢rapezxius and flerno-cleido majloideus are generally con- the tail, even to its point, and have exa@ily the oppofite founded with each other, or with fome of the other mufcles effe€ts of each other. They are particularly employed in of the neck. In the carnivorous, and thofe /altigrade quad- all rhe more delicate motions of the tail. rupeds that have au imperfect clavicle, the clavicular por- The fubcaudiles of Cuvier (inter-coccygei of Vic d’Azir) tions of the ferno-cleido mafloideus, and of the de/toides and of are fituated under the middle of the tail. They arife at the ¢rapezius, make but one mufele, to which Cuvier gives the articulation of the firft and fecond caudal vertebre. They the name of majflo-bumeralis, and which has been called by are firft inferted into the V fhaped bone of the fourth, fifth, other anatomilts communis capitis, peGoris, and brachii. The and fixth vertebra; they further receive little flefhy flips, clavicular portion of the ¢rapezius is diftin& from the fea- which gradually diminifh, and go on to be inferted into pular portion; and the levator fcapul« pafles between them. the bafe of each bone of the tail. In the dear, the anterior portion of the trapezius is again The pubo-/ubcaudales of Cuvier (pubo-coceygei of Vic d’Azir) divided into two mufcles, one of which fends a tendon to arife broad and thin from the upper part of the pelvis, the top of the fternum. In the /bcep, there is a mufcle and proceed to terminate in points which are inferted into which arifes from the mattoid procets ; it divides into two ; the procefies or tubercles at the bafe of the fourthand fifth one goes to the fternum ; and the other is incorporated with vertebre, upon the inferior furface of the tail. They bring the clavicular portion of the trapezius and of the deltoid. the tail clofe to the body. Thefe mufcles are wanting in In the dorfe there is a diftin& flerno-mafloideus, but the cleido- the racoon. mafloideus, levator fcapule, and the clavicular portions of There are two mufcles on each fide of the tail for pro- the trapezius and deltoid, are {upplied by one mufcle, which ducing the lateral motions of it. arifes from the maftoid procefs, and the tranfverfe procefles The ifchio-caudalis of Cuvier (ifchio-coceygeus externus of of the fuperior cervical vertebre, and paffes down the in- Vic d'Azir) arifes from the internal furface of the ifchium, ternal fide of the arm to be inferted inferiorly. In the and pafles backwards over the tranfverfe proceffes of the tail. dolphin, the clavicular portion of the trapezius is wanting : In the racoon, it is inferted into the feven caudal vertebre the flerno-majfloideus of this animal is very ftrong, and there that fucceed the third, by feven flefhy digitations. Inthe is another mufcle external to it, which arifes from the maf- epofum, into the four firlt vertebra of the tail. In the toid procefs alfo, and is inferted below the head of the dog, itis a mere flip of flefh, and is inferted into the fourth humerus. vertebra. There is a mufcle of the fhoulder apparently peculiar to The intertranfverfalis pafles from one tranfverfe procefs the rabbit: it is thin, and arifes from the {pine of the feapula, to the other on each fide, as far as they go. This mufcle and is inferted into the clavicle. is fimilar to the one of the fame name in the other parts of | The rhomboides is a larger mufcle in quadrupeds, in pro- the fpine. portion, than it is in man. It is even in the monkey tribe It is fcarcely neceffary to obferve, that the combined extended to the occiput. The portion arifing from the aCtions of thefe mufcles, or their contrationsin oppofitionto full is diftin& in the digitigrade quadrupeds, and is ah iI mufcle MAMMALIA. mufcle which has been called the /evator feapule magnus. This portion of the rhomboides arifes from the ligamentum _nuchez in the or/e, and has been called by the veterinary anatomilts /vator /capule ie ihe The rhomboides has no divifion, and is a {mall mufcle in the dolphin. The fubelavius is of courfe wanting in thofe quadrupeds that have imperfeé& clavicles, or none. » We have referved the account of the mufcles of the fhoulder in the mole and bat for feparate confideration, as the motions of the anterior extremity in thefe animals are fo very peculiar. i: In the mole, the ferratus major is extremely large, but fimple in its form ; it arifes from only the laft cervical ver- tebra. The trapezius has no anterior origin ; there are only two fafciculi from the lumbar region to the pofterior angles of the {capule, which would draw thefe bores afunder, if they were not bound together by a {trong tranfverfe liga- ment. The rhomboides is attached pofteriorly almoift en- tirely to this tranfverfe ligament of the f{capulz, and ante- riorly to the offified ligamentum nuchx. The chief ufe of this mufcle is therefore to elevate the head. The mufcle correfponding to the occipital portion of the rhomboides arifes from the middle of the head, has its fibres parallel to the cervical fpine, and paffes through the rbomboides, pro- perly fo called, to be attached to the tranfverfe ligament of the feapule. This mufcle operates with great power in raifing the head, which is a neceffary exertion to the mole in burrowing. This animal has two mufcles to the clavicle : one of thefe Cuvier calls fuperclavius: it arifes from the firft bone of the flernum at the anterior angle of the great head of the clavicle. The other arifes lower down on the fternum, and is inferted near the firft. In the bat, the ferratus major is fituated before the ee. ralis minor. It is only attached to the ribs, and is inferted into the inferior and external edge of the {capula. The fubclavius is very large. The trapezius arifes from the eleven firft dorfal vertebra, and is inferted into the triangular furface of the cervical angle of the f{capula. The mafoid mufcle is only attached to the fternum. aoe ’ The mu/cles of the humerus appear all to exift in mammalia, but frequently under different conditions than in man. The pedoralis major 1s tommonly compofed of feveral diftin@ fafciculi, or portions. In thofe {pecies which have not a_perfeét clavicle, there is a portion of this mufcle arifing from the fternum, and inferted into the linea afpera, which, with the portion of the oppofite fide, makes a com- mon mufcle for both arms, to which Cuvier gives the name of ambibrachialis communis. It has the effect of croffing the fore-legs. In the /beep, there is a fecond common mufcle, which pafles from the fternum ‘to the ulna, com- pletely inclofing the humerus with thes trunk. lt is defign- ed to crofs the fore-legs, and has been called by the veteri- nary anatomifts, in the hor/e, ambibrachialis communis. It fhould rather, perhaps, ‘be confidered a fubcutaneous mufcle than a portion of the pectoralis major. In the dat, the pec- toralis major is divided into three diftin&t mufcles, The latt lies partly under the firt. This is inferted into the te anterior tubercle of the humerus. The fecond is inferted above the firft, behind the great tubercle ; and the third mufele terminates upon the {pine of the humerus. Thefe mufcles deprefa the wing in flying, and therefore require to be very ftrong. ; ; The Jatiffimus dorfi of the bat isa fiethy ftripe from the {pinous tubercles ot the two laft dorfal vertebre. The fupra and infra/pinatus of quadrupeds have a differ- ent relative fize to each other than in man. In the former, the fuprafpinatus is the larger mufcle. In the cetacea, the mufcles on the back of the fcapula are nearly obliterated. In thofe fpecies that want the clavicle, there is only the {capular portion of the de/toides, the other part being, as before defcribed, continued into the trapexius. There is a diftin&tion of two parts alfo in the fcapular portion, the acromial and infra-/pinal. In the hor/e, the acromial at- - tachment is wanting, and the deltoid having the fame direc- tion as the infrafpinatus, it is diftinguifhed by the peculiar name of abduéfor longus brachii. The coraco-brachialis confiits of two parts in the monkey, bear, &c. one of which extends the whole length of the humerus. In the dear, the inferior portion is inferted into the external condyle. When there is no coracoid procefs of the fcapula, this mufcle arifes from a little eminence on the upper edge of the fcapula. In the dog, cat, rabbit, and horfe, the biceps arifes by one head, and is unconneMed with the coraco-brachialis. In the dat, there is no coraco-brachialis nor teres minor. The mufcles which move the humerus are of an extra- ordinary bulk in the mole. The peforalis major is almoft as large as the pectoral mufcles of birds. It confilts of fix portions: four of thefe arife from the fternum, and are in- ferted into different points of the humerus; the fifth comes alfo from the fternum, and covers the whole furface of the humerus; the fixth is extended from one humerus to the other. The /atifimus dorfi is alfo very flrong ; it is divided into two parts. The teres major is prodigioufly ftrong. Upon thefe three mufcles chiefly depend the rotation and the retraction of the anterior limbs of the mole, the motions by which it excavates the earth with fuch extraordinary force and rapidity. The /upinators and pronators of the fore-arm are not found in thofe fpecies of mammalia which either have the ulna immoveable, or obliterated. The caf and dog have the Jupinator brevis, but not the longus. The rabbit has only the pronator teres. Monkies, the cat, and bear, have the fame number of flexors and extenfors of the carpus as the human fubjec. In the cleven and f/olid-hoofed quadrupeds, the external ra- dialis is inferted anteriorly into the bafe of the cannon bone, which it extends; this is the exten/or reG@us anticus of Bourgelat. The radialis internus is the flexor internus of Bourgelat. The wlnaris internus is the flexor obliquus of the fame author; it is inferted into the bone that correfponds to the os pififorme. The ulnaris externus is inferted likewife into the fame bone, and is called by Bourgelat the flexor externus. The mufcle analogous to the ulnaris externus in the bat, arifes from the os brachii, and from the radius as far as its middle. Its tendon is inferted into the upper and internal part of the carpus, which it abduéts. The mufcle correfponding to the whnaris internus arifes from a flefhy portion common to it, and the other mufcles of the fore-arm, and is inferted into the external fide ef the firft phalanx of the laft finger. It adduéts the carpus. The addu@or pollicis has the fame common origin, and fends its tendon obliquely acrofs that of the ulnaris externus, and ie inferted into the internal fide of the carpus at the bafe of the thumb. The extenfor communis digitorum exifts in all quadrupeds. Its tendons correfpond to the number of fingers. The portion, which merely extends the little finger in man, is of greater fize, fupplies more fingers, and is more diftin@ in many mammalia. In the monkey and rabdit it has two tendons, and fends one to the fourth finger. In the dog and bear it furnifhes a tendon alfo to the third and middle fingers. Oo? The MAMMALIA. The cat has two mufcles in place of this divifion of the ex- tenfor communis. In the cloven-footed cattle this mufcle ex- tends the outer toe, and the exten/or indicis the internal. There are two mufcles in the horfe: one is called by Bourgelat exten/or lateralis, and by La Fofle the extenfor of the pajflern, It fends the tendon to the fide of the firlt joint of the toe. The other mufcle is fituated between the preceding, and the one analogous to the extenfor communis, of which it is confidered by fome anatomiits as making a part. * The indicator has two tendons in the monkey, one of which goes to the middle finger: this mufcle does not exift in the rabbit, the folid and cloven-footed quadrupeds, The extenfor brevis pollicis 1s not found in the cat, dog, bear, and rabbit. The extenfar longus fends a tendon to the firft finger in the dear. The Meee longus pollicis is wanting in the money, and its place fupplied by a fifth tendon from the flewor profundus communis. In the dog, the flewor profundus unites with the flewor pol- licis, and the latter feparates to go to the thumb. The flewor Jublimis fends a tendon to the thumb. Inthe cat, the fexor profundus coniilts of five diftinét flips, and fends off as many tendons. The /ublimis alfo fends a tendon to the thumb. In the rabbit, the profundus furnifhes a tendon to the thumb, but the /ub/imis not. The flexors furnifh fewer tendons, of courfe, where there are fewer digiti; for inftance, they fend off but two in the cloven-footed, and one in the Peet quadrupeds. The bat, which has fo many peculiarities of the anterior extremity, has only one eatenfor of the digiti: its fine tendons run along the back of each of the elongated fingers that fuftain the membrane of the wing, to the extenfion of which they con- tribute... The flexor communis arifes from the common mafs of mufcle upon the infide of the fore-arm : its delicate ten- dons unite with the flexores proprii of the joints of the wing. Thefe lat mufcles are four in number; they form a flefhy maf{s where they arife from the carpus ; become connected with the tendons of the flexor communis, and are extended to the ends of the joints of the radii of the wing. Some fhort fibres arife from the carpus, and are inferted into the root of the pollex. - The mufcles of the fingers are obliterated in the cetacea. The mufcles of the inferior, or, more properly, pofferior extremity, that arife within the body, are, in general, fimilar in man and mammalia. The p/oas parvus has been obferved to be wanting inthe raf. The dat wants the quadratus lumborum, pfoas magnus, iliacus internus, pyriformis, gemint, obturator internus, and quadratus femoris. he pfoas parvus, is, however, very {trong in this animal, and its aponeurofis broad ; the peineus and obturator externus are long and flender. The peétineus of the dog fends its tendon to the lower part of the femur. Quadrupeds, in general, have the p/oas magnus and iliacus more elongated in their figure than they are in man. There is a ftriking difproportion in the gluteal mufcles of mammalia. The external, called in man gluteus maximus, is in all quadrupeds the {malleft of the three. In the horje, it is little more than an aponeurotic expanfion, and is called by Bourgelat the gluteus minimus. The diminifhed fize of this mufele, proves that its chief ufe in the human fubje& is to move the pelyis upon the thigh, and to maintain the erect pofition of the body. In the horje, this mufele has, in ad- dition to the thin flefhy head from the facrum and back of the ileum, another thin flip from the top of the ileum, The ghueus medius and minimus are found much larger iw proportion in quadrupeds than man. The medius in the horfe is very large: it arifes from the facrum, all the mem- brane between t inferted into the procefs of the femur that Cuvier has been inclined to call a third trochanter. This mufcle draws the limb backwards, as in the aétion of kicking. In the dat, the gluteus minimus defcends almoit perpendicularly from the ileum to the femur. This animal has but one addu@or femoris, or head of the ¢riceps s it goes from the fymphyfis of the pubis to the femur, about one-third from its top. The fhape of the thigh is rather flat in the true quadrupeds, ~ and even in the monkey it is lefs round than in man. mufcles are thrown forwards and backwards, which is the mott convenient pofition for progreffion on four feet. The great fize of the mufcles upon the internal part of the thigh of the human fubjeét is not defigned, as anatomitts pl ftate, to bring the les together, or to beltride a horfe, or, in cafe of fhipwreck, the matt of the veffel, but in the ordinary progreflion, on two feet, to transfer the weight of the body from one fide to the other.. The fertorius and gracilis are placed upon the anterior part of the thigh tn the digitigrade and faltigrade quadrupeds. ‘The Sartorius is called in the horfe addudior longus. "The gracilis is large in all quadrupeds, and efpecially in the Aoofed orders. It is called by Bourgelat the adduéor brevis. ba of gracilis to the mufcle correfponding to the /emi-ten- inofus. This laf mufcle, and the emi-membranofus, are inferted into the tibia by a broad aponeurofis, lower down than in man, by which means the hind legs are always, in a degree, bent, a circumftance favourable to progreffion on four feet, but very inconvenient in the ere polition of the body. Even the monkey has this form of the limb, and for that reafon, as well as others, cannot remain long ftanding, without fup- porting itfelf by the anterior extremities. In the 4a, there is one mufcle which fupplies the place of the /urtorius, gra- ailis, femi-tendinofus, and fémi-membranofus. two portions: the one from the fore-part of the ileum, the other from the pubis and ifchium. The adduéfor femoris pafles between them. The common tendon pro- duced by thefe two mufcles is inferted below the head of the tibia, on what is the fore-part of the leg in the dat. This mufele bends the leg. There is but one mufcle alfo for extending it, which arifes from the upper part of the femur, and is a flender tendon, which is inferted into the tibia. 5 The mufcles compofing the calf of the leg are much’ {maller in mammalia than man, in proportion to the fize of the animals. The /olews arifes from the head of the fibula : it is peculiarly flight in the cloven and folid-hoofed quad~ rupeds. The tibialis anticus is inferted into the anterior furface of the lower part of the cannon bone in thofe quadrupeds that have this bone. The tibialis poflicus of the monkey has a large fefamoid bone in its tendon. In quadrupeds that want the great toe, the tendon is inferted into the metatarfal bone of the firft toe, which it abduéts or feparates from the reft. This mufcle does not exilt when there are cannon bones. The peroneus longus in the monkey adducts the great toe to the others. The other peroneal mufcles of the monkey and of the quadrupeds with claws, refemble the fame mufeles of the human fubje&t. The rabdit, however, is an excep- tion. ‘The peroneus medius fends a tendon to the laft toe but one. In the cloven-footed order, the peroneus longus oat below t bone and the ileum and ifchium, and is — He gave the . It arifes by MAMMALIA, below the joint of the cannon bone to be inferted into the firft os cuneiforme.~ The tendon of the medius extends to both the toes, and the peroneus brevis does not exilt. ‘There _ 1s only one peroneal mufcle in the Aor/e: its tendon joins that of the extenfor of the fingle toe. The plantaris mufcle, which terminates upon the os calcis in the human fubject, is a ftronger mufcle in mammalia : it fupplies the place of the flewor brevis digitorum perforatus in quadrupeds. It is continuous with the plantar fa/cia in the monkey, from the diffeGtion of which animal this mufele prot bably received the name it bears. In the wombat, according to Mr. Brodie, there is a peculiar mufcle of the leg. It is fituated between the tibia and fibula throughout their whole length. The fibres have their origin from the inner, edge of the fibula, and pafs obliquely, inward and downward, to be inferted into the oppotite furface of the tibia. The operation of this mufcle is to bring the fibula forwards, and produce a degree of rotation on the tibia which turns the toes inwards. This mufcle is oppofed in its aétion by the one that correfponds to the biceps, and which is inferted into the pofterior part of the fibula. It brings the toes back into the ftraight line, but does not turn them outwards. There are feveral peculiarities in the arrangement of the flexos mufcles of the toes in the monkey. ‘The part of the Jtexor brevis that goes to the firft toe only is attached to the os calcis. “The fhort flexors of the great and little toes refemble that of the human fubje&t. The flexor pollicis Jongus gives a tendon to the pollex, or great toe, and two perforating tendons to the third and fourth toes. The flexor longus digitorum fupplies two perforating tendons to the fecond and fifth toes, The three perforating tendons of the third, fourth, and fifth toes do not come from the bone of the heel, but have their flefhy fibres arifing from the flexor longus digitorum. The tendons of the long flexors are united together. The accefory flewor, or maffa carnea, has an aponeurotic attachment to the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis, and fends a ftrong tendinous band to the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum. The flexor longus pollicis, when there is no great toe, has its tendon incorporated with that of the flexor longus digi- torum, as in the doz, &c. The monkey has a long abduéor of the great toe; it is fituated upon the inner fide of the extenfor longus pollicis. The extenfor pollicis is wanting in thofe that have not the great toe, fuch as the dog and rabbit. In the cloven-hoofed quadrupeds, the inner toe has an ex- tenfor proprius, which reprefents the extenfor pollicis. This is wanting in the hor/e. The quadrupeds that have cannon bones in place of meta- tarfal, have the mufcle correfponding to the /hort extenfor of the toes arifing from the cannon bone, and inferted into the tendon of the long extenfor. Plate X1. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, exhibits the mufcles which move the integuments of the hedye-hog. Fig. 1. is the hedge-hog in the coiled ftate, and covered by the orbicular mufcle, which is expofed by diffection. Fig. 2. fhews the animal in the relaxed ftate: aa is the orbicular mufcle contraéted, and carried upon the back ; 4, its mar- _ ginal part, refembling a fphincter ; ¢,c, two mufcles going from the orbicular mufcle to the top of the head; d, the mufcle of the left fide, which is one of another pair that ex- tends from the orbicular to the head; e, e, the two muf{cles from the orbicularis to the tail; /, part of the mufcle which correfponds to the cutaneous colli, feen going to. be attached behind the ears; g, a portion of the mufcle which comes from the middle of the fternum to the orbicularis; 4, the cutaneous mufcle of the belly ; 2, the portion of the fame mufcle which paffes over the fhoulder to be inferted into the humerus. There’ are other deep-feated mufcles which con- nect the orbicularis with the body and neck, that are con- cealed by thofe indicated in this figure. Plate X1. and fig. 3, is a portion of the trunk of an elephant, _ cut in different directions, in order to expofe its ftructure. A is the horizontal feétion, in which are fhewn the little tranfverfe mufcles, a, cut crofs-ways, and fome others cut longitudinally (as indicated by 4) ; B is the vertical feétion made lengthways, by which the nafal canal of the left fide at C is divided. The little tranfverfe mufcles are, by this feétion, cut longitudinally at 4, and tranfverfely at ¢. Some other little analogous mufcles are fhewn in their length by d; and e points out the longitudinal mufcles of the pro- bofcis, which antagonife thefe lait. D is the vertical fe&tion made crofs-ways. The little tranfverfe mufcles are feen in their length, paffing in different direétions, with refpeét to the axi$ and circumference of the trunk, but always tranf{- verfely. ‘They are fituated within the longitudinal mufcles of the trunk, which lait are feen divided crofs-ways by this fe€tion, around the circumference of the trunk, as pointed out by the letters f, f: in this fection are feen alfo man; veffels and nerves cut crofs-ways. Some large nerves, wit blood-veflels accompanying them, are fhewn running in the dire&tion of the fection A, aes pointed out by the letter g. C,C, are the two nafal canals which run in the interior of the trunk, fomewhat nearer the lower furface than the centie. . Brain.—This vifcus is formed upon the fame plan in man and mammalia. The chief differences confift in the figure and fize of the parts, in relation to each other, to_the reft of the nervous fyftem, or to the entire body. The relation with refpe& to bulk, between the brain and the whole body, has been generally confidered as determining the degree of intelligence poffefled by an animal. , That the mental character fhould be indicated by the proportion which the organ of perception bears to the parts which exercife the other funGtions of life, feems to be almoft felf-evident ; and is conformable to common opinion and obfervation, with refpect to the intelleGtual powers of different individuals of the human fpecies. Neverthelefs it fhould be obferved, that fome differences mutt arife from the age and the degree of fatnefs of an animal, which cannot be fuppofed to affect ma- terially the powers of the mind, although they do the weight of the body. A comparifon of the weight of the cerebrum with that of the cerebellum, is another mode employed by anatomjits for afcertaining the degree of intelleét an animal enjoys, and is more accurate and precife than the preceding. In the in- ferior clafles of animals, the diminution of the cerebrum in proportion to the cerebellum is very itriking, and forms a very correét index of the gradations of intellect. But for the purpofe of fixing the mental rank of the different tribes of mammalia, it is beft: to compare the brain with the me- dulla oblongata, or the nerves that arife in the cranium. This may be done, after the manner of Soemmerring and Ebel, by meafuring the diameters of each at their thickeft part. This laft mode feems to fhew, with tolerable accu. racy, the intellectual endowment of the different genera of mammalia, except in the whale tribe, which have the brain fo very broad in proportion to its length. The fame rule alfo ferves to corre& the conclufions that would be drawa from comparing the weight of the brain with that of the whole body, in fome of the monkey kind, and the very {mall quadrupeds, which have as large a brain in proportion to their body as man. ; a MAMMALIA. {n judging of the capacities of animals, we fhould care- fully dittinguith between the operations of intelleét and of inftinét. Thefe are often miftaken for each other in animals, and, we believe, are more frequently confounded in the workings of the human mind than people in general are aware of. The brain is the feat of reflection, and of ideal knowledge: the nerves and organs of fenfe are but its agents; they are incapable of performing any intellectual operation of themfelves. The perfeétion of the organs of fenfation determines, however, in a great degree, the in- Jiindive faculties of animals, independently of the influence of the brain. Indeed the intelle€tual and inftinétive powers are found, like the organs upon which they depend, to exif in an inverfe ratio toeach other. Man, who has the higheft mental chara¢ter, has the brain largeft, and the nerves fmalleft in relation to each other; and in the inferior clafles of animals, whofe aCtions are almoft entirely governed by inftin@, the nerves are uncommonly large, and the brain extremely fmall; and even in fome genera hardly diftin- guifhable. To illuftrate this fubje€t, the following tables have been extraCted from Cuvier’s “« Comparative Anatomy,”’ vol. ii. Tasze I. exhibits the proportion of the fize of the brain to that of the whole body. Man, I ue ae Se Re according as he is young or old 2E ES FS 55 Long-armed ape, or gibbon - = = = ee Orange mney (fimia fciurea) 5 = = ee Capucin monkey (fimia capucina) - - - ae Striated monkey (fimia jacchus) oN Ks Bee Four-fingered monkey (jfimia panifcus) - - 45 Malbrouck ( fimia faunus), young = C g ae The green and red monkies = = : - a Varied monkey (fimia mona) ue sinh <= a White-eye-lid monkey ( fimia athicps) - 2 BE Hare-lipped monkey, or macaque - - = 26 Barbary ape - - - : 4: aa Great baboon - - - = - Sie Lemurs. Ring-tailed maucauco (/emur catta), young - oe Vari (lemur macaco) - > . 5 dp CHEIROPTERA. Great bat (vefpertilio no@ula) = - 2 x PLANTIGRADA. Mole > S z A ie 2 vs ' Bear = ° - A 5 rita Hedge-hog - - - x a Bi) aie Digityerapa. Dy - = = ¢ g7 30 37 xhz rer 335 Fox - - : . A oS Se Wolf - . - > = - caer ; & Cat e 2 , e = Br or Ts Panther . . 2 ss Bs ar Aer Martin - : - x apie Se Ferret - ’ - - a < gees SALTIGRADA. Buiaver . ° - + E a sis Walkie Hare - . - ° e ° > xis Rabbit - §- a rahe <= rie th Ondatra, or mufk beaver — = - “0, Tere Rat 5 s = rte ete meh set Widens Moufe - - - - “ith Shee eae Field moufe - - - - = 3 MutruncuLata. Elephant - - - s - = Leste Wild boar - - - - : = | wae Hogs + Domeftic hog - - - « gre ate Siamefe hog - . = myles Bisutca. Stag - - > = = - 259 Roe, young - - - > = = ae Sheep - - - - - 33 1ST Ox - - - - = SS Calf = - - - = = = To) ery SoLipeDA. Horfe - - - - - - SrOm ato As - » > = = = Sites CETACEA. Dolphin - - - : = 25 36 BG Tor 1 Porpoife - - - - = . oT Taste II. fhews the proportion that the cerebellum bears to the brain. In mazn it is as - Ito 9g In the Orange monkey - - i dati) i 3 Capucin monkey - : Barbary. ape - - - Varied monkey - - Dog - - : Cat - - = es Mole ‘ o we Beaver - - - Rat - ° - - Moufe - - - - Hare - -° - - - Wild boar - - - - ' ‘ ‘ ‘ ' ' ' ' > Aw oON Oo RI oie ne © 3 5 5 ad Sheep - ~ o a Horfe - . : Fe Ge ae"ou aa, es° ov~en> ab e0 | 6ericees es en) ee i \ ollie in | MMO ARww Tasxe III. is to point out the relation between the breadth of the medulla oblongata behind the pons Varolii, and that of the brain. In mazn it is as - Ito 7 In the Short-tailed macaque - - - 1 tenes Chinefe monkey - - . - Tsun: Dog » - - - 6:11 or - - = - - C Woy the Cat - - - - - 8: 22 Rabbit - - - - . ye ee Ort 6 ota. ita May a Hog 7 = E > eae ye, My! Ram - ay ee - ot Lo ss Gye anal Stag - - - - 23: 5 Roe . - - - - ne: Ox - - - - Saxe Calf - - - - - EWES Bare - , - Sua JAG of) Dolphin - - RE be 2 MAMMALIA. The brain of the monkey refembles moft clofely that of the human fubje&t; but is neverthelefs diftinguifhed by certain differences, which form, as it were, the firft fteps in the gradations of ftruéture in this organ. The fuperior furface of the hemi/pheres is fomewhat flatter in the monkey than in man; but in guadrupeds it is confider- ably flatter. In fome of them alfo, as moft of the divitated, the anterior part of the cerebrum is much narrower than the pofterior. The Aoofed quadrupeds generally have the brain nearly oval in its circumference, as it is in man and the monkey. In quadrupeds the middle lobes of the cerebrum are flat- tened upon the inferior furface, and the pofterior lobes do not exift ; confequently the cerebellum is not concealed by the cerebrum, as in man and the monkey. The brain of the porpsi/e, dslphin, grampus, and moft pro- bably others of the hale kind, has a figure different from that of any other animal: it is rounded at every part. Its greateft diameter is acrofs, yet it covers the fuperior part of the cerebellum: it has numerous and deep convolutions. In mammalia, even in the monkey, the middle lobes of the cerebellum are larger, in proportion to the lateral nes, than they are in man. Thefe lobes are of the fame fize of the others in the /altigrada. The divifion of the external furface of the brain into con- volutions takes place to a lefs extent in mammalia than in man. There are few convolutions in the monkey tribe, particularly in thofe with prehenfile tails, which have the pofterior lobes nearly fmooth. The jacko and Barbary ape are exceptions, and have the pofterior lobe feparated from the others by a diitin tranfverfe fiffure. In the digitigrada and furface of the brain are to in a regular order. The /altigrada have no convolutions, properly fpcaking, but very faint grooves: their brain is almoft {mooth upon the furface. There are deep convolutions on the brain of pet hoofed quadrupeds, efpecially the cloven and /olid-footed tribes. The lower furface of the brain of mammalia is le{s un- equal; the different prominences not projecting fo much as in man. The olfaGory nerves of quadrupeds are of an enormous fize, and contain a cavity which communicates with the lateral ventricles: they are compofed of cineritious fub{tance externally, and medullary internally. ‘They were defcribed by the early anatomilts under the names of caruncule mam- millares, or procefiis mammillares. ‘Vhey are found of the greatett fize in the large herbivorous quadrupeds. There are no olfactory nerves in the cetaceous animals. Except the peculiarities we have juft mentioned, the origin of the nerves is the fame in man and mammalia. The Jateral ventricles have lefs extent in all mammalia, ex- eept the monkey, thanin man. That portion of their cavity which is called the pofterior horn, or digital cavity, is only found in the monkey, in which the pofterior lobes exift. The tubercula quadrigemina become larger, in proportion as the animals are removed from man. They are of the greate(t fize in the /altigrada, bifulca, and folipeda. ‘There is a very fingular proportion obferved between the fuperior and inferior of thefe tubercles. In all the Aerdivorous tribes of quadrupeds, the nates, as they have been called, exceed very much in fize the tees ; and in the carnivorous quadru- peds, whether divitigrade or plantigrade, the inferior tu- bercles or ¢efes are larger than the nates; from which it might be fuppofed that the relative magnitude of thefe parts pre the furrows upon the erably numerous, and are arranged indicate the difpofition of the animal. Cuvier ftates, that the teftes are three times the fize of the nates in the dolphin. But few obfervations have been made upon the compara- tive ftru€ture of the pineal gland. The gritty or earthy fubftance of this body has been difcovered in the fallow deer (cervus dama) by Soemmerring ; and in the goat by Malacarne. It is not known in what number of quadru- peds the earthy matter exilts in the pineal gland: it may be prefumed, from its being found in the fpecies above men- tioned, which are lefs allied to the human fubje& in general ftruSture than many others of this clafs, that the fandy matter would be met with generally in the pineal gland of mammalia. The corpora candecantia are {mall in the carnivorous quadrupeds: there is but one large eminence of this kind in the herbivorous tribes. . The other eminences and cavities of the brain of mammalia exhibit no peculiarities worthy of notice. The tentorium.cerebelli, in many mammalia, is fuftained by a thin plate of bone, which projeéts from the inner furface of the cranium in one or three pieces. In fome inftances the tentorium is an uniform bony par- tition, which leaves a quadrangular opening into the lower part of the cranium. ‘This is the cafe in moft {pecies of the cat and bear genera; in the martin and in the coati ( fmta panifcus). The falx, which divides the hemifpheres of the cerebrum, is alfo {uftained upon a bony plate in the ornithorhynchus. Blumenbach ftates, that fomething of the fame kind exifts in the fkull of the porpoife ; but the {pecimen to which he refers, appears to have been an irregular formation of the bones of the cranium. The membranes of the brain do not exhibit any other pe- cularities of much importance in mammalia. The blood-wveffels of the brain have been defcribed already under the heads of Arteries and Veins in this article. In Plate X11. of the Anatomy. of Mammalia, fig. 1. is a lateral view of the external appearance of the brain in the rabbit. The anterior part of the cerebrum is feen to be fmaller than the pofterior. ‘The middle lobes are flattened upon their inferior furface ; and the posterior lobes are want- ing: aafhew the cerebrum; 6, the cerebellum; ¢, the me- dulla oblongata. Fig. 2. is a view of the under furface of the anterior part of the cerebrum of the /heep : a, a, the ol- factory nerves; one of which is laid open to expofe its cavity, which is traced to the lateral ventricle, by cutting through the fubitance of the cerebrum. Fig. 3. 18a tran{- verfe feétion of the brain of the monkey: aa, the corpora ftriata; 64, the thalami nervorum opticorum; ¢ ¢, the cavi- ties of the lateral ventricles laid open; dd, the digital ca- vities ; ee, the nates; ff, the teltes ; gg, the pineal gland ; A, A, the cut furfaces of the hemifpheres. Fig. 4. is a view of the tubercula quadragemina in the /heep: aa, the nates ; 4 4, the teftes ; ¢ c, the furrounding portion of the brain. Fig. 5. is a fimilar view of thofe parts in the brain of the dog, which are indicated by correfponding letters. Nerves.—There is no part of the anatomy of mammalia in which there is fo clofe a refemblance to the human, as in the diltribution of the nerves. Where differences do occur, they are in general plainly referrible to the difference in the figure of the neighbouring parts, and not to any phyfiolo- ical reafon. The firft pair of nerves, or the olfadory, afford a ftriking exception to the foregoing obfervation. In all mammalia which poffefg them, except the monkey kind, they are large, hollow procefles of the anterior lobes of the cerebrum, the - cavities MAMMALIA. eavities of which communicate with the lateral ventricles of the brain, as already defcribed. This peculiarity of ftruc- ture, however, does not appear to produce much effect upon them after they have pafled through the ethmoid bone into the nafal cavity. ‘The only difference to be remarked between the branches of the olfa@ory nerves of quadrupeds and thofe of man, is, that they are ftronger, and more eafily demonftrated in the former. : The fecond pair of nerves, or optic, have precifely the fame ftru€ture in mammalia and man before their entrance into the globe of the eye. The medullary tubes of which they are compofed, are more plainly fhewn in the larger quad- rupeds. The third, fourth, and fixth pair of nerves, exhibit no pecu- liarittes. The fifth pair of nerves thews fome difference in its rami- fication, and the ganglia it forms, although its diftribution is, as nearly as may be, the fame in mammalia and man. Cuvier has given fome account of the three principal branches of the fifth pair of nerves, taken from diffections of the dog, rabbit, fheep, and calf. According to Cuvier’s defcription, the firlt, or ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair, is divided within the cranium, but does not form its three branches until it arrives in the orbit. ‘ 3 The firft, which is analogous to the na/al branch of the ophthalmic, is the largeft. It is divided into five or fix {mall nerves. Some of thefe pafs throuzh the vault of the orbit to the frontal finufes: others, which are larger, enter the nafal cavity by the internal orbitar foramen. They afcend in an offeous canal, and pafs into the cranium by the large foramina of the cribriform bone, and pafs down again through the ethmoidal foramina, to be diftributed, as in man, to the pituitary membrane of the nofe. Thefe branches are very plain and eafily traced in the clowen-footed quad- rupeds : one of them feems to have been miltaken by Cuvier for a branch of the olfa€tory in the /heep. One or two of the branches into which the nafal divides, go to the levator palpebre fuperioris. One of thefe twigs affifts in forming the Jenticular ganglion, which in the dog gives off two ciliary nerves that divide before they enter the eye, and in the ca/f it fends off four ciliary nerves. Finally, the nafal fends filaments to the obliquus inferior mufcle, and the glandula Harder. The /econd, or fronial branch of the ophthalmic, is fituated fuperiorly under the roof of the orbit. It divides into two nerves ; one is external, and furnifhes two filaments to the re&tus fuperior and the levator palpebra ; the other is internal, and fupplies the internal {traight mu(cle of the eye, and gives off the frontal branch which paffes through the fuperciliary notch, to be ditributed to the integuments of the forehead. The third, or lacrymal branch of the ophthalmic, furnifhes a great number of filaments that are expended upon the lacry- mal gland. ‘ The fecond branch of the fifth pair, or the fuperior maxil- lary nerve, when it arrives on the outfide of the cavity of the cranium, becomes confiderably enlarged. Its fibres feem to crofs each other in fuch a manner, that the two branches which it foon after forms appear to be produced by oppofite filaments: thus, the potterior, or /ub-maxillary branch, feems to be compofed of the anterior filaments, and the anterior. or fupra-maxillary branch of the pofterior fibres. This difpofition is very remarkable in the dog, but lefs fo in the calf. The fupra-maxillary branch proceeds almoft horizontally 6 from behind forwards, Having reached the anterior and inferior parts of the temporal fofla, it divides into a great number of fafciculi: one bundle, which confifts of four or five filaments, proceeds towards the {pheno-palatine foramen. This fafciculus then divides into two ; one branch is fent into the nafal cavity, and furnifhes a confiderable nerve, which is fpread out upon the flefhy fubftance of the palate. Sometimes, as in the ca/f, this branch feparates from the trunk, even before it enters the {pheno-palatine hole. The other branch of the fuperior maxillary nerve, which enters by the {pheno-palatine hole, paffes into the body of the fuperior maxillary bone, detaches filaments to all the teeth, and goes out by the fub-orbitar foramen, where it expands into a great number of branches, which fupply the mufeles and integuments of the face, and cnaltnenede with the branches of the facial nerve. The /ub-orbitar' nerve and its branches are of a prodigious fize in all mammalia with whifkers 5 in thefe animals its anaftomofes are more intricate than ufual, and fromthe net-work under the fkin about the lips, the bulb of each whifker receives one or more large nerves. There are fome other filaments given off from the fupe- rior maxillary nerve. The firft is a {mall one, which, after anaftomofing with a ganglion, paffes into the fubftance of the temporal mufcle, to which it gives branches. It after- wards perforates the orbit, and from thence goes into the nofe. Another more remarkable filament arifes from the {pheno-palatine branch ; it forms a ganglion, which is joined by the preceding nerve, as already mentioned, and {everal other twigs. A-flat nerve proceeds from this ganglion, which appears to be the continuation of the nerve that formed it, although larger. It pafles between the palatine and the convexity of the pterygoid procefs, in the fubftance of the bone: amongift other branches it fends one down to the floor of the noftrils. The third, or inferior maxillary branch of the fifth pair of nerves, produces, almo{t immediately after its feparation, a pretty large branch, which is. diftributed to the parotid and maxillary glands. It afterwards divides into two other branches; one which is internal, and is’ loft in {mall fila- ments in the mufcles, and even in the fubttance of the tongue ; the other is external, and fends a number of branches to the pterygoid mufcles, and thofe of the cheeks and lips, on their way to the {kin of the face on which they are loft, anafto- mofing with the other facial nerves. The continuation of the fuperior maxillary nerve paffes, as ufual, into the canal of the lower jaw, fupplies the teeth, and emerging at the foramen mentale, fpreads in branches upon the foft parts in the neighbourhood. In the calf, the inferior maxillary nerve, foon after leaving the cranium, divides into four branches. The moft pofterior of thefe branches goes backwards, and below the condyle of the jaw, where it forms two branches ; one is flender, and enters the parotid gland, to which it gives filaments, which analtomofe with thofe of the facial nerve; the other takes the circuit of the jaw, and advances in the front of the mouth ; it unites, as it pafles along the cheek, with the middle branch of the facial nerve, from which it previoufly receives feveral anaftomofing branches: _ Fhe next branch of the four is very long, flender, and follows the ramus of the jaw to be expended upon the buccinator mufcle and the glands. The third branch pafles into the dental canal, and fupplies the teeth as ufual. : Laltly, ae MAMMALIA. Laftly, the fourth branch is the lingual: it is ftrong and flat, and terminates in radiated filaments. The facial nerve, commonly called the portio dura of the feventh pair, arifes in the calf, according to Cuvier, by two roots ; the one is really the portio dura: the other appears to proceed from a confiderable ganglion of the pofterior part of the par vagum, which is fituated in a particular depreffion of the inferior furface of the bone of the tym- panum : this root alfo appears to unite with the great fym- pathetic nerve, which has almoft the firmnefs of cartilage. Two or three fhort filaments concur in the formation of this root. It afterwards becomes thicker, and paffes into the fiffura Glafferi to meet the other roots of the facial nerve, to which it tranfmits a filament, and continues to proceed out- wards before and below the ear. The magnitude of the branches of the facial nerves varies in mammalia, but with refpeét to number, they fcarcely differ from thofe of the human fubjeét. In thofe quad- rupeds that have large ears, the branch of the facial nerve, which unites with the firft cervical pair, is of much greater fize than ordinary. In the carnivorous kinds, alfo, the nerves going to the temporal mufcle are particularly large, and in all mammalia with whifkers, the branches that anaf- tomofe with the facial nerves of the fifth pair have a confi- derable fize. There is nothing peculiar to be obferved with refpeé&t to the portio mollis of the /eventh pair, or the true auditory nerves. : The fpecies that Cuvier had diffected for the par vagum, or pneumo-gaffric nerve, were the calf, dag, racoon, hog, and the porcupine, in all of which, its diftribution and ramifi- cations bore the greateft refemblance to the fame nerve in the human body. The conneétion it has with the facial nerve in the ca/f already mentioned, was the chief pecu- liarity obferved. The gloffo-pharyngeal, and the hypo-gloffal nerves, exhibit no deviation from their difpofition in the human body, as far as they have been examined. The hypo-gloffus was found by Cuvier to have a blueifh co- lour in the ca/f, until it arrives on the infide of the ramus of the lower jaw. The /ub-occipital and the cervical nerves alfo appear to be formed exaétly as in man. They are of courfe in fome quadrupeds larger in proportion than in others, on account of the fize of the mufcles on the neck. In the three-toed Sloth, there are probably nine cervical nerves correfponding to the number of vertebrz in that animal. The phrenic nerves differ in no refpeé&t from thofe of man. The dorfal and lumbar nerves vary only in regard to their numbers, which may be reckoned by the vertebre. The nerves of the pelvis alfo exhibit no peculiarity in mam- malia, ‘ The nerves which fupply the tail are of fome confequence in this clafs, and do not exift in the human fubje@. The following defcription has been given of them in the rabbit by Cuvier. The frff pair of caudal nerves comes out between the laft piece of the facrum and the firft vertebra of the tail, and proceeds by the ifchiatic notch. It divides into two branches, one of which is united to the {chiatic nerve, and the other continues to advance between the pelvis and the tail, until it enters a gland fituated under the fixth pair of caudal nerves, where this branch terminates ; but in its way thither it forms feveral analtomofes with the other caudal nerves, and gives off branches, by which there is a remarkable plexus formed, which Cuvier calls the caudal. VoL. XXII. The firft branch fent off by this nerve is diftributed among the gluteal mufcles. The nerve is afterwards joined on the inner fide by a {mall filament, that feems to be derived from the fecond pair of caudal nerves, and on the outer fide by three or four filaments, which make a plexus, from whence feveral branches goto the mufcles ; one, which is very con- fiderable, and eafily traced, is fent to the penis. After- wards the third, fourth, and fifth pair of caudal nerves fend filaments to the inner fide of the branch of the firft pair : then five or fix branches are given off from the external fide of the mufclesof the penis, and thofe which arife from the ifchium. Finally, the trunk of the firft caudal pair terminates in the gland, as above-mentioned. The great fympathetic, or intercofial nerve, has been de- feribed by Cuvier from diffeétions of the wolf, racoon, por- cupine, fheep, and calf. He found it to form a very remark- able anaftomofis with the fifth and fixth pair of nerves. On entering the cranium through the foramen lacerum, the inter- tercoftal is diftin& from the par vagum, and adheres very clofely to the periofteum of the temporal bone. If the cord of the nerve be ftretched, it is feen to be divided into fix or feven filaments, that forma clofe network. A few lines farther, thefe filaments approach each other, and become confolidated into a ganglion, which, from its great firmnefs, appears like cartilage. Many filaments depart from this ganglion: fome are fhort, and proceed to the nerve of the fifth pair; others are long, fmall, and are interwoven with the blood-veflels, fo as to forma reddifh-coloured plexus, which was confidered by Willis as a little rete mirabile. The communication with the fixth pair is by means of this plexus, which {urrounds the nerve on every fide, and is hardly to be feparated fromit. ‘There is not any remarkable anaitomo- fis obferved in the ca/f and ram. The great intercoftal, while pafling through the foramen lacerum, detaches a filament to the cavity of the tympanum. At the fame place alfo it is united with the eighth pair of nerves. The fuperior cervical ganglion is formed fome lines from the cranium. It has a reddifh colour, and an elongated oval figure. It forms the fame communication with the neighbouring nerves as in man. In front of the laft cervical vertebra the intercoftal nerve forms a curve from within outwards, towards the firft rib, on the head of which it joins the firft thoracic ganglion. Se- veral filaments from this curve go along the mediaftinum to the pericardium: others form a plexus around the fubclavian artery. The firf? thoracic ganglion is a femilunar figure. Some fila- ments go off from one of its edges; the uppermoit of which is fent to the vertebral artery, around which it forms a plexus, and appears to accompany the veffel into the cranium. The other filaments unite with the laft cervical, and with the two firft dorfal pair of nerves. The concave edge of the ganglion detaches two or three filaments, which defcend obliquely to the root of the pul- monary arteries, where they unite with the par vagum, to form the pulmonary and inferior cardiac plexufes. The intercoftal, in its paflage through the thorax, pro- duces a ganglion upon the head of each rib, which is joined by a filament from each of the dorfal nerves. The intercoftal, on entering the abdomen, forms a fingle cord, which is the /planchnic nerve. It pafles into the middle, under the ftomach, where it frequently feparates into two cords, which are afterwards joined together again. From this fort of nervous ring, there arifes either a principal trunk, or four or five filaments, which, uniting together near the celiac artery, form a ganglion, that is frequently of afemi- p lunar MAMMALIA. lunar figure. The filaments that produce the fomachie, fple- nic, and hepatic plexufes, arife from the femilunar ganglion, and correfpond to the /olar plexus. There are alfo filaments detached to form the renal plexus. The intercoftal, as it proceeds along the lateral parts of the bodies of the vertebrz, gives origin to ganglia of an elongated quadrangular figure: one of the fuperior angles of thefe receives the continuéd trunk of the nerve ; the other the lumbar pair. The internal inferior angle fends a branch to the aorta, to concur in the formation of plexufes, which encompafs each of the branches of that veflel. The exter- nal inferior angle furnifhes the continuation of the trunk. Except the variations above-mentioned, there does not ap- pearto be any material difference between the intercoftal or great fympathetic nerve in man and animals. Scarcely any peculiarity is to be perceived in the diftribu- tion of the nerves of the extremities in mammalia. The articular nerve is exclufively formed in the rabbit by the fifth cervical pair of nerves; only one of its filaments is derived from the axillary plexus. The thoracic nerves are furnifhed by the axillary plexus. The median nerve, about the middle of its courfe, fends off a branch, which is analogous to the ewxternal cutaneous nerve. The ulnar nerve alfo, about the middle of the arm, gives off abranch, that appears to take the place of the iilernal cutaneous nerve: it {upplies the extenfor mufcles of the elbow and the fkin. Both the origin and diftribution of the nerves of the pof- terior extremity appear to correfpond with what has been defcribed in man. Organs of Touch.—The general furface of the body in mammalia is better calculated for receiving external impref- fions than it is in any other animals, except thofe that have naked and foft fkins, fuch as certain reptiles, and fome of the inferior clafles. The fkin of mammalia is well fupplied with nerves ; the cuticle isthin, and the hairs, having their roots buried in the fkin, rather facilitate than impede the fenfatien of touch. The cuticle has the fame ftru€ture in man and mammalia. It is moft delicate in the {maller quadrupeds, and in thofe that have their body well defended by other coverings, as very thick hair or fpines. The cuticle is particularly thin in the porcupine. It is dry, and confifts evidently of fcales, on the tail of the beaver, rat, ondatra, &c. and upon the furface of the bodies of the pangolin and armadillo. In the /arge many-hoofed quadrupeds the cuticle is thick, and is covered with fmall plates, that feparate from it like fcales. It finks into the furrows of the true flcin. On the foles of their feet it is very remarkably formed. It appears externally to be divided by deep impreffions, nearly circular, with fix or eight furfaces, fome more regular, others lefs fo, each of which contains an infinite number of {mall polygons, that are very irregular. Thefe polygons, both the Jarge and fmall, correfpond to furrows in the true fkin, into which internal projeétions of the cuticle are inferted. The cuticle of the cefacea is not thick in proportion to the other parts of the fkin. It is free from folds or wrinkles ; the furface of thefe animals being fmooth, to facilitate their progrefs through the water. It is alfo befmeared with oil, which not only, 1s of ufe infwimming, but prevents the ma- ceration of the cuticle in the water. The colouring matter of the fein, or rete mucofum, as it is commonly, though improperly, called, is ufually thin, and of a light colour in thofe parts of the bodies of quadrupeds which are covered by hair: on particular parts, however, and in certain animals, it is various in its colour, It is gene- rally, black upon the uncovered parts of the fkin, as the {nouts of quadrupeds, the hands of monkies, &c. It has but rarely very vivid colour, as in the other claffes of animals. The monkey kind thew examples im which the cheeks have a painted white or blue colour, and the nofe or ifchiatic callo- fities are red, violet, or carmine. The pigment of the fkin of the cetacea vaftly exceeds in thicknefs that of allother animals. It is about the tenth of an inch thick in the porpoi/e, and in the larger fpecies of the whale tribe it is proportionably thicker. It appears like a folid fub{tance, which divides very readily after maceration into layers, and alfo in the vertical direétion into fibres, like the pile of velvet. This laminated and fibrous ftruéture is only the particular arrangement of the fubftances of the pig- ment, and not a texture compofed of different parts, for the whole is foluble, or rather mifcible, in water after maceration. The rete mucofum of the cefacea is black upqn the fuperior furface of the body, but is a filvery white on the belly. The pigment of the fkin is found within the cavities of the mouth and nofe in many quadrupeds, in which places it has a dark colour. The cuéis; or true fhin, varies of courfe very much in thick- nefs in different animals of this clafs : as a general obfervation, we may ftate that the fkin is thick in proportion to its na- kednefs, and its expofure to external friction or preflure. It is therefore molt itrong in many-hoofed quadrupeds, to whom thefe circumftances ie hee as well as great bulk of the ani- mals themfelves. The fkin is always thickelt upon the back of the body and outfide of the limbs. The thicknefs of the {kin may be increafed to a very extraordinary degree b artificial preflure, as is feen inthe doar pigs that are ufed for making drawz. In thefe animals, the {kin upon the fhoul- ders is fometimes above an inch thick. The fkin is peculiarly tough in thofe animals that burrow inthe ground. In the mo/e, although it is thin, it is fo tough, that it is difficult to cut it with a pair of fciffors. The fkin of cetaceous mammalia is peculiar in its ftruéture, The furface next the rete mucofum is {mooth, and when examined under water, floats like a villous texture. We could not readily dete& any diftin& villi upon the fkin of the porpoife, or grampus, they are fo fine and fo clofe to each other ; but Hunter has defcribed them as being very plain in whales. It is {carcely poflible to calculate the thicknefs of the fkin of cetacea, as it is gradually loft in the cellular tex- ture which contains the oil, but it appears to be peculiarly thin, according to the fize of the animals, unlefs we confider the cellular fubftance that is filled with the oil as making a part of the fkin, which appears really to be the cafe. Every part of the fkin of the whale tribe is penetrated by th oil. . The fkin of cetacea appears to be lefs. fenfible of external impreffions than that of any other fpecies of mammalia. The fmoothnefs, and {ftretched {tate of the cuticle; the thicknefs of the rete mucofum ; the abfence of thofe fmall eminences of the cutis called papille, which are peculiarly endowed with blood-veffels and nerves, and the interpofition of fo great a quantity of oil in thé interftices of the fkin and cellular fub{tance, all contribute to obf{cure the impreffions of foreign bodies. Certain parts in the other mammalia, from their fituation, figure, and intimate {tructure of the fkin covering them, are fitted to receive peculiar impreflions, and are, properly {peaking, the organs of touch. ‘The moft delicate inftru- ments of this kindare, the hands of the guadrumanous mam- malia; the /ips and nous of many quadrupeds ; the prebenfile tails of monkies, opoffums, ant-eaters, pangolins, Ke. me Oe MAMMALIA. “The under furfaces of the hands and feet of monkics are organized like thofe of the human fubjeét, but have not the nervous papille fo-eminent as they are m the human hand. The feet of digitated quadrupeds alfo are capable ina de- ee of the fenfation of touch, particularly the under fur- face of the front toes in the racoon. ! The lips of many quadrupeds form a very delicate fenfe of touch. They are largely fupplied with nerves and blood- veflels, and the papilla of the {kin are very eminent. The fuperior lip of the rhinoceros forms a procets which is move- able in various direétions, and is ufed by the animal as a pre- henfile member. The fnouts of the hog, mole, defman, and tapir, are ex- tremely well conftruéted for feeling with ; being very move- able by the mufcles already defcribed, highly elaitic in them- felves, and their extremity having, like a lip, a papillated furface, which is richly endowed with nerves and veffels. But the probofcis of the clphant, as being capable of em- bracing bodies entirely, in addition to the great fenfibility of its extremity, con(titutes, perhaps, the molt perfec organ of | touch with which we are acquainted. The inferior furface (which is the one applied to bodies) of the prehenfile tails of mammalia, is divefted of hair, and the fkin is papillated as upon the end of fnouts, &c. Cu- vier ttates that he found the papille very diftin@ly upon the under furface of the tail in the Cayenne opoffum. In fome cafes, foreign impreflions are conveyed by the medium of infenfible parts. This may be obferved with refpeét to whifkers, nails, hoofs, and horns, which are inti- mately conneéted with parts fo extremely fenfible, that the flighteft impreflion upon them in an uncovered ftate would be highly painful. The vafcular and fenfible fubftances, which we find clothed by thefe horny integuments, are better calculated for producing the perception of the mere exiftence of folid or refifting bodies, than any of the other organs of touch; but are incapable of furnifhing any idea of the figure of foreign fubftances. The infenfible integuments and ap- pendages of different animals are defcribed under their proper heads in this di@ionary ; and there is alfo a plate allotted to the illuftration of their ftruG@ure and mode of growth. In the ornithorhynchus paradoxus the external branches of the fifth pair of nerves are very large, andare diftributed on the integuments of the bill of this curious animal, precifely in the fame manner as in the broad bills of the anferine birds, and thus produce a very nice organof touch. See Anatomy of Binns, in this diétionary. ; 4 The peculiar mufcles, which move the fkin and the or- gans of touch in mammalia, are already defcribed, along with the other mulcles of the body. The integuments of the wing of the da/s are fo thin, that they are tranfparent, and permit one to fee the diltribution of the nerves, which form between the membranes of the wing a beautiful plexus. A contemplation of this ftru€ture fhould have taught Spallanzani and Jurin that dats, when flying, muft be advertifed of the exiftence of any refifting bodies, on approaching them, by the difference in the im- pulfe of the air upon the concave furface of the wing ; and have rendered the cruel experiments of thefe phyfiologifts upon dats, in order to difcover their fixth fenfe, unneceflary. rom the firft time we difleéted this animal, we were con- vinced that it directed itfelf altogether by means of the fen- fibility of the ie The mode of flying obfervable in bats appears to be perfeétly confiftent with this notion. They ufually proceed as if they had no perception of objeéts, until they arrive within a near diftance of them, when they either fuddenly turn afide, or direétly round, as if to avoid:being dafhed again{t them. Blind men are known to direét them- felves by means of the feeling of refiftance in the air, on ap- proaching walls or houfes, &c.; and even a perfon, whofe fenfe of feeling has never been praétifed to difcriminate fo nicely, can difcern the walls in a dark room, on approaching them very nearly, without touching them with any part of the body. Organ of Fafte.—The fenfe of tafte is generally fuppofed to refide altogether in the tonczue ; but fome fubitances ex- cite particular taftes, in paffing over the infide of the lips and the fauces. The irregular denticulated folds which the lips form in the cloven-footed quadrupeds, the doz, &c. feem par- ticularly well calculated for receiving the impreffions of fapid bodies. Blumenbach mentions a man who was born without a eens yet could difcern the tafte of fapid fubftances, when pafling over his palate. The mufcular ftrudture and mechanifm of the tongue have already been defcribed, under the heads of the organs of maflication and the organs of motion: it, therefore, only remains to confider fome peculiarities in the form of this member, and the organization of its integuments, which alone poflefs the fenfe of tafting. i The tongue in the monkey kind has not quite the fame figure as in man; it is longer and thinner: even in the ourang-outang it is three times as long as it is broad. In the digitigrade quadrupeds it is long, thin, and flexible: it is fo alfo in the cloven and folid-hoofed tribes. The hog has a fhort tongue, with the edge divided into a number of proceffes like fringe. The tongue of the /ea/ is thick and fhort, and has on each fide of the point a ragged notch, or deficiency, having the appearance of a piece being bitten off. The fingular long-fhaped tongue of the ant-eaters has been already mentioned, and the mechanifm on which it depends defcribed. ‘The tongue of the cetacea is fhort, flat, and- fmooth, and bears contfiderable refemblance to that organ in fifhes. - The three kinds of papilla obferved in the integuments of the human tongue, viz. the conical, fungiform, and incupped, exift in mammalia, Their varieties in different genera relate principally to the form and covering of the conical, and the number of the other forts of papille. In the prehenfile-tailed monkies the conic papille are but fmall: they have but three incupped papillz, which are arranged like the three points of a triangle. The mandril (fimia maimon), and the Simia cynocephalus, have alfo three incupped papille in the fame pofition, The fimia cynomolgus has four incupped papille arranged in the form of a portion of a circle. The Chinefe monkey has feven, making an elongated triangle, with two before it in a line. Several other monkies have been obferved to have fewer incupped papille than the human fubje&. The tongue of the common bats has the conical papilla very fine and long, fomewhat like hairs, particularly on the back part. The infide of the mouth alfo has fome of thefe papillz upon it. In the fernate bat the conic papille are horny, and at the extremity of the tongue are divided into feveral points. The whole of the cat genus (felis) have the conical pa- pill, that are on the middle of the tongue, clothed with horny integuments. Thefe are little hooks or claws, fharp pointed, and when on the tongue, are infleéted backwards ; fu that when any of the larger animals of this genus employ the tongue in licking the human hand, they tear off the fin. When the papille of the tongue are covered by a horny fub{tance, they feem to be infenfible to the impreflions of fapid bodies ; we therefore find, in the cat kind, foft round papillz interpofed between the horny ones, upon the middle Pp 2 of MAMMALIA. - of the tongue. Thefe two kinds of papille are placed al- ternately in a quincunx order, fo that there is an equal number of both upon the tongue. There are foft, conical, fungiform papille upon the edges of the tongue. Upon the tick part of the organ the horny papille difappear ; and there are fome {mall incupped papille arranged in two lines, that approach pofteriorly. In the common cat, Cuvier ftates that there are on the fides of the back part of the tongue fome fungiform papille, which are pendent from long pedicles. The tongue of the civet refembles that of the cat senus. In the other digitigrade amd plantigrade quadrupeds the tongue is foft and flexible. he only variations are with refpeét to the number and pofition of the incupped papille, which are fcarcely worth detailing. The tongue of the opoffums has the anterior and middle part covered with horny {cales inflected backwards, which terminate in wedge-fhaped or rounded edges: the point of the tongue is fringed: there are but three incupped papille. The tongue is, however, foft in the phalangers. The porcupine has the upper furface of the tongue like that of the other /altigrada ; but upon its fides, and at the end, there are fome large fcales terminating in two or three points of a wedge-fhape. There are but two large incupped pa- pill. The other animals of this order have alfo fewer in- cupped papillz than man. The conical papille are fo minute, as to be fearcely difcernible in the armadillos and Cape ant-eater (oryderopus). Thefe animals have the tongue long, narrow, and very fmooth: they have alfo only two or three incupped pa- pilla. ‘ In the American ant-eaters the tongue is without papilke, and is therefore not an organ of tafte. Indeed in all the edentata or infedivorous quadrupeds, this member feems to be merely a mechanical inftrument for taking and {wallowing their prey. The /loths have the conic and fungiform papille but little developed, and only two papille in cups. The many-hoofed quadrupeds have all the papille of the tongue {mall. The cloven-footed order of mammalia have the conic pa- pill upon about the anterior half of the tongue, terminating in flexible horny filaments, They are bent backwards, and end in a point. Inthe fmaller di/ulca the horny coverings of the papille are fo {mall, as to be feen with difficulty ; but in the larger fpecies, particularly the camel, thefe fila- ments are long, and give the touch of the tongue fomething of the feeling of velvet. The back part of the tongue, in the bifulca, is covered by thick tuberculated papilla, which fometimes are cone-fhaped, and at others femi-{pherical, and which become fmaller towards the fides The incupped papille are numerous, and fituated on the fides of the back of the tongue. They are not eafily diftinguifhed from the fungiform, except in the camel, in which they are very large, and concave on their furface. The conical papille are very {mall and compa& in the horfe, and the fungiform papillz are confined to the fides of the tongue. ‘There are but three of the iacupped papille, and the furface of thefe is irregularly tuberculated. There do not appear to be any conical papille on the tongue of ‘etacea. Cuvier ftates that they cannot be ob- ferved, even with a glats, on the tongue of the dolphin and porpoife. ‘There are on it fome eminences like pimples, and at the bafe of the tongue there are four fiflures: the edges of the extremity of the tongue form {mall fhreds. Hunter compares the tongue of the large whales to a feather bed. In Plate XIII. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, fiz. 1 isa view of the tongue of the cat: a, the part covered with the fpiculated papille ; 4, the pendent fungiform papille ; ¢, ¢, the two rows of incupped papille. Fig. 2 is one of the horny hooks removed from the tongue of the /eopard, and magnified to about four times the natural fize. Jig. 3 fhewe the tongue of the porpoi/e: a, the point of the tongue ter- minating in fhreddy procefles; 6, 4,4, the pimple-like emi- nences upon the upper furface of the tongue. Organs of Smelling —The apparatus for receiving the impreffions of odorous effluvia is much more complicated in mammalia generally than in man, which is confiftent with the great excellence of the fenfe of {melling in many of the former, : The parts.of the ethmoid bone, which enter into the com- pofition of the orbits and the parietes of the cranium, have been defcribed in their proper places. The foramina of the cribriform plate, through which the branches of the olfac- tory nerves pafs, appear to be numerous in proportion to the perfection of the fenfe of {melling. They are lefs nu- merous in the monkey than the human {fubjeé. In quadrupeds thefe foramina are of different fizes, and colleéted into groups. In fome fpecies of different tribes, as the beep, hog, ant-eater, &c. there is a row of larger holes on each fide of the erifta galli of the ethmoid bone. The faltigrade quadrupeds have the feweft foramina in the cribriform lamella, and the digitigrade the greateft number of them. The cells of the ethmoid bone, as they are generally found in mammalia, are well defcribed by Cuvier. He fays, it is neceflary to imagine a great number of hollow pedicles, all conneéted to the cribriform bone. They extend forwards and outwards; and, in proportion as they advance, thofe which are neareft unite. Veficles arife from them, which increafe in fize in proportion as they become lefs numerous : they are all hollew, and there are an infinite number of con- duits or ways between them, all of which communicate with each other. The ethmoidal cells are moft numerous in the carnivorous quadrupeds, which have the fineft fenfe of {mell. In the faltigrade order there are very few of thefe cells, Some genera of this tribe, as for inftance the hare, and the quadrumanous mammalia, have irregular cells like thofe of the human fubjeét. The ethmoidal cells are diltin& from the fuperior turbi- nated bone in many mammalia. They are fometimes fepa- rated from the reft of the nafal cavity by a particular fep- tum. This is efpecially to be obferved in the fog, where it is produced by a plate of the palatine bones inferiorly, and anteriorly by a procefs of the maxillary bones. It ex- tends to the feptum nafi, and leaves only a narrow paflage above it. In the carnivorous tribe and the hor/e the projec- tion of the maxillary bones is lefs confiderable ; but it is fuf- ficient to feparate the ethmoidal cells, which are contained in a depreflion behind it. In the /altigrade and cloven-hoofed quadrupeds this depreffion is little marked. The /uperior turbinated bone is formed by one of the eth- moidal cells in the Aoofed quadrupeds. This cell is larger and much longer than the reit, and extends as far as the in- ferior turbinated bone which it covers. The inferior urbinated bones are much more complicated in mammalia than in man. Cuvier fays, in the monies of the old contineat, they are’ formed as in the human fubject, but in the American monkies thefe bones are made nearly as in the many-hoofed and cloven- footed quadrupeds. In thefe two orders the fuperior turbinated bones com- mence each as a fingle lamina, which foon forms two. 9 Thefe MAMMALIA. Thefe are coiled upon themfelves in a fpiral manner, and make either two or two and a half turns, according to the fpecies, fo as to produce a fort of horn or concha, clofed potteriorly in a point. This horn contains two canals; the one above, the other below the principal lamina. The fu- perior canal leads to the maxillary finus in the cloven-hoofed quadrupeds, and in the fog it is continued pofteriorly in a long groove, which ends ia a canal that goes into the malar finus. The inferior canal of the concha conduéts into the back of the nafal cavity, as in the human fubject. The turbinated bones are comprefled horizontally in the hippopotamus, owing to the fhape of the animal’s head. The laminz of the turbinated bones are generally in the 4oofed quadrupeds porous or filled with foramina, which are of various fizes in different fpecies; in fome inftances the holes are fo large and numerous, that the bones form merely an offeous net-work. The piz, however, has no foramina in thefe bones. In the internal part of the turbinated bone there are feve- ral partitions; which are alfo perforated with vacancies. In the folid-hoofed tribe, according to Cuvier, the hori- zontal lamina of the inferior turbinated bones does not di- vide into two, but at firft folds downwards, then bends up- wards, and is attached behind to the maxillary bone. It afcends pofteriorly, to cover the opening into the inferior maxillary finus, and even to pafs into it. Laftly, it pro- duces, towards its middle, two or three oblique lamine, which are attached to the anterior edge of this hole. The inferior turbinated bones of the edentata and three-toed floth, very nearly refemble thofe defcribed in the cloven-footed quadrupeds. In the ¢wo-toed ant-eater, however, Cuvier fays, they are like two prifmatic boxes clofed on all parts, and di- vided internally by fome vertical lamine. The mur has fimilar bones, but without any divifion anteriorly. In the porcupine and marmot thefe bones confilt of a dou- ble lamina, attached longitudinally ; the two parts of which feparate from each other, and afcend by a {piral convolution, giving the appearance of the periwinkle fhell (turbo). The rat has the turbinated bones fimilar to thofe of the cloven- hoofed quadrupeds. The other /altigrada almoft all have thefe bones complicated, as in the carnivorous tribes. In thefe laft the lamina, by which the inferior turbinated bone is affixed, divides into two branches, each of which is again divided. ‘The Jaft lamine form a number of canals covered by the pituitary membrane. The air pafles through thefe canals on its way from the noltrils to the lungs, and back again. The /eal and otter have the inferior turbi- nated bone more fubdivided than any other’ animals of this clafs. Profeffor Harwood has calculated that the internal furface is equal to 120 fquare inches in each nafal cavity of the feal, The lamine are moft numerous in the beaver amongtt the /altigrada. When there are few lamine in the carnivorous and /altigrade orders, the lat laminz are fpirally twilted in the fame manner as where there are but two in other animals. ‘The /on has the lamina divided into two, each of which has a double roll. It is perforated by many foramina. The civet and the viverra genetta have only the lamina convoluted and without foramina. The intention of the divifions and convolutions of the in- ferior turbinated bones, is evidently to extend the furface of the pituitary membrane which is {pread upon them, and as we find this furface, almoft without exception, great in pro- portion to the acutenefs of the fenfe of fmell, we cannot but fuppofe the olfactory nerve is diltributed to it, although its branches have not yet been clearly traced beyond the fu- perior turbinated bone. The olfaéory nerve has been already defcribed until its entrance into the nafal cavity. Upon arriving there, its dif- tribution appears to be exaétly the fame both in man and mammalia. Cuvier mentions two branches, which are longer and plainer than the reft, upon the feptum, but thefe appear to us to be branches of the fifth pair of nerves, diftributed to the pituitary membrane for common fenfa- tion. The /inu/es of the different bones in the neighbourhood of the nafal cavity, more particularly the frontal finufes, have been confidered by Blumenbach and others as being fub- fervient to the organs of fmelling. We muft confefs, how- ever, that the ufe of thefe parts does not appear to us te be quite determined. The membrane which lines the finufes is not organized for receiving the impreflion of odorous ef- fluvia, and the retention of the latter in the cavities of the finufes does not feem likely to produce much effe@ upon the pituitary membrane. . We may obferve, that when ani- mals wifh to fmell any fubftance particularly, they make fhort infpirations, which is called /nuffing. 'The chief ufe of the finufes, as conneéted with the organs of {melling, ap- pears to be to fupply a clear watery fluid for keeping thofe parts moift which are really the feat of this fenfe, for we find, when the fecretion of the finufes becomes infpiflated or fupprefled by catarrhal inflammation, the fenfe of {melling is very much impaired. The frontal finufes vary very much in fize and figure, even in the genera of the fame tribe. They are {mall in the mon- key kind generally, and are even abfent in fome fpecies, hofe with prehenfile tails, on the contrary, have them large. The daés want thefe finufes. In the digitigrada they are large, and particularly fo in the dog kind, in which they not only occupy the anterior part of the os frontis, but the poft-orbitar proceffes, and each fide of the pofterior parietes of the orbit. Thefe finufes are very extenfive alfo in moft of the planii- grada. The badger, and the greater number of the wea/el kind, want them altogether, but have the poft-orbitar pro- cefles Isllow, and communicating freely with the nafal Cavity. Mott of the /altigrade quadrupeds want the frontal finufes; yet in the porcupine they are fo large as to pafs into the fub- {tance of the nafal bones. In the edentata thefe finufes do not exift, in the ant-eater and pangolin, but the armadillo has them of fome fize. In the /loth they are very extenfive, reaching nearly to the occiput. _ The cloven-footed quadrupeds have the frontal finufes in general very large, and in the ox, goat, and /heep, they extend into the interior of the offeous procefs, which fuftains the horn. Cuvier thinks the fag has no frontal finufes. Har- wood fays the deer want thete finufes, but have membranous cells between the nofe and internal angle of the eye. The elephant has the finufes correfponding to the frontal of prodigious extent. They give the remarkable promi- nence of the forehead which this animal poffeffes, and render feveral of the bones of the head hollow. They are divided into a great number of fmaller cells, fo that the texture of the cranium in the elephant has, when laid open, the ap- pearance of a honey-comb, or rather of a fponge that has large cells. In the Sag thefe finufes are larger than in any other animal, except the elephant. ‘They extend in both thefe quadrupeds as far as the occiput. In the common hog and babirouffa they are divided by fome laminz of bone, but do not form that intricate cellular {truéture found in the elephant. The hippopotamus and rhinoceros have no frontal finufes. ‘Thefe fioufes are of tolerable extent in the hor/?, but are confined + MAMMALIA. confined to the frontal bone, and in place of opening, as ufual, into the fuperior part of the nafal cavity, communicate on each fide, by a large opening, with the poftéerior maxillary finus. The /ea/ wants the frontal fiaufes. It will be feen, from the above account, that the magni- tude of the frontal finufes keeps pace in general, though not conitantly, with the degree of excellence in which the animal poflefles the fenfe of fmelling, from whence the opi- nion arofe, which we have already noticed, of thefe finufes being particularly connected with the organ of {melling. The maxillary finufes are very imall in many orders of mam- malia, as the digitigrada, plantigrada, the greater number of the /altigrada, and edentaia, and ufually in all the quadrupeds in whom the maxillary bone does not form a floor to the noitrils. They are lefs in the monkey and /emur than in man in proportion. Generally in the digitated quadrupeds, when there is a cavity in the maxillary bone, it is in common with that of the nofe. Hogs want the maxillary finus, but they have finufes in the’malar bone. The Aippopotamus has likewife a'{mall finus in the fame fituation. The maxillary finufes of the elephant are cellular, like the others of this animal. The cells com- municate, and one of them opens into the nafal cavity. The cloven-hoofed quadrupeds have the maxillary finufes, as well as the frontal, very large. Each finus opens into the nafal cavity, behind the inferior turbinated bone, by a narrow flit. In the Aorfe there are two maxillary finufes, an anterior and pofterior. The latter is the larger, and forms a pro- jection into the nafal cavity. The /phenoidal finufes, although, from the pofition of the head of quadrupeds, they mult perform the fame offices as the frontal finufes, do not correfpond with thefe laft in regard to fize. In the guadrumana, they are lefs than in man in propor- tion. The carnivorous tribes have {mall fphenoidal finufes, and fome of them, as the ofter, pole-cat, and /eal, want them. They appear to be abfimt alfo in molt of the other genera of mammalia. They are found in the hog and hippo- potamus, but of a {mall fize. The elephant has them of a very great magnitude. They extend into the pterygoid procefles of the fphenoid bone. ‘Their interior is not cel- lular, as the other finufes of the elephant are. The fphenoidal finufes exift in the horfe ; they open into the pofterior maxillary finufes. The entrance into the organ of fmelling, is in general compofed of the fame cartilages in man and many mam- malia, only differing in form and fize in the latter. In thofe with /nouts, the cartilages make in general a perfe& tube. Cuvier thus deferibes the fnout of the bear. The cartilaginous feptum is reflected inferiorly as well as fuperiorly ; the fuperior ale bend downwards; they meet on the fides, where they are united by cellular fubitances, and complete the external parictes of each noftril. The edge of each ala continues afterwards to bend inward, and forms a kind of concha, which makes an addition to the inferior turbinated bone, and which is covered, like it, by a prolongation of the pituitary membrane. In the horfe, a great part of the external nares is mem- branous. The edge of the noftrils contains a femi-lunar cartilage, which correfponds to the inferior cartilage of the human fubjeét. It has two branches, one is long and narrow, and is nearly parallel to the feptum; the other is fhort, almoft fquare, and fituated in the external ala of the nofe. ‘Vhe reft of the ala is formed by the integuments, which are at firft infle&ed to produce a fofla, which is known by the name of the fale noffril, The paflage into” the real nares is a long flit. The probofcis of the elephant and tapir is the moft re- markable prolongation of the external parts of the organs of fmelling. ‘The two external nares are extended into two membranous tubes, which in the elephant are of great length. Thefe tubes are inclofed by the complicated mufcular ftruéture already defcribed, and the integuments. The mufcles which move the different parts of the ex- ternal nares are defcribed along with thofe of the reft of the body. : We have before obferved, that the cetacea do not poffefs any olfactory nerves, or apparently any organ calculated for receiving impreflions from odorous fubftances. Yet Mr. Hunter afcribed the fenfe of fmelling to the /permacett whales, and Cuvier feems to think, that it may exilt, in a degree, in a certain cavity and cells which communicate with the Euftachian tube. Thefe are fituated on the lateral » parts of the bafe of the fkull, and are partly formed by projections of the bone, and partly by proceffes of liga- ment. They are very irregular interiorly, and are lined with a thin mucous membrane. ‘Thefe cells communicate with the frontal finufes, by a canal which afcends before the orbit. There is a tolerably large opening from the principal cavity into the Euftachian tube. his laft terminates in the nares. The cellular cavity, therefore, has no direct com- munication with the nares. There are feveral branches of the fifth pair of nerves difperfed through thefe membranous cells, but there is no reafon for fuppofing that thefe have _any fenfibility for odorous fubftances, even if they were fairly applied to them. The two canals correfponding to the nares, are ufed in cetacea for the tranfmiflion of the air to and from the lungs, as thefe animals do not refpire by the mouth; for the larynx, inftead of opening at the back of the mouth, afcends in the form of a pyramid, and is received into a flefhy tube, which is common to the two nares. /Whales, therefore, can keep the mouth in the water, and {wallow their food, without interrupting their refpiration, and it is to enable them to do fo frequently, that the external opening of the nares is upon the top of the head. The flefhy tube which receives the fuperior part of the larynx foon divides into two canals, which pafs on each fide of the vomer, and are analogous to the pofterior paflages, into the nafal cavity of other mam- malia. They are, however, lined by a thin, dry integument, very unlike the pituitary membrane. They afcend in two canals that are formed in the bones of the cranium, fepa- rated by a thin feptum. Where the two canals terminate, they are provided with a flefhy valve in the fhape of two femicircles. This valve is attached to the anterior edge of their orifice, and-clofes it by means of a very ftrong mufele, that is attached to the intermaxillary bones. On the outtide of this valvular opening, there are placed two large, oval, membranous bags. Thefe are lined by a black mucous integument, which appears to be the continuation of the fkin; it is very deeply wrinkled in a relaxed ftate. A ttrong layer of flefhy fibres arifesin a radiated manner from the circumference of the cranium, and unites upon thefe two bags. ‘The fkin of the head covers them, and there appears: externally only a fmall flit of a femi-lunar figure, which is a common opening to the two bags. It is the ftruéture juft defcribed which enables the cetacea to expel any water which may get into the pharynx or nafal paflages. This is done with fo much force, that the jet is feen in the larger f{pecies at a confiderable diftance’ at féa, Some whales are reported to fpout the water from ed blow MAMMALIA. © blow holes as high as 4o feet. When thefe animals wifh to expel the water from thefe fpiracles, they clofe the pha- rynx and larynx by their proper mufcles; the larynx retreats from the flefhy tube which embraces it during infpiration, and leaves the paflaze into the nares free, through which the water is urged to afcend, until it arrives in the oval bags fituated on the forehead, which is the upper part of the head in thefe animals. The valve that guards the opening of the nares into the oval bags is fhut, to prevent the retreat of the water; the mufcles of the bags contract, and the water is thrown out through the femi-lunar fiffure of the fkin with extraordinary force. Fig. 4. Plate XIII. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, is a feGtion of the anterior part of the fku!l and upper jaw of the Aog, in which moft of the circumftances in the ftruéture of the organ of [melling are brought. into view: a, the frontal finufes, which are very large in this animal; 4, the {phenoidal finufes of a {mall fize; c, the ethmoidal cells ; d, the fuperior turbinated bone; ¢, the inferior turbinated bone; f, the paflage to the malar finus; g, the feptum dividing the ethmoidal cells from the fuperior turbinated bone. Organs of Hearing.—The concha and cartilaginous meatus auditorius, which conftitute the external projetting ear, are generally much larger in mammalia than in man. Some, however, that burrow in the ground, are deprived of concha, as the mole and fome /hrews, the zemni and fome mole-rats. It is alfo wanting in the pangolins, the ornithorhynchus, fome feals, and the zor/fe. In the cetacea, there are no external parts to the ear. The cartilaginous meatus commences by a very {mall orifice in the fkin, and leads to the membrana tympani. _ The concha is large in thofe mammalia that have occafion to colleét diftant founds in the air, as the dat, feveral cloven- footed quadrupeds, the a/s, the hare, the rabbit, &c. In the fugitive quadrupeds, the concavity of the concha is ufually turned backwards; and in thofe that hunt for their feod, it is generally dire€ied forwards. In the Jat kind, the hollow of the ear is turned forwards, probably for feel- ing the approach of other bodies in the fame manner, as the wings of thefe animals do. The ears of the wefpertilio JSpajma are immoyeably fixed in the forward direétion, as they are united to each other by their internal edges. “The fuperior part of the external ear being pendulous, Cuvier remarks, is an effect of domeftication. The ear of the elephant is alfo pendulous, but not in the fame way as in domeftic animals; it being only the potterior and inferior part of the elephant’s ear which hangs down. In proportion as the ear is found larger than in man, it ufually becomes alfo more elongated in its gure: it is alfo thinner. It is nearly membranous in the ofofum. The eminences of the external ear are various in mammalia. The moft fingular peculiarities are feen in the Jat kind. That remarkable projeGtion whick appears like one concha, contained within another in the great eared bat, is the emi- nence called the tragus prodigioufly enlarged. This part is alfo unufually formed in the other f{pecies of dat. It is forked in the we/pertilio /pafma; notched in the vefpertilio keporinus, and v. crenatus. Vhe antitragus is extended forwards in the ve/periilio mo- lofius, to the angle of the mouth. It forms an operculum to the ear in fome /brews, particularly in the aquatic /hrew, which has the opening into the ear perfectly covered by this means. ¢ _ Quadrupeds often have the cartilaginous meatus audito- rius compofed of two pieces; one is joined with the concha; the other is a tube which is connected to the bony meatus Io p . by ligament : both pieces have a longitudinal fiffure. The defign of this ftructure is to permit the contraétion and elongation of the cartilaginous tube of the ear. In the long-eared quadrupeds alfo, there is a third carti- lage, to which nothing fimilar exifts in the ear of the human fubje&t. It is fituated above the cartilaginous meatus ; it is flat, and forms no part of the concavity, but merely ferves for the attachment of certain mufcles. It varies in fhape ; it is triangular in the orfe; lunated in the fheep ; pointed pofteriorly, and bilobed pofteriorly in the radbit, and rhom- boidal in the dog. Cuvier, from whom we borrow this ac- count, calls this cartilage the /cutum. The external meatus auditorius is long and curioufly twilted in the ornithorhynchus. The mujfcles which move the external ear in moft quadru- peds are-very numerous and complicated ; they have received a diftin& defcription along with the other mufcles of the body. The off/ous portion of the meatus auditorius is fubje&t to a good deal of variety with refpeét to its length and direétion. The latter feems to be influenced by the courfe in which the founds approach the animal that it is the moft concerned to hear. The offeous meatus is fingularly formed in the mole ; it is flattened fuperiorly and extended on the fides. The membrana tympani, which is very large, conftitutes its fuperior parietes; by this means the mole is enabled to collect more perfectly the founds that arife from the earth. The whale tribe have no offeous meatus auditorius, but the auditory paflage is long and ferpentine ; it is made of cartilages and membranes that allow its being lengthened and fhortened. The membrana tympani is extenfive in general for the acute- nefs of the fenfe of hearing. It is alfo fituated more or lefs obliquely in thofe that hear well. In the mole it is nearly flat, and forms the bottom of the cavity of the tympanum. It is nearly as oblique, according to Cuvier, in the offer, weafel, and badger. Inthe pangolin, alfo, itis very oblique. Its pefition is nearly vertical in many other carnivorous quad- rupeds. Itis nearly vertical, and turned towards the fide, in the Aare, cavy, niarmot, and mott of the cloven-footed order. The form of the membrana tympani depends upon the frame of bone in whichit is placed. Itis generally in mam- -malia an oval, with the great axis defcending obliquely for- wards, and the anterior arch lefs convex than the pofterior. In fome of the /a/tigrada, the membrana tympani approaches the figure it poffeffes in man ; and in the mole it is perfeCly round. Jt has the figure of a trefoil leaf in the cetacea. The offeous frame of the membrana tympani is only perfect, according to Cuvier, in the guinca-rigs the paca, the /eal, and the ant-eater. ‘There is in other initances a greater or lefs de- ficiency in the upper part of it. This is often about one quarter of its circumference. In the elephant the half of the upper part of the offeous frame is wanting. In\the cetacea there is no proper procefs of bone for a frame. The membrana tympani has fomething of the infundibular figure in all mammalia, except in the mole, where it exhibits no concavity on the outer furface. The ftructure of this membrane appears to be the fame in all the clafs of mammiferous animals. In the larger quadru- peds there 1s no difficulty in expofing its three layers, and in the elephant the mufcularity of the middle layer is faid to be clearly demonftrable. The cavity of the tympanum in moft mammalia is dilated at the lower part, ufually into a femi-oval or femi-fpherical cell. Thofe of each fide produce two eminences that are vifible upon the lower part of the full. They MAMMALIA. They are feen even in the prehenfile-tailed monkies ; but are moft remarkable in the carnivorous mammalia ; they are very large in the cat kind, and the feal. Thefe protuberances are more or lefs angular in the /loth, the cavy, the cloven-hoofed, and feveral of the many-hoofed quadrupeds. They are flat in the mo/e,and fo broad as to touch eachother. _In the dear there are no projections vifible. In the hog they are elon- gated, and end in bulbous heads. The ma/loid proce/s can hardly be faid to exift in mammalia. Its place feems to be fupplied by the dilatation we have jult deferibed. In the cloven and /olid-hoofed quadrupeds, the hog, cavy, and guinea-pig, there isa {tyle-fhaped procefs from the occipital bone, which has been confidered as analogous to the mattoid procefs by fome anatomitts. The interior of the cavity of the tympanum is, in many genera, more or lefs fubdivided into different parts. A number of the carnivoreus tribes have a tranf{verfe offeous ridge from the frame of the membrana tympani, to which it appears to ferve asa fupport. In addition to this, there is, in the cat and civet genera, an offeous procefs, that extends from the polterior inferior edge of the frame of the membrana tympani, to the promontory, and which, being prolonged obliquely, divides the cavity of the tympanum into two un- equal parts, that only communicate with each other by a hole. ‘The anterior of thefe two cavities contains the bones of the ear and the foramen ovale. The pofterior cavity is much larger, and holds the foramen rotundum. It feems to correfpond with the large cells of birds. Cuvier {tates that prehen/ile-tailed monkies and ant-eaters have an additional cell, fituated before the cavity of the tym- panum, and that the /Joth has a cell at the root of the zygo- matic procefs. The interior of the tympanum is intercepted in the elephant by a number of bony procefles, which crofs in every direc- tion, and produce a multitude of cells. A fimilar ftru€ture exiits in a degree in the guinea-pig, marmot, cavy, and porcu- pine, according to Cuvier. The two tympani of the elephant communicate by the cellular ftructure of the fkull. The tympanum has offeous fepta in the pig and horned 4i- fulca, which divide its cavity into cells like thofe of a ripe fruit. In the Aippopotamus the proper cavity of the tympanum opens by a hole into a cellular cavity. The feal and morfe have the tympanum very wide, but without fepta. The offeous part of the Luffachian tube in the cat and civet, is rather a narrow fiflure than a canal ; in the otter, badger, and wea/el, &c. it is a hole; in the cavy it is a half formed canal at firft, which is completed in paffing through the petrous part of the temporal bone. In the elephant it is a long wide canal. There is a large membranous fac in the back of the mouth of the Aorfe, in which the Enftachian trumpet ends. In the cetacea, the cavity of the tympanum, as well as the petrous portion of the temporal bone, is diftin& from the reft of the full, to which thefe parts are only bound by ligament and periofteum. The tympanum refembles in figure the fea fhell called bulla, The part which correfponds to that con- taining the {piral cavity in the bulla is, however, folid in the tympanum, ‘This part is more than two inches thick in the cachalot (phyfeter). ‘This tympanum adheres to the petrous bone by its pofterior extremity, and by a procefs of the an- terior part of its thin edge. Cuvier ftates that in the do/- phin, the anterior procefs of the tympanum alfo afcends to the petrous bone, but in the cachalots (phyfeter) it does not ~ reach that part. The tympanum of the cetacea is rough upon the furface. It is very ponderous, from poffefling a great quantity of earthy matter, and is lined with a {tron membrane, which Hunter thought had acuticle. There is” a thick plexus of veffels in the cavity of the tympanum, one part of which is attached, and the other floats at liberty, like the plexus choroides in the ventricles of the brain. The Euttachian tube in cetacea is wideit at its commencement from the tympanum, the anterior extremity of which is entirely open. ‘The tube afcénds along the pterygoid procefs, pe- netrates the maxillary bone, and terminates by a valvular opening in the nafal paffage. Both the tube and the cavity of the tympanum communicate with feveral ligamertous cells, which Hunter confidered analogous to the mattoid in fome refpedts. The two foramina which conneé& the cavity of the tym- panum are fo various in their form, that the ufual names of foramen rotundum, and foramen ovale, would be improper. Cuvier, therefore, has called the firtt the feneflra cochlearis, and the fecond the feneffra ve/fibularis. In the dat, the foramen of the cochlea is larger than the other. In the mole, they have both an oval figure. There is a hollow offeous bar which gives paflage to {ome blood-veffels extended acrofs the feneltra veltibularis in this animal; it pafles between the branches of the ftapes. A fimilar bar is found in other inftances. In the cat and civet, the foramen of the cochlea is almoft twice as large as the veftibular feneftra. In the opaffum, the foramen called oval in the human fub- ject is round, and the one called round is fmall and irregular. The latter is triangular in the beaver and marmot, and in the » hare it is a {mall fiffure. The veitibular foramen in this laft animal is round and large. The cochlear feneftra is about double the fize of the other in the ca/fand pig, and three times larger in the pep renet But in the elephant it is very {mall and irregul&rly fhaped. It is larger than the veftibular foramen in the horfe. The two foramina are farther afunder in the cetacea than in quadrupeds. The one of the cochlea is the larger. It has an opening for blood-veffels. The lining of the tym- panum projeéts into the cochlear feneftra. The fame number of offcula auditus are found in mammalia as in man, with hardly any exceptions. The ornithorhynchus paradoxus has only two officula ; the firft correfponds to the malleus of other mammalia ; the fecond refembles very much the fingle officulum of birds. Perhaps a mechanifm fimilar, or approaching to this, would be found in fome of the other edentata. There have been difcovered in fome of the cloven-hoofed quadrupeds ove or two {mall bones in addition to the ufual number. Thefe do not appear to be a natural ftruGture. We fhall not enter into a minute defcription of the varieties in the form of the bones of the ear, as many of them do not appear to influence the functions of the organ, We thall only notice the more remarkable peculiarities ob- ferved in the officula auditus, and refer the reader to Cuvier’s “Comparative Anatomy,” vol. ii. and Mr. Carlile’s paper upon the ftapes in the Philofophical TranfaGtions for 1805, &c. for amore particular defcription of thefe parts. The proceffus gracilis of the malleus is formed into a thin lamina at its extremity in fome monéies, and in the dog and cat, In the two latter, the /bort proce/s of the malleus is very pro- ° minent, and there is another procefs at the inner part of the neck of the officulum, which fupplies the place of the {mall {pine of the human f{nbject. In the mole, the proceffus gracilis is fo broad as to make the malleus appear nearly {quare. In the /altigrada, the handle of the malleus is very a t * MAMMALIA. Tt is likewife fo in the /loth, ant-eater, and pangolin, and in all thefe the fhort pofterior procefs iz almoft effaced. In the /ea/, the handle of the malleus is alfo comprefled, and there is hardly any proceffus gracilis. In the cetacea, the handle of the malleus is different, but its place is in fome degree fupplied by a tendinous elongation of membrana tympani, which has more of the funnel fhape than in the other mammalia, efpecially on the inner fide. This prolongation of the point of the infundibular membrana tym- pani is inferted into the bafe of the neck of the malleus. The neck is truncated obliquely, and there is a proceffus gracilis which is conical and arched in its form. There is lefs variation in the forms of the incus of mam- malia, than in the preceding officulum. The mole has the moft remarkably fhaped incus. Its inferior or ftapedian procefs is very fhort and {mall ; while the other is very large, oblong, and hollowed pofteriorly like a fpoon. Cuvier imagines this may be for holding a mufcle. The ftapedian procefs is very long, and the other hardly apparent in the ra¢ and hare. The exiftence of the orbiculare as a diftin& officulum has been doubted by fome anatomifts. Blumenbach confiders it only as an epiphyfis of the incus. He fays it is often wanting even in negroes and North American Indians, whofe organs of hearing are very perfect: that it is confolidated with the incus in the adult, and that when it is found as a diftin@ bone it is not a natural ftructure. It has appeared, however, to us to be too eafily feparated, and too regular in its figure, for a mere epiphyfis of the incus. It is want- ing altogether in the cetacea. The bottle-nofed whale, accord- ing to Hunter, has a fmall bone in the tendon of the flapi- deus mufcle. There are feveral varieties in the figure of the /fapes, which are pointed out by Mr. Carlile, as above-mentioned. The form of this officulum is moft peculiar in the mo/e, and in the aguatic mammalia. The former has the branches of the ftlapes very much arched and far afunder. The bafe of the officulum is an elongated oval fhape. In the cetacea the parts correfponding to the branches are fo thick and clofe to each other, that the {tapes appears as a folid bone, with a very minute foramen in the middle. The bafe is fmall in proportion to the reft of the officulum. In thofe fpecies we have examined, the foramen was only large enough to admit the point of a pin. Cuvier defcribes the {tapes of the /amantin as refembling a twilted cylinder: on one fide there is an oblique groove, and the foramen has the appearance of the punéture of a pin. The furface cf the bafe applied to the feneftra veftibularis is very con- vex. Some approaches to this ftruéture of the flapes has been obferved ia the eal, from whence it has been fuppofed, that a folid {tate of this officulum was favourable to hearing founds communicated through water. ‘The muj/cles of the bones in the tympanum have not re- ceived as much inveltigation as they merit, either in man or animals. ‘Che fame number appear to exift in mammalia as in man, with the exception of the cetacea, which feem to want all the mufcles inferted into the malleus. They have, however, the /fapideus mufcle. Cuvier fays, it is inferted very far up, and not in the middle of the branch of the officulum, as in man. The Jabyrinth confifts of the fame parts in mammalia as inman. ‘Lhe /emi-circular canals were at one time not fup- pofed to exilt in the cetacea. ‘They are fo extremely {mall that they even efcaped the notice, for a long time, of fo accurate an anatomift as Camper. In the porpoife we have found them jult large enough to admit a briltle to pafs in them. ‘The extreme hardnefs and brittlenefs of the petrous Voz. XXII. bone in cefacea, are additional reafons for thefe canals re- maining undifcovered, and ftand in the way of invefti- gating all the parts of the organ of hearing in thefe animals, This bone, and indeed the tympanum alfo, in cetacea, are as denfe and weighty as common ftone, and when dried are very eafily broken in all directions. The petrous bone is not united, evea by future, with any of the other bones of the cranium, but is retained by ligament and periofteum ia a vacancy formed principally in the occipital bone. The mole, whole organ of hearing, in many refpeéts, is formed upon an oppoiite plan to that of the cetacea, is diftin- guifhed by the extent of the femi-circular canals, and thefe are plainly feen on the infide of the cranium, from not being imbedded in a bone harder than the reft of the cra- nium, as ufual in other cafes. Some mammalia are remarkable for the great fize of their cochlea, in proportion to their parts of the ear. The dats have it of the greateft relative fize. Cuvier ftates, that the horfe-fboe bat has the diameter of the cochlea ten times greater than that of one of the femi-circular canals. ‘Fhe cochlea is vifible in this genus on the lower part of the cra- nium, generally where its form is diltin@ly exhibited without any diflection of the temporal bone. It bears a perfe@ like- nefs to the fnail-fhell. The femi-circular canals are vifible on the internal part of the cranium. There is no petrous portion, properly {fo called, either in the dat or the mole, except what conititutes the labyrinth itfelf. In the hare-lipped bat, ac- cording to Cuvier, the cochlea proje¢ts on the infide of the craniura. In mott of the carnivorous tribes of mammalia, the cochlea is larger in relation to the femi-circular canals than it is in the human fubje&. It is, likewife, fo in the hog, ele phant, and horfe. On the contrary, the relative fize of the cochlea to the canals, is lefs in the mole and Aare than in man. In general, the cochlea forms two turns and a half in mammalia, as in man. But the guinea-pig, cavy, and por- cupine, have three turns afid a half. Their cochlea has a pyramidal figure, and makes a projection into the cavity of the tympanum. The cochlea of cetacea is very peculiar. It is large, but only fofms one turn and a half, which is nearly in the plane of its axis. The offeous /amina Jpiralis is divided throughout its length by a very narrow fiffure into two parts. That which touches the axis is three times larger than the other. The fiffure is only completed in the recent fLaig by a membrane. The offeous part of this feptum alfo, which touches the axis, has under its bafe, and in the feala of the tympanum, a fmall canal, which follows the fame.curvature from ohe ex- tremity of the cochlea to the other. This canal appears hike a third fala to the cochlea, but it differs in the circum- {tance of its capacity increafing as it proceeds in the cochlea ; it is wideft at the apex. Cuvier obferves, that there is a fimilar canal, though much fmaller, in the cloven-hoof.d quadrupeds. In the other mammalia, only the part of the lamina fpiralis which touches the axis is offeous, as in man. According to Cuvier, the dog, /loth, elephant, horfe, dol- phin, &c. refemble man in having the feala of the cochlea that goes to the tympanum rather larger than the other. It is much greater in the dat. The fcala that leads to the veftibulum, is the larger in the calf, goat, Sheep, hare, cat, guinea-pig, rat, Kc. The aguedués, as they are called, appear to exift in all mammalia. ‘They haye been obferved to be very large is the dolphin. Qq The MAMMALIA. The figures which illuftrate the organ of hearing, are found in Plate XIII. of the Anatomy of Mammalia. Fig. 5. reprefents the under furface of the fkull in the mole, the lower jaw being removed : ais the flat dilatation of the cavity of the tympaaum, analogous to the mattoid cells, feen externally on the left hand fide: 4 is the round, level, membrana tympani, expofed on the other fide by the bone being cut away : ¢, the ofleous meatus auditorius. Fig. 6. fhews an undiffeGted view of the bone, containing the organ of hearing in the grampus, removed from its conneétions with the fkull: a, the bone which forms the tympanum ; 8 2, the extenfive flit-fhaped opening into the cavity of the tympanum, and which has been compared to the aperture of the dulla thell: c, the irregular trilobed {pace left for the attachment of the membrana tympani: d, the part of the petrous bone containing the labyrinth. Jig. 7. 1s a view of the malleus of the mole. Fig. 8. fhews the fame bone in the dare. Fig. g. is the fhort, thick malleus of the grampus, with the membrana tympani attached to it: a, the oflicn- lum: 2, the infundibular membrana tympani, with its elong- ated point inferted into the neck of the malleus. Fig. 10. gives the thape of the incus in the mole: a is the hollow pro- cefs of the bone. Fig. 11. is the incus of the grampus. fig. 12. exhibits the ftapes of the mole in fitu: a, the offi- culum: 4, the offeous bar that croffes the feneftra veltibu- laris between the branches of the ftapes: c,¢, are the fur- rounding parts of the temporal bone left in the diffeétion. Fiz. 13. gives a fide view of the ftapes in the grampus, in which is fhewn the {mall aperture that correfponds to the {pace left between the limbs of that bone in other mam- malia. Fig. 14. is a view of the lower part of the interior of the cranium in the mole: @ indicates the labyrinth as it appears, without any diffection of the bones of the cranium : 6, the femi-circular canals and cochlea expofed, by cutting away fome part of the cranium, which is very loofe and cellular in its texture, adjoining the offeous labyrinth in‘this animal. Fig. 15. is a reprefentation of the offeous labyrinth of the dat, removed from the fkull, and a little magnified : a, the femi-circular canal : J, the very large cochlea: c, the foramen cochlea feneftra: d, the veftibular feneftra. Fig. 16. exhibits the turriculated cochlea of the guinea-pig, laid open on one fide, to expofe the three turns and a half made by it in this animal. ig. 17. fhews the cochlea and part of the femi-circular canals of the grampus, excavated from the pe- trous bone: a, J, the two tubes which form the cochlea: e, d, parts of the femi-circular canals expofed and laid open in making the fections of the bone in which they are in- clofed : e is the portion of the petrous bone left in the dif- fe&tion. Fig. 18. fhews the entire cochlea of the whale, ab- ftraéted from all furrounding bone; at the extremity are feen the openings into the two tubes of the organ. Fig. 19. is a lateral view of the fame cochlea: a, 4, are the two {mall openings of the cochlea: ¢ is the beginning of a ridge which divides the entrance of the cochlea: d, the tube, which appeared to Camper to contain a nerve. Organs of Vifion.—The eye is compofed of the fame coats and humours in mammalia as in the human fubjeét. The comparative anatomy of the organs of vifion in this clafs, relates to varieties in the ftru€ture of particular parts, with a defcription of a few appendages ta the eye, that do not exilt in man. : There is fome diverfity in the external figure of the eye- ball in different mammalia. Agreeable to a general pringiple already laid down, it is more globular, or the anterior part is more gibbous, in proportion to the tenuity of the medium, through which the animal beholds objects. We therefore find that eyes of the aguatic mammalia are mof flat upon the anterior fide, in which circumftance they approach in forra the eyes of fifhes. The departure from the fpherical form of the eye is indi- cated by a table publifhed in Cuvier’s «« Comparative Anato- my,’” in which the length of the axis is compared with that of thetranfverfe diameter of the eye. We thall extra the following examples. Asi Tranfverfe se Diameter. Man - - - ttt FE 1 or, to be more accurate 137 3 136 Monkey - - - the fame Dog - - - 7 Mik iS <6) 25 Ow - - - 20 = 21 Horfe - - = 24 F 25 Porpoife, meafured externally z = 3 Whale, meafured internally 6 : 1i Both the permanent and changeable forms of the eye-ball depend neceffarily upon its external parietes, which are the {clerotic coat and cornea. The /clerotic coat has the fame texture, and proportionate thicknefs of its different parts, in mammalia generally as io man. ‘There are, neverthelefs, fome ftriking exceptions to this obfervation inthe aquatic tribes. The f{clerotic of the Jeals is thick and firm at the anterior, and {till more fo at the pofterior parts of the eye; but around the mid- dle this coat is very thin and pliant. This change of the ftrength of the coat is not, however, abrupt. Blumen- bach attributes to this ftru€ture the power of accommo- dating the form of the organ to the different media in which thefe animals refide. The cornea of the fal tribe is alfo thin and yielding, and the mufcles which aét upon the eye- ball are ftrong. The refult of all thefe circumftances is, that the creature can elongate and fhorten the axis of the eye according to the occafion, and thereby adapt it to vifion in the two media of air and water. D? Albus has difcovered a fimilar conformation of the fele- rotic in the walrus, in which it is alfo obvicufly intended to anfwer the fame purpofes. The fclerotic coat of the eye in cetaceous mammalia is very peculiar. It is prodigioufly thick at the pofterior part; in the larger fpecies about an inch and a half; in the grampus about iths of an inch ; and in the porpoife two or three lines thick. It gradually declines until it arrives at the cornea, where it pofleffes the ordinary thicknefs of the felerotic, in pro- portion to the fize of the animal. The compofition of this coat is equally curious with its form. Upon dividing it, we find a multitude of ligamentous fibres paffing through it in all direétions, and forming an inextricable plexus, which contains in its mefhes a brown fungous elaitic fubftance. A feétion of the {clerotic has very much the appearance of that of tanned leather, only that it is paler. The coat is loofer in its texture, and fofter quite at the back part, than on the’ fides of the eye-ball. The mefhes there contain an oily fubftance. he fheath of the dura mater, which contains the optic nerve, is neceffarily very long, and is very eafily demonitrated in the cetacea. ‘Lhe tibres which enter into the compofition of the {clerotic are feen to depart from the ex- ternal part of the fheath, which faét has been taken as the proof of the fclerotic coat being, in all cafes, a production of the dura mater, as fuppofed by the ancient anatomifts. The fclerotic of the whale kind, by its great firmnefs, de- fends the internal parts of the eye from preffure, to which they would otherwife be fubje&, from the fhallownefs of the orbits. The form of the internal part of the organis I : alfo MAMMALIA. alfo altered to nearly an oval, although the external figure is {pherical. The tranfparent cornea generally refembles that of the human fubject in the clafs of mammalia. The porcupine and opofum have this part large, and forming the fame {phere with the felerotic. Blumenbach fays the cornea of the porcupine extends over half the globe of the eye. The diftin@ion between the cornea and the fclerotic, which is generally but an apparent change of itructure, is very clearly to be traced in fome of the large animals, in which thefe two coats can be feparated. In the whales and the rhinoceros, the attachment of the fclerotica to the cornea is by the fibres of the former pafling into the latter. Inthe ox, &c. the line of feparation can be feen to be oblique, the cornea paffing a little under the edge of the felerotic. In the Aare and others, the edge of the felerotica is double, and embraces on both fides the margin of the eornea. The tunica conjundiva is, efpecially in the large quadru- peds, lefs adherent to the eye-bail than in man. Mr. Pierce Smith has profeffed to trace not only the conjunctiva, but the expanfion of the ftraight mufcles over the cornea. The plaineft evidence of the continuation of the conjunctiva over the front of the cornea is found in the zemni rat (mus ty- phlus), which has the conjunétiva retaining the ftruéture of the true fkin, and even covered with hair, fo that the eye is altogether ufelefs, or at moft can faintly difcern the differ- ence between light and darknefs. The eye of this animal is faid to be not larger than a poppy feed. In'the mole, alfo, the eye is extremely minute, and fo much fhut in by the hair on the eyelids, that it does not appear to be capable of feeing any object diftinétly : indeed the eyes of the mole are fo much concealed, that they are fuppofed by common people to be wanting altogether. In the whale and the large quadrupeds, the diftinétion of the two layers of the choroid coat is very perceptible. The internal layer, or membrana Ruyfchiana, is particularly plain in the whale. Mr. Thomas has difcovered a moft curious apparatus con- nected with the choroides in the Laff Indian rhinoceros. Four tendinous procefles arife from the back part of the felerotic coat, expand anteriorly, and form a {fpecies of mufcular membrane, which is lott in the choroides at the breadett dia- meter of the eye-ball. It is eafy to conceive that this ftruc- ture can produce material alterations in the figure of the eye, and in the diftance of the eryftalline lens from the retina, but we cannot conceive why fo great a power of adjuftment in the eyeto different diftances fhould belong exclufively to this animal. The pigment of the internal furface of the membrana Ruyfchiana is of various colours in mammalia, particularly on the back of the eye. The monkey has it dark coloured. The hare, rabbit, and hog, have 11a brown: but in many other mammalia the pigment upon the back of the eye has light and vivid colours. It is called, in thefe cafes, the tape- tum lucidum. The ox has the back of the eye a green, which is loft in'an azure blue. In the /heep it is a pale yellow- green, or fometimes blueifh. Some anatomifts, who feem to have confined thefe obfervations to thofe two cafes, have con- jeGtured that the ufe of the tapetum is to reficét the natural colour of the animal’s food. But the abfurdity of this opi- nion is fhewn by the varieties of the colour of the back of the eye in other animals. The tapetum is a filvery blue, changing to violet in the horfey goat, buffalo, and flag. It isa pale golden yellow in the lion, cat, bear, and dolphin. Jt is a pure white, termi- wating in blue, in the dog, wolf, and badger. The fhape of the coloured portion of the Ruyfchian coat is irregular, and is fituated chiefly upon the temporal fide of the entrance of the optic nerve: but in the whales the whole of the Ruyfchiana is a filver colour ; the ciliary pro- cefles and back of the iris alone being dark. The ufe of the tapetum is not very obvious. The moft probable opinion re{pecting it is, that it enables animals to fee better in the dark. . The cikary procefés do not appear to differ in their ftruc- ture in this clafs andin the human fubjeét. It is true they are very prominent in the large {pecies, and the denticulation of their edges is fo much increafed, as to forma rich fringed appearance, particularly in the rhinoceros and whale. 'The laminz of thefe proceffes are long and narrow in the cat kind, more efpecially in the /ion. Mammalia have the iris ufnally of a more uniform colour than in man. In dome/fic quadrupeds, however, there is con- fiderable variety in this refpect. The colour of the iris cor- refponds fo much with that of the hair, that in /potted dogs, &c. the iris is oftenof a mixed colour. Inthe large mammalia the iris is of confiderable thicknefs, but no difference of ftruéture has been perceived. The uwvea is found much more plain in the ox, rhinoceros, and whale,j&c. than in man, and the ftriz that are continued upon the uvea from the ciliary proceffes, are very diftind in thefe fpecies. They extend in the rhinoceros nearly to the edge of the pupil. The pupil of the eye has various forms in fome mam- malia. It is in the cat kind a vertical flit, over which thefe animals have great command, fometimes contraéting it to a mere line, and at others dilating it to nearly a round figure. In the clover-hoofed order, the pupil is a tranfverfe flit, with the ends of the flit wider than the middle. In the horf it is alfo tranfverfe, but the fuperior edge projects a little way. This has been compared to the curtain that hangs over the pupil in the /kate by Swammerdam, although there is but little relemblance between the two parts. It is a tranfverfe oblong aperture in the true whales, and in the genus de/phinus it is a heart fhape. The retina is formed ufually in the fame manner in mam- malia asin man, It fometimes happens that the offic nerves immediately on entering the cavity of the eye, forms a flight projeétion. In the hare and raddit, this projection is de- {cribed as producing a kind of oval cupola, which is flightly concave in the middle. The retina arifes from the edge of it. The fibres of the nerve are condenfed on each fide into two ftreaks or pencils, which are a more opaque white than the other parts of the retina. In almoft all mammalia the retina has at its origin the appearance of its fub{tance being colleG&ed into folds, or fibres, which arife in a radiated manner. Comparetti ftates, that the optic nerve of the Jat perforates the fclerotic coat by a number of foramina. ‘The filaments, thus formed, unite to produce the retina. The foramen of the retina, which ufually takes the name of S6mmerring, has not been found in any of this clafs, ex- cept the monkey tribe. Cuvier ftates, that he found it in the eynocephalus confiderably larger than in man, and of ap oval fhape. It is fingular, that although this foramen does rot exilt in the /emur, yet the fold which contains it in man and the monkey is found. The ufes of the foramen of SOmmerring are not yet determined. Mr. Home imagined that it gave exit to an abforbent veffel; but it is much more probable that its exiftence is conneéted with the polition of the eyes, as it is only met with in thofe that have the eyes placed fo Qq2 that MAMMALIA. that their axes are parallel. Blumenbach obferves, upon this fubje&t, that when the two eyes are fituated, as in man and the monkey, they are liable to be both dazzled at the fame time, by an expofure to a ftrong light, as the rays fall upon the correfponding principal focufes of both eyes at once. He concludes, that the foramen of Sommerring being in the principal focus, the rays pafs through it, and are fuf- focated in the pigment of the choroid coat. But to pro- duce fuch an effect, without weakening vifion at all times, would require a mufcular power to open and fhut the foramen according to circumitances, nothing of which kind appears to be provided. The agueous humour of the eye would appear to be in lefs quantity, according to the bulk of the organ in mammalia, than in man. The cryftalline, on the contrary, occupies lefs fpace in proportion to the other parts in man than any of the mam- malia. It is alfo more of a fpherical figure in all this clafs than it is in*the human fubject. Blumenbach ftates, that he found the cryttalline-to be largeft in relation to the vitreous humour in the Virginiau opofum. We feleé& the following inftances from a table founded on the obfervations of Petit and Cuvier, to fhew that there is a feale, from man to the cetacea, with refpeét to the form of the cryftalline, by which it will be found, that the lens is leaft {pherical in the haman fubje&, and moft fo in the aquatic mammalia. The axis of the cryttalline is to the tranfverfe diameter, In Man, as - - 1 to 2 generally. Monkey - - the fame. Ow = - - 5 to 8 | Horfe - - ~ ORT Dog - F 7.2.9 Hare - BRS: Otter = - - 48 5 Porpoife - - 9:10 Whale - - - fee iy In the cetacea, therefore, the lens is nearly a perfe& {phere, as in fifhes. The vitreous humour of man is more abundant, in propor- tion, than that of mammalia. ‘Thus, the human vitreous humour is twenty times larger than the aqueous, while, in the ox, it is only ten times as large, and in the /beep but nine times the fize of the aqueous humoar. The oblique mufeles of the eye-ball do not differ from thofe of the human fubject ; but the fraight mu/cles are more nume- rows, except in the monkey kind. In many there is but one additional mufcle, which enclofes the back of the eye and the optic nerve, as if in a funnel. It arifes, like the other reGti mufcles, from around the optic foramen, and is inferted into the {clerotic behind them. This mufcle is called the Sufpenfory, choanoid, or retra@or of the eye. The fufpenfory mufcle is divided into four flips, or, as fome might {late it, there are four additional ftraight mufcles in mott of the carnivorous mammalia, and the cetaceai In the rhinoceros there’are only two portions correfponding to the fufpenfory mufcles. In all mammalta, we find the four re@imufcles‘as in man, independently of the fufpenfory above-mentioned. The third eye-lid is ccs fiderably developed in many quad- rupeds, Jtis ufually feintlunar in its figure. ‘In the sare, rats, agouti, Sc. its free edge is convex. In many cafes, it contains a thin cartilage, which, from a fuppofed refemblance toa nail, is called unguis. This cartilaginous plate is broad and triangular in the third eye-lid of the sare. There is almoft always a row of pores upon this eye-lid, which dif- charge an unctuous fluid, The third eye-lid is large in the cat genus, the opofum, the eal, and particularly fo in the elephant. There is no trace of the third eye-lid in the cetacea, and the two ufual eye-lids are fo much thickened by the adipofe fubftance, that they have fearcely any motion. They feem half clofed, but, we believe, are never completely fhut, the conftant refidence of thefe animals in water not making it neceflary. j The /acrymal gland exifts in mammalia, except the cetacea. In the sare and rabbit it is extremely large. It nearly encompafles the eye, and even pafles out of the orbit on the fide of the nofe. Cuvier thinks it has but one excretory” duc&. The lacrymal gland in the cloven-/oofed quadrupeds is. divided into two or three mafles. Some ieparate grains have: each avery fhort excretory duét. The puna lacrymalia, and the nafal dué, for carrying off the tears, have been obferved in the di/ulca, hog, floth, and ant- eaters, Fc. and probably are to be tound generally. Cam- per, however, denies the punéta lacrymalia, lacrymal fac, and even the os unguis to the elephant. Some anatomilts have confidered cells below the internal angle of the eye in the deer and antilope genera as receptacles for the tears; but thefe foflz, as already mentioned, in defcribing the excre-. tory glands, have no connection with the lacrymal paflages and contain an unctuous matter. In the Aare and rabdit, the punda lacrymalia are fupplied by a femi-lunar fiffure, which is placed under the inferior edge of the third eye. The border of this flit is provided with cartilages to keep it open. ‘There is a fingle lacrymal du@, and a fmall valve in the canal, to prevent the tears re- turning upon the eye. There is no apparatus for the fecre- tion of tears in the cetacea. Thus, conltant relidence in the water is fufficient to keep their eyes moill. In many mammalia there is an additional gland to the eyc,. which, from an anatomilt that deferibed it, has been called glandula Harderi. It is placed near the inner angle of the eye-lids, and difcharges its fecretion, which is a thick une- tucus fluid, through an opening under the third eye-lid.. The glandula Harderi conlilts of {mall lobes, and refembles. very much the true lacrymal gland in its ftru&ure. There would feem to be two glands of this defcription in the ares. one is a white colour, the other red; but both apparently have the fame ftructure. They are conneéted by cellular fubftance. This gland is large and double in the water rat. It is fingle, oblong, and hard in its texture in the cloven- hoofed quadrupeds. It has been found oval in many others.. There are fome fetaceous follicles under the upper eye-hd of eetacegus mammalia, which probably fulfil the fame purpofes: as the glandula Harderi. In Plate X1V. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, fig. ¥- exhibits a fection of the eye of the /ea/, in the direction of the optic nerve : ais the anterior part of the fclerotic eoat, which is thick; J, the pofterior part, {till thicker; c, the middle portion, which is thin; d, the corneas e, the optic nerve; /, the vitreous humour ; g is the cryttalline lens, which is feen to approach the figure of atrue f{phere. Fig. 2. reprefents a fimilar fe€tion of the eye in the grampus : a is the optic nerve pafling in the canal formed in the felerotic coat at bb. That coat is alfo fhewn to derive its white fibres from the fheath of the optic nerve ; c, the cornea; d, the ciliary procefles; e, the membrana Ruyfchiana; f, the choroides. Its two layers are a little feparated, to thew them more diltinély. Fig. 3. is a view of the interior of the front of the eye in the ox, produced by the vertical fection of the organ: a, the divided coats ; 2, J, the fringed ciliary proceffes ; ¢, c, the ftrie of the uvea; d, the sae ver MAMMALIA, verfe pupil. ig. 4. is the front of the eye in the cat, with the cornea removed, to fhew the vertical flit produced by the pupil in this genus. Fig. 5. is a fimilar preparation of the eye of the spores to fhew the figure of its pupil. Fig. 6. is a view of the eye-lids in the Aare, with the aperture into the lacrymal duct: a, 4, the upper and lower eye-lids ; c¢, the third eye-lid ; d, the fiffure correfponding to the puncta lacrymalia. Fig. 7. exhibits the glands of the eye in the hare: a is the lacrymal gland; 6, the white glandula Har- deri; c, is the red-coloured one. Weapons and Organs of Defence.—There is no animal fo unprovided with the natural means of proteétion or defence as man. His ftrength and his fecurity depend upon the focial inftitutions eftablifhed by his fpecies, It is true many of the mammalia are not furnifhed with natural arms, but in place of them, they are endowed with great fwiftnefs of foot, and an acute fenfe of hearing, as may be obferved in almott all the /a/tigrade quadrupeds, and others which are purfued by the bealts of prey. Some fugitive animals feek fecurity in concealment, as the digging and diving quadrupeds, for example the mole, the duck-billed animal, &c. The various coverings of mammalia, fuch as hair, hoofs, Seales, [pines, &c. not only ferve to fhelter quadrupeds from the inclemency of the weather, but from the attacks of hoftile animals. The ftrong tough hair of the. ant-eaters and /loth, the {cales of the pangolin, the {pines of the Aedge- hog and porcupine, and, mott of all, the bands of the arma- dillo, are well calculated for this purpofe. Thofe quadrupeds that have defenfiye integuments, have generally the power of rolling themfelves up, fo as to con- ceal the head, feet, and under parts of the body, which are'commonly unarmed. The mufcles that are defigned for the contraction of the body, are defcribed with the other organs of motion. ; The mott powerful weapons of mammalia are their horns, their teeth, and the hard fubftances with which their toes are armed. The ftructure and growth of each of thefe parts are defcribed in their proper place. The horns are generally employed as the means of defence, and chiefly belong to quadrupeds that are gregarious and inoffenfive, unlefs much irritated, or during thofe periods in which they are under the excitation of the fexual or pa- rental inftinéts. ; The teeth are the weapons moft commonly employed by animals ; almoft every quadruped may be provoked to make ufe of them; even man himfelf, ir thofe ftates of fociety where rules of combat are not acknowledged, always re- forts to his teeth, when preffed by an adverfary. As the teeth are the moft general weapons of animals, they are alfo the mott deitructive in the operation ; when any animal kills another, it is mo{t commonly by means of its teeth. The large teeth called tu/és, although generally incapable of being employed in any other way than as weapons, are lefs dangerous than the {mall front teeth of many animals. Some tuflcs, although fo formidable in their appearance, are very harmlefs in fact. The tufks of the Labirouffa are fo much turned backward, that they cannot inflict a wound, and thofe of the elephant and mammoth feem incapable of in- juring a fmallanimal, The tufks of the narwhalare faid to be terrible weapons, which their direction, length, and pointed figure render very probable; there being alfo fo frequently one of them wanting, it is likely that it may have been loft in combat. The feet of quadrupeds are amongft their moft effectual weapons when they are furnifhed with claws, as in moft of the beafls of prey. The ftrength of the limbs in all predaceous quadrupeds has already been remarked. The mechanifm of their feet, by which the claws are inverted by the very att of grafping any objeét, is fingularly ufeful to thofe animals. Some of the mammalia poffefs a great fecurity from the affaults of others, in certain excretions produced by pecu- liar glands, fituated commonly in the neighbourhood of the anus. 'Thefe excretions have a difagreeable fmell, which is probably particularly offenfive to thofe animals they are ins tended to repel. Some of the American {pecies of viverra are {aid to occafion fo ftrong a feetor by the expulfion of the contents of their anal glands, that it is difcerned at the diftance of two miles, and cannot be immediately approached by any perfon without the greateft danger. The organs which furnifh thefe foetid matters are defcribed along with other excretory glands. Organs of Voice.—The monkey tribe, which have in moft parts of their anatomy fo ftrong a likenefs to the human body, have many ftriking and important peculiarities in the organs of voice, fome of which are even pofleffed by the ourang-outang. This animal has the arytenoid cartilages {maller, and the cuneiform ones larger thanin man. ‘Che corde vocales are loofe and fharp upon the edge. The ventricles of the glottis are large oval cavities, aud partially divided by a par- ution. ‘The fuperior part of each ventricle leads into a hole, which is fituated between the thyroid cartilage and the os hyoides, and is the opening of a large membranous fac, Thefe two facs lie under the fkin of the throat, and are in contact with each other, and defcend towards the cheft. Thefe facs, in fome individuals, are of different fizes accord- ing to Camper’s obfervations.. Blumenbach found the right fac three inches long and two inches round, and the. left only the bulk of a nutmeg in the pigmy ape (fimia Sylvanus.) In many other monkies there is one large pouch or mem- branous fac, which communicates with the glottis.. This fac has been defcribed by Camper in the Barbary ape ( fimia inuus)}, and the common baboon (fimia /phinx). The open- ing from the glottis in thefe cafes is in the middle, at the root of the epiglottis, immediately above the thyroid carti- lage. Vic d’Azir alfo difcovered the fame kind of fac in the ribbed-nofe ape (fimia maimon), in which it is very large, and has a round opening under the epiglottis.. Cuvier found a fimilar laryngeal fac in the Aare-lipped ape ( fimia- cynomolgus), and a very large one in the /imia veter, It has been deferibed in the varied ape (jimia mona); but Cuvier denies there being any appearance of it in this {pecies, and even of the hole or depreflion at the bafe of the epiglottis, which exilts in fome monkies. that do not poffefs a laryngeal fac, as in the great baboon (fimia hama- dryas), the red ape (jfimia rubra), and the Chinefe ape (fimia finica). In the /i/ky monkey (fimia marikina), the laryngeal fac has its opening between the cricoid and thyroid carti- lages. The howling buboon: ( JSimia beelzebul), and the fimia Sent- culus, have the laryngeal facs inclofed in a bony cafe, which is hollowed out in the os hyoides. Camper defcribed but one fac, which he ftated to communicate with the larynx by an aperture between the os hyoides and the thyroid car- tilage. Vic d’Azir alfo found but one fac, which he de- {cribed as being of an irregular pyramidal figure,. fituated under the tongue between the two branches of the lower jaw, with its pointed part forwards, and divided interiorly by feveral thin projections of bone. It had a wide: open- ing pofteriorly, above which was placed a bony plate, with. two. projections at its two extremities. The opening. ) MAMMALIA. of the fac communicated with a large, firm, membranous tube, which proceeding horizontally backwards, terminated in the larynx between the ale of the thyroid cartilage, fo as to form a communication with both the ventricles of the glottis. The thyroid cartilage was remarkably large, and projected downwards : from its cornu on each fide there paffed a ligament to the two projections of. the bony fac. The thyroid cartilage had a projeétion where it terminated, which feemed to divide the canal leading from the bony fac into two channels: fuch is the defeription given by Vic d’ Azir of the organ of voice in the howling baboon. Cuvier, however, ftates, that in the fimia feniculus each ventricle leads into a membranous fac, which glides between the epi- glottis and contiguous ala of the thyroid cartilage, and pro- ceeds towards the os hyoides. In the individual which he diffeGted, the right fac alone occupied almott the whole of the cavity in the os hyoides; the left terminated at the moment when it was to enter that bone: but he conceives, that in other individuals, the facs were of equal fize, or that the left might even be the larger of the two, The effe& of all thefe cavities connected with the larynx is to increafe the refonance of the voice. The cartilagi- nous frame of the larynx and trachea in all animals has the fame operation in a greater or lefs degree; for if the cordz vocales could only occafion the parts immediately ad- joining them to vibrate, the found which they would pro- duce would fearcely be audible. The power of hollow parts in multiplying found, or rendering it loud by a fecon- dary vibration, is ftrikingly exemplified in the difference obferved between the common and the mute fiddle. The body of the latter is a narrow folid piece of wood, and al- though the tones are the fame as thofe of the common fiddle, they are fo faint as fearcely to be heard. ‘The influence of the laryngeal cavities upon the voice is clearly fhewn in thofe animals which poflefs them. The howling baboons, that have the beft contrived apparatus for increafing the voice, are faid to utter a cry which is really terrific. One fpecies of mankey, the fimia pani/cus, has a different kind of dilatation than is found in the reft of this tribe. It is a very confiderable enlargement of the membranous part of the trachea immediately behind the cricoid cartilage. The mufcles which go from the larynx to the pharynx com- prefs this fac, and urge the air it contains ina ftronger current through the parts that immediately produce the voice. Cuvier defcribes ia this monkey, and in all thofe of the continent of America, a peculiarity in the ftruéture of their larynx, by which their voice is rendered foft, like the tone of a flute, and they are therefore called qwhiflling monkies. “This peculiarity confifts in the {mallnefs of the arytenoid eartilages, and the great bulk of the cuneiform cartilages, which, increafed by fome fat cellular fubftance, form before the fuperior extremity of the ventricle of the glottis a large cufhion, having the fizure of a fegment of a {phere on each fide. It follows from this ftruéture, that the air which has vibrated in the ventricles has to go through a narrow canal, curved in the figure of an S, which is formed by the oppofition of thefe cufhions and the concavity of the epiglottis. In the fimia jacchus, and the fimia midas, the cuneiform cartilages are fo large, that their fuperior projeétion even di- vides the upper part of the glottis into two, fo as to give it apparently a refemblance to the larynx of birds. The os hyoides is large and round on the front, even in thofe monkies which do not poffefs laryngeal facs, as in the fimia apella and the fimia capucina. Inthe /mur, the fuperior ligaments of the glottis are very prominent, and there are between them and the epi+ lottis depreffions, which might be confidered perhaps as fisetibe cordx vocales and ventricles. The epiglottis of the dats is foft and hardly perceptible. Its exiftence has been denied by Vic d’Azir. The corde vocales alfo are very indiltinét. In the vampyre bat, there is a flight membranous projeétion in place of epiglottis. In the dog genus the corde vocales are prominent, thin, and free; the ventricles are deep; and the membrane which lines them is wider than they are. The cuneiform cartilages have the fhape of an italic §. The loofenefs of the corde vocales and the membrane of the ventricles, no doubt tends to produce the barking voice of thefe quad- rupeds. / In the cat genus, the anterior ligaments of the glottis are, as in the dog, contiguous to the internal parietes of the epi- lottis, but are feparated by a wide deep groove on each fide. The potterior ligaments, or corde vocales, are not looft or fharp. ‘There are two {mall thin membranes near them, which, when they vibrate, produce the purring found of the cat's voice. Cuvier thinks, that the anterior ligaments of the epiglottis conftitute the corde vocales of the cat, the ventricles being fo very fhallow. The ichneumon and civet have the orgens of voice fimilar to thofe of the cat genus. In the badger, the ventricle is open, and leads into two pouches, one of which extends forwards under the root of the tongue, where it is only feparated from that of the op- pofite fide by the hyo-epiglottidei mufcles ; the other goes backwards between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, The found of the voice in this animal appears to be oc- cafioned by the vibration of the breath againft the pof- terior edge of the anterior ligament, when it is driven with force into thefe two pouches. ‘here are fimilar pouches in the qea/el, but the anterior has lefs extent. The mar/upial animals have the larynx peculiarly formed. In the kanguroo the arytenoid cartilages are very large, Their fuperior edge forms the two-thirds of that of the glottis. The cuneiform cartilages, the anterior ligaments, and the ventricles of the glottis, do not exiltin this animal, and it can fearcely be faid that there is even any polterior ligament or cord vocales. Cuvier is difpofed to think that the éanguroo is very nearly mute. The American opoffum has allo the arytenoid cartilages of ee fize, and the thyroid cartilage concave. The fuperior igament of the glottis is wanting, as inthe kanguroo. ‘The cordz vocales are very {mall, and fcarcely to be diftinguifhed from the furrounding membrane. ‘There is an oval epiglot- tis, with two little folds of membrane at its root, which are fufceptible of vibration. The dong-tailed phalangers of Cook have a membrane, which ferves at once for a vocal ligament and the edge of the glot- tis; between which, and the cricoid cartilage, there is a groove which might be confidered as a ventricle in an unufual fituation. This ventricle has alfo been obferved in the glot- tis of the ornithorhynchus, in which animal it is very deep. Both the ornithorhynchus and echidna have the edge of the glottis formed by the arytenoid cartilage, and a fingle vocal ligament. There is no ventricle in the glottis of the echidna. In the didelphis orientalis there is no diftin® ligament, and the epiglottis is deeply notched. ] In the /a/tigrade mammalia, Cuvier has defcribed two dif- ferent kinds of flruéture in the organs of voice. In the one, of which he gives the porcupine as an inftance, the corde vocales and ventricles are not found, or fearcely difcernible : in the other, which feems to belong to the great majority of the MAMMALIA. the order, the vocal ligaments are diftin&t, and the ventricles often deep. The glottis in the hare and raddit is peculiar. It wants the fuperior ligament, and the cuneiform carti- lages : neverthelefs, the arytenoid cartilages are pyramidal, and afford attachment to two corde vocales, which are very free and thin edged, and are feparated from the bafe of the epiglottis by a deep narrow groove. Between their com- miffure, at the bafe of the epiglottis, there are two little cartilaginous tubercles projecting inwards. They do not give any attachment to the anterior extremities of the vocal ligaments, which are fixed externally to them. Amongtt the edentata, Cuvier defcribes the organs of voice as differing in each genus. In the Cape ant-eater (oryéeropus ), the corde vocales form the edge of the glottis; there is but a flight groove in place of the ventricle. In the arma- dillo the larynx is {mooth internally, and the epiglottis is in two lobes. The tardigrade quadrupeds have a fingularly formedlarynx. The free edges of the cordz vocales are the inferior ones ; they hang down again{t the inner fide of the cricoid carti- lage, like triangular valves. There are no ventricles or ante- rior ligaments. Amongtt the many-hoofed tribe of quadrupeds, the elephant has a fimply formed larynx. The inferior ligaments of the glottis or corde vocales are prominest, and fharp edged. They afcend in proceeding to their anterior attachment much more than is ufual. he ventricles are mere grooves, In the pig, the direction of the corde vocales is peculiar : they defcend anteriorly. They are long and fharp edged, and capable of being rendered extremely tenfe by the a€tions of the larynx, which enable this animal to utter the fhrill cry it is fo remarkable for. The ventricle opens pofteriorly into an oblong finus, that afcends between the internal mem- brane and the thyroid cartilage. The magnitude of this finus has been over-rated by fome anatomifts. Its real fize, according to Cuvier’s obfervations and our own, is about fufficient to admit the end of the little finger. It is this cayity which enables the pig to produce the grunting found, the corde yocales being at the fame time in the relaxed ftate. In the cloven-hoofed quadrupeds, a fuperior angle of the arytenoid cartilages bends backwards, and makes the two- thirds of the end of the glottis; and an inferior angle of the arytenoid bends forwards, and gives attachment to the corde vocales. his laft has the anterior part more or lefs free, fharp, and thin, according to the f{pecies, but its pofterior edge is blunt, and continued into the membrane lining the relt of the glottis. The anterior ligaments are not found, and the place of the ventricle is fupplied by the furrow arifing from the projection of the corde vocales. ‘There are no cuneiform cartilages in this tribe. - The thyroid ear- tilage {wells out anteriorly, where the cord vocales are at- tached in the fallow deer, and ftill more in the cervine antilopey in which the projection is nearly pyramidal. ‘lhe {welling under the throat in the antilope gutturofa, 1s occafioned by thie enlargement of the thyroid cartilage. There is a membranous fac in the front of the thyroid cartilage in feveral of the antilope genus and the rein deer. The opening into it is at the root of the epiglottis. ‘The fac ‘of the rein deer is very large, extending under the neck, as in the mandril (_fimia maimon.) _ Cuvier has given a full defcription of the organs of voice in the folid-hoofed quadrupeds, in which he has corrected many errors in the account of the larynx of the horfe and afs by Heriffant. The chief peculiarities of the vocal or- gans of thefe animals, confift in the facs conneéted with the arynx. There are three of thefe: one is fituated anteri- orly, under the vault formed by the anterior boundary of the thyroid cartilage: the opening into it is under the root of the epiglottis. The two others are oblong finufes contained between the lateral: parietes of the glottis and the thyroid cartilage, and covered, ina great meafure, by the thyro-aryte- noidei mufcles, by which they arecomprefied. There is no anterior ligament of the glottis, nor any ventricle, properly {peaking; but above the cordz vocales, on each fide, there is a foramen which leads into the lateral fac. In the Jorfe the apertures of the lateral facs are long and wide, and bear fome refemblance to the ufual ventricles of the glottis. The opening into the anterior cavity is very wide in the hore, in which alfo this cavity is a fhallow depret- fion. Onthe contrary, in the a/s, the opening into each of the three facs is a {mall and round hole, and the anterior fac is areal bag of confiderable fize. Cuvier ftates that the mule, which is generated by the male afs and the mare, has the openings into the laryngeal facs wide, and the ftruéture of the organs of voice altogether approaching that found in the Aor/e, and he concludes that the account publifhed by Heriffant was taken from the diffec- tion of the offspring of the /fallion and the female afi. Blu- menbach has, however, followed many other anatomifts in attributing fimilar organs of voice to the common mule and the aft. We are not enabled to decide the point, not having diffeGted thefe organs in the mule. Cuvier further adds, that in the hor/fe and the mule there is at the commiffure of the two corde vocales a flight fold of the membrane, which is not vifible in the a/s. The fize of this fold has been greatly exaggerated by Heriffant ; he hae alfo attributed to it important offices which it does not feem to perform. The peculiar found called a ray, is uttered by the af in confequence of the extent of the laryngeal faces, and their be- ing fo much feparated from the cavity of the larynx, by thus having {mall apertures. The dray feems to be a compound difcordant found, produced from the refonance of different fized cavities. Cuvier found in the covagga the larynx organized as in the horféy except that the membrane extending from one corde vocalis to the other did not exift. The larynx is very peculiarly formed in the cetacea. The arytenoid cartilages and the epiglottis have the figure of very elongated triangles. Thefe three cartilages are united to each other by the membrane of the glottis, and have a degree and kind of motion fomewhat fimilar to that of the parts about the mouth ofa fifh. The top of the larynx, which is compofed of thefe three cartilages, has a pyramidal figure, and is inferted into the common origin of the polterior nares. It is retained in that fituation by the circular mulcles of the flefhy tube which forms the common paflage to the nares. The ufual office of the epiglottis is, therefore, loft in cetacea, and inftead of making an operculum to the rima of the glottis, it enters into the compolition of that aper- ture, which is thence rendered wideft in the tranfverfe di- rection, and refembles very much, in appearance, the mouth of a fifh. The advantage of having the air-tube immedi- ately connected with the nafal paflages in the whale kind, mutt be obvious. Thefe animals catch their prey by fwim- ming with their mouths open, and below the furface of the fea, at which times, the water and fmall fifh are carried through the fauces on each fide of the pyramid formed by the larynx. When, however, the latter is withdrawn from the pofterior nares, in order to eject the water through the fpiracles, the rima glottidis is fhut ; but rather by the edges being clofely applied to each other, than by being covered by the epiglottis. ' The MAM The interior part of the larynx in cetacea, exhibits no true corde vocales or ventricles. ‘The membrane, at the an- terior part of the cavity, forms fome very irregular folds, or rather a corded appearance, refembling, in a degree, the in- ternal furfaces of the heart. Cuvier fays, he only perceived fome longitudinal rug. The inequalities on the interior part of the larynx, in thefe animals, do not, however, ap- pear capable of vibrating fufficiently to produce any voice ; orif the whale tribe do utter any found, it muft, we con- ceive, be akind of hi/s, occafioned by the forcible emiffion of the air through the aperture of the glottis. In Plates XIV. and XV. of the Anatomy of Mammalia, the figures are found which illuftrate the {tru€ture of the organs of voice. In Plate X1V. fig. 8 reprefents the entire larynx and fac of the mandril (fimia maimon), as it appears when diffeSted cout: a, the root of the tongue left with the larynx; 4, the © os hyoides ; c is the laryngeal fac diftended with air; d, the trachea feen beyond it. Fig..9, of the fame plate, fhews the larynx opened from behind; and the hole which leads into the laryngeal fac, as it ufually appears in thofe monkies that have thefe dilatations conne&ed with the organ of voice + a, the epiglottis; 5, the foramen at its bafe, opening into the laryngeal fac, which has been cut off in this prepara- tion; c,c, the corde vocales; d, d, the two ventricles. In Plate XV. fig. 1 is a view of the larynx, and bony fac attached to, it, divided longitudinally to fhew their internal formation in the Aowling baboon. This figure is copied from one of Vic d’Azir’s, and of courfe agrees with his defcrip- tion of the organs of voice in this animal: a is the tongue, divided lengthwife through its middle; 8, e, pharynx and ceahanntiata open; c, the ligament between the bony fac and the thyroid cartilage; g,s,0,,¢, larynx and trachea daid open; d, epiglottis; fg, bony fac laid open; ié/, the courfe of the tube leading from the fac to the larynx ; m, a projection of the thyroid cartilage dividing the tube into two ; p, the corda vocalis of that fide; 0, the ventricle of the glottis. ig. 2 exhibits a view of the larynx, fimilar to the laft, in the /imia panifcus: a, the tongue; 6, the epi- glottis; c, the thyroid cartilage; d, the arytenoid cartilage ; Jf; the ventricle of the glottis; g g, cricoid cartilage; 4, the fac, which in this animal is placed at the membranous part of the beginning of the trachea: it is laidopen. Fig. 3 reprefents the interior of the larynx in the cat: a, the epi- glottis; 4, 6, the corde vocales; ¢, ¢, the two membranes, which are thought to produce, by their vibration, the pur- ring found made by this animal. Fig. 4 fhews the internal parts in the larynx of the pig: a, a, the ligaments of the glottis feen defcending towards the thyroid cartilage; 4, 4, the ventricles ; ¢,c, their opening into the finufes connected with them. Fig. 5 is the larynx of the porpoi/e laid open behind: a, the epiglottis; 4, 2, the arytenoid cartilages ; c, the wrinkled or corded appearance, which feems to corre- {pond with the corde vocales and ventricles of other mam- malia. Fég. 6 gives a view of the interior of the laryux in the hor/e, to thew the opening into the three laryngeal facs : a, the aperture of the anterior fac; 4, J, the openings of the lateral cavities; c, the tranfverfe membrane found in the horfe at the commiffure of the corde vocales, Fig. 7 isa lateral view of the larynx and facs in the a/s, with the parts laid open: a, the anterior fac, which has a confiderable capacity, although fo {mall an opening into the larynx; 0, the aperture of the lateral fac on one fide; c, part of the fac of the other fide, which is not removed in the dif- feétion. MAMMARIA, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the clafs Vermes, and order Mollufca. ‘The generic character is, MAM body fmooth ; without cirri or rays ; aperture fingle. ‘There are three Species. Mammitia. In this the body is conic, ventricofe, white: it is found in the North feas. Varia. Body ovate, varied with white and purple : inhabits the northern ocean. ‘ Grozutus. Body globular, cinereous, and not fixed. Found on the Greenland fhores, among the roots of fuct. The body is very fimple, foft, {mooth, gelatinous, with a thin fin about the eighth of an inch in diameter. MAMMARY, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various parts belonging to, or connected with, the breaft. The internal mammary artery is a branch of the fubclavian fitu- ated within the cheft. (See Arrery.) ‘here is a vein correfponding to it. The mammary gland is the organ fe- ereting the milk. Seee Breasr, MAMMEA, in Botany, one of Plumier’s genera, fo ca'led from its vernacular appellation in the Weft Indies, Mamei. Linnzus admitted the name, becaufe of its affinity to mamma, a brea(t, alluding to the fhape of the fruit. Schreber and Jacquin place this genus in the clafs Pol/ygamia, but we refer it, after Linnzus and Willdenow, to Polyandria. Plum. Nov. Gen. 44. t. 4. Linn. Gen. 265. Schreb. 729. Willd. Sp. Pl. vy. 2. 1157. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 297. Jacq. Amer. 268. Juff. 257. Lamarck. Illuitr. t. 458.—Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Guttifere, Jufl. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven into two, roundifh, concave, leathery, coloured, widely {pread- ing, deciduous fegments. Cor. Petals four, roundifh, con- cave, widely {preading, fomewhat leathery, longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments numerous, brittle-fhaped, erect, very fhort, inferted into the receptacle; anthers oblong, obtufe, ere&t. Pi/?. Germen roundifh, deprefled ; ftyle cy- lindrical, ereét, longer than the ftamens, permanent ; ftigma capitate, convex. eric. Bruit {pherical, ah of one cell, very large, pointed with a part of the ftyle, its rind leathery. Seeds four, nearly ovate, rough, feparated from each other by the pulp. Eff. Ch. Corolla of four petals. Calyx of two leaves. Fruit very large, inferior, with four feeds. Obf. The flowers of this genus, inftead of being always perfeét, are occafionally found to be only male ones on the fame or on a different plant. This was obferved by Jacquin, and Browne ia his hiftory of Jamaica takes occalion from this circumftance to make different {pecies of fuch as have perfeét, and fuch as have only male flowers; Swartz alfo obferves that the former trees are larger and loftier than the latter. 1. M. americana. American Mammeé apple. Linn. Sp. Pl. 731. Plum. Ic. t.170.—A native of Jamaica, Hif- paniola, and the Caribbee Iflands A tall, handfome tree, with a thick fpreading, elegant head. Branches quadran- gular when young. Leaves oppofite, on fhort footttalks, oval, or obovate, entire, blunt, very fmooth and fhining, leathery, firm, from five to eight inches in length. /ower- fralks fhort, feattered over the ftouter branches, bearing a folitary, fragrant, white flower an inch and half in diameters The calyx 1s occafionally trifid, and the corolla five or fix- petalled. Fruit flightly angular, generally having one or two abortive feeds, from three to feven inches in diameter 5 its rind double, the outer leathery, tough, brownifh; the inner thin, yellow, adhering cloiely to the pulp which is firm, bright yellow, of a pleafant, though dingular fla- vour, and a {weet aromatic {mell. The /lin and feeds are bitter MAM bitter and refinous, Jacquin tells us that the Mammee fruit is eaten raw and alone, or cut into flices with wine and fugar, or preferved in fyrup. In Martinico, the flowers are diftilled with {pirits, making a liquor which is called Eau «Creole. The French term this plant bricot-/auvage, the yellownefs of its pulp -refembling that of an Apricot. Browne informs us that this is one of the largeit trees in Jamaica, that it abounds with a refinous gum, and is efteemed one of the beft timber-trees. From Miller we learn that it tifes to the height of fixty or feventy feet, and that its fruit, which is of a yellowifh-green colour, and highly efteemed, is commonly to be purchafed in the markets of the Spanifh Wet Indies. This tree having a long downright tap-root, is of courfe very difficult to tranfplant, fo that the beft mode of pro- pagating it is by fetting the ftones or feeds, as frefh as pof- fible, in pots filled with light earth, and then to plunge them into a hot-bed of bark. M. afiatica of Linneus Sp. Pl. 731, is now called Bar- RINGTONIA; fee that article in this work, and in Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 1. Willdenow defcribes another {pecies which he calls humilis, the fruit of which contains only three feeds; but he fays that Vahl takes it to be nothing elfe than Rheedia lateriflora of Linnzus. Mammea, in Gardening, contains plants of the evergreen exotic tree kind, of which the fpecies mofily cultivated is, the American mammee, (M. americana.) Method of Culture.—This tree may be increafed from feeds procured from America, which fhould be fown in the early {pring; in pots filled with light frefh mould, plunging them in a bark hot-bed, keeping the mould moift by occa- fional watering, when they willfoon come up. The young plants fhould be often watered in dry weather. When they have attained fome growth, they fhould be removed, with earth about them, into other pots a little larger, being re- placed in the hot-bed, till frefh rooted, filling up the pots with frefh mould; due fhade, air, and water being given. In the autumn they fhould be removed into the ftove, where they muft be kept, being fhifted into other pots in the follow- ing {pring ; having regard not to over-pot them. And they may alfo be raifed by placing the ftones of the fruit under the pots upon the tan, more expeditioufly than when planted in the mould of the pots. Thefe plants afford a fine variety among others of the ftove kind. MAMMEE Bay, in Geography, a bay on the north coaft of the ifland of Jamaica. N. lat. 18° 58’. W. long. ce] 774 MMILLARIS Processus, in Anatomy, the fame as the maftoid procefs. This term, mammillary, has been fometimes applied to the uriniferous fubftance of the kidney. See Kipyey. MAMMOTH’S Tesrrn, or Mammout Bones and Mam- mon’s Horus, in Natural Hiftory, names given by travellers and other writers to certain foffil teeth, and other bones, found in Ruffia and fome other parts of the world, and that ufually at great depth inthe earth, The Ruflians and other people give them this name, fuppofing them to have be- longed to an animal, which they defcribe as being of a mop- ftrous fize, and living in caverns under ground. But the true account of them is, that they are in reality the teeth and other bones of an animal now unknown, there being no fuch bealt as thefe people defcribe. The mammoth of Ame- rica, whofe enormous bones are found particularly near the falt fprings upon the Ohio, though armed with tufks of ivory, has been fuppofed to be even five or fix times larger Vou. XXIL. MAN than the elephant ; but the bones are probably the fame with thofe of the fuppofed elephant found in Siberia. In Si- beria the bones of the mammoth are thrown afhore from the Frozen ocean ; and it is probable that thefe and other fimilar remains may have been driven by currents from very diftant parts of the globe, and depofited on the banks of rivers by the tide, when a great part of the north of Siberia was covered by the fea. The tufks of the mammoth are equal to elephants’ teeth in whitenefs and beauty, but very dif- ferent in their fhape, being all bent {pirally, forming about one round and a half; and eight feet form their greateft length. See Erepuant’s Bones, Ivory, &c. MAMOOJOO, ina Geography, a town on the welt coat of the ifland of Celebes. S, lat. 2° 19'. E. long. 119° 12’. MAMORA. See Maumora. MAMOS, a town of South America, in the audience of Quito; r1o miles E.N.E. of Archidona. MAMOSA, La, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata; 19 miles S.W. of Turfi. ‘ F MAMOUTKAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the - province of Caramania; 12 miles S.E. of Erckli. MAMPATA, in Botany, according to Juffieu, is the Senegal name of a tree, gathered there by Adanfon, which the former conceives to be of the fame genus with Aublet’s Parinari, Aubl. Guian. t. 204—206, the Petrocarya of Schreber, though its nut is lefs deeply furrowed, and the ftemens appear to be fifteen inftead of fourteen. The ger- men, moreover, is laterally attached to the calyx. See Pr- TROCARYA and Neou. MAMTRASNA, in Geography, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of Galway; 15 mules S. of Caftlebar. MAMUD, an ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago. N. Jat. 6° 4'. E. long. 121° 42/, MAMUL, a town of Walachia; 31 miles N.E. of Krajova. MAMUN, a town of Africa, in the country of Sugul- meffa; 25 miles S.E. of Sugulmeffa._ MAN. To write a complete hiftory of man, it is necef- fary that we, fhould defcribe both the individual and the fpecies: that we fhould, with reference to the former, relate the phenomena of his firft produ@tion, examine his ana- tomical ftruéture, his bodily and intelleGtual funétions, and his difeafes, and purfue his progrefs from the time of birth to the grave: in refpect to the latter, it would be neceflary to point out the cirenmftances that diftinguifh him from other animals, to delineate the phyfical and moral charaGters of the people inhabiting the different portions of the globe, and trace their progrefs from the firft rudiments of civil fo- ciety to the ftate at which they are now arrived. (See on the latter fubjeét, Condorcet Tableau du Progrés de l’Efprit humain; Ifelin, Gefchichte der menfchheit ; Fergufon's Hiftory of Civil Society ; Adelung yerfuch einer Gefchichte der Cultur des menfchlichen Gefchlechts, &c.) To treat the {ffbject in this way would demand a familiar acquaintance with almoft the whole circle of human knowledge, and a combination of the moft oppofite purfuits and talents; of the knowledge of nature poffeffed by a Buffon, a Cuvier, or a Blumenbach; the infight into the operations of the human mind and paffions of a Hume, a Rouffeau, and a Con- doxcet ; and a knowledge of hiftory and antiouities in their moft extenfive fenfe: a cyclopwdia would be neceflary, rather than a fingle article. ‘This extenfive labour, which could not be properly executed by any individual, is divided into feveral fubordinate branches. The anatomi{t and phy- fiologilt unfold the ftru€ture and functions of the body ; the furgeon and phyfician defcribe its difeafes; and the meta- phyfician and moralift employ themfelves with the fun&ions Rr that MAN. that conftitute the mind, and with the moral fentiments. We refer, therefore, to the different articles of the Cyclo- pzdia on thefe fubje&ts; giving only, what could not be entirely omitted in a view of the hiftory of man, a fhort ei fketch of his paflage through the various periods of is exiftence. Man in fociety, his progrefs in the various countries and ages of the world, his multiplication, &c. &c. are the province of the hiftorian and political economift. Our obje@, in the following article, is the defcription of the {pecies. We fhall fpeak, in the firft place, of the fituations which man occupies on the globe, of his food, intoxicating drinks, dwellings, and drefs: we fhall endeavour to explain the diftinGions, more particularly in bodily ftruéture, be- tween man and animals; to defcribe the principal dif- ferences between the various races of mankind, and to con- fider the caufes by which thefe have been accounted for. This, indeed, is rather what our limits and the confined knowledge of an individual reftrain us to, than a difeuffion of all the points which the hiftory of man fhould involve. We think it fhould contain, moreover, a confideration of the original abode and diftribution of the fpecies, of the varieties of intelle€tual power, and moral difpofitions. The remark- able manners and cuftoms, the employments and pleafures, the notions of decency and elegance, honour and fhame, the religious opinions, forms of government and laws, particu- larly arnong uncivilized nations, are very interefling fubje@ts, when confidered in general, but are not included in the la- bours of the hiftorian or moralift. The education of chil- dren, and treatment of women, in all parts of the world ; the various degrees of cultivation; the opinions of favage people concerning the moft important works and phenomena of nature ; the origin of the moft neceflary {ciences, as arith- metic, meafure of time, and medicine, are not lefs interefting than important topics, which are not confidered at all, as the hiftorian, the geographer, the moralift, and the man of f{cience, occupied with other purfuits, confider them, each, as not belonging to his department. Thefe, together with the fubjeéts of the prefent article, would conftitute a pe- culiar fcience, or branch of fcience, under the name of the hiftory of man, which, in point of inftru€tion or entertain- ment, would not be inferior to the narratives of intrigue and treachery, of war, conqueft, and defolation, that compofe general hiftory. The natural hiftory of man is yet in its infancy; info- much, that we cannot pretend to give any thing like a com- plete view of the fubje&t. The defcription and arrange- ment of the various productions of the globe have occupied numerous obfervers in all ages of the world. Every plant and every infect has had its hiftorian, and has been defcribed with minute accuracy, while the human fubjeé& has been comparatively negleéted. In a very voluminous work on the hiftory of the animal kingdom, now publifhing in this country, (‘¢ General Zoology, or Syftematic Natural Hif- tory,’”) man is entirely omitted. Does the learned author deem him more or lefs than an animal? Whether we inveftigate the phyfical or the moral nature of man, we recognife, at every ftep, the limited extent of our know- ledge, and are obliged to confefs that ignorance, which a Rouffeau and a Buffon have not been afhamed to avow. « The moft ufeful and the leaft fuccefsfully cultivated of all human knowledge, is that of man; and the infcription on the temple ef Delphi contained a more important and diffi- cult precept, than all the books of the moralifts.”” (Dif. cours fur ’Inegalité; preface.) ‘The immortal hiftorian of nature gives his teftimony to the fame effect. * Quelque interet que nous ayons a nous connoitre nousmémes, je ne fais fi nous ne connaiffons pas mieux tout ce qui n’elt pas 8+ nous.” (De la Nature del’Homme.) It is only of late, and principally through the excellent writings of Blumenbach, that the natural hiftory of man has begun to receive its due fhare of attention ; and we fhall venture to affert, that, whether we regard the intrinfic importance of the queftions that arife, and their relation to the affinities, migrations, and hiftory of nations, or advert merely to the pleafure of the refearch, no fubie& will be found more worthy of minute inveftigation. I. Hiflory of the Individual. The fources from which the hiftory of man muft be derived, are human and comparative anatomy ; the natural hiltory of organifed beings in general, and of the animal kingdom in particular. Thefe branches ef knowledge are of the greateft importance: comparative anatomy, and the analogies afforded by the natural hiitory of ani- mals, will often afford us more afliltance than the moft learned labours of the hiftorian. We mutt not be content with noting the more ftriking varieties of the human fpecies, but muft inveftigate all the intermediate gradations, The beft fources of information in books, particularly of travels, muft not be employed too indifcriminately : a difpofition to doubt, and a critical etimation and balancing of authorities, are effentially neceffary to prevent us from being led into error by the ignorance or credulity, the maccuracy or the pre-conceived notions of the writers. Certain parts of phy- fical {cience are conneéted with the fubjeét ; as an acquaint- ance with the face of the globe, climates, &c. Hiflory, in the common acceptation of the word; that of the human race in its early periods; of particular people and their changes of fituation, when chey have emerged from the thick cloud that covers the firlt ages of the world, fo as to admit of being diftinétly traced, will very confiderably aid our inveftigations. The fubjeét ftill labours under diffi- culties, from our imperfeé&t knowledge of the habits and anatomy of thofe fimiz which moft nearly refemble man; from the impenetrable darknefs that involves the infancy of the fpecies ; the uncertainty of the ancient geography in ge- neral, and of the modern geography of many remote re- gions ; and our defeétive acquaintance with the wild races. Progrefs of Man through the various Stages of his Exiflence. —The differences in {lructure and funGions between the male and female are explained in the article Generation, under the head of /exual diffindions ; the mode in which repro- duétion is effected in the human fubje&, as well as the dif- ferent theories concerning this highly interefling and im- portant, but obfcure funétion, are confidered in thé fame article. Under Empryo, we have defcribed the formation and developement of the new being, and the circumftances in which its organization and mode of exiftence differ from thofe of the individual after birth. Fetal Exiflence.—The precife period at which the future man begins to exilt, and the form under which his rudi- ment appears, are not yet known. For many days after conception, the cavity of the uterus contains ep in which we can conceive organization to refide: the lord of the creation is loft ina drop of mucus. A foft fubftance, not refifting the flighteft touch, and unfolding to our ob-~ fervation no arrangement of different parts, aflumes a round- ifh fhape about the fecond week after a fruitful coition, and may be regarded as the firft appearance of the ovum: a foetus cannot be feen in this till towards the end of the third week. Poffefling at this time the moft fimple kind of vita- lity, very fimilar indeed to that of the vegetable, it has true blood about the fourth week. Now the motion of the heart is vifible; in’ fome very rare inftances (Blumenbach, Initit. ; : Phytiol. . M AN. Phyfiol. § 641.) it has been feen in the human embryo, but it was obferved even by Ariftotle in the incubated chick : its motion could not fail to be noticed from the contraft it afforded to the quiefcence of the other parts, and hence the expreflion of punéum faliens. The formation of bone com- mences at the feventh or eighth week : bony nuclei are firit vifible in the clavicles, ribs, vertebra, the larger cylindrical bones of the extremities. the lower jaw, and fome other bones of the face: a moft delicate beny network is de- veloped at the fame time in the flat bones of the cranium, as the frontal and occipital, later in the parietal, &c. The nearer the embryo, and indeed the animal both be- fore and after birth, is to the epocha of its firit produétion, the more rapid is its growth. That the firft germ, when hidden in the ovum, muft be exceedingly f{mall, is clear, becaufe it efcapes our- clofeft obfervation, even when affitted by the microfcope: from this minutenefs it increafes in nine months to the weight of fix or eight pounds. It grows in the firft month to 300,000 times its firlt fize; in the fecond month to 4S times; and ia each of the remaining months of utero-geitation, one with the other, to 15 times. At the end of three years the child has grown from 105 to 281 ounces, or nearly in the ratio of five to fourteen; and in the 22 following, from 281 to 2250 ounces, which is an in- creafe of about eight times. : About the middle of pregnancy, motions of the child are firft perceived by the mother ; in common language it is faid to quicken, and the popular notion is that it receives life at this time. The judicial queftions concerning abortion, and the execution of pregnant criminals, render it important that right views fhould be entertained on this point. By the Roman law the punifhment of death was infli€ted, when a formed and animated foetus perifhed by abortion intentionally produced ; and it was held that the foetus poffeffed animation on the fortieth day. In this country a condemned criminal is refpited, if fhe is found to be quick with child. It feems to be implied in both cafes, and fuch we believe to be the general opinion, that the child is not alive until a certain period of geltation. ‘This is moft erroneous, phyfiologi- cally : vital proceffes, as an exceedingly rapid growth and developement of parts, are carried on with great activity from the earlieft time, at which the germ can be difcerned, and the heart aétually beats at the fourth week. Hence, if abortion be procured at the end of a month, or a woman be executed at the fame time, a child is deftroyed in either cafe, juft as much as if thefe things happen after the ordi- nary period of quickening. Our phyfiological views of fetal exiltence lead us to fuppofe that the creature in utero has no fenfations, and is unconfcious of its own life: its deftruction, therefore, cannot be charged with the infliction of cruelty on a fentient being. Divines are much interefted in a point allied to this ; namely, at what time the new being has a foul. Very nice queltions have been raifed in the Romifh church concerning the propriety of baptiling, adminiftering the facrament of extreme un¢tion, and performing the burial fervice at par- ticular ages ; and thefe muft be equally interefting topics to all, as fuch ceremonies are ordained for the benefit of thofe animals only which have fouls. Phyfiologifts, in general, have not acted very fairly in refufing their affiltance towards elucidating fo important a fubjeét. ‘ De his myfteriis,”’ fays Haller, << ct de anime humanz origine, perinde cum Galeno abftineo pronuntiare.”’ He adds, however, imme- diately after, thatjhe fuppofes the fatus to have a foul, when it performs fpontaneous motion. (Lib. 29, fed. 3, '§ 21.) To afcertain the meaning of the word foul, is a very important preliminary im fettling our notions on this fubje&t. We are fully convinced that the foetus has no fen- fations, and confequently can have no will, nor any intel- le€tual functions (fee Empryo) : this is equivalent to fay- ing that it has no foul. For an account of the different opinions concerning the nature and faculties of the foul, fee SOUL. Fat and bile are formed about the middle of utero-~ geftation. In the remaining part of the time, the hair of the head and the nails appear; the external ear becomes firm and elaftic ; and the teftes defcend in the male. The foetus is lodged in the uterus, until its organization is arrived at fuch a degree of developement, as will enable it,to aflume independent exiftence. During its refidence in this organ, it may be regarded as a part of the body of the mother: although it has brain, organs of fenfe and voice, thefe are yet inactive, and do not give rife to any relations between it and furrounding objects : its organs of digeftion, fecretion, and locomotion, are equally inert, and calculated, like the former, for the fucceeding flage of exiftence. It has all the organs that enable it to exit by itfelf, although their funGtions are not neceflary while it continues in the womb of the mother. (See Monster.) The chief pecu- liarities of the fetal ftate are, the fimplicity of its life, confitting of little more than the funGion of nutrition, and the inactivity of almoft all the important organs: its con- finement, furrounded by the fluid of the amnios, in the uterus, where no external impreffions can reach it, and the exercife of the moving powers is impraticable, even if vo- lition could take place: the connection with the mother through the umbilical chord and placenta (fee Empryo) : the uniform colour of the blood in all the veffels, and the communications between the two fides of the heart. (See Hearvr and Crrcutarion.) As refpiration has never taken place, the lungs fink in water. (See Lunes.) The cecum is very different from that of the adult, and the large in- teftine, in general, is diftended with a peculiar dark green femi-fluid fubftance, called meconium. (See Inrrsrine.) The urachus, the membrana pupillaris, and the defcent of the teftes, are important peculiarities in the fetal ftate, as nothing like a rational conje€ture concerning their ufe or purpofe can be formed. (See the defcription of the bladder, in the article Kipney; of the iris, in Eyr; and of the teftis, in GENERATION.) Three organs, of a tiffue ap- proaching more nearly to that of glands than to any other, appear by their fuperior fize in the unborn child to belong particularly to its economy, although here, as in the parts jult noticed, we are entirely ignorant of the ufes to which they are fubfervient. ‘The two former are not only much larger in the foetus than in the adult, but they alfo contain a confiderable quantity of fluid in their texture; the thy- mus, although as large as the heart in the foetus, is entirely loft in the adult: the two other organs are much fmaller comparatively after birth. See Tuymus, Larynx, and Kinney. Birth.—Towards the end of the tenth lunar month, when the child has arrived at a weight varying from four to eleven: pounds, though generally between five and eight, and is from eighteen to twenty-one inches long, parturition takes place ; feveral very important changes occur in the animal economy, and a {tate of being, altogether new, commences. ‘‘Nothing,”? fays Buffon, «exhibits fuch a {ftriking pic- ture of weaknefs, of pain, and of mifery, as the condition of an infant immediately after birth. Incapable of employ- ing its organs or its fenfes, the infant requires every kind of afliftance ; it is more helplefs than the young of any other animal ; its uncertain life feems every moment to vi- brate on the borders of death. It can neither move nor Rr2 fupport MAN. fupport its body ; it has hardly ftrength enough to exift, and to announce, by groans, the pain which it fuffers; as if nature intended to apprife the little innocent, that it is born to mifery, and that it is to be ranked among human creatures only to partake of their infirmities and afflictions.” Hittory of Man, fe. ii. The navel-ftring being tied and divided, the conneétion be- tween the mother and child is feparated. In animals, this cord is fevered by the teeth; if it were not tied in the hu- man fubjeét, fatal hemorrhage would enfue. The: child, from the warm medium of the amniotic fluid, is introduced into 2 new and more ftimulating element, the air, and draws it into his lungs: thus refpiration begins, and produces changes in the blood, which feem to make up for the lofs of the placental circulation. A healthy and trong child ge- nerally cries as foon as it comes out of the vagina, and in- fpiration is neceflary to this aétion. We ufually wath the body with warm water and foap, in order to remove the grealy fubftance that covers the fkin, and are very careful to keep the child warm; but there are whole nations, inha- biting climates colder than our’s, where the infants are plunged into cold water as foon as they are born, without receiving the flighteft injury. The defire for food feems to be coeval with the commencement of the new exiftence : fucking is performed at once in a perfeét manner, as {oon as the mouth is brought to the nipple. Within afew hours after birth, meconium and urine are difcharged. The infant fleeps much, and feems to awake only for the purpofe of taking food: the gratification of the lat- ter want, and fleep, are the great employments of the firlt months. Infancy.—As we remember nothing of what paffes at this early period of our exiftence, we cannot difcover the feelings produced by the firft impreffions of the air; but the cries uttered immediately after birth feem to indicate that the ac- tion of the atmofphere caufes painful impreffions. The fenfes at firft aét very imperfeétly ; the newly born creatures have a ftupid appearance, and give hardly any proof that their organs of fenfe act. The eyes are fixed and dull, and have not the motions which accompany diftiné& vifion; yet they feel the impreffion of light, and the pupil contracts or dilates in proportion to its quantity. When any thing is fuddenly brought near to the eye, neither the lids nor the head are moved. ‘The other fenfes are in an equally imperfect itate. All the other parts of the body are extremely feeble, and their motions awkward and ill direéted. The thighs and legs are bent, from the habit contraGted while in the womb of the mother; there is not ftrength enough to feize any thing with the hands; if abandoned in this condition, the child would remain on its back, without being able to turn to one fide or the other. See Lire. The pulfation of the brain is felt at the fontanells. Befides the commencement of the funétions that conneé s to the external world, as well as thofe of the digettive apparatus, and the modifications of the circulating organs confequent on the ligature of the chord, and the beginning of refpiration, various alterations in the external habit of the body are difcernible after parturition. 'The downy co- vering of the fkin gradually difappears, the wrinkles are obliterated, the nates are developed, and hide the opening of ihe anus. A newly born infant difcovers pain by its cries ; but it has no expreflion indicating pleafure. It {miles about the fixth or feventh week, and it begins to weep about the fame time ; for its former cries were not accompanied with tears, Newly born children fleep much, but only for fhort pe- riods ; they require very frequent nourifhment, and exprefs this want by crying, which generally terminates their fleep. This indication fhould always be carefully attended to. Nothing is required in addition to what nature has provided in the mother’s milk ; no fubftitute is equal to this, though the milk of other animals may be employed in cafes of ne- ceffity: the teat of the animal may be fubftituted for that of the mother. Buffon fays that he has known feveral pea- fants, who had no other nurfes than ewes; and yet they were equally vigorous as thofe who had been nurfed by their mothers. As foon as the infant had efcaped from the uterus, and enjoyed the liberty of ftretching its limbs, it was again con- demned, while the ufe of {waddling clothes prevailed, to a more cruel and unnatural bondage. ‘The head and limbs were fixed, and the whole body fo laced and fettered, that hardly a joint could be moved. People now begin to find out that the developement of the body will be accomplifhed without this artificial affiltance. Perhaps they are hardly yet aware, that the efforts of the little prifoners to difentan- gle themfelves have a more direét tendency to diftort their members, than any pofitions they could affume, if left in the full poffeffion of liberty. Swaddling bands may be com- pared to the ftays worn by young girls, which occafion many more deformities and difeafes than they are intended to pre- vent. The praétices of favage nations have been much more rational than thofe of the civilized ; they lay their infants naked in hanging beds of cotton, or cradles lined with fur, in which they are at perfeét liberty to move themfelves as they are inclined, and provide at the fame time very carefully for abforbing the moifture of their difcharges. No improve- ment can be fuggefted on this plan. As the child becomes accuftomed to external objeéts, it gradually learns the ufe of its fenfes, and lofes the apparent itupidity that charaéterizes it for the firft months of exift- ence. It is fond of light, and direéts its eyes always to the lighteft part of a room; hence the propriety of placing it fo that both eyes may receive the light at the fame time, and confequently acquire by exercife an equal degree of ftrength. It is attraéted by any fhining objetts, and endeavours to feize them; when pleafed, it {miles ; and cries and attempts to refift, when it is hurt or vexed : it recognifes individuals, and is frightened by ftrangers. ‘The organs of the external fenfes are more perfectly finifhed, as the external ear, the noftrils, the fuperciliary arches and eye-brows, &c. At the fame time, the mental functions, dependent on the operation of thefe organs, as attention, perception, memory, the will, &c. are gradually developed: hence dreams are obferved ina few months after birth. The bones of the cranium become more firmly united, and the fontanells are gradually clofed. Dentition, which begins about the fixth or feventh month, is a moft important era in the life of the infant. The procefs is always painful, and not unfrequently fatal. For the de- {cription of the teeth and the hiitory of their developement, fee Cranium: the dangers with which it is accompanied are defcribed under Inrants, Difeafes of. This change points out the natural time for weaning: the newly acquired in{truments, which injure the nipple of the mother, enable the infant to ufe firmer food, and thus make it independent of the breaft. As conception does not ufually take place again, while fuck- ling is continued, mothers, who wifh not to have a nume- rous family, often keep the child at the breaft long after this time, although there is no advantage to be derived to the child from the pra¢tice. Offification goes on with great alivity, and confers on all parts of the {keleton that frmnefs which is effential to the execution of their functions. Bony nuclei are feen in the cartilages, which are afterwards to form the bones of the carpus MAN. earpus and tarfus. The urine contains little or no phofphat of lime, as that fubftance is all employed in the comple- tion of the bones. ‘Towards the beginning or middle of the fecond year, they have become ftrong enough to fupport the weight of the body, hence the infant at this time begins to learn the ufe of his feet, and to affume the erect attitude, one of the moft remarkable preroga- tives of the human fpecies. The fmallnefs of the lower limbs and pelvis, in comparifon to the head and upper part of the trunk ; the foft ftate of the bones, as well as the want of power in the mufcles, which, like the organs of fenfe, require the flow education of frequent exercife ; and the very complicated exertion neceffary to maintain the body ereét (fee Muscre, towards the end), poftpone the power of going alone to this late period after birth, and render all the motions and pofitions connected with it very unfteady and unfafe for a {till longer time ; although animals in general can maintain themfelves in their natural attitudes tolerably well from the day of birth. Attempts to make the child affume the ereCt attitude before the epocha we have mentioned, are dangerous, as the flexible bones, unequal to the burden, give way under it, and thus deformity is produced. : Removal from the mother’s brealt, and the power of going alone, are two very important fleps, and the progrefs to- wards independent exiftence is greatly affited by another re- markable privilege of the human fpecies, the ufe of {peech, which begins in children of lively minds foon after the firft year. The founds uttered in the carefles of the mother are attended to, and eagerly imitated; and every faculty is ftrained to the utmoit, forthe purpofe of acquiring the ufe of an inftrument fo important towards attaining the gratifi- cation of its daily increaling defires, and eftablifhing its com munications with furrounding beings. The power of {peech, however, like the ufe of the fenfes, and of the moving or- ans, is not poffefied perfectly at once ; it is the offspring of Bierce and repeated efforts. The vowel A (broad ) is the molt eafily pronounced, as it requires only the opening of the mouth, and forcing out the air: the confonants, B, P, and M require the leaft motion of the organs, and are motl eafily articulated. The other founds are formed in pro- portion as the organs leara their offices. (See ArtreuLA- TION.) Some can articulate diftinétly, and repeat whatever is faid to them, at two years of age, but a longer time is lly neceflary. While the aa is thus flowly advancing in the develope- ment of its powers, it is expofed to numerous and deftructive difeafes, which render its life very precarious for the three firft years. (See Inranrs, Difeafes of.) Half of the children produced die in the firit few years of life, and the work of deltruétion proceeds {till more rapidly, when they are crowded together in confiderable numbers. Camper informs us, that of 5989 admitted into the eftablifhments for found- lings at Paris, in one year, 4095 died in the firtt month, and 673 more in the remaining eleven months : only 854 were alive at the end of five years. Ludwig Grundrifs der Natur- gefchichte der Menichenfpecies, p. 293. See Monrra- ny Oe } About the feventh year, the deciduous or milk teeth be- gin to fall out, and a fecond dentition enfues. Of the thirty-two permanent teeth, which are defigned to remain through life, the greateft number have come into the vacan- cies left by the fucceflive difcharge of the temporary ones, by the twelfth year ; but the whole fet is not complete till the 18th or 2oth year. ‘ Childhood, or Adole/cence.—In the age of infancy, memo- ry feems to excel the other faculties of the mind, and af- fords a moft commodious inftrument for retaining the figns of furrounding obje&s. It hardly continues in its original ftrength beyond the fifteenth year. The Imagination is de- veloped after it, and begins to predominate when the memo- ry is weakened ; its exercife is affifted by the happy memory of this age, which fupplies it with materials. The judg- ment is developed at a later age: children pafs rapidly from one object to another, without beftowing the time for ac- curate comparifon and enquiry, which judgment requires. The nervous fyitem is ealily affeGted in childhood, and grief and joy are excited by flight caufes. Much time is paffed in fleep. , A confiderable ftratum of fat covers the body under the integuments, hides the mufeles and bones, and beftows a roundnefs and foftnefs of outline on the whole frame. See MemsrANE, Cellular, and Muscix, under the head of deve- Jopement of thofe tiffues. The fluids undergo a confiderable change: in the feetus, or in a young child, the urine, feces, and perfpiration are not fetid; the bile is not bitter ; all the fecretions indeed are mild. But the urine foon acquires its diltinguifhing fmell ; the kidnies, which form an agreeable food in the calf, are re- jected on account of their itrong tafte in the bullock ; the feces become more confiftent, and have a powerful odour. The food and mode of life are not the caufes of thefe al- terations ; for the feces, perfpiration, &c. have their ftrong fenfible properties in the adult, even when the diet confifts of milk or vegetables. Puberty.—The great developement of the imagination is about the age of puberty, when man is prepared, by various and important changes of his organization, for the exercife of the generative fun@tions. Nature hitherto feems to have had nothing further in view than the growth and prefervation of her work. ‘The child enjoys an exiftence confined to itfelf, which it cannot communicate; but the principles of life foon multiply beyond what is fufficient for our own being, and enable us to beftow exiftence om others. When the mammz enlarge in the female, the beard fhews itfelf in the male, andthe other phenomena cf approaching puberty are exhibited in both fexes, as the developement of hair on the external organs, &c. the former begins to have the menttrual difcharge, which is accompanied, amongit other appearances, with increafed luftre of the eyes, rednefs of the lips, and more fenfible properties in the perfpiration ; the latter fecretes true femen, having at the fame time a more co- pious growthof the beard,anda memorable change of the voice intoa deeper tone. The latter, for a confiderable time, is rough and unequal ; after which it becomes more full, arti- culate, and ftrong, This change is very confpicuous in boys; but it is lefs diltinguifhable in girls, whofe voices are naturally more fharp. A very remarkable enlargement of the vocal organ, coeval with puberty, is the fource of the alteration juft mentioned. There is hardly a fenfible differ- ence of fize in the larynx, between a child of three, and an- other of twelve years: there is at leaft nothing correfpond= ing to the iliverfity of itature. But at puberty, in the {pace of a year, the opening of the male glottis is doubled, both in length and breadth, This increafe in the female is only in the proportion of feven to five. (Richerand, Elem. de Phy- fiol. ed. 3. § 226.) Thefe marks are not always uniform. I'he beard, for example, does not always appear precifely at the age of puberty: there are even whole nations, who have hardly any beard. On the contrary, there is no coun= try where the age of puberty in women is not diftinguifhed by the enlargement of the breafts. At the fame time the fexual inftinét is awakened by what we may call the fponta- at RCOVS MAN. neous internal voice of nature, and both fexes, in this {pring of their exittence, become capable of exercifing that im- portant funétion of all animated beings, the propagation of the fpecies. Tor the detailed confideration of this fubjeé, fee GENERATION. In that article the reader will finda view of the changes occurring in the generative organs at this age, and of the effects, which they exert in the body in ge- neral, of menftruation, and of the phenomena obferved where unufual organizations exilt, conftituting what have been of- ten called hermaphrodites. Virginity, impotence, circumcifion, caftration, infibula- tion, &c. are articles fo important in the hiltory of man, either on account of the intereft attached to fome of the fub- jects, or of the general prevalence of fome of the practices, that we fhould confider it a facrifice of what is effential to falfe notions of delicacy, if we pafled them over entirely’ unnoticed. On the fubjeé& of virginity, fee the account of the hymen, in the defcription of the vagina, in the article GenERATION, and Buffon’s Hiftory of Man, fect. 3: re- {peGting Circumcifion and Impotence, fee thofe articles; and concerning the latter, Mr. Hunter’s Treatife on the Venereal Difeafe, pt. iii. ch. 11 and 12. Boys are infibulated by drawing the prepuce forwards, piercing it, and putting through the holes a {mall cord, which remains until the cica- trix is formed ; the cord is then removed, and a ring fub- ftituted in its place, which is made of fufficient ftrength to laft as long as the perfon, who ordered the operation, pleafes ; and it fometimes remains for life. The Eaftern monks, who took the vow of chaitity, ufed to employ a large ring, which rendered a breach of their oath impoffible. On this fubje& hardly any thing can be imagined fo ridiculous that it has not been pratifed by fome men, either from motives of paflion or of fuperttition, A fimilar mode of fecuring the chaltity of the women, which could only be fuggefted by the rudenefs of their manners, has been praétifed in many barbarous na- tions. In Ethiopia, and other parts of Africa, in Arabia, Pegu, and other nations of Afia, the inhabitants, imme- diately after the birth of females, few up thofe parts which nature has feparated, leaving onlya {pace fuflicient for the natural evacuations. As the child grows, the parts gra- dually adhere, and when the time of marriage arrives, they are again difunited by incifion. Inftead of thread, the fibres of the afbeftos are faid to be employed, which is a fubftance not liable to fudden corruption. Some tribes content them- felves with putting a ring through the parts. To this pre- caution wivesas well as girls are fubjected, with this dif- ference, that the ring allotted to the latter cannot be re- moved, but in that of the former there is a lock, of which the hufband keeps the key. The practice of caftration is of great antiquity, and has prevailed very extenfively. It is employed in Afia, to pro- cure guards for the chaftity of the women ; in Italy, this in- famous, this cruel operation, has for its objeét only the im- provement of the voice, Befides deftroying the faculty of propagation, it prevents, or very fignally modifies, the changes that ufually occur at the time of puberty, and remarkably influences the voice. (See Generation and Eunucus.) The fpecies of caftration varies according to the objeé in view; the tefticles only are removed, when the improvement of the voice is intended. But men, whofe minds are pof- feffed with jealoufy, would not believe their females fafe in the cuftody of fuch eunuchs; they employ none but thofe who have been deprived of all the external organs of gene- ration. Sometimes the texture of the organs has been de- ftroyed by prefling and rubbing them for a long time ; but the effect of this procefs cannot be fo fecurely depended on as that of removal. Infancy is always preferable for thefe operations. ‘I‘he amputation of the tefticles is not very dan- gerous: but the more complete removal is often fatal, efpe- cially if performed after the age of fifteen; even in the moft favourable time, from feven to ten years, there is always great danger. he difficulty of preferving fuch eunuchs renders them exceedingly precious. Tavernier informs us, that in Turkey and Perfia, they bring five or fix times the price of the other kind. Chardin ebferves, that the total am- putation is performed pretty fafely upon young children, and is exceedingly dangerous after the age of fifteen ; that hardly a fourth part efcape with life, and that the wound is never cured in lefs than fix weeks. On the other hand, Pietro della Valle afferts, that thofe who fuffer this punifhment in Perlia for rapes, and ‘other crimes of that nature, recover eafily, though advanced in years; and that they apply nothing but afhes to the wound. According to ‘Vhevenot, vaft numbers of negroes, who are forced by the Turks to fubmit to this operation, perifh, even when it is performed on individuals eight or ten years old. The arrival of puberty differs according to climate, tem- perament, way of life, &c. fo that no particular age can be fet down for its general occurrence. It is earlier in women than in men; the former, in our climate, fhew the phenomena of puberty at about the age of fifteen, the latter at that of eighteen. Inftances are not very uncommon, of confider- able developement of the body, with the changes that ufually occur at puberty, fuch as the appearance of the beard, en- largement of the generative organs, fecretion of femen, ex- panfion of the breafts, flow of the menfes, and formation of hair on the pubes, at a much earlier age than we have men- tioned. Befides the inftances related in the article GenERA- TION, a confiderable number may be found in Haller’s Ele- menta Phyfiologia, lib. xxx. fect. i. § 15. Puer triennis pubefcens, virili in pudendis robore, altus 37 uncias. Journ. de Medecine, 1757. Puella quatuor annorum mammis con- {picua et pube, ut etiam menfes pateretur. Valifneri Op. t. ili. p. 309. Puer quatuor annorum nubilis, feminarum cupidus, voce gravi, tanto robore, ut libras so elevaret. Journ. de Medecine, 1759. Many other examples are men- tioned of children younger than thefe, who exhibited figns of puberty, fuch as the growth of the beard, and of the hair on the pubes ; and there are numerous in{tances of others from four years upwards, who have been able to perform all the fexual functions. The termination of the growth of the body in length is fixed a little after this time ; the epiphyfes of the bones, hitherto diftinét from the bodies, now coalefce, and are completely confolidated to them. ‘ Stature of Man.—There is no fixed law, determining in- variably the human ftature, although there is a ftandard, as in other fpecies of animals, from which the deviations, inde- pendently of difeafe or accident, are not very confiderable in either direétion. In the temperate climates of Europe, the height of the human race may be {tated at five feet two inches to five feet ten. Schreber gives to the human fpecies a height of from two feet four inches, to five feet eight inches. (Mammalia, t.i. p. 27.) Individuals of fix feet, and even as high as fix feet three and four, are not uncommon in this and other European countries. Oceafional inftances have been known in various parts of the world, of men reaching the height of feven and eight feet ; and ancient as well as modern authors fpeak of the human flature reaching nine, ten, and even eighteen feet. The latter reprefentations are generally grounded on bones dug out of the earth ; thefe, together with the common propenfity to believe and re- port what is marvellous, and the notion that mankind have undergone M AN. undergone a degeneracy fince their firft formation, have led to a very common belief that the human ftature in general, is at this period lefs than it was in remote ages. We are warranted in fufpe@ting the accounts of fuch great elevation above the ordinary ftature, in the human fpecies, by obferving that nature, within the time of which we have any authentic records, exhibits no fuch difproportions in other {pecies. We find, too, that the height of thefe giants is reduced, as we approach to modern times, to what we have opportunities of obferving now ; fo that we may probably affirm, that no fufficiently authenticated example can be adduced of a man higher than eight or nine feet. ‘The large bones on which the notions about giants have been, in many inftances, founded, have been difcovered, by the accurate examinations of modern fcience, to belong to extinét fpecies of animals of the elephant and other allied kinds. .Of the loofe and unphilofophical mode in which thefe matters have generally been inquired into, we have a f{pecimen in the fuppofed bones of abarbarian king. Habicot, ananatomift, ina worken- . titled “ Gigantofteologie,”’ defcribes fome huge bones, found near the ruins of the caftle of Chaumont in Dauphiny, in a fepulchre, over which was a grey itone, infcribed TEuro- noccuus Rex. This fkeleton, he fays, was 25% feet long, and ro broad at the fhoulders. Riolan, in his ‘ Giganto- machie,”? difputes the meafuremerts, and affirms that the bones belong to the elephant. In the long controverfy which enfued, it is remarkable that no exact defcription or reprefentations of the bones fhould have been given. It is very furprifing that fuch a philofopher as Buffon fhould have figured and defcribed the foffil bones of large animals as‘re- mains of human giants, in the sthvol. of the fupplement of his claffical work. Among others he has thofe dug up at Lucerne, in the 16th century, and ftill preferved there. Blumenbach found thefe, on the firft view, to be elephants’ bones. Felix Plater,an excellent phy fician and anatomilt of his time, after carefully examining and meafuring thefe bones, declared that they belonged to a human giant of feventeen feet, and had a drawing made of this fkeleton, according to his opinion of its dimenfions, which is {till preferved in the Jefuits’ college at Lucerne. (Blumenbach de Gen. Human. Variet. Nat. p. 251, note.) ‘That men in general were taller in the early ages of the world than at prefent, or that ex- amples of very tall men were then more frequent than now, has been afferted without any proof. The remains of human bones, and particularly the teeth, which are unchanged in the moft ancient urns and burial places, the mummics, and the farcophagus of the great pyramid of Ezypt (Norden’s Travels), demonftrate this point clearly ; and every fact which we can colle& from ancient works of art, from ar- mour, as helmets and breaft plates, or from buildings de- figned for the accommodation of men, concurs in {trengthen- ing the proof. Blumenbach has the {lull and bgnes of an old perfon, taken out of a burial place of the moft remote antiquity in Denmark (in antiquiffimo tumulo Cimbrico), and correfponding in fize to the modern {tandard. (Ibid, p- 252, note.) That we cannot have degenerated in confe- quence of the habits of civilized fociety is clear, becaufe the individuals of nations living in a way fo different from us as the Americans, Africans, Southern iflanders, &c. do not exceed us in ftature. Indeed it has been generally obferved that the Americans are fhorter than the Europeans. We frequently meet with examples of individuals below, as well as above the ordinary ftature ; but when the deviation is confiderable, they are rarely well made. Giants and Dwarfs.—In mentioning individuals who have exceeded the ordinary height, it is neceflary to confine our- felves, in order to avoid what may be fabvlous or exag~ gerated, to inftances in our own times, One of the king of Pruffia’s gigantic guards, a Swede, was 84 feet, and a yeoman of the duke John Frederic, at Brunfwick-Hanover, was of the fame meafure. Gilly, who was fhewn, meafured 8 feet (Swedifh). Is H. Hartmann Reichardt of Fried- berg, near Frankfort, was 8ft. 3in.: his father was a giant, and his fifter a giantefs. A female of Stargard, named La Pierre, was 7 ft. (Danifh). Ludwig, Grundrifs der Na- turgefchichte, &c. p. 150. See alfo Haller, Elem. Phy- fiol. lib. xxx. fet. 1. § 17. Martin Salmeron, the Mexi- can giant, is the fon of a Metizo by an Indian woman, and meatures 7 ft. 34 in. (Englifh.) He is very well propor- tioned. Humboldt’s Political Effay, b. ii. ch. 6. Several [rithmen, of from 7 to 8 feet, have been exhibited in this country. Bebe, the dwarf of Staniflaus king of Poland, was 33 in. (French), and well proportioned. His fpine became curved as he approached manhocd ; he grew weak, and died at 23. Buffon, Hift. Naturelle, xv. p- 176. The Polifh nobleman Borwlafki meafured 28 Paris inches ; was well made, clever, and fkilled in languages. He hada brother of 34 in. and a fitter of 21.. Memoirs of the cele- brated dwarf Jef. Borwlafki, &c. Lond. 1788. A Friefland peafant at 26 years of age had reached 29 Amiterdam inches. C. H. Stoberin of Niirnberg was nearly 3 feet highat 20, well proportioned, and poffeffed of talents. Her parents, brothers, and fifters, were dwarfs, Lavater Phyfiognomifche Fragmente iv. p. 72. Of numerous other inftances on record, mott feem to have been difeafed, and particularly rickety, individuals ; fo that they may rather be clafled among pathological phenomena. The men who have confiderably exceeded the ordinary ftandard, have neither poffeffed thofe proportions in their form, which we account elegant ; nor has their flrength by any means correfponded to their fize. The head, in thefe cafes, 1s below the ratio which it fhould bear to the body, according to what we deduce from men of ordinary ftature ; hence the brain muft be comparatively {maller. Itis a ge- neral obfervation that very large men are feldom diftinguifhed by extent or force of mental power. The dwarfs, again, are generally ill made; the head, in particular, is too large. There are very few inftances of what we could deem healthy well made men, with all the proper attributes of the race, much below the general ftandard. Manhood.—The age of manhood extends from the twenty- firft or fifth year to the forty-fifth or fiftieth in the male; it begins and ends rather fooner in the female. At its begin- ning the growth of the body in length has ended ; but it itill increafes in the other dimenfions. All the organs acquire a fuperior firmuefs in their texture; the fat and cellular fub- ftances are diminifhed, and the mufcles con{picuoufly en- larged ; hence the fharp and hard lines of mufeular protu- berances are fubitituted in the place of the rounded and foft outlines of youth, Great mufcular ftrength, vigour, and celerity in the ations of the nervous fyftem, perfeét execu- tion of ail the bodily funétions, in fhort the highelt ftate of vitality, are the attributes of this age. It is not lefs cha- racterized by a perfect developement of the mental faculties. The judgment in particular is matured, and fucceeds to the empire of imagination. Man is now capable of fulfilling all the duties of a¢tive life as a citizen and parent. During this long interval, he enjoys the plenitude of his exiftence. Ir has been fuppofed that the body remains in the fame condition in this part of life, and hence it has been called by Latin writers, /laius hominis. The fun@ion of nutrition fupplies whatever is loft in the other procefles of the economy, and thus a perpetual change is kept up, although the body ap- pears the fame ; in this circulation, it has been conceived that MAN. that the whole is changed in the courfe of a few years. There are no accurate data for calculating the time in which all the particles are renewed ; probably, however, this is different in the different tiffues. The hair and nails are ra- pidly renewed ; the fat is often increafed or removed within avery fhort time ; on the contrary, the marks in the {kin pro- duced by punéturing it, and rubbing in various coloured fubftances, continue through life. Towards the latter half of theage of manhood, there isa difpofition to the depofition of fat over the whole body ; in- deed {uch depofitions take place at any part of this period, when tranquillity of mind and inactivity of body are joined with copious food. Fat is particularly formed about the abdomen. (See Conpurence.) As the growth of the frame is finifhed, and all the fun@tions are carried on with vigour, there isa redundance of nutrient particles, by which we can account for this occurrence. Temperaments. —We avail ourfelves of this age, in which the chara¢ters of the human fpecies, roughly fketched in in- fancy and youth, are fixed and drawn in indelible colours, in order to delineate the diftin@tive traits of individuals. We defignate by the word temperament the phyfical and moral differences of men, depending on the various propor- tions and relations of the part entering into their organiza- tion, as well as on the various degrees of energy in certain organs. Thus, the collection of circumftances in the orga- nization or funétions of the body, that charaéterife a num- ber of individuals, conftitutes their temperament. Again, each perfon has a mode of being peculiar to himfelf, diftin- guifhing his temperament from that of all others, to fome ef whem he may, however, bear in general a confiderable refemblance. Thefe individual temperaments, of which the knowledge is highly important in the pra@tice of medicine, are called idiofyncrafies. - The predominance of a particular fyftem of organs mo- difies the whole economy, impreffes {triking differences on the refults of organization, and exerts no lefs influence on the moral and intellectual than on the phyfical powers. This predominance eftablifhes temperament, of which it is the caufe and effence. Since the conitruction of the body follows the fame model jn all, it feems ftrange, at firft fight, that each individual fhould be different from all others, and fhould pofiefs a character peculiar to himfelf. Let the number of tiffues, or elementary ingredients of the body, be confidered; let the number of organs compofed by thefe be taken into the view ; let us remember the various vital properties which thefe poffefs, and the very numerous funétions which they exercife. The original component {truéture may differ, the organs, which they build up, may vary: the vital forces exit in every poffible degree from the higheft pitch to the loweft ftate: the funétions are modified by innumerable caufes, as climate, food, clothing, way of life, .exercife, labour of mind and body, &c. &c. By the various combi- nations produced by all thefe differences, individual tempe- raments or idiofyncrafies are fufficiently accounted for. It feems probable, however, that thefe diverfities are in a great meafure faGitious: all wild animals are alike; the differ- ences between individuals are not confiderable in the dometti- cated races; and there is much greater general refemblance between individual men in favage than in civilized life. When we.aferibe temperaments to differences of organi- zation, we are aware that the truth of the propofition can- not be eafily proved, that the anatomift cannot trace in the material fabric the caufes of thefe phenomena, which at prefent mutt be regarded rather as characters of the vital fun@tions than of the organization. _ The operation of moral caufes, too, muft greatly obfcure this intricate queftion. Education, acquired habits, fituation, and fortune in life, and a long lift of caufes, have fo great an influence on the charaéter and many of the bodily fun€tions, that we are at a great lofs in pointing out what ought to be afcribed to original conformation or difpofition, and what flows from fubfequent agency. We with, therefore, the following fetch of temperaments which we have borrowed from a French writer (Richerand, Elemens de Phyfiologie, chap. 11.) not to be received in a very rigorous fenfe, as founded on the batis of anatomy, but rather to be regarded as a ftate- ment of the views generally entertained on the fubje&, to the truth of which, anatomically, we would not be confi- dered as pledged. When the agents of circulation, the heart and blood- veflels, enjoy a predominant aétivity, the pulfe will be ftrong, frequent, and regular, the fin highly coloured, the phy. ognomy animated, the forms foft but well expreffed, the flefh tolerably firm, the embonpoint moderate, the hair light coloured ; the nervous fufceptibility lively and rapid, united with quick conception, good memory, and {portive imagi- nation. Such individuals facrifice freely to Bacchus and Venus, avd have their health rarely interrupted by difeafe. The latter is generally fituated in the circulating fyftem, (inflammatory fever, inflammations, active hemorrhages, ) and requires the ufe of antiphlogiftic remedies, particularly of blood-letting. The ancients gave the name of /anguine temperament to this difpofition af hddyis they had very cor- rectly obferved that 1t was to be noticed generally in youn perfons of both fexes, and that its charafters are mel clearly developed in fpring. if Fn The phyfical traits of this temperament may be feen in the beautiful ftatues of Antinous, and the Apollo of ‘Belve- dere: its moral phyfiognomy is delineated in the lives of Mare Antony and Alcibiades. Inconftancy is a charaéter- iftic attribute of this temperament ; great variety isneceflary as well as agreeable to the individuals whom it marks. Ge- nerous, fentible, and paflionate, but inconftant, they are too foon tired after poffeflion, and free themfelves from the dos ~ minion of Beauty at the very inftant when fhe fancies fhe has fecured them by a durable chain. He, on whom nature has beftowed a fanguine temperament, vainly endeavours to re- nounce fenfual enjoyments, and arrive, by deep meditation, at abitract truth ; overpowered by his phyfical difpofitions, he is con{tantly forced back to the pleafures which he avoids; his mindis better calculated for the brilliant pro= duétions of wit, than the fublime conceptions of genius. - When a man of this temperament is forced, by his con= dition, to undergo labours, which exercife confiderably his organs of motion, the mufcles acquire a developement pro- portioned to that of the circulating organs, and increafe in fize; the mufcular or athletic temperament, characierifed by all the external figus of vigour, is the refult. The head is fmail, the neck powerful, particularly behind, the fhoulders broad, the che{t wide, the hips firm, and the muf- cular forms {trongly marked. The hands, the feet, the knees, and ail the joints not much covered by mu(cles, appear {mall ; the tendons difplay themfelves under the fkin. ‘The fufcep- tibility is not confiderable, but when the calm is once dif- turbed, the greateft refiftances are overcome. ‘The Farnefe Hercules affords a model of the phyfical attributes of this conititution, and the exploits of this demi-god, as recorded in fabulous antiquity, give us atolerably jult notion of the concomitant moral difpofitions. We fee him performing his twelve labours without calculation, without reflection, and, asit were by initinét, courageous becaule he is ftrong, feeking obitacles that he may overcome them, certain of overwhelming MAN. everwhelming all refiftance, but uniting with this vat ftrength fo little addrefs, that he is cheated by all the kings whom he ferves, and by all the women whom he loves. It would be difficult to find inftances of men who have joined to the phyfical force of this temperament a confider- able degree of intellefual power. ‘To attain excellence in the fciences or fine arts, acute fenfibility is neceffary, a condition almoft incompatible with any marked developement of the mufcles. If to an eafily excited fenfibility we join the power of purfuing one object for a long time; if the pulfe is ftrong, hard, and frequent, the fubcutaneous veins prominent, the fkin of a brownifh tint, inclining towards yellow, the hair black, the flefh firm with the mufeles ftrongly expreffed ; the paflions will be violent, the movements of the foul fudden and impetuous, the charaéter firm and inflexible. Bold in conception, firm and invincible in execution, fuch men at different epochas have directed the deflinies of the world: courageous and active, they have fignalized themfelves by great exploits, and have commanded the dread or admira- tion, at ail events the homage, of an univerfe. Such have been Alexander, Julius Czfar, Brutus, Mahomet, Charles XIL., Cromwell, cardinal Richelieu: fuch is Napoleon the Firft. } As love in the fanguine, ambition may be regarded the ruling paffion of the bilious. Obferve that man, who born in an obfcure family, vegetates for a long time in the lower ranks of life: great commotions agitate and overturn em- pires; he is at firft a fubordinate agent, but, concealing. his defigns in his own breaft, he gradually rifes to the fovereign power, and employs, in retaining it, the fame addrefs which has aided his elevation. Such is the hiftory of Cromwell, and of all the extraordinary men, whofe talents have met with a favourable field for their developement. Profound diffimulation and invincible conftancy are equally neceflary for executing fuch defigns; and thefe qualities are eminently difplayed by men of the bilious temperament, as we may fee in the lives of pope Sixtus V. and cardinal Richelieu. Premature developement of the moral faculties is another charaéter of this temperament. When their youth had hardly ended, the men whom we have named conceived and exe- cuted deligns fufficient to render them illuftrious. The an- cients called this the di/ious temperament, as a remarkable developement of the liver, and fuper-abundance of its fe- cretions are united init to energy of the fanguiferous fy{tem. Derangements of the hepatic organs appear in the perfons of this temperament as a prineipal or acceffory circumftance of their difeafes. When to the bilious temperament are added a difeafe of fome organ in the abdomen, a derangement in the funétions of the nervous fy{tem, or a feeble and irregular execution of the vital functions, the fkin affumes a deeper colour, the countenance is dark and reftlefs, the abdominal vifcera in- adtive, and the pulfe hard. ‘he general uneafinefs gives a charaéter to the thoughts ; the imagination becomes melan- choly, and the charaéter fufpicious. T'he exceedingly nu- merous varieties of this temperament, which the ancients called atrabilious or melancholic, and the diverfity of circumitances which may produce it, fuch as hereditary difeafe, long con- _tinued anxiety, excefs of ftudy, &c. lead us to the opinion that the melancholic temperament is lefs to be regarded as a natural and primitive conftitution, than as a morbid af- fection, either hereditary or acquired. ‘The charaéters of Louis XI. and Tiberius exhibit moft faithfully its moral traits, of which diltruit and timidity are the moft ftriking. The hiftory of men, who have attained celebrity in the fcien- ces, arts, and literature, makes us acquainied with melan- Vor. XXII, cholic individuals of a different charater: endued with an exquifite fenfibility, enthufiaftically fond of the beautiful, and capable of realizing it in their conceptions, living in fo- ciety ina ftate of referve bordering on diftruft, analyfing molt carefully the ations of men, perceiving in matters of fentiment even the moft delicate fhades, but difpofed to un- favourable interpretations, and feeing all objeéts through the diftorting medium of melancholy. It would be extremely difficult to defcribe this temperament in a general or abftract manner. Although the ground of the picture is the fame, the finifhing is fufceptible of infinite variations: it is better therefore to refort to the hiltory of the illuftrious chara@ers in whom it is exhibited. Of thefe, Taffo, Pafcal, Rouffeau, Gilbert, and Zimmermann, furnifh remarkable illuftrations. In the philofopher of Geneva particularly, the melancholic temperament exifted in a high degree of energy: numerous paflages of his well-known writings, and efpecially the two laft parts of the Confeffions and the Reveries du Pro- meneur folitaire,, give us an inftructive picture of its workings. When the liquids are abundant, they diftend and deve- lope the cellular tiffue, and give to the whole body a confiderable volume. The flefh is foft, the countenance dull, the hair of fome light tint, the pulfe feeble, the forms rounded and inexpreffive, all the vital ations more or lefs languid, the memory treacherous, and the power of atten- tion weak. ‘The individuals of this temperament, called, by the ancients, pituitous, and which we term phlegmatic, have, generally, a itrong difpofition to idlenefs, and an in- vincible repugnance to exercife of the mind as weil as of the body: hence, we are not to be furprifed that no ex- amples occur among the illuftrious men of Plutarch: little fuited for butfinefs, they have not exercifed dominion over their {pecies, nor altered the furface of the globe by ne- gociation or conquelt. Atticus, the friend of Cicero, who lived on good terms with all the parties who fucceflively haraffed the Roman republic in the civil wars of Cxfar and Pompey, is an example of thistemperament. The cir- culation is tranquil, the imagination cool, and the paffions moderate. From this moderation of the defires arife often the virtues of temperament, as they are called ; vir- tues, by the bye, of which the poffeffors ought. to be the lefs_ proud. The property, by virtue of which we are more or lefs fenfible to impreffions on our organs, which is weak in the phlegmatic, very inconfiderable in the mufcular, moderate in the fanguine temperament, and tolerably lively in the bilioys, conititutes, when it is exceffive, the nervous tem- perament. This is feldom original, but more commonly acquired, and arifing from a fedentary life, habits of plea- fure, and an unnatural ftate of mind, kept up by reading works of imagination, &c. Soft and {mall mufcles, and confequently inconfiderable fize of body, lively fenfations, promptitude and variability of decifion, are marks of this temperament ; it is often exhibited in vapourifh women, in whom, however, it frequently exilts with tolerable embon- point, the predominance of the nervous fyftem being con- need with a moderate developement of the lymphatic fyf tem. Convulfions are not unfrequent in fuch individuals. Antifpafmodics fucceed beft in the treatment of their dif- eafes, which always borrow their hue, more or lefs, from the temperament. This, like the melancholic, is not fo much a natural conftitution of the body, as the firlt tlage of a difeafe. It exifts only, as the nervous affections, to which it difpofes, in focieties arrived at a high pitch of civilization, when man is as remote as poffible from the {tate of nature. ‘The Roman women were not fubject to ni rvous ; diforders MAN. diforders until the commencement of thofe depraved man- ners, which fignalized the downfal of the empire. Va- pours were extremely common in France during the 18th century, in the times that preceded the ruin of the mo- narchy, and numerous works appeared on the fubje& within a fhort time. Tronchin of Geneva acquired very exten- five reputation and a large fortune by his fkill in treating thefe diforders: he made idle women exercife themfelves habitually, till they were fatigued, and reitricted them to’ fimple and wholefome food. We cannot doubt, that the peculiar bodily difpofitions, on which the differences of temperament are grounded, are coeval with our birth; but they appear to be modi- fied, or even entirely changed by educution, mode of life, climate, and contraéted habits. The prevalence of parti- cular temperaments in certain countries fhews us the in- fluence of climate. ‘The bilious charaCterizes the inhabit- ants of fouthern climates; the faneuine thofe of the north ; the phlegmatic conftitution prevails in cold and wet countries, as Holland, &c. We rarely meet with indivi- duals, who prefent the charaGters affigned to the various temperaments in all their purity, confequently the fketches here given of them are abftraGions, which it is difficult to se Si The fanguine conttitution is direGly oppofite to the melancholic, and never unites with it: we may make the fame obfervation of the bilious and phlegmatic: yet a perfon, who is fanguine in his youth, may become me- Jancholic at a fubfequent period of life ; for man never re- mains as he came from the hand of nature: modified by every thing that furrounds him, his phyfical properties, as well as his character, prefent numerous differences at the dif- ferent periods of hiw life. Proportions.—The proportions which the parts of the body bear to each other, when its growth is completed, mutt alfo be confidered in this divifion of our fubjeGt. We have very little exa€t knowledge concerning thefe ; they are hardly the fame in any two individuals. Repeated ob- fervations alone can afcertain a ftandard, by which we may be enabled to form a perfe& idea of the natural and belt proportions of the human figure. The ancients made flatues fo exquifitely beautiful, that they have uniformly ‘been regarded as exa&t reprefentations of the molt perfect human forms. Thefe, which were only copies, are now con- fidered as originals, becaufe they were not imitated from an individual, but from the whole fpecies, fo attentively com- pared, and diligently obferved, that it is impoffible to find an equal degree of fymmetry and proportion in any one man that ever exited. We fhall, therefore, relate the dimenfions of the different parts which thefe artifts have fixed as ftandards of perfection. The height of the body is ten times the length of the face; and each face, or tenth of the body, is divided into three equal parts; the firtt commences at the fpringing of the hair on the forehead, and terminates at the root of the nofe; the nofe is the fecond divifion; and the third extends from the nofe to the end of the chin. The term nofe, or length of a nofe, is ufed to denote the third of a face, or the thirtieth pert of the body. The firlt face begins at the root of the hair, above the forehead, and extends to the end of the chin; but, from the top of the forehead to the crown, there is fill a third of a face ora nofe in height. Thus, from the top of the head to the end of the chin, there is a face and a third ; from the chin to the jun¢iure of the clavicles, two- thirds of a face; and, therefore, from the top of the head to the breait is twice the length of the face, or the fifth of the body. From the joining of the clavicles to the under part of the breafts, they reckon one face; from this to the navel is a fourth face ; and the fifth extends from the navel to the divifion of the inferior extremities, which fhould complete half the length of the body. ‘T'wo faces are ex- haulted between the thigh and knee, to the laft of which they allow half a face, being the firit half of the eighth face; two faces are affigned between the knee and the top of the foot, and from that to the fole half a face, which completes the ten faces, or the length of the body. This divilion has been eltablifhed from men of ordinary fize; but in thofe of higher ftature, they allow half a face additional between the breafts and the commencement of the thighs, which, in tall men, is not the middle of the body. When the arms are fully extended in a horizontal line, the {pace between the tops of the middle fingers is equal to the length of the body. The {pace between the two great toes, when the feet are feparated as widely as poffible, is the fame length, From the pubes to the heel is one-half of this length. From the joining of the collar bones, to the articulation of the fhoulder bone with that of the arm, is one face. When the arm hangs down, or is bent forwards, it is four faces in length ; two between the fhoulder and elbow, and two between the elbow and the rot of the little finger ; five faces, therefore, from the joining of the collar bones, and the fame number for the other arm, make up the length of the body; about half a face remains for the length of the fingers ; but it muft be remarked, that this is lott in the elbows and fhoulders, when the arms are extended. The hand is about a face in length, the thumb a third of a face, ora nofe, and the longeft tue is of the fame length with the thumb. The under part of the foot is equal in length to the fixth part of the length of the body; of this the tarfus compoles three, the metatarfus five, and the toes four. It is very difficult to fix the proportional thicknefs of the. diferent parts of the body. The changes are fo great when the fame man is thin or fat, ard the aétion ot the mufcles, in differeat pofitions, creates fo much variety in the dimenfions of the parts, that it is almoft impoflible to fet down any fixed rules on the fubje@t. The circumference of the trunk, about the cheit or abdomen, equals half the length of the body. Strength of the Body.—It is difficult to form any fatis- factory comparifon between the ttrength of men and of animals. The habit of exertion, the kind and quantity of food, the {tate of health, and many other caufes, have fuch effect on the vital powers of the mnufcles, that it is hardly poffible to perform experiments under circumftances in all refpeéts fimilar. Defaguliers tells us, that by means of a certain harnefs, by which every part of a man’s body was proportionally loaded, the perfon employed in the experi- ment could fupport, in the ere& potture, a weight not lefs than 2000 pounds. A horfe, which is about fix times the fize of an ordinary man, ought, therefore, when managed in the fame manner, to bear 12 or 14,000 pounds, a much greater weight than that animal can fupport, even when it is diftributed with every poflible advantage. The flrength of animals may likewife be eftimated by agility, and perfeverance in labour. Men, when accuftomed to running, are able to outftrip horfes in the long run: a man will accomplifh a long journey fooner, and be lefs fatigned, than the beft road horfes. The royal meffengers of Ifpahan, who are trained to running, go thirty-fix leagues in fourteen or fifteen hours; we are aflured by tra- vellers, that the Hottentots outrun lions in the chace; and that thofe favages, who live by hunting, purfue and eyen catch deer, and other animals of equal {wiftnefs. iy other MAN. ether ftories are told of the amazing nimblenefs of favages, of the long journies they accomplifh on foot over the moft craggy mountains, where there 1s no path to direct, but every obftacle to ob{truct their progrefs. Thefe people are faid to travel 1000 leagues in fix weeks, or at moft in two months. If we except birds, whofe mufcles are propor- tionally ftronger than thofe of any other animals, no creature could fupport fuch lonz continued fatigue. Civilized man is ignorant of his own ftrength; nor is he fenfible how much he is weakened by effeminacy, nor to what extent he might recover his native force by an habitual and vigorous exercife of his powers. Age of Decline.—Every obje& in nature muft change and decay ; the bodies of men, when arrived at full maturity, begin to decline. The wafte is at firft infenfible, and feveral years frequently revolve before we perceive any confiderable alteration. The depefition of fat may perhaps be regarded as the firft flep towards decay; it is an addition of fuper- fluous matter, loading the body with an ufelefs weight. As the quantity of it augments, the body lofes its former light- nefs and freedom of motion, the members become unwieldy, and extenfion is acquired at the expence of ftrength and adtivity. But the moft unequivocal figns of approaching old age are the ceffation of the catamenia in women, often attended with a developement of the beard, diminifhed fexual appetite in men, the approach in both of what has been called the drynefs of old age, (ficcitas fenilis,) and a fenfible diminution of the vital forces. The epocha of thefe changes is from forty to forty-five in women; from forty-five to fifty in men; peculiar caufes’may either accelerate or retard the period. ‘The individuals of both fexes are now no longer capable of exercifing that moft important function, the propagation of the fpecies; their fexual life is at an end. Diminifhed aétivity of the fenfes and brain, impaired vigour in the moving organs, and leflened energy of all the internal funétions, gradually come on after this great revolu- tion in the animal economy. Confiderable organic changes are gradually developed; the motion of decompofition begins to predominate in the internal funétions, and the volume of the whole body is reduced. The cellular fubftance, foft and flexible in the youth, is converted into long and hard threads; it undergoes, over the whole body, a change that cannot but impair the mobility of the organs. ‘The yield- ing fkin of the infant, which has the foftnefs of velvet in the young woman,.grows rough and harfh; a tawny and difagreeable hue takes place of its frefh rednefs ; its con- tractility is deftroyed, the abforption of the fat leaves it unfupported, and hence wrinkles are produced.. They are - firft -feen in the eye-lids, and extend over the whole body ; but we notice them more particularly in the face, on the wrinkled front of which approaching decrepitude is marked in mott legible characters. So hard does the texture of the {kin become in very old individuals, that confiderable force mult fometimes be ufed to penetrate it with a knife. The hair partakes of the fame changes with the fkin; it turns grey, becomes much thinner, then aflumes a white colour, and is at laft entirely loft. The cornea of the eye is rendered flatter, fo that its power of refraéting the rays of light, that come from near objects, is diminifhed. 'The vifion of diftant obje&ts, how- ever, is ftill perfect ; and the ufe of convex glaffes fupplies the imperfection in the fight of what is near. A white circle is often developed in the cornea, near its attachment to the {clerotica, and has been called arcus fenilis, The arteries are not exempt from the general decay ; the larger trunks are dilated, their coats are more or lefs con- verted into a fubitance of cartilaginous or bony hardnefs, and affume a brittle texture. The procefs of offification in the {maller tubes reduces their calibre. The capillaries are greatly diminifhed in number. Hence inje@ions, particu. larly minute ones, fucceed very imperfectly in old bodies. This change affects organs of every defcription ; the fame parts which exhibited innumerable blood-veffels in the growe ing body, poffefs now but few and fcattered ramifications, The veins are enlarged and varicous. The mufcles become tough, and are rendered unfit in ani- mals for the purpofes of the table; fat is depofited among their fibres, and the tendinous parts increafe in their pro- portion. ‘They feel, however, at this time aCtually foft and flabby. The bones receive an undue depofition of earthy matter, lofe their cohefion, break very eafily, and unite after frac- tures very flowly and imperfectly. The cartilages become brittle, and in many initances are offified , the ligamente are rendered harder, but are lefs capable of refifting extenfion. The teeth fall out. Analogous changes take place in all parts of the body, but are not equally obvious in all. Yet all the organs have fomething peculiar in their chara¢ters at this time, by which we can eafily diftinguifh them from thofe of young individuals, But the moft important alterations are thofe which affe& the vital properties, and confequently, the funétions of the body. ‘Thefe changes are often feen wher the above-men- tioned alterations of ftructure are not vifible to any very great degree. The external fenfes decay ; vifion becomes dim, and hearing dull; the operations of the intelle@ are affected in the fame manner, attention and perception are weakened, the memory becomes confufed. Thus, the rela- tions of the old man to the external world are gradually deftroyed ; he finks.into fecond infancy, becomes incapable of judging and willing, and has his intelle€tual world con- fined to a few confufed recollections, which foon difappear. When he is thus fhut out from new impreflions, he fleeps mott of his time, awakening only for the purpofe of taking food ; thus he is reduced to a kind of vegetative exiftence. , The organs of motion lofe their vitality in an equal degree with thofe of fenfation and volition. ‘The movements are flow, tremulous, and uncertain. The ere@tor mufcles of the trunk can no longer fupport it in the upright pofture, hence the body is bent forwards, and the legs become unable to fuftain and move the body. ‘The intervertebral fibro- cartilages are compreffed and reduced in fize, and the ftaturay confequently, experiences a real diminution, Digettion, and the other parts of the affimilating procefs, are executed flowly and imperfeétly : the lofs of the teeth is difadvantageous to the former. Food is taken at longer intervals ; the bowels become torpid; and the feces and urine are longer retained. The vigour of the circulation is impaired; the pulfe be- comes flower ; the extremities of the body are foon rendered cold, and their vitality is fo weak, that they eafily flough. For a flatement of the number of the pulfe at different ages, fee the article CrrcuLATION. Decrepitude.—From the end of manhood to death, there is a gradual progrefs, in which no ftages can be very diftin@ly marked. Yet the firlt years of decay are fometimes included under the term of green old age ; in which all the functions are ftill performed, but with leffened energy. ‘This may reach, with coniiderable latitude, however, to the fixtieth year. Inthis time the memory grows dull: former events are remembered, but the more recent foon efcape. This is fucceeded by decrepitude. The nervous fy{tem is now ren- dered nearly ufelefs : the old impreflions are effaced, and ne new ones received. No defire remains but that of food, Sfo which MAN. which is the laft to leave us: in the end food is not taken, unlefs it is offered. The irritation of the feces in the large imteltine is not perceived before death; and fleep is almolt conftant. A. de Moivre, who died at the age of eighty- eight, flept twenty hours in the twenty-four during the laft ear of his life. Complete deafnefs and blindnefs come on. The mufcles are firft exceedingly weak, and then lofe their power entirely, fo that old people are obliged to lie con- ttantly in bed. Exceffive emaciation takes place. The neart at lalt fails; its pulfations are reduced to fifty, forty, thirty ; and become intermittent ; and the heat of the frame is no longer kept up. Deat.—For a more particular account of the changes preceding death, and of death itfelf, we refer to that article. We have only to add here a few obfervations concerning the 2pprehenfions generally entertained of thisevent. We have fhewn, in the preceding fketch, that life both commences and terminates by imperceptible degrees. Why then fhould we be afraid of death, if we have no reafonable apprehenfions of its confequences? why dread this fingle moment, which has been preceded by fo many others of the fame order? fince death is fully as natural as life, and both arrive in the fame manner, without our being able to perceive their approach. If we inquire of thofe who are accultomed to obferve the actions and fentiments of the dying, we fhall find that, ex- cept in a few acute difeafes, attended with agitations and convulfions, which exhibit only the appearances of pain, molt men expire quietly, and without the fmalleft indication of uneafinefs. Even when perfons feem to be afflicted with the moft dreadful agonies, thefe have no exiftence but in the imaginaticn of the fpe€tator : the truth of this has been re- peatedly attefted by many perfons who have recovered after the moit violent commotions and convulfions, yet were un- able to recolle& any thing they had felt during this feemingly diftrefsful fituation. The greateft part of mankind die, therefore, without being fenfible of the fatal ftroke ; and of thofe who preferve their fenfes to the laft groan, there are very few who do not entertain fome hope of recovery. Death is a fpetre which terrifies us at a diftance, but dif- appears when we approach it more clofely. That the fuc- ceffion of ideas may be fo rapid as to give to a moment the appearance of an age, and thus to fubje& our departure from exiltence to excruciating torture, has been fuppofed without a fingle proof in its Petite, and again({t all proba- bility and analogy. Exceffive pain extinguifhes all reflec- tion ; yet fymptoms of the latter have fometimes appeared in the very moment of violent death, When Charles XII. received the blow, which terminated, in an inftant, both his enterprifes and his exiftence, he clapped his hand upon his fword. This mortal pang, fince it excluded not reflection, could not be exceffive. He found himfelf attacked, and determined to defend himfelf; it is evident, therefore, that he felt no greater pain than he would have fuffered from an ordinary ftroke. If it were as eafy to diffipate the terrors caufed by the anticipation of what is to happen after death, and to quiet the minds of men concerning the undifcovered ‘country beyond the grave, the Tartarus, with its judges and furies, its lakes of liguid fire, and the other hellifh apparatus, as it is to prove that the termination of exiftence is not phyfically painful, the human race would be mott fignally benefited, and would no longer have to envy brutes their peaceful death. Rigidity of the body, joined with coldnefs, flaccidity of the cornea, open ftate of the anus, lividity of the back, and a'cadaverous odour, where they exilt together, prove very fatisfaGtorily that death has taken place. Jtis hardly poflible to fet down any ageas the natural period of life, as the moft common and regular fimit of advanced old age. Blumenbach obferves, however, that a careful infpec- tion of feveral bills of mortality has fhewn him, that a com- paratively confiderable number of Europeans reach their eighty-fourth year, while very few furvive it. On the whole, although the human race is deftroyed in fuch numbers, among other caufes, from the weaknefs of the thread of life in the early years, by the intemperance of man- hood, by difeafe and accident, that not more than feventy- eight out of a thoufand die a natural death; yet, where human longevity is compared to the period of life of the other mammalia under fimilar circumftances, it will be foon dif- covered, that of all the complaints concerning the mifery of human life, none 1s more unfair than that of its fhortuefs. On the very interefting fubjects of the probabilities of life at different ages, the annual mortality in different coun- tries and fituations, the number of marriages, deaths, and births, the rate of increafe of population, and the proportions dettroyed in the different ways by which exiltence is ter- minated, fee Exeecration of Life, Lire-AnNuitigs, and an excellent table by M. Dupré de St. Maur, drawn up from the lifts of twelve country parifhes in France, and three in Paris, and publifhed by Buffon, in his Hiftory of Man, feét. 5. Morrauity, Marriace, and Poputation. For an ac- count of individuals who have reached an unufual age, and of the circumttances, under which this has happened, fee Haller’s Elementa Phyfiologiz, lib. xxx. fe€tion 3; the article Lon- Gevity in this Cyclopedia; and fir John Sinclair on Health and Longevity, 4 vols. 8vo. Il. Hiflory of the Species. In the diverfity of the regions which he is capable of in- habiting, the lord of the creation naturally holds the firft place among animals. His frame and nature are ftronger and more flexible than thofe of any other creature ; and he dwells, without injury, in all fituations on the furface of the globe. The neighbourhood of the pole and the equator, the higheft mountains and the deepelt rivers are occupied by him : his ftrong but pliant body bears cold, heat, moifture, light or heavy air; he can thrive any where, and runs into lefs remarkable varieties than any other animals which oc- cupy fo great a diverfity of abodes ;—a prerogative fo fin- gular, that it is not to be overlooked. What climates, what degrees of heat and cold can man bear? where does he live? and how is he able to endure fuch various abodes? Is he indebted for this privilege to the ftrength and flexibility of his organization, or, as Buffon aflerts, merely to his reafon? Does he conftitute a diftin& fpecies ; or is he allied in kind to theourang-outang ? Howdo climate, food, and fimilar caufes operate on him? Are thefe fufficient to account for all the diverfities hitherto obferved ; or mult we fuppofe that feveral individuals were originally created, each for its own climate? What country did he firft inhabit, and what was the appearance of the original man? Did he go ereét, or on all fours? was he a Patagonian, or an Efki- mau, Negro, or Georgian ?: Such are the important quef- tions which we have to confider in the prefent divifion of the article ;—queftions, of which a full Siteuffion would require a much greater extent and variety of knowledge than the writer can lay the leaft claim to, as well as a much larger portion of {pace than the limits of this work will allow. We muft, therefore, be contented with exhibiting a few hints, rather than a complete view of the matter. Abode of the human Species.—The fituations occupied by man in the prefent times, extend as far as the known furface of the earth. The Greenlander and Efkimau live in the eightieth, and even, perhaps, in {till higher degrees of north latitude. M A N. Jatitude. Noogfack, a Danifh fettlement, lies in 72° north latitude ; and the Greenlanders themfelves go much higher. Three Ruffians lived between fix and feven years .on Spitz- bergen, in latitude between 77° and 78°. See Dr. Aikinin the Manchefter Society’s Memoirs, vol. i. p. 96. The Negro lives under the equator, and all America is inhabited even to Terra del Fuego. Cook difcovered land about the 58th and 6oth degrees of fouth latitude, which he called Sand- wich land; and a clutter of iflands as far as the 66th degree, on which he faw no men. Very probably there are no human inhabitants here: but it 1s fufficiently proved that places at leaft as cold are habitable. Perhaps we are not quite warranted in aflerting that there are men in the inte- rior of Africa; yet the accounts received from thofe on the coafts induce us to believe that thefe regions are in fome degree peopled. Hence we find that man 1s capable of exilt- ing and propagating his fpecies in the hotteit and coldeft countries of the earth. The greatelt natural cold which has been afcertained by thermometrical meafurement, was that experienced by the elder Gmelin in the year 1735 at Jenifeik in 58 ‘north latitude, and 110° ealt longitude (from Ferro). The mercury fell to 126 below o. (Flora Sibirica, pref.) The fparrows and jays were killed. When Pallas was at Krafnaiarfle 56° north Jatitude, and 110° eait longitude, the thermometer fell to 80° below o; and the quickfilver froze in the bulb. A mafs of pure mercury, expofed in the open air, was frozen. (Travels in Ruffia, pt. 3.) Our own countrymen expe- rienced apparently as fevere a degree of cold on the Churchill river in Hudfon’s Bay. Brandy was frozen in the rooms where they had fires. (Phil. Tranf. N° 465.) Yet the Canadian favages and the Efkimau go to the chace in this temperature ; and the inhabitants of the countries vifited by Gmelin and Pallas cannot remain conftantly in their houfes during their winters. Even Europeans, accuftomed to warmer climates, can undergo fuch cold as we have juft mentioned, and efcape unhurt, if they take exercife enough. The Danes have lived in Greenland in the 72° north lati- tude ; and the Dutch, under Heemfkerk, wintered at Nova Zembla in 1597, in 76° north latitude. Some of them perifhed ; but thofe who moved enough, and were in found health at firft, with{tood the dreadful cold, which the polar bear (urfus maritimus), apparently born for thefe climes, feems to have been incapable of {upporting ; for the journal ftates that, as foon as the fun finks below the horizon, the cold is fo intenfe, that the bears are no longer feen, and the white fox (canis lagopus), alone braves the weather. (Voy. de la Comp. des Indes, parti.) For an account of other examples, and particularly of one, in which three men re- mained for between fix and feven years in 78’ north latitude, fee Dr. Aikin’s Memoir, already quoted, concerning the attempts to winter in high northern latitudes. The power of the human body to with‘{tand fevere degrees of cold will appear in a more remarkable light, when we ob- ferve what heat itis capable of bearing. Boerhaave afferted, that a heat of from 96’ to 100° would be fatal to man. Adanfon faw the thermometer in the fhade at 108! at Se- negal in 17° north latitude ; and Buffon cites an inftance of its being feen at 1174. Probably the country to the weft of the great defert is (till hotter from the effect of the winds which have blown over the whole tra¢t of its burning fands. When the firocco blows in Sicily, the thermometer rifes to 112°, according to Brydone. Dr. Chalmers obferved a heat of 115° in South Carolina, in the fhade: (On the Weather and Difeafes of South Carolina ;) and Humboldt experienced a temperature from 110° to 115° in the Llanos or deferts near the Orinoco, in South America, (Tableau Phyfique des Regions Equatoriales.) Much greater degrees of artificial heat have been fupported. See Heat, Animal. Thus we fee that man can fuctain all poilible degrees of atmofpherical heat and cold. He has an equal power of fupporting varieties of preffure. We may reckon the or- dinary preflure of the air, at the level of the fea, at 2,235 lbs. for the whole furface of the body; fuppofiog the barometer to ftand at 30 inches, If we afcend to a height of 12,000 fect, (extenfive tras in South America, inhabited by thoufands, have this height,) the barometer ftands at 204 inches, and the preffure is 21,750. Conda- mine and Bouguer, with their attendants, lived three weeks at a height where the barometer ftood at 15 inches g lines, and the preffure muft confequently have been 16,920. (Mem. de Acad. des Sciences, 1744.) In the Peruvian territory, extenfive plains occur at an altitude of gooo feet 5 and three-fifths of the viceroyalty of Mexico, comprehending the interior provinces, prefent a furface of half a million of {quare miles, which runs nearly level at an elevation of from 6000 to 8000 feet. Mexico is 7475, and Quito 9550 feet above the fea. The hamlet of Antifana, 13,500 feet above the level of the fea, is the higheft inhabited {pot on the fur- face of our globe; but Humboldt afcended to 19,300 feet. (Tableau Phyfique des Regions Equatoriales; et ‘tableaux de la Nature.) There are no in{tances of men living under a preflure much greater than we have juft mentioned: the depths to which the earth has been penetrated, in the opera- tions of mining, are trifling in this point of view. In diving, however, the body is fubje& to, «and can bear feveral atmo- fpheres ; as, on the contrary, in balloons, men have afcended beyond any point of elevation on the furface of the earth, and have confequently been expofed to a much more con- fiderable diminution of the ordinary preflure than what we have ftated above. Food. —The great variety of fubftances, which man is not only capable of digefting, but from which his organs can extract wholefome nourifhment, contribute very eflentially to his wide extenfion over the furface ef the earth. We have already explained, under the article Dicrsrron, that almoft the whole animal and vegetable kingdom afford food to man, Under particular circumftances, he can not only derive his nutriment exclufively from the animal kingdom, as in New South Wales, and in the Archipelago between Afia and America, from fifh; in the iflands to the fouth of Iceland, from fifh and puffins (fee fir G. Mackenzie’s 'T'ra- vels in Iceland) ; but can confume what appears to us the molt filthy and difgufting obje&s. ‘The Greenlander and the inhabitants of Alafka eat the whale, and can digeft this. hard and revolting food without the affiftance of cookery. The former bury a feal, when they catch one, under the grafs in fummer, and the fnow in winter, and eat the half. frozen half-putrid flefh with as keen a relifh as the European finds in his greateft dainties. (Cranz Hift. of Greenland.) They drink the blood of the feal while warm, and eat dried herrings moiftened with whale oil. They mix frefh, putrid, and half-incubated eggs, whortle berries, and angelica, in a bag of feal-fkin, pour whale-blubber on it, and referve the infernal mixture as a delicacy for the winter. The people of admiral Monk, and fome Ruffians, catt away on one of the Aleutian iflands, greedily confumed the putrid remains of a whale; and the Greenlanders always difpofe of the whales ftranded on their coafts in this way, not defifting, however far putrefaétion may have proceeded, till the whole is gone. Even the earth, impregnated with the reliquie of animal and vegetable matter, affords food to fome favages. The Ottomaques, on the banks of the Meta and the Soa ee MAN. feed on a fat un@uous earth, or a fpecies of pipe-clay tinged with a little oxyd of iron. They colle& this clay very care- fully, diftinguifhing it by the tafte: they knead it into balls of four or fix inches in diameter, which they bake flightly before a flow fire. Whole {tacks of fuch provilions are feen piled up in their huts. Thofe clods are foaked in water, when about to be ufed; and each individual eats nearly a pound of the material every day. The only addi- tion which they occafionally make to this unnatural fare, confilts in fmall fifh, lizards, and fern roots. ‘The quantity of clay that the Ottomaques confume, and the greedinefs with which they devour it, feem to prove that it does more than merely diftend their hungry ftomachs, and that the or- gans of digeftion have the power of extracting from it fome- thing convertible into animal fubftance. Humboldt Tableau Phylique des Regions Equatoriales. The refearches of Meiners refpecting food feem to have ehautted every acceffible authority on the fubje& : his de- duétions, fupported by an almolt infinite number of quota- tions, exhibit fo complete a view of the matter, that we prefent them to the reader in his own words. ‘ The com- mon pofitions concerning the earlier ufe of vegetables, and the effeéts of vegetable and animal food on the difpofitions of people, have been brought forwards by men not ac- quainted with all the faéts which hiftory prefents. There were formerly, and ftill are, many people, particularly among the dark coloured nations, who eat nothing, or al- moft nothing but flefh; and that with little or no prepara- tion. Examples of this are afforded in Afia, by the Huns, Calmucks, and people of Thibet; by the Burates, Tun- goofes, Kamtfchatkans, and eaftern iflanders; by the Of- tiaks and Samoiedes, whom the Ruffians were obliged to imitate in Nova Zembla, and the Eattern ocean; by the Woguls, Circaffians, Mingrelians, and Abcaffas; and laftly, by fome tribes in Babylon: in Europe, by the Alani, all the Celtic people, the 'Tartars of the Crimea, and even the inhabitants of St. Kilda: in America, by the Efquimaux, the Greenlanders, the North American favages, the Peru- vians, and the inhabitants of Terra del Fuego: in Africa, by the Ethiopians and Gallas: in the fouthern countries, and the ilands of the South Sea, by the New Hollanders, New Zealanders, and the inhabitants of the Friendly and Society iflands. «© On the contrary, there have been, and {till are, many people who live almott exclufively, or wholly on vegetables. Such are the Cretans, Spartans, and Romans, in certain periods ; mott of the Slavonic tribes; the Turks, Arabians, and Perfians; the Mahometans, and {till more the Brahmins in Hindooften; the Chinefe, Japanefe, and certain of the Javanefe; moft of the Otaheitans, and inhabitants of the Marian iflands; laftly, the Egyptians, Moors, Negroes, Hottentots, and inhabitants of Sennaar. « The moft common animal food is fifth, . Gp > delicate M AN. delicate fleeces of Thibet or Spain, to the coarfs and rough hair which takes the place of wool in many warm coun- tries. The brift'es of the pig are fo foft in fome kinds, as in Normandy, that they are not applicable to the manufacture of the ordinary initruments. The wild pig has a foft curling hair interpofed between its brillles, which is en- tirely fot in the domefticated animal. Sheep, rabbits and cats in Angora, a {mall diftriét of Afia Minor, are remarkable for the length and foftnels, as well as fnowy whitenefs of their coverings. The fheep of fome of the Tatar tribes have hairs mixed with the wool: fucha mixture is obferved even in this coun- try, where the breed is negleéted ; and it occurs in the Ar- gali, the fuppofed wild origin of our flocks. In thefe cafes, if the animals with the heit fleeces are felected to breed from, and this rule be obferved conttantly, the wool would be gra- dually improved, and the hairs difappear ; or vice verfa, the fheep would become entirely hairy. A child born in Yorkthire of European parents, had the woolly hair ; and this is not the only example. Prichard de Generis Hum. Variet. p. 26. It muft appear very clearly, from thefe analogies, that the differences of the hair will not warrant us in eltablifhing diftin& f{pecies of men. Together with the differences of the hair we may mention thofe of the beard. This growth is {mall in quantity, and thin in many tribes of the Mongolian, African and Ameri- canraces. ‘One of the moft general characters of the ugly nations,” fays Meiners, “ is either an entire want of beard, ora very thin one, developed at a later period than ufual: onthe contrary, a copious beard has always been the pride of the handfome races. Dark coloured nations, with itrong beards, are not much more numerous than individuals of handfome people with a weak growth.’ Grundrifs, p. 98. Unfounded reports have been generally received of its en- tire abfence in the Americans, and this circumftance has been reprefented as a charatteriltic peculiarity of the race. ‘The concurring teltimonies of all accurate modern travellers prove clearly that the Americans have naturally beards ; that it isa very general cultom with them, as it has been with feveral Mongolian and Malay tribes, carefully to eradicate thisexcrefcence ; but that various hordes in different parts of the continent preferve it as other men do. Gmelin found this praétice in Afia. “ It is not eafy to find a Tun- goofe, nor any man of the neighbouring tribes, with a beard. For they extraét the hairs as foon as they appear, and repeat this procefs until at laft no more are formed.”? (Reife durch Sibirien, t. 2. p. 125.) The fame circumftance is reported of the Sumatrans by Marfden; of the Mindanao iflanders by Forreft ; of the Pelew iflanders by Wilfon; the inhabit- ants of New Guinea by Carteret; and thofe of Navigators ifles, by Bougainville. From a cloud of unanimous teltimo- nies concerning the Americans, we extract the following ftate- ment of Cook refpeéting the inhabitants of Nootka Sound: «¢ Some have no beards at all, and others only a thin one on the point of the chin. This does not arife from an original deficiency of hair in thofe parts, but from their plucking it out by the roots: for thofe, who do not deltroy it, have not only confiderable beards on every part of the chin, but alfo whilkers, or multachios, running from the upper lip to the lower jaw obliquely downwards.” (Laft Voyage, v. 2. p- 240.) * The teltimony of Humboldt concerning the South Americans is to the fame effect: “ The Mexicans, particularly thofe of the Aztec and Otomite races, have more beard than I ever faw in any other Indians of South Ame- rica. Almoft all the Indians in the neighbourhood of the capital wear {mall muftachios.’’— I can affirm that the In- dians, who inhabit the torrid zone of South America, have gewerally fome beard ; and that this beard increafes when they fhave themfelves.’’—“* Mr. de Galeano, in the account of the lalt Spanith expedition to the Straits of Magellan, in- forms us that there are many old men among the Patagonians with beards, though they are fhort, and by no means bufhy.”’ (Political Efflay on the Kingdom of New Spain, v. 1. p. 147.) The exiftence of a beard, and the habit of extire pating it, are mentioned of the Greenlanders, by Cranz, Gefchichte von Gronland ; by Charlevoix of the Efkimaux, Nouvelle France, iii. p. 179; by Oldendorp of the Caribs, Gefchichte der Miffion auf den Karaibifchen Infeln; p. 22: sy Wafer of the Americans at Panama, Iithmus of Ame- rica, p. 106; by Bougainville of the Patagonians, Voyage autour du Monde ; and by Parkinfon, of the inhabitants of Terra del Fuego, voyage v. 1. Commerfon fpeaks of the whifkers of the Patagomians, Journal Encyclop. 1772. Colour of the Iris. —We have juft explained how the hair is connected with the fin: that a fimilar connexion in point of colour exifts between the latter organ and the eyes, was noticed by Axiitotle, who obferved that white perfons have blue eyes, and black ones black. Thus, in Germany, Blumenbach fays that newly-born children have generally blue eyes and light hair, and that both grow gradually dark~ together in individuals who become dark. Again, the pig- mentum of the eye lofes much of its colour in proportion as the hair grows grey in the old fubjeét. With their peculiar hair and fkin, the Albinos have an entire deficiency of the pizment, and confequently a pale red iris. Thofe animals only which vary in the colour of the fkin and hair, have dif- ferently coloured irides ; and this is true, not only of men and horfes, according to the opinion of the ancients, but of other animals, particularly in the domefticated ftate. Moreover, the iris is often variegated in animals which have a {potted fkin. This has been noticed in dogs (Comment. Inilit. Bonon. t.iii. p. 281.). Blumenbach has obferved fomething of it in horfes and fheep, but more particularly in rabbits: the grey, or thofe which have the native colour of their wild ftate, have dark irides; the {potted have them marked with different colours ; and the white, like other Leucethio- pic animals, have them of a pale rofe colour. The three principal colours of the human eye were well laid down by Arittotle ; viz. 1, blue, paffing, im its lighter tints, to what we call grey; 2, an obfcure orange, which he calls the colour of the eye in the goat (Gall. Yeux de - Chevre :) it isa kind of middle tint, between blue and orange, and fometimes remarkably green in men with red hair and freckled {kin ; and 3, blackifh brown. ; Thefe may all occur in different individuals of the fame race ; and again, they are fometimes confined to the different tribes of the fame country, within the boundaries of a few degrees. "Thus Linneus defcribes in Sweden the Goth- lander with light hair and greyifh-blue eyes; the Tin with yellow hair and brown iris ; and the Laplander with black hair and iris, Blue eyes, as well as yellow hair (rutile lat. dencting the refemblance to gold, whence auricomi Batavi, Silius; avSo-, Gr.) were formerly fet down among the charaéters of the Germans (czrulei oculi, rutile come, Tacitus) ; and the fame combination is met with in featter- ed inttances, in the moft remote nations. The iris of the negro is the moit intenfely black, fo that very clofe in- {pection is neceffary, in living individuals, to diftinguifh it from the pupil. Differences of Form.—The exiflence of great variations in the M AN. the conformation and proportions of the body in all animals, and particularly of the features of the human countenance, fubje, however, to certain fixed rules as to the general model, accords entirely with what we obferve throughout all nature. «¢ Preterea genus humanum, muteque natantes Squammigerum pecudes, et lata armenta, fereque, Et variz volucres; letantia que loca aquarum Concelebrant, circum ripas, fontefque, lacufque ; Et que pervolgant nemora avia pervolitantes ; Horum unum quodvis generatim fumere perge : Invenies tamen inter fe diftare figuris. Nec ratione alia proles cognofcere matrem, Nec mater poffit prolem ; quod poffe videmus, Nec minus atque homines inter fe nota cluere.”’ National Features.—Although it is a common and very juft obfervation, that two individuals are hardly to be met with poflefling exaGtly the fame features, yet there is general- ly a certain caft of countenance common to the particular races of men, and often to the inhabitants of particular countries. The five following varieties are eftablilhed by Blumenbach, after a careful comparifon of numerous draw- ings, and of the various races themfelves, in fituations, where commerce attracts them from all parts of the globe, as at London and Amfterdam. 1. An oval and ftraight face, with the different parts moderately diftinét from each other : forehead rather flat- tened, nofe narrow, and flightly aquiline, or at leaft with the dorfum fomewhat convex ; no prominence of the cheek- bones ; {mall mouth, with lips flightly turned out, parti- cularly the lower one ; a full and rounded chin. This is the kind of countenance which accords moft with our ideasof beauty : it may be confidered as a middle, de- parting into two extremes, exactly oppofed to each other ; of which one confifts in a lateral expanfion of the face, and the other in its being extended downwards. ach of thefe includes two varieties, which are moft readily diltinguifhed bya profile view ;-one, in which the nofe and other parts run together, and the other, in which they are more promi- nent and feparate. 2. Broad and flattened face, with the parts flightly dif- tinguifhed, and as it were running together: the {pace be- tween the eyes flat and very broad; flat nofe, rounded pro- jeting cheeks ; narrow and linear aperture of the eye-lids extending towards the temples (Yeux brides, Fr.) chin flightly prominent. This is the face of the Mongolian tribes; commonly called in Englifh the Tartar face, from the confufion of the Tartars (Tatars) with the Monguls. 3. Face broad, but not flat and depreffed, with prominent cheek-bones, and the parts, when viewed in profile, as it were, more deeply and diftin@tly carved out. Short forehead; eyes deeply feated ; nofe flattifh, but prominent. Such is the countenance of molt of the Americans. 4. Narrow face, projecting towards its lower part ; arched forehead; eyes prominent (a fleur de téte); a thick nofe, con- fufed on either fide with the projecting cheeks (nez ¢paté) ; the lips, particularly the upper one, very thick; the jaws prominent ; andthe chin retraéted. This is the countenance of the Negro—the Guinea face. 5. The face not fo narrow as in the preceding, rather pro- jecting downwards, with the different parts in a fide-view, rifing more freely and diftin@ly. The nofe rather full and broad, and thicker towards its apex (bottle-nofed). The mouth large. ‘This is the face of the Malays, particularly of the South Sea iflanders. Excellent reprefentations of celebrated individuals of thefe five varieties may be feen ir Blumenbach’s Abbildungen Naturhiftorifcher Gegenflande, part i.; alfo, in his Beytrige zur Naturgefchichte. Intermediate Graduations and Varieties in the different Races. — In this refpe, as in colour, the different characters run into each other by the moft gentle gradations ; fo that, although any two extremes, when contrafted, appear ftrikingly dif- ferent, they are conneCted by numerous intermediate and very flightly differing {hades ; and no formation is exhibited fo conftantly in all the individuals of one race, as not to admit of numerous exceptions. In the Africans. —We fee, indeed, an aftonifhing difference, when we place an ugly Negro (for there are fuch as well as ugly Europeans), againft a fpecimen of the Grecian ideal model ; but, when we trace the intermediate gradations, this {triking diverfity vanifhes. Of the Negroes of both fexes,’”” fays Blumenbach, “¢ whom I have attentively examined, in very confiderable number, as well as in the portraits and profiles of others, and in the numerous Negro crania, which I peffefs, or have feen, there are not two completely refembling each other intheir formation: they pafs, by infentible gradations, into the forms of the other races, and approach to the other varieties even in their moft pleafing modilications. A Creole, whom I faw at Yverdun, born of parents from Congo, and brought from St. Domingo by the chevalier Treytorrens, had a coun- tenance, of which no part, not even the nofe, and rather ftrongly marked lips, were very ftriking, much lefs dif- pleafing : the fame features, with an European complexion, would certainly have been generally agreeable.” Beytrage zur. Naturgefchichte, p. 89.) The teftimony of Le Maire, in his journey to Senegal and Gambia, is to the fame effect ; that there are Negreffes, except in colour, as handfome as European women. Vaillant fays of the Caffre women, that, fetting afide the prejudice which operates againft their colour, many might be accounted handfome, even in an European country. The accurate Adanfon confirms this ftatement, in his defcription of the Senegambians. ‘* Les femmes font a peu prés de la taille des hommes, également bien faites. Leur form eft d’une fineffle et d’une douceur extréme. Elles ont Jes yeux noirs, bien fendus, la bouche et les levres petites, et les traits du vifage, bien proportionnés. II s’en trouve plu- fieurs d’une beauté parfaite. Elles ont beaucoup de vivacité, et fur tout un air aifé de liberté qui fait plaifir.”’ — ( Hift. Nat. du Senegal, p.22.) ‘The Jaloffs, according to Mungo Park, have not the protuberant lip, nor flat nofe of the African countenance. We have alfo the tettimony of an- other traveller, concerning this tribe, to the fame effe& : the Jaloffs, according to Moore, have hand{fome features, and neither broad nofes nor thick lips. (Zimmermann Geogra- phifche Gefchichte, &c, vol. 1. p..99.) Pigafetta ftates, that the Congo Negroes have not the thick lips of the Nubians, and that, except in colour, they are very like the Portuguefe. (Relazione del Reame di Congo, Roma, p.12.) Dampier, in his account of Natal, deferibes the natives as having curled hair, but a long face, well-proportioned nofe, and agreeable countenance. ‘The fix Negro cranja engraved in the two firft decades of Blumenbach, exhibit very clearly this diverfity of character in the African race ; and prove, moft unequivocally, that the variety among individuals is certainly not lefs, but greater than the difference between fome of them and many Europeans. See Decas Craniorum, p- +2, and Decas Altera, p. 13. In the Americans —Vhe fame obfervations hold good of the American race. The moit accurate obfervers treat with contempt the hyperbolical affertion of fome, that all the in- habitants of tha New World have one and the fame counte- nance, fo that he who has feen one may fay that he has feen KX 2 all, M A N. all.‘ Rido fra me fteffo,"" fays Molina, “ quando leggo in certi fcrittori moderni riputati diligenti offervatori, che tutti gli Americani hanno un medefimo afpetto, e che quando fe ne abbia veduto uno, fi pofle dire di avergli veduti tutti. Codefti autori fi lafciarono troppo fedurre da certe vaghe apparenze di fomiglianza procedenti per lo piu dal colorito, Te quali {vanifcono tofto che fi confrontano gl’ individui di una nazione con quelli dell’ altra. Un Chilefe non fi dif- ferenzia meno nell’ afpetto da un Peruviano, che un Ita- Tiano da un Tedefco. Io ho veduto pur dei Paraguaii, de’Cujani, e dei Magellanici, i quali tutti hanno dei linea- menti peculiari, che li diftinguono notabilmente gli uni dagli altri.” (Storia Naturale del Chili, p. 336. We have further unexceptionable teftimony to prove that the fame variety of countenance is found in the Americans as in other races; although generally the countenance follows the model above defcribed. In South America only we have the Caaiguas with flat nofes, obferved by Nic. del Techo; the neighbouring Abipons, of whom many indivi- duals have aquiline nofes, by Martin Dobrizhoffer; the Peruvians with narrow and aquiline nofe by Ulloa; the Chilefe with rather a broad nofe by Molina ; and the iflanders. of Terra del Fuego witha very depreffed one by G. Fortter. The truth of this reprefentation is mott fully attefted by Humboldt, whofe accuracy and extenfive opportunities entitle his obfervations to the moft implicit deference. ‘In the faithful portrait, which an excellent obferver, Mr. Vol- ney, has drawn of the Canada Indians, we undoubtedly recognife the tribes feattered in the meadows of the Rio Apure and the Carony. The fame ftile of feature exilts, no doubt, in both Americas; but thofe Europeans who have failed on the great rivers Orinoco and Amazons, and have had occafion to fee a great number of tribes affembled under the monattical hierarchy in the miffions, muft have obferved that the American race contains nations, whofe features differ as effentially from one another, as the nume- rous varietics of the race of Caucafus, the Circaffians, Moors, and Perfians, differ from one another. ‘The tall form of the Patagonians is again found by us, as it were, among the Caribs, who dwell in the plains from the delta of the Orinoco, to the fources of the Rio Blanco. What a dif- ference between the figure, phyfiognomy and phyfical con- ftitution of thefe Caribs, who ought to be accounted one of the moft robuft nations on the face of the earth, and are not to be confounded with the degenerate Zambos, formerly ealled Caribs of the ifland St. Vincent, and the fquat bodies of the Chayma Indians of the province of Cumana! What a difference of form between the Indians of Tlafcala and the Lipans and the Chichimeos of the nortlern part of Mexico.” — Political Effay on the Kingdom of New Spain, v. i. p- 142. In the South Sea Iffanders.—An analogous variety has been noticed in the features of the Friendly lenders : “ their fea- tures are very various; infomuch, that it is {earcely poffible to fix on any general likenefs by which to chara@terize them, unlefs it be a fulnefs at the point of the nofe, which is very common. But, on the other hand, we met with hundreds of truly European faces, and many genuine Roman nofes amongit them.” Cook's Lalt Voyage, v. i. p. 380. In Europeans.—Again, particular individuals in Europe often have the countenance exaétly refembling the Negro, or Mongol face. : Differences in the Skull. —The form of the cranium in the different varieties of man has been defcribed in the article Cranium; in which the caufes of the diverfities of its figure are alfo confidered. We have one or two additional remarks to make, particularly concerning the Negro, The bony apparatus,” fays Soemmerring, ‘¢ concerned in maftica- tion, as well as the part of the face containing the organs of fenfe, are, whether confidered generally or particularly, ftronger, thicker, and more advantageoufly difpofed for this {trength in the Negro, than in the race where more extenfive ufe of experience and reafon, and greater cultivation fupply the place of what is deficient in animal ftrength. Should we take the bones of the face in the Negro, as a bafis, and add to them a cranium, according to the proportions obferved in European heads, the fpace allotted for the reception of the organ of thinking would exceed the fize that it has in us. Von der korpérl. Verfchiedenheit, § 12. The ridge that bounds the origin of the temporal muicle is more prominent, and rifes much higher on the fide of the head in the Negro, than in the European ; confequently, the mufcle is confider- ably larger, and the bony arch furrounding it (the zygoma), is larger, {tronger, and more capacious. (Ibid. § 16 and 17.) Both openings of the nofe are more ample, and the cavity itfelf confiderably more capacious than in the Euro- pean. The thin convoluted plates of the ethmoid bone are larger, and confequently increafe the extent of the pituitar membrane ; the cribriform plate is remarkably large. Thete circumftances of anatomical ftruéture are not, however, peculiar to the Negro: Soemmerring finds the nafal cavity in the cranium of a North American favage {till more ample thanin molt Negroes. (Ibid. § 21 and 22.) The inftances related of the finenefs of fmell in thefe people, fuch as their being able to diftinguifh Europeans from Negroes and Ame- ricans, &c. correfpond to what we obferve in their organs. - « The nerves,’? fays this anatomift, ‘* conneéted with the bafis of the brain, appear to me, in comparifon with an. European brain of the fame fize, to be, in proportion, rather larger ; at-leaft the olfactory, the fifth, and the facial nerves, are remarkably large, as we might have expected, from the greater fize of the nofe and face.” § 56. The relation between the cranium and face is belt feen in a vertical fe¢tion carried from before backwards: the area of the face, independently of the lower jaw, is about one-foutthy of the cranium in the European: in the Negro, the cranium remaining the fame, the face increafes by about one-fifth. The proportion {till increafes in the ourang-outang: in the fapajous, the mandrils, and moft. of the carnivora, the face and cranium are about equal. The offa nali of the Negro, inftead of forming the bridge- like convexity which we fee in the European, are nearly flat, and run together into an acute angle above, which makes them very much refemble the fingle triangular nafal bone of the ape. But in one cranium they exaétly refemble the European. Ibid. § 19. The varieties in the torm of the teeth are alfo cenfidered ain the article Cranium. Suppofed Caufes of Difference of Features : Climate.—That the national differences ot features owe their origin to climate,. has been the opinion of many philofophers ; and fome have even attempted to fhew how the effect is produced. ‘ Em effet,’’ fays Volney, “ j’obferve que la figure des Negres repréfente precifément cet état de contraétion que prend notre vifage, lorfqu’il eft frappé par la lumiere et une forte réverbération de chaleur. Alors le fourcil fe ferme ; la pomme des joues s’éleve ; la paupiére fe ferre ; la bouclie fait la moue. Cette contraction, qui a lieu perpétuellement dans le pay nud et chaud des Negres, n’a-t-elle pas di devenir le caraétére propre de leur figure??? Volney, Voy. en Syrie et en Egypte, t.i. p. 74. It is unfortunate fer thefe fpeculations that the moit oppofite kinds of features occur under fimilar climates in different parts of the world ; and that there are races with flattened countenances, as well a8 MAN. as with prominent ones inhot countries. Thefe caufes, too, could only affe&t the foft parts: a negro might “ faire la moue” to eternity, without altering the whole bony com- pages ofhis head. Indeed, the whole account is fo fanciful, that it hardly deferves ferious attention. If there were any foundation for the fuppofition, we might expect Mr. Vol- ney’s countrymen, from their well-known habit of fhrug- ging the fhoulders, to have become long ago the highett fhouldered race in the world. Artificial Preffure—TVhe cuflom of carrying the children on the back has been referred to by others, in order to ex- plain the flat nofe of the Negro: in the violent. motions re- quired for their hard labour, as in beating or pounding the millet, &c. the face of the young one is faid to be conftantly beating againit the back of the mother. The teftimonies concerning the employment of preffure, with a view to flatten the nofe, are fo numerous and refpeCtab!e, that we cannot refufe to believe that it is attempted. (See Blumenbach, de Varietate, p. 193.) But two reafons prevent us from afcribing any efficacy to thefe prattices in producing the national varieties of the cranium. The diverfities extend fo generally through the whole bony fabric of the head, and are obfervable in fo many parts, where external preflure could have no influence, not to mention that they confift, in many inftances, of formations ju{t the reverfe of what pref- {ure would effect, that we muft afcribe them to native variety. This determination is confirmed by the difcovery, that all the peculiarities of the Negro cranium exift in the foetus. The refearches of Blumenbach, Camper, Soemmerring, Lud- wig, and Loder, have proved this fact concerning Negro foetufes of various ages, in whom they find the fame promi- nence of the jaws, flat nofe, &c. asinthe adult. (Soemmer- ring von der korperl. Verfchiedenheit, § 4. Ludwig Grundrifs der Naturgefchichte der Menfchen Species, p.12t.) The children of Negro parents in Europe, Ame- rica, and other fituations, where there are opportunities of knowing that no means are ufed to flatten the nofe, refemble, in all refpects, thofe born in Africa. Thefe arguments re- ceive a further confirmation from three of the crania engraved by Blumenbach, of a Jewith girl, five years old, a Mongo- lian child, a year and a half, and a newly born Negro, in which the charaéters of the Caucafian, Mongolian, and Ethiopian varieties are as {trongly reprefented as in the heads of adults. Decas tertia, tab. 23—30. p. 14. In the form and proportions of other parts, there are not fewer differences than in the compofition of the fea- tures. Differences in the Form and Proportions of other Parts.— Conneétion of the Head and Trunk.—In confequence of the foramen magnum being placed further back in the head in the Negro than in the European (fee Cranium), and of the head of the former being confequently placed further forwards on the vertebral column, the occiput projects lefs behind the fpine. Hence, a line drawn from the occiput along the nape of the neck, is nearly ftraight in the Negro, but it dips in confiderably under the head in the European ; as if a part of the cranium had been fliced off in the former, The fame circumftance may be obferved in a much more ftriking degree in the Simiz. Body and Limbs.—Vhe body is large, fquare, and robutt ; the extremities thick, fhort, and nervous ; and the fhoulders high in the Monguls. hey are well defcribed in a letter saree in the Hittoria Major of Matthew Paris, London, 1686, p. 530, under the name of Tartars (Tatars). <* Ha- bent autem Tartari peCtora dura et robulta, facies macras et pallidas, fcapulas rigidas et ere¢tas, nafos diftortos et ‘breves, menta proeminentia et acuta, fuperiorem mandi- bulam humilem et profundam, dentes longos et raros, pal- pebras a crinibus ufque ad nafum pretenfas, oculos incon- {tantes et nigros, afpectus obliquos et torvos, extremitates offofas et nervofas, crura quoque groffa, fed tibias breviores, ftatura tamen nobis zquales ; quod enim in tibiis deficit, in fuperiori corpore compenfatur.”” In the negro the body is more flender, particularly about the loins and pelwis. ‘[he dimentfions of ‘the latter cavity are actually fmaller than in the European: in the fkeleton of a negro, twenty years old, ve Inches. Lines. he great diameter of the pelvis is - 115 The frnall ai lca ald a + : a Ina negro boy of 14, the great diameter is 3 2 —_— fmall 2 9 In an European of 16, the great ———— 4 3 se {mall 3 9 In an old European, inferior in ftature to the negro of 20 years, the great - 4 6 the {mall - 3 II Camper found that the great diameter (from one os inno- minatum to the other) was to the {maller (from the facrum to the fymphyfis pubis) In the negro as - to 27k In the Europeanas - ; 2 yet the ftature of the negro exceeded confiderably that of the European. In another European the proportions were as 44 to 28. (See Soemmering uber die kOrperliche Verf- chiedenheit, p. 33.) Not only is the cavity {maller, but the bones compofing it are flenderer : and the circumftance has been noticed by travellers and others. The fame flendernefs of the trunk may be obferved in fome of the Indians: it is at leaft apparent in the Lafcars, who come to this country with the Eait India fhips. Their legs are long. Proportionate Length of the Arm and Fore-arm.—The limbs are {maller in the negro, and fome differences are obfervable in particular parts. ‘ I meafured,’? fays Mr. White, “the arms of about fifty negroes, men, women, and children, born in very different climates, and foundthe lower arm longer than in Europeans, in proportion to the upper arm, and to the height of the body. The firft negro on the lift is one in the Lunatic hofpital at Liverpool; his fore-arm meafures 123 inches, and his ftature is only 5 feet rofinches. I have meafured a great number of white people, from that fize up to 6 feet 44 inches, and among them one who was faid to have the longeft arms of any man in England, but none had a fore-arm equal to that of the black lunatic. «TI have meafured the arms of a great number of Eu- ropean flceletoens, and have found that the os humeri, or upper arm, exceeds in length the ulna, which is the longer bone of the fore-arm by two or three inches ; in none by lefs than two, and in one by not lefs than 3% inches. Inmy negro fkeletor, the os humeri is only one inch and one-eighth longer than the ulna. In Dr. Tyfon’s Pigmy (fimia fatyrus), the os humeri and ulna were of the fame length; and in my fkeleton of a common monkey, the ulna is 2 of an inch longer than the os humeri.’? White, on the Regular Gra- dation, p. 52, et feq. As the comparifon juft mentioned. leads to fome intereft- ne 39 41 MAN. ing refults, we fubjoin a tabular view of the chief parti- ler cuiars. Length of | Length of Stature. ; oS humeri.| ulna. \Feet. Inch.] Inches. | Inches. A female European fkeleton'| 5 84 | 124 10 A male ee aa) 13 9} negro fkeleton | 4 1 1I OF A negro at the Lunatic ? 1 3 rs . | 104 15 122 hofpital, Liverpool 5 Z 2 FS Another from Virginia sears 133 112 Barbadoes | 5 15] 13 Il Male European - Chale Saal ele Sy 11 5 8 | 13% | 10% —— = 5 Sa] 138 | tos 5 Gre 355) eGSe pee a - 6° 44)" 16 123 European woman - no 4 13 ; ———$——————— - 5 12} 83 A Lafear - - iS a 12% 104 7 Sees 1 5 Venus de Medicis - 5 134 92 Tyfon’s chimpanfée - 2aut2 54 £ Monkey - - ar 2 44 5 Legs of the Negro, and other Races.—The ancients noticed, what they regarded as defects in the form of the lower limbs in the Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Negro {laves. Soemmering obferves, that the bones of the leg are directed outwards from the knee, fo that the knees appear farther apart, and the feet rather bent outwards: he found the fame circum‘tance in numerous living negroes. The femur and tibia are ftated, both by him and White (who has given a comparative view of the bones of the negro and European leg and foot, pl. 1.), to be more convex in front than in the European. ‘The calves of the leg are very high, fo as to encroach upon the hams. The feet and hands, but parti- cularly the former, are flat; the os calcis, inftead of form- ing an arch, is continued in nearly a ftraight line with the other bones of the foot, which is remarkably broad. They both terminate in beautiful, but remarkably long fingers and toes, which in that refpect approach to thofe of the mon- key; and they all pofleffed, what is not common among Europeans, fefamoid bones. (Von der korperlichen Ver!- chiedenheit, p. 39.) Unfeemly thicknefs of the legs is not uncommon among the negroes; and the feet are marked with numerous chinks and fiflures, which, as they occur principally in the foles, mutt probably be referred to the operation of the burning fands on the epidermis. In the fole of a perfe@ly healthy negro leg, Blumenbach found this covering “* mirum in modum crafla, rimofa, et in multi- fidas lamellas delufcens.”” De Gen. Hum. Var. Nat. p. 246, note d. : It has been obferved, that the Indians of the peninfula and the New Hollanders have long and flender limbs ; that the Hottentots have meagre bodies and {mall limbs, &c. The crooked legs fo common among the Calmucks, have been affigned to their mode of treating the children, and the practice of riding, to which they are accuftomed from their tendereft years. Pallas uber die Mongolifchen Volkerfchaf- ten, p. 93, tom. 1, The lower limbs are very ill formed in the inhabitants of Terra del Fuego, according to Forfter: he fays that they gear no proportion to the body ; that the thighs are meagre and thin, the Iegs bowed, the knees prominent, the toes. turned inwards. Obf. on a Journey round the World. Ears.—It is well known that the ears ftand off farther from the head, and are moveable in favages, and that the appendix is enlarged and monttroufly clongated by va- rious artificial means in many tribes, particularly in the Eatt Indies and the Pacific. ‘Thefe prattices have given rife to the fables of fome older writers concerning the enormous ears of certain people. Mamme.— Many travellers have fpoken of the prolix and pendulous mammz of the females of certain barbarous tribes, particularly in Africa, and in the South fea iflands. We cannot help fufpeéting that many of thefe narratives are exaggerated ; as, for example, in Hakluyt’s Collection, vol. il. p. 26, where it is faid, that “divers of the women have fuch exceeding long breafts, that fome of them will lay the fame upon the ground, and lie down by them ;” in Bruce’s Travels, where he fays, that they hang down to the knees in fome of the Shangallas; or in Mentzelius, Bef- chreibung des Vorgebiirges der guten Hoflnung, tom. ii. p- 564, who fays, that purfes are made in great numbers from the breaits of the Hottentot females, and fold at the Cape of Good Hope. It is alfo certain that this con- formation is not univerfal in the tribes alluded to, and that many negrefles, who may be feen in the great European emporia, as well as numerous females in the ifles of the Great Pacific (Forfter’s Obfervations, &c.), have very beautifully fhaped breafts, and that it exilts alfo in feveral European countries. ‘I faw,’? fays Lithgow, in Ire- land’s North parts women travayling the way, or toyling at home, carry their infants about their neckes, and laying the dugees over their fhoulders, would give fucke to the babes behinde ther backes, without taking them in their armes: fuch kind of breafts, me thinketh, were very fit to be made money-bags for Eaft or Weit Indian merchants, being more than halfe a yard long, and as well wrought, as any tanner, in the like charge, could ever mollifie fuch leather.” (Rare Adventures and Painefulle Peregrinations, p. 433.) An unufually large fize of thefe parts has been obferved in the Morlachian women, by Fortis, (Viaggio in Dalmazia, vol. i, p. 813) and the Greenland women are faid to fuckle their children at their back. Long continued fuckling, and the habit of fuckling the children on the back of the mother, feem to be the principal caufes of this ftate of the mammz. In fome inftances arti- ficial means of elongation have been employed from peculiar notions of beauty. A large and {woln ftate of the breaft, is mentioned by Juvenal of the Egyptians, as a well-known fact. “ In Meroe craffo majorem infante papillam.”” The Portuguefe women, of modern days, are faid to be remarkable in the fame way; while the brealts are {mall in the Spaniards, as in the lait century at leaft they took pains to comprefs them in order to prevent too great a luxuriance. To the difgrace of London, even in this truly pious age of focieties for fupprefling vice and diftributing bibles, a phi- lofophic foreigner has found in her ftreets a proof of the effects ef too early venereal excitement in enlarging the breatt ; and has commemorated the faét in a claffical work, which muit conyey the fcandal over the whole learned world, “ Contraria cura ambitum mammarum augeri poffe nullum dubium eft ; quantum vero przterea Venus quoque prema- tura eo conferre poffit memorabili fane exemplo impuberes et nondum adultw puelle mercenarie docent que Londi- num, prafertim ex vicinis maxime fuburbiis, confluunt, et quaftum MAN. queftum corpore facientes ingenti numero plateas noctu per- vagantur.” De Gen. Hum. Variet. p. 239. Organs of Generation.—Negroes are particularly famous for their organs of generation: and f{pecimens preferved in anatomical cabinets feem to juftify their celebrity for the fize of thefe parts; but it 1s doubtful whether this be a general chara&ter. The frenum preputii does not exift in many of them. White, p. 62. _ In the Hottentot women, and in fome others, the nymphz are faid to form growths of confiderable fize (in daétyhi- formes appendiculas abire) ; but the former are more cele- brated for what has been defcribed as a natural covering of fin, hanging from the abdomen, and hiding the parts of generation. This, with other arguiments of equal force, is brought forward by Voltaire, to prove that the Hottentots are not of the fame fpecies with Europeans. (Lettres d’Amabed.) Blumenbach, who received from fir Jofeph Banks, feveral views of thefe parts, drawn from the life, informs us that the peculiarity is an artificial elongation of the labia pudendi; in one reprefentation they are 6£ inches long. Le Vaillant’s teftimony is to the fame effe&t. Voyage dans l’Inter. de l’ Afrique, p. 371. See GENERATION. Hands and Feet. —Smallne{s of the hands and feet has been mentioned as a character of fome races, as the Indians, Chinefe, Kamtfchatkans, Efkimaux, Peruvians, New Hol- Tanders, aud Hottentots. ‘ It has been obferved,’? fays Hodges, “ of the arms of the Hindoos frequently brought to England, that the gripe of the fabre is too {mall for moft European hands.”? Travels in India, p. 3. 2 What art can produce in this way, is fhewn by the feet of the Chinefe women. Tranfmiffion of native Charaders to the Children. — Peculiari- ties of form, like thofe of colour, are tranfmitted to the offspring ; and this principle prevails fo generally, that even thofe minute, and to our fenfes entirely imperceptible differ- ences of organization or vital properties, which render men difpofed to particular difeafes, are conveyed from father to fon for ageatter age. Hence we fee a general refemblance in perfons of the fame blood, and may frequently obferve a peculiar feature running through a whole family. The thick lip introduced into the imperial houfe of Auftria by the marriage of Maximilian to Mary of Burgundy, is vi- fible in their defcendants to this day. In {mall and fe- cluded communities, where marriages take place within what we may regard only as a more extenfive family, he- reditary varieties are blended, and produce one form, which prevails through the whole circle. The operation of this principle may be clearly perceived in feveral {mall diftriéts : it will at with more efficacy, and confequently be more difcernible, in larger collections of men, where differences of manners, religion, and language, and mutual animofities, forbid all intermarriages with furrounding people. In the courfe of time the individual peculiarities are loit, and a na- tpral charatteriltic countenance or form is eftablifhed, which, if the reltriCtions of intercourfe are rigidly adhered to, is conttantly more and more itrengthened. ‘The ancient Ger- mans, according to the defcription of Tacitus, were fuch a people, and his fhort, but expreffive fketch of their cha- raéter, moft aptly confirms the preceding view: ‘ Ipfe eorum opinionibus accedo, qui Germania populos nullis aliis aliarum nationum connubiis infe¢tos, propriam & finceram, et tantum fui fimilem gentem ex(titifle arbitrantur. Unde habitus quoque corporum, quanquam in tanto hominum nu- mero, idem omnibus ; truces & crulei oculi, rutile come, magna‘corpora.’’ De Morib. Germ. 4. The gipfies afford another example of a people fpread over all Europe for the Jatt four centuries, and nearly confined in marriages to their own race, by their peculiar way of life. In Tranfylvania, where there isa great number of them, and the race re- mains perfectly pure, their features can confequently be more accurately obferved: in every country and climate, however, which they have inhabited, they preferve their diltinétive chara&ter fo perfe€tly that they are recognized at a glance, and cannot be confounded with the natives = fee the defcription and figure of the cranium of a Tranfyl- vanian Gipfey, in Blumenbach, Decas Altera, pgey Buty above all, the Jews exhibit the moft {triking inftance of a peculiar national countenance, fo ftrongly marked in almott every individual, that perfons the leaft ufed to phyfiogno- mical obfervations deteét it inftantly, yet not ealily under- ftood or defcribed. Religion has, in this cafe, moft fuc- cefsfully exerted its power in preventing communion with other races ; and this exclufion of intercourfe with all others has preferved the Jewifh countenance fo completely in every foil and climate of the globe, that a miracle has been thought neceffary to account for the appearance. In what other way can we explain the difference between the Englifh and Scotch? Would it be more reafonable to f{uppofe that they defcended from different ftocks; or to afcribe the high cheek bones of the latter to foil or cli- mate ? ; Alteration of Form by Breeding.—sAs, on the one hand, a particular form may be perpetuated by confining the in- tercourfe of the fexes to individuals in whom it exilts 5 fo, again, it may be changed by introducing into the breed thofe remarkable for any other quality. Conneétions in mar- riage will generally be formed on the idea of human beauty in any country ; an influence this, which will gradually ap- proximate the countenance towards one common ftandard} If men, in the affair of marriage, were as much under ma- nagement as fome other animals, an abfolute ruler might ac- complifh, in his dominions, almoft any idea of the human form. The great and noble have generally had it more in their power than others to fele& the beauty of nations in marriage ; and thus, while, without fyftem or defign, they gratified merely their own tafte, they have generally dif- tinguifhed their order, as much by elegant proportions of perfon, and beautiful features, as by its prerogatives in fo- ciety. ‘The fame fuperiority,” fays Cook, «which is obfervable in the Erees or nobles in all the other iflandsy is found alfo here (Owhyhee.) Thofe, whom we faw, were, without exception, perfeily well formed ; whereas, the lower fort, belides their general inferiority, are fubjec&t to all the variety of make and figure that is feen in the populace of other countries.” (‘Third Voyage, book iii. chap. 6.) Inno inftance, perhaps, has the perfonal beauty of a people been more improved, by introducing handfome individuals to breed from, than in the Perfians, of whom the nobility have,’ by this means, completely fucceeded in wafhing out the {tain of their Mongolian origin. “That the blood of the Perfians,’’ fays Chardin, “is naturally grofs, appears from the Guebres, whoare a remnant of the ancient Perfians, and are an ugly, ill-made, rough-fkinned. people. This is alfo apparent from the inhabitants of the provinces in the neighbourhood of India, who are nearly as clumfy and deformed as the Guebres, becaufe they never formed alliances with any other tribes. But, in the other parts of the kingdom, the Perfian blood is now highly refined by frequent intermixtures with the Georgians and Circaffians, two nations which furpafs all the world in per- fonal beauty. There is hardly a man of rank in Perfia, who is not born of a Georgian or Circaffian mother ; and even the king himfelf is commonly fprung, on the female fide, from one or other of thefe countries: as it is long face = - ‘ M A N. fince this mixture commenced, the Perfidn women have be- come very handfome and beautiful, though they do not rival the ladies of Georgia. The men are generally tall and erect: their complexion is ruddy and vigorous, and they have a graceful air, and an engaging deportment. The mildnefs of the climate, joined to their temperance in living, has a great influence in improving their perfonal beauty. This quality they inherit not from their fathers ; for, without the mixture mentioned above, the men of rank in Perfia, who are defcendants of the ‘lartars, would be extremely ugly and deformed.’ Voyage en Perfe, &c. tom. ii. p. 34. The tran{miffion of natural peculiarities, by generation, is remarkably illuftrated by fome inftances of unufual for- mation ; fuch is the family of the porcupine men, and of the fix-fingered and fix-toed perfoas, both produced from individuals of the common form. (See, for the former, the article Monster, ‘and for the latter, GENERATION. ) There is no reafon to doubt, that if the individuals, with thefe peculiarities, had been carefully matched together, that a permanent variety might have been eftablifhed. Let us fuppofe that the porcupine family had been ex- iled from human fociety, and obliged to take up their abode in fome folitary fpot, or defert ifland ; by matching with each other a race would have been produced, more widely removed from us in external appearance than the negro. If they had been difcovered at fome remote period, our philofophers would have explained to us how the foil, air, or climate, had produced fo ftrange an organization; or would have demontftrated that they muft have fprung from an originally different race: for who would acknowledge fuch briltly beings for brothers ? We learn that the giants, collefted with fuch pains by Frederic William I. for his regiment of guards, produced, in a town of Germany, where they were quartered, a very tall race of men: in the language of Dr. Johnfon, they “« propagated procerity.”’ Correfponding Varieties in Animals.—There is none of the varieties above enumerated, which does not not exift in a ftill greater degree in animals confeffedly of the fame fpe- cies. What differences in the figure and proportion of parts in the various breeds of horfes; inthe Arabian, the Barb, and the German! How itriking the contraft be- tween the long-legged cattle of the Cape of Good Hope, and the fhort-legged of England! ‘The fame difference is obferved in {wine. The cattle have no horns in fome breeds of England and Ireland; in Sicily, on the contrary, they have very large ones. A breed of fheep, withan extraordinary number of horns, as three, four, or five, occurs in fome nor- thern countries, and is accounted a mere variety (ovis poly- cerata) ; the Cretan breed of the fame animal, has long, large, and twifted horns. We may alfo point out the fo- lidungular fwine, with undivided hoof, as well as others, with three divifions of that part ; the five-toed fowl (gallus pentada“tylus) ; the broad-tailed fheep of Tatary, Thibet, &c. in which the tail grows fo large that it is placed on a board, fupported by wheels, for the convenience of the animal; and the rumplefs fowl {gallus ecaudatus), of America, and particularly Virginia, which has undoubtedly defcended from the Englifh breed. The common fowl, in different fituations, runs into almoft every conceivable variety. E volucribus altilibus varieta- tum numero et infigni difcrepantia certe eminent galline. Habentur magne, minute, procerz, pumiliones, criftarum parvitate vel multiplicitate, aut thiaris plamaceis infignes, wropygio carentes, flavipedes, plumipedes; habentur toto corpore reverfis plumis hirfute ; immo in India nafcitur va- rietas, plumis lanuginofis albis veflita, et cute per totum corpus nigra. Et he omnes, exceptis Indicis, innumera colorum diverfitate Indunt.”’ Pallas, Spicileg. Zool. fale. 4. The formation of new varieties by breeding from indi- viduals, in whom the defirable properties exift in the greateft degree, is feen much more diilinétly in our domettic ani- mals, than in our own fpecies, fince the former are entirely in our power. The great object is to preferve the race pure, by felecting for propagation the animals moft confpi- cuous for the fize, colour, form, proportion, or any other property we may fix on, and excluding moft carefully all others. In this way we may gain fheep valuable for their fleece, or for their carcafe ; large or {mall; with thick or thin legs; juft fuch, in fhort, as we chufe, within certain limits. (See Braxrpinc and Carrie.) The importance of this principle is fully underftood in rearing horfes and cocks. The Arabian preferves. the pedigree of his horfe more carefully than his own, and never allows any ignoble blood to be mixed with that of his valued breeds: he attefts their unfullied nobility by formal depofitions and numerous witneffes. (See Buffon on the Horfe.) The Englith breederrknows equally well that he mutt vary his ftallions and mares according as he wifhes for a cart horfe, a riding horfe, or a racer; ani that a miflake in this point would immediately fruftrate his views. Blood is equally im- portant in the cock; and the introdudtion of an inferior individual would inevitably deteriorate the properties of the offspring. Stature.—No part of our fubject has been more difgraced by fables and hyperbolical exaggeration than the prefent di- vifion, Not to mention the pigmies and giants of antiquity ; the bones of different large animals, afcribed to human fub- jects of immoderate ftature, even by fuch men as Buffon, fufficiently prove our affertion. The accuracy of modern inveftigation has, however, fo completely expofed the ex- travagance of fuch fuppofitions, that we are relieved from the neceffity of a detailed confideration. ' All the remains of antiquity, which afford us any inferences on the fubje& of ftature, fuch as mummies, human bones, and particu- larly teeth taken from the oldeft burial places and urns, ar- mour, &c. concur in proving that the ancients did not ex- ceed the moderns in this a Yet amongft the latter there are obvious national differences. Of European nations fome parts of Sweden and Switzerland are diftinguifhed for tallnefs, as Lapland is in the contrary refpe&t. The Abi- pons in the new world are of large fize, and the Efquimaux {mall ; but neither are very remarkable : and there is no dif- ference between any two modern nations, but what. admits of eafy explanation from the common caufes of degenera- tion, and the analogous phenomena furnifhed by the natural ‘hiftory of other animals. The Patagonians (fo called from its being fuppofed that they were allied to a neighbouring people, the Chonos, and from their refembling hairy-footed animals, called in Spanifh Patas, through their practice of wearing the rough {kin of the guanaco) or, according to their own indigenous name, the Tehuels, which occupy the fouth-eaft part of the ex- tremity of South America, feem to be the talleft of the human race; but their height has been. much exaggerated. Pigafetta, who accompanied Magalhaens on his voyage round the world, allerted that they were twice as tall as Europeans, (Viaggio atorno il Mondo, in the colleGtion of Ramufio, vol. i.) Irom that time for two centuries and a half, the narratives of European voyages into that part of the world, are fo {trangely contradiétory and inconfiftent with each other, on the fubje& of thefe Patagonians, that they afford a leflon inculcating moft ftrongly the neceflity of 1 . caution M Al N. eaution and diffidence in employing {uch reports. Blumen- bach cites ten authors in illultration of this point (De Varie- tate p. 255). It is fufficient, for our prefent purpofe, to reprefent what appears the mott probable ftate of the cafe, after weighing and critically confidering the moft unexcep- tionable teftimonies. * They feem in truth to be a tail, though not gigantic race, and to poflefs a remarkably muf- cular frame. Thus at leaft they are reprefented by the moft re{pectable obfervers.. The only Patagonians ever feen in Europe, were brought to Spain towards the end of the 16th century, and feen at Seville by the truly claffical traveller Van Lin‘choten, who fays that they were ‘ well formed and large in the body,”’ (wel geftatueert ende grof van leden.) The va- riety in the ftatements makes it difficult to affign any particn- lar height; but they probably do not exceed fix feet fix inches Englifh. Bougainville fays that none were under five feet fix inches, and none over five feet eleven.inches, (Paris meafure, of which the foot isto that of England as 144 to 35-) (Voy. autour du Monde, 4to. p.-126.) Commerfon, however, makes fome of the higheft fix feet four inches (French). Journal Encyclopedique, 1772.) Byron repre- fents them as feven feet high ; but he did not meafure them: (Hawkefwvorth’s ColleGtion, vol. i. p. 28.) Wallis, who mea- {ured them carefully, found the general ftature to be fix feet, (ibid. p. 374) and the ftatement of Carteret coincides with this; Phil. Tranfaét. vol. lx. The ftature we have afligned to thefe people is not fo very remarkable, fince other native tribes of the fame continent haye been noticed for their height : for example, the Caribs of Cumana, feen by Hum- boldt, Asthey are a wandering race, we cannot be fur- prifed at finding that Europeans vifiting the coaft have not always been able to fee them. The accounts of travellers prove, that the height of the Patagonians is not a peculiar cireumftance. © Bartram reprefents the Mufcogulges and Cherokees of North America, inhabiting between 31° and 35' of North latitude, as taller than Europeans; many -being above fix feet, and few under five feet eight or ten inches. (Travels, p. 482.) The Caffres, according to Barrow, are ¢ tall, robuft, and mufcular, and diftinguifhed” by a peculiar firmnefs of carriage; fome of them were fix feet ten inches, and fo elegantly proportioned that they would not have difgraced the pedeftal of the Farnefe Her- cules. We may perhaps regard the Patagonians, like the antient Germans, as a peculiar and genuine race, not modi- fied or difturbed by intermixture with others. Large body and limbs, as well as undaunted courage, were the attributes of this people, according to Pomponius Mela; ‘ immanes animis & corporibus,’’ hb. iii. cap. 3. Cafar and Tacitus corroborate this ftatement. By collecting and comparing all the notices concerning them in the writers of antiquity, we fhould be warranted in afligning to them a height of fix feet three inches and a half (French), which at lealt equals the ftature of the Tehuels. The Laplanders and Nova Zemblians in Europe, the Samoieds, Oltiacs, Yakuts, and Tungoofes in Afia, and the Greenlanders and Ef{quimaux of America, all, in fhort who inhabit high northern lati- tudes, are fhort in ftature, meafuring from four to five feet ; and they agree remarkably in other characters, although oc- eupying fuch diftant countries: It feems rather doubtful whether the miferable Pefcherais, who wander naked over the rocks of Terra del Fuego, are alfo diminutive; but Barrow informs us that the Befhmen who adjoin the Cape, fearcely ever exceed four feet nine inches. The nation of dwarfs in the interior of Madagafcar, called Quimos or Kimos, feems to be only an exaggeration founded on the obfervation of a morbid individual. Com- merfon mentions that he meafured one who was only three Vou. XXII. eet eight inches. (Journal Encyclopedique 1772.) It ap- ears that the captain of the fhip purchafed a poor pallid warf, whofe hands reached to her knees. ‘That fhe had a htad difproportionately large, uttered only indiftiné founds, and was quite ftupid. Trom thefe cireumftances Blumen- bach conjetures that it was a cafe of Cretinifm, and fimilar he inftances in Salzburg, the Valais, and particularly in to Piédmont. De Variet. p. 261. Handbuch der Naturgef- chithte, p. 65. Every one will inimediatcly perceive that the differences of flature in the human race are not equal to thofe occur- ring in different breeds of animals. ‘The pigs taken from Europe into the ifland of Cuba have grown to twice their original fize ; and the cattle in Paraguay have experienced a great increafe in this refpeét. Clavigero, Storia antica del Meffico, t. iv. p. 142. It is hardly neceffary for us to mention the contraft be- tween the {mall Welch and the huge cart horfes, or the Flanders bréed of thefe aninals; and between the Welch and Holftein cattle. The Paduan fowl is twice the fize of the common breed. Buffon, vol. xi. p. 112. Fabulous V arieties —Nations with bodies of varioufly mon- ftrous configuration, as the Arimafpi with one eye, the Monofceli with one leg, the Cynomolgi with dogs’ heads, &c. have been enumerated by cofmographers from the time of Herodotus, from various authorities, particularly Arif teus, Ctefias and Megafthenes. See J. A. Fabricius de Hominibus noftri Orbis Incolis, Hamb. 1721, 4to. It is not neceflary to dwell on thefe fables, although we fhould probably find, as in other inftances in natural hiftory, that they confift of fome truth, either hyperbolically exagge- rated, or changed by abfurd mifreprefentation. We thall only {peak of one out of this mafs of prodigies, viz. the men with tails who have been again and again noticed by many authors of very different ages. Their laft patron was lord Monboddo, in his Origin and Progrefs of Language, v.1. p. 234, and Antient Metaphyfics, v. iii. p. 250. Pliny in the firft inftance, and after him Ptolemy and Paufanias, {peak of a nation.in India with tails: we meet with them again in the middle ages in the Nubian Geogra- pher; in Marco Polo the Venetian, and others: in more re- cent times fuch men are mentioned in the iflands of the In- dian archipelago, in fome provinces of Ruffia, and in other places. Moft of thefe accounts are derived from others, and not from ocular teftimony ; moft of the reporters obvioufly deferve very little credit (the work of the Swede, for in- ftance, who fpeaks of the tails of the Nicobar people, and is mentioned as,a narrative ‘ {umme fidei” in a letter of Linneus to lord Monboddo, is chara¢terifed by Blumen- bach as “ ineptarum fabellarum pleniflima"’); and they differ moft marvelloufly from each other (three eyewitnefles, who {peak of the tails of the Formefans give quite different de- {criptions, fee Blumenbach de Variet. p. 269, note m.) On the other hand the moft intelligent and accurate travellers either make no mention of the prodigy, or elfe characterize it as a pure fiction. Some indeed have fhewn what has given rife to the {tatement, asa pendulous portion of the drefs in the Nicobar ifles, fee Foutana iu the Afiatic Refearches, v. iii. P+ 1515 or the miftake of a figure of a tailed and anthropo- morphous fimia. Blumenbach traced the engraving of fuch an animal through various authors, each of whom made it a little more human, until it was metamorphofed into the reprefenta- tion of a homo caudatus. Martini in his verfion of Buffon took a plate from the Ameenitates of Linnzus, who took it from Aldrovandus, who took it from Gefner, who took it froma German defcription of the Holy Land, (Reyfs in das ge. lobte land, Mentz, 1486,) in which it reprefents a quadru- Y'y mavous MAN. manous monkey, which, with other exotic animals, was fen in the journey. (De Varie*. p. 271, note p.) ‘Thus, infted of having any race of men with tails authenticated by ce- dible witneffes, there is no example even of a fingle famly difplaying fuch an anomaly, although there are many well- known inftances of families with fix fingers. Monflrous Varieties —Thefe occur only in individual in- ftances, and are probably to be regarded as pathological phenomena: their defcription is referred altogether to the article Monster. Faculties of the Mind ; and moral Feelings. —The different progrefs of various nations in general civilization, and in the culture of the arts and fciences, the different charaéters and degrees of excellence in their literary preduétions, their varied forms of government, and many other confidera- tions, mult convince us beyond the poffibility of doubt, that the races,of mankind are no lefs charatterized by diverfity of mental endowments, than by thofe differences of organi- zation, which we have already enumerated and confidered. Such however has been the effeét of education, of laws, of peculiar habits and cuftoms, and of the different forms of government in modifying the mind and character of men, that we can hardly now difcern what fhould be aftribed to original difference, and what fhould be referred to the ope- ration of thefe external caufes. That climate will exert a powerful influence on the mind may be very reafonably ex- pedted; and it has an analogous influence on the animal creation. We are informed, that the dog in Kamtfehatka, inftead of being faithful and attached to his matter, is ma- lignant, treacherous, and full of deceit. He does not bark in the hot parts of Africa nor in Greenland; and ip the latter country lofes his docility fo as not to be fit for hunt- ing. aes without denying that there are differences both in the extent and kind of mental power, we are decidedly of opinion that thefe differences are not fufficient in any in- ftance to warrant us in referring a particular race to an ori- ginally different {pecies ; and_we proteft efpecially againit the fentiments of thofe, who would either entirely deny to the Africans the enjoyment of reafon; or who afcribe to them fuch vicious, malignant, and treacherous propentities as would degrade them, even below the level of the brute. It can be proved mott clearly, and the preceding obferva- tions will fuffice for this purpofe, that there is no circum- ftance of bodily ftruGture fo peculiar to the Negro, as not to be found alfo in other far diftant nations; no character which does not run into thofe of other races, by the fame infenfible gradations as-thofe which connect together all the varieties of mankind. We cannot but admire the reafoning and humanity of thofe, who, after tearing the African from his native foil, carrying him to the Weft Indies, and doom- ing him there to perpetual labour, complain that his under- flanding fhews no figns of improvement, and that his temper and difpofition are incorrigibly perverfe, faithlefs, and trea- cherous. Let us however obferve him in a fomewhat more favourable flate than ia thofe dreadful receptacles of human mifery, the crowded decks of the flave-fhip, or in the lefs openly fhocking, but conftrained and extorted, and there- fore painful, labours of the fugar plantation. That the ne- groes are much like Europeans, and behave to others ac- cording to the treatment wliich they receive, may be eafily gathered from the beft fources of information. They have not indeed reached that fublime height, the ‘ beau ideal” of morality, the returning good for evil, probably becaufe their maflers have not yet found leifure enough from the purfuit of riches to inftil into them the true fpirit of Chrit tianity. ** The feelings of the Negroes are extremely acute. According to the manner in which they are treated, they are . gay or melancholy, laborious or flothful, friends or enemies, When well fed, and not mal-treated, they are contented, joyous, ready for every enjoyment; and the fatisfaction of their mind is painted in their countenance. But, when op- prefled and abufed, they grow peevith, and often die of melancholy. Of benefits and abufe they are extremely fenfible, and againft thofe who injure them they bear a mor- tal hatred. On the other hand, when they contract an af- fection to a matter, there is no office, however hazardous, which they will not boldly execute, to demonitrate their zeal and attachment. ‘They are naturally affectionate, and have an ardent love for their children, friends, and-country- men. The little they poffefs they freely diftribute among the neceflitous, without any other motive than that of pure compaflion for the indigent.” Hift. des Antilles, p. 483. The travels of Barrow, le Vaillant and Mungo Park, abound with anecdotes honourable to the moral chara ter of the Africans, and proving that they betray no deficiency in the amiable qualities of the heart. One of thefe gives us an interefting portrait of the chief of a tribe: His coun- tenance was ftrongly marked with the habit of reflection ; vigorous in his mental, and amiable in his perfonal qualities, Gaika was at once the friend and ruler of a happy people, who univerfally pronounced his name with tranfport, and bleffed his abode as the feat of felicity.” Many highly polifhed European kings would appear to little advantage by the fide of this favage. We fee no reafon to doubt that the negroes, taken altogether, are not inferior to any variety of the human race in natural goodnefs of heart. It is con- fonant to our experience of mankind in general, that the latter quality fhould be deadened or completely extinguifhed in the flave fhip or the plantation: indeed it is as little credit- able to the head as to the heart of their white tormentors to expe¢t affe€tion and fidelity from flaves after fuch treatment. The acute and accurate Barbot, in his large work on Africa, fays, “The blacks have fufficient fenfe and un- derftanding, their conceptions are. quick and accurate, and their memory poffefles extraordinary ftrength. For, although they can neither read nor write, they never fall into cgnfufion or error in the greateft hurry of bufinefs and traf- fic. Their experience of the knavery of Europeans has put them completely on their guard in tranfaétions of ex- change; they carefully examined all our goods, piece by piece, to afcertain if their quality and meafure are correétly {tated ; and fhew as much fagacity and clearnefs in all thefe tranfaétions, as any European tradef{man could do.’ Of thofe imitative arts, in which perfeétion can be attained only in an improved {tate of fociety, it is natural to fuppofe that the Negroes can have but little knowledge; but the fabric and colours of the Guinea‘cloths are proofs of their native ingenuity ; and, that they are capable of learning all kinds of the more delicate manual labours, is proved by the faét, that nine-tenths of the artificers in the Weft Indies are Ne- groes: many are expert carpenters, and fome watch-makers. The drawings and bufts executed by the wild Bofhman in the neighbourhood of the Cape are praifed by Barrow for their accuracy of outline, and correétnefs of proportion. Inftances are by no means rare, of negroes, who have dif- tinguifhed themfelves in literature and the arts, when fa- voured by fortune with opportunities of education and im- provement. In proof of their mufical talents, it may be mentioned that they have been known to earn fo much in America, as to purchafe their freedom with large fums. The younger Freidig in Vienna was an excellent performer both on the violin and violoncello; he was alfo acapital draftf{man, and had madea very fuccefsful painting of himfelf. The MAN. The capacity of the negroes for the mathematical and phyfical fctences, is proved by Hannibal, a colonel in the Ruffian artillery, and Liflet of theifle of France, who was named a corre{ponding member of the French academy of Sciences, on account of his excellent meteorological obferva- tions. Fuller of Maryland was an extraordinary example of quicknefs in reckoning. Being afked in a company, for the purpofe of trying his powers, how many feconds a per- fon had lived who was 70 years and fome months old, he gave the anfwer in aminute and a half. On reckoning it up after him, a different refult was obtained ; have not you for- gotten the leap years? fays the negro. This omiffion was fupplied, and the number then agreed with his anfwer. Boerhaave and De Haen have given the ftrongeit teftimony that our black brethren poffefs no mean infight into praGtical medicine ; and feveral have been known as very dextrous furgeons. A negrefs at Yverdun is mentioned by Blumen- ~ bach asa celebrated midwife of real knowledge and a fine ex- perienced hand. ; Omitting Madocksa methodift preacher, and not attempt- ing to enumerate all the negroes who have written poems, we may mention that Blumenbach poflefles Englifh, Dutch, and Latin poetry by different negroes. In 1734, A. W. Amo, an African, from the coaft of Guinea, took the degree of doétor in philofophy at the univerfity of Wittemberg. Two of his differtations, according to Blumenbach, exhibit much well digefted knowledge of the beft phyfiological works of the time. In an account of his life, publifhed at the time, by the academic counci', his integrity, talents, induftry, and erudition, are very highly commended. Jac. Eliza Joh. Capitein, who was bought by a flave dealer, when eight years old, ftudied theology at Leyden, and publithed feveral fermons and poems ; his *¢ Differtatio de Servitute Libertati Chriftiane non contraria,'’ went through four editions very quickly. He was ordained in Amfter- dam, and went to Elmina on the Gold coaft, where he was either murdered, or exchanged for the life and faith of his countrymen thofe he had learnedin Europe. Ignatius Sancho, and Gultavus Vafa, the former born in a flave fhip on its paflage trom Guinea to the Weft Indies, and the latter in the kingdom of Benin, have diltinguifhed themfelves as literary charaéters in this country in modern times ; their works and lives are fo well known, and fo eafily acceffible, that it is only neceflary for us to mention them. Blumenbach, from whofe « Beytrage zur Naturgef- chichte,”” the preceding inllances are taken, farcaftically ob- ferves, that entire and large provinces of Europe might be named, in which it would be difficult.to meet with fuch good writers, poets, philofophers, and correfpondents of the French academy ; and, on the other hand, that there is no favage people, which have dillinguifhed themfelves by fuch examples of perfe@ibility and even capacity for f{cientilic cultivation ; and confequently that none can approach more nearly to the polifhed nations of the globe, than the negro, p. 118. _The opportunities of obfervation, that fall to the lot of any individual, are fo limited, and the remarks of travellers and hiftorians fo likely, from various caufes, to be perverted by ignorance or mifreprefentation, that it muft be very diffi- cult to produce any thing fatisfatory on the fubje@& of the general charaGters of the various races in intelleét, difpofition, &c. We prefent therefore to the reader the conclufions which are drawn by Meiners, from an immenfe colleétion of authorities. ‘« Providence beftowed on the white and handfome races, not only confiderable prerogatives of bodily {truéture, but alfo of mental power ; connecting however neither of them with the fineft climates, ‘The ancients obferved that the moft fruitful countries weakened the powers of the mind and the manly virtues, The favourable influence of climate on the intelle& cannot be denied ; and it is equally true that the nobleft natures would be unavoidably corrupted and degraded in certain fituations. The moft dangerous are certain {pots on the coaft of Africa, Egypt, Hindooftan, the fouthern Afiatic kingdoms, particularly Siam, China, and feveral iflands, the Weft Indies, and various {pots in South Ame- rica. An almoft incredible acutenefs of the external fenles, which feems a gift of nature, is found in the dark and ugly nations. Among favages, as well as among the civilized, re~ markable examples occur of men, who are not moved by the moft violent impreffions, and yet cannot bear the mildett perfume. In the ugly nations, an almoft entire infénfibility to beauty of form, order, and harmony, is united to the greateft acutenefs of the fenfes, It feems that their imagina~ tion has a peculiar turn, which does not exiftin the handfome nations. The whole divifion of the ugly and dark coloured people is far below the white and handfome ones in the faculties of the mind ; yet there are confiderable differences between the various races in both. In Afia the Burates are the moft ftupid ; the Calmucks are more docile ; and fome fouthern people, as thofe of Pegu, the Malays, Chinefe, and Japanefe are much more fo, This want of talents affects alfo the lawer cafts of the Hindoos. The original inhabitants of America poffefs {till lefs intelle&t than the Mongolian tribes of Afia, and this is an incontrovertible proof that climate may rob the human race of genius and virtue. The ftupidity of the Americans was fo ftriking, and fo generally known, that there was fome trouble to convince the Spaniards that they were men, and capable of becoming chriftians ; yet thefe very Americans difplay, in certain points, a capability of learning, by which they exceed the mott ingenious Eu- ropeans. The negroes indeed come above the Americans ; but they are nearer to them than to the Europeans, Of the white people, the Celtic race has been much more richly en- dowed by nature, than the Slavonic or Oriental. $ The dark people are again diftinguifhed from the fair by a deplorable abfence of virtues, and by feveral frightful ex- ceffes. With an irritability arifing from weaknefs, and an incredible fenfibility to the flighteft affronts, the black na- tions combine an altonifhing infenfibility of the pains and joys of others, even their nearett relations, inflexible cruelty, fel- fifhnefs and difpofition to cheat, and a want of all fympa- thetic impulfes and feelings. With more than female cowardice, and fear of open approaching danger and death, they join inconceivable calmnefs and indifference under the molt horrible tortures, difeafes, and aétual death ; with want of affe&tion towards their own children, an extraordinary degree of tendernefs to animals, even the moft difgufting vermin ; with brutal ob{cenity, voracity, and fhameletfnefs, either an immoderate attachment to fenfual love, or the greatelt coldnefs, and confequent contempt of the female jex. Lxceffive irritability is found in all the Finnic races of Afia and America. The Burates are the wortt of all thefe favages, and are confiderably excelled by the Tungoofes, the Calmucks and Monguls, the Coriacks, the Tfchutfki, the Kuriles, and particularly the Japanefe.. The Kamtfchat- kans are more contemptible, but lefs cruel than the Lapland- ers. The Chinefe are one of the moft worthlefs people in Afia, and are exceeded in integrity at leaft, if inno other refpe&, by the Tunquinefe, Siamefe and Hindoos. The Malays, and moft of the people who defcend from them, are feared, not only by the Afiatics, but even by the Eu- ropeans, ‘The foula of the blacks in New Guinea, New Yy 2 Holland; MAN. Holland, &c. are not lefs ugly than their bodies 4 on the . contrary, the difpofition alone of the inhabitants of the Ni- cobar and Bally iflands would prove that they are of more noble origin than their neighbours. The worthlefsnefs or corruption of human nature is no where more univerfal, or has been more accurately obferved, than in the Americans, the portraits of whom, fill the friend of humanity, by turns, with pity, horror, and indignation. ‘he difpofitions of the negroes are as different as their defcent ; hence the contra- didory defcriptions of their manners. Even the flave dealers fix their prices, not merely according to the bodily powers, bat in proportion to the docility and good difpofi- tions of their commodity. ‘The worlt negroes of Malabaric origin are the Jiagas, the Anzicos, thofe of Dahomey, and the Gallas, which, as well as all their black brethren, bear a remarkable refemblance in difpofition to the Americans. «The white and handfome nations may degenerate and be reduced to.a {tate of barbarifm by phyfical and moral caufes, as we learn from the examples of the Greeks and Romans, of the modern inhabitants of Caucafus and almoft all the European colonies in the torrid zone. But they have diftin- guifhing prerogatives in their wildeft ftate, as a comparifon of the ancient Germans, Spaniards, Scandinavians, and Scy- thians, and of the modern Highland Scotch, and other Celtic people, with the African and American favages, will moft abundantly prove. The Celtic people alone have pof- feffed true bravery, love of liberty, and other paflions and virtues of great fouls, They alone have been as generous and mild towards the weak and the vanquifhed, as terrible to their enemies; and have conflantly treated conquered na- tions and the female fex very differently from the Mongo- lians. Mott of the virtues, which adorn and ennoble man, have exilted from early times in a higher degree among the Celtic than among the Slavonic and Oriental people. The white people are neither fo debauched, nor fo cold, nor fo much addi@ed to unnatural enjoyments as the dark coloured. On the other hand, the Slavonics and Orientals have a much ftronger attachment to fenfual love than the Celts; and of the latter, the fouthern are more fenfual than the northern. Some favages indeed have conceived themfelves fuperior to Europeans ; but, in general, they have acknowledged the excellence of thefe more noble races, and this conteffion is mott plainly implied in the pradtice of offering their wives and daughters to better men, and in the attachment and fidelity, which the women of the ugly nations difplay to- wards the more powerful Europeans, in preference to the men of their own race.”? Meiners, Grundrifs, p. 111. 128. Caufes of the Varieties of the Human Specics.—The caufes which operate on the bodies of living animals, either modify the individual, or alter the offspring. The former are of reat importance in the hiftory of animals, and produce very altonifhing alterations in their vature ; but the latter are the mott powerful, affect the fpecies, and create the diverfities of race or breed Climate.—That climate will exert a very powerful influ- ence on all organized bodies, and particularly on warm blooded animals, muft naturally be expected, when we con- fider how conftantly and completely thefe animals are ex- pofed to the aétion of the atmofphere in which they live ; how wonderfully the compofition of this air, formerly fup- pofed to be a fimple element, varies, not only in its gafeous ingredients, but alfo in the acceffory ones of light, heat, electricity, &c.; and what a variety of other circumitances is to be taken into confideration, asthe geographical polition of different countries, their elevation, mountains, rivers, vici- nity to the fea, prevailing winds, &c. Let it be further re- +6 membered, that the blood expofed to this air in the cheft mutt be varioufly changed according to its compofition and na- ture, and thus that the fecretions, as well as the funétion of nutrition, of which the materials are derived from this fluid, mutt be greatly influenced, Although this confiderable and conftant operation of cli- mate on the animal economy, and the habit and form of the body has been noticed by attentive obfervers in all ages, it is rather difficult to define precifely what ought to be attri- buted to this caufe only, and what arifes trom the other fources of degeneration, of from their concourfe. We thall ftate one or two changes, which feem to depend unequivocally on this caufe. The whitening (blanehing or etiolation) of vegetables, when the fun’s rays are excluded, demonitrates the agency of thofe rays on vegetable colours. In the fame way, men who are much expofed to the air acquire a deeper tint im their fkin than thofe who are more covered ; and the tannin of the fkin by the fummer fun in parts of the body Pa to it, as the face and hands, is a phenomenon completely ana- logous. The ruddy and tawny hues of thofe who live in the country, and the pale fallow countenances of the inhabitants of towns owe their origin to this caufe. Men of the fame race are lighter or darker coloured according to the climate which they inhabit ; the Moors, in their native colour, are not darker than the Spaniards, French, nor mofk of the Englith ; but their acquired tint is fo much deeper, that we diltinguifh them inftantly. How fwarthy do the Europeans become, who feek their fortunes under the tropics and equator, and have their fkins parched by the burning funs of Afric and of either Ind.” The white colour, in the northern regions, of many ani- mals which poffefs other colours in more temperate climates, as the fox, the hare, beatts of burden, the falcon, crow, jackdaw, chaflinch, &c. feems to arife entirely from climate. This opinion is flrengthened ly the analogy of thofe animals, which change their colour, in the fame country at the winter feafon, to white or grey, as‘ the ermine and weafel, hare, fquirrel, rein deer, white game (tetrao lagopus), fnow bunting (emberiza nivalis), &c. Linnzus Flora Lapponica ; edit. of Smith, p. 55. 352. ‘The common bear is differently coloured in different countries. That the coverings of animals, as well as their colour, are much influenced by climate, is eyinced in many inftances, The theep in A frica has a coarfe hair fubflituted in the place of its wool; and the deg lofes its coat entirely, and hasa {mooth and fott fin. The wool of the fheep is thicker and longer inthe winter, and in hilly northern fituations, than in the fummer, anc on warm plains. Much benefit is derived in the cultivation of this animal, by changing its paflures ac- cording to the feafons of the year, and prote¢iing it from the feverity of the climate. The influence of various caufes, which may be comprehended under the general term of cul- tivation, is very flriking in the fheep and goat; the great difference in the wool produced from the former, under vari- ous circumftances, is well known; and a perfon, who was acquainted with the covering of the goat in Europeai climates, would hardly believe it poffible that the material from which the precious fhawls of Cafhmere are manutaétured, could be produced from the fame animal. Whether the long and filky coat of the goat, cat, fheep, and rabbits of Angora can be afcribed to the climate, we do not know ; it is at leaft worthy of notice that this qua- lity of the hair fhould exift in fo many animals. It continues when they are removed into other countries, and is tranf- mitted to the offspring ; fo that we may probably regard thefe animals as permanent breeds. Muf ——— a MAN. a Mutt we not refer to climate the conftart and remarkable degeneracy of the horfe in France. ‘ In France,’? accord- ing to Buffon, * Spanifh or Barbary horfes, when the breed is not crofled, become French horfes, fometimes in the fecond generation, and always in the third.” V.iv. p. 106. Food.—We naturally expect that food will produce con- fiderable changes in the living body ; its effect feems to be proved by the well known faé& that feveral finging birds, chiefly of the lark and finch kinds, become gradually black, if they are fed on hempfeed only. (Blumenbach, de Variet. p- 94.) The texture of the hair has been changed, in an African fheep brought into England, from the coarfe nature of that of the camel, to confiderable finenefs and foftnefs, by one year’s feeding in the paftures of this coun- try. The influence of the fame caufe on the ftature and proportion of the body is fhewn in the horfe, which grows to a large fize in the marfhy grounds of Triefland, while on ftony foils, or dry heaths, they remain dwarfifh. Ovxen be- come very large and fat in rich foils, but are diftinguifhed by fhortnefs of the lexs ; while in drier fituations, their whole bulk is lefs, and the limbs are {tronger and more flefhy. We fay nothing of the well-known differences of flavour and weight produced by different kinds of food. x Changes caufid by Climate are temporary.—Ywo very different opinions have been maintained concerning thefe changes, produced by the aétion of externalscaufes on the bodies of anima's. Some, as Buffon, Blumenbach, Zim- mermann, (Geographifche gefchichte der Menfchen, &c.) contend that they are tran{mitted to the offspring, and thus caufe varieties : others argue that the effe& terminates in the individuai ; that the youn, animal is not in the flighteft degree modified by it, but is born with the original properties, and conttitution of the parents, and a fufceptibility only of the fame changes when expofed to the fame caufes. The latter opinion has been moft ably defended in the inaugural difputa- tion of Dr. Prichard, Edinburgh, 1808, and feems to us to reft upon the moft incontrovertible grounds. The change in the colour of the human {kin, from expofure to fun and air, is obvioufly temporary ; for it is diminifhed and even removed when the caufes no longer at. The dif- colouration, which we term tanning or being fun-burnt, as well as the fpots called freckles, are molt incidental to fair flkins, and difappear when the parts are covered, or no longer expofed tothe fun. The children of the hufbandman or of the failor, whofe countenance bears the marks of other climes, are juft as fair as thofe of the moft delicate and pale inhabitant of acity: nay, the Moors, who have lived for ages under a burning fun, {till have white children ; and the offspring of Europeans in the Indies have the origi- nal tint of their progenitors. Blumenbach has been led into a miftake on this point by an Englifh author (Hawkefworth, in Colleétion of Voyages, v. iii, p. 374), who aflerts that Creoles are born with a different complexion and caft of countenance, from the children of the fame parents brought forth in their native country. In oppofition to this ftate- ment, from one who was not an eye-witnefs, we fhall place the authority of Long, who, in his hiftory of Jamaica, af- firms ‘that the children born in England have not, in ge- neral, lovelier or more tranfparent fkins, than the offspring of white parents in Jamaica.” The ‘ auftrum fpirans vultus & color,” which this acute and learned naturalitt afcribes to the Creole, is merely the acquired effect of the climate, and not a charaéter exifting at birth. “ Nothing,” fays Dr. Prichard, ‘ feems to hold true more untyerfally, than that all acquired conditions of body, whether produced by art or accident, end withthe life of the individual in whom they are produced. Many nations mould their bodies into unnatural forms: the Indians flatten their foreheads (See CRanrum); the Chinefe women reduce their feet to one-third of their natural dimenfions ; favages elongate their ears ; many racescut away the prepuce. We con{tantly mutilate our domeftic animals by removing the tail or ears, and our own {pecies are often obliged by difeafe to fubmit to the lofs of limbs. That no deformity or muti- lation of this kind is hereditary, is fo plainly proved by every ' thing around us, that we wonder how the contrary opinion fhoeld have gained any advocates. After the operation of cireumcifion has prevailed for more than three thoufand years; the Jews are ftill born with prepuces, and {flill obliged to {ubmit to the painful rite. Docked horfes and cropped dogs bring forth young with entire ears and tails. But for this falutary law, what a frightful fpeGtacle would every race of animals exhibit! The mifchances of all preceding times would overwhelm us with their united weight, and the ca- talogue would be continually increafing, until the univerfe, inftead of difplaying .a fpeCtacle of beauty and pleafure, would be filled with maimed, imperfe€t, and monttrous fhapes.”’ The changes produced in the coverings of animals by ex- ternal caufes, and thofe brought about by food, are equally confined to the prefent race. If a breed with different qua- lities be required, other individuals, poffeffing thofe qualities, mutt be employed. , Permanent Varieties of Animals are only produced by Cene- ration.—That the foregoing caufes are not adequate to ac- count for thofe more fignal diverfities, which conftitute dif- ferences of race in animals, will be readily admitted. ‘Thefe can be explained only by native or congenital variety, as we have fhewn in enumerating thofe points, in which men and animals differ. In the prefent {tate of phyfiological know- ledge, we cannot attempt to fhew how it happens that an offspring is produced, differing from the parents in fome charaéters, which are conveyed by hereditary fucceflion ; how a grey rabbit or cat fhall bring forth at one birth, and from one father, yellow, black, white, and fpoited young ; how a white fheep fhall have a black lamb ; or the fame pa- rents, Leucethiopic and ordinary children at different times. In fhort, in confidering all the circumftances under which animal bodies are influenced by external agents, we mutt be contented with ftating the facts that prove the influeice of fuch caufes, without attempting to explain how they produce their effects. As there is fo little of a fatisfactory nature afcertained on this head, we fhould be afraid of difgutting the fenfible reader, by fub{tituting {peculation in the place of more folid information, Influence of Mode of Life in producing Varicties. —The tate of domettication, or the artificial mode of lite, which they lead under the dominion of man, is the moft powerful caule in favouring the produétion of varieties in the animai kingdom, Wild animals, ufing always the fame kind of food, being expofed to the aétion of the climate without fire or artificial covering, chufe, each of them according to its nature, their zone, and country: inftead of difperfing themfelves, like man, they continue in thofe places, which are the moft friesdly to their conftitutions. Hence their nature undergoes no change ; their figure, colour, fize, proportion, &c. are un- altered ; and tHere is confequently no difficulty in determin- ing their {fpecies. But, fays Buffon, when forced by man, or by any revolution on the globe, to abandon their native foil, their nature undergoes changes {fo great, that, to re- ge them, recourfe mult be had to accurate examination, and even to experiment and analogy. If to thefe natural caufes of alteration in free animals, we add that of the em- pire of man over thofe which he has reduced to flavery, we fhall M AN. fhall be aftohifhed at the. degree to which tyranny can degrade and disfigure nature ; we fhall perceive the marks of flavery, and the prints of her chains; we fhall find that thole wounds are deeper and more incurable in proportion to their antiquity: and that, in the prefent condition of domeftic ammals, it is, perhaps, impoffible to reftore their primitive form, and thofe attributes of nature, which we have taken from them."’ vol. iv. p-6. Totrace back our domettic animals to their wild originals, is in all cafes difficult, in fome impoffible : long flavery has fo degraded their nature, that the primitive am- mal may be faid to be loft, and a degenerated being, running into endlefs varieties, is fub{tituted in its place. The wild original of the fheep was foralong time unknown: Buffon conceived that he difcovered it in the mouflon or argali (ovis ammon) ; and Pallas, who had as opportunity of ftudying this animal, adds the weight of his, highly refpec- table authority to the opinion of the French naturalift. Yet, Blumenbach regards the argali as a diitin@ {pecies. Should we allow the latter to be the parent of our theep, and confequently admit that the differences are explicable by de- generation, no difficulty can any longer exilt about the unity of the human fpecies. An incomplete horn of the argali, in the academical mufeum at Gottingen, weighs nine pounds. Blumenbach, handbuch der Naturgefchichte. Pp. If, note, «Let us compare,’ fays Buffon, “ our pitiful fheep avith the mouflon, from which they derived their origin, The moufion is a large animal. He is fleet as a ftag, armed with horns and thick hoofs, covered with coarfe hair, and dreads neither the inclemency of the fky, nor the vora- city of the wolf. He not only efcapes from his enemies by the fwiftnefs of his courfe, and fcaling, with truly won- derful leaps, the moft frightful precipices; but he refifts them by the ftrength of his body, and the folidity of the arms with which his head and feet are fortified. How different from our fheep, which fubfilt with difficulty in flocks, who are unable to defend themfelves by their numbers, who can- not endure the cold of our winters without fhelter, and who would all perifh, if man withdrew his protetion. So com- pletely are the frame and capabilities of this animal degraded by his affociation with us, that it is no longer able to fubfift in a wild ftate, if turned loofe, as the goat, pig, and cattle are. In the warmett climates of Afia and Africa, the mouflon, who is the common parent of all the races of this f{pecies, appears to be lefs degenerated than in any other region, ‘Though reduced to a domeltic ftate, he has pre- ferved his ftature and his hair, but the fize of his horns is di- minifhed. Of all domettic fheep, thofe of Senegal and India are the largeft, and their nature has fuffered leaft degradation, The fheep of Barbary, Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, Tartary, &c. have undergone greater changes. [n relation to man, they are improved in fomearticles, and vitiated in others ; but, with regard to nature, improvement, and degeneration are the fame thing ; for they both imply an alteration of original conflitution. Their coarfe hair is changed into {ne woul. Their tail, loaded with amafs of fat, (and fometimes reach- ing the weight of 40 pounds), has acquired a magnitude fo incommodious, that the animals trail it with pain. While {wollen with fuperfluous matter, and adorned with a beautiful fleece, their {trength, agility, magnitude, and arms are di- minifhed ; thefe long-tailed fheep are half the fize only of the mouflon. They can neither fly from danger, nor relift theenemy. To preferve and multiply the {pecies, they re- quire the conftant care and fupport of man. The degene- ration of the original f{pecies is fill greater in our climates. OF all the qualities of the mouflon, our ewes and rams have 5t retained nothing but a fall portion of vivacity, which yield to the crook of the fhepherd. Timidity, weaknefs, refig- nation, and ftupidity, are the only melancholy remains of their degraded nature.’’ Vol. iv. p. 7. It willnaturally be expeéied that degeneration has operated mott deeply aud varioufly on thofe domeftic animals which man has fubjeéted for many ages, and fo’ completely, that they propagate in their enflaved condition; not on thofe, of whom each individual is brought into captivity from his wild ftate, as the elephant ; nor on fuch as have not been taken into foreign climates, asthe rein-deer, which is confined toa very limited portion of the globe. The pig is a good example, becaufe his defcent is more clearly made out than that of many others. ‘The dog indeed degenerates before our eyes, but it will hardly ever, perhaps, be afcertained whether there is one or more {pecies. The extent of Gegenertgn can be obferved in the domettic pig, becaufe, we believe, no natu- ralift has hitherto been {ceptical enough to doubt whether he defcended from the wild boar, and he was certainly firft in- troduced by the Spaniards into the New World. The piss conveyed, in 1509, from Spain to the Welt India ifland Cubagua, then celebrated for the pearl fifhery, degenerated iurto a mon{trous race with toes half a fpan long. Herrera, hechos de los Caftellanos en las Iflas, &c. (vol. i. p. 239-) Thofe of Cuba became more than twice as large as their European progenitors: Clavigero, ftoria antica del Meffico. (vol. iv. p. 145.) How remarkably again have the domettic {wine degenerated from the wild ones in the old world; in the lofs of the foft downy hair from between the briftles, in the valt accumulation of fat under the ficin, in the form of the cra- nium, in the figure and growth of the whole body. “The varieties of the domeftic animal too are very numerous: in Piedmont they are almolt invariably black; in Bavaria reddifh-brown, in Normandy white, &c. ‘lhe breed in England with {traight back and large pendulous belly is jut the reverfe of that in the North of France, with high convex fpine, and hanging head; and both are different from the German breed; to fay nothing of the folid-ungular race found in herds in Hungary and Sweden, and already known by Ariltotle, and many other varieties. The afs, in its wild ftate, is remarkably fwift and lively, and ftill continues fo in his native countries in the Eaft; the bifon, or wild ox, has a long flowing mane, hanging almoft to the ground. The original {tock of our poultry cannot be determined, nor can the varieties into which they have run be enume- rated. No wild bird in our climates refembles the domettic cock: the pheafant, grous, and wood-hen, are the only. analogous kinds; and it is uncertain whether thefe would intermix, and have prolific progeny. They have conftituted diftin&t and feparate fpecies from the earlieft times; and they want the combs, {purs, and pendulous membranes of the gallinaceous tribes. Buffon, vol. xii. p. 112. There are twenty-nine varieties of canary birds known by name, all produced from the grey bird. Buffon, vol. xiv. p. 61. Mott of the mammalia, which have been tamed by man, betray their fubjugated ftate by having the ears and tail pendulous ; a condition of the former parts which, we be- lieve, belongs to no wild animal, In many, the very func- ticns of the body, as the f{ecretions, generation, &e, are greatly changed. ‘The domettic fow produces young twice a year; the wild animal only once: it frequently brings forth monftrous fetufes, and is invaded by a new {pecies of hydatids, forming what is called the meafles in pork, A. good hen, well fupplied with food, lays 100 eggs be- tween and ae a Oe Si Tet, MAN. tween {pring and autumn; in the wild {tate fhe only produces eighteen or twenty. Buffon, vol. ii. p, 30. - The application of thefe fa€ts to the queftion concerning the human fpecies is very obvious. If domefticated animals vary, becaufe they have been taken from their primitive condition, and expofed to the operation of many, to them unnatural, caufes; if the. pig is remarkable among thefe for its varieties, becaufe it has been the moft expofed to caufes of degeneration; we fhall be at no lofs to account for the diverfities in man, who is, in the true, though not ordinary fenfe of the word, more of a dometfticated animal than any other. We know the wild ftate of moft of them; but we are ignorant of the natural wild condition to which man was deftined. Probably there is no fuch ftate; becaufe nature, having limited him in no ref{peét, having fitted him for every kind of life, every climate, and every variety of food, has given him the whole earth for his abode, and both the or- ganized kingdoms for his nourifhment. The numerous varieties of domeftic animals, which are inconteftibly the offspring of domeitication, may be re- garded as a refutation of the general pofition, which we lately laid down, that ne acquired condition is tran{mitted by generation. Thefe diverfities are undoubtedly the ftrongeft argument in favour of the changes produced by the way of life being hereditary ; and we are not hitherto war- ranted in pofitively denying this. ‘They admit of explana- tion, however, on another principle; viz. that the domettic ftate caufes a difpofition to the produétion of native varieties, which, as we well know, are hereditary. We know ‘no dire€t obfervations, by which it can be decided that modi- fications of colour, form, &c. produced by external caufes, are in nc in{tance tranfmitted to the offspring, and that they are all firft produced as native varieties in the courfe of generation. Analogy, however, very much favours this notion. Such, then, are the caufes by which the varieties of man may be accounted for. Although we have acknowledged our entire ignorance of the manner in which thefe operate, we have proved that they exiit, and have fhewn, by copious analogies, that they are fufficient to explain the phenomena. The tendency, under certain circumftances, to alterations of the original colour, form, and other properties of the body, and the law ef tran{miffion to the offspring, are the fources of varieties in man and animals, and thereby modify the fpecies: climate, food, way of life, ina word, all the phyfical and moral caufes that furround us, att indeed powerfully on the individual, but do not change the off- fpring, except in the indireét manner alluded to in the pre- ceding paragraph. We fhould, therefore, openly violate the rules of philofophifing, which direct us to affign the fame caufes for natural effects of the fame kind, and not to admit more caufes than are fufficient for explaining the phe- nomena, if we recurred, for the purpofe of explaining the varieties of man, to the perfectly gratuitous aflumption of originally different {pecies, or called to our aid the operation of climate, &c. Yet, if it be allowed that all men are of the fame fpecies, it does not follow that they all defcend from the fame family. Some contend that all parts of the globe were furnifhed at firft with men and animals, and lay great {trefs on the diffi- culty which the race would experience in extending over wide traéts, and gaining accefs to remote regions and iflands. A reference to faéts will fhew us that thefe difficulties have been overcome. ‘The numerous iflands of the Pacific, in many inftances very diltant from each other, and from the continent, are inhabited by men of the fame race; and we ‘meet in Madagafcar and Eatter ifland, feparated by nearly * half the globe, with,men of the,fame origin, employing the fame language. This view is confirmed by the very in- terefting facts firft noticed by Buffon, that no animals are found in both continents, but fuch as are able to bear the cold of thofe' regions where they probably join; and that not a fingle animal of the torrid zone is common to the old world and the new. Confideration of the Opinion, which explains the Varicties of Mankind by the Operation of Climate. Statement of the Argu- ment.—By the molt intelligent and learned writers on the varieties of mankind, they have been explained altogether by the operation of adventitious caufes, as climate, particularly the light and heat of the fun, food, and way of life. It has been confidered that thefe, ating on men originally alike, produce various bodily diverfities, and affe€& the co- lour of the fkin efpecially ; and that fuch alterations, tranf- mitted to the offspring, and gradually increafed through a long courfe of ages, account very fufficiently for all the dif- ferences obferved at prefent in the inhabitants of the dif- ferent regions of the globe. If we were inclined to fubmit in this queition to authority, the number and celebrity of the philofophers, who have contended: for the influence of cli- mate, and other phyfical and moral caufes, wonld certainly compel our affent to their opinions. Buffon, Blumenbach, Smith (Effay on the Caufes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the human Species, Philadelphia), Zimmer- man (Geographifche Gefchichte des Menfchen, &c.) Lud- wig (Grundrifs der Naturgefchichte des Menfchen-fpecies, &c.), are only a few of thofe who have adopted and de- fended this view of the fubject. Opinion of Buffon.—‘* The heat of the climate,’’ fays Buffon, §* 1s the chief caufe of blacknefs among the human {pecies. When this heat is exceflive, as in Senegal and Guinea, the men are perfe&tly black ; when it is a little lefs violent, the blacknefs is not fo deep; when it becames fomewhat temperate, as in Barbary, Mongolia, Arabia, &c. mankind are only brown; and laftly, when it is alto- gether temperate, as in Europe and Afia, men are white. Some varieties, indeed, are produced by the mode of living. All the Tartars (Monguls), for example, are tawny ; while the Europeans, who live under thé fame lati- tude, are white. This difference may fafely be afcribed to the Tartars being always expofed to the air, to their having no cities or fixed habitations, to their fleeping conftamly on the ground, and to their rough and favage manner of living. Thefe circumftances are fufficient to render the Tartars more fwarthy than the Europeans, who want nothing to make life eafy and comfortable. Why are the Chinefe fairer than the Tartars, though they refemble them in every feature? Beeaufe they are more polifhed ; becanfe they live in towns, and pra¢tife every art to guard themfelves againft the injuries of the weather: while the 'Tartars are perpetually otic to the aétion of the fun and air. “ Climate may be regarded as the chief caufe of the dif: ferent colours of mem: but food, though it has lefs influence than colour, greatly affects the form of our bodies. Coarfe, unwholefome, and ill-prepared food makes the human {pecies degenerate. All thofe people, who live miferably, are ugly and ill made. Even in France, the country people are not fo beautiful as thofe who live in towns: and I have often remarked, that in thofe villages, where the people are richer and better fed than in others, the men are likewife more handfome, and have better countenances. The air and the foil have great. influence on the figures of men, beafts, and plants. “ Upon the whole, every circumftance concurs in proving that mankind are not compofed of fpecies effentially dif- ’ ferent MAN. ferent from each other; that, om the contrary, there was originally but one fpecies, which, after multiplying and {preading over the whole furface of the earth, have under- gone various ‘changes by the influence of climate, food, mode of living, epidemic difeafes, and mixture of diffimilar individuals; that, at firlt, thefe changes were not fo con- {picuous, and produced only individual varieties ; that thefe varieties became afterwards more {pecific, becaufe they were rendered more general, more ftrongly marked, and more permanent, by the continual aétion of the fame caufes; that they are tranimitted from generation to generation, as de- formities or difeafes pafs from parents to children ; and thar, laftly, as they were originally produced by a train of ex- ternal and accidental ‘caufes, and have only been perpetuated by time, ard the conftant operation of thefe caules, it is probable that they will gradually difappear, or, at leaft, that they will differ from what they are at prefent, if the caufes which produced them fhould ceafe, or if their opera- tion fhould be varied by other circumftances and combina- tions.”? Natural Hiltory, by Wood, vol. iii. p. 443—440. Opinion of Smith.—< In tracing the globe,’’ fays Smith, “¢ from the pole to the equator, we re a gradation in the complexion, nearly in proportion to the latitude of the country. Immediately below the arétic circle, a high and fanguine colour prevails: from this you defcend to the mix- ture of red and white: afterwards fucceed the brown, the olive, the tawny, and, at length, the black, as you pro- ceed to the line. The fame diltance from the fun, however, does not, in every region, indicate the fame temperature of climate. Some fecondary caufes muit be taken into con- fideration, as correcting and limiting its influence. The elevation of the land, its vicinity to the fea, the:nature of the foil, the ftate of cultivation, the courfe ef winds, and many other circumiftances, enter into this view. Elevated and mountainous countries are cool, in proportion to ‘their altitude above the level of the fea, &c. &c.”’ Effay, p. 8—10. Opinion of Blumenbach.—Blumenbach informs us how cli- mate operates in modifying the colour of the fkin, but does not attempt to explain its effeéts on the ftature, propor- tions, &c. He flates that the proximate caufe of the dark colour of the integuments is an abundance of carbone, fe- creted by the fkin with hydrogen, precipitated and fixed in the rete mucofum by the contact of the atmofpheric oxygen. (De Variet. p. 124.) He obferves further, that this abundance of carbone is moft diftin&tly noticeable in perfons of an atrabilarious temperament ; which faét, together with many others, proves the intimate conneétion between the biliary and the cutaneous organs; that hot climates exert a very fignal influence on the liver; and thus, that an unna- tural {tate of the biliary fecretion, produced by heat, and increafed through many generations, caufes the veflels of the fin to fecrete that abundance of carbone, which pro- duces the black colour of the Negro. Ibid. p. 126—137. Gertain fuperficial Views favourable to this Opinion.—It cannot be fuppofed that men of undoubted talents and learning would take up thefe opinions without any founda- tion at all; and accordingly we find that there is a flender mixture of truth in thefe ftatements; but it is fo enveloped in athick cloud of error, and fo concealed by mifreprefenta- tion and exaggeration, that we do not recognzie it without difficulty. ‘The colour of Europeans nearly follows the geographical pofitions of countries: this part of the world 1s occupied almoft entirely by a white race, of which the individuals are fairer in cold latitudes, and more {warthy or fun-burnt in warm ones: thus, the French may be darker than the Englith, the Spaniards than the French, and the Moors than the Spaniards. In the fame way, where dif. ferent parts of a country differ much in latitude and in tem. - perature, the inhabitants may be browner in the fouth than in the north: thus, the women of Granada are faid to be more fwarthy than thofe of Bifcay, and the fouthern than the northern Chinefe, &c. Thefe diverfities are produced by the climate, as we have already explained. The effeét goes off if the caufe be removed: it terminates in the indi- vidual, and is never tranfmitted to the offspring, as we fhall prove molt incontrovertibly prefently. Ona fuperficial view again, we obferve that terperate Europe is occupied by a white race, and that. the blacks, of whom we fee and hear molt, dwell chiefly under the burning funs and on the parched fands of Africa and Afia: the numerous whites who live in hot, and the greater num- ber of dark coloured people who are found in cold countries, are not taken into the account in thefe imperfect and partial comparifons. We are particularly furprifed that the acutenefs and good fenfe of Blumenbach fhould have allowed him to refort to an explanation grounded on fuch remote analogies, and fo obvioufly weak and inadequate, as that by which he at- tempts to account for the black colour of the Negro. To require us to believe that all the dark coloured races labour under hepatic difeafe, when our fenfes inform us that they are in perfect health, is really too much: the ftatement is too abfurd to require ferious refutation. Arguments againf} it—We proceed to fhew that climate does not caufe the diverfities of mankind; and in this con- fideration, our remarks are chiefly directed to the colour of the fkin, as that is the part in which its operation has been regarded, by all the defenders of its influence, as the moft unequivocal : the reafoning, however, will apply in general to the other peints of difference, as well as to this. The uniform colour of all partsof the body is a ftrong argument againit thofe who afcribe the blacknefs of the Ne- gro to the effect of the fun’s rays. The glans penis, the eavity of the axilla, the infide of the thigh are juft as black as any other parts ; indeed, the organs of generation, which are always covered, are among the blackett parts of the body. Ncither is the peculiar colour of the Negro confined to the © fkin ; a {mall circle of the conjunétiva, round the cornea, is blackifh, and the reft of the membrane has a yellowifh-brown tinge. The fat has a deep yellow colour, at leaft in many of them, which could be ditinguifhed by a very fuperficial infpeétion, from that of an European. Onthefe points the teltimeny of Soemmering coincides with our own obferva- tion. (Ueber die korperl. Verfch. § 7. and 46.) The fpe- cies of domettic fowls in the Eait Indies, with black pe- riofteum, affords a further proof that the operation of the fun’s rays is not the caufe of colour in animal bodies. On the other hand, a black ftate of the {kin is fometimes partially produced in individuals of the white races. In the faireft women, towards the end of pregnancy, {pots of a more or lefs deep black colour have been often obferved ; they gradually difappear after parturition. ‘The dark colour of the fin,” fays White, ‘ in fome particular parts of the body, is not confined to either the torrid or frigid zones : for in England the nipple, the areola round the nip- ple, the pudenda, and the verge of the anus, are of a dark brown, and fometimes as black as in the Samoiede women. It is to be remarked that the colour of thefe parts grows darker in women at the full period of geftation. One morn- ing I examined the breafts of twenty women in the lying-in hofpital in Manchefter, and found that nineteen of them had dark-coloured nipples; fome of them might be faid to be black, and the areola round the nipple, from one inch to two M A N. ‘two inches and a half in diameter, was of the fame colour. (On the regular Gradation, p. 114. Camper, Kleinere Schriften, vol.i. parti. p. 47.) Le Cat mentions a woman near Paris, in whom the abdomen became black at each pregnancy, and afterwards recovered its colour ; in another the fame change occurred in the leg. See Blumenbach de Variet. page 156, note z. If we take the trouble of examining the races in any par- ticular divifion of the world, we fhall quickly find that the opinion, which afcribes their diftinguifhing chara¢ters to climate, muft be given up ; that the fame race inhabits the moft different regions, preferving in all an uniformity of cha- raéter ; that different races are found in the fame countries, and that thofe, who have changed their native abodes for fituations, in which, accordittg to the hypothefis, they ought to have undergone a complete metamorphotis, {till retain their original diftin€tions. Arguments from the Races that occupy Europe—In the north of Europe, as alfo in the north of Afia and Ameri- ca, that is, in countries neareft to the pole, in which, accord- ing to the opinion above ftated, the whitell races ought to be found, we have very brown and black people: they are much darker coloured than any other Europeans. The Moorsin Africa, and the Arabs of the defert are born with a white fkin, and continue fair unlefs adventitious caufes are applied. Butthe Laplanders and Greenlanders, who hardly ever feel a moderate heat from the rays of the fun, are all very dark. bitants of Nova Zembla, the Borandians, the Samoieds, the northern Tartars, the Oftiacs of the old continent, and the Greenlanders and the favages to the north of the Efkimaux Indians in the new continent, appear to be all the fame race, who have extended and multiplied along the coalts of the North fea, in deferts, and under climates which could not be inhabited by other nations. All thefe people have broad large faces, and flat nofes. ‘heir eyes are of a yellowifh- brown colour, inclining to black ; their eye-lids extend to- wards the temples; their cheek-bones are very prominent ; their mouths are Jarge, and their lips thick and refleéted ; the under part of their face is narrow ; they have a {queak- ing voice ; the head is large, the hair black and {month, and the fkin is of a tawny or fwarthy hue. Their fize is dimi- nutive, but, though meagre, their form is fquat. Mott of them are only four feet high, and their talleit men exceed not four feet and ahalf ”” Vol. iii. p. 302. It is curious to obferve how eafily the afferters of the power of climate in changing the human body get over an in- itance fo fatal to their opinions: they tell us roundly that great cold has the fame effeét as great heat: «¢ When the cold becomes extreme, it produces effects fimilar to thofe of violent heat. The Samoiedes, Laplanders and natives of Greenland are very tawny; we are even affured that fome of the Greenlanders are as black as the Africans; thus the two extremes approach each other: great cold and great heat produce the fame effect upon the fkin, be- caufe each of thefe caufes aéts by a quality common to both ; and this quality is the drynefs of the air, which, perhaps is equally great in extreme cold and extreme heat. Both cold and heat dry the fkin, and give it that tawny hue which we find among the Laplanders. Cold contraéts all the pro- duétions of nature. The Laplanders, accordingly, who are perpetually expofed to all the rigours of froft, are the {mall- eft of the human {pecies.”” Buffon, vol. ili. p. 443. See alfo Smith's Effay. If this reafoning fhould not convince us, there are other arguments in referve. The flate of fociety is faid to have Vou. XXII. «The Laplanders,” fays Buffon, ‘ the inha- great effe€&t on the conformation and colour of the body. The nakednefs of the favage, the filthy greafe and paint with which he fmears his body, his fmoky but, fcanty diet, want of cleanlinefs, and the undrained and uncleared country which he inhabits, not only, according to Smith, darken his fkin, but render it impoflible that 1t ever fhould be fair. p- 48—52.) On the other hand, the conveniencies of cloth- ing and lodging—the plenty and healthful quality of faod— acountry drained, cultivated, and freed from noxious efflu- via—improved ideas of beauty—the conftant ftudy of ele- gance, and the infinite arts for attaining it, even in perfonal figure and appearance, give cultivated an immenfe advantage over favage fociety in its attempts to counteraét the influence of climate, and to beautify the human form. (p. 53.) What falfe notions muft mankind have hitherto entertained on this fubje&! We can no longer believe travellers, who tell us that the fineft forms, and the greateft ftrength are to be feen in favage tribes, and that no ill-formed individuals can be'met with amoneft them : and as little can we trult the tef- timony of our own fenfes, concerning the frequency of de- formity and difeafe in civilized {ociety; fince there are fo many reafons why the former fhould be deformed, black, and ugly, and the latter well proportioned, fair, and hand- fome. Unluckily, however, this Sne-{pun theory does not correfpond witha few plain facts. Moft of the modern Eu- ropean nations exifted in a more or lefs complete fate of bar- barifm within times of which we have the moit authentic re- cords : fome of thefe were feen and defcribed ky philofophers; yet the permanence of their charaéters is fo remarkable after a greater progreflive civilization than has happened in any other inftance, that thofe defcriptions are applicable with the greatelt exactnefs to the fame races of the prefent day. In- {tead therefore of accounting for the dark colour, peculiar features, and ftature of the Greenlander, Laplander, and Sa- moiede, from their fmoke, their dirt, their food, or the cold- nefs of the climate, we can have no hefitation in afcribing them to the fame caufe that makes the Briton and the Ger- man of this day refemble the portraits of their anceftors, drawn by Cefar and Tacitus, viz. their defcent from arace marked by the fame characters as diftinguifh themfelves. Thefe tribes owe their origin to the Monguls, and retain in the north thofe marks of their defcent, which we find as {trongly expreffed in the Chinefe, under the widely different latitudes of the fouth. At the fame time, the parent tribes live in = middle of Afia, equally removed from the former and the atter. With flight exceptions, fays Dr. Prichard, the different countries of Europe are now occupied by the fame nations that have occupied them fince the date of our earlieft authen- tic accounts. Conqueits have been made by {mall numbers, fo that the races have'been little changed by this caufe. Thus when Clovis aad his 30,000 Franks reduced the large and populous province of Gaul under their dominion, the bodily characters, and the language of the conquerors were loft in thofe of the conquered. The nations which have inhabited Europe for the lait 2,500 years, confift of three great races, diftinguifhed from each other by their bodily formation, cha- raéter, and language. 1. The Celtic race, with black hair and eyes, anda white {kin verging to brown, occupies the weft of Europe: to this belong the ancient and modern inhabitants of France, Spain, Portugal, and the greateft part of Italy: the ancient Britons, Welth, Bretons, Irifh, Scotch, and Manks. The refemblance of the Silures to the [beri was noticed by Ta- citus ; it is obvious to every obferver in the prefent time ; nor is the obfervation peculiar to the Welfh; it holds good Z % of of all other Celtic nations, <« Silurum colorati vultus, et torti plerumque crines, et pofita contra Hifpania, [beros veteres trajecifle, eafque fedes occupafle, fidem faciunt.’’ That black hair and a browner complexion belonged to all the Celts, is not only proved by many dire& obfervations, but alfo becaufe rhe marks of the fanguine conftitution were univerfally confidered as the diftinétion of the German race. 2. The great German race, charaéterized by its blue eyes, yellow or reddifh hair, fair and red fkin, occupies the middle of Europe, and includes the Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders, Danes, ancient and modern Germans, Saxons and Englifh, Caledonians or Pict, and the Lowland Scotch, who have fprung from them, the inhabitants of the Low Countries, the Vandals and Goths, &c. Hif- torical records, and the fimilarity of language and cha- ratter both of body and mind, prove that all thefe people belong to the fame race. 3- The eaft of Europe contains the Sarmatian and Slavo- nic tribes, charaCterized by dark hair and eyes, and a darker fkin than the German, with perhaps larger limbs than the Celts. To this divifion belong the Ruffians, Poles, Croats, Slavons, Bohemians, Bulgarians, Coflacks, and others who fpeak the Slavonic language. (Diff. Inaug. de Variet. p- 102—109.) He proceeds to fhew from Diodorus Sicu- lus, that the Sarmatians defcended from the Medes, and were found on the banks of the T'anais, 700 years before the Chriftian era: by, the authority of Herodotus, that they oc- cupied the country between the Tanais and the Boryfthenes, when Darius Hyftafpes invaded Syria; and from Cluverius, that the coafts of the Baltic, the banks of the Viftula, Pruf- fia, and the country as far as the fituation of the Finni and Venedi, were the ancient feats of the Sarmatians. Since then a people of very different race have exifted in the neigh- bourhood of the Germans from the moft remote times, how can we explain the differences of the European nations, by the operation of climate, by heat and cold? How does the fame fky caufe the whitenefs of the German and Swede, and the comparatively dark complexion of the Pole and Ruffian? But thefe European races are found alfo in Afia and A fri- ca. All that part of the former region, which lies to the weft of the river Ob, the Cafpian fea, andthe Ganges ; all the north of Africa, Abyffinia, and perhaps other parts ftill farther fouth, on the ealt, are occupied by a race agreeing nearly in charaéter with the Sarmatians and Celts. Thus it appears, that, excepting the Germans, and the Laplanders and Samoiedes, whom we deem of Mongolian origin, the fame native or congenital conftitution prevails over the whole of Europe, the weftern parts of Afia, and the north of Africa. Black hair, dark eyes, anda white fkin, tending rather to a brownifh tint, than to the peculiar whitenefs of the German tribes, belong to the French, Spaniards, Portuguefe, Italians, and all the Celts; to the Ruffians, Poles, and other§ of Slavonic origin; to the Tatars, commonly confounded with the Mongols, the Cir- caffians and Georgians, the Turks, Greeks, Arabians, Abyfiinians, Syrians, Jews, and the inhabitants of Tri- poli, Tunis, Algiers and Morocco. That climate cannot be the caufe of the identity of charaéter in nations fpread over fifty degrees of latitude, and that food, drefs, ftate of civilization, peculiar cuftoms, &c. are equally inefficacious in accounting for this famenefs, when we confider how nume- rous and diverfified the nations are in whom it occurs, will be allowed by every unprejudiced obferver. Afiatic Races. —Two races are to be foundin Afia, on the MAN. eaft of the Ob and the Cafpian. « The vaft tra¢ts of moun- tains that ftretch from the Cafpian to the remotelt borders of the eait, have been occupied from time immemorial b the Mongolian tribes, diftin& in their conformation from all other races, 2nd more different from the Europeans than any negroes. Their {kin varies from yellow-white to olive co- lour. Their hair is perfectly black from the time of birth, In ftature they are fhort ; they have round heads, large ears, oblique eyes, flat nofes. To this nation the name of Tartars (Tatars) has been very improperly applied, as they haye nothing in common with the true Tatars, who altogether refemble the Europeans. All the eaft of Afia, except a few {pots occupied by Tatars and Oltiaks, the Tfchutfki, probably derived from the aborigines of America, and the Indians, contains feveral nations very clofely refembling the Monguls, and arifing in all probability from the fame root. Among thefe we enumerate the Calmucks and Buriates, a part of the Mongolian nation itfelf, the -Samoiedes, the Tungoofes, the Mantchoos, who border on the Chinefe, the Chinefe themfelves, the Jakuts, the Japanefe, and the Kamtfchatkans, ‘* Calmuce proprii,’”’ fays Pallas, «* Mon- goli, Buriates, Kirgufes, Solones Orientales, Tungufi Dauriz, et Sinenfes feptentrionales fibi invicem fimilfimi funt.’’ (Voy. en Siberie.) ‘ Les Samoyedes de l’Ob reflemblent beau- coup aux Tungoofes. Ils ont le vifage plat, rond et large. Ils ont peu de barbe, et les cheveux noirs et rudes.”” “¢ On trouve les reftes de cette nation dans la partie orientale de la Sibérie pres de |’ Enifféi. Les Koibals, les Kamaches, les Abotors, les Soiots, les Karagafles ont la meme figure que les Samoiedes, et parlent tous leur langue.’’ (Ibid.) «* The Kamt{chadales and Mungals (Mongols) are {warthy, have black hair, little beard, broad faces, nofe fhort and flat, eyes {mall and funk, the belly protuberant, and the legs {mall, The language of the Kamtfchadales refembles the Mungal Chinefe.” Steller’s Voyage to Kamt{chatka. “ The Japanefe in general, particularly the common peo- ple of Nipon, are ugly, fhort, ftrong, thick-legged, tawny, with flattifh nofes and thick eye-lids, though the eye ftands not fo deep in the forehead as in the Chinefe. The noble families are more majettic in {hape and countenance, and more like Europeans.’’ Kempfer. “ The Mantchoo ‘Tatars are fearcely diftinguifhable from the Chinefe by external appearances ; the Chinefe are fome- what taller, but their features almoft exa&ily refemble. The natural colour, both of Chinefe and T’atars, feems to be that tint between a fair and a dark complexion, which we diftinguifh by the word brunet or brunette ; and the fhades of this complexion are deeper or lighter, according as they have been more or lefs expofed to the influence of climate. The women of the lower clafs, who labour in the fields, or who dwell in veffels, are almoft invariably coarfe, ill-featured, and of a deep brown complexion, like that of the Hottentots, We faw women in China, though very few, who might pafs for beauties even in Europe. A {mall black or dark brown eye, a fhort roundéd nofe, generally a little flattened, lips confiderably thicker than in Sumueete and black hair, are univerfal.”’ (Barrow’s China.) ‘¢ Befides the generai fimi- larity of the tribes occupying fuch vaft and diftant regions, it is curious to obferve that the Samoiedes, Kamt{chatkans, and others towards the north, have a much darker fkin than the Calmucks, Mantchoos, and Chinefe in warmer countries.”’ Prichard’s Difputatio, p. 93—99- “India is inhabited by a mixed race, made up of the aborigines, and of others whom the purfuits of war and conqueft have at various times brought there. The religion of Brahma feems to have been conveyed there from the north ; éi- oa eee MAN, north; and at later periods vaft numbers of the Mongols have entered and conquered the country. Thefe mixtures have effaced the peculiar charaéters of the original inha- bitants, which we mutt, therefore, feek for in‘ the iflands, proteGted by their fituation from fuch vifits. The iflands of the Indian fea, as well as thofe of the Pacific, contain two races of men, differing in many refpects. One of thefe ap- proaches, and in fome inftances equals, the blacknefs of the Negro: the hair is curled and woolly, the body flender, the ftature fhort, the difpofition barbarous and cruel. The other is more like the Indians of the continent, has a fairer fin, larger limbs and ftature, better proportions, and ex- hibits fome marks of humanity and civilization. Accord- ing to Forfter, the former, who are aborigines, have occupied the middle and mountainous parts of many iflands, leaving the coafts and plains to the more recent colonitts. They occupy the higheft parts of the Moluccas, the Philippines, Formofa, and Borneo; all New Guinea, New Britain, Hi- bernia and Caledonia, Tanna, Mallicollo, New Holland, and Van Diemen’s land. The more recent nation occupies Su- matra, and the other iflands of the Indian fea, Otaheite, and the Society iflands, the Friendly iflands, Marquefas, Ladrones, Marian and Caroline iflands, New Zealand, Sand- . wich and Eafter iflands, The language of all the latter refembles the Malay, and there can be no doubt that they arife from that race, and have fpread by their fhips over thefe diftant {pots. The black people are every where barbarous, and, according to Forfter, have languages not agreeing with each other. In neither can we perceive any traces of the influence of climate. The latter race, fcattered in various parts of the vaft ifland of New Holland, which has fuch variety of temperature, every where retains its black colour, although the climate at the Englith fettle- ment is not much like unlike that of England; and in Van Diemen’s land, extending to 45° S. lat. (it is well under- ftood that the cold is much more fevere in the fouthern he- mifphere, at an equa) diftance from the equator, than in the northern) they are of a deep black, and have curled hair like the negroes. «We may make the fame remarks concerning the Malay race. The Sumatrans under a vertical funare the Fire people of the Indian iflands: and Marfden relates, that they fome- times approach the whitenefs of Europeans. The inhabitants of Otaheite are very fair: yellow hair is not unfrequently feen amongft them ; while thofe of New Zealand, twice as diftant from the equator, are much darker.” (Ibid. 8; — 89.) It is fufficiently obvious that in Afia, where we have countries with every variety of fituation and temperature, at every diftance from the equator, with every diverfity of elevation, hills, vallies, plains, iflands and continents, we can trace no effect of climate on the colour, or on any other charaGter of the human race. African Races.—On the hypothefis, which afligns the varieties of mankind to the operation of climate as their caufe, we fhould expeé to find in Africa all tribes under the equator of the moft intenfely black colour; the tinge fhould become lighter and lighter as we proceed thence towards the fouth, and the complexion ought to be white when we arrive at regions which enjoy an European climate. This, however, is by no means the cafe. The Abyffinians, on the eaft, with dark olive colour and long hair, are placed near the equator, and furrounded by negroes. In the fame part alfo, the Gallas, a great and barbarous nation, haying, according to Bruce, long black hair, and white fkin vergin to brown, occupy extenfive regions under the equator iffelf On the other hand, as we proceed from the equator towards the fouth, through tribes of negroes, we find the black co- lour continued with undiminifhed intenfity. It is known ix the Weft Indies, that the Congo negroes in the blacknefs of their {kin and: woolly hair equal any race of Africans. Paterfon affures us that the Caffres, within a few degrees of the Cape of Good Hope, where the climate is fo far from being intolerably hot, that the corn is often hurt by the winter froft, are of the deepeft colour ; and the fame fa& is familiarly known of the furrounding tribes. The ifland of Madagafcar, which is cooled by the mild breezes of the Indian ocean, and ought, therefore, to con- tain a white race, has two kinds of natives: one of olive colour with dark hair ; the other true negroes. The Hottentots, at one or two degrees from the dee black Caffres, are of a brownifh-yellow colour : this dif- tance can hardly account for the difference. The obferva- tions of Barrow on the countenance and form of this race, render it probable that they owe their origin in part to the Chinefe, which circumftance will enable us to explain their colour very eafily. He fays that the eye-lids are joined towards the nofe, by a rounded fweep without any angle: that the limbs and joints are {mall both in the Hottentots and the Chinefe : that the voice and mode of {peaking are nearly the fame in both: that a broad nofe, flanting eyes deprefled towards the nofe, and other features, are common to both. The hair has a middle charaGter between that of the Negro and Chinefe ; it is fuch, in fhort, as the intermixture of the two races may be expected to produce. When we confider how large an extent of Africa is oc- cupied by the black woolly-haired negroes, and that thefe re- gions vary in their latitude, their elevation, and every other point ; that they include fandy deferts, coafts, rivers, hills, vallies, and very great varieties of climate, the conclufion that thefe adventitious circumftances do not influence the colour or other properties of the race is irrefiftible. American Races.—It only remains for us to examine the continent of America, which, as it ftretches uninterruptedly from the neighbourhood of the north pole to 55° S. lat. and includes regions diverfified in every poffible way, affords the moft ample opportunity for the developement of all the changes that fuch caufes can produce ; and to examine whe- ther the faéts afcertained concerning its inhabitants are more favourable to the hypothefis of climate than what we have obferved in the other three divifions of the world. The reports of travellers are unanimous concerning the identity oF chara&ter in the whole American race: copper- coloured fkin, long and ftraight black hair, and a certain caft of features, are faid to belong to all the inhabitants of this extenfive continent. How remarkable this agreement is may be.colleéted from the ftatement fometimes made, that a perfon who has feen one may confider that he has feen all; which, however, in its full extent, muft be conceived as an exaggerated or partial view. The Efquimaux are not included in this account: their colour is more of the olive caft; in which, as well as in other points, they betray their Afiatic origin. Herrara, Ulloa, and others who have vifited the Ame- rican continent, affirm, that all the native tribes, both of the northern and fouthern divifions, are of the fame colour, We may cite the teftimonies of Stedman, Hearn and Mackenzie, Wallis and Cook, who afcribe the copper co- lour refpeétively to the natives near Surinam, thofe in the regions farthelt north, and to the Patagonians and inha- bitants of Terra del Fuego. Humboldt, whofe extenfive opportunities of obfervation and philofophic fpirit give great weight to his ftatements, confirms this reprefentation in the moit ample manner. ‘© The Indians of New Spain bear a general refemblance Zz2 to MAN. to thofe who inhabit Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. They have the fame {warthy and copper colour, flat and {mooth hair, {mall beard, {quat body, long eye, with the corner direéted upwards towards the temples, prominent cheek-bones, thick lips, and an expreffion of gentlenefs in the mouth, ftrongly contrafted with a gloomy and fevere look. The American race, after the Hyperborean race, is the leaft numerous; but it occupies the greateft {pace in the globe. Over a million and a half of fquare leagues, from the Terra del Fuego iflands to the river St. Lawrence and Beering’s ftraits, we are ftruck at the firft glance with the general refemblance in the features of the inhabitants. We think we perceive that they all defcend from the fame ftock, notwith{tanding the enormous diverfity of language that feparates them from each other. However, when we reflect more ferioufly on this family likenefs, after living longer among the indigenous Americans, we difcover that cele- brated travellers, who could only obferve a few individuals on the coaits, have fingularly exaggerated the analogy of form among the Americans.’’—‘¢ The uniformity of the red coppery complexion, and dark, coarfe, and glofly hair, con- ceals for along time the diverfity of individual features.” «« The Indians of New Spain have a more {warthy com- plexion than the inhabitants of the warmett climates of South America. This fa& is fo much the more remark- able, as in the race of Caucafus, which may alfo be called the European Arab race, the people of the fouth have not fo fair a fkin as thofe of the north. Though many of the Afiatic nations, who inundated Europe in the fixth century, had a very dark complexion, it appears that the fhades of colour obfervable among the white race, are lefs owing to their origin or mixture than to the local in- fluence of the climate. This influence appears to have almoft no effect on the Americans and Negroes. Thefe races, in which there is abundant depofition of carburetted hydrogen in the corpus mucofum or reticulatum of Mal- pighi, refit in a fingular manner the impreflions of the am- bient air. The Negroes of the mountains of Upper Gui- nea are not lefs black than thofe who live upon the coatt. There are, no doubt, tribes of a colour by no means deep among the Indians of the new continent, whofe complexion approaches to that of the Arabs or Moors. We found the people of the Rio Negro {warthier than thofe of the lower Orinoco, and yet the banks of the firft of thefe rivers enjoy a much cooler climate than the more northern regions. In the forefts of Guinea, efpecially near the fources of the Orinoco, are feveral tribes of a whitifh complexion, the Guaicas, Gunjaribs, and Arigues, of whom feveral robutt individuals, exhibiting no fymptom of the afthenical malady which charaGterizes Albinos, have the appearance of true Mettizos. Yet thefe tribes have never mingled with Eu- ropeans, and are furrounded by other tribes of a dark brown hue. The Indians in the torrid zone, who inhabit the moft elevated plains of the Cordillera of the Andes, and thofe who, under the 45° of S. lat. live by fifhing among the iflands of the Archipelago of Chonos, have as coppery a complexion as thofe who under a burning climate cultivate bananas in the narroweit and deepeft vallies of the equinotial region. We mutt add, that the Indians of the mountains are clothed, and were fo long before the conqueft, while the aborigines, who wander over the plains, go quite naked, and are confequently always expofed to the perpendicular rays of the fun. I could never obferve that in the fame individual thofe parts of the body which were covered were lefs dark than thofe in conta& with a warm and humid air, We every where perceive that the colour of the American depends very little on the local pofition in which we fee 2 him.” Political Effay on the Kingdom of New Spain, vol. i, p. 1440—145. How does it happen, that the fame fun, which makes the African black, tinges the American of a copper colour? and that the dark hue, which might poffibly be produced by heat in the equatorial regions, fhould be found alfo in the cold and inhofpitable traéts of Terra del Fuego, and the moft northern part of the continent? The abfence of white races can furely not be afcribed to the want of fuffi- ciently cold climates. Bougainville found the thermometer, in the middle of fummer, 544° in lat. 52°; and Meffrs. Banks and Solander, and their attendants, bad nearly perifhed all together from the cold, in an excurfion in Terra del Fuego, in the middle of the fummer. Two of the fervants were aétually loft. ' Differences in the fame Regions.—A very curfory furvey of the globe will fhew us that the fame regions have been oc- cupied by men of different races, without any interchange of characters, in many inftances, for feveral centuries. The Moors and Negroes are found together in Africa; Euro- peans, Negroes, and Americans in North and South Ame- rica; €clts, Germans, and Slavons in Europe, and even in the fame kingdoms of Europe, &c. &c. The diftinc- tions of thefe different races, except where they have been confufed by intermarriages, is juit as eafy now as it has been in any time, of which we have authentic records. Permanence of the original Charaéer, when the Climate is changed.—The permanency of the charaéters of any race when it has changed its original fituation for a very differ- ent one, when it has paffed into other climes, adopted new marners, and been expofed to the action of thefe caufes for feveral generations, affords the molt indifputable proof that thefe charaéeriftics are not the offspring of fuch adventi- tious circumftances. From the numerous examples, in every race, which a flight knowledge of hiftory will furnifh, we fhall feleét a few of the moft itriking. The eftablifhments of the Europeans in Afia and Ame- rica have now fubfifted about three centuries. Vafquez de Gama landed at Calicut in 1498 ; and the Portuguefe empire in India was founded in the beginning of the followings cen- tury. Brazil was difcovered and taken pofleffion of by the fame nation, under Alvarés Cabral in 1500. Towards the end of the fifteenth, and the beginning of the fixteenth century, Columbus, Cortez, and Pizarro fubjugated for the Spaniards the Weft Indian iflands, with the empires of Mexico and Peru. Sir Walter Raleigh planted an Englifh colony in Virginia in 1584; and the French fettlement of Canada has a rather later date. The colonifts have, in no inftance, approached to the natives of thefe countries; and their defcendants, where the blood has been kept pure, have, at this time, the fame characters as native Europeans. In the hotter fituations indeed, as in the warmer countries of Europe, the fkin is fwarthy ; but the children, at the time of birth, and women who are never expofed much to the fun’s rays, have all their native whitenefs, This obferva- tion admits of no exception: in the tint of the fkin, the colour and other qualities of the hair, the features, the form of the cranium, the proportions and figure of the body, the European colonifts retain all their original charaters. The fanguine conttitution, with its blue eyes, yellow hair, and fair fkin, which is fo remarkably different from that of the natives, is neverthelefs tran{mitted without the leatt altera- tion from generation to generation. Negroes have been introduced into the new world for nearly an equal length of time: in the Welt Indian iflands, in the United States, in the various parts of Spanifh America, they live under new climates, and have adopted ‘ new MAN. new habits. Yet they have {till woolly hair, black fkins, flat nofe, thick lips, and all the other characters of their race. The Vandals paffed from Spain into Africa about the middle of the Afth century: their defcendants may be {till traced, according to Shaw, in the mountains of Atlas, by their white and ruddy complexion, and yellow hair. The change, produced by climate, mult be infinitely {mall, fince it is not yet perceptible after a lapfe of thirteen centu- ries. The inhabitants of Perfia, of Turkey, of Arabia, of Egypt, and of all Barbary, may be regarded as the fame race of people, who, in the time of Mahomet and his fuc- ceffors, extended their dominions by invading immenfe terri- tories. In ail thefe fituations the fkin retains its native fairnefs, unlefs the tint be changed by expofure to the fun: and the children are invariably fair. ‘Il n’y a femme de laboureur ou de payfanen Afie (Afia Minor) qui n’a le teint frais comme une rofe, la peau delicate et blanche, fi olie et fi bien tendue, qu’il femble toucher du velours.’’ (Obf. de Pierre Belon, p. 199.) The Arabians are fcorched by the heat of the fun, for moft of them are either covered with a tattered fhirt, or go entirely naked: La Boullaye informs us, that the Arabian women of the defert are born fair, but that their complexions are fpoiled by being con- tinually expofed to the fun. (Voyages de la Boullaye le Gouz, p. 318.) Another traveller remarks that the Ara- bian princeffes and ladies, whom he was permitted to fee, were extremely handfome, beautiful, and fair, becaufe they are always covered from the rays of the fun; but that the common women are very much blackened by the fun. Voy- age fait par Ordre du Roi dans la Paleftine, p. 260. The Moors, who have lived in Africa fince the feventh century, have not degenerated in their phyfical conftitution from their Arabian progenitors : the fun exerts its full in- fluence on their fkin, but their children are juft as white as thofe born in Europe. They are by no means confined to the northern coaft, but have penetrated, as the preva- lence of the Mahometan religion attefts, deeply into the in- terior: here they dwell in countries, ef which the woolly Negro is the native, but have not acquired, in fix centuries of expofure to the fame caufes, any of his characters. The intelligent and accurate Shaw informs us that moft of the Moorifh women would be reckoned handfome even in Europe ; that the fkin of their children is exceedingly fair and delicate, and though the boys, by being expofed to the fun, foon grow fwarthy, yet the girls, who keep more within doors, preferve their beauty uill the age of thirty, when they commonly give over childbearing. ‘ Les Mau- res,’ {ays Poiret, ‘‘ ne font pas naturellement noirs, malgré le proverbe, et comme le penfent plufieurs ecrivains; mais ils naiflent blancs, et reftent blancs toute leur vie, quand leurs travaux ne les expofent pas aux ardeurs du foleil. Dans les villes les femmes ont une blancheur fi éclatante, qu’elles eclipferoient la plupart de nos Européennes; mais les Mau- refques montagnardes, fans ceffe brulées par le foleil et prefque toujours a moitié nues, deviennent, méme des l’en- fance, d’une couleur brune qui approche beaucoup de celle de la fuie.”’ (Voy. en Barbarie, tom. i. p- 31.) The tef- timony of Bruce is to the fame effect. That the fwarthinefs of the Southern Europeans is merely the effe& of the fun's aétion on the individual, whofe chil- dren are born perfectly white, and continue fo unlefs ex- poled to the operation of the climate, might be eafily proved of the Spamards and Portuguefe, the Greeks, Turks, &c. but the fact is too well known to render this neceflary. The Jews exhibit one of the moft ftriking inftances of peculiar national formation, unaltered by the moft various changes. They have been feattered, for ages, over the face of the whole earth; but their peculiar religious opinions and practices have kept the race uncommonly pure; ac- cordingly their colour and their charaéteriftic features are {till the fame under every diverfity of climate and fituation. We confider it as fufficiently proved that native differ- ences in general, and particularly that of colour, do not de- pend oa extraneous caufes: we have an obfervation or two to make on fome other points. That the curled hair of the African is not produced by heat appears from its being found, in many fituations, not remarkable for high temper- ature, as the Moluccas, New Guinea, Mallicollo, Borneo, New Holland, and even in the cold region of Van Diemen’s land ; as well as from the hot regions of Afia and Ame- rica being inhabited by a long-haired race. The differences in ftature, again, have been very confidently afcribed to ad- ventitious caufes. Temperate climate, pure air, copious food, &c. have been thought favourable to the full develope- ment of the human frame; while extreme cold, bad and unwholefome food, noxious air, and fimilar caufes, have been thought capable of reducing the dimenfions of the body be- low the ordinary ftandard. That thefe caufes may have fome effe& on individuals we do not deny, although we be- lieve that it is very flight: but the numerous examples of large people in cold countries, and diminutive men in warm climes, induce ts to deny altogether its operation on the race. The tall and large-limbed Patagonians, the Tfchutfki, and the North Americans inhabit cold fituatious ; the Mon- guls, who are {mall in flature, live in warm countries. The foregoing faéts and arguments warrant us, as we conceive, in drawing (with Dr. Prichard, Diff. p. 119.), the following conclufions. 1. That climate, manners, and other phyfical and moral caufes, have fome power in modifying the natural conftitu- tion of man, as well as of animals. : 2. That the influence of fuch caufes is confined to one generation ; and that no alteration produced in this way, or brought about by art or chance, is tranfmitted to the offspring. 3. That all the diverfities of mankind are examples of a propenfity to the formation of natural varieties, common to all animals under certain circumftances, follow the fame jaws, and are to be afcribed to the fame caufe. 4. Therefore, that the hypothefis of different f{pecies having been originally formed, is unneceflary for the ex- planation of the phenomenon, Divifions of Mankind. Arrangement of Man as an Objed of Natural Hiflory.— Order, Bimanus. Genus, Homo. Eres, bimanus, inermis, rationalis, loguens: mento prominulo: dentes incifores fupra & infra quatuor ; dentes omnés zequa- liter approximati; laniarii reliquis longitudine zquales; incifores inferiores ere&ti. See Blumenbach, Handbuch der Naturgefchichte. Species, H. fapiens. Varieties. —As we have fhewn, on the one hand, that there is no circumftance of difference between the varieties of the human race, which does not appear in a ftill greater de- gree among animals chiefly of the domelticated kinds, arifing from the ordinary fources of degeneration: fo there is no point, whether of colour, countenance, or {ftature, which does not pafs by imperceivable gradations into the oppolite charaéter, rendering all thefe diftinG@ions merely relative, and reducing them to differences in degree. Hence it is obvious, that any divifion of the varieties of the human race muft be in a great meafure arbitrary. The fingle {pecies then, which the genus Homo con- tains, is divided by Blumenbach into the five following va- rieties 3 M AN. rieties; x. Caucafian; 2. Mongolian; 3. /Ethiopian ; 4. American; 5. Malay. The Caucafian, for reafons which will afterwards be mentioned, isregarded as the primitive ftock. This deviates into two extremes moft remote and different from each other; viz. the Mongolian on one fide, and the Ethiopian on the other. The two remaining varieties hold the middle places between the Caucafian and the two ex- tremes: that is, the American comes in between the Cau- cafian and Mongolian; and the Malay between the Caucafian and /Ethiopian. Thefe five varieties may, on the whole, be defined by the following marks and defcriptions. But it is neceflary to obferve, in the firft place, that on account of the multi- farious diverfity and gradations of characters, one er two are not fufficient for determining the race, confequently that an union of feveral is required ; and, fecondly, that even this combination of charatters is fubje€& to numerous exceptions in each variety. The union of the different races by inter- marriages, and the changes of fituation for the purpofes of war and conquett, that lead to thefe, account for a, great deal of this uncertainty. On the whole, however, the fol- lowing will be found a tolerably clear and correé&t view of the matter. 1. Caucafian Variety — White fkin, inclining to brown, red cheeks, hair black and of the various lighter colours, head of a fomewhat globular form ; oval and ftraight face, with features moderately feparate from each other, ex- panded forehead, narrow and rather aquiline nofe, and {mall mouth: front teeth of both jaws perpendicular ; lips, parti- cularly the lower, gently turned out ; chin full and rounded. In fhort, that kind of countenance which accords with our notions of beauty. It includes all the Europeans, except the Laplanders and the reft of the Finnifh race ; the Weftern Afiatics, as far as the river Ob, the Cafpian fea, and the Ganges; that is, the proper Tatars, the Georgians, Circaffians, Min- grelians, &c. the Perfians, Arabians, Syrians, the Turks; the Northern Africans, as the people of the Barbary ftates ; the Egyptians and Abyffinians. The name of this variety is derived from mount Caucafus, becaufe in its neighbourhood, and particularly towards the fouth, we meet with the moft beautiful race of men in the world, viz. the Georgians. From the accounts of nu- merous travellers, who all agree on this fubje@t, we fele& the remark of Chardin: “The blood of Georgia is the fineft in the eaft, and I may fay in the world. I have not obferved a fingle ugly countenance in that country in either fex; but have feen numerous angelic ones. Nature has beftowed on the women graces and charms, which we fee in no other place. It is impoffible to look at them without loving them. More beautiful countenances, and finer figures, than thofe of the Georgian women, cannot even be imagined.’”” Voyage en Perfe, t.i. p. 171. a reafons induce us to believe, that the primitive form of the human race, was that which we have defcribed as belonging to the Caucafian variety ; and of which the Georgians, Turks, Greeks, and fome Europeans, exhibit now the fineft fpecimens. This race has the moft beauti- fully formed cranium, (fee Cranium, and Anatomy of the Cranium, Pl. 1. fig. 1.) from which, as from a middle and primitive configuration, the other forms defcend by a moft eafy and fimple gradation, on the one hand to the Mongo- lian, and on the other to the Ethiopian variety. The pro- portions of the body in general are the moft beautiful in this race, and their minds are the moft acute, fo that nearly all the arts and fciences have been difcovered by them. They occupy the middle regions of the globe, while the extre- mities are filled by others. The moft ancient, and mot early civilized nations have belonged to this variety. To this form alfo, according to the obfervation of Blumenbach, there isa difpofition to return in the other races; as may be obferved in the South fea iflands, and fome parts of Africa; while this does not eafily deviate into the dark coloured varieties. If we admit the Caucafian to have been the primitive form of man; are we to fuppofe, that the eyes were blue, and the hair yellow or red, or that both were black? we can have little hefitation in adopting the latter opinion, fince that formation belongs to all of this race except the Ger- mans, which have occupied only the more diftant regions. It forms, too, the middle colour of the human race, and ap- pears often in fcattered inftances among the other varieties. Moreover, yellow or tawny breeds occur among animals, as in the rabbit and cat, by degeneration from the native colour. In this Caucafian variety, Blumenbach and moft others include the German race; but Dr. Prichard affigns it a feparate place under the name of “ conftitutio Germanica aut fanguinea.’’ The form and proportions of the cranium, face, and body in general, are the fame as in the preceding ; the features perhaps are rather lefs acute, and more rounded, and the eyes finaller. The whole ftature and the limbs are rather larger. But the moft prominent diftinétions are in the very white fkin, approaching to rednefs; in the yellow or red hair, and the blue eyes. 2. Mongolian Variety.--Olive colour; black, ftraight, ftrong, and thin hair, {carcely ever curled; head of a fquare form; broad and flattened face, with the features running together ; the glabella (interval between the eye-brows) flat and very broad; nofe {mall and flat; rounded cheeks pro- jecting externally ; varrow and linear aperture of the eye- lids ; eyes placed very obliquely ; flight projeétion of the chin; large ears, thick lips. The ftature, particularly in the countries near the North pole, is beiow that of the Europeans. This includes the reft of the Afiatics (excepting the Malays); the Finnifh races of the colder parts of Europe, as the Laplanders, &c.; and the tribes of Efquimaux, ex- tending over the northern parts of America, from Beering’s itrait to the extremity of Greenland. The Mongolians, widely fcattered over the continent of Afia, have generally, but erroneoufly, been included with fome of very different origin and formation, under the name. of Tartars ; whereas the laft-mentioned tribes, properly fo called, belong to the firft divifion of the human race. The Calmucks, and other Mongolian nations, which overran the Saracen empire, under Zenghis Khan, about the middle of the thirteenth century, and had entered Europe, are defcribed in the ‘ Hiftoria Major’? of Matthew Paris under the name of Tartars, whereas that name (or, as it fhould be {pelled, Tatars) properly belongs to the weftern Afiatics, who had been vanquifhed by the Monguls. The error, however, arifing from this fource, has been propagated down to the prefent day, fo that in the works of the moft approved naturalifts, as Buffon and Erxleben, we find the charaéters of the Mongolian race aferibed to what they call the Tartars. The Tatars indeed are conneéted by the Kirgufes, and neighbouring tribes, to the Monguls, in the fame way as the latter are joined by the inhabitants of Thibet to the Indians; by the Efquimaux, to the Americans; and by the Philippine iflanders, with the Malays. 3. Lthiopian Variety—Black fkin and eyes; black and woolly hair ; head narrow, and compreffed laterally ; arched forehead ; cheek-bones ftanding forwards ; prominent eyes ; thick 12 MAN. thick nofe, confufed with the extended jaw; alveolar arch narrow, and elongated anteriorly; the upper front teeth projecting obliquely ; the lips, and particularly the upper one, thick ; the chin receding; knees turned in in many inftances. The remaining Africans, befides thofe claffed in the firlt variety, belong to this. The flriking peculiarities of this variety, and particularly the very great difference between its colour and our own, have led many perfons to adopt the opinion of Voltaire, who had not a fufficient knowledge of phyfiology and natural hiftory to determine the queftion, that the Africans belong to a diftin& fpecies. We have fhewn, in the pre- ceding divifions of this article, that there is no one cha- raéter fo peculiar and common to the Africans, but that it is found frequently in the other varieties, and that negroes often want it; alfo, that the charaéters of this variety run by. infenfible gradations into thofe of the neighbouring races, as will be immediately perceived by comparing toge- ‘ther different tribes of this race, as the Foulahs, Wulufs, and Mandingoes, and carefully noting how in thefe grada- tional differences they approach to the Moors, New Hol- landers, &c. Again, great ftrefs has been laid on the faét, that the negroes refembie more nearly than the Europeans, the mon- key tribe; the tear of being drawn into the family, even as diftant relations, has we believe induced many to place our ‘black brethren in a diftin& f{pecies; while others have brought forwards this approximation to the fimie, with the view of degrading the African below the ftandard of the human fpecies, and thereby palliating the cruel hardfhips under which he groans in the iflands and continent of the new world. [t is undoubtedly true, that in many of the points, wherein the “Ethiopian differs from the Caucafian variety, it comes nearer to the monkies; viz. in the greater fize of the bones of the face, compared to thofe of the cranium ; in the protuberance of the alveoli and teeth, receffion of the chin, brs of the offa nafi, pofition of the foramen magnum occipitale, cutline of the union of the head and trunk, relative length of the humerus and ulna, &c. This refem- blance is moft unequivocally admitted by Soemmerring ; iiber die korperl. verfchied. pref. p. 19, and § 69. It ap- pears to us, that this fact is not very important; if there are varieties of bodily formation among mankind, fome one of theie muft approach nearer to the organization of the monkey than the others; but does this prove, that the variety in whi-h the conforraity occurs, is lefs man than the others? The folidungular variety of the common pig is more like the hore than other {wine ; do we hence infer, that the nature of this animal in general is lefs porcine, or more like that of the horfe, than that of other pigs? ‘The points in which the Negro differs from the European, are trivial and few, and do not touch upon thofe important chara&ters which feparate man in general from the animal world; the ereét attitude, the two hands, the flow deve- lopement of the body, the ufe of reafon, and confequently perfectibility, are attributes common to both. That very little importance can be attached to the general obfervation of the refemblance of the negro and monkey founded on externai appearance, may be clearly inferred from this fa&t, that the fame remark has been made, even by intelligent travellers, of particular people in the other varieties. Regnard concludes his defcription of the Lap- landers with thefe words: ‘ voila la defeription de ce petit animal qu’on appelle Lapon, et l’on peut dire qu’il n’y en a point, apres le finge, qui approche plus de homme. (CGBuvres, t. i. p.71.) An Efguimau, who was brought to London by Cartwright, when he firft faw a monkey, afked «Is that an Efquimau?”’ His companion adds, “ I muft confefs, that both the colour and contour of the counte- nance had confiderable refemblance to the people of their nation.”? Nic. del Techo calls the Caaiguas of South America, “tam fimiis fimiles, quam hominibus,’’ Relat. de Caaig. gente, p. 34; and J. R. Forfter, in the obfervations on his journey round the world, afferts “ that the inhabitants of the ifland Mallicollo, of all the people whom I have feen, have the nearett relationfhip to the monkies.”? 4. American V ariety.— Red colour ; black, ftraight, ftrong, and thin hair; fhort forehead; deep eyes; nofe fomewhat flattened, but prominent ; a broad, but not flattened face, with the cheeks ftanding out, and the different features pro- jeting diftinG@:ly and feparately ; the forehead and vertex often deformed by art. ‘This variety includes all the Ame- ricans, with the exception of the Ef{quimaux. Several idle tales have been propagated, concerning the diftinguifhing charaéters of this race. Some have denied the exiftence of a beard in the male, and that of the men- {trual difcharge in the female ; and others have afcribed an uniform colour and countenance to all the inhabitants of this vaft continent. The concurring teflimonies of all accurate modern travellers, prove clearly that the Americans have naturally beards ; and that the report of their deficiency has arifen from their praétice of eradicating it. See the general obfervations in this article on the beard. The fabulous report of the American women not being fubje&t to the menftrual difcharge, feems to have arifen from the European travellers, who faw numerous females almoft naked, having obferved nothing of it. Two cir- cumftances will account for this, according to Blumenbach : ‘* partim nempe quod apud iftas Americe gentes femine quamdiu menitruate fint, felici prejudicio pro venenatis quafi habeantur, inque remotioribus tuguriolis e hominum confpectu remote tamdiu benefico ipfis otio fruantur ; par- tim vero etiam laudatam ipfarum corporis munditiem et modeflam crurum commiffuram eo conferre ut nulla catame- nicrum veftigia in oculos incurrant, annotatum eft.”?> De Variet. p. 313. The rednefs of the fkin is not fo conftant, but that it varies in many in{tances towards a brown, and approaches hikewife in fome temperate fituations to the white colour. Cook ftates, that the natives about Nootka Sound are little inferior in fairnefs to Europeans ; and Bouguer makes the fame obfervation of the Peruvians on the Andes. It is alfo fully afcertained at prefent, that the Americans poffefs the faine varieties of feature which are obferved in the other races. 5 Malay Varietyx—Brown colour; hair black, foft, curled, and abundant; head moderately narrow, and fore- head flightly arched ; nofe full and broad towards the apex ; large mouth; upper jaw rather prominent ;-the features, when viewed in profile, projeéting and diftin&. The inha- bitants of the peninfula of Malacca, of the South fea, La- drone, Philippine, Molucca, and Sunda iflands, are arranged under this divifion. As the Americans in their national charafters, hold the middle place between that middle variety of the human race, which we have called the Caucafian, and one of the extremes, viz. the Mongolian; fo the Malay forms the conneéting link between the Caucafian and the Ethiopian. The name of Malay is given to it, becaufe moft of the tribes which it includes, as thofe which inhabit the Indian iflands near Ma- lacca, the Sandwich, Society, and Friendly iflands, alfo thote of Madagafcar, and thence to Eafter ifland, ufe the Malay language. See Hawkefworth’s collection, v. iii. P- 3733 MAN. p- 3493; Cook’s Voyage to the northern Hemifphere, v. tii. p- 520; Marfden, in Archzologia, v. vi. p. 15 Arrangements of other Naturali/ls.—The great number and diverlity of the objects, the contradi€tory, imperfect, and confufed accounts which we poffefs of many of them, render all claffifications very arbitrary ; hence very different divifions have been adopted by different fyftematic writers. Of Linneus.—This naturalift places the genus Homo in his order Primates, and gives him the company of the monkies, lemurs, and bats; the characters of the order are, «* dentes primores incifores, fuperiores quatuor, paralleli : mamme pectorales bing”? He admits three f{pecies : I. Homo Sapiens; Diurnus, varians cultura, loco. Corpus ereétum nudum, pilis * raris remotiflimis afperfum, fub- fexpedale. Varieties. Ferus; Tetrapus, mutus, hirfutus. Americanus ; Rufus, cholericus, re&us. Pilis nigris, reétis, craflis ; naribus patulis ; facie ephelitica ; mento fubimberbi. Pertinax, contentus, liber. Pingit fe lineis dedaleis rubris. Regitur confuetudine. Europeus; Albus, fanguineus, torofus. Pilis flavefcentibus prolixis. Levis, argutus, inventor. Tegitur veftimentis aris. Regitur ritibus. Luridus, melancholicus, rigidus. Pilis nigricantibus. Oculis fufcis. Severus, faftuofus, avarus. Tegitur indumentis laxis. Regitur opinionibus. Afer ; Niger, phlegmaticus, laxus. Pilis atris, contortuplicatis. Cute holofericea, nafo fimo. Labiis tumidis. Feminis finus pudoris ; mammz laGtantes prolixe. Vafer, fegnis, negligens. Ungit fe pingui. Regitur arbitrio. Monflrofus ; Solo et arte variat : Alpini parvi, agiles, timidi. Patagonici, magni, fegnes. Monorchides, ut minus fertiles ; Hottentotti. Juncez puelle abdomine attenutoa ; Europex. Macrocephali capite conico: Chinenfes. Plagio-cephali capite antice comprefio: Cana- denfes. Il. H. TroGiopyres ; Noturnus: habitat in /Ethiopiz conterminis, in Jave, Amboinz, Ternatez {peluncis,in monte Ophir Malacce. This feems to.be a medley, compofed of-the charaéters of the leucethiopes, and ourang-ontangs. III. Homo rar; brachiis longitudine corporis. This is the gibbon, or long-armed monkey. Of Bujfon.—s. Lapponic or polar: 2. ‘Tataric (Mon- golian): 3. Southern Afiatic: 4. European: 5. /ithio- pian: 6. American. - Of Erzleben (Syft. Regn. Anim. Mammalia). omo ; Dentes primores incifores, fupra et infra quatuor : laniarii conici, longitudine aquales approximati, Manus in palmis, non in plantis. Mamme pectorales bine. Cauda nulla. Var. 1. Lappo; Parvus, torofus, albus, macrocephalus, facie plana lata, maxilla inferiore prominula acuminata vix barbata, oculis parvis profundis nigro fufcis, nafo parvo ob- Oculis czruleis, Afiaticus ;- tufo, buccis inflatis, ore magno, labiis craffis, auriculis mag- nis, pilis rectis nigris craflis, brachiis loagioribus, manibus planuifque minoribus. Habitat in borealibus Europe, Afia, Americe. 2. Tatarus (Mongolian): Mediocris olivaceus, facie plana lataque, fronte rugofa, oculis parvis profundis nigris, fuperciliis largis, nafo brevi craffo, labiis tumidis, mento prominente acuminato, barba rariore, dentibus longioribus interftitiis majoribus, pilis nigris craffioribus, femoribus craflis, craribus brevioribus. Ab Imao verfus circulum ardicum in Afra. 3. Afiaticus ; Mediocris, luridus, rigidus, pilis nigrican- tibus, oculis parvis nigris, nafo depreff, labiis craflis, den- tibus antrorfum verfis. Trans Gangem. 4. Europeus ; Mediocris albus torofus, pilis flavefceatibus prolixis, oculis ceruleis vel fufcis, labiis tenuioribus. 5. Afer; Magnus meet cute holofericea ex reticulo mucofo Malpighiano crafliore nigroque, pilis atris, contortu- plicatis, oculis nigris viridibufve, nafo fimo, labiis tumidis, ventre inflato, mammis laétantibus prolixis. Precipue in Africa occidentali. 6. Americanus: Mediocris rufus, pilis nigris re&tis craflis, facie ephelitica, fronte parvo, oculis nigris, nafo aquilino, naribus patulis, mento fubimberbi. Meiners adopts two chief divifions (haupt-ftimme), the handfome and the ugly ({chone and hifsliche) ; of which the former is white, the latter dark-coloured (dunkel far- bige). The handfome divifion includes the Celtic, Slavonic, and Oriental people : the latter are the Armenians, Syrians, Arabians, Aigyptians, and others in the north-weft of Africa, the Georgians, Circaffians, Perfians, the inhabitants of Hindooftan, Bucharia, and the neighbouring parts, and a large part of Siberia; under the ugly divifion come all the reft of mankind. Grundrifs, chap. il. Of J. R. Forfter.—1. Europeans, Afiatics on the welt of the Ob, the Cafpian, and the Ganges, Africans of Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, Cyrene, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Fez, Morocco, and all the country as far as the river San- haga (Senegal ?), in fhort the Caucafian of Blumenbach. White, yellowifh-brown, or even blackifh colour; long face with well-formed nofe and lips ; yellowifh-white, red- difh-brown, or black hair, which is long and particularly curled in locks. : 2. All the Afiatics beyond the Ob, the Cafpian and the Ganges; all the Americans from Unalafchka and Cook’s river northwards to the northern icy ocean, and particularly Labrador and Greenland ; all the inhabitants of the coafts in the Molucca, Philippine, weftern South fea iflands, and New Zealand. Yellowifh-brown colour nearly univerfal ; broad flattened faces with high cheek bones. Narrow opening of the eyelids, and internal angle of the eyes deprefled towards the nofe (that is fituated lower down than the external). Har univerfally black, long, and generally {fmooth and iff. 3. Africans or Negroes, and the inhabitants of the in- ternal parts of various Indian and South fea iflands ; and all New Holland. Black with the under part of the face projecting: thick lips, broad flat nofes, and woolly curled hair. 4. Americans, except thofe in the fecond variety. Copper red colour; nofe thin, long and pointed; hair black, {mooth, and {tiff. Of Dumeril.—The firft family of his clafs of mammalia are the Bimanes, which have thefe charaéters ; Mammiferes a membres ‘ MAN & membres feparés onguiculés; aux trois fortes de dents, et a pouces oppofables aux mains feulement. He adopts the five varieties of Blumenbach, calling the firft Caucafian or European-Arab ; and adds a fixth, under the name of Hy- perboreenne, which includes the men dwelling near the north pole in Europe, Afia, and America. Zoologie Ana- lytique, p. 7. The arrangements of fome other authors may be found in Blumenbach de Varietate, fe. iv. § 83.; and in Lud- wig’s Grundrifs, chap. vil. oa It would be defirable to inveftigate the original abode of mankind, to afcertain the fituations of the different races from the earlielt authentic accounts, and to follow their mi- grations until we could trace them to the fituations which they now occupy. To accomplifh any thing fatisfatory on this head, a very exa&t knowledge of the bodily cha- raéters of the races fhould be combined with exaét hiltorical information, and an acquaintance with languages, thofe living and unexceptionable teftimonies of the affinities of people. On» the former of thefe points, although it might at firit appear that the facts are eafily acceffible, our data are ftill extremely imperfe&; and hiftory furnifhes too feeble a light to guide us through the thick darknefs that involves the origins of nations. We feel ourfelves unable to bring forward any thing fufficiently clear and well- grounded to bear with much force on the principal points, which we have endeavoured to illuftrate in this article. A fhort fetch of the fubje& is givenin Dr. Prichard’s Differ- tation. Principal Works on the Natural Hi/tory of Man.—Buffon’s natural hiftory of man; his obfervations on mules, on the degeneration of animals, on wild and domeftic animals, and indeed his natural hiftory in general, contain a fund of moft valuable information. : Blumenbach, de generis humani varietate nativa, ed. 3. Gotting. 17953 his Decades craniorum diverfarum gen- tium illuftrate, 1-45; 4to. Gott. 1790—1800; his Bey- trage zur naturgefchichte, Gott. 1790. 12mo. ; his Hand- buch der naturgefchichte, ed. 6. Gott. 1799 ; and his Ab- bildungen naturhiftorifcher gegenftande ; more particularly art 1. : Zimmermann, Geographifche gefchichte der menfchen und der allgemein verbreiteten vierfuffigen Thiere, &c. eipfic, 1778—1782, 3 vols. Svo. acne yee sie korperliche verfchiedenheit des Negers vom Europaer: 8vo. Frankfort, 1785. Meiners, Grundrifs der gefchichte der menfchheit ; 12mo. emgo, 1793. & Priced, Difputatio inauguralis de hominum va- rietatibus, 8vo. Edinb. 1808. The above are the belt fources of information: thofe which follow are not fo good, or not fo well known to the writer of this article. SrTht Beddome de hominum varietatibus et earum caufis, Ligd. Bat. 1777. [me i 3 Hunter diff. de hominum varietatibus, Edinb. 1775 ; in Webtter’s colleétion. ‘ , Lord Kaimes’ Sketches of the Hiftory of Man.} Smith, Effay on the caufes of the variety of complexion and figure in the human fpecies, Philadelphia, reprinted London 1789. : ray Meiners, Hiftorif{ches magazin, Gotting. Jofephi, Grundrifs der naturgefchichte der menfchen, Hamburgh, 1790. ; J. Kant, von den verfchiedenen racen der menfchen, in Engel’s Philofoph fur die welt, 1779, part. il. Wiinfch, Kofmologifche unterhaltungen, Vor. XXII. MAN J. R. Forfter's and Kliigel’s Abbildungen merkurirdiger Volker und Thiere; Haile, 1793, 8vo. Ludwig, Grundrifs der naturgefchichte der menfchen {pecies, 8vo. Leipfic, 1796. G. Foriter und Sprengel, Liander-kunde. Breitenbauch vorftellung der vornehmften Volkerfcha‘ten der welt nach ihrer ab{tammung, verbreitung, und fprachen, nebft einer charte, Leipfic, 1786, Svo. Breitenbauch entwurf einer gefchichte des voruchmfen Beytrage zur Volker und Volkerflamme des alten und neuen Zeitalters ; Leipfic, 1791, 8vo. Breitenbauch verfuch einer erd-befchreibung der fechs welt-theile, nach den ftammen ihrer reyenten und bewohuer nebit Karten, Leipfic, 1793, 8vo. White, account of the regular gradation in man and anix mals, &c. London, 4to. 1799. Man of the Wood. See Ouranc-ourana. May, in Geography, an ifland fituated in the Irifh fea, at the diftance of 30 nautical miles from St. Bees-head in Cum. berland, and 27 from Strangford in Ireland. The latitude of the middle of this ifle is 54° 7’ north, and its whole ex- tent is about thirty miles in length, andten in breadth. The whole is divided into two diftri€s, which are fubdivided into feventeen parifhes. Concerning the etymology and deriva- tion of its name, different opinions have been offered. Bifhop Wilfon fuppofes it to be derived from the Saxon word mang, fignifying among, in allufion to its pofition, as furrounded by other territories, and this is juttly regarded as a very probable conjecture, its prefent Manks appellation, Manning, {till retaining the fame meaning. Some other au- thors aflert, that it plainly comes from Mona, a word which they imagine, but without fufficient authority, to have been ufed by Cefar to denote this ifland. Ptolemy ftyles it Mo- naeda, or the more remote Mona, to diftinguifh it from An- glefea, the Mona of Tacitus. Pliny calls it Menania, Nennius Eubonia, and Orofius Mevania. Hiflory.— According to tradition, the original inhabitants of Man were a colony from Britain. The primitive form of government eftablifhed by them was, no doubt, that of the Druids, whofe authority, in thefe diftant times, was ac- knowledged by almoft all the kingdoms of northern Europe. The inftitutions flowing from the Druidical fyftem, feem to have been preferved here, even fo late as the clofe of the fourth century, when the light of Chriftianity, under the di- rection of St. Patrick, penetrated the gloom of their um- brageous oaks, and by aoe new opinions, gave birth to new regulations in civil as well as in religious polity. At this period Boetius and other writers affert that the Ifle of Man was celebrated as the ‘fountain of all pure learning, and the acknowledged refidence of the mufes.” Nennius fays that it was held by Buile, a Scot, in the reign of Arcadius and Honorius ; but Sacheverel refers his government to a Jater era. St. Patrick appointed Germanus bifhop and ruler of it, and after his death two other bifhops fucceeded him. St. Maughold, who had been captain of a band of robbers in Ireland, fucceeded them, and from his period the bifhops retained the government, till the coming of a king, called Orry, who continued for fome years lord of Man. In the year 580 Brennus, defcended from the blood-royal of Scot- Jand, obtained the fupreme authority. This prince having led an army to the afliftance of his uncle, lott his life in an action with the enemy, on which event this ifland appears to have been annexed to the Scottifh dominions. About 614 it was conquered by Edwin, king of Northumberland, from whofe reign a blank occurs, even in tradition, till the arrival of afecond Orry, in the tenth century, This monarch was 5 fon MAN, ISEE ‘OF. fon of a king of Denmark and Norway, who, after reducing the Orcades and Hebrides, fixed his feat of government in the Ifle of Man, where he reigned long and profperoufly, as an independent king. In his reign, the houfe of Keys, which will be more particularly nticed hereafter, was etta- blithed, as the conftitutional parliament of the ifland. Gut- tred, the fon of Orry, was diftinguifhed as the Numa of his {mall kingdom, having devoted his whole attention to the civilization and welfare of his fubje&ts. Reginald, who fuc- ceeded, was not lefs noted for his vices, which ultimately occafioned his affaffination by the brothers of a lady whom he had difhonoured. Olave, the next prince of Man, un- juftly fuffered as a traitor, at the court of the king of Den- mark, for having aflumed the crown witheut his approbation. Olain, his brother, became his fucceffor, and after an equitable reign, left his diadem to his fon ‘Allen, a tyrannical prince, who was poifoned. Macon next took pofleffion of the fovereignty, but having refufed to pay homage to the Englifh crown, he was depofed by Edgar, but was after- wards reinftated in his former dignity with additional power. ‘The Englith monarch is likewife faid to have appointed him admiral of an immenfe fleet, (amounting, according to Matthew of Weilminfter, to 4800 fail, but this number is certainly incredible.) with which he failed, twice a year, round the whole Britifh iflands, in order to protect their coalts from the piracies of the Danes and Normans. How long this great man continued to reign is uncertain, but to- wards the middle of the eleventh century we find Goddard, the fon of Syrach, upon the throne, whofe barbarous con- duct rendered him extremely abhorrent to his fubjeéts. T'in- al, his fon, fueceeded, who, on the other hand, was greatly beloved for his mildnefs and generofity. In his reign, Godred Crovan, a Norwegian chief, arrived with a nu- merous fleet, and though twice defeated, at lall obtained a decifive victory, the king and his principal officers being flain inthe battle. This event occurred in the fame year in which the conqueft of England was effected by William of Normandy, and in confequence the whole ifland fubmitted to the fuperior fortune of Godred. During his government the monks greatly diltinguifhed themfelves in war. He firft made a fuccefsful predatory incurfion into Ireland, and after- wards fubdued the Hebrides, and fo effe€tually kept the Scots in awe by the power of his navy, that, to ufe the metaphorical linguage of the Rufhen monks, “they durft not, when build- ing a fhip or boat, drive more than three nails into it.”? Go- dred had three fons, the eldcit of whom, named Lagman, fucceeded tothe throne. Hareld, the fecond fon, was long in rebellion againft his brother, but being at laft taken prifoner, had his eyes put out, and was otherwife mutilated. Lagman afterwards repenting of this cruel conduét, was overwhelmed with forrow, renounced his kingdom, and. as an expiation of his guit, made a pilgrimage to Jerufalem, where he died in 1089. Olave, his youngelt brother, being yet a minor, the inhabitants of Man fent a deputation to Murchand O’Brien, king of Ireland, requelting him to fend over fome perfon of royal extraction to govern them till he fhould come of age. Accordingly this mouarch nominated Donald Tade, who governed with fuch. barbarity and ex- tortion, that the indignant: natives expelled him from the ifland within three years. The chiefs then eleéted Mac- marus, but that event, notwith{tanding the clemency of his rule, gave birth to a confpiracy againit him, and in the battle which it occafioned, both he, and earl Oughter, the leader of the confpirators, fell. According to the Manks tradition, the northern men had nearly accomplifed the vic- tory, when the women of thefouth fide flew with fuch refo- lution to the afliflance of their hufbands, as to turn the tide of fortune in their favour. The Chronicon-Manniac, how ever, aferibes the victory to the inhabitants of the northern diftriét. About this time, Magnus, king; of Norway, having refigned his own throne on account of an abfurd fuper- flition, fitted out an army, with which he made himfelf matter of the Orcades and Hebrides, as well as of the Ifle of Man, where he landed the day fucceeding the battle, and received the fubmiffion of the Manks without a conteft. Here he eitablithed his feat of government, and after reign- ing fix years, made a defcent upon Ireland, where, having unwarily left his fhip, he was furrounded and flain, in the year 1102. During thefe tranfaCticns, Olave, the fon of Godred, refided in great favour at the court of Henry I. of England. Upon the death of Magnus, however, the chiefs of Man immediately difpatched meflengers to offer him the crown, which he readily accepted. Atcending the throne, to the great fatisfaiion of the people, he cohefilies treaties with all the neighbouring monarchs, and enjoyed pro- found peace for forty years of his reign, In 1142, how- ever, during the abfence of his fon Godred, whom he had fent to Norway to do homage for the crown of Man, the three fons of his brother Harold landed on the ifland, and demanded one half of his kingdom. Ollve, willing to pa- cify them, promifed to fubmit the matter to his council, and appointed a place of meeting for that purpofe, near Ramfey haven. ‘Che king, with his retinue, placed himfelf on ome fide, while his nephews, with their followers, feated them- felves onthe other. At this moment, Reginald, one of the princes, pretending to falute the king, fuddenly raifed his fhining battle axe, and cut off the head of his aged and vene- rable uncle at one blow. A general flaughter of the nobility enfued, aud the fubjugation of the whole ifland, which the three Brothers divided among themfelves, In the fame year they colleéted-a fleet, and landed in Gal'oway, but were de- feated with great flanghter. Juft at this time Gedred re- turned from Norway, and the inhabitants crowding to his ftandard, the ufurpers deemed it advifable to fubmit to his authority, without hazardiny a battle, wherenpon Reginald was condemned to death, and the other two had their eyes put out. Godred, when he afcended the throne, was in the bloom of youth and manly intelligence, majeftic in flature, magnanimous in his fentiments, and heroic in his aétions. Thefe qualities uniting with the recolleGion of his father’s virtues, obtained him, not only the love of his own fubjeés, but the efteem of all the neighbouring nations. In the third year of his reign the fame of his merit induced the chief no- bility of the province of Leiniter to ele& him their feve-eign. Murchand, king of Ireland, oppofed his acceffion, but being defeated, Godred feated himfelf on the throne to which the fuffrages of the people had cailed him. His abfence, how- ever, excited contiderable difeontent in Man, which probably induced him, upon his return, to at fomewhat in a defporic manner towards feveral of his nobility. One of theth, named Thorfinus, a powerful and ferocious chief, fed to Summer- led, thane of Argyle, in Scotland, who had married one of the daughters of Olave, and prevailed upon him to invade the weftern ifles, then part of the dominions of Godred. Thefe being reduced, he failed with a large flcet to attempt the conqueft of Man, but being met at fea by his brother in law, alfo at the head of a powerful armament, a dreadful battle enfued, which terminated in a peace, by which Godred re- tained Man, but ceded the other iflands to Summerled. This event happened in 1156, but two years fubfequent, the latter broke the treaty, and invaded Man with a fleet of 53 fail, defeated Godred, who fought refuge in Norway, and compelled the whole ifle to f{ubmit to his fovereignty. This - fuccefs fo puffed up the ambition of Summerled, that he pro- jected MAN, ISLE OF. jeCted the conqueft of Scotland, and accordingly made a de- {cent upon Renfrew with that intention, but was defeated in the firft engagement, himfelf and his fon being among the num- ber of the flain. About the fame time, Reginald, one of the illegitimate fons of Olave, having raifed a party, invaded Man, and though oppofed with great bravery by the Manks people, fucceeded in defeating them by the treachery of one of their generals. His power, however, was but of fhort duration, for only four days after the com- mencement of his reign, Godred arrived from Norway with a large army, attacked and took prifoner the ufurper, and was hailed by his fubjeéts with the moft cordial expreffions of attachment. In the refidue of this monarch’s reign, mention is firft made of the pope’s influence in Man, his apottolic majelty having fent over from Ireland his legate, Vivian, who compelled the king to re-marry his queen, Phingola, according to the forms of the Romifh church. ‘Godred died in 1187, the latter years of his life being fpent in perfec tranquillity, and left Olave, his only legitimate fon, heir to hiskingdom. Reginald, one of his natural fons, _ however, was appointed king during Olave’s minority. This monarch, in 1192, fougnt a fevere battle in the ifles with Engus, the fon of Sommerled, in which he was defeated with confiderable lofs. In 1203, he invaded Ire!and, but was here unfuccefsful alfo. In 1210, the Ifle of Man was plundered by an Englifh earl, named Fulco, during his ab- fence on a vilit to his more northern dominions. But not- with{tanding thefe unfavourable circumilances, Reginald was enabled to retain the government, even after Olave, - the rightful owner, had attained the years of maturity. But battles enfued, and the latter ultimately afcended the throne, and reigned till his death, which happened in 1237, when his fon Harold was fourteen years of age. Having re- fufed to appear at the court of the king of Norway, his ter- ritories were invaded by a Norwegian army, under Gof- patrick and Gillchrift, who converted the tributes of the country to the fervice of their own fovereign; but Harold, being at length induced to fubmit, failed over to Norway, and, performing the ufual homage, was confirmed in the poffeffion of all the iflands which his predeceflors had enjoyed, On his return home, he entered into treaties with the kings of England and Scotland. ‘To the former he paid a vilit, and received from him the honour of knighthood, and other diftinguifhed marks of his royal favour. Soon after he failed from Norway to efpoufe the daughter of that monarch, offered to him in marriage by her father, but both he and his princefs perifhed by shipwreck, when on their way back. His brother, Reginald, fucceeded, who was flain only a few days after his acceffion to the throne by Yyar, a knight. Harold, the fon of Godred Don, now affumed the title of king, but was foon obliged to furrender his ufurped authority to Magnus, the fon of Olave, who, as’ rightful heir, had obtained the fanétion of the Norwegian monarch. This prince was the laft fovereign of the Norwegian race in Mona. His death happened in 1268. At this period, the king of Norway finding himfelf unable to afford protec- tion to his diftant dominions, agreed to furrender the weftern iflands to Alexander ILI., king of Scotland, from the domi- nions of whofe anceftors they had been originally wrefted by the Norwegian arms. This enterprifing monarch foon after extended his authority over the ifland of Man alfo, and vefled the government in thanes, or lieutenants. Thefe behaving with great oppreflion towards the inhabitants, fo exaf{perated the Manks, that they formed the refolution of exterminating the Scots, or perifhing in the attempt. From this bloody urpofe, however, they were reftrained by the influence of their bifhop, who propofed, in imitation of the warriors of Rome and Alba, that the future fate of their country fhould be decided by a conteft between fele@ combatants. This propofal being eagerly embraced by both parties, thirty heroes were chofen on each fide, and. a vale was appointed as the fcene of the conflict. The two nations covered the Oppolite mountains in anxious expectation, the one of con- firming their conquefts, and the other of regaining their former independence. The battle was long and heroically fought, but at length the Scots prevailed, though their thane, and five and twenty of their combatants, paid the for- feit of their lives for the glory of their country. After this period, no attempt feems to have been made by the Manks to regain their liberty, but their ifland now became the theatre of contefts between Scotlaad and England. William de Montacuto, a defcendant of one of the Manks monarchs, having landed here with a body of Englifh troops, forced the Scots to retire to their own country. In the reign of king Edward II. this ifland was beltowed on Gavef- ton, who was created earl of Cornwall. In 1340, it was recovered to the Scots by their heroic king, Robert Bruce, and continued in their poffeffion till the earl of Salif. bury, under the fanction of Edward ITf., wrefted it again from their authority, and fold it to William Scroop, who was chamberlain to the king. On Henry’s gaining poffef- fion of the throne, he granted the Ifle of Man to the earl of Percy, who afterwards rebelling againft his fovereign, had his eltates forfeited by an act of attainder, Lut they were all afterwards reftored, with exception of this ifland, which was beitowed on fir John Stanley and his fucceffors for ever. In his reign, the laws of Man, which had hitherto been con« cealed in the bofoms of the deemfters, or judges, were firlt publicly promulgated, and committed to writing. For this purpofe, the fovereign convened the entire body of the people at the Fynwald, where he himfelf attend2d, invefted in allthe infignia of royalty. All things being in readinefs, the venerable deemfters rofe, and, with an audible voice, alter. nately publifhed to the affembly feveral laws, which, though more favourable to the monarch than to his fubjects, were received with reiterated applaufe. From this period, the royalties and revenues of Man defcended regularly, and with- out moleltation, from anceftor to heir, till the time of William VI., earl of Derby, againft whofe title fome ob- jections were ftarted and legally removed. To put the quettion beyond doubt, however, a new grant was obtained from James I., which afterwards received the fanétion of parliament. It fhould be obferved, that the fifth defcendant of this line refigned the title of king, and affumed that of lord of the ifland, conceiving it to be more honourable to be efteemed a great baron than a petty and dependent monarch. In the time of the civil wars, Man held out for the king till near the clofe of that unhappy conteft, when it was furren- dered to the parliamentary forces. It was now granted to lord Fairfax, but upon the acceffion of Charles IT. it was reftored to the earl of Derby, fon of him who had been be- headed at Bolton. Inthe fame family it continued till the year 1735, when it became the inheritance of James, the fecond duke of Athol, as grandfon of Sophia, youngett fitter of that earl. Before this period, the vaft extent of the contraband trade carried on between this ifland and Great Britain, attraéted the ferious attention of the government, and an aét was pafled in 1726, authorifing the lord of Man to refign his royalties for a pecuniary compenfation ; but no fale was effected till the 7th of March, 1765, when John, duke of Athol, re- figned all his regal privileges and immunities for the fum of 70,000/, Ananauity has fince been granted by parliament, for the joint lives of himfelf and his duchefs, as an additional 3A 2 compenfation MAN, ISLE OF. ecompenfation for the lofs he was fuppofed to have fultained by this tranfaétion, which has, in no {mall degree, fecured the revenues of the Britith iflands. The con/litution and government may be partly inferred from the preceding narrative. About the fifth century the go- vernment became a defpotic and feudal monarchy. In the tenth, the foundation was laid for a new dynafty called the Houfe of Keys, whereby the inhabitants were allowed to choofe fixteen reprefentatives, who, with eight from the Ifles, were to form the legiflature. ‘Thefe reprefentatives were called Taxiaxes, but neither the period of their ele€tion, nor the precife power with which they were invefted, can now be afcertained. It is probable, however, that their privileges were very limited, and that, in reality, they were mere no- minal advifers, all fubftantial power being vefted in the perfon of the monarch. Indeed, no mention is made of any interference on the part of this affembly in public affairs till the thirteenth century, when the ifland was taken by Alexander, king of Scotland. At this period, however, they appear to have exercifed the right of enquiring into the exilting laws and petitioning for new ones, but they poflefied no power of enaétment. After the acceffion of the Stanley family the liberties of the people began to extend, and, in 1439, they obtained the exclufive privilege of eleGing the members of this affembly, who were in- creafed to twenty-four in number for the Ile of Man alone. This dawn of liberty, however, was only of fhort duration, being deftroyed by the Houfe of Keys itfelf, which, upon the death of any of its members, proceeded to elect another in his ftead, in dire&t oppofition to the democratic prin- ciple upon which the inftitution was founded. Contftituted notwith{tanding as it was, this affembly proved no incon- fiderable cheak upon the encroachments of the regal an- thority. In conjunGtion with the king, his council, and the deemfters, it poffeffed the entire legiflative authority of the ifle. Thefe four eltates were denominated the 7ynzwald Court. Since the purchafe of the regalities by the Britifh government, the power of this court has been confiderably reftriGted, but it {till retains the right of making certain ordinances, provided they agree with the general tenor of the ancient cuftoms, which form what may be termed the Manks common law. ‘The power of the Keys is judicial as well as legiflative. Appeals may be made to them from the inferior courts, and in all fuch cafes, as well as in actions, their decifion is final, unlefs the caufe be carried before the king in council. They always determine by a majority, and in their legiflative capacity they conduét their delibe- rations in private. Foreigners, as well as natives, are eli- gible to feats in this houfe, the only requifite qualification being the poffeffion of land. A grand court, contre of the whole four eftates of the ifland, continues to be held every year at the T'wynald-Mount, where ail new aéts are publicly read, and thenceforth hecome binding on the peo- ple, who are fuppofed to give them their concurrence. The governor is nominated by the king. He is chancellor ex officio, and by himfelf or deputy is empowered to hear ap- peals from the decifion of minor tribunals in all civil quef- tions, except fuch as relate to the poffeifion of land, which can only be entertained in the Keys, Allarrefls, both civil and criminal, are granted in his name, and he can, at pleafure, conyene the different branches of the legiflature ; but there are fome doubts re{pe@ing his powers of prorce gation, Helikewife poffeffes the prerogative of coining, a8 the reprefentative of the ancient monarchs: but no money is legal. till. declared to be fo by an aét of Tynwald. The council of the governor confilts of five perfons, who hold their feats cx officio. ‘Thefe are the lord bifhop, the water-bailiff, the Seber the clerk of the rolls, and the archdeacon. Several other officers, both of the church and ftate, have likewife claimed this privilege, but their claims have not yet been recognized. ‘The deemfters, of whom there is one for the northern, and another for the fouthern diftriét of the ifland, are judges both in common and criminal caufes. They have aah a diltin& court, an- {wering to thofe divifions where they prefide, and give judg- ment without the intervention of a jury. The fituation of deemfters is of great dignity, and i influence over the pegple formerly refembled, in fome degree, the civil autho- rity of the ancient Druids, whofe inftitutions were, in all probability, the original foundations of their authority. In the criminal courts, the ufage obferved by the Saxons before the conquelt is ftill retained. The bifhop, or his deputy, fits with the governor till fentence is to be pro- nounced, when, inftead of the ufual enquiry of guilty, or not guilty, the deemifters afk, ‘* Vod fir charree fire?” fig- nifying, ‘* May the man of the chancel, or he that minifters. at the altar, continue to fit.”? If the queftion is anfwered in the aflirmative, the bifhop, or his fubititute, continues fitting, but if fentence of death is to be pronounced he rifes and leaves the court. The other chief civil officers of the ifland, befides thofe already noticed, are the lieutenant-governor, who has little power, except in the abfence of the governor; the high- bailiffs, one in each of the four towns, the coroners or fheriffs, the lock-men or bailiffs, coroner’s officers, and the conftables. The coroner is chief keeper of the peace, and is authorized to arreft any one who breaks it. He likewife fees that the governor’s arrefts are put in execution, has the impannelling of the juries, and the charge of en- forcing the fentences of the courts of law. Laws.—To give a detailed view of the laws of this ifland, would occupy a greater fpace than can with pro- priety be permitted in an article like the prefent. The more prominent features and charaéteriftic peculiarities by which they are fo diftinguifhed feem, however, to have a more than ordinary claim to a diftinét and ample expofition. At am early period, the Manks conttitution and government being wholly arbitrary, the will of the fovereign, or of his judgesy, was probably the only principle which regulated the de- cifions of their courts pf juftice. This much at lealt is cer- tain, that no laws of any defcription were ever promulgated till towards the middle of the fifteenth century, when the independence of the Houfe of Keys was fully eftablifhed. Since that time, juftice has been adminiftered, generally,. with ftri€t impartiality, either according to the flatutory enactments of the Tynwald, or the common law ef the country. ‘The laws affeCting the lower orders were, fo late as the year 1777, oppreflive and tyrannical. They even regulated the amount of the wages of workmen, and ordained that all children not brought up, or put apprentice to any trade, fhould be ordered into fervice, except in the event of the parents being old or decrepid. Servants re~ fufing to work on the legal terms were imprifoned till they gave their compliance, and no perfon who had done a day's work for any compenfation, could leave the ifland before he or fhe had arrived at the age of twenty-five years. On the fubje&t of marriage, the laws were nearly filent till the year 1757, fo that perfons of any age or-condition might marry without either licence or the publication of banns, Since that time, however, the marriage regulations have been, in fome refpects, fimilar to thofe of England, but, in others, they are ih effentially different. ‘The ceremony is according to the forms prefcribed by the Proteftant' church, but no per= fon without a {pecial licence from the ordinary can enter 5 the . ak MAN, ISLE OF. the flate of wedlock till he has received the facrament. By the Manks law, the hufband and wife are not fo com- pletely united into one perfon as they are by the Englifh. Marriage is, indeed, regarded as a {pecies of partnerfhip, but it does not give an exclufive title to eftates, either real or per- fonal. In fa&, the landed property of each always remains diftinét, but the parties poffefs every thing elfe in common, with this difference, that the hufband may bequeath his pof- feffions to whom he pleafes; but fince the at paffed in 1777, the wife can only leave her's to the children of the exilting union. In cafe of either being found guilty of treafon or felony, only the criminal’s fhare is liable to forfeiture. Fa- thers are obliged to maintain their children till they reach the age of fourteen, when all legal obligation between them ceafes. A child may then claim any legacy, and depart, if he is fo inclined ; but if he remains, his father is entitled to the intereft or ufe of his money as a compenfation for his maintenance. Upon the death of the hufband without a will, the widow enters upon her fhare of the property only, but in the event of the woman’s demife inteltate, the huf- band enters upon the whole. Where there is only one child, and the father neglects to appoint a guardian, his kindred are entitled to the cuftody of it; but if there are two children, the mother takes care of the eldeft, and the fe- cond is taken care of, as an only one would be. A child, though a baftard at the time of its birth, becomes legitimate by the marriage of the parents within three years after that period. At the deceafe of his father the eldeft fon fuceeeds to his heritable property, and if there are no fons, the eldetft daughter, even though the eftates are entailed. The origin of this cuftom, fo different from the praCtice in other feudal countries, is attributed to the bravery of the fouthern wo- men in affifting their hufbands in a great battle, and enabling them to gain the victory. All the lands of this ifland at an early period belonged to the lord or fovereign: even fo lately as the fixteenth cen- tury, real property could not be alienated on any pretence without his (pecial confent, or that of his three principal officers. ‘The occupants were ftyled the lord’s tenants, and were {ubje&t to the payment of a fine or rental. Attempts were made about the middle of the feventeenth century to render all the tenures leafehold, either for three lives, or for twenty-one years, This produced a warm difpute between fue fovereign and the land-holders, which was not terminated till the year 1703, when {t was agreed that the latter fhould retain their poffeffion fo long as they continued to pay the fines and rentals fettled between them and the earls of Derby’s commiffioners after the year 1643. The period of a re is reltri€ted to twenty-five years, and a mortgage, not redeemed within five years, renders the parties liable to the fine of alienation. The whole ifland was formerly divided into fix hundred portions, called quarter-lands, but Feltham fays, their num- ber is now increafed to feven hundred anu fifty. All other eftates are either allotments out of, or encroachments upon, thefe. The titles to property are, as may he fuppofed, various and fimilar in their nature, though fometimes dif- ferent in their limitations, to thofe acknowledged by the laws of England. Unmoletted pofieffion for ten years, till very lately, conftituted a fufficient right to any {pecies of pro- perty ; but the term is now extended to twenty-one years. Every proprietor poffefles the privilege of feeding a certain number of cattle upon the commons, which abound in va- rious parts of the ifle, and every inhabitaut has the privilege of quarrying ftone and digging peat for hisownule. All wrecks not claimed within a year and a day, and all mines, belong to the lord by his prerogative. Game, likewile, was anciently his property. Goods taken in diftrefs, or execution, mut remain one month as a pawn, redeemable by the tenant, or defendant, on paying of the rent, or of money recovered in an aétion at law. But the moft marked peculiarity in the Manks law is, that no arreft can be granted againit a landed proprietor or native, to imprifon or hold him to bail in a civil a¢tion, unlefs there appears fome jult caufe to conclude that he intends leaving the ifland without making fatisfaGion to his creditors. Such perfons as are profecuted for a foreign debt can only be obliged to find bail for his perfonal ap- pearance, and for the forthcoming of all his property on the ifland, except his clothes and money, which remain his own. It is from the operation of this latter law that the unfor- tunate, and too often the fraudulent alfo, find an afylum here from the profecution of their creditors. By convert- ing the refidue of the property into money, they are enabled to refide on this ifland in comfort, and without the danger of legal moleftation. If, however, there is any thing clearly fhewn to be fo criminal in the condu& of any individual as to infer the pains of law, the governor ge- nerally grants a warrant for delivering him over to the juftice of the country to which he belongs. By the laws relative to public wrongs, here no offender can be conviéted of any capital crime, except by a jury at the court of general gaol delivery. Formerly, indeed, a perfon who made an attack upon the lord, or his lieutenant, could be condemned immediately, without any form of trial, but the praGtice has been long obfolete. This offence was deemed treafon ; fo likewife was the ftriking of any of the lord’s fervants in his prefence, robbing him in court, con- {training him to hold a ‘Tynwald court, relieving or conceal- ing a rebel, counterfeiting the current coin of the ifland, and bringing in any falfe money and making payment with it. Thus, even copper coinage is treafon, contrary to the law of England, which confines it to the counterfeiting of gold and filver money, For bigamy, or polygamy, there is no punifhment by the Manks law, even at the prefent day ; but the fecond mar. riage, being illegal, is null and void, and the children are, confequently, regarded as baltards, and deprived of their rights to inherit the property of their parents. Suicide is punifhed by forfeiture. In the event of a rape on a married woman, there is no alternative but death ; but if the woman is unmarried, fhe has her choice to hang, behead, or marry the offender. What is remarkable, there is no inftance of a conviction for this crime upon record, and only one tradi- tionary, and in that cafe the lady is faid to have adopted the laft condition, juft at the moment when her ravifher was. about to be launched into eternity. Affault and battery are punifhed by fine and imprifonment, according to the decifion of the governor or deemfter, without the intervention of a jury. It is felonious to enter a houfe with burglarious in- tention, even though it fhould be without a door, provided two lticks are placed acrofs the entrance. Forging is not accounted criminal, at leaft the offence is only regarded by the law asa civil debt. ‘Theft, above the value of fixpence- halfpenny, is capital, Below that value the crime is termed petty larceny, and fubjeéts the offender to corporal punith- ment and imprifonment at the difcretion of the court. To convict for felony one refpeétable witnefs is now fufficient, if his evidence is fupported by probable circumttances. Religion. —The eltablifhed religion of Man is the fame with that of England. ‘Toleration, however, having extended its beneficial influence here, as in other parts of the Britifh empire, Diffenters of almoft every denomination are pre- valent. Among thefe the molt numerous fectis undoubtedly the MAN, ISLE OF. -the Methodifts, who form at leaft one-tenth of the whole population. The eftablifhment is placed under the di- rection ef a bifhop, affifted by an archdeacon, two vicars- eneral, and an epilcopal regiltrar. The patronage of the z. {till continues in the Athol family, but the nomination of the fuperior clergy mutt be approved of by his majelty. The bifhop is confecrated by the archbifhop of York as metropolitan of the diocefe, and enjoys all the privileges and {piritual rights of other bifhops; but his fee not being baronial, he is not entitled to vote in the houfe of lords. He has, however, a feat; as Mr. Wood {uppofes, by courtefy, above the bar. The firit bifhop of Man was St. Germain, to whom the cathedral church is dedicated. At that time the diocefe was limited to the boundaries of the ifland, nor did it extend beyond them till the conquett of the weltern ifles by the Norwegians, about the commencement of the twelfth century. When the in/ule Sodorenfes, fo called from the bifhopric of Sodor, a fmall village in Lona, and once « the metropolis of learning and piety,” were united to it ; the whole formed one bifhopric, ftyled Sodor and Man. The metropolitan at that period was the archbifhop of Drontheim. After the aunexation of the ifland to the crown of England, the conjoined bifhoprics were fepa- rated. Surface and Rivers.—The general afpect of this ifland prefents confiderable diverfity of hill and dale. A chain of mountains, moderately high, divides it nearly into two equal portions, in a direction from N.E.to S:W. This range is broken only at one place, between mount Kreevey and South Barrule. The moit confpicuous fummit of the whole is Snawfel, the height of which, as taken by the barometer, appeared to be 580 yards above the level of the fea. The two Barrules, which form its northern and fouthern extre- -mities, are_nearly of the fame elevation. Beween North Barrule and mount Kreevey arife feveral rivers, which empty .themfelves into the fea at Ramfey, at Laxey, and at Douglas. _Of thefe rivers, that of Ramfey is by far the largeft, being fo much influenced by the tide, from the level nature of the _diftri& through which it flows, that it is navigable for veffels of confiderable burthen at the diftance of more than two -miles. from its mouth. The other rivers in the ifland are _very fhallow and inconfiderable itreams. Here is a great deficiency of wood, Soil and Climate.—The foil of this ifland is various. ‘Towards the fouth parts the greater proportion is loam, but {tiff clays likewife abound, and in fome fpots the fur- face exhibits a fine light fand. ‘The northern diftrié confifts principally of a fandy loam, witha bottom of clay or marle. Here is an immenfe tract of land called the Curraugh, ex- tending nearly acrofs the whole ifland, from Ballaugh to Ramfey, which was formerly a bog, but is now drained and produces excellent grafs crops. In a few places of this tract is a remarkable layer of peat, which ftretches itfelf feveral miles under a ftratum of gravel, or earth. ‘The thicknefs of the layer varies from two to three feet, and that of the gravel, &c., from two to four feet. In other parts of the fame tra¢t the peat has been removed to the depth of ten feet. The climate is generally reckoned milder in winter than that either of England or Ireland in the fame Jatitude, as, from the proximity of every part of the ifle to the fea, froft and fnow are feldom of long continuance. The fummers, however, are lefs warm, and gales of wind and falls of rain, during this period, are extremely frequent, .often occafioning yery confiderable damage, not only to the "fruit, but alfo to the grai-crops. The mineralogy of the Ifle of Man offers very few objects of interefl or importance. More than two-thirds of the - whole furface refts on ftrata of wacke-flate, or clay-flate. The hills, called North and South Barrule, are compofed of mica-flate, covered with clay-flate; Mount Kreevey con- filts of the fame materials, traverfed by many large veins of quartz, two or three feet in thicknefs. On the north fide of South Barrule appear fome blocks of granite, containing a quantity of filvery mica, reddith feldf{par, and grey quartz. In the neighbourhood of Caftletown is fourd a blueifh-grey lime-ftone, intermixed with impreffions’ of fhells and other marine exuvie, and interfeGed by {mall veins of calcareous fpar. This lime-ftone lies above a ftratum of wacke flate, from which it is feparated at fome points by a thin layer of white clay, which does not in the flighteft degree effervefce with acids, Near Pool-vafh-bay this mineral becomes fo highly indurated, that it is quarried below high-water mark, as a tolerable good marble for tomb-ftones. Not far from Langefs a {mall quantity of compaét brown iron-ftone is found, lying under a breccia compofed of pieces of quartz in a filiceous bafe, and bearing fome refemblance to horn porphyry. The Calf of Man, which is feparated about 100 yards from the main, confilts entirely of a glofly blueifh- grey clay-flate, lying more inclined to the ealt, and more unequally ftratified than the flate-rock on the oppofite fhore. . At Kirk Arbovy are fhafts of lead-mines now entirely de- ferted. Breda-bead copper-mine is chiefly the fulphuret of that metal. The mines of Foxdale, celebrated for their fine lead-glance, are now entrely drowned by the tide; fo that the only mines at prefent wrought on the ifland are thofe of Laxey, which produce a very confiderable quantity of lead and copper, both of excellent quality. Cryttals of iron pyrites are occafionally found in diferent places. From thefe few faéts the geologift will perceive that this ifland confifts partly of primitive clay-flate and mica-flate, refting probably upon granite; of grey wacke-flate, and of lime-{tone which feems to belong to the rocks of tranfition of the Wernerian geognofy ; of fand-ttone of the earlieft formation, and of fand rettiig upon clay. The agriculture of this ifland, though much improved of late years, ftill continues at a very low ebb. More than a third of the whole furface lies in an uncultivated flate, and entirely appropriated to the feeding either of theep or cattle. The value of land in this condition varies from five to ten fhillings per acre; but arable land often rifes above two pounds. The enclofures are formed in general of embank- ments of earth, unaccountably crooked and irregular, and containing from four to ten acres. Barley conilitutes the chief grain raifed by the farmers, as the foil and climate are thought to agree better with its growth than with that of any other corn. Potatoes and turnips are likewife cultivated in great abundance. Crops of flax are very common in every part of the ifland; almoft every cottager growing a {mall quantity, both for home ufe and exportation. Hemp is {own in gardens, and on rich enclofures, but very rarely in the open fields. The plough in common ufe is of a light conilruction, and generally procured either from England or Scetland. Owing to the fmall fize of the horfes, four are requifite to turn a furrow four inches deep. The Manks harrow and roller are generally of a good make, though light ; but with refocé&t to wheel-carriages, a total ignorance of their proper conftruétion prevails. Cart- wheels are invariably very narrow and {mall. Drilling and hoeing machines are little ufed. The native fheep of the ifland are {mall and hardy, bearin a refemblance to the South Down: when properly fe their meat is of the moft delicious kind. This is {till called the mountam breed, being reared entirely on the hills and uplands; but in the lowlands a larger fpecies has been in- troduced, MAN, troduced. Belides thefe there is a third breed, called the Laughton, which affords very fine wool of a dark buff colour, much ufed by the inhabitants in making ftockings. Many hundred head of cattle are fattened annually for ex- portation; and pigs and poultry are reared in great abun- dance, as are alfo geefe and ducks; but turkies are rather fcarce. The manure chiefly ufed by the farmers is farm- yard dung, or, if near the fhore, fea-weed. A regular ro- tation of crops is little underftood or praétifed, and fummer fallowing {carcely ever occurs. The indolent difpofition of the men, (for the women are lively and aftive,) joined to the attractions of the herring fifheries, and the operation of the tithe fyftem, are radical obftacles here to agricultural im- provement, which even the Cumberland Society, lately ex- tended to this ifland, will find it difficult to remove. Inti- mately conneéted with this fubjeé& is the flate of the Roads and buildings, both of which have of late been greatly improved. Forty years ago, the former were dan- gerous for carriages even in fummer, but at prefent they are very good during that period; though, owing to the clayey nature of their compolition, they fometimes become impaflable for feveral days in winter. Houfes of the beft fort, both in town and country, are conftruated of hewn ftone; and thofe of an inferior defcription of rough ftone. Farm-honfes and offices are ufually {mail, irregular, and ill built: a few modern ones, however, are on a better plan. The meaner cottages confift principally of fods of earth, with a thatch of {lraw. The-bridges are moftly in tolerable condition, being built and fupported at the expence of the pubiic, and requiring an act of T'ynwald to authorife their erection. Towns and Villages.—This ifland poffeffes a number of {mall towns and vilfages, fituated principally on the coalts. The chief of thefe are Ca(tleton, Douglas, Peel, and Ramfey. Cajtleton is confidered as the capital, being the refidence of the governor, and the feat of the fuperior courts; but Donzlas is of more importance in a commercial point of view. In the centre of Caftleton is Caflle-Ruthen, an irregular fortified building of {tone, faid to have been erected in the year g60, by the Damth prince Guthred, who was buried within its walls. ‘The ftone glacis, which * furrounds it, is fuppofed to have been the work of cardinal Wolfey. This fabric was the ancient manfion of the kings of Man, where they lived in all the warlike pomp of feodal magnificence. Douglas, only a century ago, was merely a group of huts; but it is now the mott opulent and beft built town on the ifland. The duke of Athol’s principal refidence is fituated in this vicinity. - Ramfey is a neat town, where the deemtter of the northern diltrict refides, and holds his courts. Peel is likewife a pleafant village, and more diftinguifhed, than any other {pot in Man, for its remains of antiquity. Peel caitle, placed on a {mall ifland, divided from the main by a narrow channel, deep during the flow of the tide, but eafily fordable at its ebb, is a very noble remnant.of ancient architecture. Near it are the ruins of two churches: one dedicated to St Patrick, of uncertain origin; and the other called St. Germain’s, or the cathedral, which was con{truéted about the year 1245. Commerce and Manufaétures.—None of the mechanical arts having yet reached any degree of perfection in Man, its manutaétures are few, and of little value. Indeed, the only ones worthy of obfervation are thofe of Douglas, where fheeting, towelling, fail-cloth, and fack-cloth are made. In commercial concerns, however, it is of more importance, great quantities of lead, cattle, fheep, fowls, butter, and eggs, being shipped from hence to England. Some {trong linens and fail-cloth likewife form articles of export, but [Sie OF. the chief fource of opulence here, as in Shetland, is the herring-fifheries ; for the {muggling traffic, which proved fo advantageous in former times, is now almoft entirely cut up. About five hundred boats are regularly employed in the fifheries every feafon, beginning with July, and ending with September. A few years ago it was cuftomary for the fifhermen to offer up a prayer for fuccefs on leaving the har- bour, but that practice has fallen into difufe. As yet, how- ever, they make’ it a rule never to fail either on a Saturday or Sunday evening, left the fabbath fhould be violated. The ordinary fize of the boats is about eight tons, and their value, including the nets, &c. fomewhat more than 80/ Every night’s produce is divided into nine fhares, of which two belong to the proprietors of the veffels, one to the owners of the nets, and the refidue to the fifhermen. OF the white herrings, the greater proportion are fold in England, but molt of thofe termed red herrings are exported to the different ports of the Mediterranean. Previous to the com- mencement of the late war, a falmon-fifhery was eftablifhed here upon an extenfive fcale, but fince that period it has much declined. ‘The imports to the ifland confift of manu- factured goods of almoit every defcription, together with coal, wine, brandy, and other fpirituous liquors : the balance of trade is greatly again{t the ifland. The deficiency, how- ever, may probably be made up by remittances to the numerous ftrangers, who, in order to avoid the vifits of a bailiff, or the extravagance of Englith living, refort hither either as a temporary or permanent retreat. : Antiquities. —Vhe Ifle of Man contains confiderable vef- tiges of ancient times. The little Ifle of St. Michael is joined to the Main, at Longnefs-point, by a high breaft- work, about one hundred yards in length, and on the Ifle itfelf are the ruins of a circular fort, built by one of the earls of Derby. On the road from Caftle-town to Douglas, at the diftance of two miles from the former, ftand the yene- - rable remains of Rufhen-abbey, founded in the year 1098 by prince Macmarus. This eftablifhment confifted of an abbot and twelve monks of the Ciftercian order, who were fo celebrated for their hofpitality, as to acquire the title of almoners of the poor. ‘The abbot, in later times, became a baron of the ifland, and was invefted with the power of holding courts in his own name. Many of the kings of Man were interred in this monaltery. Not far from Douglas appear the remaits of another monaltery for female votaries, faid to owe its original fouadation to St. Bridget, in the fixth century. The priorefs of this in{titution was likewife a baronefs of Man, and heid courts in her own name. Im- mediately adjoining to Laxey, on an elevated {cite by the road-fide, is a {mall circular range of ftones, fome cf them ftanding ereét, and others leaning towards the centre, which has apparently formed a 4i/t-vaen, but is now muulated, This monument bears the name of the Cloven-/lones. The parifh of Kirk-Andreas, north of Ramfey, is particularly diftinguifhed by a variety of ancient remains, ‘The entrench- ‘ment at Ballachury, fituated on a {mall natural eminence, is in more complete prefervation than, perhaps, any other ereCtion of the fame kind in the Britifh dominions. It is of a fquare form, and has a very noble baltion at each angle ; the whole furrounded by a wet fofs of ample dimenfions. Many barrows are to be met with in this neighbourhood, fome of which have been opened, and earthen urns dif- covered in them. Jn the parith church ftands a {quare ttone pillar, with a Runic infeription, thus tranflated by Mr. Beau- fort. ‘ The fon of Ulf of the Swedri (or Swedes) erected this crofs to the warrior Afterarin, the fon of Cunnu,”’ Many other Runic infcriptions and tumuli appear in various parts of the ifland; indeed, they are probably more nume- rous MAN routs here than in any other diftri& of a fimilar extent in Europe. ‘The Tynwald ip the only objeé that now remains to be mentioned. It is fituated about three miles from Peel, near the fide of the high-road leading to Douglas. The name of this artificial mount is compounded of the Britith words Tyng and Val, fignifying the juridical hill. This monument of ancient days is in the form of an obtrun- cated cone, divided into three ftages or circles, regularly advanced three feet above each other, but proportionally diminifhed, both in circuit and width, the nearer they ap- proach the fummit. The whole was formerly furrounded by a ditch and rampart of earth, inclofing a fpace, on which ftood a {mall chapel dedicated to St. John, lately re-built. Concerning the firlt ereétion of this mount nothing is known, either from hiftory or tradition; but judging from its name * and appropriation, it would feem to have been conitructed by the aboriginal inhabitants of the ifland. Population, and Means of Defence.—The number of in- habitants in this land has varied much at different periods. In the time of Bede, it is faid by that author to have con- tained only 300 families. Hollinfhed, who wrote about the year 1584, obferves, “ there were formerly in this ifland 1300 families, but now fcarcely half that number.’” In 1726; the population was 14,5113 in 1757, it had increafed to 19,144; and, in 1792, to 27,913. At prefent it is thought to exceed 30,000 perfons, an increafe partly owing to the improved ftate of agriculture, and partly to the greater number of ftrangers who now take up their abode in this land of freedom from taxes and arrefts. The military efta- blifhment of the ifland confifts folely of a regiment of fen- cibles, who are enlifted voluntarily, and receive a bounty of three guineas. Their pay is the fame as that of Englith regiments, and the fervice being eafy, molt of the individuals which compofe them are engaged in fome trade or bufinefs, for here military duty is not reckoned incompatible with the purfuits of civil life. Language, Manners, and Cuftoms.—From the number of ftrangers continually flocking to this ifland from Great Bri- tain and Ireland, and the commercial intercourfe that fubfifts between them, it may reafonably be fuppofed that the Englith language is ufually {poken in the towns on the fea- coait. In the interior, however, the original Manks lan- guage {till prevails. This laft is merely a diale& of the Gaelic, or that ufed in the Highlands of Scotland, with a commixture of Welfh, Saxon, and Danifh words. The radixes, indeed, are chiefly Welfh. ‘The New Teftament, and feveral fcriptural publications, have been tranflated into the Manks tongue; and in the country parihes it is cuf- tomary to preach in this language and in Englith every alter- nate Sunday. With refpe& to the charaéter of the people in this ifland, it is generally obferved that the men are habitually of a lazy and indolent difpofition, This is not improbably the con- fequence of the herring-fifheries, in which the greater part of them are engaged; for fuch purfuits, in certain conditions of fociety, are, beyond doubt, prejudicial to the more active concerns of agriculture and the arts. In fine, wherever fifheries are eftablifhed upon a fale fufficiently extenfive to afford employment to the men, the affairs of the field are left to the women in a great meafure ; and this is precifely the cafe in Man, the females being both the reapers and threfhers of all the corn in the ifland. ence it happens, that the women are as remarkable for their activity and {prightlinefs, as the men are for their indolence. Unfortunately, however, an extréme laxity of opinion prevails among them in refpect to chaflity. A fervant girl, by becoming a mother, does not fuffer any degradation of charaéter. The event is, there- MAN fore, of no unfrequent occurrence, and is probably the reafon why women of the town are {carcely ever to be met with, even in Douglas. Like the Highlanders and Swifs, the Manks are much attached to their native vales aud moun- tains, as well as to their ancient cultoms and laws. They, conceive themfelves to be independent of Great Britain, and were much affeéted by the fale of the ifland, becaufe they feared it would blend the countries. A great fondnefs for litigation, and an uncommon love of hofpitality, are ftriking, though fomewhat contradictory, features, in the Manks character, So much, indeed, are they naturally difpofed to charity, that poor’s rates are wholly unknown, and there is no fuch inftitution as an hofpital, or workhoufe, in the whole ifland. Every parifh, however, has a charity-fchool, and generally a {mall library, both of them fupported by volun- tary contributions, or funds ariling from legacies or dona- tions. Neither fhoes nor itockings are worn by the lower orders, excepting on particular occafions, A blue cloak is the common body-drefs of the women, and ftrangers are ufually habited in a failor’s jacket, and trowfers of the fame colour. This drefs is termed the Manks livery. The belief of fairies, and fuch imaginary fpirits, ftill Rite maintains its influence over the inhabitants of this ifland; a cireumftance afcribed by many to the natural gloom and folitude which pervades every portion of the country. Thefe airy fpirits are divided, by {uch as pretend to {kill in vifionary lore, into two clafles, the one comprehending the playful and benignant {prites, and the other the fullen and vindiétive ones. The former, gay and beautiful, feek the margin of the brooks ta fport among the bufhes, or dance on the tops of the adjacent mountains, while the latter find a habitation in the hideous precipices of the fea-fhore, and to their malignant influence the Mankfm:an imputes every calamity which may affail him. A. belief in the fecond fight, and in warnings and fore= knowledge of their own deaths, is no lefs common than this fairy fuperftition. Many, in their lonely wanderings, have met with a vifionary funeral, following them wherever they might turn, awfully portentous of the approaching diflolution of the devoted viétim. ‘Thefe opinions are not confined to the lower orders alone, but are credited by individuals even of high refpeétability. In other refpeéts; however, the fuperior claffes difler completely from their fellow iflanders and affimilate themfelves as much as poflible, both in drefay habits, and fentiments, to the fame orders in England. Fin, Account of the paft and prefent State of the Ifle of Man, by George Woods, Svo. 1811. A Tour though the Ifland of Man in 1797 and 1798, by John Feltham, 8vo. 1798. A Journal kept in the Ifland of Man by Richard Town- ley, efq. 2 vols. 8vo. 1791. Man is alfo an ifland in the Pacific ocean, in St. George’s channel, between New Britain and New Ireland, about of Meckleuburg, was page to the duke of Holftein, and ac- companied, as gentleman of the chamber, the embafladors whom that duke fent to Mufcovy and Perfia in 1636. From. the court of Perfia, he went to Ormuz, and embarked for the Indies. On his return he drew up a « Journal of his Voyages,” which is printed in the fecond: volume of the Travels of Olearius, who was fecretary to the embafly, and. is held in much elteem. Moreri. MANDELSTEIN, in Mineralogy. See 'Trar. MANDERA, in Geography, a town of Africa; 120 miles N.E.of Sennaar. N.lat. 14° 45’. E.long. 35° ro’. MANDERSCHEID, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Sarre, and chief place of a canton, in the dittrict of Prum; 21 miles N.N.E. of Treves:. The place contains 323, and the canton 2595 inhabitants, in 24.communes. MANDERY, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; ro miles W.N.W. of Ranapour. MANDEVILLE, Sir Jonn, in Biography, a celebrated - early traveller, was born at St. Albans about the beginning of the fourteenth century. -He was intended for the pro- feffion of phyfic, which he probably practifed, but an ardent defire of vifiting foreign countries induced him, ‘in 1332, to fet out upon a courfe of travels, in which he fpent more than thirty years. During this period he extended his pere- grinations through the greateft part of Afia, Egypt, and_ Lybia, making himfelf mafter of many languages, and col- leé&ted a great mafs of information, which he committed te writing in Latin, Englifh, and French. He died at Liege in the year 1372. ‘The only genuine edition of his travels is thus entitled, “ The Voiage and ‘Travaile of fir John Mandeville, knight :’”’ it was printed from the original MS. in the Cottonian library, 1727. The character of fir John; for veracity, has been very differently regarded by different and competent judges ; his narratives were highly.efteemed in his own age, and they rendered him celebrated throughout Europe, MAN Europe. By fome of his remarks it fhould feem that he had a general acquaintance with the f{cience of the period in which he flourifhed. MANDEWAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 32 miles S.S.W. of Artah. MANDIBLE, the Jaw, in Anatomy. See MAxILLa and Cranium. MANDIBULARES, or Manpucatoru Mufuli. See Masseter and Deciurition. MANDIL, or Manpriz, the name of a kind of cap or tu) an worn by the Perfians. The mandil is formed by fir wrapping round the head a piece of fine white linen five or fix ells long ; over this they wrap, in the fame manner, a piece of filk of the fame length, and often times of great value. To make the mandil gen- teel, care mult be taken, that, in wrapping the filk, it be fo managed, as that the feveral colours found in the feveral folds make a kind of waves, fomewhat like what we fee on marbled paper. The drels is extremely majeftic, but at the fame time very heavy : it ferves either as a fhelter to the head from cold, or as a fereen from the exceflive heat of the fun; it is faid, that a blow Qf acutlafs will not penetrate it. In rainy weather they cover it with a kind of cafe or hood, made of red cloth. The mode of the mandril has been for fome time alteted : during the time of Schah-Abbas II. it was round at top ; in the time of Schak-Soliman, they brought one end of the filk out of the middle of the mandril over the head; and, laitly, in the reign of Schah-Huffein, the end of the filk, in lieu of its being gathered as before, was plaited in manner ofa rofe ; and this the Perfians account extremely graceful, and ufe it ‘to this day. K MANDING, or Mannpinea, in Geography, a coun- try of Africa, fituated on both fides of the river Joliba or Niger, towards its fources, and fupplying thofe flreams or rivers, called Bafing and Kokoro, that form the Senegal. ‘This country comprehends a confiderable traét from between 11° and 13° N. lat. and between about 5° and 7° W. long. The inhabitants of this country, and thofe of other diftricts in the weltern part of Africa, who have probably migrated from hence, are called Mandingoes, and their language has a confiderable extent. The government of this country is faid to be republican, though that of the other African itates is, in general, monarchical. In their complexions and perfons, the Mandingoes are eafily diftinguifhed from thofe Africans who are born nearer to the equator; and yet they confit of very diftin@ tribes, fome of which are remarkably tall and black ; and there is one tribe among them (called alfo the Phulies) that feemed to Mr. Edwards to conilitute the link between the Moors and Negroes, pro- perly fo called. They are of a lefs gloffy-black than the Gold Coaft negroes ; and their hair, though bufhy and crifped, is not woolly, but foft and filky to the touch. Neither have the Mandingoes, in common, the thick lips and flat nofes of the more fouthern natives; and they are, in a great degree, exempt from that ftrong and fetid odour which exhales Pee the fkin of moft of the latter; but in general they are not well adapted for hard labour. After all, they differ lefs in their perfons, than in the qualities of the mind, from the natives of the Gold Coaft ; who may be faid to con- flitate the genuine and original unmixed negro, both in per- fon and character. See Koromantyn Wegroes. The Mandingoes, in general, are of a mild, fociable, and obliging difpofition; the men are commonly above the mid~ dle lize ; and the women are f{prightly, good-humoured, and figreeable. The drefs of both fexes confifts of cotton cloth, of their own manufaure ; that of the men isa loofe frock, MAN not unlike a furplice, with drawers which reach half-way down the leg, and they wear fandals on their feet, and white cotton caps on their heads. ‘The women’s drefs confilts of two pieces of cloth, each of which is about fix feet long and three broad; one of which they wrap round the waitt, which, hanging down to the ancles, ferves for a petticoat, and the other is thrown negligently over the bofom and fhoulders. Inthe conftruétion of their houfes, the Man- dingoes, like the other Africans, in this part of the conti- nent, content themfelves with {mall hovels. A circular mud- wall, about four feet high, upon which is placed a conical roof compofed of the bamboo cane, and thatched with grafs, forms their common dwelling for people of all ranks. Their houfhold furniture is no lefs fimple ; a hurdle of canes placed upon upright ftakes, about two feet from the ground, upon which is {fpread a mat, or bullock’s hide, anfwers the purpofe of a bed; a water jar, fome earthen pots for drefling their food, a few wooden bowls and calabafhes, and one or two low flools, are their other domeftic articles. As every man of free condition has a plurality of wives, it becomes neceflary, for the prevention of difputes, to accommodate each lady with a hut to herfelf ; and all the huts belonging to the fame family are furrounded by a fence conftruéted of bamboo canes, fplit and formed into a fort of wicker work. The whole inclofure is denominateda “ firk,”? or ‘‘furk.”? A number of thefe inclofures, feparated by nar- row paflages, conftitute what is calleda town; in which the houfes are placed without any order, except that the door is fituated towards the fouth-welt, in order to admit the fea- breeze. Their religion is, as we may conceive, blended with many fuperftitious opinions and practices. Although they admit the exiftence of a deity, as the maker and pre- ferver of all things, they confider him as too remote and too exalted in his nature to regard the fupplications of wretched mortals, or to alter for their fake any of his purpofes and decrees. The prayers which are offered up at the appear- ance of the new moon are performed merely in conformity to a cuftom which has been tranfmitted to them from their anceftors. Subordinate fpirits, as they imagine, are en- tru{ted!by the almighty with the fuperintendence and di- rection of all human concerns ; and thefe {pirits are much under the influence of certain magical ceremonies. The rite of circumcifion prevails in this part of Africa even by thofe negroes, who have never received the religion of Ma- homet. ‘The Jaloffs confine it to the males; but the Man- dingoes, both Soninkees and Buthreens, extend the cere- mony to both fexes, as the ancient Egyptians did before them ; and the operation is performed at the commencement of puberty. Mr. Park, in his ‘Travels,’ informs us, that the negroes, in general, did not feem to confider this painful rite as an act of religious duty, and as fuch, effential to their future falvation ; but rather as an operation of phyfical ne- ceffity ; without which the marriage flate could not, in their opinion, be prolific. (See Circumcision.) We learn alfo from this obferving and intelligent traveller, that the negraes of this part of Africa firmly believe in a life beyond the grave, and a ftate of retribution after death, in which good men will be rewarded, and bad men punifhed. He converfed with the natives of all defcriptions on this im- portant fubjeét, and pronounces, without the {mallet hefita- tion, that a conviction of this great truth among the negroes is entire, hereditary, and univerfal. 3 Among the Mandingoes there are few or no inftances of longevity: at 40, molt of them become grey-haired and wrinkled ; and few furvive the age of 50-er 60, countin their years by the number of rainy feafons, one of wick only occurs in the year. Their difeafes, however, are few ; the MAN the principal being the dyfentery, the yaws, the elephan- tiafis, and a leprofy of the wort kind. ‘The Guinea worm is alfo in fome places very common, efpecially at the com- mencement of the rainy feafon, and this they attribute to bad water; to which they likewife afcribe the goitres, or fwellings of the neck, which are very common in fome parts of Bambarra. The principal of their mufical inftruments are the koonting, a fort of guitar with three ftrings; the korro, a large harp with eighteen ftrings; the fimbing, a {mall harp with feven flrings; the balafon, compofed of twenty pieces of hard wood of different lengths, with the fhells of gourds hung under them, for increafing the found; the tangtang, a drum open at the lower end; and the tabala, a large drum ufed for caufing an alarm through the country. Befides thefe, they make ufe of fmall flutes, bow-{trings, elephants’ teeth, and bells; and at all their dances and concerts, clapping of hands conftitutes a neceflary part of the chorus. , The beverage of the pagan Negroes is beer and mead, in the ufe of which they are apt to indulge to excefs. The Mahometan converts drink nothing but water. ‘The natives of all defcriptions take fnuff, and fmoke tobacco ; and their pipes are made of wood, with an earthen bowl of curious workmanthip. But in the interior diitricts, the greateft of all luxuries is falt. The arts of weaving, dyeing, fewing, &c. are univerfally practifed ; but the only artifts, acknow- ledged as fuch by the Negroes, are the manufacturers of leather and iron. They tan and drefs leather very expedi- tioufly, by firft fteeping the hide in a mixture of wood- afhes and water, until it parts with the hair; and after- wards ufing the pounded leaves of a tree called goo, as an aftringent. Moft of the African black{miths are acquainted with the method of {melting gold; in which procefs they ufe an alkaline falt, obtained from a ley of burnt corn-ftalks, evaporated to drynefs. They likewife draw gold into wire, and form it into a variety of ornaments, with great ingenuity and tafte. Gold is found in every part of Mandingo, in {mall grains, nearly in a pure ftate, from the fixe of a pin’s head to that of a pea. The Mandingoes, moft of whom are profelyted to Ma- hometanifm, have frequent wars with each other, as well as with thofe nations regarded by them as enemies of their faith, The advantage poffefled by a few of thefe people, of being able to read and write, is a circumftance on which the Man- dingo Negroes in the Welt Indies pride themfelves greatly among the reft of the flaves, over whom they confider them- Aelves as poflefling a decided fuperiority ; and in truth, fays Mr. B. Edwards, they difplay fuch gentlenefs of difpofition and demeanour, as would feem to be the refult of early edu- eation and difcipline, were it not that, generally fpeaking, they are more prone to theft than any of the African tribes. It has been fuppofed that this propenfity, among other vices, is natural to a ftate of flavery, which degrades and corrupts the human mind in a deplorable manner 5 but why the- Mandingoes fhould have become more vicious in this -refpeét than the reft of the natives of Africa, in the fame condition of life, is a queftion not eafily refolved. Edwards's Hilt. of the Welt Indies, vol. ii. MANDIOLY, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, of a femicircular form, about 120 miles in circumference, fepa- rated from the weft coait of Gilolo by the {traits of Patientia, and belonging to the fultan of Bachian, The ifland is centrally traverfed by the equator. E. long. 124°. MANDOE, a fmall ifland in the German ocean, near the coalt of Slefwick ; 10 miles W.S,W. of Ripen, N. dat. ¢§° 10!. EE. long. 8° 32',' MAN MANDOLA, a town of Italy, in the marquifate of Ancona; 30 miles N.E. of Spoleto: Manoora, and Mandora, Ital.; Tefudo minor, Lat. ; Mandole, and Mandoline, Fr.; a very {mall inftrument, in form of a violin, with four ftrings, and a fretted neck, played with a quill in the right hand inftead of a bow. About thirty years ago there was a Neapolitan here, of the name of Francefe, who played admirably on this diminutive tinkling inftrument, which had very little tone or variety of expreffion; yet, by his tafte, fancy, and enthufiafm, Fran- cefe entertained lovers and nice judges of mufic during feveral hours, without tiring them with its monotony, or . rather total want of tone. MANDORE, a fmall lute or guitar, with four ftrings, tuned fourths and fifths, fometimes thrummed with the finger, and fometimes played with a quill, like the man- doline. 13% MANDRA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the gos vernment of Irkutfk ; -76 miles N.E. of Kirenfk. MANDRAGORA, in Botany. See Arropa and Dupam. ; Manpracora, Chinefe, is the plant Ginfeng; which ‘ e. MANDRAKE. See Arropa and Dupaim. The roots of mandrake vary both in form and colour, being either divided or entire, and externally brown or black: hence they have been diftinguifhed into male and female. The internal fubftance is white, and to the taite fomewhat vifcid, bitter, and naufeous. Manprak®, in the Materia Medica, has been recom- mended in cafe of barrennefs, but without foundation. All the eminent writers on mandrake reprefent the root to be an adonyne and foporific ; but in large dofes it is faid to excite maniacal fury. They employed it principally in coatinued watchings, and in thofe more painful and obftinate affec- tions which were found to refift lefs powerful medicines. It was alfo ufed in melancholia, convulfions, rheumatic pains, {crophulous tumours, &c.: and for thefe purpofes, either the exprefled juice of the cortical part of the root, infpiffated, or a vinous deco€tion or infufion of the root, was direéted. Pallas alfo mentions it as of frequent ufe for chronic difeafes in fome parts of Ruffia. (See Arropa Mandragora.) ‘The experiments, recited under that article, fhew that the mandrake acts as an opiate; which confirms the opinion entertained by the ancignts: and hence it may be concluded, that if it be not adminiftered with great care, it may prove a deleterious and mental narcotic. ‘This cau- tion is the more necefiary, as the berries of mandrake are faid to have been eaten without producing any bad effeét. Woodville. Manprake-Wine, Mandragorites Vinum, a fort of medi- cinal impregnation of wine with the virtues of mandrake root. It is prepared by cutting into thin flices half a pound of the bark of mandrake roots, and {tringing them on a thread, and letting them down into a veffel containing nine gallons of white wine, fo that they may hang loofely in it, and by that means fully impregnate is with their virtues. It was ufed in imali dofes as an anodyne and foporific. It had the fame effeéts aifo, if only {melled to, and was fome-. times injected in clyfters to the fame purpofe. They fay that halt a pint of this liquor, mixed with twelve times ita quantity of wine, brings on a carus; and that even a {maller dofe than this, lefs diluted, is mortal. See the preceding article, and Arrorpa Mandragora. MANDREL, a kind of wooden pulley, making a member of the turner’s lathe. \ of afforded them proteétion. MAWN OF thefe there are feveral kinds; as, Manoprets, Fiat, which have three or more little pegs er points near the verge, and are ufeful for turning flat boards on. : Manprets, Pin, which have along wooden fhank to fit into a round hole made in the work to be turned. Manpkets, Hollow, which are hollow of themfelves, and ufed for turning hollow work. Manpress, Screw, for turning fcrews, &c, MANDRIL, in Zoology, a {pecies of baboon, or monkey. See Sita Maimon. MANDSHURES, in Geography, people of Siberia who, form two nations, the one called Mandfhu or Mandfhures, and the other Tungufes. Both thefe nations are related hy defcent, as we may conclude from their traditions, their language, and their bodily ftruéture. The whole {warm together poffefles extenfive countries and deferts in eaftern Siberia, and in the northern Mongolia. The Mandfhu are full very powerful; one of their princely families being in hereditary poffeffion of the throne’ of China. Before the Raffians entered Siberia, the Mandfhures were in poffeffion of all Daouria, or the eaftern Siberia, from the Baikal quite to the Mongolian mountains, together with the regions ad- jacent to the Amoor, and its collateral rivers. ‘They were at that time divided into feveral {tems, of which the Daou- rians inhabited the parts about the Selenga and the Upper Amoor; the Dutfchares dwelt between the Argoon and the Schilka; the Atfchares about the middle Amoor; and the Ghiliaks at the mouth of the Amoor, on the coafts of the Eaittern ocean. The Daourian Mandfhu, not waiting for the arrival of the Ruffians in their territories, retreated to the Amoor, and into the empire of China. At the firft Ruffian expedi- tion, about the middle of the feventeenth century, the Daourians and Dutf{chares were fubjeéts of the Chinefe em- peror, who, as a native Mandthu, aided their flight, and The Ghiliaks and Atfchares fubfifted then in a ftate of independence, and accepted the Ruffian patronage without oppofition, Their example was followed by confiderable multitudes of the other two ftems; but moft of them, by orders of the Chinefe government, were tranfported from the Amoor, of which the Ruffians had made themfelves matters, farther towards China. Af- terwards, at a peace concluded at Nertfchinfk, the whole of the Amoor, with all the Mandthures belonging to Ruffia, was ceded to China; and at prefent, the mountain-ridge Stannovoi Khrebet, which f{tretches from Daouria north- eaftward between the rivers Lena and Amoor to the Eaftern ocean, forms the boundary betwixt the two empires. In the frontier mountains themfelves, however, are no Mand- fhures, but Tungufes, who are partly tributary to the Chinefe, partly to Ruffia, or live in complete inde- pendence. The Mandfhu, particularly the Daourian, while they in- habited the modern Ruffia, were by no means an uncivilized people. According to their written accounts and tradi- tions, they had a conttitution compofed of nomadic and civil parts, and adapted to their fituation, their mode of life, &c. They lived peaceably among themfelves and with their neighbours, attending feduloufly to agriculture, grazing, and even to mining. T'races are {till feen about the Bar- gufin, and other rivers, of their gardens, orchards, and fields, artfully laid out, and EARL) with artificial water- courfes. The Daourian mine-works on the banks of the Argoon, ftill famous under the name of the Nert{chinkian mines, as well as all Daouria, afford numerous proofs of the MAN mineral labours of the ancient Daourians. Tooke’s Ruff. Emp. vol.i. See Tuncusszs. The country of the Mandfhures is divided by the Chinefe into three great governments. 1. That of Chin-yang or Chen-yang ; which fee. 2. The government of Kiren-Oula. (See Kirin.) 3. The government of Z/itchicar ; which tee. See Mantchew Tartans. MANDSJADE, in Botany, is an Indian filiquous or pod- bearing tree, with a fpiked pentapetalous flower, and long pods containing nodous fearlet-coloured beans ;:the tree is one of the talleft m the kingdom of Malabar, bears fruit the twentieth year after planting, and living near two hundred years. : “ ‘The wood is of common ufe for various purpofes, on ac- count of its folidity ; the leaves, reduced to powder, are ufed in the pagan religious rites; the feeds, which are not ungrateful to the tafte, are eaten by the common people, either boiled whole or ground to a meal; and are, befides, of great ufe to gold{miths and jewellers, who, on account - of their exaét equality, employ them inftead of grains in weighing their wares; for each maljelina, as they call them, weighs four grains, fuch as are in ufe among the gold- {miths; who, alfo of the bruifed feeds, moiltened with water and borax, prepare a glue for conglutinating the finer fort of veffels, when broken. Of the bruifed leaves the phylicians prepare a potion for mitigating pains in the loins. MANDU, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in My- fore; ro miles N.E, of Seringapatam. MANDUCATION, the action of cheaving, otherwife called majlication. Manducation is a term feldom ufed but in fpeaking of the eucharift. The Catholics maintain a real manducation of the body of Chrift; the reformed, on the contrary, take this manducation to be only figurative, and by faith. St. Auguttine calls it /piritual manducation. MANDUN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 30 miles S.E. of Janegur. MANDURIA, an ancient town of Naples, in Calabria Citra. After having funk into decay, it was rebuilt at a little diftance from its former fcite, and called «* Cafale Nuo- vo,’ which name it retained till the year 1790, when, at the requeft of the inhabitants, the original name was reftored, It contained about 4000 inhabitants. In 1783 it fuflered very much by an earthquake. MANE’, a fea-port on the W. coaft of Madagafecar, at the mouth of the river Manfiatre. S. lat. 33 35'. 4 Mane of a Horfe, inthe Manege. (See Horse.) The adjultment of the manes of horfes was an object of particu- lar attention among the Armenians, and others who valued themfelves on their breed of thefe animals. Some, as we learn from Vegetius, ufed to cut themclear off, a praétice which he condemns, becaufe it rendered the horfe unfightly and deformed. Others clipped them, fo as to make them refemble an arch or bow, called by us an ‘hog’s mane.’? Others again feparated the mane into notches, like the battle. ments of atower; while fome cut it clofe, but only on one fide, leaving the hair long and flowing on the other, which was very graceful and becoming: the fide on which the mane was turned and repofed being always to theright. To this Virgil alludes, when he direéts the mane to be laid on the right fhoulder. ; “ Denfa juba, et dextro ja€tata recumbit in armo,”? This method was practifed by the Perfians as well as the have Armenians ; and appears, by the above citation, to : been MAN been in ufe with the Romans, as well as that of fhearing the manes of their “ manni’””? or nags ; whence Propertius fays, his miftrefs Cynthia was carried in her litter by fhorn horfes. «¢ Et mea detonfis adve€ta eft Cynthia mannis.”’ Varro likewife dire€&ts the mane to be turned to the right fide’ They alfo tied it in knots, or plaited it, as the word ‘“ im- plicata’’ (lib. iv. c. 7.) aptly expreffes. No particular rea- fon is afligned for always turning the mane on the right fide : it might be owing, perhaps, to the cuftom’of mounting on the right, which was frequently, but not always, the prac- tice ; and in that cafe, the mane hanging on the fide, from which the horfeman got up, offered itfelf to his hand to affift him in the action ; while we, without any meaning, always mount on the left, and always turn the mane tothe right. The Armenians, 2s well as the Parthians, had another method of trimming their horfes, by which they made them as it _were «double maned ;’’ for the hair being cut away in the middle, the mane was divided, and falling down, clothed each fide of the neck ; a fafhion fometimes ufed at prefent, but generally among coach horfes. Berenger’s Hitt. &c. of Horfeman- fhip, vol.1. Mane-/beet, is a fort of covering for the upper part of a horfe’s head, and all round his neck, which at one end has two holes for the ears to pafs through, and then joins to the halter upon the fore-part of the head, and likewife to the furcingle, or long girth, upon the horfe’s back. MAN-EATER’s Isranp, in Ggography, a {mall ifland in the Indian fea, near the N. coatt of the ifland of Java, be- tween Batavia and Bantam. MANEBELLO, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. S.lat. 4° 9!. E. long. 131° 58! MANEGE. A horfe is faid to manege when he works upon volts and airs, which fuppofes him broke and bred. See ManaGe. Manece for a Soldier’s Horfe, is a gallop of unequal {wiftnefs, but fo that the horfe changes hands readily. Manece, High, is the high or raifed airs, which are pro- per for leaping horfes. See Airs. MANEGED. A horfe is faid to be thoroughly ma- neged, or a finifhed horfe, that is well broken, bred, and confirmed in a particular air or manege, fo as to bear well upon the hand, know the heels, and fit well upon the hips. MANELLI, Francesco, of Tivoli, in Biography, compofer of the firft Italian opera that was performed ona public ftagein Venice, in 1635. The drama, intitled « Te- miltocle,’’ was written by Ferrari, himfelf a compofer ; but the preference given to Manelli, either by the author of the words, or by the public, at fuch an era, is an indifputable proof of refpeét for his abilities; and a ftill lefs fufpicious compliment to his talents, was his being retained by the fame poet, and the fame public, to compofe a fecond opera, «* Andromeda,” in 1637. In fubfequent years he compofed four more operas, which had. great fuccefs. See Opera and VENICE. MANEQUIN, among Painters. See Layman. MANERBIO, in Geography, a town of [taly, in the department of the Mela ; 12 miles S. of Brefcia. MANES, or Mant, in Biography. See MAnicunes. Manes, a poetical term, fignifying the fhades or fouls of the deceafed. The heathens ufed a variety of ceremonies and facrifices to appeafe the manes of thofe who were deprived of burial. See Lemures and Lemuria. Manes, Dii, were the fame with inféri, or the infernal VoL. XXII. MAN gods, who tormented men; and to thefe the heathens offer~ ed facrifices, to affuage their indignation. The heathen theology is a little obfcure with regard to thefe gods, manes. Some hold, that they were the fouls of the dead ; others that they were the geniiof men ; which laft opinion fuits beft with the etymology of the word, and fuch is their origin according to Hefiod. The heathens, it is pretty evident, ufed the word manes in feveral fenfes ; fo that it fometimes fignified the ghoits of the departed, and fometimes the infernal: or fubterraneous deities, and in general all divinities that prefided over tombs, and the ghofts that were thought to wander about thefe © tombs. Accordingly, their true original may be referred to a prevailing opinion, that tbe world was full of genii, fome of whom attended on the living, and others on the dead: that fome were good and others bad, and that the former were called ‘* familiar lares,’? and the latter lemures or larve. Thus, when Virgil fays, ‘¢ Quifque fuos patimur manes,’’ it is, according to Servius, as if he had faid, “* we have each of us our genius.’? Apuleius, in his explication of the Lemures and Larve (fee both thefe articles), fays that the lares and larve are denominated “* Dii Manes,” and that the defignation of gods is added to them by way of honour. Agreeably to this opinion it isno wonder that the ancients fhould confound the manes with the lares and the lemures. The evocation of the manes of the. dead feems to haye been very frequent among the Theffalians; but it was ex- prefsly prohibited by the Romans. See Largs. MANESSON-MALLET, Atay, in Biography, a na- tive of Paris, who flourifhed in the 17th century, and who was diftinguifhed in the fervice of the king of Portugal as a military engineer. He is known, however, chiefly by his works, which continue ftill to be in requeft: they are “ Martial Studies, or the Art of War,’? 1691, in three vols: ‘A Defcription of the Univerfe,”” &c. 1683, in five vols: ‘¢ Praétical Geometry,’’ 1702, in four vols: Svo. His works are all illuftrated with plans, maps, and other en- gravings. MANETHOS, an ancient Egyptian hiftorian, called the Sebennite, from the place of his origin, was high-prieft of Heliopolis in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about the year 304 B.C. He wrote in the Greek language a hif- tory of Egypt, the fubject matter of which he aflerts to have been extracted from certain pillars in the Siriadic land, on which infcriptions had been made in the facred dialeét of Thoth, the firft Mercury, which after the flood were tranf- lated into the Greek tongue, but were written in the facred character, and were laid up in books in the facred recefles of Egypt by the fecond Mercury. But this account, which certainly related to the earlier portions of the hiftory, is fo incredible, by its reference to the Greek language, at a pe- riod when it could not be known in Egypt, that the writers of the Univerfal Hiftory fufpeé& fome miftake or corruption in the paflage of Eufebius containing it. The work of Manethos was divided into three tomes, the firft of which comprehended the hiftory of the gods and demi-gods, who in his eitimation were mortal men very eminent a virtue ; the fecond that of the eight dynalties of kings, and the third of twelve. The hiftory, which is, ina good meafure, fa- bulous, is loft, but his dynafties have been preferved in the chronicle of Eufebius. Some fragments of the hiftory are to be found in Jofephus’s work ayain{t Apion. MANETTI, Granozzo, was born at Florence in 1396: he was intended for trade, and received an education {uit- able to it, but being put into the houfe ofa banker when he was only ten years of age, he became difgufled with the 3D employment, MAN employment, and was accordingly permitted to apply his mind to the various kinds of literature that were then culti- vated. During nine years he devoted himfelf to thefe pur- fuits, after which he was appointed by the Florentines to give public leCtures on the ethics of Ariftotle, which were attended by a vaft number of pupils. From the age of thirty-five, he was employed by the {tate in various ho- nourable offices, and was feveral times deputed to prefide over the public ftudies, which always flourifhed under his fu- perintendance. He was fent on embaffies to the republic of Genoa; to king Alphonfo; to Francis Sforza ; to the popes Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.; to feveral of the Ttalian ftates, and to the emperor Frederic III., and on all thefe occafions he gave proof of great prudence and dexte- rity in the management of affairs, and of an eloquence which was the obje& of univerfal admiration. Notwithitanding the high rank to which he had attained, he found caufe for dif- fatisfaction at his own court, and retired to that of Nicho- las V., who received him with great honour ; but as he was cited to appear at Florence, on pain of banifhment, the pope deputed him to go thither in the character of his em- baffador. His conduét in this new fituation fo ingratiated him with his countrymen, that from a culprit he became a principal magiftrate. He afterwards returned to Rome, and was made fecretary to Nicholas V., in which poft he was continued by Calixtus III. Going to Naples on private bufinefs, Alphonfo kept him there with a penfion for three years, during which he compofed the greater part of his works. He diedin 1459 with the chara¢ter of one of the moft learned and excellent men of his age. He was deeply fkilled in the Hebrew language, and employed his great learning in this refpe&t to confute the Jews from their own feriptures. He wrote a work againft their tenets in ten books, which is faid ftill to remain in MS. in the Laurentian library. Among his printed works are, “¢ The Hiltory of Piftoia ;’’ “* The Lives of Nicholas V., Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio ;?? « The Funeral Oration of Leonardo Bruni ;”’ “ De Dignitate et Excellentia Hominis,” and fome “ Orations.’’ MANETTIA, in Botany, was named by Mutis and Linnzus, in honour of Kavier Manetti, curator of the Bo- tanic Garden at Florence, who was born in the year 1723, and died in 1784. He publifhed, in 1747, acatalogue of fuch plants as grew in the garden at Florence, inter{perfed with obfervations on the falutary and hurtful properties of vegetables. He alfo wrote atreatife upon the domeitic eco- nomy of making bread from different kinds of corn, but upon the whole prefers that which is made from Triticum po- Jonicum. Linn. Mant. 553. Schreb. 75. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 624. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. (Nacibea; Aubl. Guian. 95. t. 37- Juff. 199. Lamarck Illultr. t. 64.)— Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte, Linn. Rubiacee, Juff. Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of eight linear, concave, hairy, permanent leaves. Cor. of one petal, falver-fhaped ; tube cylindrical, longer than the calyx, marked on the in- fide with four lines > limb divided into four fegments, which are fhorter than the tube, ovate, obtufe, bearded within. Neary a rim furrounding the receptacle, quite entire, con- cave. Stam. Filaments four, thread-fhaped, very fmall, placed at the mouth ; anthers linear, incumbent, two-celled. Piff. Germen inferior, turbinate, compreffed ; {tyle thread- fhaped, bent down,: the length of the tube; ftigma cloven, thickifh, obtufe. Peric. Capfule turbinate, compreffed, furrowed on both fides, of one cell and two valves, or fepa- rable as it were into two capbules. Seeds few, flat, winged, 9 MAN orbiculate with a central embryo, imbricated on a pulpy oblong receptacle. Eff. Ch. Calyx of eight leaves, fuperior. Corolla four- cleft. Capfule inferior, of two valves and one cell. Seeds imbricated, orbicular, with a central embryo. 1. M. reclinata. Linn. Mant. 558. Swartz. Prod. 37. —Leaves ovate, acute, downy. Stem reclined, herbaceous, —A native of Mexico.—Root annual. Stem weak and branching. Leaves oppofite, on foot{talks, crowded, fome- what fringed, an inch and half long. Foot/talks very thort, hairy. Stipulas oppofite, clofely faftened to the ftalks, fe- micircular, very fhort. Flower/lalis axillary, folitary, fhorter than the leaves, many-flowered ; partial ftalks oppo- fite, round, hairy, furnifhed with a fingle, fmall, acute brac- tea. Flowers white. 2. M. Lygiflum. Swartz. Prod. 37. Willd.n. 2. (Pe- tefia Lygiftum ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 160. Lygiftum ; Brown. Jam. 142. t. 3. f. 2.)—Leaves ovate, acute, veiny. Stem twining, fomewhat fhrubby.—Native of Jamaica.—This weakly /brub has a branched, twilted fem, about feven feet in length. Leaves oppofite, on footftalks, large. Flowers in bunches, terminal, on long, branched footitalks, generally two together, or folitary. Swartz obferves that the calyx of this plant has eight leaves, and that the feeds are imbri- cated, which induced him to refer it to the prefent genus. 3. M. coccinea. Willd. n. 3. (Nacibea coccinea; Aubl. Guian. t. 37. f. 1.)—Leaves ovate, acuminate. Clufters many-flowered. Stem twining, fhrubby.—A native of Guiana, where it~ flowered and fruited in May.— Root pe- rennial. Stems numerous, knotty, branched, {quare. Leaves at the knobs, in pairs, oppofite, on footitalks, fmooth. Flowers in clulters, the tube of the corolla white, marked with red dots ; the limb of a fearlet colour above, downy ; the mouth of the tube clofed with yellow hairs. 4. M. pida. Willd. n. 4. (Nacibea alba; Aubl. Guian. t. 37. f. 2.)—Leaves ovate, acute. Calyx four- toothed. Stem twifting and climbing, fhrubby.—Found at the fame place with the laft, from which it differs in having the calyw four-toothed ; the corolla fhorter and white; the leaves broader, and variegated with yellow. 5. M. lanceolata. Willd. n. 5. Wahl. Symb. p.-1. 12: (Ophiorrhiza lanceolata; Forfk. Defer. 42.)—Leaves lan- ceolate. Calyx five-cleft, unequal. Flowers pentandrous. Stem erect. — A native of the lofty mountains of Hadie, in Arabia. Stem fhrubby. Flower-/alks three together, ter- minal, the lateral ones thrice as long as that in the centre, cloven at the top. Flowers at firft heaped together, then racemofe, all directed one way.—Vahl obferves that this fpe- cies is nearly allied to Cinchona, and that it differs from the re{t of this genus in the number of ftamens and fegments of the calyx. MANFELOUT, or Mametor, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left fide of the Nile, a mile from that river. Its name fignifies in Arabic “ the place of Lot's exile ;’’ and it is fo called, according to the Jefuit F, Vanf- leb, who founds his opinion on a tradition of the Copts, becaufe a perfon of the name of Lot was banifhed thither by his brother, one of the ancient kings of Egypt. The town is tolerably large, being about a mile in circumference, and much handfomer than Mivist ; its {treets are wider and better paved. It is the capital of a diftrit, and agreeably fituated in a country that furnifhes abundance of produc- tions of every kind ; and its walls are fhaded by fruit-trees, overtopped by a number of lofty palms. It is governed by a kiafchef or cafhef, and is the ee of a bifhop, who prefides over about 200 Chriltians. Its commerce contilts of all forts MAN forts of grain, and of linen cloths, which are manufactured here in great quantities. The Turks have different mofques, as well as a garrifon, in this place. Oppofite to it is a Coptic convent, on the E. bank of the Nile, which is wholly inclofed with high walls, and into which the only mode of admiffion, in order to be fecure againft the rapa- cious Arabs, is that of being hoifted up in a bafket, by means of a pulley; whence it has obtained the name ot the «‘ Convent of the Pulley.””? T'wo leagues below Manfelout, on the eaft bank of the Nile, is a chain of very high moun- tains, formed entirely of barren rock; the waters of the river have undermined them, fo that their fummit projects confiderably beyond their bafe. This chain of rocks 1s called the mountain of “* Aboufeda,’’ from the name of a Muffulman faint who is buried there, and in honour of whom a {mall chapel has been ereéted. By the fide of this monument of piety, or rather of the abfurd fuperftition of the Mahometans, fome men of the fame religion, who are devout worthippers of faint Aboufeda, and, at the fathe time, determined robbers, live in retreats dug in the rock, and formerly, as it is faid, inhabited by Anchorites. But thefe excavations, as well as thofe in Scheick Abadé, and in the two chains of mountains between which the Nile runs, in the upper part of Egypt, are probably burial places and ancient tombs. However this be, the perfons who now occupy them are the moft formidable pirates that obftrué the navigation of Egypt, and alfo the moft difficult to be exterminated, as they take refuge in the inacceflible cavities ef thefe mountains. Manfelout is 13 miles N.N.W. of Siout. N. lat. 27° 42'. E. long. 31° 36’. Sonnini’s Tra- vels in Egypt. ; MANFORT, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coafl, in the country of Fantin. MANFRED, or Mainrroy, in Biography, king of Naples and Sicily, was natural fon of the emperor Fre- deric II. ; on the death of his father in 1250, he became pof- feffed of the principality of Tarento, and fome adjacent counties. When his brother Conrad arrived from Germany, to take poffeffion of the Sicilian kingdoms, he became jealous of Manfred’s power and abilities, and took from im a part of his inheritance, but upon the death of Conrad, he became poffeffed of the regency in behalf of his nephew, the infant Conradin. The pope, however, claimed the kingdom as fief to the holy fee, and excommunicated Man- Gea, who being unable to make oppofition, received his holinefs very fubmiffively in Naples. Soon after he raifed a body of troops, and defeated the papal army, and after other fucceffes he recovered all the Neapolitan territory, and was received with great rejoicings into the city of Naples, where he behaved with much generofity and cle- mency. He afterwards pafled over to Sicily, and a report being fpread of the death of Conradin, he was unanimoufly eleGted king by the Sicilias and Apulian barons, was ac- cordingly crowned at Palermo in 1258, and by a mild and very equitable adminiftration, fecured the affections of the people. His peace was in a fhort time dilturbed by intelligence, that Conradin was not only alive, but claimed the crown as his birth right; to which Moafed replied, that he had conquered the kingdom from two popes, and what he had won by his valour he could not think of refigning, but would leave the kingdom to Conradin at his death. He founded a new city on the Adriatic, to which he gave the name of Manfredonia, and peopled it with the inhabitants of Sipento, which he deftroyed on account of its unheali hy fituation. His troops gained a fignal victory over the Guelfs, in confequence of which the city of Florence ac- knowledged his fovereignty. In 1262, pope Urban IV, MAN publifhed a crufade againft him, and in the following year conferred the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily upon Charles of Anjou, brother of the French king Lewis IX. Charles prepared to invade the country, and Manfred was as zealous in his difpofitions to refift him ; but he was at length be- trayed by his barons, who fecretly negociated with his rival ; and in February 1266, Manfred, engaging with the French army near Benevento, after fighting with great valour, was defeated and flain. As an excommunicated perfon, his body waa thrown into a ditch, and buried under a heap of ftones. The pope afterwards ordered it to be taken up, and carried out of the territories of the church. Manfred, though blackened by his enemies, difplayed the talents and virtues of a great fovereign; he was accomplifhed beyond moft princes of his time, and if he were guilty of criminal ambition in gaining a crown, he wore it with honour. Mod. Univer. Hitt. MANFREDI, Eusvracuio, an Italian mathematician and aftronomer, fon of a notary, was born in the year 1674. He enjoyed the benefits of an excellent education, and made S great progrefs in his ftudies, that at the age of eighteen, he obtained the degree of doctor of laws. He was, however, more attached to philofophy and the mathe- matics than to mere legal difcuffions, and applied himfelf mott diligently to the {ciences conneéted with or fubfervient to the ftudy of aftronomy. In the midft of his learned labours he found time to write poetry, and the pieces which he produced at this period, were, after the author’s death, collected and publifhed in an 8vo. volume, which has been many times reprinted. In 1698, Manfredi was nominated profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of Bologna. All the time that he was not employed in the duties of his pro- fefforfhip, he devoted to the ftudy of aftronomy, and in com- pany with Victor Stancari, he {pent whole nights in con- templating the heavens, and obferving the motions and paflages of the ftars and planets. An account was pub- lifhed of their obfervations made before the year 1703. In the fame year Manfredi publifhed a treatife * On the folar Spots,” and in the following feafon he was appointed by the fenate of Bologna to the office of fuperintendant-gene- ral of the rivers and waters of the Bolognefe. The duties of this office he conduéted with a degree of {kill and pru- dence, that proved highly beneficial to his country, and gave him a firft rate reputation as a praétical hydraulift. About the fame time he was elected regent to the college of Monte-alto, founded by pope Sixtus V. at Bologna, for the education of young perfons of his province, who were intended for the church ; in thisfituation, which was thought to be unworthy of, his talents, he was enabled to do much for the eftablifhed religion, by fending into its fervice many celebrated divines, and others who fuitained a confpicuous rank in the republic of letters. In the midit of his various labours, Manfredi found leifure to continue his aftronomical ftudies, and to attend to other mathematical fubjeéts; at the fame time he correfponded with men of f{cience in dif- ferent parts of Europe, and began the compofition of his famous “ Ephemerides,’’? which were afterwards publifhed in feveral quarto volumes. In the year 1717, Manfredi was fent to Rome, on the fubjeét of a difpute between the cities of Bologna and Ferrara, ref{pecting the manner of con- duéting the inundations of the river Rheno into the Po, On his return home, he refumed his aftronomical labours, and in 1723 had the long wifhed-for opportunity of obfery- ing a tranfit of Mercury over the fun, of which he publifhed an account in the following year, under the title of “ Con. greflus Mercurii de folis in Aftronomia Specula Bononienfis Scientiarum Inftituti,"’ &c. In 1726 he was admitted an 3D2 aflociate MAN affociate of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, to whom he fent a treatife “On the Method of detcrmining the Figure of the Earth from the Parallax of the Meon,”’ and another **On the Mode of defining the Solitices, by the fixed Stars.” In 1729, he was elected a foreign mem- ber of the Royal Society at London. In his latter years, he employed himfelf in completing his «* Elements of Geo- métry and Trigonometry,” which he had formerly drawn up for the ufe of a young nobleman, and his « Aftronomi- cal Inftitutions.’’? He died in the year 1739, when he was in the fixty-fifth year of his age. He was author of a great number of works which have not been noticed above, but the titles of which may be found in ‘* Fabroni Vit. Italor. Dok.” He had a brether Gabriel, who firft introduced into the univerfity of Bologna the ftudy of algebra, and the new analyiis, and acquired much celebrity by his trea- tife « De Conftruétione ASquationum Dhfferentialium primi Generis,’ publifhed in 1707. He died in the year 1761, at the age of eighty.’ Moreri. MANFREDONIA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Naples, in Capitanata, feated on a bay of the Adriatic, called the “ gulf of Manfredonia.’’ King Manfred, who founded it in the year 1256, took great pains to give it per- manent celebrity. Befides feeking counfel as to the place and time of building it, from the moft eminent aftrologers, to whom he could have accefs, he {pared no labour or ex- pence in the conftruétion of it. The port was fecured from ftorms by a pier, the ramparts were built of the moft folid materials, and in the great tower was fixed a bell, of fo large a fize, that it might be heard over all the plains of Capitanata, to dlarm the country in cafe of an invafion. He alfo took cate to have it erected into an archbifhopric. Notwithftanding all his precautions, it fearcely mutters 6000 inhabitants; though moft of the corn exported from the province is fhipped off here, and a direét trade carried on with Venice and Greece, with a view to which a laza- retto is eftablifhed. Vegetables of all forts are abundant in the vicinity of this town, and fifh is plentiful and cheap ; 93 miles N.E. of Naples. N. lat. 41° 42'. E. long. 51° 61. MANFRO, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coaft, near Cape Coaft. The town is of an oval form, fituated on the banks of a river, in a place almoft inacceflible, on account of rugged rocks that furround it. ‘he inhabitants are in- ceNfantly employed in fifhing, agriculture, and making falt, which is much wanted ; and many of them aét as factors to the merchants of the interior parts. MANG, a river of the county of Kerry, which rifes in the mountains adjoining Cork and Limerick, and falls into Caftlemain harbour, at the bottom of the great bay of Dingle, which can only admit vefiels of moderate burden. The Mang, which is navigable to Caftlemain, was the nor- thern boundary of the ancient county palatine of Defmond. Beaufort. Mane, in Rural Economy, a provincial word applied to fignify a math of bran, malt, or other fimilar fub{tance. MANGA, in Gardening. See MANGIFERA. MANGABEY, iu Zoology, the white eye-lid ape of Pennant. See Suma Zthiops. M:NGAGUABO, in Geography, a river of Brafil, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 6° 56/. MANGALA, in Afronomy, is the Sanfkrit name of the planet Mars, and he, as in Europe, prefides over Tuefday. In Indian paintings, he is reprefented of a deep red colour, with pink clothing, mounted fometimes on a white ram, with red legs, fometimes on a horfe, and hold- ing a lotus and a ftaff m ‘/his hands. MAN MANGALLO, in Geography, a town of Africa, im uerimba. S. lat. 10° 10’. E. long. 41° 20!. MANGALLOON, a fmall ifland near the N.W. coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 9!. E. long. 115° 36’. MANGALORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Ca- nara country, on the coaft of Malabar, with a good road for veffels in the rainy feafon. It was ceded to Britain in 1794; 124 miles W.N.W. of Seringapatam. N. lat. 12° so'. E. long. 74° 44'.—Alfo, a town of Hindooltan, in the Carnatic ; 32 miles S. of Arcot.—Alfo, a town of Hin- dooftan, in the circar of Rachore; 100 miles W.S.W. of Rachore.—Alfo, a town of Hindooitan, in Guzerat, on the coaft; 12 miles N. of Puttan Sumnaut.—Alfo, a town of the Carnatic ; 10 miles N. of Volconda, MANGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore ; 25 miles S.E. of Coimbetore. MANGAN Istanps, a clufter of fmall iflands, in the gulf ef St. Laurence, near the S. coaft of Labrador. N, lat. 50° 15’. W. long. 63° 4o’. ANGANADIA, a town of Hindeoftan, in Cochin; 20 miles N.E. of Cochin. MANGANESE, in Chemifiry, an elementary oxydable body, anda metal. It may be obtained in a flate of purity from any of its ores defcribed in the next article. The native black oxyd, however, is the moft convenient for affording this metallic fubitance. In order to obtain the oxyd free from the oxyds of other metals, the black oxyd muit be dif- folved m muriatic acid. Sulphuric acid being gradually added, the lime and barytes, if it contain any, will be precipitated in the ftate of fulphats of thofe earths. The folution may contain oxyds of iron and copper, befides that of manganefe. Carbonat of potafh being added will dif. folve the manganefe, but will precipitate the other oxyds. The oxyd of manganefe may be afterwards precipitated by pure potafh. The above folution of the different metals may alfo be treated as follows. The copper may be precipitated by a clean piece of iron, and the iron be afterwards feparated by the fuccinat of potafh. The oxyd of manganefe may at the laft be feparated by pure potafh. The oxyd of man- ganefe, thus feparated, is ina ftate of powder. Let this powder be made into a pafte with oil, and put into a cru- cible lined with charcoal, and filled up with powdered charcoal, the whole being clofely covered: ‘The crucible is now to be expofed for an‘hour to the intenfe heat of a forge fire, or a blaft-furnace, on the plan of Dr; Aikin’s. At the bottom of the crucible will be found {mall metallic grains, which are the manganefe in its metallic form. For this procefs we are indebted to Ghan, who firlt fueceeded in the reduétion of this metal. This metal, when pure, is of a greyifh-white colour, of tolerable metallic luitre. Its fpecitic gravity is about 6.85. It is very brittle, and in hardnefs little inferior to iron. Hence it is not a malleable metal. It melts at 160” Wedge- wood. It is not magnetic when perfectly free from iron, It has no perceptibie tafte or fmell: when expofed to the air it foon lofes its metallic lultre, and changes into the {tate of a brown powder, which ultimately becomes black. Thefe changes are produced by its combination with oxy- gen, for which it poflefles a {tronger affinity at the common temperature than any of the metals, with the exception of the bafis of the earth and alkalies. This property renders it of little or no ufe in the metallic ftate. It combines withthreedofes of oxygen. The protoxyd, or firft oxyd, is obtained by diffolving the black oxyd of manganefe in nitric acid, adding, at the fame time, fome {ugar or other inflammable matter, to take the excefs of oxygen ee MANGANESE. oxygen from the black oxyd. The folution, by this treat- ment, becomes a nitrat of manganefe, with an oxyd at a minimum of oxydation. On pure potafh being added, the protoxyd is precipitated of a white colour. It is com- pofed, according to Bergman, of 80 of manganefe and 20 of oxygen in the roo. This oxyd, expofed to the air, foon changes to a brown, and ultimately becomes of a black colour, by combining with more oxygen. The fecond, or deuterotoxyd, is eafily obtained by diffolv- ing black oxyd in fulphuric acid with heat. A portion of oxygen gas is feparated, fo asto conititute this oxyd. If to the folution pure potafh be added, the oxyd is precipitated of ared colour. It is compofed of 74 of manganefe and 26 of oxygen, from the authority of Bergman. This oxyd, like the lat, attracts more oxygen from the atmofphere, and becomes black. The black, or peroxyd of manganefe, may be obtained by expofing the other oxyds to the air for fome time. In a ftate of lefs purity it is found abundantly in nature, in which ftate it is ufed in bleaching linen and calico, to furnifh oxygen to the muriatic acid. When expofed to a red heat it gives out one dofe of oxygen, and is converted into the fecond, or red oxyd. Hence its ufe in the chemical elaboratory for furnifhing oxygen gas. It fometimes, however, contains carbonat of lime, in which cafe the gas obtained is liable to contain carbonic acid gas. The latter may be feparated from the oxygen by pafling the gas through lime water. The pure black oxyd is com- pofed of 60 of manganefe and 40 of oxygen. The oxyds of manganefe have not been exammed by many chemifts. We are indebted to Bergman for almolt the whole of our knowledge of thefe compounds. If bodies combine in limited dofes, according to the hypothelis of Dalton, the relative proportions of oxygen will be found incorreét. Agreeably to the proportion of the red oxyd, which is 26 per cent. Dalton fixes the atom of manganefe ai 40, the oxygen being 7. Hesce, for the protoxyd, we have sc = _, or nearly 15 per cent. of oxygen. 40+2 7 WK 26 per cent. agreeably to the authority of Bergman. The black, or peroxyd, from the fame data, will be ='——, or For the fecond oxygen we have 56 AO TS KT NO on 344 per cent. Hence it would igh ae tie ait appear that the protoxyd and the peroxyds are a littlé over- rated. The black oxyd of manganefe is ufed in the manufac- ture of flint glafs, along with the oxyd of lead, to render the glafs colourlefs. The oxyd of manganefe alone would give to the glafs a purple colour, while the lead would ren- der it of a yellow colour. In certain proportions, however, they produce no colour. May not this arife from the mix- ture of the three primitive colours conttituting whitenefs, namely, the purple, or blue and red, of the manganefe, with the yellow of the lead ? If this effet depended upon the oxygen of the manga- nele, to which it has by fome been attributed, the glafs ought to be more coloured, from the oxyd of lead being more coloured in proportion to the oxygen it contains, The black oxyd of manganefe, when mixed with drying oil to form paint, caufes {pontaneous inflammation, Manganefe does not combine with hydrogen, nor, in all] probability, with carbon. The metal does not, according to Bergman, combine with fulphur. The fame chemilt, however, fucceeded in com- bining its oxyd with fulphur, forming a fulphuretted oxyd- It is of a green colour, and affords fulphuretted hydrogen by treating with acids. There is ftrong reafon to believe that fulphuret of manganefe may be formed, fince a native fulphuret has been found. Phofphorus combines with manganefe, forming a cryftal- line, brittle, white fubftance, which is not decompofed at the common temperature. It is more fufible than manganefe, but at this heat the phofphorus burns, and the manganefe combines with the oxygen of the atmofphere. Manganefe combines with fome of the malats, forming alloys. Mr. Hatchett fucceeded in alloying manganefe with gold by the following procefs. The black oxyd was frequently heated with oil, till the oil inflamed. By this means, the oxyd was partly reduced. This fubiftance was introduced, with fome gold, into a crucible lined with charcoal, and clofely covered ; a {trong heat was applied. The gold by this means combined with fome of the manganefe, forming an alloy of a yellowifh-grey colour. It was very hard, and fufceptble of a good polith. This alloy contained from 4th to jth of manganefe. gold could be feparated by eupellation. Manganefe does not combine with mercury; it combines with copper, forming an alloy of a red colour, which is malleable. It combines with iron with great facility, and is often a component part of iron, made from iron ores containing manganele. It is faid to be effential to the formation of fteel, and that no iron can be uted for making fleel but fuch as contains manganefe. ‘This, however, is very doubt- ful. ‘The alloys of manganefe with bifmuth and antimony are difficult to form, and of no importance. Salis of Manganefe.—Aithough the oxyd of manganefe combines with the acids like the reft of the metallic oxyds, the properties of molt of thefe compounds haye not been attended to by chemitts. Sulphat of Manganefe.—When dilute fulphuric acid is ap- plied to this metal the water is decompofed, hydrogen gas is evolved, and the acid combines with oxyd, forming a ful- phat of manganefe. The folation of this falt is colourlefs ; it affords cryitals by evaporation of a rhomboidal form. It has a bitter difagreeable tafte ; when expofed to ftrong heat the acid efcapes. This falt confifts of the protoxyd united with the acid ; and agreeably to the hypothefis of Dalton, the atom of acid being 34, and the oxyd 4o + 7, the compofition of the GO Hist 34 34 42 0f acid and 58 of white oxyd. Oxy/ulphat of Manganefe.—This falt confifts of the red oxyd of manganefe combined with the acid. It may be formed by diftilling a mixture of fulphuric acid with the black oxyd. A quantity of oxygen gas comes over, anda liquid of a purple colour, which is water, containing the oxyfulphat. When evaporated it affords a glutinous mafs, which gives fome cryi{tals with difficulty. When an alkali is added, the red oxyd is precipitated. This falt, from the above The iKele) Sperone falt ought to be- = = which gives 100; MANGANESE. above data, fuppofing it to be neutral, fhould be compofed 40+2xX 7+ 34 as follows, » which gives 38.6 acid, and 61.4 redoxyd. The way in which this falt is prepared, ren- ders it probable that it is fuper-falt, a fub-falt being left in the retort. 40+2xX 7+ 34x 2 The fuper-falt will be, therefore, : 34 x 2 ° : = » or 55.74 acid, and 44.26 of red oxyd. The 35-74 55-74 , 44 y fub-falt would be (40 + 2 x 7) 2X 7) x 2 + 3. 8 84s 399; 34 24 24 acid, and 76 red oxyd. The fulphurous acid added to the black oxyd is converted into the ahha acid, and dif- folves the remaining oxyd forming the fulphat. Nitrat of Manganefe.—When the metal is added to dilute nitric acid, fumes of nitrous gas, mixed with nitrogen, and, perhaps, the nitrous oxyd, are difengaged, arifing from the decompofition of part of the acid, while the remaining acid diffolves the oxyd forming the falt in queftion. It may alfo be formed by adding the black oxyd to the acid, at the fame time adding fome fugar to take up the excefs of oxy- gen, which the black oxyd contains above that of the white. Carbonic acid gas is, in confequence, evolved, and the white oxyd is diffolved. The folution of this falt is colourlefs ; it does not afford cryftals by evaporation. If the heat be continued to dry- nefs the falt is decompofed, the acid being feparated. Its component parts, fuppofing it a fuper-falt, will be or 40 filicifere blanc et rofe, Haiiy ; Manganese tithoide blanc et rouge, Brongn. Its colour is rofe red of various intenfity ; and fometimes a very light yellowifh-brown. It-occurs maffive and difleminated. Internally it is dull. Fraéture even, pafling into large and flat conchoidal, and alfo fometimes into {plintery fragments : indeterminately an- gular, pretty fharp-edged. It is flightly tranflucent, hard enough to fcratch glafs ; brittle, and eafily frangible. Specific gravity 3.233, Kirwan, that of the Siberian 3.676, Lampadins. Is infufible before the blowpipe without addition, but affumes a brownith colour ; if the flame be urged by oxygen gat, {mall particles will melt into a brownifh-black . bead, Vor. XXII. Strahan and Prefion, New-Street Square, London, attraCtable by the magnet. .The Siberian red manganefe ore, analyfed by Lampadius, is ftated by this chemift to be fufible by the heat of the blowpipe, when continued for a few minutes, into a fhining black enamel ; and much more eafily with borax. . According to the analylis given by Ruprecht, that from Tranfylvania confilts of Oxyd of manganefe - - - “I Oxyd of iron - - - - “TN Silica - - - - - 55.06 Alumine - - - ait <1656 Water - - - - 0.78 99-59 The analyfis of red marganefe from Kapnik by Lam« padius, appears to be that of a red variety of pearl-fpar ; (or perhaps of real carbonat of manganefe.) The: fame chemift has, however, given an analyfis of the red manga- nefian foffil from Siberia, which certainly belongs to the fubftance under confideration, although Mr. Lampadius himfelf appears to be of a different opinion. ‘The refulte of his analyfis are Oxyd of manrganefe = - - 0.610 Oxyd of iron - - - - 0.050 Silica - - - - - (0.300 Alumine & - - ~ 0.020 (Gols n= = - - - 0.020 1000 The red manganefe ore of Kapnik, which is placed by Mohs, near pearl-fpar, under the name of Rothttein, is found there as part of a vein formation, together with black filver ore, (Schwartz-giltig-ertz,) brown and yellow blende, galena, quartz, and ‘now and then with fome pearl- fpar. ‘The veins containing this formation are moftly nar- row, and often of a ftratified ftructure, in fuch a manner that either maffive quartz, or a mixture of quartz and red manganefe, (Rothitein), alternate with ftrata of black filver ore, and blende, or galena, from the fides towards the centre of the vein, where the drufes are generally incrufted with cryftallized quarta, or alfo with pearl-{par. This, accord- ing to Mohs, is the general nature of thofe veins, which however, alfo contain cther foffils befides. IV. Sulphuret of manganefe ; Braunflein blende ; Mangan- glantz, Karit.; Schwartz, Klapr. Reufs. Its colour is between iron and pitch-black, here and there with a ruft-coloured covering, often with variegated tar- nifh. Colour of the powder dark brafs-yellow paffing into greenith. It is found maffive, or coarfely diffeminated in red man- ganefe ore, which it alfo traverfes in foliated: layers. Texture in one direction imperfeétly foliated; direGion of the folia approaching to curved foliated, According to Haiiy it is divilible into a rhomboidal prifm, which may be fubdivided in the direction of the diagonals of its tranf- verfal fection. It is opaque ; its luftre is femi-metallic fhining ; the ruft- coloured decompefing parts dull ; ftreak fhining. Fraéture fine-grained uneven ; fragments indeterminately angular, not particularly fharp-edged. It is foft, mild, and not difficultly frangible. Specific gravity 3.950. Klapr. Infufible before the blowpipe. When pulverized it gives out fulphureted hydrogen as the addition of nitrous acid. 3.5 , According MAN According to Klaproth’s analyfis, it confifts of Oxyd oF manganefe = - - 82 Carbonic acid : 2 : 5 Sulphur - : - : it 98 Klapr. Beitr. 3. Vauquelin is of opinion, that the carbonic acid in the preceding analyfis belongs to the matrix of this ore. Ac- cording to this chemift the conftituents are: manganefe at the minimum of oxydation 85, and fulphur 15. It is found in Tranfylvania, in red manganefe ore accom- panied with black tellurium, red and brown blende (ful- phuret of zinc), copper pyrites, &c. According to Delrio it has Alfo been lately found in Mexico. V. Phofphat of mangansfe; Pho/phor-mangan, Karft.; Eifen-pech eritz, Wern.; Manganefe phofphate ( ferrifere), Haiiy. “re colour is reddifh and blackifh-brown, which paffes into black; colour of the ftreak greyifh, yellowifh, or reddifh-brown. It occurs maffive. According to Haiiy it is divifible in the direétion of planes, which appear to indicate a re¢tan- gular parallelopipedon for the nucleus. ; Internally it is fhining and gliftening, with a refinous luftre. Fraéture flat and imperfetly conchoidal, paffing into fine-grained uneven ; fragments indeterminately angular. It is faintly tranflucent at the edges. It is femihard, pafling into foft ; brittle. Specific gravity 3.95. It is readily fufible before the blowpipe into a black enamel; and is entirely foluble in nitric acid without effer- yefcence. It is feldom found pure, generally containing iron, which, however, according to Darcet, appears to be accidental ; the phofphoric acid being probably combined with the man- anefe alone. The light coloured varieties contain but a {mall quantity of iron. Vauquelin, who analyfed this ore, obtained the following refult : Oxyd of manganefe - 4 = 42 Oxyd of iron - - = ED ME Phofphoric acid “ 5 ~ 27 100 Journ. des Mines. It has hitherto been found only near Limoges in France ; it occurs in granite, in the fame veins that contain the well known opaque beryl. MANGANUM, Mey/a01, among the Greeks, a general name for inftruments to throw large ftones with. MANGATTYI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Travancore ; 18 miles N.E. of Anjenga. MANGAVEIRAS, a town of Brafil, in the govern- ment of Para; 35 miles N.E. of Engenhoreal. MANGEABOONG, a town on the N.W. coatt of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 3/. E. long. 116° 9. MANGEART, Tuomas, in Biography, a learned monk, who obtained a very high reputation by his know- ledge, and was appointed antiquary, librarian, and coun- fellor to duke Charles of Lorrain. He died in 1763, and is known in the republic of letters for a work entitled MAN “ Tntrodution & la Science des Medailles,’’ fol. This work contains all the principles laid down in the elementary trea- tifes on the numifmatic fcience, and ferves as a fupplement to the “ Antiquité expliquee”’ of Montfaucon. MANGEE, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 13 miles W.N.W. of Chupra. MANGEEA, or Maneya, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, difcovered by captain Cook in the year 1777 3 but on which he could find neither a landing place nor anchorage. Such parts as fell under our navigator’s ob- fervation were guarded by a reef of coral rock, on the out- fide of which the fea is of an unfathomable depth. It is full five leagues in circuit, and of a moderate and pretty equal height; though, in clear weather, it may be feen at the diftance of ten leagues. In the middle it rifes into little hills, from which there is a gentle defcent to the fhore, which, at the S.W. part, is fteep, though not above 10 or 12 feet high, and has feveral excavations made by the beat- ing of the waves againft a brownifh fand-ftone of which it is compofed. The defcent is covered with trees of a deep green colour, yery thick, but not high, feeming to be of the fame fort, except- near the fhore, where are many of that {pecies of draczena found in the woods of New Zealand. On the N.W. part the fhore terminates in a fandy beach, beyoud which the land is broken down into {mall chafms or gullies, and has a broad border of trees refembling tall willows. Farther on the afcent, the trees were of the deep green above-mentioned ; and were fuppofed by fome to be the rima, intermixed with low cocoa-palms, and a few of fome other forts. On the little hills were trees of a taller fort, thinly fcattered; but the other parts were baré, and of a reddifh colour, or covered with fomething like fern. Upon the whole Cook obferves, that the ifland has a pretty afpeét, and might be made a beautiful fpot by cultivation. When this ifland was firft difcovered, feveral of the natives were obferved to be armed with long fpears and clubs, which they brandifhed. in the air either with figns of threatenings, or, as fome thought, with invitations to land. Moft of them appeared naked, exeept having a fort of girdle, which pafling between the thighs covered that part of the body. Some of them, however, had pieces of cloth of different colours, which they wore as a garment, thrown over their fhoulders: and almoft all of them had a white wrapper about their heads, not much unlike a turban, or like a high conical cap. Their colour was tawny, and they were in general of a middling ftature, but robuft and in- clining to corpulence. ‘They were at firlt afraid of ap- proaching the fhip in their canoe; but being addrefled by Omai in the Otaheitean language, their apprehenfions fub- fided, and they came near enough to take fome beads and nails, which were thrown into their canoe. ‘They were at firft afraid of touching thefe things, which probably arofe from fuperftition ; for Omai ‘ade toot that when prefents were offered them, they afked fomething for their ‘* Eatooa,"’ or god. When they were afked, if they ever ate human flefh ; they anfwered in the negative, with a mixture of in- dignation and abhorrence. They wore a kind of fandals, made of a grafly {ubftance interwoven, probably to defend their feet againft the rough coral rock on the fhore. Their beards were long; and the infide of their arms, from the fhoulder to the elbow, and fome other parts, were punc- tured or tattooed, like the inhabitants of almolt all the other iflands in the South fea. The lobes of their ears were pierced, or flit, to fuch a length, that one of them ftuck there a knife and fome beads which’ had been given him; and the fame perfon had two polifhed pearl-fhells and a bunch of human hair, loofely twilted, hanging about his 2 neck, MAN neck, which was the only ornament that was obferved. The only canoe, that was feen, was not above to feet long, and very narrow, but both ftrong and neatly made. As the inhabitants feemed to be numerous and well fed, fuck artt- cles of provilion as the ifland produces mult be very plen- tiful. One of the iflanders who came on board informed our navigators, that they had no animals, as hogs and dogs, both which they had heard of; but acknowledged that they had plantains, bread fruit, and taro. The only birds that were feen were fome white egg-birds, terns, and nod- dies ; and one white heron on the fhore. The language of the inhabitants of Mangeea is a diale& of that fpoken at Otaheite; though their pronunciation, like that of the New Zealanders, be more guttural. The natives of Man- geea feem to refemble thofe of Otaheite and the Marquefas in the beauty of their perfons, more than thofe of any other nation feen by Capt. Cook in thofe feas; having a fmooth {kin and not being mufcular. Their general difpo- fition alfo correfponds with that which diftinguifhes the firft mentioned people ; for they are not only cheerful, but are acquainted with all the lafcivious gefticulations which are practifed by the Otaheiteans in their dances. ‘Their houfes alfo feem to refemble thofe of Otaheite. They falute ftrangers much after the manner of the New Zealanders, by joining nofes; adding, however, the ceremony of taking the hand of the perfon to whom they are paying civilities, and rubbing it with a degree of force upon their nofe and mouth. Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. 1. MANGEL Worzet, in Agriculture, a plant of the tap- rooted kind, which has been lately introduced into field culture. It is a variety of the common beet. The author of a late work on hufbandry remarks, that it grows toa large fize, both in the root and top, the former being of a reddith caft, and the leaves in the latter of an oblong form, extremely thick, flefhy, and fucculent. Mr. Young, how- ever, obferves, that it is but little in cultivation at prefent ; though in Norfolk, fir Mordaunt Martin finds the root ad- vantageous for his cow ftock. The leaves are aflerted to be “ equal in quality to fpinach, and from their frequently extending in length more than thirty inches, and in breadth above twenty, to greatly exceed that vegetable in point of produce.”’ Soil_—This, like all other tap-rooted plants that have been employed for the purpofes of hufbandry, thrives the beft in foils of the deep, friable, fandy, or light loamy defcriptions. Preparation.—In preparing the ground for its reception, it is neceffary to render it as deep and fine as poffible in the mould. This may be belt effected in the heavier forts of land, by means of trench ploughing, in the manner of that for parfnips; and in thofe of the lighter kind, by repeated common deep ploughings. In both cafes, the frequent ufe of the harrows will be requifite. A proportion of good manure fhould alfo be turned in, fo as to render the ground fufficiently rich for the perfect growth of the plants. After this, at the time of putting in the feed, the land fhould be thrown into two-bout ridges, which leaves the tops about two feet in breadth, and the furrows one. In this way a confiderable increafe in the depth of mould is provided for the roots of the plants. And in foils that are in fome meafure retentive of moilture, the lands are kept much drier, and in a {tate more fit for the growth of the lants. Seed and Method of fowing.—It is advifed, that the feed fhould be carefully telected from fuch plants as are the molt perfect of their kind, and that have been cultivated at a diftance from other varieties. Jt fhould have arrived at a MAN full ftate of ripenefs, and be made ufe of while frefh. The moft proper feafon for putting the feed into the ground in the common method of fowing, is in the early part of the {pring as foon as the feafon will admit, as in the beginning or middle of April; but where the tranfplanting method is intended, it fhould be fown much earlier and very thinly, as the beginning of March, in order that the plants may be in a {tate to be fet out. The moft common method, where the furface of the land is flat, is to fow the feed thinly over the ground, in the manner that is pra¢tifed for carrots, covering the feed in by means of very light harrowing. In this way, the plants are afterwards fet out by the hoe to proper diftances. But where the land is raifed into ridges in the manner juit defcribed, another mode is pra¢tifed: the feed is dropped fingly by the hand into little holes made by a dibble, to the depth of about half an inch, all along the middle of them, at the diftance of eight or nine inches from each other ; the plants thus ftanding at the diftance of three feet, from row to row, and eight or nine inches apart in them. But as it is not neceflary that they fhould {tand nearer than 16 or 18 inches, every other plant may be removed, and ufed for filling up vacancies, where they occur, or if not wanted in that way, wholly removed by the hoe. In this mode the intervals can be kept perfectly clean by the plough or horfe- hoe, and the rows by hand-hoeing. In the practice of tranfplanting, the plants fhould be re- moved, when not more than three or four inches in length, and be planted out in rows upon ridges prepared as above at the diftance of 18 inches each way. In perform- ing the work, the holes fhould be made fufficiently deep to admit the roots without their being bent. The tops of the plants may be taken off before planting, but the roots fhould not be touched, nor fhould they be put in too deep. A rather moift feafon fhould be chofen, if poffible, for this bufinefs. But though the plants grow well in this method, the roots feldom become fo large as when they have re- mained in their original fituation. All the culture that is afterwards neceffary in this fort of crop, is to fet out the plants to proper diftances, where put in, in the firft methods, and keep them clear from weeds by one or more hoeings, according to the manner of fowing that may have been practifed, and other circum- ftances. H It has been ftated that the application of this vegetable “has been chiefly in the feeding of neat cattle and hogs ; in which both the tops and roots have been employed, but without that fuccefs which might have been expected from the marner in which it was brought to the notice of culti- vators.’? It is probable, that upon the whole, the root has neither been found to be equal in quality as a cattle food, or to afford the quantity of produce that was fuppofed upon ite firft introduétion, but from its being of a hardy nature, and not liable to be injured, either by infeéts or the effeéts of drought, as well as from its leaves being capable of being repeatedly cut over, it may be occafionally culti- vated in fituatioas where green food is much wanted in the latter end of the year, for milch cows or other forts of live ftock. In fome trials detailed in the Annals of Agriculture, the plants feem, however, to have afforded a large produce in leaves, when gathered every two or three days, from July till late in September ; others have not found the whole pro- duce, in leaves and roots, equal to that of the large cabbage, on the fame kinds of foil, while the culture was confider- ably more troublefome and expenfive, and the crop not fo ufeful for the purpofe of winter confumption. 2E 3 In MAN In the trials of an ingenious cultivator, as ftated in the Bath Papers, the tops were found to be eaten wiih much greedinels by cows, calves, and hogs, when cut green, during the latter part of the fummer andin autumn, but the roots were almolt wholly rejected at thefe periods, though in winter, after they had been taken up, they were eaten very well, The great objections to this vegetable, as a field plant, are, according to a late writer, © the great expence of its culture, its being liable to degenerate, and the fbreus na- ture of the roots rendering their preparation as cattle food troublefome.’’ The roots frequently rife, it is faid, to the weight of from five to eight or ten pounds, according to the goodnefs of the land; and they may be preferved in the winter, by being taken up and packed in the manner of carrots, or any other method. MANGEN, in Cesgraphy, a town of the duchy of Courland ; ro miles S.W. of Piltyn. MANGER, in Ship Building, a place parted off imme- diately within the hawle-holes. It prevents whatever water that comes in at the hawfe-holes from running off, and is returned back again by the fcuppers in the manger. Manezr, in Rural Economy, an internal part of the flable in which the corn er cut provender of the horfe 1s put. It isa fort of box or crib, and the ufual method is to have them the whole breadth of the flall ; but this is un- neceflary, as when eighteen or twenty inches in length, and fourteei or fixteen in breadth, they will be fufficient for every ufeful purpofe. In the fixing of them they fhould be fo concrived as to admit of being removed for the purpofe of being cleaned. This can, however, never be done in the old method of fixing them: but, by a little contrivance, may be ealily effeGied. It is, in many cafes, a convenient plan to have them in the corners or angles at the heads of the ftalls. See Srasieand Srart. MANGERA, in Geography, an illand of Mexico, about four miles in circumference, in the gulf of Amapalla. MancGera Strait, a channel of the Eatft Indian fea, be- tween the iflands of Cumbava and Flores, full of fmall iflands. Flores is alfo called Mangeray. . MANGERBARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifia- pour; 15 miles S. of Merritch, MANGERTON, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of Kerry, S. of the lake of Killarney, and forming a very interetting objeét in the fcenery of that beautiful and ro- mantic fpot. It-is one of the higheft mountains in Ireland, being 2500 feet above the lake. From its {ummit, the two Jakes, with the paflage between them, and a large tract of country, may be feen to great advantage. | 'T’o afcend Man- gerton fhould therefore be a fixed object of every perfon who vilits Killarney. MANGET, Jonny James, in Biography, a laborious me- dical writer, was born at Geneva in June, 1652. After going through his claffical ftudies and the courfes of phi- lofophy, he commenced the fludy of theology, with the in- _ tention of entering the clerical profeflion, but afier five years of labour, his inclination to medical purfuits pre- vailed, and by the aid of books alone, without any teacher, he made fuch a progrefs, that he was admitted to the degree of M.D. at Valence, in Dauphiny, in 1678. He then com- menced the practice of phylic, in which he obtained con- liderable reputation in his native city, which he refufed to quit, though folicited by invitations from various quar ters. In 1699, Frederick III, elector of Brandenburg, and afterwards the firlt king of Pruffia, honoured him with, the appointment of his firft phyfician. In his literary la- MAN panes Manget was indefatigable, even to the end of his long ife. learned men of his time, fome of whom, efpecially Daniel le Clerc, the author of the Hiltory of Medicine, are faid to have affiited him in his works. He died at Geneva in Au- gult, 1742, in the ninety-firfl year of his age. Among the numerous works of compilation, which Man- get executed, originality is not to be expected; nor are they remarkable for judgment and accuracy, They are, however, {till ufeful for reference. ‘They are as follows: 1. ‘¢ Meflis Medico-fpagyrica, &c.’’ folio, Geneva, 1683 ; which contains a moft abundant collection of pharmaceu- tical preparations, arranged in a very complex order. 2. In the fame year he edited, ‘ Pauli Barbette Opera omnia Medica & Chirurgica,’’ with additional cafes and illuftra- tions. 3. ‘ Bibliotheca Anatomica,’’ 1685, two vols. fo> lio; a work which was executed in conjunction with Daniel le Clerc. He afterwards edited; 4. ‘he « Compendium Medicine Praéticum,’’ of J. And. Schmitz. 5. The «¢ Pharmcopeia Schrodero-Hoffmanniana.” 6.'The “ Trac- tatus de Febribus” of Franc. Pieus; and 7. The “ Sepul- chretum’’ of Bonetus, to which he added feveral remarks and hiftories. 8. In 1695, he publifhed his ‘“ Bibliotheca Medico-Practica,”’ four vols. folio ; a vaft collection of prac- tical matter relative to all the difeafes of the human body, arrangedin alphabetical order. Other compilations ofa fimilar kind he afterwards publifhed relative to furgery, chemiftry, and pharmacy: wiz. g. ¢ Bibliotheca Chemica curiofa,’’ two vols, folio, 1702; 10. ‘ Bibliotheca Pharmaceutico- Medica,’’ two vols. folio, 1703 ; and 11. ‘¢ Bibliotheca Chi- rurgica,’”’ four vols. in two, tolio, 1721. But in the mean time, he had printed his (12.) ‘¢ Theatrum Anatomicum, cum Euftachu labulis Anatomicis,” two vols, folio, 1716, This is a defcription of all the parts of the body, abridged from various authors; the oileology is that of Bidloo; the myology that of Brown; and the f{planchnology that of Ruyfch; and his {eleétions are not to be praifed.. It has been juftiy objected to him, that he omitted to notice the difcoveries of the anatomilts of the fixteenth century. There is fearcely any thing of his own in this work, except fome morbid difieftions. On the appearance of the plague at Marfeilles, he publifhed a colle€tion of faéts and opinions . on that difeafe, under the title of “ Traité de la Peite recueilli des meilleurs Auteurs,’’? two vols. 12mo, Uy72Ks: and, in the folowing year, 14. ‘¢ Nouvelles Reflexions fur l Origine, la Caufe, la Propagation, les Preferyatifs, et la: Cure de Ja Peite,? 12m0. 15. His ‘ Obfervations fur la. Maladie qui a commencé depuis quelques années a attae quer le gros Betail,”’ was a colleétion of the opinions of the Genevefe phyticians concerning the diflemper of horned cattle. The laft work of Manget was his ‘ Bibliotheca Scriptorum Medicorum veterum et recentiorum,’’ at which he laboured when at leait eighty years of age, and publifhed it in two vols. folio, in 1731. It is the moit important of his produtions, being an uleful collection of medical lives, and catalogues of writings. Eloy Diét. Hilt. Gen. Biog, MANGEY, Tuomas, a learned Englith divine, was educated at St. John’s college, Cambridge, where, in due time, he took his degree of D.D. He was diltinguifhed in the church as prebendary of Durham, and publifhed an edition of ‘¢ Philo Judzus,” in 2 vols. folio: * An Anfwer to Toland’s Nazarenus ;” and a volume of * Sermons on the Lord’s Prayer.”” He died in the year 1755. MANGILERA, in Botany, is that celebrated. fruit of the ait Indies called AZango, whofe different. varieties are univerfally known and cultiyated in that country, being as much efteemed, and. nearly a& various in quality, as the different He maintained a correfpondence with mary of the . MAN different kinds of apples produced in England. ‘The ver- nacular name of this fruit, which may be confidered as a fort of plum, is AZanga, or Manghos, and this appellation being coupled to the verb fero, to bear, fhews the deriva- tion of its géneric name. Linn. Gen. 110. Schreb. 153. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1150. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 39. Jufl. 369. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 138. Gertn. t. roo. —Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Te- rebintacee, Sufi. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, deeply cloven into five, lanceolate fegments. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, fur- rowed, longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, awl- fhaped, fpreading, as long as the corolla ; anthers inclining to heart-fhaped. /i/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the calyx; ftigma fimple. Peric. Drupa kidney-fhaped, oblong, keeled, comprefled. Seed, an oblong, compreffed, woolly nut. Eff. Ch. + Corolla of five lanceolate petals. perior, kidney-fhaped. Nut woolly. 1. M. indica. Margo’ Tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 290. Jacq. Tc. Rar. v. 2. t. 337. Andr. Bot. Repof.t.425. (Manga domeftica; Rumph. Amboin. v. 1. 93. t. 25.)—Leaves ftalked, lanceolate-obiong. Four of the ftamens abortive. Native of the Ealt Indies. With us it is kept in the flove, where it bloffoms in {pring and autumn, though rarely. In India it forms a tall and fpreading free, not unlike an oak in its manner cf growth, with thick and wide-extended branches, but the wood is far more brittle and lefs hard and firm. Leaves {cattered, ftalked, fimple, about a {pah long, and an inch or two wide, wavy, entire, tapering at each end, veiny, fmooth and fhining. Panicles terminal, compound, fpreading, downy, of innumerable {mall white flowers; mott of which are abortive. /ruit the fize of a large plum, of an orange or tawny colour with a tinge of red; its pulp extremely juicy, with a rich fweet perfumed flavour, accompanied by a grateful acidity. Rumphius fays it is the fineft Indian fruit except the Mangottan ; (fee Garcrinta.) In an unripe ftate it makes an excellent pickle, often brought to Europe. 2. M. laxiflora. Loofe-flowered Mango. Lamarck Dict. v. 3. 697. Willd. n. 2.— Leaves ovato-lanceo- late, nearly feffile. Stamens all perfe. Fruit roundifh.” —Native of the ifland of Mauritius. We know this fpecies merely by Lamarck’s account. It is faid to have the habit of the foregoing, but the /eaves are nearly feffile, the pant- cles more elongated and lax, the /lamens all perfect, fegments of the calyx much more obtufe, and the fruit fmaller, more oval and rounded. 3. M. axillaris. Di&. v. 3. 697. Drupa fu- Axillary-flowered Mango: Tuinarck Willd. n, 3.—«« L-eves ovate-oblong, bluntifh. Panicles axillary. Stamens ten.”’—Found by Sonnerat in the Eaft Indies. Lamarck, who received it from that intelligent traveller, detcribes this {pecies as clearly diftinguithable from the two former by the above characters.’ ‘Che /eaves are four or five inches) long, and near two in breadth. Fruit the fize of a fmall cherry, but that author faw it only ina dry, and poflibly unripe {tate. ; : ; Another fpecies is defcribed in the Supplementum of Lin- neus, p. 156, by the name of M. pinnata, but this is now referred by Willdenow to Spondias, and, as it feems, juilly. See SPONDIAS. Maneivera, in Gardening, compretends a plant of the tree exotic kind for the ftove, of which the {pecies culti- vated is the Manyzo-tree (M. indica. ) There are feveral varieties, none of which are cultivated. Methad of Culture.—As the vegetative property of the MAN feed or nuts of this {pecies of tree does not feem. to bey long preferved, the readieft method to obtain plants, is to have a quantity of the nuts fet in tubs of earth in the coun- try where they grow naturally, and when the plants are grown a foot high, to have them fhipped, placing a cover- ing over them to defend them from the water and {pray of the fea, being careful not to give them too much, water in the paflage. When they arrive in a cold climate, they fhould be fereened from cold. The plants fhould afterwards be fet in pots filled with light kitchen-garden earth, and be placed in a dry ftove, where, in warm weather, they fhould have frefh air daily, and in winter the air be kept up to temperate, as marked on the botanical thermometer ; as they do not fucceed well in the tan-bed of the ove. And where the nuts are made ufe of, they fhould be fent over in wax to preferve their vegetative property. They are alfo capable of being increafed from cuttings, in the manner of gardenia, in this climate. MANGISCHLAK, in Geography, a. town on the E. coalt of the Cafpian fea, which is a place of confiderable trade between the Tartars and Ruffians of Aftrachan.; 180 miles S.E. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 44° 10!. . E. long. 52° 14!. MANGIT, a town of European Turkey, in. Beflarabia ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Tobak. MANGLARES, or Corn Istanp, -~ eo in the Spanifh Main, about 15 miles long 2-7 7YS toads near which is another {mall ifland calted: ‘ Lattle Manglares. N. lat. 11° 44! W. long. 82° 20!- MANGLE. See Lavuze** See R MAncLe, or Mangles, io Peeany. See Ruizopnora.. MANGLILLA. Jve® 25! A. Peruvian fhrub, witk the habit of a Che« y-laurel, but with {mall axillary pentan- drous flowers, to which Dombey gave the name of Duba- . - 2 2 Caballeria 1n the Flora Peruviana.. See melia. It is calles j Fe almatiaekancd talc Myxstxg, to which genus this plant 1s referre y reoRe Brow ENO R, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the: nravince of Aggerhuus ; 15 miles S. of Konigfwinger. MANGO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Agonnas;, which fee.—Alfo, a river of Sweden, which runs into the Wenner lake; 10 miles W. of Cariitadt, in the province of Warmeland. Manco-77ee, in. Botany. See MANGIFERA.. There are various forts of this fruit, as there are of our apples and pears, which are very different, according to the countries where they grow : that {pecies, which is with- out a ftone, and is very grateful to the palate, feems to us only a variety or a degenerated fruit ; the fruit is cut into flices, and eaten either without wine, or macerated in wine 5 it is alfo candied, in order to its prefervation ;. fometimes. they open it with a knife, and fill up the middle with freih ginger, garlick, muftard, and falt, with oil or vinegar,, that they may eat it with rice, or after the manner. of. pickled olives. ? As to its temperament, this fruit is cold and moift, though the Indian phyficians affirm the contrary. We make ufe of pickled mangoes which are imported to us, as we do» of pickled cucumbers. ‘The {tones roafted:are faid. to cure a loofenefs, which Garcias found to be true. The wood of the tree, with cinders, is ufed for burning the carcafes of the Pagans, as being confecrated to this rite ;. whence it ferves alfo for coffins, in which they depolit their dead ; it is, however, of a foft fubftance, and of a fhort duration, The ftalks fupply the place of areca, or caunga,, in the chewing of betel; the fame, calcined.and reduced to pow- der, take away warts. OF the tender leaves, with the bar Q MAN ef the avanacoe, that is, the ricinus, the feed of cummin and parpaclagam, is made a decoétion, which is faid to be highly beneficial in the cough, afthma, and other affections of the thorax. The bark of the tree pulverized, and taken in chicken broth, is an excellent diffolvent of ex- travafated and coagulated blood, occafioned by a fall, in any part of the body. The juice of the bark, with the white of an egg, and a very little opium, taken inwardly, is a prefent remedy againit the diarrhoea, dyfentery, and te- nefmus. Of the gum of the tree, and the flowers of rice, with the addition of a {mall quantity of opium and pepper, are prepared pills, which alfo cure all forts of fluxes of the belly. Of the flour of the dried kernels the natives have the art of preparing various kinds of food. James. Manoo, in Ornithology, a {pecies of Trochilus ; which fee. MANGONA, in Military Language, formed from a Greek word of the fame import, in the time of the lower empire, was ufed in general to denote all kinds of machines ; and Mangonel was a diminution, applied to the {maller machines. MANGONEGRO, in Geography, a market and poft- town of Spain, in the kingdom ot Seville, three leagues from Cordova. ; i ie PLAATIOAN ol j id S. lat. 19° gO NE, uel aes er Friendly iflands MANGOPUNGy, , atown of Hindooftan, in Mey- war ; 35 miles E. of Cheitore, MANGOR, a tow. of Africa, in the ki edom of SS MANGOSTANA, in B ’ MANG in Botas, MANGOUSTE, in Zoology, mig aes ay See Viverra and IcHNEUMON. ¥ 5% MANGRABA, in Geography, a tow : : in Bahar; 55 miles N. of Furypein et Se eC MANGROLLA, a town of Hindoottan, ;, Givers 25 miles N.E. of Surat. MANGROVE, in Botany. See RuizopHora. MANGROVE Grape. See CoccoLona. Mancrove Jfland, in Geography, a {mall ifland among the Bahamas. N. lat. 26° 12’. W. long. 78° 45". MaAnGrove River, a river of New Zealand, fo called by lieutenant Cook in 1769, on account of the number of mangrove trees about it, which runs into Mercury bay. The fafeft and beit way of failing into this river is to keep the fouth fhore all the way on the board. The country on the E. fide of the river and bay is very barren, its produea being only fern, and a few other plants that will grow in a poor foil. The land on the N. W. fide is covered with wood, and the foil, being much more fertile, will, doubtlefs, pro- duce all the neceffaries of life with proper cultivation. The inhabitants have no plantations; their canoes are mean, and without ornament ; they fleep in the open air, and fay, that Taratu, whofe fovereignty they do not acknowledge, if he was to eome among them, would kill them. Hence it was inferred, that they were outlaws; though they faid that they had heppahis, or ftrong holds, to which they re- tired in time of danger. Hawkefworth’s Voy. vol. ii. MANGSCHA TE, a town of Silelia, in the principality of Brieg ; 8 miles N.E. of Brieg. MANGULUM, a town of 25 miles S.5.E. of Coimbetore. * MANGUT, a town of Hindooftan, in Baramaul; 28 miles §.S.E. of Darempoor. MANGUTZKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the borders of China; 88 miles W. of Doro- ninfk. N. lat. 49° 40'. E. long, 110° 4/. indooftan, in Coimbetore ; MAN . MANHEIM, a city of Germany, now belonging to the eletorate of Baden, is fituated on a low plain, near the con- flux of the Neckar and the Rhine. The old village and citadel of Manheim were converted into a town by the elector Frederic IV. in the year 1606, and adapted to the accommo- dation of fome Netherlanders, who had quitted their country for the fake of liberty of confcience ; and though it was afterwards, viz. in 1622, befieged and taken by the Bava- rians, and again, viz. in 1688, entirely demolifhed by the French, it was re-built by the eleétors John William and Charles Philip, and fortified in fuch a manner, that it became one of the ftrongeit places in Germany. Its prefent works were formed upon the fyftem of Coehorn, The number of inhabitants, exclulive of the garrifon, was, in 1784, 21,858. Some of the ftreets are planted with rows of trees, and it has five or fix open places, fuitable for promenades or markets. The cuftom-houfe, forming one fide of thefe, is a noble ftone-building, refembling a palace, having under the colon- nades that furround it fhops for jewellery and other com- modities. "The elector’s palace opens on one fide to the city, and on the other to the ramparts ; it contains a galle’ for paintings, and cabinets of antiquities and fubje&s of natural hiftory, a library, treafury, and menage. Manheim was taken by the French in 1795, and, in 1802, it was ceded, together with its territory, to the margrave (elector) of Baden. N. lat. 49° 28! 59’. EE. long. 8° 27! 22", Manuetm School of Mufic. About the year 1759, the band of the elector palatine in this city, and at Schwet- zingen, was regarded as the moft complete and belt dif- ciplined in Europe. We found it to be, indeed, all that its fame had made us expeét: power will naturally arife from a great number of hands; but the judicious ufe of that power, on all occafions, muft be the confequence of good dif- cipline ; indeed, there were more folo players and good compofers in this than perhaps in any other orcheftra in Europe; it was an army of generals, equally fit to plana battle as to fight it. But it was not merely at the elector’s great operathat inftru- —ental mufic had been fo highly cultivated and refined, but at his concerts, where this extraordinary band had full liberty to difplay all its powers, and to produce great effets without the impropriety of deftroying the greater and more delicate beauties peculiar to vocal mutfic ; it was here that Stamitz, ftimulated by the produétions of Jomelli, firft furpaffed the bounds of common opera overtures, which had hitherto only ferved in the theatre as a kind of court-cryer, with an “O Yes !”? in order to awaken attention and befpeak filence “the entrance of the fingers. Since the difcovery which the gemu. ~© Stamitz firft made, every effet has been tried which fuch an aggic gate of found can produce; it was here that the crefcendo and diminuendo had birth ; and the piano, which was before chiefly ufed as an echo, with which it was generally fynonimous, as well as the forte, were found to be mufical colours which had their fhades, as much as red or blue in painting. In 1772, the band of his eleforal highnefs confifted of near a hundred hands and voices. Among whom were Hotzbauer, Canabich, Charles and John Toefchi, Bapt. and Charles Wendling, and the late excellent performer on the violin and leader, Cramer. 'There were twenty-three vocal performers in this band, among whom Mad. Wendling, Mad. Danzi, afterwards married to Le Brun, a celebrated per- former on the hautbois, Mad. Cramer, the mother of the prefent admirable performers now in England, and Alle- granti; with the Italian vocal performers, RRemcagtin Pefa- rini, and Saporofi. His eleétoral highnefs of that period was himfelf a good performer on the German flute. And the operas a ee MAN operas executed at Manheim in winter werereprefented in one of the largeft and moft fplendid theatres in Europe, capable of containing sooo perfons. His eleétoral highnefs’s fuite at Schwetzingen, during fummer, amounted to 1500 perfons, who were all lodged in this little village at his expence. Toa flranger walking through the ftreets of Schwetzingen at this time it muft feem to be inhabited only by a colony of mufi- cians, who are conftantly exercifing their profeffion: at one houfe, a fine player on the violin is heard; at another, a German flute; here an excellent hautbois ; there a baffoon, a clarinet, a violoncello, or a concert of feveral inftruments together. Mufic feems to be the chief and moft conftant of his electoral highnefs’s amufements ; and the operas and concerts, to which all his fubjeéts have admiflion, form the judgment, and eftablifh a tafte for mufic, throughout the electorate. Manuem, in Geography, a town of America, in Penn- fylvania, in the county of Lancalter, containing 60 houfes, and 1041 inhabitants, and a Dutch church; rr miles N. by W. of Lancafter.—Alfo, a town in York county, Pennfyl- vania, having 1876 inhabitants. MANI, in Biography. See Manicuers. Mani, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Benguela, on the coat of the Atlantic; 16 miles S.S.E. of Old Ben- ela. oe MANIA, in Medicine. See Menta Derangement. MANIACT, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demona ; 7 miles S.W. of Randazzo. MANIANA, acountry of Africa, fituated S.E. of Bam- barra: the inhabitants of which are faid to be cannibals. N. lat. between 13° and 14°. W. long. 1°. _ MANIARY, atown of Hindooltan, in Bahar ; 22 miles N.E. of Maifey. MANJAWICK, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 30 miles S.E. of Tanjore. MANJAWLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 40 miles S.E. of Goorapour. N. lat. 26° 17’. E. long. 84° 13". SMEANICA, a town of Africa, the capival of Chicanga, fituated on the river Sofala, S. lat. 20° 20’. E. long. 28°. —Alfo, a river which rifes in Chicanga, and runs into the Indian fea, S. lat. 25° 30’. E. long. 29° 30!; called alfo « Rio del Lagos,’’ and “ Rio del Spiritu Santo.”’ Manica, properly a fleeve. See Hiprocrates’s fleeve. Hildanus calls by this name a particular fort of purfe, open at both ends, which he defcribes in his Treatife ** De Gan- grena et Sphacelo,”’ and gives a figure thereof. This he dire€&ts to be put about a limb, jult before the place of am- putation, before the operation is performed. MANICARIA, in Botany, fo named by Gertner, from manica, a fleeve, in allufion to the fhape of the /patha, which is like a pouch or bag; whence the older botanilts called the plant in queftion Palma faccifera, and Sachel Date. Gertn. y. 2. 468. t.176. Willd. v. 4. 493. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 774.—Clafs and order, Monoecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord.. Palme, Linn. Jul. Gen. Ch, Cal. Common Sheath pouch-like, pointed at the bafe, interwoven with innumerable fibres, not burtting, widely extenfible, permanent. Stalk bearing male and female flowers, enclofed within the fheath, wand-like, with numerous, fimple, ftraight, comprefled, crowded, notched, toothed, downy, rufty branches. — Male flowers very nume- rous, (above two thoufand,) covering the branches of the ftalk. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, fhort, angular, torn, mem- branous. Cor. obovate, triangular, of three equal coria- ceous petals. Stam. Filaments twenty-four, capillary, dif- tinét; anthers oblong, furrowed.—Jemale flowers few, MAN fcarcely more than twenty, feffile on the lower part of the branches of the ftalk. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, membranous, thin, obliquely ftriated, crenate and jagged, Cor. ovate, pointed, triangular, of three coriaceous petals, four times as large as thofe of the male. Pi. Germen {uperior, turbinaté, triangular, of three cells; flyle one, fhort, thick, conical; ftigma fimple. Peric. Drupa glo- bofe, acutely tuberculated, dry, of three cells. Seed. Nuts folitary, very hard, roundifh, {mooth. Eff. Ch. Common Sheath pouch-like, fibrous, not burft- ing. — Male, Calyx of one leaf, torn. Petalsthree. Stamens twenty-four —Female, Calyx of one leaf, torn. Petals cites Style one. Drupa fuperior, dry, tuberculated. Nuts three. : 1. M. faccifera. Sachel Palm, (Palma faccifera; Cluf. Exot.4. Bauh. Hilt. v.1. 383. Ger. em. 1554.)— Native of South America. Clufius fays it was found by fome Dutch failors on a defert ifland in the Atlantic ocean; Gertner, that it grows in Curagao and Dutch Guiana. Willdenow feems wrong in confidering it a native of the Eaft Indies. Of the ¢ree itfelf, or its foliage, nothing is known. The /patha is occafionally feen in the mufeums of the curious, and refembles a fort of netted fibrous bag, from two.to four feet long, containing numerous, globular, three-celled fruits, the fize of a large cherry, or {mall walnut, whofe outfide is ftrongly muricated with fharp, prominent, unequal tubercles. Gertner had not feen the fruit in an advanced ftate, or he would not have fufpeted that it could be the fame as his Coccos lapidea, t. 6. f. 1.—We do not find the nuts fo very hard as Clufius defcribes them, and therefore conclude our fpecimen to be but about half ripe. The coat of the drupa is of a corky fubftance, but denfely fibrous, and is divided internally into three cells, each containing one nut, whofe fhell is {mooth and brittle. One of the cells is occafionally abortive. Of the kernel we can determine nothing, it being but half formed. MANICHEES, or Manicueans, Manicuat, in Eccle Sfaaftical Hiftory, a {e& of ancient heretics, who afferted two principles ; fo called from their author Manes, Mani, or Manicheus, a Perfian by nation, and educated among the Magi, being himfelf one of that number before he embraced Chriftianity. See Maar. This herefy had its firft rife about the year 277, and {pread itfelf principally in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa. Dr. Lardner, after having examined many authorities, with regard to the rife of Manicheei{m, both in Perfia and in the Roman empire, concludes with exprefling his doubt whether it was known in the Roman empire before the very end of the third century, or the beginning of the fourth. St. Epi- phanius, who treats of it at large, obferves, that the true name of this herefiarch was Cubricus ; and that he changed it for Manes ; which, in the Perfian or Babylonifh language, fig- nifies vefel. A rich widow, whofe fervant he had been, dying without iffue, left him {tore of wealth; after which he affumed the ticle of the apoltle or envoy of Jefus Chritt. We fhall here fubjoin fome additional cireumftances relat- ing to this herefiarch. Mani, always fo called by the Per- fians and Arabians, and ufually denominated Manes, or Manichee, by the Greeks and Romans, was a Perfian, or at lealt lived in the territories of the king of Perla. This is allowed by all thofe authors who fpeak of him. Cave and Tollius derive his name from the Greek noun “mania,” figmifying madnefs, intimating that his name was the fame as ‘* Maneis,’”’ 7 ¢. mad or furious; whereas the name 1s certainly Perfic or Chaldaic. Cyril of Jerufalem fays, that he changed his name from Cubricus to Manes, thinking by fo doing to gain honour among the Perfians, but MANICHEES. ot divine providence fo ordered it, that he thereby affixed to himfelf among the Greeks the character of madnefs. Beaufobre obferves, that whatever was the meaning of the name, it certainly was very honourable ; and if it fignified any thing, it denoted fome advantageous quality ; for divers kings of Edeffa were named Manes, or Maanes ; and A{le- mann fays, that it was a common name of the princes of Syria and Arabia. ‘The Greek writers continually reprefent Mani as a flave, purchafed by a widow, and afterwards fet at liberty. ‘his widow, it is faid, adopted him for her fon, gave him a good education, and at length made him her heir. It has been doubted, however, whether Mani was ever a flave, as no notice 1s taken of this circum- flance by the eaftern writers: and even the Greek authors fpeak of him as rich, learned, educated among philofophers, and at the court of Perfia in his early age. Manes, among the Greeks, was'a common name for flaves ; and hence it has been conjectured originated the common opinion of the Greek writers concerning Mani’s fervitude. The eaftern authors, cited by Hyde and Herbelot, fay that Mani was by profeffion a painter and engraver ; that he had fo fine a hand as to draw lines and make circles without rule or compafs, and that he made a terreftrial globe with all its circles and divifions. It is alfo faid that he was fkilled in aftronomy, and that he wrote a book of aftrology. It is probable, according to Beaufobre, that Mani believed our earth to have two hemifpheres, an upper and a lower, both inhabited ; and, confequently, that there are antipodes. He is reprefented as a learned man and a philofopher, and it is faid that he wrote a fyfttem of philofophy, and invented a mufical inftrument, called by the Arabians « Oud.’ That he was learned appears from various: cir- cumitances already recited. Mani was not contented with the quality of apoftle of Jefus Chrift, but he alfo afflumed that of the Paraclete, whom Chrift had promifed to fend: which Augultin ex- plains, by faying, that Mani endeavoured to perfuade men, that the Holy Ghoft did perfonally dwell in him with full authority. He left feveral difciples, and, among others, Addas, Thomas, and Hermas. ‘Thefe he fent, in his life- time, into feveral provinces to preach his doctrine. Mam, having undertaken to cure the king of Perfia’s fon, and not fucceeding, was put in prifon upon the young prince’s death, whence he made his efcape ; but he was apprehended foon after, and flayed alive. Beaufobre gives no credit to the ftory of his attempt to cure the king of Perfia’s fon. The oriental writers, cited by D' Herbelot and Hyde, tell us, that Mani, having gained fome efteem, began to gather together a number of people in the charaéter of dilciples, who oppofed the worfhip and ceremonies of the religion of Zoroatter, profefled at that time by the Perfians. Sapor, on this account and the fubfequent difturbances, would have had him punifhed, but Mani, perceiving his danger, fled into Turkeftan, where he had full opportunity to propa- gate his opinions, and where he was regarded as a wonderful man, and even a god. Here it is faid he lodged for a year in a cave, where he framed an impotture that multiplied the number of his followers, who ali went from Turkeltan into Perfia upon the death of Sapor. Mani was protected in a fingular manner by Hormizdas, who fucceéded Sapor in the Perfian throne, but he was unable to defend him, at length, againft the united hatred of the Chriflians, the Magi, the Jews, and the Payans: he was fhut up in a ftrong caltle, to ferve him as a refuge again{t thofe who perfecuted him on account of his doétrine. Thefe writers add, that, after the death of Hormizdas, Varanes I. his fucceflor, firlt proteéted Mani, but afterwards gave him up to the fury of the Magi, whofe refentment againft him wae due to his having adopted the Sadducean principles, as fome fay ; while others attribute it to his having mingled the tenets of the Magi with the doctrines of Chriflianity. Va- ranes having at firft fuccoured him, afterwards brought him out of Lis cattle under a pretence of difputing with the doétors of the Zoroattrian fet, flayed him alive, filled his fin with chaff, and had it hung up in a con{picuous place to terrify thofe of his fe€&; upon which moit of his fol- lowers fled into India, and fome even to China. All who remained in Perfia Joft their liberty, and were reduced to fervitude. It is generally reported, both by the Eaftern and Greek writers, that Mani was ‘put to death by a king of Perfia ; but they feem to have no knowledge of the death of the king of Perfia’s fon; and it is certain that the Manicheans celebrated the day of their mafter’s death, which is generally fuppofed to have happened in the year 278. It has been a fubje& of much controverfy, whether Mani was an impoftor who pretended to prophecy and infpiration. The learned Dr, Lardner has examined the‘arguments on both fides ; and though he does not choofe to deny that he was an impottor, he does not difcern evident proofs of it. He acknowledges that he was an arrogant philoforher, and a great {chemift ; but whether he was an impoltor he can- not certainly fay. He was much too fond. of philofophical notions, which he endeavoured to bring into religion, for which he is to be blamed: neverthelefs, he obferves, that every bold dogmatifer is not an impoflor: Lardner allows that Mani and his followers were Chriftians, aad held-many opinions in common with other Chriftians. The dotrine of Mani, fays Mofheim, was a motley mix- ture of the tenets of Chriftianity with the ancient philo- fophy of the Perfians, in which he had been inftruéted during his youth. He combixed thefe two fyltems, and applied and accommodated to Jefus Chrift the chara&ers ate aétions which the Perfians attributed to the god Mi. thras. © ag He eftablifhed two principles, viz, a good and an evil one: the firft a mo{t pure and fubtile matter, which he called light, did nothing but good ; and the fecond, a grofs and corrupt fubftance, which he called darkne/s, nothing but. evil. This philofophy is very ancient; and Plutarch treats of it at large in his Lfis and Ofiris. Our fouls, according to Mani, were made by the good principle, and our bodies by the evil one; thofe two prin- ciples being, according to him, co-eternal, and independent: of each other. In this notion, according to St. Auguttin, his followers triumphed to a great degree, fuppofing that it afforded the belt account of the origin of evil. Each of thefe principles is fubjeét to the dominion of a fuperintending being, whofe exiltence is from all eternity. ‘The being who pre- fides over the light is called God; he that rules the land of darknefs bears the title of hyle, or demon. The'ruler of the light is fupremely happy, and, in confequence thereof, benevolent and good: the prince of darknefs is unhappy in himfelf, and defirous of rendering others partakers of his mifery, and is evil and malignant. ‘Thefe two beings have produced an immenfe multitude of creatures, refembling themfelves, and diltributed them through their refpective provinces. After a conteft between the ruler of light and the prince of darknefs, in which the latter was defeated, this prince of darknefs produced the firft parents of the human race. The beings, engendered from this original flock, confift of a body formed out of the corrupt matter of the kingdom of darknefs, and of two fouls, one of which is fenfitive and luftful, and owes its exiflence to the evil principle ; MANICHEES. principle ; the other rational and immortal, a particle of that divine light, which had been carried away in the conteft by the army of darknefs, and immerfed into the mafs of ma- lignant matter. The earth was created by God, out of this corrupt mafs of matter, in order to be a dwelling for the human race, that their captive fouls might, by degrees, be delivered from their corporeal prifons, and their celeftial elements extracted from the grofs fubftance in which they were involved. With this view God produced two beings from his own fubftance, viz. Chrift, and the Holy Ghott : for the Manicheans held a confubftantial Trinity. Chrift, or the glorious intelligence, called by the Perfians Mithras, fubfifting in and by himfelf, and refiding in the fun, appeared in due time among the Jews, clothed with the fhadowy form of a human body, to difengage the rational foul from the corrupt body, and to conquer the violence of malignant matter, and he demonftrated his divine miffion by ftupendous miracles. The Jews, incited by the prince of darknefs, put him to an ignominious death, which he fuffered not in reality, but only in appearance, and according to the opinion of men. When the purpofes of Chrift were accomplifhed, he returned to his throne in the fun, appointing apoftles to propagate his religion, and leaving his followers the promife of the Paraclete or Comforter, who is Mani, the Perfian. Thofe fouls who believe Jefus Chrift to be the fon of God, renounce the worfhip of the god of the Jews, who is the prince of darknefs, and obey the laws delivered by Chrift, and illuftrated by Mani, the comforter, are gradually pu- rified from the contagion of matter; and their purification being completed, after having paffed through two ftates of trial, by water and fire, firft in the moon and then in the fun, their bodies return to their original mafs; for the Ma- nicheans derided the refurrection of bodies ; and their fouls afcend to the regions of light. But the fouls of thofe who have negle¢ted the falutary work of purification, pafs, after death, into the bodies of other animals, or natures, where they remain till they have accomplifhed their probation. Some, however, more perverfe and obftinate, are configned to a feverer courfe of trial, being delivered over, for a time, to the power of malignant aerial {pirits, who torment them in various ways. After this, a fire fhall break forth and confume the frame of the world : and the prince and powers of darknefs fhall return to their primitive feats of anguifh and mifery, in which they fhall dwell for ever. Thefe manfions fhall be furrounded by an invincible guard, to pre- vent their ever renewing a war in the regions of light. Mani borrowed many things from the ancient Gnoftics ; on which account, many authors confider the Manicheans as a branch of the Gnottics. In truth, the Manichean dotrine was a fyftem of philo- fophy rather than of religion, ‘They made ufe of amulets, in imitation of the Bafilidians; arid are faid to have made profeffion of aftronomy and aftrology. They denied that Jefus Chrift, who was only God, affumed a true human body, and maintained it was only imaginary: and, there- fore, they denied his incarnation, death, &c. ‘They pre- tended that the law of Mofes did not come from God, or the good principle, but from the evil one ; and that for this reafon it was abrogated. They rejected almoft all the facred books, in which Chriftians look for the fublime truths of their holy religion. They affirmed, that the Old Teftament was not the work of God, but of the prince of darknefs, who was fubltituted by the Jews in the place of the true God. They abftained entirely from eating the flefh of any animal; following herein the doftrine of the ancient Pythagoreans: they alfo condemned marriage. The reft of their errors may be feen in St. Epiphanius and Vor. XXII. St. Auguftin ; which laft, having been of their fe&, may be prefumed to have been thoroughly acquainted with them. Though the Manichees profeffed to receive the books of the New Teftament, yet, ineffe&, they only took fo much of them as fuited with their own opinions. They firft formed to themfelves a certain idea or fcheme of Chriftianity, and to this adjufted the writings of the apeftles; pretends ing that whatever was inconfiftent with this, had been foifted into the New Teltament by later writers, who were half Jews. On the other hand, they made fables and apocry- phal books pafs for apoftolical writings; and even are fuf. pected to have forged feveral others, the better to maintain their errors. St. Epiphanius gives a catalogue of feveral pieces publifhed by Mani, and adds extraéts out of fome of them. Thefe are the Mytteries, Chapters, Gofpel, and Treafury. The rule of life and manners which Mani prefcribed to his followers, was moft extravagantly rigorous and fevere. However, he divided his difciples into two clafles ; one of which comprehended the perfeét Chriftians, under the name of the ee ; and the other, the imperfect and feeble, under the title of auditors or hearers. The cle were obliged to a rigorous and entire abftinence from flefh, eggs, milk, fifh, wine, all intoxicating drink, wedlock, and all amorous gra- tifications ; and to live in a ftate of the fevereft penury, nourifhing their emaciated bodies with bread, herbs, pulfe, and melons, and depriving themfelves of all the comforts that arife from the moderate indulgence of natural paffions, and alfo from a variety of innocent and zgreeable purfuits. The auditors were allowed to poflefs houfes, lands, and wealth, to feed on flefh, to enter into the bonds of conjugal tender. nefs; but this liberty was granted them with many limi- tations, and under the ftriGteft conditions of moderation and temperance. The general aflembly of the Manicheans. was headed by a prefident, who reprefented Jefus Chrift. There was joined to him twelve rulers or mafters, who were de- figned to reprefent the twelve apoftles, and thefe were fol- lowed by feventy-two bifhops, the images of the feventy- two difciples of our Lord. Thefe bifhops had prefbyters or deacons under them, and all the members of thefe religious orders were chofen out of the clafs of the ele. Their worfhip was fimple and plain; and confifted of prayers, reading the fcriptures, and hearing public difcourfes, at which both the auditors and ele& were allowed to be pree fent. They alfo obferved the Chriftian appointments of baptifm of infants and the eucharift, communicating fre- quently in both kinds. They kept the Lord’s day, ob- ferving it as a faft; and they likewife kept Eafter and Pentecott. Towards the fourth century, the Manicheans concealed themfelves under various names, which they fucceflively adopted, and changed in proportion as they were difcovered by them. ‘Thus they afflumed the names of Encratites, Apotaétics, Saccophori, Hydroparaftates, Solitaries, and feveral others, under which they lay concealed for a certain time, but could not, however, long efcape the vigilance of their enemies. About the clofe of the fixth century, this fe& gained a very confiderable influence, particularly among the Perfians. Towards the middle of the twelfth century the fe& of Manichees took a new face, on occafion of one Conftantine, an American, and an adherer to it; who took upon him to fupprefs the reading of all other books befides the Evan- gelifts, and the Epittles of St. Paul, which he explained in {uch a manner as to make them contain a new fy{tem of Manicheifm. He entirely difcarded all the writings of his 2F predecefiors 5 MAN predeceffors ; rejecting the chimeras of the Valentinians, and their thirty scons; the fable of Manes, with regard to the origin of rain, and other dreams; but {till retained the im, - purities of Bafilides. In this manner he reformed Mani- cheifm, infomuch that his followers made no feruple,of anathematizing Scythian, Buddas, called alfo Addas and Terebinth, the contemporaries and difciples, as fome fay, and according to others, the predeceffors and mafters of Manes, and even Manes himfelf, Conftantine being now their great apoftle. . After he had feduced. an infinite number of people, he was at laft ftoned by order of the emperor. This fe& prevailed in Bofnia and the adjacent provinces, about the clofe of the fifteenth century ; propagated their dogtrines with confidence, and held their religious affemblies withimpuvity. See on the fubjeé& of this article, Motheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. i. p. 295, &c. 8vo. edit. ; Lardney’s Works, vol. iii.; and Bayle, art. Manichees. MANICHORD, or Manicnorpion, a mufical keyed- inftrument, in the form of a fmall pianoforte. See Cuavi- CHORD. MANICKDURG, in Geography, a town of Hindoof- tan, in Berar; 5 miles S.E. of Chanda. N. lat. 19° 59!. E. long. 79 59’: MANICKPATAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of Cattack ; 50 miles S. of Cattack. i MANICKPOUR, a circar of Oude, bounded N.E. by Oude proper, S.E. by Jionpour, S. by Allahabad, S.W. by Currah and Corah, and N.W. by Lucknow ; about 60 miles long, and 40 broad.—Alfo, the capital of the above circar; 30 miles N.W. of Allahabad. N. lat, 25°50’. E. long 81 40’. MANICKRAJE, a town of Bengal; 42 miles S.S.E. of Dacca. MANICOJU, in Zoology. See Opossum. MANICOUAGAN, or Brack-river, in Geography, a river of Canada, which runs into the river St. Lawrence, near Manicouagan point, which is a cape on the north coatt ° of the river. N, lat. 49° 12’. W. long. 67° 50’. Manicouacay, a lake of Canada; 300 miles N.E. from Quebec. N. lat. 56° 20'. W. long. 66° 45’. MANICUM Srrycunum; in Botany, a term ufed by the old Greek writers to exprefs.a kind of nightfhade, which, when taken internally, caufed madnefs. Pliny, defcribing this {pecies, fays that it has leaves like the ocymum or bafil ; and Theophraftus and Diofcorides fay it had leaves like the eruca or rocket. Where Pliny had his information is not eafy to guefs, for he commonly copies from thefe authors : they are, however, much'more to be depended on; and as * the leaves of the ocymum or bafil are not at all like thofe of the rocket, Pliny is certainly wrong in his account ; and the mioft probable reafon for his error is that he miltook the Greek name of the plant, to which thefe authors compared the leaves of the manicum ftrychnum, and tranflated euzo- mon, which is the name, of the rocket, into ocymum, bafil ; a name fomewhat like the Greek one in found, but wholly different in fignification ; the two plants bafil and rocket not only having leaves very uolike one another, but being alfo of different genera. A yet greater error of Pliny, inregard to this plant, is his placing it among the efculent garden herbs, and faying that it was in ufe asa food, immediately after he had told us of its caufing madnefs in thofe who eat it. This is an evident confufion of the maniac folanum with the pomum amoris or love apple, the fruit of which is eaten in foups at *his time. .MANJEAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in »24° 20!...E, long.:83° 57’. -is in high efteem. MAN Bahar, on the Soane; 18 miles .S. of Rotafgur. N. Tat. MANIEN, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the. coatt.of Chili. 5, lat. 45°. MANIERA, Jtal., Manner, a mufical term to exprefs a good or bad flyle of finging. In {peaking of an individual. . performer, when it is faid, ‘ & una bella maniera,’? it im- plies that fuch performer, male or female, fings in good tafte, in an elegant manner. _ MANIFEST, in Commerce, a paper containing the par~ ticulars of a fhip and cargo; which paper muft be figned by the matter of the veffel, before any of the goods can be landed. MANIFESTO, an apology, or public declaration in. writing, made by a prince, fhewing his intentions in any en- terprize, the motives that induced ‘him to it, and the reafons on which his right and pretenfions are founded. MANIFOLD, Caper, in Geography, a point of land on the coaft of New Holland, or New South Wales, fo called by Cook in 1770, from the number of high hills which ap- peared over it; lying in S, lat. 22° 43', and diftant about 17 leagues from cape Capricorn, in W. long. 208° 58!,. Between thefe two capes lies a large bay, called « Keppel bay ;”’ which fee. MANJHA, a town of Hindooltan, in Bundelcund; 60 miles S. of Chatterpour. MANIHOT, in Botany, an Indian name for the root of which Caffava bread is made. (See JarxopHa Manihot.) The Hibifcus Manihot feems to have been fo named from the . refemblance of its leaves to that plant, not from any fimilar ufe or quality. _ MANILIA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the province of Tucuman; 30 miles E.S.E. of Rioja. MANILIUS, Marcus, in Biography, a Latin poet, known only by his work,. from which it fhould feem that he wrote in the reign of Augultus, after the defeat of Varus, - and that he was, if not a native of Rome, at leaft a Roman . fubject. This poem is entitled «* Aftronomicon,”’ treating, » in five books, upon the fixed ftars: a fixth appears to have , related to the planets, but this is entirely loft. It unites the ancient fyftem of aftronomy with the philofophy of the Stoics: there are paffages in it which would not difgrace any poet of the Auguftan age. The work has been eet by fome very confiderable critics, Jofeph Scaliger pub- - lifhed an edition of it at Paris in 1579, and one at Leyden in 1600. The edition of our countryman Bentley, in 1739», Thofe of Stoeber, cum notis variorum, and of Pingre, with a French tranflation, are much valued. Creech gave a tranflation of Manilius in Englifh verfe. The poem was difcovered by the learned Poggius, in the fixteenth century. beat MANILLA, in Geozraphy, the capital city of Lucon, and alfo of the Spanifh an een in te Phaipeie i ; In compafs it is about two miles; its length being about two-thirds of a mile; of an irregular form, narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle. It is well built; its ftreets are broad; its houfes, though conflru&ted of timber above — the firft floor, are handfome, and rendered beautiful by their galleries; and its churches are magnificent. It is a fortified city, and fituated on the fouth-weit coaft, in a moft advantageous pofition, on the banks of a confiderable river, which wafhes its walls, and whofe divided branches com- pletely traverfe the whole ifland. A third part of this city is occupied by convents ; and the number of its Chriftian in- habitants is computed at 12,000, The fuburbs extend toa confiderable diftance beyond the walls.. Within a mufket-fhot of the gate of Parian is the habitation of Chinefe merchants, II called MAN -called Sangleys, whofe fhops in feveral ftreets are furnifhed for fale with filk, porcelain, and other commodities. The number of perfons, who availing themfelves of the indolence of the Spaniards and Jndians, profitably employ them- felves in this way, is very confiderable. Thefe Sangleys are under the government of an alcaide, to whom, as well as to other officers, they allow handfome falaries. Beyond -the bridge adjoining to Parian are fifteen fuburbs or ham- lets, inhabited by Japanefe, Tagalis, and people of other nations, under the government of an alcaide. Their houfes, conftruéted of wood, are fituated near the river, and ereGted on pillars: the roofs are covered with palm-tree leaves, and the fides formed of canes; and they are afcended by ladders, as the ground is moilt, or fometimes overflowed with water. The caftle ftands at. the weft end of the city, having the fea on one fide, and the river on the other. We thall here fubjoin fome additional particulars relating to Manilla and its f{uburbs, extra&ted from the firft volume of the Travels of Pages, who refided fome months in the ifland of Lugon or Luconia. The river, which flows under the city wails, is the harbour for merchant fhips, and feparates Ma- nilla from the town of St. Croix. This latter town is in part equally well built with the capital, is populous in In- dians and Spaniards, and is furrounded by three. villages of the natives, which may be regarded as fuburbs. At a fhort diftance, on the oppofite bank of the river, but on the fame fide with Manilla, are feveral confiderable towns alfo belong- ing to the natives. chanics, refide within the walls of Manilla. The great feat of their manufaCtures, as well as the emporium of all kinds of merchandife, is the town named <‘ Parian,’’ on the other fide of the river, which is pretty regularly built, and in- habited chiefly by Chinefe. From a {mall colony, the population of thefe people has increafed fo as now to amount to more than 20,000, who, after engrofling the whole of the manufa@tures, and the principal part of the trade of Ma- nilla, began to turn their attention to agriculture. Poffeffed of a confiderable degree of art and addrefs, they are fober, induftrious, affable, and lively. Among the inhabitants of Manilla are Armenian mer- chants, Malays, natives of the Malabar coaft, and of the kingdom of Siam, and alfo a few Japanefe. Articles of beautiful workmanfhip in gold, and a fpecies of metal named tombac, which is efteemed one-third more precious, are manufactured by the artilts of Manilla; and the gold chains, made by theic women, vie in beauty with ‘the moft elegant that are wrought in any part of the world. In the year 1645, a great part of this city was deftroyed by an earthquake, and 3000 perfons perifhed in the ruins. The country furrounding this city is extremely fertile, and capable of any kind of cultivation; but the inhabitants have profited neither by the fituation of the city, nor the fertility ofits environs. The entrance of the river is ob{truéted by a bar, which is dangerous, with a rough fea ; but no effec- tual labour has been undertaken for removing it. The foil is left. uncultivated; and the law, by prohibiting exporta- tion, difcourages every attempt for increafing its produce. The confequence of this negleé& has been oceafional famine, when rains, or drought, or hurricanes, render the fecundity of the earth ufelefs. The inhabitants, thus indolent in im- proving their natural means of wealth, dire& their views and hopes towards the galleon, which fails every year for Acapulco. Formerly, a celebrated commerce was carried on ‘between Manilla and this laft-mentioned city, nearly in the fame parallel on the welt 6f Mexico, through a {pace of about 140°, or more than one-third of the circumference of Few merchants, and ftill fewer me-. MAN the globe! The Manilla thips, called galleons (which fee); were then of large fize ; but at a later period, {maller veffels have been employed in this trade. The return of the gal- leon, or other veffels, was valued every year at Manilla at three millions of piaftres, which were foon expended in mer- chandife, generally purchafed of an Englifh veffel under American colours. But this kind of traffic, as Sonnerat {tates it, is a real lofs,to the inhabitants. On the one hand, they buy their merchandife at an exorbitant price; and on the other, they ftrip themfelves of all the filver which enters their ifland.). This writer adds, ‘the force of habit, the convenience of trafficking with gold inftead of merchandife,. which is neceflarily accompanied with fome trouble, makes them prefer trading in money with the Englifh veffels to the commerce with {hips from the ifle of France, which would take in exchange the productions of their country, cordage, pitch, tar, cloth, fugar, oil, reeds, canes, indigo, cocoa, &e. which would be a commerce equally advantageous to * both nations.”” The bay of Manilla, fays M. de la Peroufe, is open to fhips of every fize, but can be defended only by men of war: any expedition, therefore, againft this colony, prefuppofes a decided fuperiority of naval force. ‘The: fortifications of the place, though regular and perfeCtly well kept up, could only retard for a few days the furrender of a city, which cannot expect fuccours either from Europe, or from any ‘other quarter. The garrifon is compofed of only one regi- ment. of mulattoes. The corps of artillery, coniilting of 200 men, as well as the 150 dragoons, are alfo. Ameticaas ; and yet Peroufe fays, that he fhould not fear with soo men. fuccefsfully to’ attack 3000 of them.’ ‘*¢ Upon the whole,” he fays, ‘* the conqueft of Manilla appears to me fo eafy, and fo certain, with ‘a {uperiority of naval: force, and 5000 troops, 1 might anfwer for its fuccefs.”’ The city of Manilla was taken by the Englifh in.1762; and the ranfom of a million fterling remained unpaid. | The Chinefe, as we have already ftated, were -numerous in this city, till the beginning of the feventeenth century, ‘when the Spaniards committed a dreadful maffacre of thele induf- trious people. In 1769, it is faid that they were again ex- pelled from all thef ifles by the bigotry of ‘the! governor; {ince which time there has been a great decline in induttry and produce. N. lat. 14° 36' 8”. Es long..120° si! 15”. See Lucon and Puiiprrnes. MANILLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 14 miles W. of Tademeri. ; , MANILLE, or Meninux, in Commerce, one of the principal commodities carried by the Europeans to the coatts of Africa, to traffic with thé Negroes in exchange for flaves. It is a large brafs ring in form of a bracelet, either flat or round, plain or engraven; with which. the natives ufed to deck themfelves, putting them on the {mall of the leg, and the thick of the arm above the elbow. The better fort among the Negroes wear filver and gold manilles; but thefe were of their own manufacture ; moit of the money they receive for their own merchandife being melted into manilles, MANILLON, in Geography, a townthip, of America, in Fayette county, Pennfylvania, containing. 1207 inha- bitants. MANILVA, a town of Spain, not far fiom the route from Malaga to Gibraltar, firuated) acrofs the, mountaitis from Guayaro, and belonging to the houfe of Arcos. Itis furrounded with vineyards, which produce an exquifite rich wine, known by the name of Manilva wine. MANIMBODU, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car- natic; 15 miles S.W. of Pondicherry. ' ak 2 MANIMUN. MAN MANIMUNGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 16 miles S.W. of Madras. MANINGEABO. See MENANGEABOW. MANINGTREE, or MannincTREE, a {mall —, town in the hundred of Tendring, and county of Effex, Eng- land, is fituated on the fouthern banks of the river Stour, nine miles diltant from Colchefter, and 61 from London: though only a chapelry to the parith of Mittley, it has the privilege of amarket. Whence it derived its prefent name is uncertain : its ancient appellation was Sciddinchou, by which it is men- tioned in Domefday book, as being then held by Adeliza, countefs of Albemarle, and half fifter to the Conqueror. It afterwards became the property of Maud de Clare, coun- tefs of Hereford and Gloucefter, who beltowed the manor on the nunnery of the order of St. Auguttine, at Canon- Lugh, in Devonfhire. After the diffolution, Manningtree (called in the grant Many-tree, alias Scidinghoo) was given by Henry VIII. to fir John Rainfworth, In the certificate of chantry lands it is called “a great towne, and alfoa haven towne, having in yt to the number of 7oo howfeling people.” In the year 1801, the population, as afcertained under the act of parliament, was 1016, occupying 129 houfes , 953 of the inhabitants were returned as being em- ployed in various trades and manufactures. The market is kept on Thurfdays; and an annual fair on the Thurfday in Whitfun week. The river Stour was made navigable from this town to Sudbury in Suffolk, by an aé paffed in the fifth year of queen Anne, The principal imports are deals, corn, coals, iron, and fifh. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. MANIPA, one of the f{maller Molucca iflands, about 2500 toifes in extent from N.toS. Although this ifland is yery mountainous, it is populous, and contains about 1600 in- habitants ; and many canoes ply along its fhere: five or fix leagues W. from Ceram. 5S. lat. 3° 21'. E. long. 127° 54'. —Alfo, a river on the W. coaft of Celebes, which runs into the fea, S. lat. 3° 12’. MANIPULATION, aterm ufed in the mines, to fig- nify the manner of digging the filver, &c. out of the earth. MANIPULUS, Manrrute, among the Romans, was a little body of infantry, which, in the time of Romulus, confifted of a hundred men, and in the time of the confuls and firft Cefars, of two hundred. The word properly fignifies a handful; and, according to fome authors, was firft given to the handful of hay which they bare at the end of a pole, to diftinguifh themfelves by, before the cuftom was introduced of bearing an ale for their enfign ; and hence alfo the phrafe, a handful of men. But Vegetius, Modeftus, and Varro, give other etymo- logies of the word: the lait derives it from manus, a little body of men following the fame ftandard. According to the former, this corps was called ao Hi fancy becaufe they fought hand in hand, or all together: « Contubernium autem manipulus vocabatur ab eo, quod conjunétis manibus pariter dimicabant.”? Each manipule had two centurions, or captains, called manipularii, to command it ; one whereof was lieutenant to the other. Each cohort was divided into three manipules, and each manipule into two centuries. ; Aulus Gellius quotes an old author, one Cincius, who lived in the time of Hannibal (whofe prifoner he was), and who, writing on the art of war, obferves, that then each legion confifted of fixty centuries, of thirty manipules, and of tencohorts. Andagain, Varro and Vegetius mentionit as the leaft divifion in the army, only confifting of the tenth part of a century; and Spartian adds, that it con- MAN tained no more than ten men. This fhews that the manipulus was not always the fame thing. See Lecion. Maniputvus is alfo an ecclefiaftical ornament, worn by the priefts, deacons, and fub-deacons, in the Romifh church. It confifts of a little fillet in form of a ftole, three or four inches broad, and made of the fame ftuff withthe chafuble ; fignifying and reprefenting an handkerchief, which the priefts in the primitive church wore on the arm, to wipe off. the tears they were continually fhedding for the fins of the people. There {till remains-a mark of this ufage in a prayer rehearfed by thofe who wear it; * Merear, Domine portare mani- ulum fletus & doloris.”? The Greeks and Maronites wear two manipules, one on each arm. Mayirutus, in Phyfic, dengtes a meafure, or fixed quan- tity, of herbs, or leaves, viz. a handful; or fo much as the whole hand can grafp: it is generally marked in prefcription, with an 7, MANIQUE, in the Materia Medica, the name given by authors to an American root, commended greatly for curin tertian and quartan agues, and as an infallible remedy pes | venomous bites. Redi procured fome of this famous reot, and gave it many very fair trials, but could never difcover any of thefe virtues in it. MANIS, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of quadrupeds the clafs Mammalia, and order Bruta, of which there are, according to Gmelin, two fpecies, but Dr. Shaw mentions three. The generic charaéter is, that it has no teeth; the tongue is round, and extenfile; the moth is narrowed into a fnout ; the body is covered above with moveable bony fcales. This genus prefents an appearance as extraordinary as that of the Dafypus, being covered on every part, except _ the belly, with ftrong and large fcales, conitituting a com- plete fuit of armour, capable of defending the animals, when rolled up, from the aflaults of the mott ferocious enemies. This covering, together with the length of the body and tail, gives an afpe€&t fo much refembling that of a lizard, that the creatures of the genus are commonly known by the name of the {caly lizards, though they are in no other refpeéts allied to the lizard tribe than in their covering. ‘They are, however, admitted to form a fort of link of approximation between the proper viviparous quadrupeds and the lizards. In their nature they are harmlefs, and feed in the fame man- ner as the ant-eaters, by thrufting out their very long tongue into the nefts of ants and other infects, and {wallowing their prey, by fuddenly drawing it back. They are found chiefly in India and the India iflands. Species, PrexTADACcTYLA, five-toed or fhort-tailed manis. The tail in this fpecies is not fo long as the body, it is very thick at the bafe, and from thence gradually tapering, but endin obtufely. The head is {mall, and the ears are hkewife {mall and rounded. ‘The feet are furnifhed with five toes each, of which thofe on the fore-feet are extremely ftrong, except the exterior one, which is much {maller than the relt. The whole animal is covered with thick, ftrong, and large feales, which, when full grown, are perfeétly f{mooth, but in thofe which are {maller, they are ttriated about half way from the bafe. ‘They are channelled at the bafe, but at the edges they are fharp, rounded, and imbricate. It inhabits Guinea, China, and India. The colour of the animal is of a pale yellow-brown, and the furface is gloffy. It meafures, in- cluding the tail, from fix to eight feet in length. In Ben- al, it has obtained the name of the «¢ Thunderbolt Reptile.” Ror the hardnefs of its feales, which are faid to be capable of MAN ef ftriking fire like a flint. It lives in woods and marfhy places, and feeds on ants, by laying its long tongue acrofs their paths. It walks flowly, and when purfued, rolls itfelf up, andis then fo fecurely armed, that even a leopard at- tacks it in vain. It is faidto be capable of deftroying the elephant, by twifting itfelf round the trunk, and thus compreffing that tender and fenfible organ with its hard feales. TeTRADACTYLA, four-toed or long-tailed manis. This animal is lefs than that already defcribed ; it is found in India; the fcales are much channelled, each is armed with three points ; the under parts are covered with hair, and the tailis three times as long as the body. The legs are very fhort, and fcaled like the body, and oneach of the ee are four claws, of which thofe on the fore-feet are ftronger than thofe on the hind. The colour isan uniform deep brown, with a yellowith caft, and with a glofly or polifhed furface. From the tip of the nofe to the extremity of the tail, its whole length is about five feet. Larissima, or broad-tailed manis, is denominated, in the fixtieth volume of the Philofophical Tranfaétions, in which there is a figure of the animal, the ‘¢ New Manis.” The creature here defcribed was killed in the houfe of a merchant at Tranquebar, having been difcovered in the ca- vity of a wall. When attacked it rolled itfelf up in fuch a manner as to leave only the back and tail vifible, fo that it was deftroyed with much difficulty. It had five toes on the fore-feet, and four on the hind; the fcales were of the fhape of a mufcle ; the belly quite fmooth; the exterior {cales ended in a fharp point, fomewhat incurvated ; the tail was very broad, decreafing to a point. It is doubtful, after all, whether this animal belongs to a diftin& {pecies, or whether it bea variety of one of thofe already noticed. ‘¢ In reality,” fays Dr. Shaw, ‘‘ the differences do not feem fufficient to conftitute a fpecific diftinétion, andare, probably, owing to the differences of age andfex. Inthe Britifh Mufeum there are {pecimens of different fizes, which fhew thefe gradations. In one, the feales, all over the animal, are fo regularly and completely truncated at the extremity, as to exhibit the ap- pearance of fo many hexagons. In another they are remark- ably broad and rounded ; and in a third, which is a very large {pecimen, they are lefs obtufe at the tips, and fome- what irregularly terminated, asif notched, or worn through age. The proportional breadth of the tail alfo varies fome- what in thefe fpecimens, and feems greateft in thofe which are the leaft advanced in age.” MANISSA, in Geography, a river of Africa, forming the fouthern boundary of Inhambane, and running into the Indian fea, S. lat. 25° 50!. MANISTIE, a river of Canada, which runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 45° 36’. W. long. 85° 40’. MANISURIS, in Botany, a grafs moft aptly fo named by Linneus, from Manis, the Scaly Lizard, and over, a tail, the fingular appearance of its fealy fpikes recalling very ftrongly the idea of the no lefs extraordinary covering of that quadruped. Linn. Mant. 164. Schreb. 719. Mart. Mill. Dit. v. 3. Linn. fil. Nov. Gram. Gen. 21. t. 1, Juff. 34. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 839. Gaertn. t.175. Clafs and order, Polygamia Monoecia. Nat. Ord. Gramina. Gen. Ch. Perfe@ Flowers imbricated, alternate, at the oppofite fides of a zigzag jointed fpike, one to each joint, which is hollowed out to receive the bafe of the flower. Cal. Glume of two valves, fingle-flowered; the outermo/t valve largeft, coriaeeous, rounded, rugged in the middle, either notched or entire at the top and fides; ianermoft {maller, broadly lanceolate, membranous, clofely prefled to the former. Cor. Glume of two valves, membranous, thin MAN and tranfparent, fmaller than the calyx and concealed therein ; the outer valve embracing with its edges the inner, which is {maller. Ne¢tary a membranous feale. Stam. Fila- ments three, capillary, prominent; anthers oblong, incum- bent. Pi/?. Germen ovate, fuperior: ftyles two, short, thread-fhaped; ftigmas oblong, bearded, {preading beyond the glumes at each fide. erie. none, the calyx inclofing the feed. Seed folitary, ovate. Male Flowers marginal, alternate, at the back of the {pike, projeGting at each fide, one to each joint. Cal, Glume of two valves, fingle-flowered, nearly cylindrical ; the valves equal, parallel, ovato-lanceolate, obtufe, ftriated, coriaceous, bordered with a membrane. Cor. Glume of two valves, membranous, thin, nearly as large as the calyx ; the outer valve ovate, obtufe, convoluted ; taner lanceolate, plaited, fearcely longer than the outer. Neary a mem- branous feale. Stam. Filaments three, very fhort, fometimes wanting ; anthers as in the perfect flowers. Eff. Ch. Perfect Flowers. Calyx a glume of two un- equal, oppofite valves, fingle-flowered; the outer valve rounded and rugged. Corolla fmaller than the calyx. Stamens three. Styles two. Male Flowers. Calyx of two equal, parallel, oblong valves. Obf. This genus is one of the few that may properly be allowed to remain in the clafs Po/ygamia, as having a very different ftruéture in the two different kinds of flowers, Such is the cafe with the Britifh genus ¢riplex, but with few others admitted into this clafs by Linnzus. Thefe however, in our opinion, excufe, if uot jultity, the prefer- vation of it in the Linnzan fyitem. 1. M. myurus. Moufe-tail Scaly-grafs. Linn. Mant. 300. Linn. fil. Nov. Gram. Gen. t. 1. £. 1—3. Roxb. Corom. v. 2. 10. t. 117.—Outer glume of the perfect flowers ellip- tical, depreffed, notched at the top-and fides. Sheaths of the leaves {mooth.—Found by Koenig in dry elevated bar- ren ground on the coaft of Coromandel, not unfrequent, Dr. Roxburgh gathered it in the fame country, and-informs us that ic is called by the Telingas Nalla Panoocoo. The root appears to be perennial, confifting of long, tough, downy fibres. Stems feveral, branched, jointed, leafy, {mooth, compreffed, folid, from 9 to 18 inches tall; de- cumbent and throwing out roots -at their lower part. Leaves alternate, channelled, fhort, narrow, acute, {mooth, with long inflated fheaths. Spikes about two inches long, linear, folitary at the ends of the principal, as well as the fhort lateral, branches, compofed of numerous, clofely im- bricated, flowers. The outer g/ume of fuch as are furnifhed with both ftamens and piftil is fhaped like a fiddle, its difk marked with two tranfverfe elevations, and fomewhat hairy, its membranous margin purplifh. Dr. Roxburgh found two male florets in the oblong-leaved calyx, and his defcrip- tion of the ftruéture and pofition of the calyx-glumes differs from that we have adopted, as well as from what we can difcern in the dried fpecimen, in which thofe valves are cer- tainly parallel, not oppofite to each other, a very remark- able and diftinguifhing charater between the male flowers and the perfect ones. The common ftalk, or rachis, is zig- zag, confifting of fhort, turbinate, angular, flightly downy joints, each of which bears near its bafe, on one fide, a fingle perfect flower, and at its fummit, on the oppofite fide, a male flower. 2. M. granularis. Granulated Scaly-grafs. Nov. Gram. Gen. t. 1. f.4—7. Swartz Prodr. 25. Occ. v. 1. 186. Roxb. Corom. vy. 2. 11. t. 118. (Cen- chrus granularis; Linn. Mant. 575. Gramen cyperoides polyftachion, fpicis ad nodos ex utriculis, feu foliorum alis, echinatis, Linn. fil. Ind. MAN echinatis, prodeuntibus; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 120, t. 80.)— Outer glume of the perfeé flowers orbicular, ‘convex, entire, reticulated. Sheaths of the leaves hairy.—Native of the Ealt and Weft Indies. Dr. Swartz gathered it in dry calcareous fituations, in the fouth part of* Jamaica ; Roxburgh in bufhy places, on the coaft of Coromandel. The latter obferves that both this and the foregoing are coarfe graffes, not eaten by cattle. The root of the prefent is faid by Swartz to be annual. It confifts of numerous, nearly fmooth, fibres. Stem a foot or two in height, branched from the bottom, leafy, round, fmooth, flender. Leaves broad, taper-pointed, more or lefs hairy, with tumid, ribhed, very hairy, and minutely tuberculated, fheaths: Spikes folitary, at the ends of {mall, lateral, axillary, leafy branches. ‘Each /pike is about an inch long, compofed of numerous imbricated flowers, on a zigzag ftalk, the united ones confpicuous on one fide, the males on the other. The outer calyx-glume of the former is orbicular, pale or purplith, the fize of a {mall pin’s head, ftrongly reticulated with ele- vated ribs, and intermediate depreflions. Swartz fays there are two inner glumes, which are ovate, neariy equal, pointed, white and pellucid. Roxburgh’s figure does not accord with this. The former writer defcribes the corolla as of two minute, ovate, whitith glumes, half the fize of the outer valve of the calyx, and the ne€tary of two extremely diminutive, flefhy, whitifh fcales, forming a cup at the bafe of the germen and ftamens. The male flowers are rather larger, each confifling of two parallel, equal, ovate calyx- glumes, which are ftriated and hifpid, with a {mall, white, bivalve corolla, and a fimilar neétary to the other. — S. MANITOU, or Manrrovarin Jflands, in Geography, a clufter of iflands towards the N. fhore of lake Huron, ftretching from the vicinity of Cabots head, north-wefterly acrofs the lake to lake George, below the falls of St. Mary. Thefe iflands are held facred by the Indians. Manitou Kiamen, a pott of Chinefe Tartary, in the country of the Kalkas. N. lat. 43° 22’. E. long. 106° ol. 7 Manitou Oudour, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the country of the Monguls. N. lat. 42°. E. long. 112° r4!. MANITZKATA, a town of Ruffia, in the country of the Coffacks; 40 miles E.N.E. of Azof. MANIVAL, a town on the E. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 17° 10!. E. long. 50”. MANKAKO, a town of the ifland of Celebes, in Buggefs bay, in which is a good market for gold and fago. Biglate 45s MANKALIA, a fea-port town of Bulgaria, on the Black fea; 68 miles E.S.E. of Siliftria. N. lat. 44°. E. long. 28° 39!. MANKANET, or Sr. Josrrn, a town of Africa, in Galam, in which is a French faétory. : MANKAP, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the S. coaft of Borneo. S. lat. 3° 2!. E. long. 109” 58’. MANKETS. Sce Nocayans. MANKOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the Angara; 44 miles S.E. of Balaganfkoi. MANKOUH, a town of Perfia, in the province of Khorafan ; 66 miles N. of Mefchid. - MANKOW.. See /vory Coast. MANKUTOSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern- ment of Irkutfk; 28 miles N. of Stretenfk. MANLIUS, Marcus, furnamed Capitolinus, in Bio- graph, , a diftinguifhed Roman, was brought up to arms, and is faid to have already ferved the office of conful, when he was one of the garrifon of the Capitol at its fiege by the Gauls in the year 390. On the attempt of the enemy to MAN furprife it by night, Manlius was the firft perfon awakened by the noife of the geefe kept in the fortrefs. He ran to the ramparts, threw down two Gauls who had mounted to the top; and the alarm being caught by the centinels, the enterprize was defeated, and the Capitol faved. For this heroic aét, Manlius received a houfe in the Capitol, with the title of Capitolinus. The high reputation which he now enjoyed, {timulated his ambition to become the firft man in Rome. Camillus, the faviour of his country, was at the head of the patrician party, and Manlius, jealous of his power, threw himfelf into the oppofite party, and began to court the Plebeians, by railing at the rich, and patronizing their infolvent and enflaved debtors, of whom there was always a great number in Rome. He liberated feveral of thefe at his own expence, and ftood forth as the public ad- vocate of the people in the divifion of the conquered lands. On accotint of fome falfe charges which he exhibited againft the nobles, he was thrown into prifon; ftill, however, he was regarded as the hero of the party, and when he was liberated, he kept no meafure in his hoftility to the nobles, but propofed the abolition of ‘confulates and di&tatorfhips, and a perfect equality of rights. He offered himfelf asa leader to enforce thefe changes, and is faid to have formed a plot to feize the Capitol, and ufurp the fovereign power. The fenate now paffed a decree, enjoining the military tri- bunes “ to take care that the republic fhould fuffer no de- triment,”’ which was the form of invefting them with abfo- lute power. Manlius was charged with the crime of aiming at regal power; he appeared before his judges with mourn- ing, unfupported by his neareft relations, who were of the oppofite party. To ‘excite the favour and compaffion of the people, he produced four hundred perfons whofe debts he had paid; he difplayed thirty fuits of armour won from as many foes flain by him in fingle combat ; a mural crown, and eight civic crowns; and he enumerated thirty-feven rewards received from his generals for a¢ts of extraordinary valour. Laltly, he pointed to the Capitol itfelf, which he had faved, and which was full in view from the Campus Martius, the place of trial, and invoked its gods to his afliftance. So long as this objet was in their fight, the people refufed to find him guilty, but when the place of affembly had been altered to a grove from which the Capitol could not be feen, fentence was obtained againft him, and he was condemned to be thrown down from that very rock which he had defended from the attack of the Gauls. This execution took place in the year 384. B.C., and a decree was at the fame time paffed, that no patrician fhould from that time dwell in the Capitol. Plutarch. Livy. Mantius, Tirus, furnamed Zorguatus, a celebrated commander of the fame family with the preceding, the fon of Titus Manlius Imperiofus, who after he had ferved the office of diétator in 363, was cited before the people to . an{wer for various acts of cruelty, and one of the charges again{t him was for keeping his fon Titus, in the country, at work among his flaves, for no other reafon than that he was of flow parts, and had an impediment in his fpeech. The young man being informed of this acenfation, went to Rome by night, and proceeded dire€tly to the houfe of the tribune Pomponius, his father’s accufer, demanded a private interview ; then drew a dagger and threatened him with inftant death unlefs he took an oath to drop the profecution againft his father, with which he very readily complied, The people were fo well pleafed with this inftance of filial piety, though in favour of a man whom they detefted, that they raifed the young Titus to the polt of legionary tri- bune. Some time afterwards, when the Gauls, invading the Roman territory, had advanced within three miles of the MAN the city, and both armies lay on opnofite banks of the Anio, one of the enemy, of gigantic ftature, came to the bridge and challenged the bravelt man among the Romans; Manlins begged to be allowed to accept che challenge, and armed with a fhort fword and buckler advanced to the en- counter. Vittery decided in his favour, and the Gauls, confidering the death of their champion as an omen of ill fuccefs, abandoned their camp in the night, and made a precipitate retreat. Manlius obtained the name of “ Tor- quatus”” from having torn a golden collar from the neck of his antagonift, and putting it on his own. In the year 355, he was nominated to the diétatorfhip, though he had not yet been conful, on account of his great merit. He wasa fecond time dictator, and then fucceeded to the confulate. In the year 340, he marched with Decius Mus, to fupprefs a dangerous war with the Latins, and it was refolved, that no foldier nor commander fhould quit his ranks, or even fight, without exprefs permiffion, on pain of death. Soon after Manlius, the fon of Torquatus, who commanded a detach- ment of horfe, meeting with a fquadron of the enemy, was challenged to fingle combat by its leader ; he in the height of his ardour accepted the offer, and flew his antagonitft. Having {tripped him of his armour, he went triumphantly to his father’s tent, and relating the deed, laid the fpoils at his feet. The conful immediately, and in the prefence of the Roman army, pronounced again{t him fentence of death for difobedience of orders. In the enfuing battle, Decius was flain, and the event remained in doubt, till Manlius, by a fkilful movement, decided the day and gained a complete vidtory. On his return to Rome, he was received with honour by the feniors, but the younger part of the citizens abhorring his rigour towards his fon, refufed to go out to meet him. He was afterwards offered the confulfhip by general confent, but he declined it, telling the people, that as they could not bear his feverity, fo neither could he put up with their licentioufnefs. Livy. Univer. Hitt. Mantuws, in Geography, a poft-town in Onondago county, New York, incorporated in 1794, and the feat of the county courts. It is well watered by feveral creeks, which unite at the N.E. corner of-the town; and the ftream afluming the name Chittenengo, runs N. to Oneida lake, lying 10 miles N. ofthe centre of the town. It comprehends that part of the Onondago refervation, bounded S. by the Geneffee road, and W. by Onondago creek and the Salt lake. It contains 989 inhabitants. MANNA, a diftriG, and alfo a river, on the fouth-weft coaft of the ifland of Sumatra. In this diftri& a progrefs in the art of cultivation is difcovered, fuperior to what ap- pears in-almoft any other part of. the ifland; that occupied by the Battas excepted. Here the traveller may fee pieces of land, in fize from five to fifteen acres, regularly ploughed and harrowed. Mr. Marfden accounts for this difference by obferving that Manna is by much the moft populous diftrict to the fouthward, with the {malleft extent of fea-coaft. Ne- ceility obliges them to cultivate the earth ; or otherwife they would be obliged to abandon their native foil. In order to underftand the rate of produce, we mutt firft explain the terms ufed in defcribing it. ‘¢ Paddee’’ is rice whilft it is in the hufk ; and paddee-in Sumatra and the Malay iflands is diftinguifhed into two forts, viz. ‘‘laddang,’’ or upland paddee, and ‘ fawoor,” or low-land; and thefe are always kept feparate, and will not grow reciprocally. From grounds tilled as they are, in the diflric&t of Manna, the produce is reckoned at 30 for one; from the laddangs in common it is about 60 or 80. The fawoors are generally fuppofed to yield an increafe of 100 for one, butin fome of the northern parts 120. The excefs of this proportion of MAN produce above that of our fields in Europe, which feldom exceeds 15, and is often under 10, is afcribed to various circumftances ; viz. the difference of grain, rice being ex- tremely prolific; the more genial influence of a warmer climate ; and the earth’s racially lofing, by an exceffive cultivation, its fecundity ; but principally, as Mr. Marfden conceives, to the different ftyle of cultivation. The Su- matrans, who do not grudge time or labour, make holes in the ground, and drop into each a few grains ; or, by a procefs ftill more tedious, raife the feed in beds, and afterwards plant it out. The diftrit of Manna, as well as other parts of Sumatra, is fubject to very deftruétive earthquakes. By a fevere calamity of this kind that occurred in 1770, a village was deftroyed by the houfes falling down and taking fire, and feveral lives were loft. The ground in one place was rent for a quarter of a mile to the width of two fathoms and depth of four or five. A bituminous matter is defcribed to have {welled over the fides of the cavity, and the earth, for a long time after the fhock, was obferved to contrat and dilate alternately. Many parts of the hills far inland, could be diftinguifhed to have given way, and as a confequence of this, Manna river was fo much impregnated with particles of clay that the natives could not bathe in it. At this time was formed, near to the mouth of Padang-goochie, a neigh- bouring river, fouth of the former, a large plain, feven miles long, and half a mile broad, where had before been only a narrow beach. A fmall but beautiful cafcade defcends per- pendicularly from the fteep cliff, which, like an immenfe rampart, lines the fea-fhore near Manna. No country in the world is better watered than this. Springs are found wherever they are fought for. The rivers on the weftern coaft are innumerable, but too fmall and rapid for the pur- pofes of navigation. ‘The vicinity of the mountains to that fide of the ifland occafions this profufion of rivulets, whilft it prevents their accumulating to any fize. At Manna the ‘¢ Soompatan,” that is, the fwearing apparatus, on which an oath is adminiftered, is a gun-barrel. When ufed for this purpofe, itis carried to the fpot in ftate, under an um- brella, and wrapt in filk. This parade has an advantageous effe&t, by influencing the mind of the party with an high idea of the importance and folemnity of an oath. In Eng- land it is to be regretted, that the familiarity of the object, and the fummary method of adminiltering oaths, are well known to diminifh their influence, and to render them too often nugatory. The Sumatrans fometimes {wear by the earth, laying their hands upon it, and wifhing that it may never produce aught for their nourifliment if they fpeak falfely. Marfden’s Sumatra. The town of Manna is dif- tant 300 miles §.W. from Indrapour. S, lat. 4° 25!. E. long 102° 40’. Manna, a town of Africa, in Jallonkadoo, near the Senegal. N. lat. 12° 20. W. long. 8° 50’. Manna, in Pharmacy, a medicinal drug, of great ufe in the modern prattice, as a gentle purgative, and cleanfer of the firit paflages. Manna is a white fweet juice oozing from the trunk, branches, and leaves of a kind of afh-tree, being the Frax- tnus Ornus (which fee), chiefly in Calabria, during the heats of fummer. Manna has been erroneoufly held to be a kind of mel aerium, or honey-dew, which, falling in the night, gathers on cer- tain trees, and even on rocks, and on the earth itfelf; where it hardens with the fun. But what refutes this opinion is, that fuch dews melt in the fun; whereas manna whitens and hardens in it. Add, that fuch dews are only found on the tops and extremes of the leaves, whereas manna is chiefly found to lodge on the trunks of the branches : and that the honey- deve MANNA. dew falls only on trees open to the air; whereas manna is found on trees which are under cover; as was experienced by Dr. Cornelius, who Suelo manna from branches covered on purpofe with cloth; and Lobel affures us, that manna had been gathered from branches of the afh, which had been thrown tke day before into a cellar. It is much more rational to rank manna amongft the number of gums, which, exuding from the juice of the tree, is condenfed into thofe flakes in which we tee it. Manna is far from being peculiar to the afh-tree of Cala- bria, on which it is ufually found. The Ornus is not the only {pecies of Afh or Fraxinus which produces it. It is afforded, though in lefs abundance, particularly in Sicily, by the Fraxinus rotundifolia and sae : thefe three {pecies are cultivated in Sicily, and planted on the declivity of a hill, with an eaftern afpect for the purpofe of procuring manna. After ro years’ growth, the trees begin to yield the manna, but they do not afford it in very confiderable quantity till they are much older ; "and as manna is no other than the mat- ter of the fenfible tranfpiration of trees and plants in general, it is found on many different kinds, in different quantities. At Briangon, in France, they colleé&t manna from all forts of trees that grow there; and the inhabitants obferve, that {uch fummers as produce them the greateft quantities of manna, are very fatal to their trees. Their walnut-trees produce annually a confiderable quantity ; but if there happen a year in which they produce more than ordinary, they ufually find many of them perifh in the following winter. It feems very plain from the whole, that manna is only the extravafated juice of the tree, which cannot furvive fo great a lofs of it: and what nota little confirms this is, that the very hot fummers are always thofe which are the moft abundantly produtive of manna. The ancients were fen- fible of this fpontaneous produétion of manna, of feveral {pecies of trees, fo very different from one another, and from thence fell into the error of fuppofing it fomething wholly foreign to the tree ; an error very natural to thofe who did not know that the nutritive juices of very many trees are nearly, ifnot wholly the fame. It was from this opinion of its origin, that they called it aerial honey. Dr. Cullen very properly fuppofes manna to be a part of the fugar fo univerfally prefent in vegetables, and which exudes on the furface of a great number of them; and he thinks that the qualities of thefe exudations are very little, if at all different. The principal trees known to produce thefe mannas in different climates and feafons are, the larch, the fir, the orange, the walnut, the willow, the mulberry, oaks, the hagi Maurorum, or Hedyfarum alhagi of Linnzus. Of this latter Dr. Fothergill prefented a fpecimen to the Royal Society, which he confidered as the * Tereniabin’’ of the Arabians. (Phil. Tranf. vol. xliii. p. 87.) The Ciftus la- daniferus in fome parts of Spain produces a manna, which, in its recent itate, has no purgative quality, and is eaten by the fhepherds, fo that fome fermentation feems to be necef- fary, in order to give it a cathartic power. The Italians gather three kinds of manna:—Manna di corpo, which oozes {pontaneoufly from the branches of the tree in the month of July. Manna fofatas or oe which is not gathered till Auguft, after an incifion of the tree, when the flux of the firft has ceafed. Manna di fronda, which iffues of itfelf, in little drops, like a kind of fweat, from the nervous part of the leaves of the afh, and gathers into grains about the bignefs of thofe of wheat, which are hardened by the fun in Auguft. ‘The leaves are frequently found fo laden with thefe grains, that they feem covered with fnow. Although the manna exudes fpontaneoufly upon the afh- trees, yet for obtaining it more copioufly, incifions are made through the bark by means of a fharp crooked inftrument ; and the feafon thought to be the moft favourable for infti- tuting this procefs is a little before the dog-days commence, when the weather isdry and ferene. The incifionsare firft made in the lower part of the trunk, and repeated at the diftance of an inch from the former wound, ftill extendin,: the incifions upwards as far as the branches, and confining them to one fide of the tree; the other fide being referved till the year fol- lowing, when it undergoes the fanie treatment. On making thefe incifions, which are of a longitudinal dire€&tion, about a {pan in length, and nearly two inches wide, a thick whitifh juice immediately begins to flow, which gradually hardens on the’ bark, and in the courfe of eight days acquires the confiftence and appearance in which the manna is imported into Britain, when it is colleéted in bafkets, and aftefwards packed in large chetts. Sometimes the manna flows in fuch abundance from the incifions, that it runs upon the ground, by which it is mixed with various impurities, unlefs pre- vented, as is ufually the cafe, by interpofing large concave leaves, ftones, chips of wood, &c. The bufinefs of col- lecting manna ufually terminates at the end of September, when the rainy feafon fetsin. Dr. Cirillo’s account of the manner of colieéting manna in the kingdom of Naples was communicated to the Royal Society, and was publifhed in Phil. Tranf. vol. lx. This ingenious writer begins with cor- recting a miltake, founded on an erronous opinion of the ancients, which ftates the beft aud purelt manna to be that which is obtained from the leaves of the tree. He never faw fuch a kind, and all thofe who are empl@yed in the gather- ing of the manna, know of none that comes from the leaves. The manna is generally of two kinds, not differing in their intrinfic quality, but in the manner by which they are procur- ed. Inorder to have the manna, fays our author, thofe who have the management of the woods of the Orni in the months of July and Auguft, when the weather is very dry and warm, make an oblong incifion, and take off from the bark of the tree about three iuches in length and two in breadth ; they leave the wound open, and by degrees the manna runs out, and is almoft fuddenly thickened to the pro- per confiltence, and is found adhering to the bark of the tree. This manna, which is collected in bafkets, and goes under the name of ‘manna grofla,’? is put in a dry place, becaufe moift and wet places will foon diffolve it again. This firft kind is often in large irregular pieces of a brownifh colour, and is frequently full of duft and other impurities. But when the people want to have a very fine manna, they apply to the incifion of the bark thin ftraw, or {mall bits of fhrubs, fo that the manna, in coming out, runs upon thofe bodies, and is colleéted in a fort oF regular tubes, which gives it the name of ** mannain cannoli,’ that is, manna in tubes: the fecond kind is more efteemed, and always preferred to the other, becaufe it is free and clear. There is indeed a third kind of manna, which is not commonly met with, and which our author fays he has feen fince he left Calabria: it is very white, like fugar; but as itis rather for curiofity than for ufe, he faysno more of it. The two forts of manna already mentioned undergo no kind of preparation whatfoever, before they are exported ; fometimes they are finer, particularly the “ manna groffa,”? and fometimes very dirty and full of impurities ; but the Neapolitans have no intereft in adulterating the manna, becaufe they have al- ways a great deal more than what they generally export ; and if manna is kept in the magazines, it receives often very great hurt by the fouthern winds, fo common in our part of the world, The changes of the weather produces a fudden alteration in the time that the manna is to be gathered ; and for 12 MANNA. forthis reafon, when the fummer is rainy, the manna is al- ways very {carce and very bad. Manna is generally diftinguifhed into different kinds, viz. the manna in tears, the canulated and flaky manna, and the common brown or fat manna ; differences which depend upon their re{pective purity, and the manner in which they are procured from the tree, and not upon the nature of the drug itfelf. When the juice tranfudes very flowly, the manna is more dry, tranfoarent, and pure, and confequently of higher eftimation; but when it flows more copioufly, it concretes into a coarfe brown unétuous mafs; and hence we perceive that by applying ftraw, &c. to receive the flowing juice, the manna becomes much improved. Houel, who talted the manna when flowing from the tree, found it much more bitter than in its concrete ftate ; and this bitternefs he afcrifges to the aqueous part, which is then abundant : whence it appears that the manna is meliorated by all the circum- ftances which promote evaporation. Manna is a fubftance in many things very nearly related to fugar and to honey ; it is inflammable in the fame manner, and it melts in water as ealily as fugar, and liquifies even in a moift air, and by the afliftance of heat, in rectified {pirit alfo ; the impurities only being left by both menitrua. On infpiflating the watery folution, the manna is recovered of a much darker colour than at firlt. From the faturated fpirituous folution great part of it feparates as the liquor cools, concreting into a flaky mafs, of a {nowy whitenefs, and a very grateful {weetnefs. When expofed on hot coals, it fwells, takes fire, and leaves a light bulky coa!. When boiled with lime, cla- rified with white of egg, and concentrated by evaporation, it affords cryttals of fugar. By diftillation manna affords water, acid, oil, and ammonia; and its coal affords alkali. M. Lemery, in his analyfis, drew from manna a vinous liquor, of the fame kind with that obtained from honey. Mead may alfo be made of manna, in the fame way that it is made from honey ; butit is neither fo ftrong, nor fo agree- able to the tafte as that of honey. From as much mead as was made from two pounds of manna, M. Lemery drew off by ditillation eight ounces of a fort of brandy, and on re¢ti- fying this, procured an ounce and a half of a pure burning fpirit, like in all refpeéts to reétified f{pirit of wine. This {pirit of manna is accounted by fome a fudorific, andis given from half adram toa dram anda half. M. Lemery having left the remaining liquor, after the diftillation of the fpiritu- ous part of the manna mead, ina warm place for two years, found that it depofited to the bottoms of the bottles feven drams of an effential falt of manna, which was white, hard, brittle, and formed into fine needles, and was of an acid tafte, withan admixture of fweet. This falt is purga- tive, and its dofeisadram. All the remaining acid liquor being diltilled, there remained at the bottom of the retort a quantity of matter of the confiftence of honey, which weighed twenty ounces; fo that out of two pounds of man- na, there had been twelve ounces confumed, to make the {pirit, and to give the acidity to the remaining liquor. ‘I‘his honey-like refiduum, being finally diftilled with aftrong fire, there arofe a reddifh liquor of an acrid tafte, and with a {trong empyreumatic {mell, and with this a few drops of blackith oil ; after this operation, the remainder in the retort was four ounces of a very light black coal. The coal, it is to be obferved, is here only one-eighth of the weight of the manna, which is fomewhat fingular, fince in the purett honey, treated in the fame manner, it always weighs one- fourth of the original whole quantity. It is plain from hence, that mannais a much purer fub{tance than honey : it is alfo remarkable, that in farther treatment of this coal, there isa {mall quantity of iron always difcovered in it. Vou. XXII. Manna, honey, and all the other fweet fubftances, we fee, alfo lofe all their {weetnefs as foon as ever their acid is fepa~ rated from their oil, Hift. Acad. Par. 1708, p. 56. The beft fort of manna is that in oblong pieces or flakes, moderately dry, friable, véry light, of a whitifh or pale’ yellow colour, and, in fome degree, tranfparent: the infe- rior kinds are moift, unctuous, and brown. Manna of both forts is fometimes counterfeited by compofitions of fugar, honey, and purgative materials, which may be diltinguifhed in their folid form by their weight, compacinefs, and tranf- parency,; andin the dry and moift ftate, by their talte, and by their habitude to menftrua. Manna, tn dofes of an ounce and upwards, proves a gentle laxative ; it operates iu general with great mifdaefs, fo as to be fafely given evento children and pregnant women, and in mflammatory or acute diftem- pers, where the ftimulating purgatives have no place. It is particularly proper in ftomachic coughs ; in which intentions it is fometimes made up in a linétus or lohoch, with equal quantities of oil of almonds, and fyrup of violets. The gripes, flatulencies, and other inconveniences attending it in fome conttitutions, and when given to adults in large dofes, may be obviated by a {mall addition of fome grateful aro- matic. Manna does not produce the full effect of a cathartic, unlefs taken in large dofes, as two ounces or more; and, therefore, is feldom employed for this purpofe by itfelf; it may be commodioufly diflolved inthe purging mineral waters, or fharpened with the cathartic falts, or other purgatives : its efficacy is faid to be much promoted by cafhia fiftularis, a mixture of the two purging more than either of them fe- parately : it is therefore very properly an ingredient in the ‘‘ electuarium e caffia.”’ Manna is alfoa fcripture term, fignifying a miraculous kind of food, which fell from heaven, for the fupport of the Ifraelites, in their paflage through the wildernefs ; being a {mall grain, white, like hoar-froft, round and of the fize of coriander feeds ; its colour like that of bdellium, and its tafte like honey. They call it manna, either from the Hebrew word ma- nah, a gifl, to intimate its being a gift from heaven; or from minnah, which fignifies to prepare, becaufe the manna came to them ready for eating, and needed no_prepara- tion but gathering ; or from the Egyptian word man, de- rived from the Hebrew mah, what is it ? which laft etymo- logy feems the more probable, in regard the f{cripture takes notice of the furprize they were under when they firlt faw this new food defcend. Accordingly the Hebrews, on firft feeing this new food which God had provided for them, faid to one another man-hu, or mah-hu, what is this ? Others, among whom are Saumaife and many moderns, main- tain, that the Hebrews well knew what manna was, and faid to one another, man-hu, this is manna. Salmafius, however, prefers another etymology: accarding to him, the Arabs and Chaldeans ufed the word man to fignify a kind of dew or honey that fell on the trees, and was gathered in great abundance on mount Libanus. On which footing the Ifraelites did not ule the term mauna out of furprize, but becaufe they found this food fall with the dew, in the fame manner as the honey-dew, fo well known to them under the name of man. Salmafius adds, that the manna of the Lfraelities was in reality no other than that honey, or dew, condenfed ; and that the one and the other were the fame with the wild honey with which St. John was fed in the wildernefs ; fo that the miracle did not confitt in the formation of any new fubftance in favour of the Lfraelites, but in the punctual manner in which it was difpenfed by Providence for the fuftenance of fo valt a multitude, 3G On MANNA. * On the contrary, the Hebrews and Orientals believe, that the fall of the manna was wholly miraculous. Whatever was the nature of this fub{tance, which it is not éafy, or per- haps poflible, for us to afcertain, it was by the difpenfation of Providence’a nutritive food, 4a ferved the children of Ifrael during their migration in the defarts. of Arabia for forty years, from their eighth encampment in the wildernefs of Sin. Manna began to fall on Friday morning, the r6th day of the fecond month, which from thence’ was called Jiar ; and, according to Ulher, this was Friday the 5th of June, (Exod. xvi. 14, 15.) It continued to’ fall: daily ‘in the morning, except on the fabbath, till after ‘the paflage over Jordan, and to the paffover of the goth year ‘from the Exodus, i.¢. from Friday the 5th of June, A.M. 2513, to the fecond day of the paffover, Wednefday the 5th of May, A.M. 2553, B.C. 1451. This manna, whatever’ it was, fell in fuch quantities, during forty years, as tobe’ fuffi- cient for the fultenance of about a million of perfons. Every Friday it fell in a double portion (Exod. xvi. 5.) : and though on other days it putrified, if it were kept from one day to another, yet on the fabbath it fuffered no fuch alteration. Thus, the Ifraelites were inftruéted in their conftant and neceffary dependence on the providence of God, Mayya Alhagina, a word ufed by fome authors ‘to ex- prefs that kind of manna called by others manna’ ma/lichina, from. its drops refembling maftich in {mall tears. Jt is called albagina from the plant which produces it, it being colleGted from the alkagi maurerum, in the fame manner as the common manna from the Calabrian afh. Manna Libanotis, in the Materia Medica, a name given by the old Greek writers to the fmall flakes and fragments of the frankincenfe, which flew off the larger pieces in the ga- thering, and putting themup. See Lepros Libanotis. Manna Maflichina, a name given by fome authors to a Kind of ‘manna which they defcribe as refembling mattich in its colour, and the fize of the lumps it is colleéted in? This is what we ufually know at this time under the name of manna Perficum, or Perfian manna, which is even now in ufe in medicine, in the Katt, as a common purge. Manna Perficum, Perfian Manna. Yt does not appear in the writings of the ancient Greek phyficians, that they were acquainted with any f{pecies of manna, though that medicine be now fo common in the fhops. They had the word indeed, but they applied it to a very different fenfe; what they called manna being what fome authors ftill called the manna of frankincenfe, that is fuch pieces of the common olibanum as broke offin the carriage from the’larger pieces. Phil. Tranf. N° 472. p. 86. in vol. xii. The Arabians are by fome fuppofed to have firft brought what we call manna into ufe in medicine ; ‘but if they were not the abfolute inventors of this nfe of it, it is certain they were the firft who made it general and common as a purge. Their country afforded feveral ‘diftin& fpecies of manna, all which feem to have been fo common among them, that they thought defcriptions of them needlefs; and for that reafon have not left us fufficient accounts of them, from which to determine what were their charaGters and differences. They diftinguifhed three kinds of this purging medicine, under three abfolute different names, which were manna, tereniabin, and firacoft; but it is not. eafily proved whether thefe are all now\known, or by what appellations they are at this time diftinguifhed. Rawwolf, in his Itinerary publifhed by Mr. Ray, and Tournefort in his voyage to the Leyant, have given the cleareft intimations, in regard to this fubjeét, of any of the known writers; and if to thefe we add Clufius, we have among the three all that isto-be expefted of any certainty upon the fubjeé&t ; yet the defcriptions of thefe, though eye- wituefles of all they write, have not prevented fo eminent and late a writer as Geoffroy, from falling into an error concerning the manna of the Arabians. | It is very evident, however, that we ‘have ftill one {pecies of the manna Arabum, that is, the ¢ereniabin, produced in fome parts of the world, there having been f{pecimens. of it fent over into England from Peterfburgh, near which place it is collected from a plant known among botanical writers under the name of alhagi maurorum. 7 This is ufually called manna Perficum ; it appears at firft fight a mixed mafs of dirty reddifh-brown colour, but, upon a nearer view, it is feen to confilt of feveral forts of par- ticles. Firft, a great number of: globular, cryftalline, and almoft tranfparent bodies of different fizes, and of a yel- lowifh-white colour; the biggeft of thefe do not much exceed a larger coriander-feed in fize, and they have fome- what the appearance of {mall lumps of maitic, but are of a fomewhat reddifh caft. Secondly, there is among thefe a large quantity of {mail prickles, and other little woody bodies, which feem to have been the pedicles of leaves. Thirdly, there are a few {mall leaves which are of firm texture, and terminate in narrow points.» Fourthly, there are a large number of {mall long reddifh coloured pods, of a {weetifh gelatinous tafte, containing from one to fix or feven hard, irregular, and kidney-fhaped feeds, which to the tafte are very four. And fifthly, there is ufually fome fand and earth among it. in water ufually leave about one ounce of thefe fubttances in the filtre. The globules firft deferibed are fomething hard, they break between the teeth like fugar-candy, and are of a pleafant' {weet tafle,-but have much lefs of the manna fla- vour than the Calabrian, but enough of it to difcover to what family the fubftance belongs: the feeds, flicks, leaves, and pods, feem to be all of them parts of the plant which produces the manna; and the feeds having been fown with us, have raifed plants of the alhagi. About the year 1537, when Rawwolf wrote his Itinerary, it appears that large quantities of this kind of manna were brought from Perfia to Aleppo, where it was then known by the name of ¢run- Jehibil, or trunfchibin, a corruption doubtlefs of the word terenjabin, or, as it ought to be written, according to Deufin- gius, éereng jabin. : Rawwolf alfo exprefsly informs us, that this fpecies of manna was gathered from a plant called a/bagi. This plant is minutely defcribed by Tournefort, who confirms the ac- count of the manna being gathered from it, which Rawwolf had given fo long before. ’ Tournefort fays, that it is chiefly gathered about Tauris, a city of Perfia, under the name of trunjibin, or terenjabing mentioned by Avicenna and Serapion ; he adds, that thofe authors thought it fell upon certain prickly fhrubs; whereas it is really the nutritious juice of the plant; and that, during the great heats in that part of the world, there are perceived {mall round drops, as it were, of honey ftanding upon the leaves of this plant ; and that thefe harden into globules about the fize of coriander-feeds, and are ther gathered by the inhabitants, together with leaves, flalks, dirt, and the like foreign matter, which greatly take off from their virtue. M. Tourncfort obferves, that this manna is greatly inferior to the Calabrian in virtue ; and that twenty or thirty drams of it are given for adofe. Philof. Tranf. N° 472, p. go. ubi fupra. Clufius tells us, that the terenjabin of the Arabians is ga- thered froma prickly dhrub, fuch as the alhagi is deferibed I to Four ounces of this manna diffolved en MAN to be; and Avicenna declares, that it was found upon a thorny plant; though his tranflatore have been mifled from the near refemblance of two Arabic words, to make it ftones, not a plant, that it was gathered from, It appears very plainly from the whole, that this {ubftance, now known in Ruffia,and fome other parts of the world, under the name of -manna Perficum, is truly the teren- jabin of the Arabians and of »Clufius, Rawwolf, and Tournefort ; only that the word is differently {pelt by the latter authors, dnd. it is probably alfo that manna) called: by Bauhine, and fome other writers, manna maflichind orientalis, from the round globules it is compofed of refembling the drops of mattich. Mawna Thuris, the manna of frankincenfe, a term ufed by the ancient phyficians to exprefs {uch {mall pieces of frank- incenfe, or olibanum, as broke off from the larger in the. carriage. See Lepros Libanotis. MANNACOTE, in Geography, a town of Kemaoon; 60 miles N.W. of Kerigar. MANNEBACANI, .a town of Congo; 40 miles S.W. of Congo. MANNER, in Painting, is not only employed: in its natural fenfe, as defignatory of that peculiarity in each painter's mode of compofition, drawing, and execution, which, like diverfity in hand-writings, chara¢terifes the productions of different individuals; but it has alfo a tech- nical meaning, in which it is commonly employed by artiits and connoifleurs, viz. to mark certain kinds of deviation from nature in the works of artifts, into which, either through conceit or weaknefs, they have fallen, by endea- vouring to obtain that high portion of acknowledged excel- lence, known by the name of ftyle; of which manner may be confidered as the bathos. The proper application of this word in the art is evident. No two painters have ever executed their works ia a manner exa@tly fimilar, how nearly foever they may have imitated each other. In every cafe variety ftill appears, extending throuvh every portion and principle of their compofitions, as weil as in their execution of them: juft as men think and write differently upon the fame fubjeéts, and convey their ae by diffimilar charaters, though tracing the fame etters, It is by this diverfity that connoiffeurs are enabled to afcertain the authors of pi€tures, whofe names as fuch would otherwife have been loft: by this the different fehools of art are pointed out, and the works of the artifts edu- cated in them; although fome of fuperior excellence have varied their manner, in the courfe of their practice, more than once. Thus, Titian is faid to have had his firft, fe- cond, and third manner; Raphael, his Perugino manner, his own, and that framed in imitation of Michael Angelo. By this, alfo, the gradual advance of the art may be traced, from its earlieft periods, to its arrival at the higheft perfec- tion which it attained in the Italian and Flemifh fchools. This is the natural and obvious fenfe of the word; the other is more eafily felt thn defined. Every artift and amateur, converfaut with the neceffities and beauties of art, knows and feels that nature is not to be copied at all times, and under every fituation. Her works mutt be feleéted and imitated only in her happieft moments, in her very belt pro- dudtions. When an artilt underftands, and can exhibit in his works thofe peculiarities which exemplify the purity of this felect clafs of natural objects, in all their differing cha- raéters, and can avoid the trifling matters which are unne- ceffary in yrand reprefentations, adhering only to that which is truly charaéteriltic, and giving to it all poffible truth and forcé, he has obtained that dignified power which is deno- M AN minated ftyle. If, in the attempt, he miffes his courfe, and flumbles upon a mifconception of true character, and fub- ftitutes fanciful perfections of form and colour, which have not the foundation of genuine nature to fupport, them, his ftyle-degenerates to manner: being falfe in its bafis, it can- not’ be ennobled by that higher title, which of neceffity implies truth. Every application of ftyle is indeed a manner; but the latter word is never ufed for the former, generally m oppo- fition: to it, and always derogatory to the artit and his works. For inftance, Michael Angelo gaye a fulnefs and grandeur to the form of man im his piciures, which is. not to be found fo complete in nature. But his perfect knowledge of the nature of the human frame, and the principles upon which it was fet in motion, enabled him to apply his pe- culiar tafte of line in a juft and characteriflic manner ; fo that though nature appears in his works to be almoft ex- travagantly exerted, flill it is not violated: hence the ap- propriate expreffion for his works is, that they are wrought in a grand ftyle. His German imitators we fpeak of as mannerifts; becaufe, without comprehending his principles, they imitated his ftyle, only to produce contortions and {wellings without character or meaning; mufeles in falfe motions, merely to produce fomething like what they faw and felt was grand and impofing ; a fulnefs and wave of line, which they carried into parts that ought to have been tran- quil, fquare, or ftraight: and thus falfifying the ftyle, their art was mannered, drawn’ from other art, and not from nature. Art has three ftages, as natural to it as childhood, man- hood, and age, to man; wiz. imitation, flyle, and manner. The firft is the fole objet which can prefent itfelf to the with of thofe who attempt to paint, without having any pictures before them ; the imitation of a natural obje& being the propofed end of the attempt. When a man has ob- tainéd the power of reprefenting bodies, he naturally feeks for the beft and moft agreeable fubjeéts for the exereife of his acquired power, and alfo endeavours to give them as much beauty and interett as poffible ; this neceflarily leads to fyle: and this, once acquired and exhibited to view, excites others to improve upon and indulge their minds in the ideal gratification which arifes from it, and in weak hands produces manner, the bane of the art and artift. One ftriking difference between ftyle and manner is this: the former may at firft fight be unfatisfactory to an uninformed mind, but inveftigation will gradually increafe its value, and heighten it in eftimation; the latter, on the contrary, may charm at firft fight, but never fails to difguft on a prolonged obfervation, when its folly and imperfection become ap- parent. It isan evil which thofe are always in great danger of being [ubjeéted to, who endeavour to make their pi€tures agreeable, rather than impreflive; aad forget that the highelt praife due to an artilt is given only, when he claims it by correQinefs of force and expreffion. A fimple imitation may be wrought in a bad or good ftyle;: it cannot be faid to be mannered, unlefs {ome violation of the principles of nature appear introduced, in order to give an ideal improvement upon the natural effect. In drawing, all affe€tations of fquare or round, of ftraight or undulating lines; in colour, all introductions of florid or dull tints; which trench upon the true fimplicity of nature ; and in expreflion, all extravagant increafe of actions in the features or limbs of a figure, which are not jultifed by the fentiment intended to be conveyed ; all thefe come under the denomination of manner. hele peculiarities are frequently to be found in the works of truly geat men; but they are not the lefs objectionable in principle, and perhaps would au Ga not MAN not have been employed by them but to overcome fome local difadvantage: in that cafe, flyle becomes their proper name. But the want of this confideration has often led ftudents to the admiration of thefe very defe&is, and a blind imitation of them, which neceflarily generates manner. Thus, Rubens’s ftyle of colour is in itfelf fo violent, that, if not fully maintained in all its harmony, it deferves no better title than manner, and becomes éompletely fo in the hands of moft of his imitators. Titian’s colour juttly merits the moft diftinguifhed appel- lation. It is true to nature, but it is in her fimple garb, robbed of her minuter refleCtiens and refractions, yet care- fully followed in her general principles, and enriched and heightened by a favourable feleétion and arrangement of objects, their being placed in agreeable lights, and viewed in a chofen direétion. 'The Venetians carried it to manner ; even Tintoretto and P. Veronefe, the beft and grandeft amongit them after Titian and Giorgione. Having im- bibed a tafte for the rich and luxurious colouring of their predeceffors, they could net be content without endea- vouring to extend its boundaries; and in fo doing, loft fight of nature, and adopted their own fancies as improvements upon her fyftem, and thus funk in fome meafure to man- nerifts. It is when the practice of art has become matured by fxilful men, that others build fyitems for their conduct upon the works of their predecefiors ; and though it is very proper that a fyftem be aéted upon, as it greatly facilitates and improves the praétice, yet too ready and ftriét a re- liance upon it is almoft the certain guide to manner: to avoid which, a conftant reference to nature is abfolutely neceflary. Hence, after the period when M. Angelo, Raphael, ‘Titian, and Corregio, lived and exerted their powerful talents in the perfeétion of the art of painting, fucceeding artifts, not endued with their vigour of perception, endeavoured to dif- cover in their works fome means of keeping up with them ; to eftablifh fome fyftem, on which they had or might have roceeded in their extraordinary and beautiful productions : it thence became as much an abjed to imitate the works of fome favourite artift as thofe of nature; and che true inten- tion of the art, being thus but an acceffory rather than a principal, was too often facrificed. Almoft the whole num- ber of the ingenious men who learned in the {chool of the Caracci, and followed the principles inculcated there, may be properly termed manneriits. "he manner, or the eafe which a fyftem gives, of effecting fomething attractive to the eye, and dazzling to the under- flanding, is too fedudtive to be frequently refilted by the inexperienced and vain. ‘Thofe who have been early taught by fyftem to impofe upon themfelves, and led to imagine they exhibit great ingenuity in managing a pencil with dex- terity, will moft likely never believe that it 1s more difficulr, and far more praife-worthy, to think juftly, and to imitate attentively the precife terms of an expreffion, though it be wrought with a heavier hand, and more laborious ftudy. Manner, confidered thus, is a kind of receipt for making a picture, a ready mode of combining the neceflary in- gredients; in which, however, though the hand of the artift may fometimes by accident add a larger or fmaller proportion of any one of them, the refult is inevitably of nearly the fame qualizy, and is in conilant danger of being mifapplied: for it is equally as ridiculous to {uppofe that one kind of execution or mode of compofition will fuit the reprefentation of all kinds of fubjeéts, as to believe that one compofition of medical drugs is adequate to the cure of all kinds of difeafes, Mannsns, in Portry, denote the inclinations, genius, and MAN humour, which the poet gives to his perfons, and whereby he diftinguifhes his charaGters. Ariftotle defines manners to be that which difcovers the inclination of him who fpeaks, and fhews what he will re- folve upon, or what reje&, before he was actually deter- mined: whence he sotak Gites that manners have not place always, and in all kinds of difcourfes. One inttance will make this definition clear. 1n the firkt book of Virgil, /Eneas is reprefented extremely pious, de- termined to execute the will of the gods, at all adventures. In the fourth book he has a difficult choice propofed ; bein engaged, on the one hand, out of a principle of love, grati- tude, and honour, not to quit Dido; and having, on the other hand, an exprefs order from the gods to depart for Italy. Now, before it appears on which fide he has deter- _mined, what he has before faid fhould fhew his will and in- clinations, and which part he will take. And thofe pre- ceding difcourfes, which difcover his future refolution, make what we ca'l the poetical manners. Thofe make it paft doubt he will abandon Dido to obey the gods; this he does in effect; and the manners, there- fore, are good, and well conduéted. Had he difobeyed the orders of Jupiter, to ftay with Dido, the manners had been ill; becaufe they would have foretold a refolution con- trary to what he was really to take. But had there been nothing to make us forefee any refolution ef /Eneas at all, neither that which he a@tually took, nor the contrary, in that cafe there had been no manners at all. It is the man. ners, as before obferved, that diftinguifh the characters ; and, unlefs the manners be weil exprefled, we fhall never be acquainted with the perfons at all; nor, confequently, fhall we be either terrified with forefeeing their dangers, nor melted into pity, by feeing their fufferings. The manners fhould have four qualities ; they fhould be good, like, fuitable, and equal. The manners are good, when they are well marked or ex-~ prefled ; that is, when the difcourfe of the perfons makes us clearly and diftinéily fee their inclinations, and what good or evil refolutions they will take. Likene/s of manners only relates to known and public perfons, whofe charaéters are in hiftory, with which the poetic charaéters muft agree ; that is, the poet muft not give a perfon any quality con- trary to any of thofe which hiftory has already given him. And here it may be obferved, that the evil qualities given to princes, and great men, ought to be omitted by poets, if they be contrary to the chara¢ter of a prince, &c. but the virtues oppofite to thofe known vices ought not to be im- pofed ; as by making him generous and hberal in the poem, who was avaricious in the hiftory. The manners muft likewife be /uitable ; that is, they mut be agreeable to the age, fex, rank, climate, and condi- tion of the perfon that has them. Horace obferves, ‘ In- tererit multum Davufne loquatur, an heros.” Again, the manners mutt be equal; that is, they muft be conftant, or confiftent, through the whole charaéter ; or the variety or inequality of the manners, as in nature, fo in the drama, muft be equal. ‘The fearful muft never be brave, nor the brave timorous ; the avaricious muft never be liberal, nor vice ver/é. In this part Shakfpeare’s manners are ad- mirable. Befides thefe four qualities above mentioned, there is a fifth effential to their beauty ; which is, that they be neceffary ; that is, that no vicious quality, or inclination, be given to any poetic perfon, unlefs it appear to be ab- sae neceflary, or requifite, to the carrying on of the action. MANNERIST, in Painting, one who adopts a man- mr, te MAN wer in his works, or a peculiar and affe&ted mode of pro- ducing effe&t in them unauthorized by nature. MANNERSDORFF, in Geography, a town of Auttria, on the Leytha, celebrated for its medicinal waters; 17 miles 5.S.E. of Vienna. MANNI, Genano, in Biography, compofer of the archi- epifcopal church, and a great and much refpeéted mafter at Naples, in1770: His ftyle of church mufic much refembles that of Leo, with equal invention and learning. At the death of Jomelli, he formed a pian for a public funeral for that truly great mufician, and had intereit {ufficient to have it executed with uncommon folemnity and fplendour. See JomeE ur; alfo Genaro. MANNIFERA Arsor, in the Materia Medica, the name by which the round-leaved afh, on whieh the manna is found, is often called. MANNIN Bay, in Geography, a {mall harbour on the W. coalt of the county of Galway, Ireland, adjoining that of Ardbear, in which latter there is better anchorage and fhelter. MANNING a Hawk, in Falconry, the making her traétable azd tame. Mannine the Fleet, is the providing of it with a fuf- ficient number of men for any expedition. One of the methods commonly recurred to for this purpofe is that of imprefling men, by warrants from the lord high admiral to the captains, which are by them affigned to their lieutenants ; and to render this the more effe€tual, veffels, called tenders, are hired into the fervice, to proceed from place to place with thofe officers and prefs-gangs, not only to receive vo- lunteers, but to imprefs any feamen whom they find. The power of impreffing men for the fea-fervice by the king’s commiffion, fays judge Blackftone, has been a matter of fome difpnte, and fubmitted to with great reluctance; though it hath very clearly and learnedly been fhewn by fir Michael Forfter, that the praétice of impreffing, and granting powers, to the admiralty for that purpofe, is of very ancient date and hath been uniformly continued by a regular feries of precedents to the prefent time: whence he concludes it to be a part of the common law. The difficulty arifes from hence, that no ftatute has exprefsly declared this power to be in the crown, though many of them very {trongly imply it. The ftat. 2 Ric. II. c. 4. {peaks of mariners being arrefted and retained for the king’s fervcie, as of a thing well known and praétifed without difpute; and provides a remedy again{t theirrunning away. By ftat. 2 & 3 Ph. & M. c. 16, if any waterman, who ufes the river Thames, fhall hide himfelf during the execution of any commiflion of prefling for the king's fervice, ke is liable to heavy pe- nalties. By 5 Eliz. c. 5, no fifherman fhall be taken by the queen’s commiffion to ferve as a mariner; but the com miffion fhall be firft brought to two juftices of the peace, ivhabiting near the fea-coaft, where the mariners are to be taken, to the intent that the juftices may choofe out and return fuch a number of able-bodied men, as in the com- miffion are contained, to ferve his majefty ; and by 7 & 8 W.IIL. c.21. 2 Ann.c.6. 4 & 5 Ann.c. 19. 13 Geo. II. c. 17, &c. efpecial protections are allowed to feamen in par- ticular circumftances, to prevent them from being imprefled. And ferrymen are alfo faid to be privileged from being im- prefled, at common law ; all which do moft evidently imply a power of imprefling to refide fomewhere; and, if any where, it muft, from the fpirit of our conttitution, as well as from the frequent mention of the king's commiffion, re- fide in the crown alone. But, befide this method of impreffing, which is only de- fenfible from public neceffity, to which all private confi- 6: MAN derations muft give way, there are other means tending to the increafe of feamen, and for manning the royal navy. Parifhes may bind out poor boys apprentices to matters of merchantmen, who fhall be protected from being impreffed for the firft three years; and if they are imprefled afterwards, the matters fhall be allowed their wages. (2 Ann. c.6.) Great advantages in point of wages are given to volunteer feamen, in order to induce them to enter mto his majefty’s fervice. (1 Geo. II. ftat.2.c. 14.) It is alfo ufual to promife, by proclamation, a bounty to all feamen and able-bodied land- men, who come into the fervice by a certain time; and every foreign feaman who, during a war, fhall ferve two years in any man of war, merchantman, or privateer, is natu- ralized ipfo faéo. 13 Geo. Il.c. 3. About the middle of king William’s reign, a fcheme was » fet on foot (7 & 8 W. II. c. 21.) fora regifter of feamen, to the number of 30,000, for a conftant and regular fupply of the king’s fleet, with great privileges to the regiftered feamen, and, on the other hand, heavy penalties in cafe of their non-appearance when called for; but this regiftry, being judged to be rather a badge of {lavery, was abolithed, by g Ann.c. 21. Blackit. Com, vol. i. p. 419, &c. MANNINGTON, a town of America, in Salem county, New Jerfey. : - MANNOZZI, Grovannt, in Biography. See Gro- VANNI DA SAN GIOVANNI. MANNUS, May, in Mythology, the fon of the German god Tuifton; of whom, according to Tacitus De Moribus Germanum, thefe people were defcended. MANO Arnonica, Ital. ; Main Harmonique, Fr. Harmonic Hand. See Hanno, Harmonic. MANOD, in Geography, one of the {maller Philippine iflands. N. lat. 12 28. KE. long. 122 24!. MANCEVVRE, Lo, in Military Language, isfo to manage any body or armed force, as to derive fudden and unexpected advantages before the enemy from fuperior flall in military movements. It confifts in diitributing equal motion to every part of a body of troops, that the whole may be enabled to form, or change its pofition, in the moft expeditious and belt method, fo as to anfwer the purpofes required ot a battalion, brigade, or line of cavalry, infantry, or ar- tillery. Manaouvres confit chiefly in thofe various movements « or evolutions, in which foldiers are exercifed, in order to fit them for defentive or offenfive operations. See BATTALION, Mawnvuar and PLatoon Exercifes, and Review. The platoon exercife has been altered as well as the ma+ nual. (See Praroon and Barration.) ‘The exercife is performed a little flower, three feconds being allowed be- tween each motion. It is no longer done-by fignal, from beat of drum, but all by word of command. The infantry manceuvres, which were formerly fo nu- merous, are now reduced to 18; which are ordered to be practifed and performed in every regiment. The follow- ing are the movements, explanations of which, and direétions for performing them, are piven inthe books of exercife. See Barrarion. 1. Forming the battalion into clofe columns in the rear of the right company. 2. Clofe column in the front. of the left company. 3. Clofe column ina central company, facing tothe rear. 4. Changing pofition in open column. 5. Throw- ing back the wings. 6. Changing pofition by .a counter- march, 7. Counter-marching by files in the centre of .the battalion. §& Marching in open: column. . 9. Echellon change of polition. 10. Taking up a new line. by the echellon movement... 11. Changing pofition to right or left. 12. Retreating in line. 13. Marching to a flank in echel- lon. MAN on. 14. Forming the hollew f{quare. lise and filing. to the frent. line. MANOK Mawyka, in Geography, an ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago. N. lat. 4° 54!. E. long. 119° 48’. MANOMETER is the name of an inftrument in expe- rimental philofophy ; it is derived from jz2s0;, rare, and jzezpov, mea/ure, being intended to meafure the rarefaétion and con- denfation of elzftic fluids in confined circumitances, whe- ther occafioned by variation of temperature, or by the actual deftru€tion or generation of portions of elaftic fluid. It is fometimes called manofcope. Mr. Boyle’s ffatical barometer was an inftrument of this kind ; it confifted of a bubble. of thin glafs, hermetically fealed, about the fize of an orange, which being counter- poifed when the air was ina mean {late of denfity, by means of a nice pair of {cales, funk when the atmofphere became lighter, and rofe as it grew heavier. This inftrument would evidently indicate the changes of denfity of the at- mofphere ; but it leaves us uncertain as to the caufe, whether it is from a change of its weight, or of its temperature, or of both. See BaromeTER, Statical. The manometer con{truéted by Mr. Ramfden, and ufed by Captain Phipps, in his voyage to the North Pole, was compofed of a tube of a {mall bore, with a ball at the end; the barometer being at 29.7, a {mall quantity of quickfilver was put into the tube, to take off the communication be- tween the external air, and that confined in the ball and the part of the tube below this quickfilver. A {fcale is placed on the fide of the tube, which marks the degrees of dilatation arifing frem the increafe of heat in this ftate of the weight of the air, and has the fame graduation as that of Fahren- heit’s thermometer, the point of freezing being marked 32. In this ftate, therefore, it will fhew the degrees of heat in the fame manner as athermometer. But if the air becomes lighter, the bubble inclofed in the ball, being lefs comprefled, will dilate itfelf, andtake upafpace as much larger asthe comprefling force is lefs ; therefore the changes arifing from the increafe of heat will be proportionably larger ; and the inftrument will fhew the differences in the denfity of the air, arifing from the changes in its weight and heat. Mr. Ramf- den found, that aheat eqnal to that of boiling water, increafed the magnitude of the air from what it was at the freezing point 7494, of the whole. Hence it follows, that the ball and the part of the tube below the beginning of the fcale is of a magnitude equal to almoft 414 degrees of the {fcale. If the height of both the manometer and thermometer be given, the height of the barometer may be thence deduced by this rule ; as the height of the manometer increafed by 414 is to the height of the thermometer increafed by 414, fo is 29.7 to the height of the barometer. In the 67th volume of the Philofophical TranfaGtions for 1777, page 689, Col. William Roy has given a defcription of the manometers he ufed to afcertain the expanfion and contraétion of dry and moilt air by change of temperature. «« They were of various lengths, from four to upwards of eight feet ; they confifted of ftraight tubes, whofe bores were commonly from ,th to jth of an inch in diameter. The capacity of the tube was carefully meafured, by making a column of quicklilver, about three or four inches in length, move along it from one endto the other. Thefe {paces were feverally marked with a fine edged file on the tubes, and traneferred from them to long flips of palteboard, for the fubfequent conftrudtion of the feales refpeétively belonging to each. ‘lhe bulb attached to one end of the manometer at the glafs-houfe, was of the form of a pear, whofe point 15. Retiring in 16. Advancing in line, filing, and charging 17. Retreating inline. 18. Advancing in MAN being occafionally opened, dry or moift air could be readf- ly admitted, and the bulb fealed again, without any fenfible alteration in its capacity. “ The air was confined by means of a column of quickfil- ver, long or fhort, and with the bulb downward or up- wards, according to the nature of the propofed experiment. Here it mutt be obferved, that from the adhefion of the quickfilver to the tube, the inftrument wil! not act truly, ex- cept it be in a vertical pofition ; and even then it is ne- ceffary to give it a {mall degree of motion, to bring the quickfilver into its true place, where it will remain in equili- brio, between the exterior preffure of the atmofphere on one fide, and the interior elaflic force of the confined air on the other. «* Pounded ice and water were ufed to fix a freezing point on the tube ; and by means of falt and ice, the air was farther condenfed, generally four, and fometimes fiye or fix degrees be- low zero. The thermometer and manometer were then placed in the tin veflel, among water, which was brought into violent ebullition ; where having remained a fufficient time, and mo- tion being given to the manometer, a boiling point was marked thereon. After this the fire was removed, and the gradual defcents of the piece of quickfilver, correfponding to every 20degrees of temperature in the thermometer, were fucceflively marked ona deal rod applied to the manometer. It is to be obferved that both inftruments, while in the water, were in circumftances perfedily fimilar ; that is to fay, the ball and bulb were at the bottom of the veffel. ‘* In order to be certain that no air had efcaped by the fide of the quickfilver during the operation, the manometer was frequently placed a fecond time in melting ice. If the barometer had not altered between the beginning and end of the experiment, the quickfilver always became ftationary at or near the firft mark. If any fudden change had taken place in the weight of the atmofphere during that interval, the fame was noted, and allowance made for it in afterwards proportioning the fpaces. “ Long tubes, with bores truly cylindrical, or of any uniform figure, are {earcely ever met with. Such, however, as were ad in thefe experiments, generaily tapered ina pretty regular manner from one end to the other. When the bulb was downwards, and the tube narrowed that way, the column of quickfilver confining the air lengthened in the lower half of the fcale, and augmented the preffure above the mean. In the upper half, the column being fhortened, the preffure was diminifhed below the mean. In this cafe the obferved fpaces, both ways from the centre, were dimi- nifhed in the inverfe ratio of the heights of the barometers at each fpace, compared with its mean height. If the bore widened towards the bulb when downwards, the obferved {paces each way from the centre were augmented in the fame inverfe ratio; but in the experiments on air lefs denfe than the atmefphere, the bulb being upwards, the fame equa- tien was applied with contrary figns; andif any extraordi- nary irregularity took place in the tube, the correfponding {paces were proportioned both ways from that point, whe- ther high or low, that anfwered to the mean. “« The obferved and equated manometrical fpaces being thus laid down on the pafte-board containing the meafures of the tube; the 212° of the thermometer, inexa& proportion to the fections of the bore, were con{lruéted along fide of them; hence the coincidences with each other were eaflily feen ; and the number of thermometrical degrees anfwerin; to each manometrical {pace readily transferred into a table prepared for the purpofe.’”? For the important refults ob- tained by thefe inftruments, fee Barometer, Mea/urement of Altitud.s. eh 3 MAN It may not be amifs to obferve that Colonel Roy’s refults onthe expanfion of dry air have been generally confirmed by the fubfequent experiments of Dalton and Gay Luffac; but thofe on moift air have beén found lefs fatisfactory, unlefs in fuch cafes when water in a liquid {tate is prefent. Mr. Dalton has given a theorem, derived from his experience, ‘to afcer- tain the expanfion of moitt air (that is, when water is prefent in the liquid ftate) for any temperature. Suppofing the fpace occupied by the dry air at the given temperature to be 1, the atmofpheric preffure = p, and f = the force of fleam at the temperature ; then the'f{pace of the moift air will be = Z Persist 1 The ftriking peculiarity of manometers of the above: con- firu&tion, and that on which their chief excellence depends, is that a mercurial column of about ;4th or ,',th of an inch in diameter, flides freely up and down a glafs tube, without fuffering any air to pafs either way. This character is, how- ever, obtained only by preferving the tube and mercury very clear anddry. If any duft, moifture, or oxyd be found in the tube, the mercury becomes lefs free in its motion, and the air is apt to break the mercuria! column, and gradually efcape. A bore of lefs diameter would occafion too much fri¢tion, and one of greater would fuffer the mercury to fall down. When the expanfion or dilatation of the air in any expe- riment amounts to one-alf of the original volume, or any other quantity exceeding that, a manometer of a {till more fimple conftruétion may be ufed, namely, a {traight tube, or one without bulb, of the fame bore or capacity as Col. Roy’s. Tt muft be divided into equal fsaces, by means of a fliding mercurial column, on account of the irregularity of the bore incident to fuch tubes; a {mall drop of mercury may then be let down bya clean iron wire to any part of the tube, fo as to conftitute a fliding column of about half an inch in length. Another fpecies of manometer may be ufed when the ob- ject is to meafure the force of {team or vapour, generated over certain liquids by heat. In this cafe a tube fimilar to the preceding may be bent into a fiphon with parallel legs, the fhorter lex of which mutt be clofed, or hermetically fealed, and the longer open. A few drops of the liquid muft be conveyed to the extremity of the clofedleg ; after which the greater part of the tube may be filled with mer- cury, fo as to leave no {pace with air between the mercury and the liquid ; the manometer muft then be put into water, &c. of a known temperature, and held in a perpendicular pofture, with the bending loweft, and fo that the extremity of the tube containing the liquid may be wholly immerfed in the warin water, whillt the other extremity is without. The heat will expand part of the liquid into fteam, which will deprefs the mercury in the fame leg, and elevate it in the op- pofite, till an equilibrium of preffure is eftablifhed. The elaftic force of the fleam will evidently be equal to the pref- fure of the atmofphere ++ the difference of the heights of the two mercurial columns in the fiphon, according as the column in the open or clofed leg exceeds that of the other. If the difference of the heights is expected to be upwards of thirty inches, fome inconvenience arifes from the great length of tube requifite: im this cafe an ingenious con- trivance has been invented to obviate it; the open end of the manometer muft be hermetically fealed, fo as to inclofe a column of atmofpheric air of due volume ; when the tteam is formed in the liquid, and the mercury depreffed, it con- denfes the air in the other leg, and the {pace occupied by the condenfed air, as is well known, is inverfely as’ the force ; MAN then the quantity of this force thus afcertained -+ the differ- ence of the two mercurial columns, will give the whole elaftic force of the fteam. Great care muft be taken that the air- column of the. fiphon is clear of the liquid that generates the fteam. By this fort of inftrument Mr. Dalton finds the force of fteam from fulphuric ether at 212° Fahr. = 236 inches of mercury. See Manchefter Mem. vol. y. p. 567. Alfo, New Sydtem of Chemiltry, part 1, p. 14., The ftraight tube manometer is the moft elegant and fim- ple inftrument to prove the important property of elattic fluids above alluded to, namely, that the fpace occupied by any permanent elaftic fluid is inverfely as the preflure. For _ this purpofe a fmall given portion of air is confined in the bottom of a long tube, of forty inches ormore. A column of twenty-five inches, more or lefs, of mercury is admitted into the tube to.confine the air; when the tube is held hori-+ zontally, the confined air is prefled by the atmofphere only : when the tube is held perpendicular, the air has the preffure of the atmofphere + that of the mercurial column; and when it is held downwards, the air has the preflure of the atmofphere — that of the mercurial column, By marking the {paces occupied by the air in thefe circumf{tances, they are found to be inverfely as the preffures. Sauffure, in his Effays on Hygvometry, defcribes his ma- nometer: it was nothing but an ordinary barometer: a fim- ple ftraight tube was filled with boiled mercury, and its open end wasimmerfed ina cup of the fame liquid ; the whole was then inclofed in a large glafs balloon, except a few inches of the upper extremity of the tube, to which a feale of degrees or equal parts was attached, to fhew the variation of the al- titude-of the mercury. The tube paffed through a circular hole in atin plate'which covered the opening of the balloon, and which was very carefully luted, as was the paflage of the tube, fo as to’be perfectly air-tight. In this cafe it was evident the inftrument was no longer a barometer, as it was cut off from the action of the air out of the balloon ; but the mer- cury was fupported by the {pring or elalticity of the air within the balloon, and mult be fubjeét to fuch fluuations as took place in it, independently of any change of weight in the atmofphere. By means of this apparatus, Sauflure found that atmofpheric air, in pafling from extreme drynefs to extreme moifture, in the temperature of 65° Fahr., in- creafed about 3,th in elalticity ; and vice verfa, in pafling from extreme moifture to extreme drynefs, it diminifhed sth in its elaftic force, the temperature being all the time uniform. MANONOETOC, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by the people of the Philippine iflands to a {pecies of horned owl, common in thofe parts. MANOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of Dindigul ; 27 miles N.W. of Dindigul. MANOORGUDY, atown of Hindooltan, in the circar of Mahur; 20 miles N. of Neermull, MANOR, or Maynor, an ancient lordfhip, or royalty 5 confilting of demefnes and fervices, and of a court-baron, as incident thereto: The word is formed from the French mancir, a manfion- honfe ; and that from the Latin manere, to remain or dwell 3 as being the lord’s ufual place of refidence. Manor is the fame with what was formerly called darenii, bavony 3 as it is {till called Jord/hip ; and lord or baron was empowered to hold adomettic court, called the ‘court- baron,’ for redrefling mifdemefnors and nuifances within the manor, and for fettling difputes of property among the te- nants. ‘This court is an infeparable ingredient of every manor ; and if thenumber of fuitors fhould fo fail as oe to eave MAN leave fufficient to make a jury or homage, that is, two te- nants at the leaft, the manor itfelf is loft. A manor is a kind of noble fee, granted out partly to te- nants, for certain fervices to be performed, and partly re- ferved to the ufe of the lord’s family ; with jurifdiGtion over his tenant, for the lands, or eftates, held of him. Astothe original of maners, we are told there was anciently a certain compa{s of ground, granted by the king to fome man of worth, for him and his heirs to dwell upon, and to exercife fome jurifdi€tion, more or lefs, within that circuit, fuch as he thought good to grant; but performing fuch fervices, and paying fuch yearly rent, as by this grant was required. Now the lord afterwards parcelling the fame to other meaner men, received rent and fervices from them, and by that means, as he became tenant to the king, the inferiors became tenants to him. The fuperior lord, under whom the {maller manors continue to be held, is called, in fuch cafes, the lord paramount over all thefe manors; and his feignory is fre- quently termed an honor, not a manor, efpecially if it hath belonged to an ancient feudal baron, or hath been at any time in the hands of the crown. In procefs of time the in- ferior lords parcelled out and granted to others more minute eftates, to be held of themfelves, and fo downwards without limit ; till at length their fuperior lords obferved, that by this method of {ubinfeudation they loft all their feudal profits, of wardfhips, marriages, and elcheats, which fell into the hands of thefe mefne or middle lords, who were the imme- diate fuperior of the ‘ terre-tenant,’? or occupier of the Jand ; and alfo that the mefne lords themfelves were fo im- “poverifhed thereby, that they were difabled from performing their fervices to their own fuperiors. This occafioned, firlt, that provifion in the 32d chapter of Magna Charta, 9 H. III. (which is not to be found in the firft charter granted by that price, nor in the great charter of king John,) that no man fhould either give or fell his land, without referving fufficient to anfwer the demands of his lord ; and afterwards the ftatute of Weltm. 3, or ‘quia emptores,”’ 18 Edw. I. c. 1, which direéts, that, upon all fales or feoffments of land, the feoffee Shall hold the fame, not of his immediate feoffor, but of the chief lord of the fee, of whom fuch feoffor himfelf held it. But thefe provifions, not extending to the king’s own te- nants in capite, the like law concerning them is declared by the tatutes of “ prerogativa Regis,’ 17 Edw. II. c. 6, and of 34 Edw. IIL. c. 15, by which laft all fubinfeudations, previous to the reign of king Edward I., were confirmed ; but all fubfequent to that period were left open to the king’s prerogative. And from hence it is clear, that all manors exifling at this day, muft have exifted as early as king Ed- ward I. ; for it is effential to a manor, that there br tenants who hold of the lord ; and by the operation of thefe {tatutes, no tenant in capite fince the acceffion of that prince, and no tenant of acommon lord fixce the ftatute of ‘¢ quia emptores,’’ could create any rew tenants to hold of himfelf. At this time a manor rather fignifies a jurifdiGtion, and royalty incorporeal, than the land and fuit: for a man may now have a manor in grofs. i. e, the right and intereft of a court baron, with the perquifites, and another enjoy every foot of land belonging to it. A manor may be compounded of divers things: as of an honfe, arable land, pafture, meadow, wood, rent, advowfon, courtébaron, &c. And this ought to be, by long conti- nuance of time, beyond man’s memory. It is held by fome, that a manor cannot now be made, fince a court-baron cannot be made; and without a court-baron, and at leaft two fuitors, there can be no manor. A manor may contain one or more villages or hamlets, or only a great MAN part of a village; and there are capital manors or honors, which have other manors under them, the lords whereof per- form cuftoms and fervices to the {uperior lords, There ma be alfo cuftomary manors, granted by copy of court roll, and held of other manors. But it cannot be a manor in Jaw, without freehold tenants; nor a cultomary manor, without copyhold tenants. The cuftom remains, when tenements are divided from the reft of the manor, the te- nants paying their fervices ; and he who hath the freehold of them may keep a court of furvey, &c. See VILLEIN, CopyuoLp, and Tenure. ; Manor Courts are fuch as are held within the manor, for the purpofe of adjuiting the various rights, claims, &c. It is obferved that the bufnefs of holding thefe, depends on whether they are held of right, or merely by cufom. It is -added, that “if the copyhold tenure is fo far worn out, in any manor, that there are not two arcient or feudal tenants remaiaing within it, the court has loft its legal power. It cannot by right take cognizance of crimes, nor enforce amerciaments.'’ It is, however, allowed that manorial courts have their ufes, in regulating farm-roads, drift-ways, and water-courfes, and in preventing nuifances of different kinds within a manor, and it is generally right to preferve the cuftom of holding them for thefe purpofes. Where copy- hold courts remain in force, and where legal forms are to be obferved, they are beft held by a law fteward. be Manor, in Geography, a townfhip of America, in Lan- cafter county, Pennfylvania, containing 1904 inhabitants. MANORCOTTA, atown of Hindooltan, in Madura; 15 miles N. of Coilpetta. j MANORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 38 miles S. of Damaun. MANOR-HAMILTON, a {mall poit-town of the county of Leitrim, Ireland, on the road to Sligo; being near 11 miles ealt of that town, and 94 miles N.W. from Dublin. MANORIAL Cras, the claims which the lords of marors have upon their tenants, and which are different iu different cafes, according to the nature of the manor. In refpe& to the appropriation of commonable lands, thefe claims fhould, according to a late writer, be regulated by the particular advantages which the lord of a given manor may enjoy, and which he may continue to enjoy, while they remain open and uninclofed, whether they may arife from mines, quarries, water, alien tenants, fuel, eftover, pannage, game, &c. ‘The claims of lords, as guardians of the foil, which is productive of paflurage only, is, in moft inttances, merely honorary ; and it is for the legiflature to apportion the fhare of lands, to which they are entitled, as an equi- valent fer fuch. But their claims, in the right of the foil on which thriving timler is ftanding, are more fubftantial ; as out of thefe, they have in effeét a real yearly income, equal to the annual increafing value of the timber ; a fort of advan- tege which they of courfe will continue to enjoy, ff the com- mons remain open and uninclofed, as long as the timber con- tinues to increafe in value. ‘Their claims in this refpe@, con- fequently depend on the quantity of timber, and its ftate of growth, conjointly taken. It is {uppofed that, * young thriving timber, not only affords an annual increafe of value at prefent, but will continue its benefits for many years to come, if it be fuffered to remain undilturbed, or the foil which fupports it, during the eftimated period of its future increafe ; whereas dotaras and {tinted trees, which afford no increafe of value, do not entitle their owners to any fhare of the foil they ftand upon ; the trees themfelves, or their intrinfic yalue, appear to be al} that the lord has a right to claim.” It M AWN it is conceived that the claims of the crown, or of hereditary rangers on foreit lands, fhould be fatisfied on the fame prin- ciple. MANORPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat ; 25 miles S.W. of Cottilah. MANOS, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 20 miles E.N.E. of Havannah.—Alfo, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Spanifh Main, near the coaft of Darien. N. lat. 9° 17!.. W. long. 78° 40’. MANOSQUE, atown of France, in the department of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of Forcalquier, which, before the revolution, was the refi- dence of a governor, and contained feven churches and acom- mandery of Malta; near it is a medicinal fpring ; feven miles S. of Forcalquier. The place contains 5360, and the canton 11,527 inhabitants. N. lat. 44° 50’. E. long. 5° Tie ? MANOT, a town of Hindooftan, in Aurungabad ; 60 miles E.S.E, of Aurungabad. MANOU, akingdom of Africa, E. of Quoja. MANOUARAN, a {mall ifland in the North Pacific ocean, near the N. coaft of Waygoo. N. lat.o° 6. E. long. 131° 10’. ; MANPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares; 12 miles N.W. of Bidzigur.—Alfo, a town of Hindoottan, in Baha@; 35 miles S.W. of Bahar.—Alfo, a town of Hin- dooftan, in Oude; 40 miles S.E. of Gorrackpour. MANQUES Secas, a clutter of {mall iflands in the At- lantic, near the coaft of Brazil. S. lat. 2° 25’. W. long. 44 50° ; ANQuES Verdes, a clufter of {mall iflands in the At- lantic, near the coaft of Brazil. S. lat. 2° 25’. W. long. ° 46'. « MANRESA, Mirnorosa, or Manxes, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, which gives name to a viguier, i. e. governed by a viguier (vicarius) or juri{diGtion, fituated on a river, which foon after runs into the L’Obregat; it is defended bya caftle, and contains feveral convents ; 25 miles N.N.W. of Barcelona. N. lat. 41° 44'. E. long. 1° 44’. MANRIQUE, D. JorGe, in Biography, a Spanith poet of the old {chool, who has retained, to the prefent period of time, alarge fhare of popularity, and who flourifhed in the fifteenth century. He is chiefly celebrated for the forty- two ftanzas upon the death of his father, which are fo na- tural, and which, being upon a fubje& that interefls every breaft, are read with pleafure by all perfons from the throne to the friar’s cell; they have been frequently reprinted with paraphrafes and commentaries. The other pieces of this poet are to be found in the ‘¢Cancionero.”’ It wasaflirmed by Joam II. of Portugal, that it was asneceflary for a man to know thefe ftanzas by heart, as to know the pater-nofter. Gen. Biog. MANS, Lg, in Geography, a city of France, and ca- pital of the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of a diftri&, fituated at the conflux of the Huifne and’ Sarthe. Before the revolution it was the capital of Lower Maine, the fee of a bifhop, the feat of a governor, an eleétorate, bailiwick, &c. and contained a cathedral, two collegiate, 13 parifh churches, and 12 religious houfes. It is divided into two parts, one containing 9366, and the other 7855 inhabitants. ‘The canton of the former contains 13,866, and that of the latter 11,534 inhabitants; on a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat, 48°. E. long. (oe Gy) MANSALA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland ; 21 miles N. of Borgo, Vox. XXII. MAN MANSAPE, a town of Lower Siam, near the coatt. N. lat. 13° 15!. E.long. 102° 20!. MANSARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 13 miles S. of Durbungah. MANSAROAR, a lake of Thibet, about Its miles in circumference, whence {prings the fouthern branch of the Ganges. MANSART, Francrs, in Biography, an eminent French archite&t, born at Paris in 1598, was fon of the king’s car- penter, and received thofe inftru€tions which led him to emi- nence, as an architeét, from the celebrated Gautier; but for the high rank to which he attained in his profeffion, he was indebted to the force of his own genius. His tafte and judgment, united with a fertile imagination and fublime ideas, enabled him to equal the greateft mafters in his plans ; he was, however, too apt to alter his defigns, and even, in aim- ing at perfection, to demolifh what was already not only well done, but fearcely to be furpaffed. This charafter was the means of preventing him the honour of finifhing the fine abbey of Val-de-Grace, founded by Anne of Auftria, which he had commenced in 1645, and which, when raifed to the firft ftory, the queen put into other hands, to prevent its deftruction by him who had reared it. He was employed by the prefident Longueil to build his great chateau de mai- fons, near St. Germain’s ; and when a confiderable part of it was erected, he pulled ir down again without acquainting the mafter with his intentions. After this, itis to his credit, that he finifhed it in a véry noble ftyle, and it is reckoned one of the fineft archite€tural monuments of that age. A better idea cannot be given of his charater than this; Col- bert applied to him for a defign of the principal front of the Louvre, and Manfart produced many fketches of great beauty, but when told he muft fix upon one to be invariably followed, ‘if approved, he declined the bufinefs. His laft great work was the portal of the Minims in the Place Royale ; he died in 1666, at the age of fixty-nine. He is known as the inventor of a particular kind of’ roof called the manfarde. He had a nephew Jules-Hardouin, who was alfo eminent in his profeffion as an archite@, and was edu- cated by his uncle. He became a favourite of Lewis XIV. and was enabled, under his patronage, to realize a large for- tune. Some of his principal works were the chateau de Clagny ; the palace of Verfailles; the houfe of St. Cyr; the gallery of the Palais Royal; the palaces of Louis-le- Grand, and des Vitoires, and the dome and finifhing of the “ Invalides.’? He died fuddenly at Marly in the year 1708. MANSBY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Wett Bothnia, on the Calix ; 25 miles W.N.W. of Yornea. MANSCOE, a bailiwick in Georgia, S. of the Mufcle fhoals, in the Teneffee river, remarkable for the mammoth bones found here. . MANSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia ; feven miles N. of Marienburg., MANSE, Mansus, Man/fa, or Manfum, formed a ma- nendo, abiding, as being the place of dwelling, or refidence, in ancient Law-Books, denotes a houfe or habitation ; either with or without land. Mansg, Capital, manfum capitale, denotes the manor-houfe or Jord’s court. Manse, or Man/fus prefbyteri, is a parfonage or vicarage- houfe, for the incumbent to refide in. This was originally, and {till remains, an effential. part of the endowment of a parifh-church, together with the glebe and tithes. It is fometimes called pre/byterium. MANSEL, in Geography, an ifland in the N.E. part of 3H Hudfon’s MAN Hudfon’s bay, between Southampton ifland and the coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 62° 38’. MANSERET, a town of Spain, in the Afturia of Oviedo. 7 MANSFELD, Peter Ernest, Count de, in Biography, a German ftatefman and commander ; in 1552 he was made prifoner at Ivoy, which place he governed. He afterwards became governor of Luxemburg, where he maintained tranquillity, while the reft of the Low Countries was ina ftate of civil war. He had afterwards the entire command of Brabant. He died at the advanced age of 87, in the year 1604. Moreri. Mansretp, Ernest, Count of, a celebrated general, born in 1585, was the natural fon of the foregoing Peter Ernett, count of Mansfeld. He was brought up at the court of the archduke Erneft, governor of the Low Countries, who fent him at an early age into Hungary, to learn the art of war under his brother Charles. He ferved the emperor and the king of Spain in Hungary and the Low Countries, and was legitimated by the former, on account of his bravery. He received fome flights from the Spanifh government, which caufed him te quit its fervice in difgutt, and he entered into that of the duke of Savoy. He had been brought up in the Catholic religion, but did not f{eruple to enter into the league of the Proteftant princes againft the head. of the empire, and henceforth he became one of the molt formidable enemies of the houfe of Auftria. He was fent by Frederic, elector pa- latine, in 1618, into Bohemia, to fupport the revolters from the authority of the emperor. The Bohemians appointed him grand-matter of artillery and general of infantry ; he took Pilfen, and gained other advantages. After Frederic, who had been elected king, had loft the battle of Prague in 1620, Mansfeld kept on the war till he was compelled by the fuperior forces of Tilly to retire into the palatinate. His heroifm was now every where celebrated, and though lying under the ban of the empire, without eftate or property of any kind, he had rendered his name fo famous by his fpirit of enterprize, and his fingular faculty of recruiting after loffes, and keeping the field though often defeated, that he found himfelf courted at the fame time by the king of France, the French Proteftants, the kings of Spain and England, and the republics of Holiandand Venice. He determined, how- ever, to join the duke of Bouillon, and the reformed party in France, and performed many feats of furprifing valour. When he had difbanded his troops he vifited France and England, and from the latter country he obtained troops, with which he affifted the prince of Orange to raife the fiege of Breda. In 1625 he returned to Germany, and after ra- vaging the archbilhopric of Cologne, joined the king of Den- mark in Lower Saxony ; a train of ill fuccefs now purfued him, and he was anxious to try his fortune at Venice ; with this view he fet out, accompanied by twelve officers, although at that time labouring under a flow fever. He, however, paffed through Servia and Bofnia, and arrived in Dalmatia, but with fuch an increafe of his diforder, that he was obliged to ftop at a village near Zara. ‘There, finding his end ap- proaching, he exhorted his companions to remain true to the liberty of their country, and tranquilly expired in Novem- ber 1626, at the age of forty-one. He had every quality of a great captain, and he always aéted with fidelity and inde- fatigable zeal in the fervice of the party whole caufe he efpoufed. The want of regular authority, and refources, obliged him to connive at the diforders committed by his foldiers ; and his marches were fometimes fo deltrutive, that the houfe of Auftria named him the “ Attila of Chriften- dom”? Moreri, Mod. Univer. Hitt, MAN MAnsFELD, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia, in the” county of Mansfeld, having a caftle on a high rock, which was formerly a fortrefs, and the refidence of the counts of Mansfeld, now in aconfiderably dilapidated ftate ; 36 miles N.N.E. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 38’. E.long. rx° 4r!. MansFELp, County of, a principality of Weftphalia, bounded by the electorate of Saxony and Querfurt, the dio- cefe of Merfeburg and the duchy of Magdeburg, the prin- cipalities of Anholt and Halberftadt, and the county of Stolberg. Its greateft length is 28, and greateft breadth 16 miles. Although it is generally mountainous, it affords good corn land and patturage, with a confiderable extent of woods, vineyards, chaces, and fifheries ; befides a falt-work and mine, and a flate from which copper is extraéted. This flate bears impreffions of all kinds of animals, efpecially of fifhes. In this county are alfo two lakes, almoft conti- guous and communicating with each other; and yet the water of the one is falt, and that of the other frefh and fweet-- Thefe lakes abound with fifh, which furnifh employment and fubfiftence for the adjoining inhabitants. ‘They fupply alfo a great number of wild-ducks, geefe, fnipes, and other water-fowl. [he county contains feyen towns. The pre- valent ¥eligion is Lutheranifm, introduced into the country by the aétivity and zeal of Albert VII., count of Mans- feld, This county is partly a fief of Saxony and Magde- burg. At the peace of Tilfit, the Pruffian part of this county was annexed to Weltphalia. Mansretp, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; ro miles S.S.W. of Konighberg. MANSFIELD, Eart or, in Biography. RAY. MansFieEcp, in Geography, a market town and parifh in the wapentake of Broxtow, Nottinghambhire, England, is fituated in the foreft of Sherwood, at the diftance of 14 miles from Nottingham, and 138 from London, It appears to have been a place of high antiquity ; coins of feveral Roman emperors have been found in and near the town; and the re- cent difcovery of ancient relics near Mansfield Woodhoufe is an indifputable proof that the Romans had a {tation or fettlement in this vicinity. In the Domefday furvey “¢ Maunsfield,”” as it was anciently called, is mentioned as a royal manor; and fucceflive monarchs have granted feveral privileges to it. A market was eftablifhed by a charter of Henry III. ; and a fair by a grant from Richard IT. When Sherwood foreft was a royal chace, here was a royal villa which the fovereigns kept as a hunting feat ; and, to ufe the words of an old inquifition, «* Henry Fauconberge held the mannor of Cuckney, in ferjeantry by the fervice of fhoein the king’s palfrey when the king came to Mansfield.” Le- land’s account of this place is not very favourable; he calls it “a little pore ftreet, a thoroughfare at the end of the wood ;”’ but at prefent it is a large and opulent town; the houfes, which are in general well built, were ftated in the population return of the year 1800, to be, in number, 1245, and oecupied by $998 perfons. ‘The market, which is held on Thuridays, is generally well ftocked with corn and cat- tle ; and here are now three annual fairs, chiefly for cattle and cheefe. Several confiderable manufatories are efta- blifhed here ; a great trade in free-ftone is carried on with Nottingham ; and the malting bufinefs is very extenfive. The church is a commodious {truture ; and here is a re- {pettable free-fchool, with two fcholarfhips at Jefus college, Cambridge, founded by queen Elizabeth in the third year of her reign. At the diftance of a mile and half from the town, is the townfhip and chapelry of Mansfield Woodhoufe, which con- See Mur- tains - MAN tains 211 houfes, and 1112 inhabitants. In the year 1786, Hayman Rooke, efq. of this place difcovered, within about a mile from the village, two Roman ville, which he called Urbana and Rutftica ; the former containing nine rooms, the latter thirteen ; with hypocaufts, baths, and other appen- dages : the walls of moft of the rooms appeared to have been ftuccoed, and painted in ftripes of various colours ; and in the centre-room of the Urbana was a teffellated pavement. Mr. Rooke alfo found the remains of two Roman fepulchres, with urns, bones, &c.: and various fragments of patere and pots of Roman ware, with other relics of antiquity, were difcovered in the rooms of the villz. Within a few miles from Mansfield are feveral magnificent manfions, viz. Workfop, the feat of the duke of Norfolk ; Clumber, the duke of Newcaftle’s; Thorefby, lord Ne- wark’s ; and Welbeck, belonging to the duke of Portland. In popular language this part of the country is called the dukery, from the number of feats belonging to dukes. Hiftory of Nottinghamfhire, by Thoroton and Throfby, three vols. 4to. 1797. MansFiEcp, a townfhip of America, in Suffex county, New Jerfey, fituated on Muffonenunk river, about feven miles S.E. of Oxford, and containing, in 1790, 1482 inha- bitants.—Alfo, a townfhip in Briftol county, Maffachufetts, 29 miles foutherly of Bofton, incorporated in 1770, and con- taining 1016 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip in Chittenden county, Vermont, between La Moille and Onion rivers, about feven miles from each, and 183 miles N. by E. from Bennington, Mansfield mountain rifes in this town. Its in- habitants are 12.—Alfo, a townfhip in Burlington county, New Jerfey, on the S. fide of Black’s creek, confilting of 19,000 acres of excellent foil, noted for its fine pattures and large dairies ; eight miles W. by N. from Burlington. The inhabitants are for the moft part Friends —Alfo, a townfhip in Windham county, Conneéticut, about 30 miles N. of New London ; containing 2560 inhabitants. MANSIATRE, a river on the W. coaft of Madagafcar, which runs into the ftrait of Mozambique. _S. lat. 19° 45/. MANSIELLA, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; ro miles S.E. of Leon. MANSION, Mawsio, a manendo, a dwelling-houfe, or habitation, efpecially in the country. Among theancient Romans, manfio was a place appointed for the lodging of the princes, or foldiers, in their journey ; and in this fenfe we read primam manfionem, &c. It is with us moft commonly ufed for the lord’s chief dwelling-houfe within his fee ; otherwife called the capital meffuage or manor place : and manfton-houfe is taken in law for any houfe or dwelling of another; in cafe of committing burglary, &c. Mansio, or MManfus, was fometimes alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with hide ; thatis, for as much land as one plough could till in a year. MANSLAUGHTER, in Law, is a {pecies of felonious homicide, and denotes the unlawful killing of aman, without any malice, either exprefs or implied ; which may be either voluntarily, upon a fudden heat ; or involuntarily, but in the commiflion of fome unlawful act. (1 Hal. P. C. 466.) As when two perfons, who before meant no harm to one another, falling out on fome fudden occafion, the one kills the other; this is voluntarily manflaughter. But in this and every other cafe of homicide upon provocation, if there be a fufficient time for paffion to fubfide, and reafon to inter- pofe, and the perfon provoked afterwards kills the other, this is deliberate revenge, and amounts to murder. (Foft. 296.) Thus, if a man takes another in the a& of adultery with his wife, and kills him direily upon the fpot ; though this was MAN allowed by the laws of Solon, as likewife by the Roman civil law, (if the adulterer was found in the hufband’s own houfe,) and alfo among the ancient Goths; yet in England it is not abfolutely ranked in the clafs of juftifiable homicide, as in the cafe of a forcible rape ; but it is the loweft degree of manflaughter; and therefore in fuch a cafe the court di- rected the burning in the hand to be gently infli@ed, becaufe there could not be a greater provocation. (1 Hal. P.C. 486. Sir T. Raym. 212.) Manflaughter, therefore, on a fudden provocation differs from excufable homicide /é de- Jendendo in this ; that in one cafe there is an apparent necef- fity for felf-prefervation, to kill the aggreffor ; in the other no neceflity at all, being only a fudden a&t of revenge. Far- ther, if two perfons play at {word and buckler, unlefs by the king’s command, and one of them kills the other, this is involuntary manflaughter, becaufe the original act was un- lawful. (3 Init. 56.) So where a perfon does an a&, law- ful in itfelf, but in an unlawful manner, and without due cau- tion and circumfpeétion ; as when a workman flings down a {tone or piece of timber into a ftreet, and kilis a man; this may be either mifadventure, manflaughter, or murder, ac- cording to the circumftances attending it: if it were ina country village, and he calls out to all people to have a care, it is mifadventure only ; but if it were in London, or other populous towns, where people are continually paffing by, it is manflaughter, though he gives loud warning Kel. 40.) ; and murder, if he knows of their paffing, and gives no warning at all; for then it is malice againft all mankind. (3 Inft. 57.) The crime of manflaughter amounts to fe- lony, but within the benefit of clergy ; and the offender fhall be burnt in the hand. and forfeit all his goods and chattels, By a law of king Canutus, if a man is killed openly and premeditatedly, the murderer fhall be committed to the relations of the deceafed; but if on his trial the fa&t be proved, and not to have been wilful, the bifhop is to judge him. There is a manflaughter punifhable as murder, by {ta- tute ; by 1 Jac. I. cap. 8. if any perfon fhali {tab another, not having then a weapon drawn, or not being ftricken firft, fo that he dies within fix months, although it were not of malice afore-thought, it is felony without benefit of clerzy ; but this doth not extend to perfons ftabbing othurs /é de- fendendo, or by misfortune, &c. with no intent to commit manflaughter ; and the ftatute relates to the party only that a@tually gave the ftroke, or {tabbed the other, and not to thofe that were aiding or abetting. Blackft. Com. MANSLE, in Geography, atown of France, in the de- partment of the Charente, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Ruffee; 12 miles N.of Angoulefme. The place contains 1230, and the canton 14,536 inhabitants, on a territory of 269: kiliometres, in 25 communes. MANSO GiampgartisTA, in Biography, marquis of Villa, an eminent patron of polite literature, was born at Naples int561. He was brought up to the profeffion of arms, and, in the early part of life, ferved in the armies of- the duke of Savoy, and in thofe of the king of Spain. After his return to Naples he devoted his time to literature, of which he was a cultivator and patron. He founded at Na- ples the academy Degli Oziofi, which held its firft affemblies in his houfe. He was the friend of Taffo, who has inferibed his dialogue on friendfhip with the name of Manfo : he pa- tronized the poet Marino, and honoured the memories of each of them with abiographicaleulogy. The great Milton was known to him, and treated by him with much kindnefs. He praifed him very highly in a Latin diftich, though at that time only a young man, and in the infancy of his fame. Milton repaid his civilities by addrefling to him a Latin gH 2 eclogue MAN eclogue entitled “ Manfus,” which is thought to be one of his beft performances in that language. The works of Manfo are chiefly of the light and amatory kind. He was the principal promoter of the college of Nobles in Naples, to which, at his death, he left all his property. Moreri. . MANSORA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen, and yovernment of Hodsjerie ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Taés. Mansora, or Manfoura, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the eaftern branch of the Nile, built as a bulwark againft the Chriftians. The Chriftians of Syria, fettled here, are the chief traders; and the principal articles are the fine rice growing round the lake, and fal ammoniac. Here are alfo large chicken ovens. A canal is made from the Nile to the lake Manzaleh. Dr. Pocock fuppofes that Manfora was the ancient Tanis or Zoan of {crip- ture; 24 miles S.S.W. of Damietta. N. lat. 31°. E. long. 31° 36'. Mawsora, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, near the fea-coaft on the river Guir; 60 miles W. of Me- quinez. MANSORAH, or Mansunan, the fame with Bhakor or Behker ; which fee. MANSORIUS Muscutus, in Anatomy, a name given by fome writers to that mufcle of the face more generally known under the name of the maffeter. MANSOURAH, in Geography, a ruined town of Al- giers, without walls and inhabitants ; 12 miles E, of Bou- jeiah.—Alfo, a river called Sifaris, which runs into the fea ; 18 miles E. of Boujeiah. MAN-STEALING, in Law. See Krpnaprine. MANSTEIN, CurisropHer Herman be, in Biogra- phy, a military commander and writer of memoirs, was born at Peterfburg in 1711. He obtained the rank of captain of grenadiers in the Ruffian fervice, and, foon after the death of Anne, was commiffioned to arreft the regent Biren and has family. For this fervice he was rewarded with the rank of colonel, and with an eftate in Ingria. Of both thefe he was deprived on the acceflion of Elizabeth to the throne of Ruffia, and he then, without hefitation, entered into the Pruffian army as a volunteer, obtained confiderable promotion, and was killed by a mufket-fhot in the year 1756. He is known asa writer by “ Memoirs of Ruffia, hiftorical, political, and military, from the Year 1727 to 1744,” writ- ten in the French language. Thefe were fent by the earl marfhal Keith to David Hume, tranflated into Englifh, and publifhed in 1770. They were afterwards publifhed in French at Lyons in two vols. 8vo. ‘They are reckoned va- luable as a fair and authentic narrative of the important events which happened during that period, and they are ef- teemed as remarkably accurate in their accounts of military tranfactions. MANSUM, in Geography, a river of Africa, on the Gold Coalt, which runs into the Atlantic; five miles W. of Frederickfburg. MANSURA, a town of the Arabian Irak, feated on the Euphrates; 110 miles W.N.W. of Baffcra. MANSURCOTTA, a town of Iindooftan, in the cir- ear of Cicacole ; eight miles 5.S.W. of Ganjam. MANSURIA, an ifland in the river Nile ; 25 miles N. of Syene.—Alfo, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ; eight miles N. of Beit el Fakih. MANSWORTH, a town of Auttria; nine miles S.E. of Vienna. f MANTA, La, a town of France, in the department MAN of the Stura, fituated between the Maritime and Cottias Alps; with a caftle placed on an eminence near the town. The gardens are filled with trees of citrons, oranges, and myrtles, and tender plants not capable of enduring the other parts of Piedmont ; two miles S. of Saluzzo. Manta Bay, a bay of the Pacific ocean, on the coalt of Para, about 20 miles S. of the equator, famous formerly for a pearl fifhery, which has been difcontinued, and de- riving its name from a multitude of large fifhes called mantas, in the capture of which the adjacent inhabitants are employed. MANTALINGA, atown of the ifland of Sibu, one of the Philippines, inhabited by natives, exempted from tribute, becaufe they firft acknowledged the fovereignty of the Spaniards. MANTANNARE, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the N.W. coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 38'. - E. long. 116° 27!. MANTARO, a river of Jauja, fo called from the province it pervades, joins the Maranon at 42° 6/, and ferves to propel the chief river towards the N.E. ; the courfe having formerly been towards the N.W. See Ma- RANON. MANTECU, a fort of preparation of butter ufed by the Turks when they travel with their caravans. | This 6 firft boiled over the fire, and then falted and kept in veffels made of tough leather, worked round a wooden frame, of the fame fhape with the veffels in which they bring their balfam from Mecca. ! MANTEGAR, or Man-ricer, as it is fometimes written, in Zoology, is the tufted ape, with a nofe and head fourteen inches long ; the nofe of a deep red, face blue, and both naked; black eye-brows; ears like the human ; on the top of the head is a long upright tuft of hair; and on the chin another; two long tufks in the upper jaw ; fore-feet like hands, and the nails on the fingers flat; the hind-feet have the thumbs lefs perfect, and the nails im- bricated ; the fore-part-of the body and the infide of the legs and arms naked; the outtide covered with mottled brown and olive hair; that on the back dufky; the but- tocks red and bare ; and the length from the nofe to the rump three feet two inches. This animal is very fierce and falacious ; will fit on its rump, and fupport itfelf by a ftick ; and in this attitude hold a cup in its hand, and drink out of it; its food is fruit. Pennant. See Srmra Mormon. : MANTEGNA, AnpreEa, in Biography, born at Padua, or in its diftriét, of low parents, in 1431, became the pupil of Squarcione, who was fo deeply ftruck with his talents that he — adopted him for his fon. He repented of it when Andrea married a daughter of Jacopo Bellini, his competitor. But the cenfure, which now took place of the praife he had be- fore lavifhed on his pupil, only added to his improvement. Certain baflo-relievos of the ancient Greek ftyle, poffefled by the academy in which Andrea fludied, captivated his tafte by the correétnefs of their outline, the fimplicity of the forms, the parallelifm of the attitudes, and ftriétnels of the drapery: the dry fervility with which he copied thefe, fuffered him not to perceive that he had loit the great pre- rogative of the originals, the foul that animates them, The farcafms of Squarcione on his picture of St. Jacopo, made him fenfible of the neceflity of expreffion and character : he gave more life to the figures in the ftory of St. Chrifto- phoro ; and in the face of St. Marco, in the church of St. Giuttina, united the attention of a philofopher with the en- thufiafm of a prophet. The —— MAN The criticifms of Squarcione improved Mantegna in ex- preffion, the friendly advice of the Bellini dire&ted his method and fixed his principles of colour. During his fhort {tay at Venice he made himfelf mafter of every advan- tage of that {chool, and in fome of his pictures there are tones and tints in flefh and landfcape of a richnefs and zeft equal to the belt Venetians of his day. Whether he taught the Bellini perfpective is uncertain: Lomazzo affirms, that «¢ Mantegna was the firft who opened the eyes of artifts in that branch.’” The chief abode and the fchool of Mantegna were at Mantua, where, under the aufpices of Marchefe Lodovico Gonzaga, he eftablifhed himfelf, with his family ; but he continued to work in other places, and particularly at Rome, where the chapel which he had painted for Innocent VIII. in the Vatican exifted, though injured by age, at the ac- ceffion of Pius VI The ftyle of thofe frefeoes proved that he continued fteady in his attachment to the antique; but that from a copyilt he was become an imitator. Of his works in oil, Mantua poffefles feveral; but the principal one, the mafterpiece of the artilt, and the aflem- blage of his powers, the picture called La Virgine della Vittoria, painted for J. F. de Gonzaga, Marchefe di Mantua, in honour of a victory he gained over the French upon the banks of the Taro, and afterwards placed in the Oratorio de Padri di S. Felippo, is now among the fpoils of the Louvre. The Madonna is feated on her throne with the infant {tanding on her Jap, and giving benediétion to the kneeling marquis in arms before her. At one fide of the throne ftands the archangel Michael, holding the mantle of the Madonna; at the other St. George, St. Maurice, John the Baptift, and St. Elizabeth on her knees. The fide of the throne is ornamented with figures relative to the fall of Adam: the fcene is a leafy bower peopled by birds, and here and there open to a lucid fky. r No known work of Mantegna equals, in defign, the ftyle of this picture : they generally fhew him dry and emaciated : here he appears in a!l the beauty of fele& forms: the two infants and St. Elizabeth are figures of dignity, fo is the archangel, who feems to have been, by the conceit of his attitude, and the care beftowed upon him, the painter’s fa- vourite objet. The head has the beauty and the bloom of youth; the round flefhy neck and the breaft, to where it confines with the armcur, are treated with great art; the exoreffion is, toa high degree, f{pirited and charaéterittic. The countenance of the Madonna is mild and benign ; that of Chrilt, humane. The future prophet is announced in the uplifted arm of John. The guardian angel kindly contemplates the fuppliant, who prays with devout fim- plicity. The whole has an air of life. All the draperies, efpecially that of St. Elizabeth, are elegantly and correétly folded: with more mafs and lefs interfection of furfaces they would be perfect. The extreme finifh of execution, as it has not here that drywefs which disfigures mo!t other works of this matter, does not impair the brilliancy of colour. The heads of the Madonna, of the infant, of St. Michael, have a genial bloom of teints. The lights are every where true, the {hades alone are foinetimes too grey, or too impure. The general feale of the light has more ferenity than fplendour, more the air of nature than of art, but the reflexes are too often cut off too glaringly from the opaque parts. The whole of the picture i preferved its tone to this day, is little damaged, and in no place retouched. Of the remainder of Mantegna’s works, befides fome feefcoes of contiderable merit, but much injured, in a fa- loon o: the caftle of Mantua, and the well known ‘friumph MAN of Cefar, in various compartments at Hampton Court, little now remains. His name is more frequent in gal- leries and colleGtions than his hand: Janknefs of form, re&ti- linear folds, yellow landfcape, and minute polithed pebbles, are lefs genuine figns of originals, than corre&tnefs of de- fign and delicacy of pencil. It is not probable that a man fo occupied by large works, and fo much engraving, fhould have had time to finifh many cabinet pictures: the feries of his plates confifts of upwards of fifty pieces, executed by his own hand, and though he was not the inventor of the art, he was certainly the firft engraver of his time. Andrea had great influence in the ftyle of his age, nor was the imitation of his ftyle confined to his own {chool : Francefco, and another of his fons, finifhed fome of the frefcoes which he had begun in the caltle, and added the beautiful ceiling, which fhews that the fcience of fore- fhortening what the Italians call « del fotto in fu,” though Melozio be its reputed author, was carried much farther by Mantegna and his followers. He died in 1505, aged 74. Fufeli’s Pilkington. . MANTEIGAS, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira; 27 miles S.E. of Vifeu. MANTELETS, in Military Language, a kind of move- able parapets, made of planks about three inches thick, nailed one over another to the height of almoft ‘fix feet, ge- nerally cafed with tin, fet upon little wheels, and guided by a Jong pole ; fo that in a fiege they may be driven before the pioneers, and ferve as blinds, to thelter them from *he enemy’s {mall fhot. There are alfo other forts of mantelets, covered on the top, of which the miners make ufe to approach the walls of a town or caftle. Sce Plate VI. Fortification, SE 9: The double mantelets form an angle, and ttand {quare, making two fronts, which cover both the front and flank * of the fappers, &c. when at work: thefe have double planks, with earth rammed in between them ; they are five feet high, and three in breadth, fometimes covered with plates of iron. It appears from Vegetius, that mantelets were in ufe among the ancients under the name of vinee; but they were built flighter and much larger than our’s, being eight or nine feet high, as many broad, and fixteen long; they were defended by a double covering, the one of boards, the other of faggots, with the ribs of ofiers; and were cafed withont with fkins, fteeped in water, to prevent fire. MANTERA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the At- Jantic, near the coaft of Africa. N. lat. 107 45). MANTES, a town of France, and principal place of a diftrict, in the department of the Siene and Oife, feated on the Seine, over which is a bridge of thirty-fix arches. The place contains 4300, and the canton 13,803 inhabitants, on a territory of 1324 kiliometres, in 23 communes. N. lar. 48° 59'. TE. long.'1° 48’. MANTICA, in Zoology, the name by which Pifo and fome other writers have expreffed the pouch or bag of fkin under the belly of the opoflum, into which the young are re- ceived in time of danger. MANTICLUS, in Mythology, a name given to Hercules under which title he had a temple without the walls o Meffina, in Sicily. This temple was built by Manticlus the chief of a colony of Meffenians, about 664 years before Chrift: or, as others fay, the leader of a colony which fettled in the ifle of Zacinthus, wow Zante. Paufan. in Meffen. MANTICORA, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of infeéts of the order Coleoptera, of which there is but a fingle {pecies. “The generic charaéter is, Antenne filiform, the joints MAN oints cylindrical ; four feelers whica are filiform, the thorax 1s rounded before, and emarginate behind ; the head is pro- jeCting, and the mandibles are exferted ; the thells are united ; it has no wings. Species. Maxitiosa. Body large and black ; head fubglobular, impreffed on each fide ; mandible toothed at the inrer bafe ; thorax impreffed in the middle, and elevated behind ; the margin rounded and notched at the tip; fhells above, flat, rough, deflected at the edge, witha very fharp lateral ferrate line ; legs fimple and black. It is defcribed by M. Olivier, in his ‘ Hiftoire Naturelle des Infectes,’’ as inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope. MANTINEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arca- dia, E. of the river Ophis, and N. of Pallantium. This town, in the time of Homer, appears to have been con- fiderable. Antinoe, the daughter of Cepheus, is faid to have tranfported the inhabitants of the old city to a more convenient fituation than that which it originally occupied to the banks of the river Ophis; and it is fabuloufly re- ported that Antinoe was led to the feleétion of the {pot on which the New Mantinea was ereéted under the guidance of a ferpent, whilft others fay that the river derived its name from its winding or ferpentine courfe. After the peace of sAntalcidas, fo called becaufe he was the ambaf- fador employed by the Greeks in negociating it with the king of Perfia, in the year 387 B.C., the Lacedemonians, under the conduét of their king Agefipolis I., laid fiege to Mantinea, as a punifhment of its inhabitants for having taken part with the Athenians in the preceding war, Having defended themfelves with invincible courage during the fummer, the Lacedemonians availed themfelves of the approach of winter by damming up the current of the river, which was thus made to overflow its banks and overwhelm the houfes of Mantinea, upon which the inhabitants were conftrained to abandon the noble city which they had long occupied, and to retire to their old villages. battle of Leuétra, in the year 370 B.C. the Mantineans returned to their city and rebuilt it, deriving affiftance in the undertaking from the Thebans: but they afterwards took part with the Lacedemonians againft their coadjutors. A battle was fought near Mantinea by the combining powers, in which, though the Thebans were viCtorious, they loit their famous general, Epaminondas, Some time after the formation of the Achean league, Aretas made himfelf mafter of Mantinea: but the Achzans were de- feated in a fubfequent battle by the Lacedemonians, un- der the command of Cleomenes, who took feveral of their cities, and they were reduced to the neceflity of feeking the fuccour of Antigonus, king of Macedon. Thus aided and encouraged, the Achzans obliged Cleomenes to retire with great precipitation to Mantinea. But he was foon con- rained to abandon it to the force brought againft him by Antigonus, who took poffeffion of it without any great refiftance. The Maatineans, in compliment to Antigonus, {uppreffed the original name of their city, and called it «¢ Antigonia,”” by which appellation it was diftinguifhed till the time of Adrian, who caufed it to refume its ancient name of Mantinea. Paufanias has particularly defcribed this famous city and its magnificent temples. The firtt was a large edifice, feparated into two parts by a high wall; on one fide of which wag the ftatue of AX{cu- lapius by Alcamenes, and on the other that of Latona with her children, by the celebrated Praxiteles. Elevated upon a column was a ftatue of the hiftorian Polybius, who ‘ren- dered fignal fervice to the Achzans in their wars with the After the M AN Roman republic. Another temple was that of Ceres and Proferpine, in which was a facred fire which was kept con- tinually burning. The temple of Juno was fituated near the theatre, and the goddefs was feated on a throne of ivory, having on both fides of her Minerva and Hebe, all which were the works of Praxiteles. Near the altar was the tomb of Arcas, fon of Califto and grandfon of Lycaon, Another temple which difgraced the city was dedicated to the infamous Antinous, who contributed to the licentious debauchery of Adrian. From the centre of the town five roads pafled in different direétions to the principal places of Arcadia. MANTINERA,, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Me- diterranean, near the coait ot Naples. N. lat. 39° 55’. E. long. 13° 52!. MANTIS, in Natural Hiffory, a genus of infe&s of the order Hemiptera, of which there are fixty-four f{pecies feat- tered over the globe, but none of them are found in this country : two or three of them are worfhipped by the Hot- tentots, as the ibis and ichneumon were of old by the Egyptians. | The generic charaGter is, Head unfteady ; mouth armed with jaws; feelers filiform; ancenne fetaceous; thorax linear; wings four, which are membranaceous and conyo- lute, the under ones plaited. The fore-legs are comprefled, ferrated beneath, and armed with a fingle claw, and la- teral jointed procefs; the hind-legs are {mooth, and formed for walking. ~This is thought to be one of the moft fingular genera in the whole clafs of infects, and the imagination can hardly conceive fhapes more {trange than thofe exhibited by fome particular {pecies. j Species. Firirormis. Body, as its name imports, is filiform, ap- terous, and brown; the legs are longer than the body, un- armed. The antenne are black, and it inhabits South America. Ferura. Body is filiform, apterous, and green; the legs are longer than the body ; the hind thighs are {pinous at the tip. Itinhabits Guadaloupe: it is largey long, and filiform. ‘The antenne are of a moderate fize, green tipt with brown ; body {mooth glabrous, without wing-cafes ; thighs angular; the four hind ones fpinous. Caamus. Body filiform, apterous, greenifh ; thighs ftriate. Antenne yellowith ; head {mooth yellowith ; body cylindrical; legs yellowifh; the thighs are ftriate, with raifed lines. It inhabits Santa Cruz in America. Rossta. Body filiform, apterous, green; thighs toothed; the legs are fhort and brown, the thighs are toothed beneath, It is found in many parts of Italy. Ancurata. This fpecies is apterous; the head and thorax f{pinous ; wing-cafes rounded, very fhort ; thighs an- gular beneath. This is fometimes denominated the « Man- tis gigas,”? and is an inhabitant of Guadaloupe. The body is of a chefnut brown; the head has two {pines and nu- merous raifed dots; thorax with two fharp fpines on the anterior lobe, and numerous raifed dots, the fides ferrate ; wing-cafes fhort, rounded, reticulate; thighs very angular, the four hind ones {pinous beneath. Gieas. Thorax rough and roundifh; wing-cafes very fhort ; legs fpinous: with refpe&t to colour, the thorax is {peckled with green ; the wing-cafes are reticulate, the bafe and tip green, pale in the middle; wings pale with tranf- verfe brown bars. It inhabits Amboina. Cyzinprica. Thorax cylindrical; fore-legs united to the fore-part of the thorax; wing-cafes grey, the bafe and beneath rufous; the wings;are brown dotted with white. Its MANTIS. é Tts habitation is not clearly afcertained, but it is not found in Europe. PHTHISICA. are very fhort ; the legs are unarmed. America and India. Necypatorpes. In this fpecies the thorax is rough; wing-cafes ovate, angular, very fhort: the wings are ob- long. It is found in many parts of Afia The wing-cafes have a raifed flexuous line down the middle; the wings are brown, and as long as the abdomen. Arnoruica. Thorax four-fpined; wing-cafes very fhort, mucronate at the bafe. It inhabits Java. The head is unarmed ; the wing-cafes are ovate, truncate at the tip. Spiyosa. Head and thorax fpinous; wing-cafes very fhort and acute. It is found in India. The antennz are as long as the body; the thorax is brown, rough, with a double {pine each fide on the fore-part; wing-cafes brown ; wings brown, convolute, as long as the abdomen; fore- thighs unarmed, the reft {pinous. : Bisprnosa. Thorax is rather round, with two fpines on the fore-part; wing-cafes very fhort; wings rofe colour. It inhabits America. The colours of this {pecies are very fine; the antenne are yellowifh: the head is green, with a fhort {pine each fide on the crown; thorax green, yellowifh on the back; wing-cafes green, ftriate with black; wings large, rofy, the outer margin green; abdomen linear, yel- lowifh, green at the tip; the legs are“{pinous. Jamaicensis. This, agreeably to its {pecific name, is found in the ifland of Jamaica; and it differs from the laft only in having no {pines on the thorax. Laveratis. Linear and black; the wing-cafes are very fhort, gibbous, and yellowifh at the fides; the antenne longer than the body, black ; thorax yellowith at the fides ; wing-cafes with a raifed tooth in the middle; wings large, black, edged with yellow; the legs are black. It inhabits Brafil. Avrita. The head and thorax are fpinous; and the wing-cafes have a fub-compreffed tubercle in the middle. It is found in the Eait Indies. The antenne are as long as the body, varied with black and white; head brown, with nu- merous fharp {pines ; thorax brown and fpinous ; wing-cafes concave and very fhort ; the wings are large and dufky, with a broad pale rufous border on the outer edge, fpotted with black, and marked with a broad white band. Linearis. Linear, brown; wing-cafes very fhort, fub- fpinous at the bafe; antenne as long as the body; wings long and brown; fore-thighs membranaceous. It inhabits the Eaft Indies. Rosgea. This fpecies is linear and green; front fulvous ; wing-cafes very fhort; and the wings are rofy, with a green rib; antenne longer than the body, brown, with three or four white rings; thorax fmooth, linear, greenifh; wing- cafes vaulted with a black thick fpine in the middle; the wings are ftriate, and the legs yellow. FLAsetiicornis. ‘Thorax dilated and membranaceous at the tip; fore-thighs terminating in a f{pine, the reft ina lobe; antenne pectinate: thefe are large, very much feathered and fetaceous at the tip; the front is, projecting, narrower in the middle, notched at the tip; wing-cafes and wings longer than the body, duflcy, fub-pellucid and dilated at the anterior margin. It inhabits Tranquebar. GoneyLopes. ‘This is one of the moft remarkable of the Mantis genus: from the thinnefs of its limbs, and the protein form of its body, efpecially in its dried ftate, it eems té refemble the conjunétion of feveral fragments of withered ftalks ; which is the cafe alfo of the larve of many of the genera, before the wings are formed. ‘The thorax is Thorax roundifh, muricate ; the wing-cafes It inhabits South uncommonly long and narrow; the head is {mall and flat, with two filiform antennz ; behind thefe, two large polifhed eyes are placed; the roftrum has the fhape of an awl, but it is often fplit towards the extremity into two points; the elytra, which cover two-thirds of the body of the infe&, are reticulated, and croffed over one another ; the wings which they cover are veined and diaphanous ; the four hind-legs have the appearance of being winged, on account of thofe large membranous lobes which emerge from their joints; the anterior pair are armed with {pines at their firft articulation, and towards their extremities they are ferrated on one fide. It inhabits varicus parts of Africa and Afia. Paurerta. Thorax is linear and f{pinulous; fore-thigh terminating in a fpine, the others are lobate. It is found in Coromandel, and alfo in fome parts of Portugal. Menvica. ‘Thorax margined, toothed; wing-cafes va- ried with white and green; the margin is dotted with white. It inhabits Alexandria. The head is yellowifh; front horned ; legs yellowith. Truncata. Thorax dilated each fide at the tip, yel- lowifh ; the wings are black at the bafe, and tipt with white. This is a fmall infect, and inhabits Cayenne. ‘The thorax is linear, rough, membranaceous, and flightly crenate at the tip; abdomen fhort, flat, dilated; wing-cafes as long as the abdomen, and yellowifh, with a brown callous dot in the middle. Srrumaria. This is a green infect. The thorax is much dilated in its whole length; wing-cafes and wings are longer than the abdomen; the body is fhort; and the ab- domen yellowifh. it is found in South America. Tricotor. The fides of the thorax are expanded, lo- bate; head horned; fore-legs very broad. It inhabits India. The eyes of this fpecies are very remarkable, ter- minating in fharp ear-like horns; wing-cafes pale, {potted with white; wings red at the bafe, brown in the middle, and tipt with white. CancetLtara. Thorax dilated at the fides, membrana- ceous, and flat; the body is of a dull brown colour; the thorax is flat. Siccrrotra. The thorax is denticulate; the thighs are oval and membranaceous. It inhabits India. The infects of this fpecies are ufually denominated walking leaves, from their exaét refemblance in colour and fhape to a dried leaf. They have no wings, or, at moft, mere rudiments; the firft two pair of thighs are ferrate, the others fimple; the body is very much dilated and rounded. Pecricornis. ‘Thorax fmooth; crown fubulate; an- tenn peétinate. It inhabits Jamaica. OcuLara. Thorax triangular, filiform; eyes oblong, projecting, fpinous; the head is of a pale colour; the eyes are large, pomted, and conic ; the thorax fmooth teftaceous, the angles more dufky ; wing-cafes fhorter than the wings, white diaphanous, ftriate, and obtufe; legs long, dufky, and unarmed. SuperstitiosA. Thorax linear, triangular, flightly fer- rate on the fore-part; wing-cafes greenifh; the rib of the wings is tran{verfely ftriate. It 1s a large infeG&t, and is found in Africa. ‘The thorax is rough on the fore-part, fmooth behind; the wings are whitifh, having a nb with tranfverfe raifed brown lines. Unpatra. Thorax carinate, grey; wings white, with black waves. It inhabits Tranquebar.. The antenne are filiform and pale; the thorax is filiform, triangular, and rough; wings fhorter than the abdomen; thighs lobate at the tip, fhanks at the bafe; the abdomen is long and fili- form. Irrorara. Thorax is fmooth fubcarinate ; wing-cafes tl green, MANTIS. green, with feattered ferruginous dots; the wing-cafes are fhorter than the wings. , It is found in America. Striata. Thorax carinate, and flightly ferrate at the fides ; wing-cafes obfcure, hyaline, ftriate with brown, and fhorter than the wings; the head is grey; the antenne are fimple ; and the body is brown. Orarorta, or Camel-cricket, is the chief of the Euro- pean Mantis genus. It is found in moft of the warmer parts of Europe, and is entirely of a beautiful green colour. It is nearly three inches in length, and in its fitting pofture is obferved to hold up the two fore-legs, flightly bent, as if in the attitude of prayer: hence the common people have con- ferred upon it the reputation of a facred animal; and a po- pular notion has often prevailed, that a child. or traveller, having loft his way, would be fafely directed by obferving the quarter to which the animal pointed, when taken into the hand. It is, however, in its real nature, a very rapa- cious animal, devouring all fmaller infeéts that fall in its way, for which it lies in wait with anxious affiduity. It is alfo of a very quarrelfome nature; and when kept with others of its own fpecies, in a ftate of captivity, will attack its neighbour with the utmoft violence, till one or the other is deftroyed in the conteft. Among the Chinefe, this quar- relfome property in the genus Mantis is turned into a fimilar entertainment with that afforded by fighting cocks and quails to Europeans. To infe¢ts of this kind Mr. Barrow is fuppofed to allude in his ‘ Travels in China.’’ He fays, “They (the Chinefe) have even extended their inquiries, after fighting animals, into the infect tribe, and have dif- covered a fpecies of gryllus that will attack each other with fuch ferocity, as feldom to quit their hold without bringing away, at the fame time, a limb of their antagonift. Thefe little creatures are fed and kept apart in bamboo cages ; and the cuftom of making them devour each other is fo common, that, during the fummer months, fcarcely a boy is to be feen without his cage of grafshoppers.” The M. religio/a, with the thorax fobeasigute! is a mere variety of this fpecies. Precaria. Thorax ciliate with fmall {pines; wing- cafes green, with a divided white and brown fpot. An in- habitant of Africa. The head and thorax are of a yellowifh- green; eyes ferruginous ; fore-legs with a ferruginous {pot ; wing-cafes longer than the body; wings hyaline, {potted with green. This is the fuppofed idol of the Hottentots, which thofe fuperftitious people are reported to hold in the higheft veneration; the perfon on whom the adored infeé happens to light, being confidered as favoured by the dif- tinétion of a celeftial vifitant, and regarded ever after in the light of a faint. Sancta. Thorax flightly ferrate, yellowifh-green ; wing-cafes green,,immaculate ; wings hyaline. It is found chiefly in the fouth of France. The wings are greenith at the tip; fore-fhanks with two black {pots beneath. Simucacrum. Thorax ciliate; wing-cafes green, with a white {pot in the middle. It very much refembles the M. precaria, but the thorax is fhorter, thicker, and more ciliate. It inhabits America. Monacua. Thorax {mooth teftaceous; wing-cafes and wings green hyaline; the fore-fhanks have two teftaceous dots on the fore-fide. It is found at the Cape of Good Hope. Oxscura. Thorax flightly ferrate, dull grey; wing- cafes with a black fpot at the bafe; the wings alfo have one at the tip. It inhabits Africa. The head is grey, witha black frontal fpot ; thorax dufky, with a black dorfal line ; fore-legs flightly ferrate ; the other parts fimple. Hyariana Thorax ciliate; wing-cafes hyaline, edged 2 with green; front is two-toothed, It is found in America. With refpe& to colour, the head is brown ; antennz ferrate ; wings hyaline, ftriate with brown at the tip. FenestraTaA. Thorax {mooth; wings hyaline; exterior margin of the wing-cafes brown. It inhabits Africa. The thorax is linear ; exterior margin of the wings is brown at the tip; legs pale; fore-fhanks with a few black {pots within. Bivens. Thorax is rough; wing-cafes’ green, with black bars; wings brown-black on the difk. It inhabits America. The head is brown; front with two fharp ap- proximate teeth; thorax linear, grey, with a few black raifed dots ; wing-cafes with two oblique brown bands ; legs brown; thighs pale at the bafe, and tipt with black ; fhanks of the fecond pair lobate. Grivea. Thorax {mooth; wing-cafes and wings grey, hyaline, fpotted with brown. A {pecimen in the Britifh Mufzum 1s middle-fized. Thighs of the fore-legs a little dilated at the upper margin; fpinous on the lower; the other legs varied with grey and brown. Ministratis. Thorax rough, crenate, as long as the head, ferruginous on the fore-part ; wing-cafes green; the head is yellowifh ; antenne brown; thorax carinate ; outer margin of the wing-cafes fubferruginous ; fore-thighs ful- vous ; abdomen brown, pale at the tip. Found in New Holland. Uresana. Thorax entire ; wing-cafes green, with a fer- ruginous dot and band. It inhabits India. Rustica. Thorax fmooth, brown ;° wing-cafes fhorter than the wings, brown hyaline; antennz hairy. It inhabits the fhores of Patagonia ; the head is grey-brown, with glo- bular raifed ftemmata ; the legs are yellowith. Nasuta. Thorax fpinous and ciliate; front projecting, {pinous, emarginate. It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. Head flat; front two-toothed on éach fide, and widely emarginate at the tip; thorax black with a raifed tubercle before and behind; wings and wing-cafes grey hyaline, with numerous brown dots at the nerves; the legs are black and annulate. Logarta. Thorax three-lobed; front with a bifid horn ; eyes conic, pointed. This alfo is found at the Cape, and is particularly defcribed by Thunberg ; the mouth is varied with green and brown; the front is greenifh, with a pro- jecting bifid horn between the antenne ; wing-cafes green, with a white bafe and fpot in the middle; wings black, . tipt with white ; body varied with green and white; margin of the abdomen elevated and lobate. Putcura. Thorax green throughout; the wings are brown hyaline, ferruginous at the bafe. It inhabits “Trad. quebar. The antenne are brown; head and thorax green, a little yellowifh at the edge ; wing-cafes zreen, the margin yellow at the bafe ; abdomen above brown, beneath green ; legs yellow. Fausra. Linear, ath-coloured, fpotted with black. This is an inhabitant of the Cape, and has been defcribed by Thunberg : it is the tutelar deity of the Hottentots. Perspicua. Dufky; wings and wing-cafes hyaline ; but the wings have a brown marginal fpot and tip. It isa {mall infeét, and is found at Cayenne; the wing-cafes have a {mall black dot towards the bafe. Pacana. Wings reticulate, white with a lateral fer- ruginous {pot ; ends of the legs chelate. It inhabits France and Germany. The thorax is cylindrical, and entirely brown. Mixura. In this the thorax is cylindrical and yellowith ; wing-cafes hyaline, with a greenifh rib. It inhabits South America. The wing-cafes have a {mall white dot in the middle ; MAN middle ; ttie abdomen is greenifh, and yellowifh on the back ; the legs of a greenifh colour. Pusttta. Thorax cylindrical, yellowifh; wing-cafes and wings hyaline, immaculate. It inhabits Africa. Carorina. Thorax fubciliate, carinate; wing-cafes whitifh, waved with brown. It inhabits Carolina; wings and their cafes fhorter than the body. Lagrata. This is an inhabitant of India: it is linear, greenifh, unarmed ; fides of the head green. Macurata. Cinereous; thorax winged, fubfpinous ; legs {potted within with black. This is found in the lands of Japan. Capensis. This alfo is cinereous; the thorax is un- armed ; the head is conic entirely. It inhabits Africa and India. Parva. Livid and fmooth; wing-cafes and wings hyaline ; fegments of the abdomen edged with black. It inhabits America. Cixeutata. Thorax brownifh ; wing-cafes green, re- ticulate with black, and marked with four blackifh {pots ; wings blackifh, with black lines, the edge yellowifh-brown. It inhabits Jamaica. Abdomen annulate with black ; it is two-fpined at the tip. Gicantea. Brownifh; neck, thorax, and thighs fer- rate. It inhabits Italy. Aycusta. This is of a greenifh colour; the tail is forked ; the antennz are filiform, and as long as the body. It inhabits Antigua. Sremica. This is fuppofed to be a variety of the M. pufilla, and is an inhabitant of Siberia: the body is varied with yellow and brown ; wings hyaline with reddifh nerves. Bracuyptera. Cinereous; thorax toothed; wings half as long as the body. [s found alfo in the deferts of Siberia. Pennicornis. The crown of this infect has a conic {pine ; the antennz are feathered and linear ; the hind thighs terminate in a lobe. It is found in the deferts bordering on the Cafpian fea, and very much refembles in fhape and colour the M. gongylodes. E MANTLE, or Mantve-tree, in Architeure, is the lower part of the breaft or front of a chimney. It was formerly a piece of timber that lay acrofs the jambs, and fupported the breaft-work ; but by a late aét of parliament, chimney- breafts are not to be {upported by a wooden mantle-tree, or turning-piece, but by an iron bar, or by a brick or ftone arch. See CHIMNEY. MantLe, Maniling, or Lambrequin, in Heraldry, that appearance of folding of cloth, flourifhing, or drapery, that is in any achievement drawn about the coat of arms. This, properly fpeaking, is an ornament that was anciently fixed to the helmet, like that now worn round the caps of our light dragoons. It is fuppofed originally to have been the reprefentation of a mantle, or military habit, worn by ancient cavaliers over their armour, to preferve it from ruft; or, as others hold, a fhort covering only worn over the helmet to defend the head from the weather, which, in after-times, was lengthened, and made to hang from the helmet below the whole fhield. Sometimes it hung ina loofe, flowing, ragged manner; fometimes it is reprefented as cut or entire, and hanging back over the neck of a warrior, in which cafe it is called a ‘‘Cappeline.” The forms of thefe ancient man- tlings, and the manner in which they ufually waved from the helmet of a warrior, are belt reprefented on ancient feals. In length of time, the ufe and locality of thefe mantlings feem to have been forgotten; for we find the heralds, through an unaccountable inadvertency, forming them like Vo.- XXII, MAN cloaks to receive or cover the whole achievement, inftead of purfuing their ancient mode of reprefenting them, as being coverings for the head, or ornaments flowing from the helmet of the warrior, and of the colour of his arms. According to fuch modernized manner of bearing mantlings, thofe of the fovereigns are fuppofed to be of gold doubled with ermine; thofe of the peers, crimfon velvet, folded, and ermine infide; and thofe for knights and gentlemen, crimfon velvet doubled with white fatin. ‘Che prevalency of tkis mede becoming fo general, that all forts of perfons painted mantles of crimfon and ermine on their carriages, Mr. Edmondfon, in the year 1760, propofed to feveral of the peers to paint (on their carriages) their arms, placed in mantles of crimfon, with their edges thrown back fo as te fhew their doublings, or linings, which fhould be of ermine, and containing a number of rows of ermine fpots, equal to thofe of the guards on their coronation robes, exprefling their refpective degrees, viz. a baron two rows, a vifcount two and a half, an earl three, a marquis three and a half, a duke four, &c. This propofal having met with general approbation, was carried into execution, and had the defired effet of fhewing the diftinction between the feveral ranks and degrees of our nobility. After which Edmondfon formed mantles for the knights companions of the feveral orders, taken from the mantle and robes which they wear at their intftallation. The mantle is always faid in blazon to be doubled, that is, lined throughout with one of the furs, as ermine, peany vairy, &c. See Coat. MantLe of the Knights of the Garter. See GARTER. Man t-e is likewife a term ufed in Falconry. They fay the hawk mantles, that is, {preads her wings after her legs. Mant Le, Lady’s, in Botany. See ALCHEMILLA. MANTO, or Oxancuo EL VixJo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Honduras. N. lat. 14° 4’. W. long. 86°. MANTON, Tuomas, in Biography, a learned Englifh divine, was born in the year 1620. He was educated in grammar-learning at ‘Tiverton-{chool, and when he was about fifteen years of age was entered at Wadham-college, Oxford. Here he took his degrees, and was ordained deacon by the bifhop of Exeter at the age of twenty. He was firft fettled at Columpton in Devonshire, and afterwards at Stoke Newington, in the vicinity of London, where he was highly efteemed as a preacher and expofitor of the holy {criptures. From Newington he went to St. Paul’s Covent Garden, having been prefented to that living by his grace the duke of Bedford. In 1653, he was appointed one of the chaplains of the protector Oliver Cromwell: but in 1660 he took an active part with the Prefbyterian miniftere in general, in bringing about the reftoration of king Charles II., for which fervice he was nominated one of the chaplains to his majefty, and, in confequence of the king’s mandamus, created doétor of divinity. He refufed to fub- mit to the aét of Uniformity, and under the operation of that aét he was, in 1662, ejected from his living, after which he held a private meeting in his own houfe, but was perfecuted and imprifoned for prenatiing the minifterial funétious. He was highly efteemed by perfons of great confequence in the ftate, and was confulted by them with refpect to all the treaties for the comprehenfion with the eftablifhed church. He had great weight among his own brethren, on account of his zeal and aétivity in their affairs. He died in the year 1677. He was efteemed a man of great learning as a theo- logian, and was deeply read in ancient and modern hiftory. He is charaéterized by doétor Bates as a divine of rich fancy, a ftrong memory, and happy elocution, improved by diligent 3 f ftudy ~— MAN ftudy. His fermons make five large folio volumes, one of which contains 1g00n the 119th Pfalm. The tafk of read- ing thefe fermons to his aunt, when he was but a child, pro- duced a very unhappy effect on the mind of lord Boling- broke, Ina letter to Swift, he,writes, “ my next fhall be as long as one of do&tor Manton’s fermons, who taught my youth to yawn, and prepared me to be a high churchman, that I might never hear him read, nor read him more.” MANTRA, in Hindoo Mythology. “The, Afiatics, gene- rally {peaking, have great faith in charms, talifmans, and fimilar items impofed by craft on ignorance and fuper- ftition. Among the Hindoos this feeling is very prevalent. They have mantras, and tantras, and yantras ; and as many books in the Sanfkrit lancuage are extant on thefe fubjeéts, their differences and difticStions are doubtlefs well known to the Brahmans ; although, hitherto, thofe books do not ap- pear to have been fufficiently examined (and it may be well queftioned, if they are worth the labour), to be underitood by any of our oriental {cholars. As far as hath been made known, a mantra generally means a curfe, a fort of impre- catory incantation, either ejaculated or written, and com- pofed of a paflage from one of the Vedas, containing the name of fome tremendous deity. Sometimes it appears rather to affume the form of what we underftand of the word talifman ; affeGing fupernatural purpofes, fuch as rendering a perfon inyifible, &c. Both Hindcos and Mahommedans have great faith in the efficacy of propitiatory incantations, more efpecially the former, and a correfponding dread of thofe ofa malevolent tendency. It is, of courfe, the triumph of prieftcraft to keep alive thcefe impreffions, and the facred and other books of the Hindoos are well calculated for that effe&. The malediction of a prieft would feriovfly affeét the comfort and quiet of a pious Hindoo. The following paflage from the Ramayana, a much elteemed epic poem, as is noticed under that article, will ferve to exemplify this, as well as the accredited femi-omnipotency of the Brahmans: and, with thofe who have faith in thefe doctrines, affords a fufficient reafon to fear the effeéts of fuch curfes. ‘* Even he who cannot be flain by the ponderous arms of Indra, nor by thofe of Kali, nor by the terrible chakra of Vifhnu, thall be deftroyed if a Brahman curfe him, as if he were con- fumed by fire.”” If the reader be defirous of farther inform- ation on the above paflage, he will find, under the article InprA, mention of his “ ponderous arms,” the vajra; and of the ‘terrible chakra’? under VisHNu. See alfo Kari. A tantra is a fort of hieroglyphic myfterioufly facred to a particular deity. OF thefe tantras there are a great many, as we are informed by Mr. Paterfon, in his ‘* Effay on the Origin of the Hindoo Religion,” in the eighth volume of the Afiatic Refearches. (See alfo the Hindoo Pantheon, under Tantra in the Index.) The term, as well as Yantra, is ap- plied to invocations of a fupplicatory tendency, or to defen- five incantations ; likewife to a philtre, or charm; and to other fooleries fimilar to our abracadabra and magic {quares. Thefe things are, however, not found in the Vedas, nor even in the Puranas, of the Hindoos, but are taught in great detail by the Agama Saltra, a compilation of much later date; fabricated, as hath been reafonably fuppofed, by perfons, who in thefe, as m other matters, eflablifhed many unjuflifiable praétices on the foundations of emblems and allegories, which they mifunderftood. MANTSALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavaftland ; 37 miles S.E. of Tavalthus. MANTUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, S.E. of Brixia, and S. of the lake Benacus on the Mincius. Al- thongh this town is celebrated for its antiquity, its origin being traced to the Tufci, Goo years B. C., it is {till more MAN diftinguifhed asthe place near which Virgil was born. ‘The town was encompafled by a lake, which was formed by the waters of the river. Mantua, in Geography, was, previoufly to the arrange- ments fubfequent to the French revolution, a duchy of Italy, bounded on the N. by the Breffan and Veronefe, on the E. by the Ferrarefe, on the S. by the duchy of Modena, and on the W. by the Cremonefe. In length it is about 50 miles, and in breadth 35. It is watered by the Po, which runs through the middle of it, and alfo by the Oglio, Mincio, Secohia, &o. which difcharge themfelves into the Po. This territory abounds with corn, fruits, and legumes, and it affords {ome wine, great quantities of flax, and many good horfes. The fmall duchy of Mantua was taken poffeffion of by Lewis of Gonzaga in the year 1328, and was held by the houfe of Gonzaga from this period ; till at length the lait of the family was put under the ban of the empire. In 1703, the emperor transferred to the duke of Sayoy that part of the duchy of Montferrat, which had been poffeffed by the dukes of Mantua as afief. In 1707, the Imperialifts over-run the whole duchy, and duke Charles IV. died in the following year under the ban of the empire. | From this time the houfe of Aultria continued in poffeffion of the duchy, annexed to the government of the Milanefe, till by the peace of Luneville jt was ceded to the Cifalpine republic, now the kingdom of Italy ; and it forms the department of the Mincio ; which fee. Manvva, the capital of the late duchy and of the pre- fent department of the Mincio, fituated on a lake formed by the inundations of the river Mincio; about 20 miles ia circumference, and two broad. The two chief bridges leading to this city over the lake are Ponte di Molini, de- fended by two citadels, and Ponte di St. Giorgio, with fortifications at both ends. The water divides the city into two parts nearly equal, which communicate with each other by fix bridges. In fummer, when the water ftagnates, the infalubrity of the air con{trains the higher clafs of inha- bitants to leave the city. The {treets are, ia general, long, broad, and f{traight, with handfome ftone houfes, fine {quares, and ftately churches. On the other fide of the lake are three fuburbs. Mantuacomprehends four cellegiate churches, 21 parochial, 14 other churches and alms-houfes, 11 ora- tories, 40 convents ; and without the city are three parilh- churches, two other churches, and feven convents. The Jews, of whom there are about 4 or 5000, livein a diftingt quarter. The population, exclufive of the garrifon, was formerly efti- mated at 50,000; but it has fince been reduced, fo that at prefent it does not amount to more, as fome fay, than 16,000, or, according to others, 12,000. ‘The pofition and forti- fications render it a place of great ftrength. In the cathe- dral, which is a work of Julio Romano, are paintings of the moft celebrated mafters. ‘The church of Antonio is more famous for relics than any other in the city. The Francifcan church has aa elegant infide and a good library. The edifice formerly occupied as the ducal palace is {pacious and roomy; but the ducal gallery and mufeum were pil- laged in 1630 by the Imperialitts, fo that it is now empty and in ruins. The palace church, however, has fome yalu- able relics and other rich furniture, befides two pictures of ineltimable value, wiz. one of the Baptifm of Conftantine the Great, and the other of the Martyrdom of St. Antonio. The univerfity was founded in 1625. The filk and other manufactures are now inconfiderable. This city, after en- during a long fiege, was taken by the French in February, 179753 70 miles S.S.W,. of Venice. N. lat. 45° 8. E. long. to? 44". Mantua Carpetanorum, in Anctent Geography, the ancient 2 d name, MAN name, as fome fuppofe, of Madrid; but others think that ‘it was fituated near it, and that the prefent name 1s Villa- manta. MANTUANO, in Biography. CELLO, MANTUANUS, the poetical name of Battiffa Spag- auolo, was born at Mantua in 1448; he entered into the order of the Carmelites, and purfued his ftudies in various cities, and under different mafters. He.was particularly attached to Latin poetry, but without negleéting his graver ftudies. He bore feveral important offices, undertook many journies, and was finally made general of his order in 1513. He died in 1516, and a marble flatue, crowned with laurel, was ereéted to his memory. The fame of Mantuanus once ftood fo high that fome writers placed him in parallel with Virgil: others carried the matter {till far- ther, and thought the Pagan ought not to be mentioned in comparifon with the Chriftian poet. He is faid to have written 55,000 verfes. Erafmus thought highly of his talents, but Scaliger ranked him with mere verfifiers. His *¢ Poetical Works’’ were publifhed at Bologna, in folio, in 1502; and at Antwerp they were re-publifhed in 1576, in vols. Svo. MANUAH, in Geogrephy, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, in the gulf of Cambay; ro miles S. of Goge. MANUAL, Manuvatis, fignifies what is employed, or ufed by the hand, and whereof a prefent profit may be made. Thus, fuch a thing is faid to be in the manual occu- pation of one, where it is aCtually ufed or employed by him. Manvat is the name of a fervice-book ufed in the church of Rome, containing the rites, direGtions to the priefts, and prayers ufed in the adminiftration of baptifm and other facraments ; the form of bleffing holy water, and the whole fervice ufed in proceflions. Manvat Lxercife, in Military Language, is the exercife of the mufket, independently of powder and ball. About the year 1757, a new manual exercife was introduced into ‘the Britifh army, very much refembling the modern im- proved fy{tem of Frederic, the father of the great king of Pruffia; who was the firft that caufed the manual exer- cife to be contraéted, and the motions performed clofe to the body. This exercife has of late been fimplified and reduced to a {maller number of motions. The following are the feven movements of the prefent manual exercife : 1. Order arms; three motions. 2. Fix bayonets; one mo- tion, 3. Shoulder arms; one motion. 4. Prefent arms ; three motions. 5. Shoulder arms; two motions. 6. Charge bayonets ; two motions. 7. Shoulder arms ; two motions. See BATTALIon. b About the fame time the evolutions, manceuvres, or field movements, which were various in different corps, and very numerous in fome, were reduced to one ftandard, and con- fined in number to 18. The purpofes of thefe changes were ftated in the ‘¢ Regulations” to be, the reconciliation of celerity with order; to prevent hurry ; to infure precifion and corre¢tnefs ; to inculcate and enforce the neceflity of military dependence, and of mutual fupport in action; to asin motions only as are neceflary for combined ex- ertions in corps, rejecting only what is curious on parade ; and to make utility, not fhow, the principal object. Sce BarraLion, Formation and Order of the BATTALION. MANUBALISTA, the ancient name of the crofs-Law ; which fee. MANUBLA, among the Romans, the fpoils of the See Venustit Mar- MAN enemy, or rather the money made of the booty when fold by the quettor. MANUCAPTIO, in Law, a writ which lies for a man, who being taken on fufpicion of felony, and offering fufficient bail for his appearance, is refufed to be admitted eherai by the fheriff, or other having power to let to main- prife. MANUCMANUG, in Natural Hiffory, a name giver by the people of the Philippine iflands to a very beautiful {pecies of parrot, which is found very frequently wild in the woods there. It is of the fame bignefs with the com- mon parrot, and is variegated with a great many different colcurs. MANUCODE, in Ornithology. See Parapisea Regia. MANUCODIATA. See Paranisea Apoda, MERors Flavicans, and Muscicapa Paradifi. MANUCODITOTA. See Topus Paradifeus. MANUDUCTOR, a name given to an ancient officer of the church; who from the middle of the choir, where he was placed, gave the fignal for the choirifters to fing, and marked the meafure, beat time, and regulated the mufic. The Greeks called him mefochoros, becaufe feated in the middle of the choir; but, in the Latin church, he was called manududor ; from manus, and duco, I lead ; becaufe Hs led and guided the choir by the motions and gefture of the and. MANUEL, Comnenus, in Biography, emperor of Conftantinople, was appointed fucceflor to his father, John Comnenus, at his death in 1139, to the prejudice of an elder brother. The foldiery approved of the no- mination on account of his military talents and heroifm. He is faid to have equalled the moft renowned champions of chivalry with regard to warlike prowefs, but at the fame time no one furpaffed him in luxury and diffolute indul- gence during the intervals of peace. Soon after his ac- ceffion he marched into Afia with a powerful army, and having recovered feveral towns in Phrygia, which had been taken by the Turks, he laid fiege to their capital Iconium. He was unable to reduce this importaat place ; and after fecuring the frontiers by garrifons he returned to Conftan- tinople. During his ftay m the capital, he married Ger- mana, or Irene, fifter-in-law to the German emperor Conrad, but this conneétion did not prevent him from engaging in a criminal commerce with his own niece Theodora. In the crufade of 1146, led by Conrad, Manuel, jealous of the paflage of a number of ferocious bands through his terri- tories, is charged with having ufed means for their deftruc- tion, and it has been affirmed by the Latin hiftorians, that he privately acquainted the Turkifh fultan with the de- figns of the crufaders. Roger, king of Sicily, having made himfelf mafter of the ifle of Corfu, which was con. fidered as. part of the Conftantinopolitan empire, and hav- ing alfo plundered Corinth, Thebes, and other towns of Greece, infulted Conftantinople itfelf. Manuel, therefore, affembled a great fleet, with which he recovered Corfu, after which he carried war into the dominions of his enemy, and reduced the greateft part of the provinces of Apulia and Ca- labria, by means of his lieutenant Michael Palwologus, His fuccefs was fo great and important, that he even entertained hopes of acquiring Italy and the weftern empire: with this view he attached to his caufe feveral nobles in Rome itfelf, and married his niece to one of the family of Frangipani. His expeétations were, however, defeated through the jea- loufies which fubfifted between the Roman and Greek churches, and he was obliged to make a treaty and renounce his conquefts, retaining only the fhadow of a nominal fove- i be reignty! MAN reignty. Manuel had been engaged, in perfon, a ainft the Servians, whom he repulfed with great lofs, and everal of whofe towns he took and deftroyed. Ina progrefs after- wards through his Afiatic dominions, he was fumpttoufl entertained by the princes of the Weft; but an infult whic he received from the Turks on his return, induced him to tranfport a powerful army into Afia, with which he ftruck fuch terror into the fultan, that he fued for peace, which was immediately concluded. When Manuel had overcome his foreign and political enemies, he engaged in religious contefts, and difturbed the church by endeavours to intro- duce heterodox opinions. Finding his life drawing to a con- clufion he put on the monattic habit, determining to retire from the world. He died in 1177, after a very bufy reign of thirty-eight years. He left a fon, Alexius, who fucceeded him. Univer. Hift. Gibbon. Manvuet Par morocus, emperor of Conftantinople, born in 1349, was fecond fon of John Palzologus. His father was not only reduced toa fervile dependence on the Turkifh fultan, but meanly fubmitted, at his orders, to deprive his eldeft fon Andronicus of his fight ; he, therefore, affociated Manuel to his fceptre, which now ruled over little more than the metropolis and its immediate diftri&. On the death of John in 1391, Manuel was ferving by compulfion in the army of Bajazet, but upon receiving intelligence he efcaped, and arriving at Conftantinople, mounted the throne. Ba- jazet immediately invefted the city, and compelled the new fovereign to purchafe a peace on very ignominious condi- tions, and after carrying on the conteft a fhort time, he refigned the royal power to his nephew, and embarked for Venice. From Venice he made a progrefs through the prin- cipal courts of the Welt, to engage the fovereigns to con- tribute their aid for the defence of the bulwark of Chriften- dom againft the Mahometan arms. He vifited Italy, France, England, and Germany, and was every where received with a refpe&t and commiferation due to his great misfortunes, but he was unable to roufe the princes to any effectual efforts. After an abfence of two whole years he returned, in 1402, to the Morea, where he heard of the defeat and capture of Bajazet by Tamerlane, and of the temporary relief of Conttantinople. He was now reftored to his throne, and his competitor banifhed to Lefbos, He foon after recovered feveral of his provinces, which he enjoyed till his death in 1425, at the age of feventy-fix. Univer. Hift. Gibbon. Manvet, Don Juan, grandfon of king St. Fernando of Cattile, is frequently referred to in Spanifh hiftory during the reigns of Ferdinand IV. and Alonzo XI. with whom he was fometimes at open war ; but having at length effected the marriage of his daughter Coftanza with the infante D. Pedro, then heir of Portugal, peace was eftablifhed be- tween them. He was prefent at the great battle of Salado, in Oétober 1340, after which, the vi€tory being fo com- plete and tremendous, Spain was never more endangered by the African Moors. He died in 1347. Don Juan Manuel holds a {till higher rank in the literary than in the political hiltory of his country: his writings are among the earlieft {pecimens of Caftilian profe; they are twelve in number, of which the titles are given in the General Biography, but only one of them, viz. “ El Conde Lueanor,” has yet been publifhed. This was firft printed by Argote de Mo- lina, in 3575, and it was re-printed in 1642. It isa dia- lo gue between the Conde Lucanor and his friend Patronio, in which the latter offers his friend fome good advice, and ill uftrates all his precepts by examples. Gen. Biog. MANUFACTORY, from manu-fadus, q. 4. made with 12 MAN hands, a place where feveral artifts and workmen are em. ployed in the fame kind of work, or make a commodity of the fame kind. . MANUFACTURE is popularly ufed to fignify the workitfelf ; and by extenfion, the like work carried on inde- pendently in different parts of the country. In this fenfe we fay, the cotton manufacture, woollen manu~ facture, /ilk manufacture, ve/vet manufacture, tapefiry manu- facture, muflin manufacture, &c. manufaCture of hats, ftock- ings, &c. By 23 Geo. II. c. 13. if any perfon exports any tools or utenfils ufed in the filk, linen, cotton, or woollen manufac- tures, he forfeits the fame, and 200/.; and the captain of the fhip, having knowledge thereof, 100/. And if any captain of a king’s fhip, or officer of the cuftoms, knowingly fuf- fers fuch exportation, he forfeits 1oo/. and his employment, and is for ever made incapable of bearing any public office. And every perfon collecting fuch tok for exportation, . fhall on conyiétion forfeit them, and 200/. (See alfo 14 Geo. III. c. 71.) By 21 Geo, III. c. 37. the above penalties on the captain of the fhip and officer of the cuf- toms are augmented to 200/.; and a perfon having in his cuftody, or procuring to be made any fuch tool, fhall forfeit the fame, and 200/., and be imprifoned for twelve months. Profecution on this claufe to be within twelve months after the offence committed. By 22 Geo. III. c. 60. any perfon exporting any fuch tools, fhall forfeit the fame, and sool.; and any officer of a fhip, conniving at it, fhall forfeit 500/., and if it be a king’s fhip, forfeit alfo his office, and be in- capacitated. Much was done under the aufpices of the magnanimous prince Edward IIJ., for eftablifhing our domeitic manu- faétures, by prohibiting the exportation of Englifh wool, and the importation or wear of foreign cloths or furs, and by encouraging cloth-workers from other countries to fettle here. MANUFACTURE, Cotton, one of the leading and molt im- ortant branches of our national induftry and commerce. The hiftory of its aftonifhing progrefs in the laft century, the fucceflive improvements in the machinery, which have been made by various inventors, and the extent of the trade, with other curious important faéts, are detailed under the article Corton : it is needlefs, therefore, to recapitulate thefe cir- cumftances, and we fhall proceed at once to deferibe this ~ exterfive manufacture, as conducted on the moft improved fyftem in fome of our largeft cotton-mills. Many of our readers may have viewed a cotton-mill with wonder, but not with intelligence, nor with leifure to trace the fleps by which the wool from the bag ultimately aflumes the form of avery fine thread. Bewildered by iuch a complication of machinery all in motion, very few, we imagine, are able to recollect, with diftin@nefs and intelligence, the effential part of the proceffes by which the form of the cotton is fo wonderfully changed. Such readers will not think a page or two mifemployed, in giving a brief account of the dif- ferent operations the cotton pafles through, from the raw cotton or cotton wool, as imported, to the finifhed thread ; and we fhall afterwards enlarge upon each fubjeét, and defcribe the machinery by which thefe operations are ef- feGted in the moft expeditious and perfeét manner. For the explanation of thefe, we have appropriated 13 of our plates, which are entitled Cotton Manufadure. Cotton, it is well known, is the produce of a fhrub in the warmer climates of the Eaft and Weft Indies, and even in the more temperate countries which border on the Le- yant. It comes to us packed in bags, without any further preparation MANUFACTURE OF COTTON preparation than being pretty carefully picked out of the ‘pod in which it grows ; but ftill much dirt, hufk, and other impurities remain in it. The cotton wool is imported either in bags or in bales: the bags weigh from 14 cwt. to 5 cwt., and the bales ufually weigh 37 or 35 cwt. On arriving at the cotton-mill thefe are unpacked, and the contents examined at the fame time it is turned over and beaten with a ftick, and the grofs impurities picked out with the fingers. ‘This is called forting, and the obje& of the beating 1s to foften and open the hbre of the cotton, fo as to expofe every part. The forting is performed immediately when the bags of cotton are opened, but it has ftill to undergo a fecond examination, called picking; the principal objet of the ficit examina- tion, or forting, being intended to afcertain the quality of the cotton, and to find what kind of goods it is belt adapted for manufa&turing, and in this examination the coarfeft im- purities and yellow damaged parts are picked out. After forting the cotton, it is carried to the batting ma- chine, and the coarfer forts of cotton to the opening machine, which is known to the workmen by the name of devil. In the batting machine, the cotton is {pread upon a platform of ropes {trained very tight, anda number of rods itrike very {martly upon it, by which they open the fibres and loofen the knots of cotton preparative to the fucceeding operations: at the fame time the violence of the batting loofens and fhakes out all dirt, duft, and cotton feeds, of which the cotton in its raw ftate contains a great number, and which would be very prejudicial to the operations of the more delicate machines. The cotton, when firft packed up in the bags, is compreffed very clofely, for the convenience of {towage, and this condenfes it into a hard matted mafs; but the batting machine, ftriking it violently with {mall fticks, caufes the fibres, by their natural elafticity, and the motion occafioned among them, to gradnally loofen and difengage themfelves, and the cotton, by repeated ftrokes, recovers all its original volume. The opening machine has the fame objeéts, and produces the fame effeéts, though in a very different manner, as it confifts of a rapidly revolving cylinder, on which a great number of iron teeth, or {pikes are fixed, which tear and open the cotton againft other fimilar teeth, which are fixed in a {tationary half cylinder or hood, enclofing the other. The batting machine is ufed for the finer kind of cotton ; and the opening machine, which a¢ts in a more rapid though lefe effegtive manner, is employed upon the coarfer forts. After batting or opening, the cotton is again picked, to remove thofe finer particles of dirt which were before enveloped in the cotton, but are expofed by the operation of the machine. It is performed by women, who remove all extraneous matter, and every particle of yellow or damaged cotton. The perfec- tion of the article to be produced, depends in a great degree on the care with which the picking is performed, and this is almoft the only procefs, in the cotton {pinning, which cannot be performed by machinery, becaufe it neceflarily requires a difcretionary power. The cotton wool being picked clean, is next mixed, that is, the contents of different bags are mixed together with a view of obtaining a fimilarity in the quality of the cotton which is to be fpun. In this operation the greateft art of cotton- {pinning confifts, and it is that department in which expe- rience alone guides the manufaéturer. By a judicious mix- ture of different forts of cotton, fome fpinners will pro- duce a very fine and capital yarn, from fuch cotton as would, if {pun alone, or improperly mixed, only produce coarfe and low priced goods. The mixture is effected by making a pile er heap, confifting of fucceffive layers, of the different kinds of cotton which are to be mixed; then by raking away 2 fmall quantity at a time from the edges of the heap, ftrik- ing the rake from the top to the bottom, through all the dif- ferent layers, the cotton will be very equally mixed. Some- times the cotton wool is dyed, and different colours are mixed together. It is now fpread out, very evenly and regularly, upon a long cloth, whichis rolled up and carried to the Carding machine.—This confifts of a number of cylinders, covered with wire teeth or cards, and revolving with confi- derable velocity in oppofite directions, nearly in conta& with each other, and covered by a dome alfo lined with cards. The cotton, being introduced among thefe, is continually combed, or carded, by the teeth, until almoft every indivi- dual fibre is feparated and drawn ftraight, and every little knotty and entangled part difengaged. By pafling gradually through the machine from one cylinder to another, the cotton is difperfed lightly and evenly among the teeth over the whole furface of the lait, or finifhing cylinder, from which if is de- tached by the mechanifm in a continued fleece. This is drawn off, and lapped upon a cylinder turned flowly round by the machine, until the fleece has made a great number of turns upon the cylinder : it is then broken off, by dividing it at one part, fo that it forms a fleece called a lap, which is the length of the circumference of the cylinder, and confifting of fifteen or twenty thickneffes, by which admirable contri- vance very great regularity is obtained in the thicknefs of the lap, becaufe if any one part of the fleece produced by the machine is thinner or thicker than it ought to be, in con- fequence of any irregularity in the fpreading of the cotton- wool upon the cloth, previous to carding, fuch irregularity will have no fenfible effect upon the ultimate thicknefs of the lap, becaufe it is compofed of thirty or forty ftrata, and there is no probability that the inequalities of thefe feveral {trata will fall beneath each other, but every chance that they will be equally difperfed through the whole, and thus correét each other. The lap, when taken off, is laid flat on a cloth, which, with it, is rolled up and conveyed to a fe- cond carding-machine, called the fini/bing card, while the firft is called the breaker. In this fecond card it undergoes a fimie lar procefs to the firft, but inftead of the fleece being re- ceived on acylinder, it is contracted by pafling througli a funnel,fin which the fleece, being hemmed in on both fides, is gradually contraéted to a thick roll, which may be continued to any length as long as the machine is fupplied with cotton. This roll or band of cotton is drawn off between two rollers, which comprefs it into a pretty firm, flat ribband, about two inches broad. The rollers deliver it into atin can, placed to receive it, and in this it is removed to the Drawing Frame.—This machine coniifts of feveral pairs of rollers, between which the cotton is pafled, andevery fuccef- five pair it is drawn through moyes, by means of the wheel- work, witha greater velocity than thofe preceding it, fo as to ftretch out the band or fliver of cotton, in the fame man- ner as it would be drawn out, if one part of the fliver were held between the finger and thumb of one hand, and another part, at an inch or two diftant, being held in the other hand. Then by drawing the two hands afunder to the extent of four inchés, it is evident two inches in length of the cotton fliver would be extended or drawn out to four inches. In like manner, the firft pair of rollers through which the fliver pafles, are prefled together with a fufficient weight to hold the cotton firmly between them. The fecond pair of rollers are fituated at one or two inches diftant, and are made by the wheel-work to revolve more fwiftly than the firft. The difference of velocity, however, is but {mall, though the confequence is, that the fiver will be lengthened in the fame proportion ; MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. proportion ; for the fecond rollers take up the cotton much fafter than the firit pair will deliver it out : it mult, therefore, be either forcibly pulled through between the firft rollers, or it mut be ftretched alittle, by the fibres flipping acer each other, or it muft break. When the extention is {mall, the only effe@ of it is merely to begin to draw the fibres (which are at prefent lying in every poffible direétion) into a itraight and parallel pofition, which is moft favourable for the {ubfequent extenfions. The drawing frame contains a third, and fome of them a fourth pair of rollers, by’ which the fliver undergoes a fecond or third draught; but the combined effe& of all thefe drawings is generally to extend the fliver to four times the length it was when firft put to the ma- chine. Butas this would reduce the fliver to one-fourth of the fize, which is not intended in this ftage of the procefs, four ends or flivers are introduced between the rollers together, and being drawn into one, which is four times the length, it will of courfe be of the fame fize as any one of the four which is put in. This drawing procefs is repeated three or four times, and the alteration it makes in the cotton is to equalize the fize of the fliver, on the fame principle as be- fore deferibed of the breaking card, viz. by repeatedly combining four together, and drawing them into one : it alfo difpofes the fibres longitudinally and in the moft perfec itate of parallelifm. The operation of carding effects this in acertain degree; yet the fibres, though parallel, are not itraight, but many of them doubled, as may eafily be fup- pofed, from the teeth of the cards catching the fibres fome- times in the middle, which become hooked or faftened upon them. Though the general arrangement of the fibres of a fliver from the finifhing card is lon gitudinal, yet they are doubled, bent, and interlaced in fuch a way, as to render the operation we are now {peaking of abfolutely neceflary. When the cardings Have been pafled four or five times through the drawing frame, every fibre is ftretched out at full length, and difpofed in the moft even and regular direction, fo that each fibre will, when twifted into a thread, take its ~proper bearing, in confequence of every one being {traightened and having the fame tention. The fliver in this ftate prefents a moft beautiful appearance, being fo extremely regular in its fize, and all the fibres drawn fo ftraight, that it bears a fine glofly or filky appear- ance. It is upon this fliver or ribband of cotton wool that thesoperation of fpinning begins. The general effe& of the {pinning procefs is, to draw out this maffive fliver, and to twift it as it is drawn out: but this is not to be done by the fingers, pulling out as many fibres of the cotton at once as are neceflary for compoling a thread of the intended fine- nefs, and continuing this manipulation regularly acrofs the whole end of the ribband, and thus, as it were, nibbling the whole of it away. The fingers mutt be direéted for this purpofe by an attentive eye; but in performing this by machinery, the whole ribband muft be drawn out together and twifted as it is drawn. his requires great art and very delicate management : it cannot be done at once, that is, the cotton roll cannot be firft ftretched, or drawn out to the length that is ultimately produced, from the tenth of an inch of the fliver, and then twifted. There is not cohefion enough for this purpofe, it would only break off a bit of the fliver, and could make no further ufe of it; for the fibres of cotton are very little implicated among each other in the fiver, becaufe the operation of carding and drawing has laid them all parallel in the fliver; and though compreffed alittle, by its contraétion in the card from a fleece of twenty inches to a ribband of two, and afterwards com- preffed between the rollers of the drawing frame. yet they cohere fo flightly, that a few fibres may be drawn out, with-" out bringing many others along with them. For thefe rea- fons, the whole thicknefs and breadth of two or three inches are {tretched to a very minute quantity, and then a very flight degree of twiltis given it, viz. about two or three turns in the inch, fo that it fhall now compofe an extremely foft and {pungy cylinder, which cannot be called a thread or cord, becaufe it has fearcely any firmnefs, and is merely rounder or flenderer than before, being ftretched to about four times the former length. This is called roving, and the operation is performed in the Roving Frame.—This machine is conftrufed in a great variety of forms, but all of them have the fame obje¢t in view, viz. to draw out the fliver, fo as to reduce it from a large band to a coarfe and loofe thread: but as this exten- fion would render it fo extremely tender, that it would {earcely hang together in pafling through the fucceeding machines, the roving frame, immediately after having drawn and extended it to the intended fize by rollers, operating in the fame manner as the rollers of the drawing frame, gives it a very flight twift, as before mentioned, and this ae thread, which is called the roving, isthe firft rudiment of a thread. Although it is extremely tender, and will not carry a weight of two ounces, it is much more cohefive than be- fore, becaufe the twift given to it makes all the longitudinal fibres bind each other together, and comprefs thofe which lie athwart ; therefore it will require twice the force to pull outa fibre from among the reft, but {till not near enough to break it. In drawing a fingle fibre others are drawn out along with it, and if we take hold of the whole affemblage in two places, about an inch or two afunder, we fhall find that we may draw it to near twice its length, without any rifk of its feparating in any intermediate part, or becoming much {maller in one part than another. It feems to yield equally over all parts. Our readers will now perceive, that thefe proceffes will enfure all that is wanted, and prepare a roving that is uni- form, foft, and itill very extenfible: in fhort, fit for under- going the laft treatment of fpinning, by which it is made a fine and firm yarn. It is evident that the roving produced by thefe operations muft be exceedingly uniform. The uniformity really pro duced exceeds all expeétation; for even although there be fome {mall inequalities in the carded fleece, yet if thefe are not matted clots which the card could not equalize, but only confift of a little more thicknefs of cotton in fome places than in others, this inequality will firft be diminifhed by. the lapping of the fleece in the breaking card ; and when fuch a part of the fliver comes to the fil roller of the drawing frame, it will be rather more ftretched by the fecond than a .thin part would be. That this may be done with greater cer- tainty, the weights of the firft rollers are made very fmall, fo that the middle part of the fliver can be drawn through, while the outer parts remain faft held. Such is the ftate of the roving as prepared by the roving frame. All the preceding proceffes are to be confidered as the preparations: and the operation of {pinning is not yet begun. Thefe preparations are the moft tedious, and re- quire more attendance and hand-labour than any fubfequent part of the procefs. For the flivers from which the rovings are made are fo light and bulky, that a few yards only can be piled up in the cans fet to receive them from the cardin and drawing : a perfon mult therefore attend and watch eac roller of the drawing and roving frames, to join frefh flivers as they areexpended. It is aifo the moft important depart. ment MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. mentin the manufacture ; for as every inch will meet with precifely the fame drawing and fame twitting in the fubfe- quent parts of the procefs, therefore every inequality and fault of the fliver, indeed of the fleece as it quits the finifh- iag card, will continue through the whole manufacture, in a greater or leffer degree, being only diminifhed, not correéted, by the drawing, doubling, &c. he {pinning of cotton-yarn now divides itfelf into two branches. The firlt performed by what were called jennies, when worked by the hand, but fince they are moved by the power of a mill, they are called mules; the manner of a¢tion refembles the ancient {pinning with diftaff and f{pindle. The fecond method, called {pinning of tai/t, or water-/pinning, becaufe it was the firft {pinning performed by a water-wheel, is in imitation of the {pinning with the fly-wheel, or jack and flyer. The two methods differ in the fame manner, as the old. wool. or cotton-wheel differs from the fpinning with the flax-wheel. Mr, Ark- wright’s chief invention, the fubftitution of the machinery for the immediate work of the human finger, was at firtt only applied to the manufa€ture of twilt, or water-{pinning. We fhall, therefore, firft direct our attention to this. The water-pinning procefs is little more than a repetition of that gone through in making the jirit livers or rovings, which are formed on bobbins, either by the roving frame, ot are afterwards bound on bobbins by the hand. Thefe bobbins are fet on the back part of the Spinning-frame, in which the roving is drawn, and ex- tended to any required dezree of finenefs ; and the proper twill being given to it, forms it to the required thread. The fpinning-frame is provided with fy {tems of rollers, in the manner of the drawing-frame, through which the roving pafles, and is drawn out according to the fize of the thread which is required to be foun, which varies from four to fe- venteen times ; and it is then twilted more or lefs, as the thread is required to be hard or foft: therefore, the {pinning pro- cefs fcarcely differs from the roving, except in the twiit that is given it, after the lalt {tretching, initslength. This is much greater than the roving, being intended to give the yarn hard- nets and firmnefs, fo that it will afterwards break rather than ftretch any more. The perfection of the ultimate thread or yarn depends, in a great meafure, on the extreme foftnefs of the roving; for it is this only which makes it fufceptible of an equable ftretching, all the fibres yielding and fe- parating alike: and this property will be greatly influenced by the quantity of twift given by the roving-frame. For thefe points no very diftinét rule can be given: it varies in different mills, and with different fpecies of cotton wool, as may be eafily imagined. The immediate mechanifm, or manipulation, mult be fkilfully accommodated to the nature of that friction which the fibres of cotton exert on each other, enzbling one of them to pull others along with it. This is greatly aided by the contorted curled form of a cotton fibre, and a confiderable degree of elafticity which it poffeffes. In this refpect it greatly refembles woollen fibres, and differs exceedingly from thofe of flax ; and it is for this reafon that it is fo extremely ‘difficult to fpin flax in this way: its fibres become lank, and take any fhape by the flighteit compreffion, efpecially when damp in the flightett degree, But befide this, the furface of a cotton fibre has a harfhnefs or roughnefs, which greatly augments their mu- tual friction. This probably is the reafon why it is fo unfit for tents, and other dreflings for wounds, and is refufed by the furgeons even in the meanelt hofpitals, But its harfhnefs and elaiticity fit it admirably for the manufaéture of yarn. Even the thortnefs of the fibre is favourable; and the manu- factuce would be very difficult, if the fibre were thrice as long as it generally is. If it be jult fo long that, in the ‘roller and fpindle. finifhed thread, a fibre will rather break than come out from among the reft, it is plain that no additional length can make the yarn any ftronger, with the fame degree of compreffion by twining. A long fibre will indeed give the fame firmnefs of adherence, with a {fmaller compreflion by twining. This would be an advantage in any other yarn; but in cotton, the compreffion is already as flight as can be allowed: were it lefs, it would become woolly and rough by the fmalleft ufage; and it is already too much difpofed to teazle out. Now, {fuppofe the &bres much longer, fome of them may chance to be firetched along the fliver through their whole length. If the fliver is pulled in oppofite di- reclions, by pinching it at each end of fuch long fibre, it is plain that it will not ftretch till this fibre be broken up, or drawn out; and that while it is in its extended ftate, it is acting on the other fibres in a very unequable manner, ac- cording to their pofitions, and renders the whole apt to feparate and draw more irregularly. This is one great ob- {tacle to the {pinning of flax by fimilar machinery. Mule-fpinning. —A great proportion of the cotton is fpun in the mule inftead of the water-frame. The preparation it undergoes for either method is the fame; at leaft the pro- cefles are fimilar, except that the quantities of draft, and fome other particulars, may be varied in the preparation of the cotton which is to be thus {pun in this machine, which is called a mule, cither becaufe it is a kind of machine which might eafily be turned by a mule, or more probably becaufe it 1s a fort of mongrel, partaking of the nature of both drawing and fpinning, or uniting the a¢tion of both the It confifts of three fets of fluted brafs rollers, the flutes of which turn into each other. The firft fet goes faiter than the fecond, and the fecond fafter than the third; between which, when the fliver of carded cotton caters, it 1s a little lengthened out between the firft and fecond, and farther {till between the fecond and third; after pafling which, it is flightly twitted by the rapid circular motion of the {pindle. This has the fame effeét as the {pin ning-frame ; but the quantity of draft between the rollers, Or extenfidn of the fliver, is not, like the water-frame, to the full extent which the thread is intended to be. The re- mainder of the ftretching is performed in this manner: the {pindles of the mule, which give the twilt to the thread, are fitted in a frame, fo that they can be moved backward and forward, in a {traight line, to and from the rollers ; a certain length of the roving being therefore given out by the rollers, the fpindles ave removed backward to take it up as faft as it comes, and in this motion they twilt it flightly: at the fame time, but after a certain quantity of the roving, a yard for inftance, has heen given out by the rollers, their motion ceafes; but the fpindle continues to recede from them, another half yard for inftance, continuing to twift the thread all the while. By thefe means, it is evident that’the thread will be ftretched from a yard to a yard and half in lenoth: by this contrivance, the cotton will bear a greater degree of extenfion than any other, becaufe it is conttantly twitted at the fame time that it is extended in length. The invention of mules forms quite an epoch in the hif- tory of the cotton trade. A va{t improvement was made, about 35 years ago, by the introduction of the {pinning jennies, by which from twenty to forty fpindles were turned at atime. The {pindles were the fame as the mule, and had the fan.e motion; but this machine was not provided with rollers to draw out the cotton, previous to twifling, merely depending upon the ftretching, to give it the proper extenfion * requifite to form the roving into a thread. But the combina-, tion of the jenny with fir Richard Arkwright’s invention of drawing, by rollers, forms a method fuperisr to both, at leait MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. leaft for fine goods. The method of ftretching gives the means, as we have before mentioned, of very great exten- fion; but if this be carried fo far as to draw out the coarfe loofe roving to a fine thread, there will be great danger of u its drawing irregularly, that is, more in one place than another. tn the original method by the jenny, the rovings were prepared by the hand-wheel: they were loofe, coarfe, untwilted threads, partaking fomewhat of the nature of eardings, though approaching in fome degree to {pun twift. They were obliged to be prepared by the hand-wheel, be- eaufe the cardings, which were prepared by hand-cards, were in detached pieces of a certain length, and regularly tapering towards each end: the joining of thefe together, in fuch a manner as to produce an equal and regular roving, required a care and attention which could not be effected by machinery. The combination of fir R. Arkwright’s fyftem of pre- paration with the jenny produced the mule, which, without the defeéts of its original, {pins in the moft expeditious and perfe&t manner. The advantage of this mode of preparing the threads over that of the jenny is, that the fibres of the cot- ton are all laid longitudinally, and nearly in as {mall number as is wanted, before they are begun to be much twilted; by which means, threads of any required finenefs are made much ftronger than they were from rovings, made upon the fpindle of the hand-wheel {pun in the jenny, which twiited them too much in the firft inftance; and in the fubfequent extention or ftretching, by the removal of the fpindle, for rendering them finer, many of the fibres were ncceffarily broken, On one of thefe mules 240 threads are often fpun at once; and two of them may be managed by one woman, with a child to tie the threads which may occafionally break. ‘ , It is needlefs, as the jenny has become an obfolete ma- chine in the cotton manufacture, to enter into any further details, particularly as the mechanifm fo nearly refembles the jenny ftill ufed in the WooLLEN manufacture. See that article. The reader moderately acquainted with mechanics, can- net but perceive that by each of the operations now defcrib- ed, the cotton-wool is prepared, and drawn into a fine ftrong thread, by repeatedly drawing the fliver till its fibres become ftraight, then reducing it in the roving frame to a coarfe thread, and by a flight twilt giving it fufficient ftrength to bear fuch an extenfion as will reduce it to the fize intended, and then it is immediately twifted into a hard thread. All thefe proceffes are only a fubftitute for a fingle pull of the finger and thumb of the fpinner, which fhe accommodates precifely to the peculiar condition of the lock of wool which fhe touches at the moment: fhe can follow this through all its irregularities, and, perbaps, no two fucceeding plucks are alike. But when we cannot give this momentary attention to every minute portion, we muft be careful to introduce the roving in a ftate of perfeét uni- formity, and then every inch being treated in the fame manner, the final refult will be equable, and the yarn will be uniform, The thread being now finifhed, either by the water-frame or mule, it is carried to the Reel, by which it is taken off the bobbins of the fpin- ning frame, or the cops of the mule, and formed into hanks. The hank is a meafure in cotton trade, compofed of feven leys, each of 120 yards in length. The reel or frame round which the thread is wound is one yardand a half in circum- ference, and at every 80 turns (or bouts) which it makes, the 80 turns of the thread are tied together to keep them Separate, and this meafures out 120 yards, which is called a ley: but the thread is not cut at the ley, it is continued to be wound on the reel, till feven fuch leys, or 840 yards, are reeled: it is then cut and called a hank, which is tied Pp. The different fizes of cotton yarn, or thread, are deno- minated according to the number of thefe hanks which will weigh a pound. The hank of 840 yards in length is the mea- fure ufed in all Englifh cotton-mills, and thus affords a very accurate and convenient ftandard for the fize of the cotton. The number is afcertained by weighing each individual hank in a little weighing inffrument, which fhews by an index what number of fuch hanks wiil weigha pound. Each hank bein twifted up is fufpended on the hook of this inftrument, a the number being afcertained, the hank is put on a proper fhelf till they are all forted. Then by a table on purpofe it is feen how many hanks of any number will weigh rolbs. and this number being counted out from any one fhelf, is packed up in the dundling prefs, and tied in papers, marked, and fent away for market. Sometimes, the cotton intended for weaving is warped in the warping-mill before it is fent away from the mill: this faves the weaver an immenfe deal of trouble. Some of the twilt is wound on quills for the fhuttle ; and others, again, are formed into hanks, fome of which are tightly bound round at certain intervals previous to their being dyed, in order to prevent the parts fo tied from taking the colour. This is done that the threads may be difpofed to warp in the weaving loom, fo as to produce the clouds which are feen in various {pecies of the cotton goods, efpe- cially ginghams. P Some of the cotton thread is dyed in the hank, and other cotton which is intended for fewing, knitting, &c. or to weave fine goods, is bleached ; and becaufe in this procefs, or in dyeing, fome fhrinking takes place, it is wound from the hanks upon bobbins again by the winding machine, and from thefe bobbins it is again reeled into hanks, in which it is packed up and fent to market: other cotton thread for fewing, mending, and domettic ufe, is wound into balls of a figure refembling a cafk, and the many interfeétions of the thread are fo managed as to produce a very beautiful ap- pearance. The denominations of the quality of the different kinds of cotton threads are chiefly divided into yarn and tiff, and this is called mule twift, or water twilt, as it is fpun — either in the mule or water-frame. That thread which is denominated «water-twi/f, is ufed for weaving calicoes, ke. It is {pun hard, that is, witha great deal of twill, fo that it forms a ftrong hard thread. It is manufaétured of all numbers, from ro to 60 hanks fer pound. The mule-twif? is ufed for weaving muflins and the fineft cotton goods. The effential differences between this and the water-twilt are, that the mule produces much finer articles than are attempted on the water-frame, at the fame time it makes a fofter thread. As it requires much lefs power to work it than the water-frame, the manufaéturer {pins every thing in the mule which will admit of it; but it will only produce the foft kinds of thread. The mule will {pin all numbers, from the lowelt to 150 or 170 hanks per lb. The trade of Manchetter is chiefly mule fpinning, whilft the water-twift is moftly fpun in the country by water-mills, becaufe the great power it requires is too expenfive for fteam-engines, at leaft the water-mills have the advantage, being ufually in fituations where they have their power at a lefs expence than thofe turned by fteam-engines. Stocking yarn is {pun fofter than twilt, and two threads are afterwards doubled together in the doubling machine, and then flightly twifted round each other in the twifting ma- chine, MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. chine. Sometimes one of the threads is dyed black, or blue, before the twilting, and then it produces a fpeckled thread, which is called one-thread white. This yarnis chiefly ufed in the ftocking-frame ; it is {pun in all numbers, from 10 hanks in the pound up to 60. The threads of ftocking yarn are but flightly twilted, fo that its compofition of two threads is always diftin@ly vifible. Sewing cotton is made either from twift or cotton yarn doubled, and twilted very hard together by paffing it a fecond time through the {pinning frame, fo as to form a ftrong thread, which may be compared to a fmall rope, as the two threads make one very compa& and defined thread. Mending cotton is the fame as fewing, but of lefs twift: indeed the diltinétion is trifling. Knitting cotton is twitted with two or three threads, but not fo hard twilted as fewing cotton, though it is harder than mending. ‘This cotton is frequently bleached after it is twifted. Candlewick cotton is a very loofe coarfe thread, made from the cheapeft and moft inferior kind of cotton: being only intended for the wick of candles, no great care is ufed in the manufaéturing. A great deal of candlewick is made from tow which is bleached, and makes an article fomething like the cotton in appearance, but by no means equal to it in quality. This is known by the cant term of dump, and many large mills are employed in {pinning it. The cotton candlewick is known by the name of Turkey, which is made from Smyrna or other cheap inferior kinds of cotton, It is {pun generally about ro£ to 11 hanks per /b., and fent off to market wound up in large balls. Oxford candlewick is made from inferior cotton, abeut feven hanks to the pound. Wiltthive candlewick is made from waite cotton, about No. 7. Thefe articles are fpun without the care requilite for yarn or twift: they are ufually fpun by mules, and in fome mills for coarfe goods they do not take the trouble to form them into rovings at all, but {pin the candlewick at once from the flivers, as prepared by the drawing-trame. To purfue the progrefs of the cotton after being fpun into twift, we muft remove from the cotton-mill to the cot- tage of the weaver. Here, the warp being fixed in the loom, or, in the language of the weaver, warped, it is divided to give paflage to the weft in the fhuttle, either by two, three, or more treadles: or if the pattern or courfe of changes in the order of raifing and depreffing the threads of the warp be various, fo that the weaver could not manage the requifice number of treadles, it is done by a great number of ftrings which pafs over pullies above the loom, and are drawn one after another by alittle boy, above whofe head they are difpofed in two rows by the fides and between two looms. Thefe looms are, therefore, called draw-boys. Thefe boys will fhortly be fet afide for machinery, which is rapidly introducing a fubftitute. For the formation of {prigs, &c. of various colours, there are often as many fhut- tles as colours, or a number of little {wivel looms, fuch as they ufe for the weaving of tapes, introduced occafionally, as many as there are {prigs inthe breadth of apiece. Quilt- ings appear to be two diltinét cloths, tied as it were together by ditches, which go through both clothis, and in fome cafes, as in bed-quilts, there is a fhuttle which throws in a quan- tity of coarfely {pun cotton, to ferve as a kind of wadding. The counterpanes are woven with two fhuttles, one con- taining a much coarfer weft than the other; the coarfer of the threads is picked up at intervals with an iron pin, rather hooked at the point, fo as to form knobs difpofed in a fort of pattern. When the goods are come from the loom, mott forts of Vou. XXII. them, previoufly to being bleached, are fired or drefled, by being drawn, and that not very quickly, over red-hot cylin- ders of iron, by which the fuperfluous nap is burnt of. To fee fuch an operation performed upon fo combultible a fub- ftance, naturally fills a ftranger with the utmoft concern and aftonifhment. They are then wafhed in a wheel with foap and water, and having been well fcoured with an alkaline lix- ivium, are dipped in the oxygenated muriatic acid, diluted to its proper ftrength. Thefe preparations are repeated al- ternately, till the goods have attained the requifite white- nefs; and between each dipping they are laid out upon the ground, and expofed to the ation of the fun and air. When completely bleached, they are either {moothed upon long tables with {moothing irons, or calendered ; that is, ftretched and prefled between a courfe of rollers, by which they ac- quire a fine glofs. Calicoes are printed exaly in the fame way as the kerfeymeres in Yorkfhire, but the works are ufually upon a much larger feale. See Prinrine. Thickfets, corduroys, velveteens, &c. are cut upon long tables, with a knife of a conftruétion fomewhat like the {ting of a wa{p, terminating in a very fharp point, defended on each fide by a fort of fheath. This point is introduced under the upper courfe of threads which are intended to be cut, and with great eafe carried forward the whole length of the table. The rapid increafe of the cotton trade appears to have been owing, in a great meafure, to the more liberal intro- duétion of machinery into every part of it, than into any other of our ftaple manufaftures. The utility and policy of employing machines to fhorten labour, have been a fub- ject_which has exercifed the pens of many ingenious writers, while their introduétion into almoft every branch of manu- facture has been attended in the ourfet with much riot and diforder. They are undoubtedly wonderful produations of human genius, the progreffive exertions of which neither can nor ought to be ftopped; they enable a manufacturer to produce a better article than can be made by the hand, in confequence of the uniformity and certainty of their ope- rations, and at a much lower price, in confequence of the vait quantities of goods they are capable of performing. They thus fupport the credit of our manufaétures abroad, and enable us under the vaft load of taxes, and confequent increafe in the price of every neceflary of life, to meet our foreign competitors with advantage at market. They can even allow the goods to furnifh in their paflage a confiderable revenue to government. And although they do, undoubt- edly, on their firft introduction, throw fome perfons out of employ, by changing the nature and courfe of bufinefs, they almoft immediately make up for the inconvenience by aftonifhingly multiplying the abfolute quantity of employ- ment. If they have taken away work from carders and fpinners, they have returned it them back tenfold, as winders, warpers, weavers, dreflers, dyers, bleachers, print- ers, &c. It is this machinery which we have now to explain. An extenfive cotton mill contains moft interelting {pecimens of human ingenuity and refource, and fhews in a ftriking man- ner what may be done, when the talents of a great number of individuals are direéted to one common object, and where the mott trifling part is of fuch importance (from the fre- quent repetition of it which is neceflary) as to become wor- thy the confideration of the manufacturer to devife ma- chinery for accomplifhing it in a better or cheaper manner. There is, in the cotton trade, fuch a {pirit of improvement, that they have, as a hody, lefs prejudice in favour of old ellablithed cufloms than perhaps any other’ clafs of men: this is doubtlels a reafon of the great perfection of their art, Zls. qs MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. as they have made trials of new ideas, without thofe years of refle&tion which men in other trades require before they will venture to embark in any new improvement, though ever fo promifing and favourable in appearance. Our readers, who are unacquainted with the fubje&, will now by this fketch have obtained fuch a general idea of the cotton manufaéture, as will enable them to comprehend the technical terms which are neceffary to be ufed in the fubfe- quent explanation of the machinery, and thofe references which mutt fometimes be made from one procefs to another. A large cotton mill is generally a building of five or fix ftories high: the two oweft are ufually for the {pinning frames, if they are for water twift, becaufe of the great weight and vibration caufed by thefe machines. The third and fourth floors contain the carding, drawing, and roving machines. The fifth ftory is appropriated to the reeling, doubling, twilling, and other operations performed on the finifhed thread. "The fixth, which is ufually in the roof, is for the batting machine, or opening machine, and for the cotton pickers, who for a large mill are very numerous. This laft is not always fo occupied, many manufacturers thinking it better to have out-buildings for’ thefe parts of the procefs, and only to have fuch parts in the mill as re- quire the aid of the large water-wheel, or fteam-engine, which turns the whole mill. If the mule is ufed for {pin- ning inftead of the water frame, then the cards are ufually put below, becaufe they are then the heavieft and mott powerful machinery. The firlt machine we fhall defcribe is the Batting machine. Plate V1. Cotton Manufacture, fig. 1, is an elevation fide- ways, and fig. 2. an elevation endways, the frame being in both deicribed by dotted lines, that it may not obfcure the mechanifm : figs. 3, 4, and 5, are detached parts of the machine. The moving power is communicated by the mill to an horizontal axis, on which the fly-wheel, C, is fixed, to regulate the motion. On this axis four cranks are formed, as fhewn at i, i, i, i, making equal or right angles with each other ; and conneéting rods, i, 4, being extended from thefe cranks to the lower ends of the levers g, g, which are moveable on the centres f, caufe them to vibrate alternately when the cranks are turned. There are four of thele levers fituated on each fide of the machine, all the four oneach fide having one common centre at f Each crank on the main fpindle has two conneéting rods upon it, to adtu- ate two different levers; but which being fituated on oppo- fite fides of the machine, of courfe receive their motion al- ternately : at the upper ends, e, e, of the levers, which, as the figure fhews, are much longer than the lower ends, that is, the centre of motion, f, is placed confiderably beneath the middle of the levers. At the upper ends, e, ¢, of the levers joints are formed, by which they are connected: with rods, x: thefe perform the batting, by ftriking in the man- ner we fhall deferibe upon the platform A, where the cot- ton is fpread. This platform is formed of a long cord, which is repeatedly paffed over two rollers, one of which is fhewn at m, and the other is at the oppofite end of the ma- chine: the cord pafling ‘round from one of thefe to the other twenty or thirty times, and having all the turns made parallel to each other, at about an inch afunder, it forms an horizontal platform for the fupport of the cot- ton ; but to fill up the interftices between thefe ropes another ftationary fet is placed. Thefe are ftrained between two fixed beams of the frame, as fhewn in fig. 4, which is a plan (and a feétion is fituated immediately beneath it:) The roller m, fig. 1, is kept in continual rotation by a train of toothed wheels, marked 4 # 4 £ J, which communicate the motion by a pinion on the main axis from one to another, and laftly to the roller by means of a contrate wheel 4, in which a pinionadts. _ By thefe means the endlefs rope, which extends from one roller to the other, and forms one-half of the platform for the cotton, is in conftant motion, and the cotton which is laid upon it at one end traverfes flowly to the other, receiving in its paflage the blows of the rods a, which {trike upon it alternately. Their ation is produced in this. manner ; the levers, g, g, are forked at the upper ends, as fhewn in fig. 5, fo as to afford a fufficient length of bearing for a fhort axis 3, 4, on which the rod x moves. The {mall dotted circle 3, in this figure, reprefents the place where the rod unites with the axis, or rather where a {mall iron tube proceeds from the axis ; and in the end of this the wooden rod, x, is inferted, and held fait by means of a {crew clamp, or hoop, furrounding the end of the tube, and comprefling it upon the rod, one fide of the tube being {plit down to admit of this compreffion. Upon the fame axis as the rod x are fixed two {mall pullies 1, 2, to each of which a {trap is attached, and, after making a turn round their refpective pullies, thefe are conduéted away to a fixed part of the iramsings in the manner fhewn in fig. 1. Thefe ftraps are of fuch a length, as to hang loofe during a greater part of the time; but when, by the motion of the top of the levers g, gs fig. 1, they come to their tenfion, they operate upon the pullies 1 or 2, fig. 5, and turn them half round with their axis, at the fame time turning over the rods #, «This motion is more clearly explained by fig. 3, which will, at the firlt view, be feen to be only a detached feéion of the parts already defcribed in fg. 1. A reprefents one of the vertical levers (g, fiz. 1.), and F its centre of motion, upon which it traverfes from the pofition A, to that reprefented by the dotted lines B, by the action of the crank rod joined to the lower end of it, as before de- {cribed ; therefore the two pofitions, A, B, are to be con- fidered as the extremes of its movement. E reprefents the pullies which are fixed on the axis of the batting rod 4, the two appearing as one in this view. One of the ftraps of thefe pullies is faflened by one end at m to a fixed part of the frame, and the other end is made faft to the pulley at o. The other ftrap has one of its ends faftened to the deltey at k, while the oppofite end is attached at 7 to a lever im, whofe centre, G, isftationary. Thelowerend, m, of the lever . has a {trap attached to it, which proceeds to the lever A, and is made faft thereto at /. The operation of this con- ftruétion may be thus explained: in the pofition B, the ftrap, if, (anfwering to 7% in the other pofition) hangs flack, as in the figure, while the other ftrap, rm, has come to its tenfion, and has turned over the batting rod to the pofition g. Now, fuppofe by the ation of the erank rod the lever is moved towards the pofition A, it proceeds for fome diftance with the rod g, remaining horizontal, and merely drawing along endways; but when it is advanced rather more than half way, the ftraps, 7m and 7, come to their tenfion; the former pulls the lower end, m, of the lever, mi, after it, and, of courfe, the upper end, i, at the fame time moving in an oppofite direétion, draws the ftrap, i £, with it, turning the pulley E, and the batting rod attached to it, over into the pofition 4, and ftriking on the cotton fpread on the platform, This motion is aed el almoit inftantaneoufly, becaufe, the ftrap i£ being drawn in one dire€tion, whilft the centre of the pulley it is faftened to moves in an op- polite dire€tion, thefe motions caufe the pulley E, and the batting rod which is attached to it, to turn over witha double velocity, to what it would have had if fimply ac- tuated by the motion of the lever A; fo that this rapid motion caufes the batting rod to ftrike with an exceedingly {mart ftroke upon the cotton laid upon the platform. In 12 returning —— A : 1 | MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. returning back again to the pofition B, which the crank caufes it to do very fhortly after having made the {ftroke, it proceeds, as before mentioned, to beyend the half way, with the ftraps hanging flack and having no a¢tion; but when it has paffed rather more than half way, the ftrap, 2 f, becomes tight, and turns the pulley over, bringing the batting rod to the pofition g, ready to make another ftroke ; but in turning it over to this pofition, the rod does not move with fuch velocity as to ftrike a blow upon the cufhion d, fig. 1,which is placed to receive it, becaufe the ftrap, if ny is fixed to a ftationary point 7, inftead of having a motion in the oppofite direCtion to the lever, as the other {trap / £, which caufed the ftroke upon the cotton. In fig. r. the frame is marked B, and 0, o, reprefent the levers 7, C, m, fig. 3. The lever g, fig. 1, which is nearly in a vertical pofition, appears to have two of the rods x proceeding from it in oppofite direGtions. This appearance is occafioned by there being two levers in that pofition exa¢tly behind each other, though they are moving in oppofite direétions, therefore one of the rods, , remains upon the cotton at A: the other, which belongs to the lever concealed behind, is reprefented as juft rifing from the cufhion d. Fig. 2. is an edge view of the machine, where A reprefents the ftrap which communicates motion to the machine by means of two pullies, called the live and dead pulley, from the circumftance of one pulley being fitted loofe, fo as to flip round freely upon the axis, whillt the other pulley is fixed faft upon the axis: therefore, when the endlefs {trap is fhifted upon the loofe or dead pulley, it flips round without communicating any motion to the machine ; but when it is-fhifted on the other pulley, the machine immediately commences its motion. E reprefents the fly-wheel on the oppofite end of the axis, and B, B, B, B, are the four cranks which actuate the levers C,C, C,C: f is one of the rollers on which the endlefs cord or plat- form, D, is wound, and it extends from this to a fimilar roller on which a wheel, g, is fixed; then returning again to the roller, f, and after having made in this manner more than twenty turns round the two rollers, the ends are {trained tight and {pliced together, fo that it appears like fig. 4, forming a platform .on which the cotton lies, and is re- gularly carried from f to g by the motion given to the roller f through the cog-wheel e, and the other train of wheel-work which communicates with the main axis, as be- fore deferibed. At the fides of the platform two boards are fixed which form a trough, and prevent the cotton get- ting off fideways. The batting rods ftrike down through openings or notches d,d,d,d, cut in thefe boards. The dotted lines reprefent other notches to admit the batting rods on the oppofite fide of the machine, which, as this figure fhews, are not precifely oppofite, but the rods on one fide {trike in the interval between thofe of the others, The cotton, after paffing along with the moving cords through the machine, is thrown off, and falls upon a table i, fig. 2, whichis covered with an endlefs canvas cloth, and is {trained over two rollers 4, £, which are kept in conftant motion by an endlefs band paffing round the wheels 4 and g. By this motion of the cloth the cotton is conveyed away as falt as the batting machine finifhes it, and is taken off this table by women, who difcharge it into bafkets, in which it is conveyed to the picking room. The opening Machine, or Devil.—This machine comes next to be defcribed, being ufed for fimilar purpofes as the batting-machine, though it is not to be confidered as one of the fame feries, being ufed for the coarfer fort of cotton in the fame {tage as the batting engine is ufed for the finer forts. Plate 111. contains drawings of one of thefe ma- chines, in which fig. 1. 1s a plan, and fig. 2. a feétion. In either of thefe A A reprefents a cylinder, put in rapid motion by an endlefs band paffing round the pulley R. This cylinder has a great number of teeth fixed into its periphery, and the hood or arch, E EEE, contains a {et of fimilar teeth or {pikes fixed withinfide it. This cafing confifts of a number of parallel bars or lags, one of which is fhewn in peripective in fig. 5: thefe are fupported by an iron femicircle BB, fig. 3, allo ereéted on each fide of the frame. Each of thefe circles has a number of pins, P P, projecting from it, and every lag has a notch, or cleft, cut at each end, by which they are hung on thefe pins, forming a very fimple manner of fixing the lags ; but they can be eafily removed when required, to clear the ma- chine from the flue and impurities which it gets out of the cotton. In front of the cylinder a pair of feeling rollers, d, d, are fixed, through which the cotton pafles to the machine: thefe rollers are fluted and placed immediately above each other, as fhewn in Jig. 23 then a heavy weight L, being fufpended from the pivots of the upper roller, caufes them to prefs together with a fufficient force to draw cotton in between them, and the flutes or indentations of the two rollers mutually locking into each other, they take the cotton more certainly. The lower roller is turned round by means of a bevilled wheel 1, fig. 1) fixed on its fpindle, which receives its motion from a fimilar bevilled wheel £, fixed on the extreme end of a {pindle I, fixed perpendicularly to the axis of the main cylinder, and receiving its motion therefrom by a wheel 4, which is turned by an endlefs ferew g, cut upon the extremity of the f{pindle of the great cylinder. The cotton is fpread upon an endlefs revolving cloth, which is ftrained between two rollers, a, 4, and is in conftant motion, in the direétion of the arrow in Jz. 2. This motion is communicated to the roller, a, by means of equal cog-wheels d, d, which are conneéted by an interme- diate toothed wheel, as fhewn in fg.2; MS is a grating, or frame of brafs wire (fhewn feparate in fig. 4.) which is extended beneath the cylinder, and againft this the cotton is urged by the aétion of the teeth of the cylinder, and the dirt, duft, and flue, efcape through it. It fhould be obferved, that the frame for the machine is clofely boarded up on all fides, to keep in the duft and flue which is fepa- rated from the cotton. Fig. 5. fhews the form of one of the lags, and the manner in which the teeth are difpofed in it, fo that the teeth in the feveral rows fall oppofite the fpaces between the teeth of the others: at iis a {mall flip of fheet iron, which ftands up perpendicular to the face of the lag like the fpikes, and is fupported by a kind of wedge, or prop of wood, as feen in the fection of the machine, fig. 2. Thefe flips of iron run acrofs the whole length: the teeth on the cylinder are difpofed in a fimilar manner, and are provided with a fimilar iron plate. Their ufe is to retain the cotton which is worked in the machine from _pafling through too quickly, and efcaping without being fufficiently worked by the teeth. The cotton is {pread evenly upon the cloth 6d, which being in con{tant motion towards the cylinder, carries the cotton along upon it, and delivers it between the two rollers d, d: thele give it regularly to the cylinder, which is rapidly revolving in the direétion of the arrow near A : its teeth take the cotton, and carry it round between the cylinder and the hood, working it between them, to open and unravel every knot or tuft of cotton, part of which gets formed by the ation of the cylinder into a fmall rall at every one of the iron plates i, and this roll, by the motion of the cylinder, keeps revolving flowly round, fo that every part of its circumference is fuc- ceflively fubjeéted to the aétion of the teeth of the cylinder 3K 2 as MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. as they pafs by them. The plates upon the cylinder aé in a fimilar manner, and when the cotton is thrown out finifhed at M, upon the floor immediately beneath the feet cloth, it has been opened in every part, fo as to completely dif- entangle it, and the dult, cotton feeds, or any other ex- traneous matter, drops out through the wire grating, S M, upan the floor. The opening machines ufed in fome of the moft improved mills, are provided with two cylinders revolving againft each other, fo that they refemble two of thefe machines put together, by which means the cotton is more completely worked in paffing through them. The cylinders have then none of the plates fixed upon them, becaufe they are un- neceflary, and the {pikes or teeth are arranged in a {piral line round the circumference of each cylinder, fo that they do not in their motion fall behind each other, and therefore work and open the cotton more effeétually. Another great improvement in this double cylinder machine, is the addi- tion of a flue or trunk, which proceeds horizontally from the opening or mouth M, where the cotton is.delivered, for a confiderable diftance, and in the bottom of this is a re- volving cloth, which receives the cotton as it is thrown out, and conveys it away to the end of the room containing the machine. Here it falis out into a bafket, in which it is con- veyed away to the picking room. The flue or trunk at this point rifes up, and leads into a chamber of confiderable fize, and from this returns by a {mall trunk to the back of the machine. The operation of this trunk is, that the wind raifed by the rapid motion of the eylinders proceeds along this narrow trunk witha confiderable velocity, and blowing along over the furface of the cotton, which is traverfing flowly along with the endlefs cloth in the bottom of the trunk, it carries away the flue or {mall cotton with the flream into the large chamber above-mentioned. Here, in confe- quence of the large area which the air has to pafs through, the current is very flow, and the flue fubfides quietly on the floor of it, from which it may be taken up in confiderable quantities every week, and is a valuable article for making candlewick, or to mix with inferior cottons for that pur- pofe ; whereas, if fuffered to fly about in the rooms, as in the machine delineated, it does great injury to the work people, for this flue is taken into the lungs by the re{pira- tion, caufing afthma, and pulmonary complaints: but in the improved machine, this flue is preferved for ufeful purpofes, The next machine, in the order of the cotton manufacture, is the Carding machine. This is fhewn in Plate 1V., where fic. 1.38 a plan, fg. 2. a fection, fig. 3. an elevation, and “fig. 4; Various parts to explain the action of this machine. It will not be amifs firft to give a fhort idea of the nature of the operation to be performed by the machine. The card may be compared toa brufh made with wires initead of hairs, ftuck through a fheet of leather ; the wires not being perpendicular to the plane, but all inclined one way ina certain angle. See Ji: 4 ‘of this plate, where D, C, are thefe fheets of leather for a pair of cards, and A, A, or B, B, reprefent the teeth or card-wires refpeétively belonging to each. Beneath isa view of one wire, infulated, fhewing the two teeth, with their bend in the fhank, or what is called knee-bend, by which they are inclined to the leather in the manner before mentioned. Now we may conceive that, cotton being ituck upon the teeth of one of thefe cards, another may be applied to it, and combed or {craped in fuch a direction as to ftrike the cotton inwards upon the teeth, rather than tend to draw it out. The con- fequence of a repetition of the ftrokes of the empty card, in this dire€tion upon the full one, is a more equable diftribu- tion of the cotton upon the furface of the card-tecth; and in doing this, the fibres are combed and laid ftraight. ‘Then if one card be drawn in an oppofite direCtion over the others it will, in confequence of the inclination of its wires, take the whole of the cotton out of the card, whofe inclination is the contrary way. In this mode, the operation was for- merly conduéted by fheets of cards nailed upon boards, which were worked together by hand. Too explain how the carding machine imitates this procefs, we mult return to the figures, in which A A is a large cylinder, turned rapidly round by an endlefs ftrap onthe pulley R. The furface of the cylinder is covered with cards, the fheets of leather for which are glued or nailed on in ftripes or fheets parallel with its axis, and difpofed in fuch a direGion, that when it re- volves in the direétion of the arrow, the teeth upon it go with their points forward, fo that if a lock of cotton was held againft them, it would be drawn inwards upon the teeth. The cylinder revolves under an arch C C, lined with the fame kinds of cards as fhewn in fig. 2; the teeth difpofed to meet thofe of the cylinder. ‘Chis arch of cards is f{ypported on. two iron arches, fixed on each fide of the cylinder. Thefe iron arches or bridges have {pikes on them, on which the fe- veral pieces, lags, or flats which compofe the arch are faflened ; exaGly the fame as defcribed in Plate III. of the opening machine. One of the iron arches is fhewn at E E, in fg. 2, butis not drawn off its full breadth, becaufe it would have con- cealed the furface of the cylinder from the fight ; but in fig. 1. they are feen at C C, and in fig. 3. at ff. The card-teeth on the cylinder, and thofe beneath the arch, do not touch each other, but work as clofe together that a half crown can be put in the fpace between them without touching, and they are made very accurately circular, that they may always ac- curately preferve the fame diftance between. B is a fecond cylinder of cards, the teeth meeting the firlt, as the figure fhews. This cylinder revolves much flower than the firft, its motion being taken from a {mall pinion, 4, Jig: 1, on the end of the axis of the great cylinder. This works a wheel, fituated on a ftud or pin s; which has alfo a pinion fixed to it, working a wheel ¢, fitted on another ftud, and this carriesa {mall pulley v, which communicates by anendlefs flrap with a pulley, E, fixed on the end of the fpindle of the fmall cylinder. As the whole of this train of wheel-work confilts of {mall wheels turning large ones, it is plain the motion of the cylinder, B, mutt be very flow. On the oppofite end of its axis is a bevilled wheel W, working another upon the end of an axis 4, which has, at its oppofite extremity, a pinion, turning aface or contrate wheel, which is on the axis of the fluted feedirg rollers between which the cotton paffes, and is delivered to the cylinder. The cotton is, as was before defcribed of the opening machire, {pread out upon a feeding cloth D, which traverfes con{tantly round two rollers £ and //, one of which is turned by a pinion from the feeding rollers by means of an intermediate wheel at £. A {mall heavy roller, or cylindrical weight, is put upon the cloth beneath, as fhewn at f, fig. 2, and, by its weight, always keeps the cloth to its proper tenfion, preferving a flat furface above, for the cotton to be fpread out upon, and then ad- vancing with the cloth, it is thrown in between the fluted feeding rollers, which deliver it gradually and equably to the cylinder, which carries it round, and works it againft the cards fixed withinfide the arch. In this procefs it becomes very equably diftributed over the teeth in the cylinder, and gets carded in fo doing. The cotton continues in this manner hanging fometimes in the teeth of the cylinder, and fome- times in thofe of the arch, but advancing flowly from one tooth to the next, till it has paffed clear throne the arch, and then it comes to the {mall cylinder B, which, as before. mentioned, is revolving flowly, in fuch a direétion that its furface ee ed ‘MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. furface moves the fame way as the cylinder, but much flower, and its teeth meet the teeth of the cylinder. Now, as be- fore ftated, it is the property of two cards meeting each other to diftribute the cotton between them ; therefore, the teeth of the cylinder B, having no cotton upon them, receive a full half of what is upon the teeth of the cylinder A, and as it con{tantly turns round, and bringing up freth empty teeth, which in their turn take away the cotton from the great cylinder in aconftant ftream, and would foon empty it, but that itis fupplied again with raw cotton from the feed- _ing roller. The cotton taken up by the cylinder B, pro- ceeds with it beneath, till it comes to the oppofite fide, and then it is removed by the taker off. 'Thisis a rod or iron bar £ &» fituated parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and cut on the lower edge with fine teeth likea comb. It rifes and falls parallel to itfelf, by being united totworods, K, which are guided by fliding through {mall holes made in two ftandards fhewn in fig. 2, and the lower ends of thefe rods are jointed to two cranks e, e, fig. 3, formed ona {pindle, which is turn- ed by a pulley f, with an endlefs ftrap froma pulley, S, fixed on the main axis, clofe behind the great pulley R. Now by the motion of thefe cranks, the rod ¢ rifes and falls, and at the fame time moves a little to and from the furface of the cylinder B: indeed it defcribes a kind of ellipfis, and being fo contrived by the diretion of the motion of the cranks (caufed by croffing the ftrap which works them), that it is defcending at the time when its edge is neareft to the cy- linder, and fcrapes downwards againit, or rather between the teeth thereof, and in confequence removes the cotton from them the whole length of the cylinder at once: and the nio- tion of the crank is fo quick, that by the time this piece of cotton, fo detached from the teeth of the great cylinder, has moved round with the cylinder, B, as much as its own breadth, the crank makes another ftroke, and, in confequence, the fe- cond piece detached from the teeth adheres to the firft: the third adheres to the fecond, and foon. The cotton is thus JSiripped or fkinned off the cylinder, B, in a continued and con- nected fleece. The difpofal of this fleece conftitutes the only difference between the breaking and finifhing card. In the former it is received upon a plain cylinder, about half the fize of the great cylinder A A, which isturned round with a proper velocity by an endlefs cord from a pulley on the axis of the cylinder B, a fmall roller refting lightly upon the top of this cylinder with its own weight, and by its preffure caufes the fleece to lap regularly upon the cylinder, which continues to turn until it has made 15 or 20 revolu- tions. The fleece, being then broken off, forms a {mall fleece, confifting of 15 or 20 thicknefles, called the lap, which is carried to the finifhing card, and treated exactly as the raw cotton was at firft. The advantage of this method of treating the cotton has been explained, in a preceding part of this article, to confift in the great equality thus preduced in the thicknefs of the lap, which being fed to the tinifhing card will produce an equable and regular fliver therefrom, and on this circumftance the perfeétion of the ultimate thread very intimately depends. The finifbing card is that which is reprefented in Plate IV. The fleece or lap produced by the breaking card is {pread out upon the feeding cloth D, and thus introduced to the machine, which cards it in exaétly the fame manner as we have defcribed, and the taker off operates in the fame way. But the fleece P, fig. 1, initead of going to the lapping cy- linder, as we have deferibed, is gathered up into a tin funnel marked m in fig. 1, and/ in fig. 2: it then pafles between a pair of rollers m n, which comprefs and flatten the fleece in its contracted {tate into a pretty firm and conne&ed fliver or band, and deliver it into a cana. Thele'rollers are fituated upon a fpindle extending acrofs the frame, and turned round by a pulley upon the end of it, which is conne&ed by an endlefs band with the pulley E, upon the {pindle of the cy= linder B. By thefe means the cotton is reduced from bie wool toa fine regular and even fliver, which is conveyed awa in the tin can to the drawing frame, which we fhall ie defcribe. : The carding engines in many mills are provided with fmall evlinders, known among the workmen by the technical term of urchins. Thefe are covered with cards, and revolve, fo that their teeth aét with the teeth of the great cylinder, through proper openings left between the top lags of the arch Thefe fmall cylinders are turned round flowly by proper bands and pullies from the main axis. Thefe urchins are fituated in pairs, one of which Operates to take the cotton off the great cylinder, in the fame manner as deferibed of the cylinder B ; but initead of being provided with a taker off, to ftrip the cotton from its furface, it runs clofe to the other urchin, of fimilar dimenfions to itfelf, but turning with a different velocity, and the teeth meeting, fo as to take it off the firft urchin. This fecond urchin, having thus become charged with cotton, delivers it again to the great cylinder The obje& of this contrivance is to obtain a more perfe@ily equal diftribution of the cotton upon the furface of the cy- linder, at the fame time the urchins tend, by giving the cotton to the cylinder in a new direGion, to work it more, as they prevent the cotton paffing fo quickly through the machine. The employment of urchins does not feem to afford any very great advantages, and it is not a very general fyftem. When an urchin is applied to the lower part of the cylinder, imme- diately beneath the feeding roller, it is called a tummers in this cafe it takes the cotton from the feed rolls, and gives it to the great cylinder as it revolves. The great cylinder of a carding engine, as well as any other part where the flue can efeape, fhould be carefully inclofed by a tia plate, or thin boarding, to prevent its efcape into the room, where it does great injury to the work people, producing an irri tating and inceflant cough, which is exceedingly hurtful, as well as the pernicious effects of fuch extraneous matter being received into the lungs. Carding engines have been ufed with two great cylinders, furrounded by a multitude of {mall urchins, in the fame manner as thofe ufed for wool. (See WooLLen Manufadure.) _'Vhefe, having two cylinders, card the cotton fufficiently at one operation, without ufing a breaking card. The method is not near fo per- fect, becaufe the equality and regularity of the fliver, pro- duced by doubling the lap of the breaker I5 or 20 times, cannot be fo completely attained by any other means, but leaves this equalization to be performed in the drawine frame. The double card, however, anf{wers very well fer coarfe goods, and faves a great deal of attendance in con- veying the lap of the breaking card to the feeding cloth ‘of the finifher, Since the time that the drawing for Plate IV. was made, the cotton manufaéturers have almott univerfally adopted what were at that time only partially employed, viz, cait iron frames for the carding machines, and iron circles for the cylinders, which are covered with lags of the beft feafoned mahogany, or other wood leaft liable to warp. Thefe circumftances, though they do not alter the parts of the machine, are great improvements of it, as the fteadinefs of fuch framing, and the itability of their firure, enables the cylinders to run much clofer together, without the danger of the teeth of the cylinder coming in contaét at times, as they will fometimes do in wooden frames, and thus dettroy the card teeth very foon, as well as produce lefs perfe& work, The fame remark applies to all the otlier cotton machines, and, in point of expence, call iron is far cheaper than wood when MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. when a number of the fame part are to be made, fo that they ean all be caft from the fame pattern: in point of ftability and duration no comparifon can be made ; and when the mill is built fire proof, the fafety from fire is not a trifling ad- vantage, as it faves the manufaCturer the heavy expence of infurance, or, what of courfe is nearly equal, the rifk of lofing his property by fire. ; The drawing frame comes next to be defcribed. Plate V. fig. 1. is an elevation of the machine, and fig. 2. is a Abe of what is called a drawing frame of four heads, which is, in fat, a fyftem compofed of four diftin& machines of exactly the fame conftruétion, but arranged on one frame, in the moft convenient pofition to be ufed fucceflively. Fig. 3. is a front view of one of the heads or feparate machines drawn detached ; and fig. 4. 15 a fection anfwering to it. In fig. 1. A reprefents a clufter, confifting of four of the cans brought from the carding machine: the four flivers from thefe are pafled through the rollers of the machine, and united into one fliver, which is received in the can C, the machine having drawn it out, andextended it to four times the length of the others; it is therefore the fame fize as any one of them. The con{truétion of the rollers is explained by fg. 3, and alfo the figure at the left hand end of fig. 2, in which a 4 re- prefents a live and dead pulley, upon the fpindle of the principal, or front roller, by which it receives its motion from anendlefs {trap. This roller is fhewn, in figs. 2. and 3, to be double, that is, it has two lengths or aéting rollers upon it, each of which receives two diftinét flivers from the cans //, 11, fig. 2. In fig. 4. thefe twolengths of rollersappear like one, being be- hind each other, and exhibiting the circle marked a, the other circle defcribed within this being the neck between the two lengths. This roller has another, marked 3, placed direGtly over it, the pivats of which are retained in a vertical notch in the frame, and immediately above the pivots for the lower roller, as is fhewn in fig.1; fo that the whole weight of the upper roller refts upon the furface of the lower one, the bearings or notches in which its pivots are reteived being only to guide, not {upport it. Another pair of fimilar rollers, cd, are fituated at a {mall diftance from the former, and receive their motion by pinions ¢, d, figs. 2 and 3, which are fixed on the pivots of each refpectively, and are con- need by an intermediate wheel, ¢, fitted loofely on a ftud, in the manner very plainly fhewn in jig. 1, which alfo ex- prefles the grooves or notches in the itandards; in thefe the pivots of the rollersare retained fideways upon one another, but, as before mentioned, the upper one refts upon the lower one. A {mall crofs bar, i, fg. 4, extends from the pivot, or neck, of one of the upper rollers, d, to that of the other one, 4; and from the centre of this bar an iron rod, with a heavy weight, f, at the lower end of it, is fufpended by a hook formed at the upper end; fo that this weight, as well as the weight of the upper rollers themlelves, pre{s the upper rollers, 4, d, upon the lower ones, a,c, and thus the fliver of cotton, g, which pafles between them, is held very firmly down on the flutes in the furface of the lower roller, and cannot flip between them. The wheel c, jigs. 2 and 3, which is fixed-upon the pivot of the firlt roller, 1s much {maller in diameter than the wheel, d, upon the pivot of the back roller, to which it gives motion by the intermediate wheel e; therefore it follows, that the motion of the front rollers, a, b, fig. 4, will be as much quicker than the back roller c d, in proportion as the wheel, d, is larger than the w heel, c, which givesit motion; thatis, the number of revolutions they will re{peétively make in any given {pace of time (as a minute for inftance) will bear that proportion: but the back roller, e, (as fhewn in fig, 4.) is much {maller than the other. The velocity of its circumference will, therefore, be flower than a, in a {till greater proportion than the proportion of the two wheels ; and the proportion is fuch, that the roller, ad, will, or ought to, draw four times the length of cotten through them which the back pair, cd, will permit to pafs in the fame time. The four flivers, therefore, bein introduced from the cans /,/, /,/, fig. 2, between the back rollers c,d, fig. 4, and prefled with fuch force upon the flutes of the lower roller c, that they cannot flip through them, and the other pair of rollers, a4, holding the flivers in the fame manner at another part, the con- fequence of their different velocities is, that as the front rollers, a, J, fig. 4, move fo much quicker, they draw the fliver forwards falter than the back rollers will fuffer it to come; it mutt be drawn out, or extended in length, between the two pair of rollers, in proportion to their relative velo- cities, which, as before-mentioned, is the fame as the pro- portion between the wheels ¢, d, figs. 2 and 3, communicating the motion from one to the other, multiplied by the propor- tion between the diameter of the two rollers, a and c, fig. 4. The four flivers, after pafling through thefe in two ditinet pairs, are all drawn together through a tin funnel f, fig. 2, by means of a pair of rollers, the upper one, i, of which merely prefles upon the fliver lightly by its own weight, and de- livers it into the can &: the loweit of this pair of rollers receives its motion from the pinion, c, on the end of the {pindle of the main, or front rollers, by means of an inter- mediate wheel, g, fitted upon a {Lud or pin in the frame, and turning a pinion, 4, fixed on the extremity of the fpindle of the lower of the two rollers. Thefe pair of rollers do not draw or extend the cotton, their velocities being accurately adapted to take up the four flivers as faft as they come through the others in two diftin& pairs, and by drawing them through the funnel, f, to unite the four into one, and the flight preflure of the roller comprefles them into a firm and conneéted fliver, which, though compounded of four, is only the fame fize as any one of the four put in, becaufe it is drawn out to four times the length, and the effect of the machine has only been to ftraighten and lay the fibres parallel to each other; for the motion the drawing pro- duces among them, always tends to extend each individual fibre to its full length: and it is neceflary to unite feveral flivers together, or the drawing would reduce the fliver to fuch a {mall fize, that it would not bear fofficient extenfion without feparating and breaking acrofs. The plan, fig. 2, fhews the difpofition of four diftinét heads, or fets of rollers, A, B, C, D, all fixed upon one iron frame, E, the upright of which is fhewn in fig. 1. D is the firft head, or that through which the flivers from the carding engine in the cans, m, m, m, m, are firft drawn and united into one, which is delivered into the can 2. In this head fix cans, or ends, are {hewn entering at once, in two fets of three each, and are all united into one, which will, therefore, if the rollers only draw four times, be rather thicker than thofe put in ; but the number of ends put in, as well as the draught of the rollers, is optional: and as the command of the cotton- f{pinner, who alters them for different kinds of cotton, or different kinds of yarn to be {pun as he finds beft, having _ the means of changing, the pinions for others of different fizes. Itis plain that the can, n, will be filled with the fliver in one-fourth or one-fixth of the time that the four or fix cans, mm, will be exhaufted ; and, therefore, it will fur- nifh four cans, or ends, to the fecond head, c, which are placed at 0, and drawn into one at p. Four of thefe, when filled, go to g, and are drawn into one by the head B, and delivered into r, which is taken to s, and by the head A, delivered tinifhed into the can 4, in which it is carried to the roving frame. The feveral heads, as the figure fhews, are reverfed, MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. reverfed, with refpe& to each other, on the frame, to avoid the neceflity of carrying the cans round to the oppolite fide of the frame in paffing from one head to the next. Being thus reverfed, that is, the fliver of one moving ina contrary direGtion to that next it, it requires the ftraps, which turn the feveral live and dead pulkes, and which all come from one common axis, on which as many drums are fixed, to be alternately crofied, and put on in the common manner. The drawing frame in Plate V. has now (1812) been drawn fome years by a gentleman at Manchetter, fince which, the cotton manufa@turers have very generally adopted a method of ufing three, and fometimes four pairs of rollers, “inftead of only two pair in each head: by this means, they draw the cotton at two or three times, and, by extending it only a {mall quantity at each, it is found to draw much more equably than by taking the whole draught at once. The conftruction of one of thefe heads will be readily under- ftood, by examining a figure in the drawing (Plate 1X.) of the {pinning-frame we {hall fhortly deferibe, which drawing the writer of this article made from one of the {pinning-frames in one of the moit complete cotton-mills inthe kingdom, The rollers ufed in this {pinning and the drawing-frame are fo nearly alike, that one may be very well under{tood from a defcription of the other. : The Roving-frame—The preceding machines having pre- pared a fliver, of which the fibres are laid parallel, it is neceflary to reduce this fliver to a convenient fize for {pinning inta a {mall thread: but to make a fufficient ex- tenfion to efleét this reduction, it is neceflary to give the fliver a flight twift as it is drawn, that it may have fufficient cohefion to undergo the {pinning. The preparation of fuch rovings as fhall be perfeétly regular in fize, and have an equal quantity of twilt in every part, and which {hall be exceedingly foft, is a moft effential point in cotton-fpinning. As it is impoffible to correét thefe imper- feétions in the {pinning, they will be given to the thread. A great number of different con{trudtions of roving-frame have been in repute, at different periods, among cotton- fpinners ; but itis only lately that by a machine, called the double-{peeder, it has been brought to perfection. The eld roving-can frame, firft introduced by fir R. Arkwright, is reprefented in Plate VI., which was drawn when that ma- chine was much more extenfively ufed than it is now. . The figure immediately beneath the utle of this plate is a plan of the roving-can frame, and the figure below is a front eleva- tion: in thefe, A is a horizontal beam fupported by ftandards at each end, and carrying the feveral heads of rollers, and is therefore called the roller-beam. The ma- chine contains four heads or frames of rollers, eaclt of which receives four ends or flivers from the cans, D, D. See alfo the fection in the corner, ‘They enter two together between the back roller c, and are drawn out between them and the front rollers, 4, d, to the proper degree of finenefs, but which varies with the quality of the yarn which is to be {pun. The fliver, after pafling through the rollers, is received into a tin can C, through a {mall funnel, N, at the mouth thereof. The can is fupported on a pivot at bottom, and is " kept in rapid motion by a band, working on a pulley fixed at the bottom of the can. The neck of the funnel, N, is guided by a collar, to keep the can fteadily upright, as it revolves. ‘I'he rollers of the machine are the fame as thofe of the drawing-frame: they are turned by endlefs ftraps upon the pullies, f, of the front rollers, coming up from fimilar pullies on an horizontal fpindle extended beneath the machine, through its whole length, and receiving motion by a live and dead pulley, EF, from the mill. The fame fpindle has pullies upon it, which, by means of bands, actuate the pullies on the bottom of the can. 'Thefe bands are of courfe conducted over pullies, to change their direc- tions, from the vertical pullies on the fpindle of EF to the horizontal pullies on the bottom of the cans ; but thefe are not fhewn in the drawings. Each of the bands drives two cans, pafling round the pullies of both. The cans are made with a door, to openon one fide, for taking out the cotton- roving, which falls into them from the rollers ; and this door is kept clofed by a ring, which fits upon the outfide of the can, and keeps the door fhut, when pufhed down to the largeft part of the cone; but when lifted up to the top, as fhewn near N, the door can be opened, and the contained cotton taken out. - L is what is called the clearer: it is a piece of wood placed over the top-rollers, and prefling gently upon them; its ufe is to prevent any part of the cotton /apping, that is, adhering to the roller, and being carried round with it, fo as to wind it up, inftead of drawing it through. The mamer of aétion, in this machine, is eafily - gathered from the defcription: the flivers pafs two together through the rollers, and are reduced or drawn out therein to the proper-degree of finenefs ; then falling into the funnels, N, of the revolving cans, they are, by the rapid motion thereof, twifted round; becaufe the centrifugal force dif- pofes the cotton to lie round the infide of the can ina re- gular coil, formiig as it were a lining of cotton to the whole of the interior furface; and by this means the end of the roving becomes in a meafure attached to the can, and is twilted round by its motion, fo as to form a coarfe loofe thread, with a very flight twilt, and a very foft and open {ubftance. The cans, when they have been in motion fuch a length of time as the attendant knows, by experience, they will be full of cotton, the ring is railed up, and the door opened to take out the roving, which is put into a box, and carried to a fimple machine, called the winding-block : fee the figure at the right hand corner of the plate. In this figure, which is an elevation, the box, containing two piles or coils of the roving, is plainly feen: juit above it is a cy- linder of confiderable fize, mounted upon a proper fpindle, which is turned round by means of a winch: &, 4, are two fmall bobbins, mounted on a wire, and receiving the end of the roving ; they reft with their weight upon the furface of the great cylinder, and are by the motion thereof turned rapidly round, fo as to wind up the roving very quickly on them. The rovings are conduéted through holes in a {trip or ruler of wood, which is moved flowly backwards and forwards, to lay the cotton equally on all parts of the length of the bobbin, and make a cylindric figure to the furface of the cotton wound upon it. It is the neceffity for this winding of the cotton upon bobbins by a feparate pro- cefs, which is the greateft objeGtion to the roving-can frame, becaufe the tender roving is damaged by every operation it undergoes, viz. removing it from the cans, and winding it upon the bobbins, which muft be done preparatory to the {pinning. Another objeétion to the roving-can frame is the uncertainty in the manner of twilting; becaufe, when the cotton applies itfelf to the interior furtace of the can, by the centrifugal force, it occafions a {tretching or draught on the roving, tending to lengthen it out before it is fufficiently twifted to make any refiflance to the flighteft draught. This would occafion no inconvenience, if the degree of draught or extenfion thus occafioned was conttant, and uni- formly the fame ; but this is not the cafe: for it conftantly happens that the roving, by gradually gathering from the circumference toward the centre of the can, in the manner of a fpiral, and when it arrives in the centre it coincides with the axis of the can, and of courfe, as no centrifugal force operates to draw it out in length, it merely twitts it round, MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. round. In confequence of thefe irregularities in the action, which are con{tantly happening, the rovings thus produced are always full of thick and thin places; for when the cotton lies clofe at the infide of the can, it is confiderably ftretched by the centrifugal force, and becomes thianer and longer, and with lefs twilt in any given length; but when it Lappens to fall in the centre of the can, it is of a larger fize, and of a more rapid twilt: but the quantity of thefe irregularities is very uncertain, becaufe, even when the end of the roving, where it refts upon the coil of it, which is fettled in the bot- tom of the can, is in the centre of the can, it is to be pre- fumed that no draught will take place; but this is not cer- tain, becaufe the roving may {wing out into a belly, and by its vibration will occafion fome draught, though not fo great as in the firlt inflance. For thefe reafons, the roving-cans are not found to produce fuch perfect rovings as many other methods, and they are generally laid afide. Sir R. Ark- wright faw thefe defeéts at firft, and in his earlieft machine devifed a pair of rollers to be placed in the mouth of the funnel of the can, which were, by very ingenious me- chanifm, kept in conftant motion, with fuch a velocity as to gather the cotton fliver regularly into the can, as fait as it was delivered by the drawing-rollers. By thefe means the fliver was held between thefe rollers, and, from their revolution with the can, received a determinate quantity of twilt for every given portion of length. The difficulties of this were very great, to caufe the rollers, in the mouth of the can, to take the fliver with the exact velocity required, as faft as the upper rollers delivered it ; and even when this was accomplifhed, the objections we have pointed out would in fome meafure take place within the can; and after all the opera- tion of winding the rovings upon the bobbins, preparatory for the {pinning-frame, by the winding-block, is certain to do them injury, {tretching and extending them improperly. The next improvement in roving was the ufe of /keleton-cans ¢ thefe are light frames of iron, revolving on vertical pivots, in the manner of the cans themfelves, in Plate VI. Within each of thefe fkeletons or frames a common tin can is placed, and revolves with them, receiving the rovings as we have above defcribed. Thefe cans, when full, are removed to a machine called the ftretching-frame, which gives them rather more twilt, and extends them {flill farther in length, at the fame time winding them on bobbins, which are called cops or coppins, being bobbins with only one end, the other end being a point, fo that the cop in figure refembles a fir- ball, or pine-apple. The conftruétion of the ftretching- frame is the fame, except in its proportions, as the mule: we mult, therefore, defer the defcription of this method of roving till we have explained the mule, when we come to fpeak of the {pinning procefs. Many mills, where cotton is {pun on the moft improved and economic fyltem, have adopted a method of roving altogether upon the ftretchinz- frame, producing rovings at once from the flivers of the drawing-frame ; and this method is found to fucceed very well, and be a great improvement upon the method of em- ploying the roving-can frame. We fhall next defcribe a roving machine, called by the workmen in cottonmills, The Double-[peeder. —TVhis is a roving-frame, which is ex- tremely perfeét in its operation, making better work than any other method ; it is an improvement upon fome machines made by fir Richard Arkwright, at a very early period of the cot- ton manufaGture ; but the improvements are fo effential and in- genious, that the maker or makers of them deferve the whole credit. Who is entitled to the invention of thefe improve- ments, we have not been informed; but we have feen ma- chines, made by Samuel Smith of Ramfbottom, near Bury in Lancafhire, which were extremely good. ‘The drawings, en- 5 titled Plate VIL., or roving-frame, P late I. alfo Plate VITI- Cotton Manufadure, which we have given of this machine, have, like thofe preceding it, been made before the improvements were brought to the perfection they have fince attained ; and though the machine has the fame parts, the proportions are fuch, that a machine, made exaétly after them, would not operate fo completely as thofe made by Mr. Smith, to whom we refer cotton manufaéturers, who wifh to adopt fuch ma- chines, rather than attempting to make them from the draw- ingsin our plates. ‘They will ferve, however, to illuftrate the principles and mode of their conftruétion. Plate I. is a hori- zontal plan of the machine; and P/ate VIII. is an elevation, taken in front of the machine. In this figure, A reprefents the live and dead pulley, which communicates motion to the whole : it is fixed on a fhort axis, on the extreme end of which isa pulley, B, which communicates, by an endlefs ftrap, with another pulley, D, on an horizontal axis »: and this has at the end a bevilled wheel, which turns another on a vertical axis 4, at the lower end of whicha conical drum or barrel, H, is fixed; and beneath this it is formed cylindrical, to receive a itrap, which paffes round the pullies, 4, 4, on the lower ends of the feveral fpindles, I, I, 1; and then returning to the drum again, the ends are united, and form an endlefs belt, which runs round the whole, turning them all at once with the fame velocity: /,/, are {mall rollers, fituated at intervals between every two pair of the fpindles; thefe bend the ftrap out of the ftraight line, and thus caufe it to prefs againft the pullies, 4, 4, of the fpindles, and apply to a fufficient portion of their furface, to turn them round. This is very plainly fhewa in Plate I.: each of the fpindles, I, I, I, has at its upper end a forked piece of iron, gg, fixed on, which is called the flyer; and one of the forks is made tubular, to receive the roving as fall as it is twilted by the motion of the flyer, and convey it to the bobbin, which is fitted quite loofely on the fpindle. The cans from the drawing-frame are, as fhewn in Plate I., fet behind the ma- chine; and the flivers are drawn through a double pair of drawing-rollers, turned by means of a train of wheel-work from the main {pindle, bearing the live and dead pulley, A, Plate VIII. The flivers pafs fingly through the rollers, and are drawn out or extended fingly ; they then pafs ferwards, and two are drawn together through another double pair of drawing-rollers, the front pair of which are fhewn at ¢, c, in Plate VIIT.: a,b, are the pair of wheels which turn them from the main [pindle; f, f, the weights; and e, the clearer. Thefe rollers deliver the fliver to the flyers, at the top of the fpindles, I, I, where it firft pafles through a collar, or eye-hole, r, formed on each of the flyers, exaétly in the centre of the fpindle, and thence it paffes through the tube, g, before mentioned, to the bobbin p: the two back pair of rollers extend or draw out the fliver twice; then the two front pair, which are fhewn in Plate VIII., draw it again, and the fpindles twift it once for every inch anda half. The tube of the flyer, running {wiftly round the bobbin, lays the roving upon it as faft as the rollers deliver itout. The bobbins, psp, are conftructed fo as to rife and fall upon the {pindles, I, 1, that they may lay the roving, coming from the end of the tube g, regularly upon the length of the bobbin. This is done ~ by an horizontal bar, or rail of wood, N, which has holes through it, to admit the feveral fpindles I, I, I, and the weight of the bobbin 9, p, refts upon it; fo that when it rifes and falls parallel to itfelf, it takes the bobbins with it, elevat- ing them as at p,in fi7. 2. In this pofition, the bobbin re- ceives the roving, and winds it on the lower part of them; but as the machine continues to wind, the rail with the bobbins gradually fink down; fo that every turn of the roving falls clofe to, but not upon, the former turn, thus difpoling it equall throug ¢ MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. through all the length of the bobbins; and when they have defcended to the loweft point, and the bobbins have been filled up to the top, it rifes gradually up again. ‘This afcending and .defcending motion of the rail and bobbins is thus produced : the vertical axis of the conical drum, H, has a bevilled wheel upon it beneath, (not feen in the figure,) which turns an- other, s, fixed onan horizontal {pindle; at the other end of which is a pinion, f, turning a toothed wheel upon the end of an horizontal axis v, which carries a bevilled wheel aw, turning another, on a vertical axis y, which has an endlefs {crew at the upper end, turning a wheel, R, upon a long horizontal axis, which has two pullies or wheels, M, on it: each of thefe receive a chain, which chains, at the lower end, fupport the rail/N ; and when the chains wind up, they elevate the rail with the bobbins; but when they let down the chains, the rail, N, defcends. The reverfion of the mo- tion which is neceflary to effect this, 1s done by the wheel, aw, having another bevilled wheel, exa¢tly fimilar to it, fixed on the fame {pindle v, and very near to the horizontal wheel worked by it: therefore this wheel, on the {pindle y, being made to work either in one of thefe wheels or the other, will, in confequence, turn round one way or the other, elevating or deprefling the rail N, and the bobbins accordingly : the lower pivot of the vertical axis, y, is fupported in a hori- zontal lever, which is, by the motion of the rail N, when it arrives at the higheft point of its movement, moved to bring the wheel to work in the oppofite bevilled wheel, on the fpindle »; and then it turns M in a contrary direction, bringing the rail, N, down again; and when it arrives at the loweft point, the bevilled wheel is again thrown in gear with the wheel w, and being thus turned in a contrary dire¢tion, it raifes the bobbins up again. The connecting parts by which the beyvilled wheel is fhifted every time it is neceflary to re- verfe the motion, are not fhewn in the drawing, but they may eafily be imagined: x, 2, reprefent the weights which are fufpended from the upper front rollers, the fame as thofe ufed in the drawing frame. What we have hitherto explained of this machine is the original roving-frame, tried by fir Richard Arkwright on finding the defects of the roving-can frame. ‘The objections to this machine in its original {tate were, that the bobbins, when they became filled with roving, required fo much more force to turn them round, in confequence of their fuperior weight, than when they were empty and unloaded; that they ated, to ftretch or draw out the rovings, in the fame manner as the can before mentioned ; for the revolution of the flyer oh round the bobbin g, gives the twift to the roving at the nole or focket, r, of the fpindle; and if the bobbin was ftationary, it is evident the roving would be lapped round it once for every turn of the fpindle: but this would require the roving to be delivered out by the drawing-rollers much fatter than they are intended todo. The con!equence of the bobbin being fixed would be, that the roving mutt be ftretch- ed out toa fufficient length to fupply as much length as the motion of the end of the tube of the flyer, g, requires. Now fappofe, inftead of the bobbin being fixed ftationary, it is only retained by the friction of refting its lower end upon the rail N, the roving will then only be ftretched with as much force as will drag the bobbin round after the flyer, with as much veioeity as the difference betaveen the quantity of motion of the end of the flyer, and of the roving, as de- livered out by the drawing-roller : this differénce will enable the bobbin to take up ali the roving as it is made. Now it is plain, that to drag a heavy bobbin thus about, mutt require more {train on the roving than for a light bobbin, and in confequence, it is always drawn owt {maller towards the time when the bobbin becomes filled, This is particu- Vou, XXII. larly hurtful, becaufe the reving, which will afterwards {pin to the greateft advantage, is fo extremely delicate as not to be able to bear the flighteft. ftrain; and if the machine re- quires it to undergo any ftrain, it muft be twilted harder, and this will render it lefs fit to undergo the {pinning. The manner in which thefe objeCtions are obviated inthe double {peeder, is by introducing machinery which will give motion to the bobbin, and turn it round with fuch a velocity, that it will take up the roving juft as faft as itis produced ; but it is neceflary, in effecting this, that the velocity fhall be al- tered every time the bobbin has a new layer or roving begin- ning to be lapped upon it, becaufe every time this happens the bobbin increafes in its diameter, and muft therefore move in fuch a manner as will caufe its aGting circumference to keep the fame velocity at all times. "fo defcribe this fee jg. t, where for every bobbin, 4, a {mall pulley is fhewn refting upon the rail N, the fpindle paffing through its cen- tre. The bobbin, which refts upon it, has ahole made in the underfide of it, and the wheel having a pin entering this hole, fo that the wheel, being turned round, compels the bobbin to turn withit. An endlefs ftrap, x, pafles round all thefe wheels, having binders 0, or pullies, which bend the itrap, and caufe it to act upon a fufficient part of the circum- ference of the wheels, to take fuch hold as will carry them round. This endlefs ftrap alfo paffes round a cylindrical bar rel L, fixed upon the upper end of the conical barrel K, which is of the fame dimenfions as the barrel H, but in- verted, that is, the large end of the barrel, H, is oppolite the fmall end of the barrel K. This being the cafe, aa endlefs ftrap, m, which is pafled round both, will communi- cate the motion of one to the other, and if the axes of the two cones are parallel, the ftrap will preferve the fame ten- tion, whether it works at one or other end of the two cones, becaufe whatever quantity the ftrap will be loofed by aéting on a {mall part of one cone, it will at the fame time be tightened, or taken up as much, by being upon the larger part of the oppofite cone; but it is plain that this alteration of the acting point of the ftrap will produce a correfpond- ent alteration in the velocity of the motion of the cone K, which is turned round by the ftrap. Thus, the motion of the cone, H, is equable and uniform in velocity, being actuated by wheel-work from the principal fpindle of the machine. Now fuppofe the trap, m, at the top of the cone H, then it acts with a {mall diameter upon the large diameter of the top of the cone K, which therefore moves much flower than H. Now by fhif:ing the ftrap lower down upon'the cones, the aét- ing diameter of Ti is increafed, while K diminifhes till they come to a point, where they will be of equal diameter, and of courfe have equal velocities ; but beneath this point, the diameter of K will be the {malleft, and of courfe its velocity will be greater than H, which actuates it. When the ma- chine is firlt put to work, and the bobbins are all empty, they muit move flowly, becaufe they are required to follow the flyer round, fo that they will only take up as much as the rollers produce ; for if they were {tationary, they would gather up, as before-mentioned, as much as the motion of the end of the flyer, therefore, within certain limits, the flower the bobbin moves, the more it will take up ; and if it moved as quick as the end of the flyer, it would take up none at all. For this reafon, at firft {tarting the machine, when the bobbinsare all empty, the ftrap, m, mutt be at fuch a height up the cones, that the bobbins will have their pro- per. velocities to wind up the rovings as faft as they are re- quired, and the bobbins rife or fall, as is requifite, to lap the roving equably upon them; but having thus covered each bobbin with one layer of roving, and beginning to wind another layer upon it, the acting diameter of the bobbin ‘is 31 increafed, MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. increafed, and it mu‘t therefore turn fo much quicker, ea is, it mult make fo many more turns in any given {pace of time,) as will caufe the increafed acting circumference to wind up no fafter than it did when it was {maller. ‘This feems, at firft hearing, to be a paradox, that it fhould be requifite to turn round quicker to wind up no falter upon the increafed radius ; but it is to be confidered that, by the bobbin being moved quicker, it follows and keeps nearer the end of the flyer tube, and therefore winds up lefs, becaufe the quantity which the bobbin will take up depends on the difference between two motions, that is,'the difference between the flyer and that of the bobbin which follows it. This increafed velocity of the bobbin is occafioned by the flrap, m, being, at the time when the bobbin is filled with roving up to the top, or down to the bottom, depreffed or fhifted down on the cones a {mall quantity, which occafions, as before-deferibed, a {mall in- creafe in the velocity of the motion of the cone K, and of the bobbins. The depreffion of the ftrap is performed by a le- ver, which takes hold of the ftrap with a fork, and when urged, leads it up or down upon the conical barrel. This lever is actuated by a fnail, upen the axis of which is fixeda ratchet-wheel, turned round by proper clicks, levers, and other conneGing mechanifm, one tooth every time the bobbins and rail, N, begin to afcend and defcend, or, in other words, arrive at the extreme limits of their motion. Then the {nail ating on the lever depreffes the ftrapa fufficient quantity, to produce the alteration of velocity required. Thus, as the bobbins increafe in diameter by the addition of fucceflive layers of the roving, they adapt their velocities to that increafe, and taking it up juft as faft as it is produced, and no fafter, fo that the roving, as it paffes from the end of the flyer tube to the bobbin, is never ftretched, and never hecomes flack. The intelligent mechanic will readily per- cieye that this is pra€ticable, but at the fame time he will be fenfible of the accuracy requifite in the adjuftment of fuch a machine to its work, and the difficulty of making this ad- juttment for different fizes of roving. This, perhaps, is the only ie to its general ufe, that it requires a fkilful mechanic to attend and take charge of it, becaufe every different fize of roving, which is made in it, will require a different rate of increafe or decreafe of motion, by means of the ftrap m, for a large thread caufes the diameter of the bobbin to increafe more rapidly than a {mall one, and therefore the quantity of fhift which the ftrap, m, makes every time on the two cones K, H, muft be determined by the fize of the roving, as is alfo the height at which the {trap fhall ftand when the machine is firlt fet to work, and the bobbins are allempty. Thefe adjultments are made in the lever fnail, and other connetting mechanifm, which are omitted in our plates. We have attended for a long time to the action of feveral double fpeeders of this kind, mate by Mr. Smith, and adjufted by him, which performed their work in the moft perfect manner, making a roving fo loofe and foft, that it would part with the flighteft force, but at the fame time as regular and even as patible, and the yarn fpun from it was great fuperior to any which could be produced from the arae material by any other means we have feen. We ven- ture to prognotticate that the general introduGtion of this machine, when a fufficient number of managers are in{tructed how ta make it work properly, will be a great improvement of a moft effential department in cotton fpinning. The rovings, thus prepared on bobbins, are carried to be {pun, either, as before explained, in the water-frame, or mule. We hall deferibe the former firft : it is conftru&ted in two very different forms ; and though in both the operating parts are the fame, the machinery which a¢tuates them are very different. Onc is called the water frame, being the criginal {pinning frame, as firft conftruded by fir Richard Arkwright, whil(t the other is a more modern conttruétion, and is known by the name of the throttle frame. Their comparative advantages we fhal! {peak of after having deferibed them both by the aid of drawings made from the moft improved machines of both kinds. See Plate IX. which contains a drawing of A Water /pinning frame, taken by the writer of this article from Mefirs, Strutts’ mill, Belper, Derby hire, whofe works are the moft complete for the water-{pinning trade of any in the country. Fig. 1. is an elevation in front of the whole frame ; fg. 2. an elevation endways, and fs. 3. 18 a plan : the remaining figures are the parts on an enlarged feale. In all the three firit figures, the fame parts are defignated by the fame letters of reference: A isa bevilled wheel, fixed upon the horizontal axis, which extends through the whole length of the mill. ‘This turns a {maller bevilled wheel upon a ver~ tical axis B, which has a drum, C, at the lower end, and by a ftrap, a, a€tuates the whole machine. Another ftrap, 4, the other way, and works another frame on the oppofite fide, the drum, C, being common to both. The fpindle, B, paffes through the drum, C, with a circular fitting, fo that it flips freely round within it, without giving motion to the drum, except when it is caft into gear. ‘This is done by two lockin bolts, fhewn by dotted lines paffing through the drum, an both fixed into a collar or focket-piece d, fitted to flide up and down the fpindie. It has a groove formed round it, in which a fork, at the end of a lever e, is received, fo that the fork embraces the piece, d, in the groove, and when lifted up, raifes the two locking bolts withit. This lever is raifed by the power of a fecond lever D E, the extremity, E, of which, being depreffed, raifes up the lever e, and unlocks the drum from the fpindle B, by withdrawing the loeking bolts from their contaét with an arm, f, of a wheel, g, which is fixed faft on the fpindle beneath the drum, and therefore turns with it ; but the locking bolts being let down,. that their ends may projeét throuyh the drum, and intercept the crofsarm, f, of the wheel, the drum and all the machi- nery are put in motion. The endlefs {trap, a a, paffes, as fhewn in the figure, the whole length of the frame, makes a turn round the pulley m, and comes back again. Other pullies, 4, 2, 3, of the fame dimenfions as 4, are fituated, at mtervals, in a dire& line between the drum c, and the pulley, m, to bear the ftrap, and in the intermediate {paces between thefe pullies, the vertical fpindles marked rare placed in pairs, exaétly oppofite each other. On the lowerend of thefe, {mall wheels, x, called. binders, are fixed, and the ftrap, aa, prefling againit them, as fhewn by the figure, turns them round, the obje& of the pullies: I, 2, and 3 being to bend the itrap out of the ftraight line fufficiently, to make it apply to the furfaces of the feveral binders and turn them round. The lait pulley, m, is fitted in a frame, and can, by a ferew 4, be moved to {train the ftrap tight. Above each binder, and on the fame {pindle, a wheel, 4, is fixed: it receives two belts i, 4, (fig. 3.) which turn. four of the fpindles /, /, /,/, each belt giving motion to two {pindles. ‘Fhe binders x, (fee fiz. 5.) are fitted to flip round: on their fpindles 2, but can, at any time, be united thereto, to. give them motion by a locking bayonet 9, which is cait in or out of action, at pleafure, by a {mall lever ro, in exactly the fame manner as the locking of the principal: drum: therefore, by the lever 10, any four fpindles can be de- tached from the machine at pleafure. ‘he fpindles, m, of the binders have each at the upper end a pinion, which turns a face or contrate wheel p, fixed upon the fpindle of the front rollers which give out the cotton to the fpindles. Thefe rollers are arranged in diftinét heads or frames, con~ taining four lengths in each, which fupply four pat 8 MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. ‘The conftru€tion of one of the heads is fhewn in figs. 4, 55 and 6; fig. 4. being a fe&tion of the rollers and {pindle ; ge 5. a front view of the rollers; and fig. 6. an.end view. In thefe, p ftill denotes the face wheel, and 4 the lower front roller. Upon this, whichis fluted in the acting parts, the upper rollers 5, made in two feparate lengths, reft, and are prefled down upon the lower one by two heavy weights, 6,6, which are fufpended, by means of hooks, 7, from the necks or fmall parts of the upper rollers, and thus keep them firmly down upon the flutes of the front roller 4. On the oppofite end of the front roller to the wheel p, a pinion, r, of eleven teeth is fixed: this turns a wheel, s, of 28 teeth, which is mounted on a flud or pin, and has a pinion, ¢, of 16 teeth fixed to it, which works a wheel, zw, of 32 teeth, fixed on the end of the middle roller, fhewn in the fection, (fig. 4.) at 12, whofe motion will be to the front roller nearly as five to one. On the other end of the roller is a pinion of 10, which turns another of 15, on the back roller, 13, by means of an intermediate wheel, fo that this turns only once for one and a half turns of the middle roller; confequently, the roving 14, (fig. 4.) which is intro- duced between the back rollers, from the bobbins or cops fet up in a frame F, (figs. 1 and 2.) above the machine, is, in paffing between the back and middle rollers 12 and 13, drawn out one and a half times; then between the middle and back rollers 12 and 14, it is extended five times more, making a draught or extenfion of 74 times in the whole ; and as faft as the rovings come through the front rollers, they are twifted into a thread by the rapid circular motion of the fpindles. But thefe we have to explain; they are ftraight {teel arbors, ¢/, /, (fig. 4.) on the lower end of which the whirls or pullies, which receives the band, 7, for them, are fixed: thefe {pindles are mounted in a frame common to them all, which confilts of two rails 14, 143 the lower one fupporting the points or toes of the {pindles, and the other having bearings for the cylindrical parts of each fpin- dle, and a {trip of wood is {crewed againft this to keep them up to their bearings. Above this bearing the fpindle is only a ftraight cylindrical wire, and on the upper end of it the flyer, 15, is faftened, either by ferewing it on, or it is ftuck faft on by friction, which is fuflicient to carry it about. The two arms or branches of the flyer are fufficiently diftant for them to revolve round clear about the bob- bin 16, which is fitted loofely upon the cylindrical {pindle, and with liberty to flide freely up and down upon it. The weight of the bobbin is fupported by refting an a piece of wood 17, attached by fcrewing to a rail M, which has a flow rifing and falling motion, equal in extent to the length of the bobbia -between its fhoulders, by which means the thread, as it comes through the eye formed at the ends of either of the branches 15, of the flyer, and is wound by the motion thereof upon the bobbin, becomes equally diftri- buted throughout, its length giving it a cylindrical figure, inftead of heaping all the thread at one part, like a barrel, as would happen if the bobbin did not rife and fall. This motion of the bobbin is produced by a bent lever, 16, (figs. 1. and 2.) fufpending the rail M, with all the bob- bins upon it, from the arm 16; the lower end of the other arm, 17, bears again{t, and is moved by a heart or eccentric wheel 18, nearly of the figure of a heart, which is fixed on aa horizontal axis extending the whole length of the ma- chine, and at the other end it bears a fimilar heart 18, (ig. 1.) fixed on it, which operating upon another lever 16, fufpend- ing the other end of the rail M, thus cauling it, when the hearts are turned round, to rife and fall equally at each end, or parallel, and move all the bobbins re(ting upon it tegether, ‘The motion is given to the fpindle of the heart 18, by a {mall contrate wheel om the end of it, which is, tarned by a pinion on the lower end of the vertical {pin- dle 19, receiving its motion by a pair of bevilled wheels from an horizontal f{pindle 20, in the middle of which 1s a cog-wheel 21, turned bya fpiral piece of iron 22, whiclr is fixed on the main fpindle B, jult beneath the great be- villed wheel. It operates in the fame manner as an endlefs {crew, turning the wheel, 21, round one tooth for every revolution of the main {pindle, and this flow motion is communicated by the fpindle 19, and wheel-work juft de- {cribed, to the hearts, which revolve with fuch a velocity, as will caufe the bobbins to afcend and defcend fo fait, that they lie every turn of the thread clofe by the fide of that preceding it, but not upon it, fo that the figure of the bobbin, when filled with thread, will be nearly cy- lindrical. The bobbins of the roving frame are put upon a wire, or temporary fpindle, and in this ftate are fet up in the frame, I’, in two rows, one above another, fo that they will all turn, freely round when the rovings are drawn off from them. Thefe rovings are conduéted over wires, as fhewn in fig. 2, to lead them in the right direétion, and are brought, two toge- ther, through wire ftaples fixed in the board G (jf, 4.), then through notches made in the edge of a piece of iron plate fixed on the edge of the board, and projecting up above the furface of it, and after pafling through thefe notches the rovings enter the back roller 13, in fg. 4... The board, G, has a fhort traverfing motion backwards and forwards, by which means it caufes the reving to travel backwards and forwards between the rollers, or it would foon, if conftantly conducted through the fame part of the rollers, wear out the flutes at that part, making a fmooth ring round it: but by this traverfing motion the wear is equally diftributed over the whole length of the fluted rollers, aud does not act partially at any one part. The motion is caufed, as fhewn in fg. 4, where 18 is the fpindle of the hearts 18 (fg. 2.), fituated immediately beneath the board G: it has a 6og-wheel of 18 teeth fixed upon it, turning another, H, of 36 teeth, on the axis of which a fmall crank, K, is formed, and by means of a conneCting rod draws the board, G, backwards and forwards every time it makes a revolution, by means of the cog-wheels, which will be once for every two turns of the hearts. The rovings, two together, as before ftated, enter between the back rollers, and then pafs forwards to the middle pair, receiving in the pafflage a draught or extenfion of one and a half; then advancing through the middle rollers to the front, they are, by the motion thereof, drawn out five times, and in this itate delivered to the fpindle L, which twilts the fibres round each other the in{tant their ends come out, before the rollers leave the other ends, or they would fall to pieces, being drawn out fo fine, that the cohefion of the fibres is infufficient to bear any thing, and the twine given to the roving is entirely loft, for it was at firtt only one turn in 14 inch in length; and this 13 inch, being by the draught of the roller drawn out to more than 13 inches, the twilt of one turn in this length is imper- ceptible, and adds no {trength whatever to the roving, fo that it is neceflary the fpindle fhould, by the conne¢tion of the thread 41, pafling down from the rollers to its flyer, give a twift to the fibres the inftant they come through the roller, fo that by twilting one end of each fibre round the other, whilft the oppofite ends are held fait between the rollers, they will become a thread fufficiently cohelive to advance towards the fpindle, and receive its full quantum of rwiit to become a hard and {trong thread: it pafles through a wire eye or ftaple fixed in a board at 34, which changes its 3L2 direction MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. direftion into a line with the fpindle, to which it is conneéted by paffing through the eye formed at the end of either of the branches of the flyer, which revolves with the greateft rapidity along with the fpindle, and thus give twift to the thread. The bobbin does not partake of the motion of the fpindle, but is retained by the friGtion of its lower end refting on the piece of wood 17, and this is increafed by a wafher of leather put under it: then, as before explained of the bobbin of the roving frame, the thread, by the motion of the flyer, drags the bobbin about after it with a ve- locity equal to the difference between the motion of the end of the flyer, and the motion of the thread as delivered out by the front rollers. "When the frame has been fo long at work, that the bobbins become filled with thread, the child in attendance, by the handle of the lever 10 (fig. 5-), difen- gages the binder «x, of the four fpindles from its axis n, and then they, as well as the head of the rollers belonging to them, {top, and the child breaks the thread; then pulling off er unfcrewing the flyer, he lifts off the bobbin, puts on an empty one, on which the end of the thread is previoufly lapped to make a beginning: the flyer is next fixed on, the thread pafled through the eye at the end of the flyer, and it is ready to work again; the eye of the flyer is made open at one part, being curled in the manner of a cork-ferew jutt at the end fo that the thread can be hooked in and out of it by the child, but is in no danger of getting out by the motion of the flyer in its work. When a thread accidentally breaks, it is not always neceffary to {top the {pindle to unite it, but the attendant takes hold of the broken ead which belongs to the bobbin, and draws off a confiderable length, a yard for inftance, from the bobbin, and breaking it, throws this away, becaufe it has every chance of being unfound: then taking the end in the finger and thumb, and applying it againft the end of the roving which is coming through between the rollers, leaving them overlapping a {mall quan- tity, and letting them go from the finger and thumb, the ends are inftantly twined together, and united into one found thread. But this requires fome dexterity, for if the end of the thread is held fo long between the fingers in apply- ing them together, that the roving coming through the rollers advances the length of the fibres of the cotton be- fore it is let go, and fuffers the fpindle to twift it, the fibres will part and the thread breaks afunder, or is never formed at that part; it is therefore neceffary to catch the roving as clofe as poflible to the rollers, and apply the end of the thread quickly to it, then letting them go inftantly, the fibres are twifted in with each other, and the union takes place fo perfectly, that it cannot be afterwards difcovered where the joint was made. The lower rollers'are made of eaft iron, turned extremely true, and fluted by an engines the upper rollers are alfo caft iron, but are covered with leather in the aéting parts, fo that this foft fubftance holds the cotton more firmly upon the flutes of the lower one than any other method would, as the roving is not liable to lap round the rollers like the fliver of the drawing frame. No clearer is ufed; but inftead thereof, a {mall wooden roller covered with leather is placed over, between the front and middle roller, but it merely lays upon them, having no pivots or fupport ; its furface is rubbed over with chalk or whiting, and this it communicates to the leather of the upper roller, and is found to improve their aétion, probably by not fuffering the cotton to flip beneath the rollers ; fig. 4. fhews, that the middle and back rollers have their weights to keep down the upper rollers upon them in the fame man- ner as the front rollers ; but the weights are very different, the front weight, 6, being 2olbs., whilft the middle weights are but a few ounces, and the back rolls have a weight of 12 albs. The reafon for the front roller requiring fo great @ weight is, that it is neceflary for them to prefs and hold every one of the fibres of the roving while pafling through them extremely tight ; becaufe if it only held a ee in the middle of the roving, the others towards the edges of the roving might, by the twilting, be drawn out before their ends were fairly twifted into the thread, and this would render the thread fuzzy in its whole length: the inftant the foremoit end of a fibre comes through between the rollers, it fhould, by the twine of the {pindie, be twifled over the middle of fome other fibres which are coming through, and over the ends of others which have altogether efcaped the roller, and the fmoothnefs of the furface of the thread altogether depends upon this being done inftantaneoufly on the foremott end prefenting itfelf through the rollers; for the effe& of all the preceding operations has» been to difperfe the ends of the fibres equally, fo that they effe@ually break joints with each other, and then bein equally twifted, it forms a thread of equal {trength in all parts. The numbers of the wheel-work for the rollers of the roving frame, are varied with every different number of cottons which is to be fpun; the draught being altered, when requifite, to produce fuch an extenfion of the fliyer in pafling through the rollers, as will make the roving, when finifhed, 4.3 times the weight (length for length) of the yarn it is to be fpun into, This is a pretty general rule in cotton-mills, and the roving is occafionally meafured and weighed, to afcertain if the machines are drawing the pio- per quantity, and if not, the pinions are changed for others which will produce the proper degree of extenfion. It is in this ftage that the fize of the yarn is determined, and the {pinning frames have, in general, the fame draught ; but the velocity of the fpindles with refpect to the roller, fo that they will give a greater or lefs degree of twine to any given length, is varied in {pinning different kinds of twilt, whether hard or foft twiit. The alteration is made by employing larger or {maller pullies, or whirls, on the fpin- dles which caufe them to revolve with a flower or quicker motion. Neither do the rollers of the f{pinning-frame give out the fame quantity of roving in a given time when {pin- ning coarfe or fine goods, or when {pinning very high num- bers, as No. 60: the front rollers are adapted by the wheel-work to revolve at the rate of 35 times fer minute 5 but for coarfer goods, fome of them will turn 60 times minute: this is becaufe a fine thread requires more twit in a’certain length than coarfe. The frame from which the drawing was taken contained ten heads, or forty fpindles, on each fide, the frame = 80, and the fame on the oppofite fide of the drum, to be driven by the ftrap 4, making 160 fpindles, actuated by one cog- wheel A. The conftruétion of the locking bayonet d, for connet- ing the drum with the main fpindle, we have explained ; but one circumitance was then unnoticed, wiz. that the bar f Jig. 1, is not permanently fixed to the wheel g, but that the’ wheel has a groove turned in the edge of it like a pulley ; and an iron hoop or clip, made in two halves, fcrewed toge- ther, is fitted round the wheel in this groove, and to this clip the crofs-bar, f, is united, by the ends of it turning down, and being received between the ends of the clip, the fame fcrew-bolts holding all together. The confequence. of this conftruétion is, that the machine is not fuddenly jerked into motion when the bayonet is let down, and in-. tercepts the arm f, which is revolving rapidly with the: {pindle and wheel g: inftead of jerking the frame, the bar,, f; fora moment becomes ftationary againit the point of the bayonet, MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. bayonet, the wheel, g, flipping round within the clip, but the great fri€tion of this foon fets the machine quietly in motion ; and when it arrives at its full f{peed, the fric- tion of the clip is fufficient to keep it in motion, with- out flipping any more, unlefs an accident happens, and then it is very ufeful, as it prevents the machine being broken. The throftle /pinning-frame 1s delineated in Plate X. of which fig. 1. is a feétion taken acrofs the length of the frame ; fig. 2. is an end view, and fig. 3. is an elevation of the machine in front. After the minute defcription we have given of the conftruétion and operation of the roving-frame and water-frame, it will -not be neceffary to be very diffufe in our account of this machine, which has the fame parts as thofe machines, but only differs in dimenfions and pro- portion. The fame letters of reference are employed in all the figures, and AA reprefents the live and dead pulley a€tuating the whole, fixed on the end of the fpindle of a long tin cy!inder B, which is called the throftle, and turns all the fpindles and other machinery at once. On the main fpindle of the throftle a pinion, a, is fixed : this turns a wheel c, which has a pinion, J, fixed on it, turning the wheels D and E (fig. 2.) by the intermediate wheels, d, on one fide, and e and f onthe other. The wheels, D and E, are fixed on the ends of the fpindles of the front rollers X, as is plainly fhewn in fig. 3. Thefe rollers are made in lengths, which ferve fix {pindles, and the lengths are united by con- necting boxes, as fhewn at F, to other lengths, fo that one train of wheel-work, a C 4 de f E and D, will turn the front rollers for 112 {pindles, or 66 on each fide of the frame, and then the rollers are made in 11 lengths. Some frames are longer, others fhorter than this. Our drawing only contains 12 fpindles, and two of thefe at eachend are removed, to fhew the works infide of the frame: at g a pinion is fixed on the f{pindle of the front roller, and turns a wheel on the end of the middle roller, by an intermediate wheel and pinion on a ftud ; and at the oppofite end of the middle roller is a wheel 4, turning the back roller with its proper velocity by means of an intermediate wheel, fo that the motion of the rollers in this frame is exatly the fame as in the water-frame. The fpindles, /,/, are all driven by bands from the throftle cylinder B, tie manner in which they crofs being fhewn at £, fig. 1. he bands are very loofe, and, as the figure fhews, are inclined, fo that their weight tends to draw them tight, and turn the fpindles, /, 7, about with the proper velocity ; but {till the child attending the machine can, by prefling his knee againit the whirl, as the pulley is cailed, ftop the motion of any one fpindle for a moment whilft a broken thread is repaired, the band flip- ping round it all the time. The fpindles, being exaétly the fame as the water-frame, need little explanation, more than to enumerate their parts, which are, the bobbin m, the flyer n, ftuck by friétion, or elfe {crewed on the top of the fpindle, and its branches ending in a curled hook, through which the thread is pafled to the bobbin. This is fitted quite loofe on the f{pindle, and refts its weight on a piece of wood 0, fixed to the underfide of a rail N, which rifes and falls, to lay the thread regularly in a coil upon the bobbin, as faft as it is taken up thereby. The rife and fall are thus produced: the two rails, N,N, on oppofite fides of the frame, are fufpended by iron rods, p, p, from horizontal levers G, which are mounted on an axis, extending the whole length of the frame, and having as many of the levers, G, uponit, as, are neceffary to fufpend the rail, N, without bending. H is an iron rod jointed to the lever G, and coming down to a fhort lever 1, which, at the oppolite end to its connection with H, refts on the furface of the heart R, fixed on a: fpindle, which is turned by the fol- lowing train of wheel-work. . The fpindle of the wheel and pinion, C 4, paffles throuh the frame, and by a pair of bevilled’ wheels, L (fg. 3.), turns a vertical axis M, on the lower end of which is an end efs fcrew, giving a flow rotation to the {pind'e of the hearts by a tooth-wheel, m, thereon, which is turned round one tooth by every revo- lution of the endlefs ferew. A heavy weight, P (fig-t-), is fufpended from the lever, G, to counterbalance, and caufe the end of the lever, I, always to prefs upon the furface of the heart R, which, as it turns round, elevates and deprefies the bobbins on the oppofite fides of the frame alternately. The joints of the levers, G and I, with the rods, H and pp, are made, as the figure fhews, adjuliable ; that is, the centre pins are fixed to the levers by fitting in grooves, and are held in by nuts, fo that they can be fixed at different diltances from the centre, to accommodate the acting radius of the levers, fo that the motion given by the- heart, R, may be made to correfpond with the length of the bobbin between the fhoulders. The bobbins for the roving are fet up ina frame at SS T, between the two fets of rollers, X,X, and the roving is. conducted immediately between the back rollers : but, as it goes through the fame procefs as before defcribed in the water-frame, it is needlefs to repeat it. The traverfe mo- tion, to prevent the cotton wearing away the rollers in any one part, 1s fometimes omitted; but we have feen throftle. frames in which the whole of the frame ST, confilting of one board, S, below, and another, T’, above, conne¢ted by proper pillars, together with all the bobbins of rovings, had a {mall traverfe motion, which is found to be a great advantage in the wear of the rollers, Refpecting the comparative advantages of the throftle~ frame and the water-frame, cotton-{pinners are divided in: their opinions: the fimplicity, and confequently low price in the firft erection of the throftle, is its recommendation, and it is generally {lated to be driven with far lefs powery. becaufe it has fewer parts. To fet againft thefe advantages, it is faid, that when the bobbins are filled, and require te be changed, the whole frame of 112 {pindles muft be itopped at once, by fhifting the ftrap to the dead. pulley A ;. whereas in the water-frame, any four {pindles can be {topped together, by cafting off their binder ;. and it is only necef- fary to itop the whole frame by the cafting off the great drum, when the frame is to be repaired, or is out of ufe for a day, or longer period. We have now explained the manner of {pinning cotton into a thread by the water-frame, and fhall proceed to deferibe the con{truétion of the other method. of {pinning, viz. The Mule.—This machine was introduced by a. Mr. Crumpton, who lately received a reward of 5000/. from parliament for the invention, which, as before mentioned, confifted only in the combination of Hargreave’s fpin- ning jeony with fir Richard Arkwright’s drawing rollers. Plate XI. covtains drawings of one of the belt conitructions of this machine, in which Jig. 2. is an end view of the whole machine, and fig. 1. an end view of the carriage alone. Fig. 3. 16 a front view, and fig. 4. is a view of the Operative parts detached: fig. 5 a fimilar view in another ftage of its operation. As this machine is extremely com- plicated in, its movements, it will firft be proper to explain thefe movements before entering upon the machinery which caufes them. This is fhewn in figs. 4.and 5, where W repree fents a bobbin of the roving frame fet up in a proper frames. and the roving is conducted from it, through three pairs of rollers, A,B, and C, which have the fame draught as the rollers MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. rollers for the fpinning-frame, and are moved by fimilar wheel-work; but the upper rollers, a, 4,c, are weighed down in a different manner: thus, d is a piece of metal refiing on the neck of the front roller, a, at one end, and the other end upon the middle of a fecond piece ¢, which bears upon the necks of the other two pairs of rollers, 6 and; then an iron rod f, coming down from the piece d, loads all the three upper rollers a, b,c, at once, by means of a lever g, which is hooked beneath a fixed rail of the framing fupporting the rollers at one end, and the other is made with a heavy knob, fo that the purchafe, or leverage of this piece g, draws down the wire, f, with fufficient force to load ail three rollers with their relative forces : thus it is plain the roller, a, muit bear the principal weight of the lever g, becaufe the wire, f, is nearer to the roller a; but as it a¢ts upon the piece, c, with a confiderable length of leverage it bears lightly upon it, and this again bears upon two, and therefore {till lefs upon either, the weight of the end of d being divided upon two rollers 4, c ; but it bears moft powerfully upon ¢, the point or end of d being neareft to that roller, fo that the operation of all thefe pieces is to load the three rollers nearly im the fame proportion as the rollers of the {pinning frame: but this proportion can readily be altered by thifting the acting lengths of the levers. The roving, after paffing through the rollers, is taken up by the fpindle D G: this is placed rather inclined, but without any bobbin or flyer, like the fpindle of the water frame ; it is merely a plain conical arbor, fupported at its point, or toe, ina ftep made on the rail, E, of the frame, and in a bearing at F, againft another rail. It has nothing to keep it up againft this bearing, the draught of the band, which pafles round the pulley 4, and gives motion to the ipindle, being fufficient for this. The end of the thread is merely lapped round the upper end of the fpindle, and its accu- mulation upon itfelf foon forms a mafs G, which is called a cop, orcoppin. Now it is evident that, from the inclined pofition of the fpindle, it will, when turned round, give twilt to that part of the thread which is between the end of the fpindle and the roller A, although the fpindle and the dire€tion of the thread do not coincide, becaufe, when the fpindle is turned, the thread will flip over the top end of it and receive a twift, without winding up upon the cop; but when it is required to wind up, the thread, or wire H, is prefled down upon the thread. This removes it from the end of the fpindle to the middle of the cop, as fhewn in fiz. 5, and then the motion winds up the thread upon the cop inftead.of twifting it. The wire, H, is ex- tended at the end of a lever HI, moveable on a centre J, in the manuer fhewn in fig. 5, but when left at liberty, the weight of the oppofite end of the lever reftores it to the pofition fig. 4, and then the fpindle twills the thread inltead of winding it up. The operation of the machine is this: the rails E and F, fupporting the fpindle, are part of a carriage or frame carrying above 100 fuch fpindles, and moving -on wheels which ‘traverfe on railways to and from the rollers in a di- reé&t line, for the extent of a yard andahalf. Now fuppofe it wheeled home, that the ends of the f{pindle are clofe to the front roller A, then fuppofe the rollers fet in motion, they take in the roving from the bobbin W, and draw it out or extend it eight or more times, giving it out between the front roller A, to the fpindle G, which, with its carriage, recedes, by the movement of the machine, from the rollers, taking up the thread as fat as it comes out between them; and, at the fame time the machinery draws the fpindle back, it turns it round rapidly, giving twilt to the 14 thread as’ falt as the rollers deliver it out, and thus producing. fuch a compreffion of the fibres by twifting them round eac other, as will form a thread of fufficient ftrength to bear. Jretching. ‘This means, that when a yard of thread has been given out by the rollers their motion ceafes, fo that they deliver no more, but the {pindle continues to recede from the rollers to the further diftance of a yard and half, iwitting | the thread all the time it ftretches it out in length, till it forms a fair and ftrong thread. The twifting motion of the fpindle then ftops, as does alfo the drawing-out movement. of the fpindle, with its carriage. Thus one yard and a half. of thread is made and finifhed. The attendant to the ma- chine now thruits the f{pindle, with its carriage, home to the rollers, holding the wire H, done in the manner fhewn in fig- 5, and at the fame time turning round the {pindle at fuch a rate, that it will wind up the thread upon the cop- pin, and the wire H, which is held down by the hand, is fo humoured, as to make the thread wind up with regularity. The rotatory motion given to the fpindle is, in this inftance, done by the other hand of the attendant, and is fo accom- modated, as to wind up the thread jutt as faft as the advance of the fpindle towards the rollers requires, and no more; but when it arrives clofe to them, the wire, H, is raifed up, and the machinery is put in motion again, the rollers be- gin to draw out, and the fpindles to recede, turning all the time. The mechanifm by which all this is effe€ted is defcribed by figs. 1,2, and 3; firlt, fee fig. 2, where K is alive and dead pulley for the endlefs itrap attuating the whole bythe power of the mill. The pulley is mounted on afhort f{pindle, having a winch or handle, L, at one end, and on the other a large pulley M, which has a number of dif ferent-fized grooves formed round it, to receive an endlefs rope i; {ce alfo fig. 2: this rope, after making a half turn round M, paffes undera wheel é, fixed on a pin or ftud pro- jecting from the frame. From this wheel the rope, #, proceeds to another wheel, /, at the oppofite end of the frame, and returning from this goes over a wheel fituated clofe behind £ on the fame centre pin. The ends of the rope are then joined, and it forms an endlefs band, which, when the ftrap is calt on the live pulley £, and the wheel, M, turned by it, the rope, i, conltantly runs in a {traight line from the wheel & to /; but in this paflage the rope makes a quarter turn round a wheel m, upon a vertical axis, which is mounted on the frame or carriage E F, for the fpindles D, G, fhewn fepa- rately in fg. 1. The rope, i, not only pafles round the wheel an this {pindle, but goes forwards into the carriage, and paffes round a groove upon the upper end of a vertical drum, (not feen in the figures,) which has feveral bands upon it, each driving two fpindles, D, by pafling round the pul- lies, 4, of two of them, as fhewn in fz. 3, in which it is alfo feen that the bands are all at different heights, that they may not interfere with each other upon the drum, but each take its proper place upon the length thereof. The carriage runs upon four wheels 1, 2, (jig. 2.) two of which are placed at each end, and run upon an iron railway, fo that the carriage containing all the fpindles and drums runs backwards and forwards, to and from the rollers, for the length of a yard and half. But during this motion, the power of the mill is all the time conveyed to turn the {pindles by means of the endlefs cord i, which, as before- mentioned, making a {ftraight line from the wheel # to 4 will not be affe&ted by the motion of the carriage, but will always circulate round the feveral wheels, and give motion to the drum which turns the fpindles: 4, (jigs. 1 and a2).i8 an iron bracket, fupporting the axis 1 I’ of the lever, H, fi» 4 which fupports the wire H, and as many of thefe levers are fixed on the axis I, as fhewn in fig. 3, a8 are fuffi- * elent MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. cient £0 make the wire H, ftif enough to prefs down all the threads together, in the manner of fig. 5. The remaining parts of the carriage, being only its frame, are evident from fg. 1, and need no farther notice, except a double pulley; that is, a pulley 5, with two grooves upon it, fitted ona ftud or pin in the underfide of the frame, be- tween the two wheels 1 and 2. The ufe of ‘this pulley, with its ropes, as we fhall defcribe, is to make the whole car- riage move parallel, or both ends equally, which, in a car- riage of twenty feet long, requires fome nicety. As the two wheels rand 2 cannot be placed very diftant, and therefore give little fteadinefs to a carriage of fuch a great length, the parallelifm is thus preferved: a rope, 6, is made falt at one end to a fixed part of the framing, then pafles a quarter round the upper groove of the pulley 5, and runs along the whole length of the carriage, and turns a quar- ter round a fimilar pulley 7, fig. 3, and then goes forward parallel to its firft direGion, from 6 to 5, and is made fait to the frame in a fimilar pofition to 8, fig. 2, but at the farther end of the frame. In the fame manner, another rope is faftened to the frame at 8. and making a quarter turn round the lower groove of the pulley 5, proceeds the whole length of the carriage, makes a quarter turn over the pulley 7, fig. 3, and proceeds parallel to the firft dire€tion, from 8 to 5, and is made faft to the frame in a fimilar po- fition to 6, but at the oppofite fide of the frame. The two ropes crofs each other in the centre of the carriage, and they always pafs over oppofite fides of the pullies 5 and 7. Their effe&t, which is not eafily explained without a feparate figure on purpofe, is to make the carriage move equally at both. ends, for it muft do this, unlefs one or other of the ropes flip upon the grooves of their refpeétive pullies 5 or 7, and this they will not do if ftrained tight. We have clearly {lated the paffage of the two ropes 6 and 8, and the mechanic who knows this, will readily fee the man- ner of itsoperation, though itis difficult to explain it by words only. We mutt now attend to the wheel-work for the rollers: a bevilled wheel o, fixed clofe behind the wheel M, onthe main axis, turns another on the end of an inclined axis p» jig. 2, at the oppofite end of which is another bevilled wheel, turning g, fixed on the extremity of the front roller ; which being conneéted with the middle and back rollers by the fame wheel-work as the throftle frame, and the rollers ‘being of a fimilar conftruétion, demand no further defcrip- tion, except what we have already given in fig. 4, of the weights for preffing down the upper rollers. When the rollers are to be caft out of gear, it is done by difengaging the wheel, f, from the wheel o; for which purpofe the bearing for the upper end of the inclined axis carrying the former, is made in the upper end of a lever r, which moves on a centre pin, fixed in the ftandard fupporting the bearings for the axis of the wheel M : the lower end of this lever is conneted with the end of a fhort lever s, moveable on a vertieal centre pin fixed in the frame: this lever has an arm proceeding from the centre at right angles with that feen in fiz, 2, and is therefore hidden behind the centre, its form being fhewn at Z, which is a plan of this lever. From this fecond arm a wire proceeds to the pendulous lever P ¢ v, moveable on the centre pin #. Now by moving the end, P, of the lever, P #, away from the wheel, M, it draws the wire and arm of the lever s, the other arm of which ating upon the lower end of the lever rv, to throw it inwards, throws the upper end outwards, and brings the wheel, #, in contaé&t with the wheel 0, fo that the inclined axis, and the front rollers alfo, are fet in motion, as long as the end of lever, P, is kept held towards the end of the frame. This holding is performed by its arm v, which, as in the figure, may be hooked under and kept down by a fmall catch w, and from this a fine wire, 9, proceeds back to the oppofite end of the frame, and is then linked to a fhort lever, which is fitted loofely on the fame centre pin which conneéts the lower end of the lever, +, with the arm of the lever s. This lever is fhewn at 2, in the feparate figure Z, but its wfe is only to fupport the end of the wire 9, and keep it up, fo that a part of the carriage of fpindles, inrunning back, may, by intercepting the end of it, draw the wire and the catch w, thus relieving the arm, v, of the lever P, andthis, as before explained, throws the wheel, p, out of gear, and the motion of the rollers ceafes. On the return of the carriage towards the rollers, a piece of wood, x, fixed to it, runs againft the lower end of P, and moves it back fo far that the catch, w, engages it. This fets the rollers in motion, which they continue, until, ia the retreat of the carriage, a piece of iron y, fig. 1, pro- je€ting up from it, catches the fhort lever, x, Tear s, fup- porting the wire 9, which being thus drawn, difengages the catch qw, and then the wheel, f, is caft out of the gear with o, as before-mentioned, and ftops the motion of the rollers. The motion for drawing out the carriage from the rollers is thus performed : a cog-wheel R, which has a pulley fixed on againft it, receives an endlefs rope, 10, pafling round a pulley, 11, at the end of the frame. One part of the endlefs rope is tied to an iron arm projecting from the carriage, fo that when the wheel, R, is turned round, by engaging its teeth with a cog-wheel fixed upon the end of the front roller, the endlefs repe, 10, traverfes, and moves or draws the carriage out with it. The wheel R, which is called the Mendoza wheel, is made to lock in or out, by fitting it on a centre pin, which is faftened into the upper end of a lever T, (fee the feparate view,) moveable on a pin fixed in the frame. The lower end of this lever is moved by a horizontal lever, feen endways near V, which reprefents its vertical centre pin or ftud. The end of this lever, which is before the ftud, or neareft the eye, is connected by a ftrong wire with the lever P, and therefore, when this lever is pufhed by the motion of the carriage, it engages the Mendoza wheeb, and draws out the carriage, at the fame time that the rollers are put in motion, and give ont the roving between them ; but the carriage, being drawn out to the length of roving which it is to have to ftretch and fpin the Mendoza wheel, is not difengaged the moment the rollers are cait out by the wire 9 and catch w, in the manner we have juit defcribed, becaufe the lever, T, carrying that wheel is provided with a catch, fimilar in its properties to a, that is, it holds the wheel, R, in- its work until the carriage has run a yard and a half, and then it feizes a wire ecom- municating with this catch, thus difengaging the catch holding up the lever TT: the Mendoza wheel then falls back, and the drawing-out movement of the fpindles ceafes, This catch and wire are not fhewn in the figures, as it would produce much cenfufion, but being fo exactly fimilar in. this action to the catch ew, and its wire g, they may be eafily imagined. We have now to defcribe the manner in which the rotas tion of the {pindles is caft in and out. ‘Phe reader, if not confufed by the complication of this machine, may remem+ ber that we explained the connection from the wheel M, by means of the endlefs cord 7, to the wheel m, and thence to the vertical drum turning the fpindles. When this motion is to be thrown in and out, it is done by fhifting the main ftrap, driving the whole machine on the live or dead pulley K, fg. 3. The ttrap is guided by pafling through an eye or loop at the extremity of a lever, W Y, fixed ona vertical MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. vertical axis 12. On the lower end of this axis is a long lever 13, and at right angles to thisa fhorter iever, which being feen endways is not apparent, but it advances fome diftance forwards from the centre of the lever, and has a wire, 14, jointed to it, whichis extended to a lever 15, againit which the carriage runs when it is pufhed home, and the {pin- dies are clofe up to the front rollers.) When this happens it draws the wire 14, which aéting on the fhort lever of the axis, 12, turns it round, and the lever Y W withit, fhifting the main {trap from the dead to the live pulley K, and; thus putting the whole machine in motion ;' at the fame time that, by the operation we have before explained, the Mendoza wheel is thrown in, and alfo the movement of the. rollers. The former of thefe draws back the carriage, till, as de- feribed, the catches are releafed, and the movement, firlt of the rollers, and then of the Mendoza wheel, are thrown out., .At the moment before this happens, the carriage intercepts the end of the lever ¥3, which is formed like an inclined plane; it is therefore thrown outwards by the carriage running againft it, and, the end of the lever, W, being at the fame time moved, it fhifts the ftrap upon the dead pulley, and the motion of the whole machine ceafes. . The attendant to the machine now takes hold of the, handle L, and pufhes the whole carriage back again, till the {pindle eomes clofe home to the rollers; then by the carriage ftriking the levers x5 and P, it fhifts the ftrap to the live pulley, and puts the {pindles all in motion together, at the fame time calts, in the motion of the rollers, to give out the roving; and alfo it cafts in the Mendoza wheel, which traverfes back the carriage and all the fpindles to take up the roving as faft as it comes from the rollers, twiiting it by the motion of the fpindles all the time. To deferibe the operation of this ingenioufly conftructed machine, will be only to recapitulate movements which we have repeated feveral times over ; but this recapitulation will give the order in which they fueceed each other. The man or-woman who attends the mule ftands in front of the {pin- dies, at fuch a diftance from the right-hand. end of the frame that he can conveniently reach the handle L. In the other hand he holds the axis, I, of the wire H.. Suppofe, to commence, that the f{pindles are clofer to the rollers, then the movements fucceed each other as follow : 1. The lever 15, being thruft back by the carriage run- ning againit it, draws the wire 14, and by the lever, W, fhifts the {trap upon the live pulley, putting the wheel M, andthe wheels 2, /, with the endiefs rope /, the wheel m, and all the {pindles in motion, 2. The end of the lever, P, being prefled by the carriage, engages the wheel for the motion of the rollers, and they begin to deliver out the roving at the fame time, 3. The Mendoza wheel is caft into gear, and begins to caufe the carriage to retreat from the rollers. as faft as they give out the roving. hefe firft, fecond, and third motions, all happen at the fame inftant. ; 4. The {pinning of the rovings is now performed by the above motions, the fpindles twitting the royings as faft as they are given out; but the motion of the rollers is fo quick, that the twift now given is flight, but having thus extended, or taken out, a yard in length from each {pindle to the roller, the piece of iron y, fig. 1, 0n the carriage, meets the end of the lever s, and 5. Difengages the wheel-work for the rollers, which are therefore {topped, and deliver out no more roving ; but the retreat of the carriage and the twine of the fpindles con- tinues for another half yard, {tretching out the thread, and twifting it, tillthe piece of iron, y, meets the catch of the zext wire, which is not drawn ia the figure, and 6. Difengages the Mendoza wheel, confequently the car- riage draws out no farther. The thread being fufficiently extended and twilted, 7- The carriage takes hold of the end of the lever 13, and thus fhifts the ftrap to the dead pulley K, fg. 3, and the motion of the whole machine ceafes. 8. The attendant, by turning round the axis, I, of the wire H, preffes down all the threads together from the points of the {pindles to the middle of the coppin, in the manner of fig. 5 ; then : te’: : 9. Takes hold of the winch L, to regulate the winding of the thread on the coppins, when he 10. Drives the carriage home to the rollers. In this mo= tion the f{pindles all revolve, and lap up the thread upon the coppins. The revolution is caufed by the endlefs rope 7 which may, when the machine is ftanding ftill, be con- fidered as a ftationary rope a¢ting upon the wheel m, and the drum for the fpindles, and as their centres trayerfe, turning them all round, on the fame principle as a carria wheel is turned by rolling on the ftationary road. In li manner m is turned, by moving along while the rope, i, is immoveable. Now the quantity of motion, or the number of revolutions the fpindles will make during this return of the carriage, is, in all cafes, the fame, and the quantity of thread to be wound up is always the fame; but it is evident that it will require a greater number of revolutions to wind u the length (14 yard) of thread, when winding upon the {pindle, or upon the circumference of a {mall coppin, than when the fame coppin is increafed by the accumulated thread to ten or fifteen times the fize of the fpindle. To accom- modate this, it is neceflary for the {pinner to have the handle, L, in his hand, becaufe he can, by turning this one way or the other, add or diminifh fo much to the number of turns the {pindle will make, as will ju‘t take up the thread as faft as the carriage advances towards the rollers. Thus, at firft beginning, when the coppins are fmall, the handle, L, will require to be turned forwards a confiderable quantity, to make them wind up the thread fufficiently faft; but as the fize of the coppins increafe, they will come to fuch a dia- meter, that the handle requires to be held quite ftill. The motion given to the {pindles by the return of the carriage, being then juft equal to wind up the thread at the proper rate, any increafe of the dimentions of the coppins shee this will require the handle, L, to be turned backwards, to diminifh the motion of the {pindles, or they would wind up too faft, and break the threads. The {pinner accommodates the motion of the handle, L, fo exafily by habit, asto keep, the threads always to that degree of tenfion as will make the coppin compact, but not injure the thread ; at the fame time by the other hand, which holds the fpindle of the wire H, he lays the thread regularly on the length of the cop. «, , a The carriage, having with thefe precautions been wheeled up clofe to the rollers, the feveral operations are repeated as before ; and thus the mule continues to {pin a yard anda half upon each {pindle every time it is drawn out, and then wind it up on the feyeral coppins. A good fpinner will draw out 3000,times al day of a mule with 240 fpindles ; and many women will attend two machines, having them placed oppofite to each other ; and while one is drawing out fhe will thruft home the other... This makes 108,000 yards per day upon each mule, or both together will make more than 1200 miles to be {pun in one day by one woman; who, on the old method of the hand-wheel fpinning, on which the mule is an improvement, would only have managed a fingle {pindle, inftead of 480; and this fingle fpindle would not have fpun half the quantity of any one in the mules om wi MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. ‘with réfpe& to the regularity and accuracy of the thread “no comparifon can be drawn, A mule of 20 {pindles has nine drums in the carriage to turn them; ail the length, ‘therefore, is nine repetitions of fig. 3, which only contains the f{pindles turned by one drum, ; a The motion of the mule can at any time be ftopped, if a thread break, or any other accident happens, by means of a long wooden rail, Y, which is joined to the end of the lever W Y, and extends along over the whole length of ‘the rollers, fo as to give the {pinner the means of {topping the mule when ftanding oppofite to any part ef its length; “for it is evident, that by thrufting this rod one way or the other, the ttrap will he fhifted either on the live or the dead pulley, flopping or putting the wheels in motion at plea- ure. The thread fpun upon 'the mule is much fofter, and has a {moother furface than the water-twilt; this is owing to the manner in which the extenfion of the thread is made, after it has been twifted flightly, and the fibres thereby com- preffed together in fome degree; for the effect of ttretch- “ing a flightly twifted thread 1s, to draw all the ends of ‘the fibres into it. All thefe fibres having aflumed a {pirally curved form in the thread, by drawing or ftretching them out in the length of the thread one among another, thefe fibres are drawn along with a fpiral movement, and all theit -ends are thus brought into, and concealed in the body of the thread. This operation, at tle fame time it makes the furface of the thread even and fmooth from projeéting fibres, in- ereafes the ftrength of the thread “by bringing them all into ufe; and the ftrength obtained by this means does not ‘require the thread to be twifted hard, but leaves it foft and pliable, which is the great recommendation of the mule- ‘twilt. The thread thus fpun, ¢ither by the water-frame or mule, has many other operations to go through to prepare it for the market, where it is to be fold to the weaver or manu- faGurer. The chief end of thefe operations is, meafuring it out in lengths, weighing it to afcertain the number, and packing it up for carriage. The firft machine the thread is taken to after {pinning is The Reels fee figs. 1 and 2 of Plate XII. The former being an elevation of the end, and the other an elevation in front, a very fhort explanation of this machine will fuffice 5 its framing and fome other parts being evident. A A is a row of the bobbins of the {pinning frame, or for mule- twilt, the coppins of the mule {tuck upon pins, on which they will revolve freely and give off their thread. B, fir. 1, is another row placed behind the former, and arranged in the intermediate {paces between the bobbins of the firft ‘sow, which arrangement is neceffary, becaufe the bobbins would touch each other if all placed fide by fide. The ‘threads for thefe bobbins are conducted between feveral pins or wires, ftuck up ina rail of wood D, and each thread ‘ts twilted once round one of thefe pins, that it may be drawn “off with fuch a degree of force, from the friction thus oc- ‘eafioned, as will cawfe the thread to lap or wind with a fufficient tenfion upon the reel E E, which confitts of a horizontal fhaft IE, from which three fets of arms, TF, pro- ceed, fupporting fix ras, G, G, parallel to the axis, and upon thefe the thread is wound, as {hewn in the figures at x. The dimenfions of the reel is fuch, that it takes exactly a yard and a half of thread to make one turn round it : this, therefore, is the mieafure of length, and the mecha- ifm which remains to be defcribed is for the purpofe of counting the number of revolutions it has made. ‘The reel is turned round by means of a cog-wheel, H, on the end of the fpindle: this is turned round by a wheel K, on the Vor, XXII, axis of which is a pulley M, to receive an endlefs rope, which is turned round by the mill; but the bearing for the pivot of the axis, E, is fitted ina groove, formed on the top rail of the frame, fo that the wheel, H, may, by, flidin the bearing in this groove, be difengaged from the teeth ob the wheel KK, and then the movement being thrown out of gear, the reel ftops. On the oppofite end of the axis of the reel, a pinion, a, of 14 teeth is fixed, which turns a bevilled wheel of 25 teeth on the upper end of a vertical axis 6, which has an endlefs ferew upon it, turning a wheel, d, fig. ty of 40 teeth, on the axis of which is a Pinion of eight Teaves, turning a wheel, ¢, of 56 teeth. This wheel has a {mall circular ring fixed on the face of it, which is formed like a {nail on the front edge, that is, its furface is not parallel to the plane of the wheel, but is inclined to it in fuch an angle, that in turning round it operates upon a lever, f, to move it backwards and forwards, and this mo- tion is, by means of a vertical lever, 4h, communicated to the rails, A B and D, at the top of the reel, which carry the bobbins, and alfo the pins, D, that guide the thread, and having thus a fhort travetfe motion parallel to the axis of the reel, the threads are laid tegularly by the fide of each other, without overlaying each other in one place, as they would do without this motion, and by thus enlarging the diameter of the reel, the thread that winds upon the meafure would be incorre&. By calculating the numbers of the train of wheel-work, a, 6, d, &e. which we have before explained, viz. by mul- tiplying the number of all the pinions together, and the number of all the wheels together, and dividing one fum by the other, thus, 14 X 1 xX 8 = 172, the product of all the pinions: again, 28 x 40 x 56 = 62,720, the product of the wheels. Divide 62,720 by 112, and the refult is 560; therefore the wheel e, of 56 teeth, will make one turn for 560 turns, or bouts of the reel. The wheel d makes only one-feventh of this numbet, or once fer 80 bouts ; and a pin being fixed in the back of its rim, feizes the tail of a bell, m, once for every turn it makes, confequently this bell rings at every 80 bouts of a yard and a half each, = 120 yards of thread wound upon the reel. The reeler, in beginning, makes the end of each thread faft to one of the rails, G, of the reel, then catts it ©n,"and fets it going until the bell, m, rings it will then have made 80 bouts, or reeled -20 yards, which is called a ley. The reel ts {topped the inftant the bell tings, and every one of the leys of thread, r,r, fig. 2, is tied up by a piece of thread to keep thefe 80 bouts diftin&; then the reelis fet on again and another ley reeled, which is tied in its turn; and when feven leys have been thus done, it makes 560 bouts, or 840 yards, which length is called a hank: the feven leys com- pofing it are tied all together, the ends of the thread cut off, and the hanks are removed from the reel. They are got off ‘by what is called ftriking the reel, to do which, the arms fupporting one of the rails, G, are divided acrofs in the middle of each, and united by hinges. When the arms are fet ftraight, and kept fo by a fmall bolt, the reel is of the true dimenfions; but by withdrawing the bolt, and bending the arms on the hinges, the rail falls in towards the centre, and the reel is fo diminithed in fize, that the hanks hang flack upon it, and can eafily be flipped off at the end of the reel, which is lifted off its bearings for that purpofe. A reel ufually winds 50 bobbins at once, and thé prin- cipal care of tke attendant is to watch the bobbins, fupply- ing others, and tying the ends of the threads as faft as they are exhaufted. The hanks are now twilted up into a knot, by catching one end of them over an iron look fixed to the wall, then put- 3M ting MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. ting a {mall iron rod in the other end, the hank is twifted up very hard, ufing the rod as a lever to turn it round. To prevent its untwilting again, it is taken by the middle of its length, and without fuffering the ends to entwine it is dou- bled, then the ends are releafed, and the two halves twilt over each other, forming a bundle or knot of thread, re- fembling a piece of thick ropé¢, about eight or nine inches in length, and perhaps two inches girt. ‘The hanks, being thus all knotted, are weighed, to afcertain their number. ‘The weighing inftrument confifts of a fhort pendulum, from which an arm proceeds on each fide, at top pafiing through the centre of fufpenfion, fo that it refembles the letter T. From one of the horizontal arms a hook is fufpended, by which the hank is hung on; and at the end of the other arm is an index pointing to an arch which is divided, and has figures upon it, fhewing how many of fuch hanks (as the index is brought to by hanging any one upon the hook) will weigh a pound. The divifions are made by experiment, and frequently verified by means of {mall leaden weights, which the overfeer is provided with. As faft as the number of the feveral hanks is determined by this index, they are thrown into different bins or fhelves, and when they are to be made up for market, as many hanks of any number as will weigh ten pounds are counted out, weighed, as a check upon the weighing inftrument, and packed up in paper, forming a fmall fquare bundle, which is made compaét and tight in the bundling-prefs. This is a fmall fquare cheft, of about eight and a half inches by nine and a half, formed of vertical iron bars fet upon a table, and alid of iron bars fhuts down over the top, with bolts or other faftenings. The bottom of the cheit 1s move- able up and down by means of a rack and pinion, a {crew or other means, which will enable the workman to give a great prefflure tpwards. The hanks are packed clofely into this cheft with paper round them, and the whole number being packed in, the lid is fhut down and bolied upon them; then by turning a handle the bottom of the prels is raifed up, and compreffes the bundle together into as fmall a compafs as is required. ‘The bundle in this flare is tied round with feveral ftrings, the interflices between the iron bars compofing the prefs leaving fuificient room for the admiffion of fuch ftrings, and for the knots to be tied to confine the bundle. In thefe bundles the greateft partion of the twift is fent to market; but what is called hard twift, mult be twilted two threads together, as is.alfo fteck- ing-yarn. Such thread as is intended to be donbied for thefe purpofes, is taken from the fpinaing-frame fo the Doubling machine, inttead of the reel. Here the threads, two together, are wound upon bobbins, as preparatory to twifting them round each other. See Plate XIUI., figs. 1 and 2, which reprefent a doubling mill; in front fg, 1, and endways at fiz.2. A is the pulley which is turned round by the mill: this pulley is loofe on its fpindle, but has a clutch or locking-box at the back which connects it with its (pindle, when the upper end of the lever, B, 1s moved towards the machine. But when it is moved the other way the machine fiands ftill, though the pulley continues all the time toturn round. A wedge, @, being put on either fide of the lever in its mortife through the piece of woad D, retains the pulley, A, either unlocked or locked in gear, with the fpindle which is fixed in the end of a throftle- cylinder, R, and by bands turns all the fpiudles, 4,4, toge- ther. The bobbins of the {pinning-trame are ftuck upon pins in the top rail, E, of the frame, and the threads defcend to wires, d, round which they make a turn, two threads in company, to produce a friction, as before explained, fuffi- cient to lay the turns on the bobbin of the fpindles, 2, J, 13 tight and even. The threads then go through wire ftaples or eyes fixed in a rail, F, fituated oppofite to the bobbins e,e, which are ftuck faft on the upper ends of the f{pindles 4, b, and being turned thereby, wind up the thread from the bobbins at IE: therail, F, is adapted to rife and fall pa- rallel to itfelf, being attached by radial bars to an axis: moving on centre pins fixed in the frame. Its motion is occafioned by an iron rod, f, which ig jointed to it, and connects it to a lever, g, fixed on an axis; and at the ex-- treme end of this is a lever, A, fig. 2, relting upon the cir- cumference of a heart, A, fixed on the face of a cog-wheel #: This is turned by a pinion fixed againft a wheel £, which receives its motion from another pinion upon the end of the {pindle of the throflle cylinder R. By this train of wheel- work the heart is flowly turned round, and raifes and falls the lever, 4, at the fame time giving a fimilar motion to the rail I°, and by that means regularly winding the thread upon the bobbins e,e, which are turned rapidly round by the motion of the vertical fpindles 4,2, which receive their motion from the throitle cylinder, R, by the bands, as be- fore defcribed. ‘The bobbins are fuch as fhewn feparate at X, and have a hole through them exaétly fitting the conical end of the {pindle, on which it {ticks fo falt, that the bob- bin will, by the motion of the fpindle, wind up the two threads together off the bobbins at E. When the bobbins are filled with double thread, they are removed to the twilft- ing-machine, if it is intended to make ftocking-yarn, or if it is to be what is called hard twift, for fewing, knitting, or mending-cotton, it is done in the water-frame, which, however, undergoes fome alterations, viz. the {pindles are made to turn about in a contrary direction to that in which they moved to fpin the thread It is done by turning the whole frame the other way about, but as this would make the rollers move the wrong way, the pinion at the upper end of the {pindle of the binder is placed at the outfide inftead: of the infide of the face-wheel on the end of the front roller. he rollers then turn the right way about to de- liver the thread to the fpindle, but the back and middle rollers are removed, as it is not required to draw out the thread, the rollers being merely wanted to hold the threads fait whilft they are twifted one about the other, and to de- liver it regularly to the fpindle, which operates in the fame manner as for the firft fpinning, except that it twilts in the contrary direétion; becaufe when any two threads are to be turned together, it mult be done by a contrary twit to that which compofed the two feparate threads themfelves. _ After {pinning this hard twilt it goes to the reel, and is treated: in all refpeéis as other twit is. When it is merely required: to twine the two threads flightly together for ftocking-yarn, the bobbins of the doubling-machine, when filled with doubie threads, are carried away to Ube twifling-machine, fee Plate X11, fiz. 3- of which is an elevation endways; and fig. 4, another elevation taken in front. In this, A reprefents the live and dead puliies turn= ing the whole machine: the {trap is conducted through an eye at the end of an iron branch a, affixed to a rod or beam Ti, which flides in guides beneath the machine, and can be moved endways by means of a lever 4, which comes out in the middle of the length of the machine, and the attendant, by ap- plying his foot to this lever, and moving it fideways, fhifts the beam B,and the eye at the end of the branch, a, guides the ftrap upon the dead pulley: the machine then ftands fill. ‘The live and dead pulley is fitted on the end of the Spindle of the throttle cylinder D, which, by bands going to both fides, turns a double row of vertical {pindles on each fide, IE e and F f, the internal row on either fide being placed oppofite the {paces between the outer row, fo that the ot ie ee wee MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. the fpindles are not crowded too clofe together. On thefe fpindles the bobbins are ftuck in the fame manner as thofe of the doubling-mill ; and the threads proceeding from the bobbins are conduéted through wire eyes, which are fixed in rails, G, of the framing, then each twifted thread makes a turn round a wire fixed in the rails, H, juft above G, and thefe have a flight traverfe motion backwards and for- wards, by which they lay the thread evenly upon the reels, i, K, which take up the threads, as before defcribed, of the reeling-machine. |The reels are flowly turned round by a train of wheel-work from the main {pindle of the pulley A. This train confitts, firft, of a pair of bevilled wheels, one on the main axis, and the other at the lower end of a vertical {pindle L, which at the upper end has a pinion actuating another wheel, ¢, upon the middle of a-hori- zontal axis, which at ‘each end carries a pinion, turning wheels, M,N, on the ends of the pivots of the two reels. The proportions of the wheels are fuch, that the reel turns once for about 24 turns of the main throftle D, or about one for every. 72 revolutions of the fpindles, and as the reel is a yard and a half about, the thread will be twilted about 72 times in that length by the rotation of the bobbin and the thread with it. The motion of the reel draws the thread off the bobbin as faft as above-mentioned, fo that the proportion of the wheel-work determines the quantity of twift which fhall be given in any certain length. The reels are provided with counting wheel-work of the fame operation as that before explained in the reeling-machine. Thus, on the end of the fpindle of the reel is a pinion turning a wheel #, on the axis of which is a {crew turning a wheel £, and this has a pinion on it turning a wheel, sm, by means of the intermediate wheel 7 The fpindle of this latter wheel has a nail fixed upon it, which operates upon a lever n, the lower end of which preffes againit a crofs-bar, connecting: the rail, H, with its fellow. On the oppofite fide of the machine there is another fimilar crofs-bar at the other end, and the two rails being thus united, form a frame which is fupported on iron radial bars p, 6, which move upon centre pins fixed in the rail, G, of the frame; fo that the frame, with the rails H, H, hasa free motion to traverfe without friétion, and guide the threads to lay regularly upon the reels I, K. At the oppofite end of the frame a ftring is tied which paffes over a pulley, and has a weight, 7, fufpended from it, which always draws the frame one way, and tends to keep the upper end of the lever, 2, in contact with the {nail upon the axis of the wheel m. This axis has alfo a pin projecting from it, which every time the fpin- dle turns round, rings the bell P. The motion of the wheel-work is fo calculated, that the bell fhall ring once for every 280 bouts of the reel, and the fize thereof is fuch, that this 280 bouts fhall meafure 420 yards, being the length of the double thread hank, r, equal to half the Jength of the fingle thread hank, which is, as before men- tioned, 840 yards, and the number of double thread yarn, is according to the number of thefe hanks of 420 yards each to the pound. The reels, I, K, when filled, are ftvuck, and the hanks taken off them in the fame manner as the reeling-machine before deferibed. Hard twifl, which is intended for fewing, knitting, or mending-cotton, after being twilted and reeled in hanks, is fent to the bleach-field, and bleached by fome of the pro- cefles deferibed in our article BLEACHING. But the procefs which is mott generally in ufe for bleach- ing yarn, is thus conducted: an earthen-ware retort is filled with one quart of oil of vitriol, two quarts of fea- falt, and one quart of the ore of manganefe. The hood of the retort being put on and luted, it is fet over a {mall ftove or fand-bath, and the heat foon raifes from i¢ the oxygenated muriatic acid gas, which is received in a {quare wooden chett, about feven or eight feet {quare, and as many deep, forming a {mall air-tight chamber, in the upper part of which the goods are fulpended upon a rack or frame. The lower part of the cheit, for about three feet deep, is filled with water, fometimes impregnated with a ley of pot~ afh, and fometimes with lime-water, or water mixed with lime. The gas is introduced betwixt the fluid and the goods; amongit which it afcends, and by its a€tion upon any colour they may contain, renders them white: at the fame time, by occafionally immerfing the goods in the fluid below, it is fought to modify the a@tion of the acid, and prevent the operation proceeding too rapidly. ‘This is effected by means of a pole or long rod conne@ed with the frame on which the goods are fufpended, the centre of which pole moves on a fwivel fixed in a hole in the parti- tion, or lid of the chamber, which is occafionally flopped with clay, and enables a perfon to raife the goods by means of a {mall crane, or, at pleafure, to let them down into the fluid, not always, however, without inconvenience, which occafioned it the name of the Bedlam procefs, as the workmen, if they inhale the gas, are ftupified. > Previoufly to the yarn being fubjected to the aGtion of the gas, it is boiled in a ley of pearl-afhes, then milled for twenty minutes in a fulling mill, and the hanks are hung upon the racks or crofs rails of the fquare frame in which they are fufpended, to be let down mto the bleaching- chamber. T'his frame is, as before-mentioned, attached to a long pole, that fufpends it from the crane, which being fwung over the chamber, is let down therein, and the lid is clofed over it, the joints being made tight with clay, and the pole coming through a hole in the lid, which is care- fully made tight round it bya wet cloth. The gas is now admitted to the chamber, but the yarn is not fubjeGed to its action more than ten minutes before it is let down and immerfed into the liquor at the bottom of it, which thus defends it from the action of the gas fora few minutes, until it becomes thoroughly wetted, when it is drawn up again into the gas, and remains in it for half an hour to be bleached: it is then let down again, for a few minutes, into the liquor to wet it ; it is then drawn up again, and in this manner the procefs continues, until fuch time as it is known, by experience, that the yarn will be fufficiently bleached. The frame is drawn up by the crane, and the cota ton removed from the rails on which it hangs, and being rinfed in clean water, is carried out and {pread on the grafs in the fields, to be fubjected to the fun and air, by which the bleaching is completed. It is not the bufinefs of the prefent article to enter into the theory or chemical principles of this procefs, which will be found under the article Breaciine. After the hanks are returned bleached, the yarn is found to be much lighter, fo that it will generally be two num- bers higher: thus, cotton of N° 48 hanks to the pound being fent to bleach, will return fo much diminifhed in weight, as to require 50 of the hanks to weigh a pound. But this rule is not fo exaét as is requifite; the thread mutt therefore be reeled over again, weighed, and packed. AL great proportion of the fewing cotton is wound into balls of a very beautiful appearance by a curious winding ma chine. As a preparation to this winding, the thread mutt be wound off the hanks in which it was bleached to large bobbins. This is done in a machine provided with feveral {pindles, like the doubling machine, upon which bobbins are {tuck, and the thread wound on them from the hanks, when they are extended or ftretched out between two pul- licss 2M 2 34 2 MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. les, or fmall reels, on which the hank revolves in the manner of an endlefs band, ‘Thefe bobbins are taken to the Ball Winding Machine, fee figs. 3. and 4. of Plate XII. the former being a plan of the aéting parts, and the latter an elevation of the whole machine on a frealler feale. In fy. 4. A is the bobbin from the winding machine, which Js ftuck upon a pin projecting upwards from the bench, and a {mall lead weight is laid upon the top of the bobbin, to load it, and caufe fuch a fri€tion as will make thethread wind with a proper tenfion upon the ball. ‘The principal part of the machine is-a fpindle B, which is perforated through its length, and receives the thread: it runs, in bearings, at the top of two ftandards a, 5, and at the extreme end of the fpindle, beyond the front’ ftandard, a flyer or branch, D, is fixed, and the end, d, of it therefore defcribes a circle when. the fpindle, B, turns round by the endlefs band: which furrounds the pulley I, and gives it motion from the mill. The fpindle has an endlefs {crew cut upon it, turning a wheel, G, at the upper end of the vertical fpindle F, which, at the lower end, has an univerfal joint, e, con- neGting it with an inclined fpindle H: this, at the lower end, has a {mall bevilled wheel, 4, turning another, f, ona fmall vertical axis, carrying, at the upper end, an univerfal joint, which communicates motion to an inclined fpindle I, and this, by another fimilar joint at 7, connects with a ver- tical axis r, which has a pinion, £, turning a wheel J, upon whofe fpindle, m, the thread is lapped to form the ball; as fhewn in fig. 3: the fpindle, m, is fupported by a piece of metal, K, formed like the letter L, and moveable on a cen- tre pin x, which is fituated exaétly in a line with the fhort vertical axis of the wheel f: M isa circular plate,on which the piece, K, refts, when turned about on its centre pin 1% and N is the handle by which it is turned about at pleafure uponit. The two fpindles, B and m, are, as fhewn in fig. 4, on the fame level, but:are capable, as fhewn in fig. 3, of being fet at any angle to each other by inclining m on its centre pin n, and this being in the line of the fpindle of f, the motion does not tend to lengthen or fhorten the fpindles I and r; but they always convey the motion, communi- cated from the fpindle, B, by means of the axes F H I andr, to m, by the feveral wheels G, 4, f, 4, and /, which have been defcribed: they are fo apportioned, that the fpindle, m, turns only once for. 48, 60, or 72 revolutions of the fpindle B. Thefe different numbers are ufed in different machines, and the appearance of the ball they will wind materially de- pends upon this circumftance. To explain its operation, fuppofe the fpindle, m, inclined to B, as in fig, 3, the rapid motion of the fpindle, and its. flyer D, (over the point, ¢, of which the thread is conducted) laps the’thread round the fpindle, m, in an oblique direétion. At firft, the ball thus formed has no regular figure, but as the thread accumulates.and forms a cone, the lapping of the thread in.a regular order begins and continues, asin ig. 3; here itis feen, that the motion of the flyer will lap the thread obliquely. upon the ball from one end to the other, as the figure fhews ; but at every fucceeding revolution of the flyer, the ball itfelf- has made 3, ¢;, 7; part of a revolution upon its own axis m, according to the propor- tion of the wheel-work, and thus the thread is not always difpofed on the fame oblique line, but on another parallel. to it, and removed:a.fmall. diltance from the former. Now it is plain, that the thread on the underfide of the ball routt be inclined in a contrary direétion to that lapped on the upper fide; therefore, when the ball is looked at, the ablique threads of every alternate layer crofs each other, in the. manner of the figure, This will, however, be much. more readily underftood from an infpection of a ball of this kind, than from any verbal deftription. The length: of the ball depends upon the angle which the f{pindle,. mg. makes with the fpindle B,; it can, therefore, by fhifting the: handle N, be wound off of any required figure ; but the moft general method is, when about one half the fize of the ball is wound, to give the {pindle a greater degree of obliquity :: this cccafions the ball'to wind longer from that period, as well as a greater diameter; the confequence is,.that when the ball is finihed, on looking at the end of it a.ciroular hollow: is feen in it, as though ithad been turned ina lathe, and fome-» times a thinsmembrane, confilting of about two orthree layers of thread, is extended nearly acrofs the end, leaving the: hellow beneath, which can be feen into from a {mall hole in- the end. This membrane is made by fetting the handle, N,. at the greatelt angle it will make, the thread then not only Jays over the whole furface of the ball, but is flretched partly acrofs the end of it ;: and the interfeGtion of a great number of thefe forms a tranfparent membrane, which has a circular hole in the centre. After laying this layer two or three times over, the handle, N, is returned to its originak angle, and winds the ball as at firft. ‘The bench or table R°R, on which the machine ftandsy is made long enough to contain fourteen {pirdles, all placed in one row; and a throftle cylinder, running along under the bench, gives motion to them all at once. Two children at- tend the whole fourteen, which they can readily do, having only to lap the thread,.at the beginning, upon the fpindle m,- and then, when the ball has.arrived at a certain fize, to turn’ the handle N.; but the period or quantity of this alteration’ is not of any great importance, as it only influences the figure of the ball, and, as we before defcribed, thofe fancy ornaments within. the hollow end:.thefe may, by great at- tention in frequently and artfully fhifting the handle N,.be: made very delicate and beautiful: The macline we haye- juft defcribed was made after a model of a machine invented: by Mr. Brunell, who firlt devifed the means of conneéting the fpindles, Band m, by wheel-work. The machines, before this, were turned by endlefs bands, from the prin- cipal cylinder which gave motion to the whole. The defeé& of this method was, that the relative diameters of the wheels- cculd not be fo exaétly proportioned, as to produce one: turn of m for exactly forty-eight, &c. of B; that the- threads of the fucceffive layers would lay exaély one over: the other, becaufe the leaft variation in this refpe&t would: greatly injure the effect of the ball. But in the machine: before us, the motions are fo accurate, that, on infpe&ting) the ball, it appears honey-combed, or confilting of regulan, cells, which gradually diminifh in fize as they approach the centre: the partitions between thefe cells are only one thread in thicknefs, but confifting of a great number, ftretched fo exactly over each other, that they. form regular, plane fides to the interior of the feveral cells. . We have now prefented our readers with all the ope- rations of: cotton-fpinning ; but thefe operations are con- duéted on fo grand a feale by many manufaéturers, that the. fyftem of their. management, the arrangement:of the build- ings, the conftruétion of their water-wheels, fleam-engines, . or other firft movers, and many other particulars, are no lefs admirable, and worthy of defcription, than, the machines. themfelves. T’o defcribe all thefe curiofities of the cotton trade would fill a volume; but we muft content ourfelves, — with defcribing one plate, which contains drawings of one of the moft complete cotton-mills we have ever vilited. It» is one of the four;mills at Belper, in Derbyfhire, belonging . to Meflrs. Strutts, whefe very extenfive works centain al-. molt every improvement in the cotton trade.. The alae es ‘ thelee ‘ thefe mills is built fire-proof, being without any timber beams in the floors, or much wood work of large fize in any of the machines, which makes them very fecure from danger , fire. : ok 1. of Plate XIV. is a longitudinal feétion of the whole mill, fhewing all the floors, and all the machines upon them, at one view. /fig. 2. is a feétion, acrofs the length of the former; and fig. 3. is a fimilar crofs fection of the mill, and, at the fame time, a longitudinal {ection of the wing, which extends from the centre of the mill, at right angles, to its length; fo that the plan of the mill is of the figure of the letter T. We will firft explain the manner of building fire-proof mil's without timber, which has been adopted by Mefirs. Strutts in their very extenlive works. The fide walls A A, BB, and the end walls CC, D-D, are built up as ufual, and with the ufual-doors and windows in them ; the feveral floors, IE, F, G, H, I, K, are compofed of brick arches, as fhewn in the figures. In fg. 1, thefe arches are fhewn cut acro{s the fpan; and in jig. 2, they are fhewn cut through the crewn, parallel to the axis. Thete arches have a very {mall. rife, and their {pan is nine feet from one to the next. ‘Fhe abutments, or {pringings of the arches, are fupported by iron columns, a, a, as fhewn in the firures, which are ereéted, one upon another, in the feveral flocrs, through the whale height of the mill. They are connected by call-iron beams or girders, b, 4, fhewn in . 2, one of which extends from the top of every column to the next, and forms a fupport or {pringing for the arches. Jn an oppofite direCtion to thefe girders, every pair of the columns, a, a, are tied together, acrofs the arch,, by a wrought iron bar, which has an eye at each end, to. be hooked over the tops of the columns, and keep them tied together, refifting the lateral thrult of the arch, and pre- venting the columns from being: thruft afunder from each other, as they would otherwife be. Thus, though every floor is formed of a fyftem of arches,.like a-bridge,.as fhewn. in fig. 1, yet the lateral ftrain of each is fupported by iron tyes; fo that each arch ftands: by. its.own fupports,, inde- pendent of its neighbours. Thearches are of only one brick thicknefs, and are covered over at top by a floor of paving bricks, to make a flat furface above,.the haunches of the arches being filled up by rubbifh.. The iron tyes acrofs the arches are concealed within the brick-work of the arch, fo that they do not appear; the ceilings of the rooms, there. fore, confilt of regular arches, which have a very good ap- pearance, and make the mott firm and folid floors above that can be imagined. : \ Jig. 2, where the two columns, d, d,. are a continuation of the columns, a, a, in the lower floors ;.and a crofs or girder beam, e, which conneéts them, is alfo a fupport of the caift- iron principals, f, f, of the roof ;.and g, g, are further ftays, proceeding from the iron girders uniting the columns of the ceiling, 4,-beneath: the {pace between the two columns, @, d, in the roof, forms a {mall room, which is ufed as a {chiool- room for the work-people on Sundays; Vhe defks and fo-ms are fhewn in the figure. d The mill contains fifteen arches in length, as fhewn in fg. 1, between the walls CC, DD, which are the end walls of the mills. Befides thefe is another wall, L, to which the floors are continued by two additional arches, added beyond the end wall, C, of the mill. This fpace forms a {mall room on each floor, which is occupied by the opunting-houfe, ftair-cafe, and the ftove, which warms the mill in winter ; and alfo a crane of a peculiar conftruction, for drawing up the goods to the machines on the feveral floors. The {pace of the mill, therefore, between the walls C The roof, is of caft-iron, as fhewn in. MANUFACTURE OF COTTON, and D, is appropriated to the machinery, as is alfo the wing, which confifts of fix arches, as fhewn in SF'B+ 32 prae Jefing from the middle of the mill, perpendicular to its length. The width both of the mill and the wing is, as fhewn in g- 3, compofed of three lengths of arches, having three iron girders that they rife from, and two columns to fup- port them. The arches in the ground-floor, or cave of the mill, are fupported by very rong piers, m, inflead of iron columns. Thefe piers are founded very firmly in the earth, and every caution taken to prevent them {fubfiding, or fettling under the great weight ‘they have to carry. The columns of the firft floor are ereéted immediately upon the top of thefe piers: on the top of thefe colamns:are thofe fer the fecond floor ; the third furmount thefé, and‘fo on to the top of the mill: the columns being thus ere&ed, one upon another for the whule height of the nil, forms the fauncheit! building that can be imagined. We fhall now proceed to deferibe the machinery of the mill. The whole motion is taken from the great water- wheel M, fituated underneath the wing, in the cave, or loweft room of the mill; and as it is of fo great a fize, namely, 18 feet diameter, and 23 feet long, that no caft-iron girder could be thrown acrofs it trong enough to fupport the arches for the wing above it, a {trong {tone arch, N, is thrown acrofs from the wall 4, which is built up at one end’ of the water-wheel, to the wall, A, of the mill, which is at the other end of the mill; and to refit the thruft of this arch, two {trong iron bolts, w, are extended acrofs it, and render it as {trong as poffible; fo that the iron colmns of the wing over it may be raifed upon it as fafely as they could upon foundation piers, m, like the others. But as a: precaution againtt overloading the walls, 4 and A, which, as they include the water-wheel, would ruin every thing, if they fettled in the leaft, the arches of the wing immediately over the water-wheel are built, inftead of folid brick, with {mall pots like garden pots, fo that they are light, but {ufficiently {trong to bear any thing which is ever required to be loaded upon them. ‘Thefe fmall pots are alfo ufed to build the arched floor, K, of the roof, that it may be light, and as it has nothing to bear but the {chvol room, they are fufficiently {trong to make the floor. ‘The great water-wheel has a cog-wheel, 0, upon the end of its fhaft, which turns a pinion, f, on a {trong fhaft, that carries a wheel g, and thus turns a pinion on a third fhaft, r:.this, at the end, has a bevilled wheel, which gives motion to a vertical fhaft, s, proceeding up to the top of the mill, and turning the machinery in the feveral floors. The bevilled wheel on the fhaft, 7, alfo drives a horizontal fhaft, ¢, extending the whole length of the mill, and having upon it, juft beneath every arch, a bevilled wheel, turning another on a vertical fpindle, which rifes up through the two floors D and G. Thefe are the main fpindles of the fpin-- ning frames, and the great frames are fixed upon them. ‘The frames are all fhewn endways in fig. 1; but in Jig. 3) on the floor F, a pair of frames are fhewn in front, as they ftand fide by fide, and the floor, G, over it has juft the fame, as has alfo the wing, though not put in the drawing ; but thefe laft are turned by a bevilled wheel, v, fig. 1. on the fhaft s, in the floor G, which turns a horizontal fhaft, », Sik: 33 CX~ tending the whole length of the wing, and turning the f{pin- dles oP the feveral frames as it pafles over them. The two loweft floors, F, G, which are appropriated to the {pinning frames, contain 28 frames on each floor, 56 and 12 more in the two floors of the wing, in all containing 4236 {pin- dles, a confiderable proportion of which are, however, em- ployed in fpinning the hard twiit. The two next floors, veer the MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. the 3d, H, and the 4th, I, are occupied in the body of the mill with carding machines, which itand in three rows: they are turned by ftraps from a horizontal fhaft, extend- ing the whole length of the mill, over the machines. In fig. 1. they are fhewn endways, and jig. 3. fhews them in front of the floor H, while that above it is juft the fame, though not drawn? in all thefe two floors are 64 breaking cards,and.72 fimfhers. Yhe fame floors, H and ], in the wing, contain 16 drawing frames and four ftretching frames or mules, in which the rovings are prepared as defcribed in our account of the different methods of making rovings. The fifth floor, I, contains the reeling, doubling, and twalt- ing machines, &c. as we have defcribed; but the numbers cf the different kinds of thefe laft mentioned machines vary in every mill, according to the kind of cotton which is to be {pun in it, and that branch of trade its proprietor intended to carry on: if it is for {pinning twift for weavers, only reels will be wanted in the fifth floor; or if it is to {pin ftocking yarn, doubling and twilting machines will be wanted. Indeed thefe laft machines are altered every few years in cotton mills, according as the ftate of the trade varies from a demand of one article to another. The {pace of the mill, between the walls C and L, con- tains, as before-mentioned, the ftaircafe O, which is of ftore, afcending from one floor to the next, and alfo the crane P P. This is a moft ingenicus and ufeful machine, which has been adopted by Mefirs. Strutts in all their cotton mills, and it is applicable to many other manufactories. The crane con- fifts of a large fquare bafket, or cradle, four fect fix inches {quare in the bottom, withinfide, and fix feet deep: it is open in front. The bottom is a floor of wood, and the fides wicker or bafket work ftrongly bound with iron ftraps. This bafket or cradle is fufpended by a rope in a well P, ex- tending from the top to the bottom of the mill, through all its floors. The cradle exaétly fills the well, and is guided by iron fliders in each angle, fo that it may be {teadily drawn -up from one floor to any other by the power of the mill, and {topped or fet in motion, either up or down, at pleafure, by pulling two guide repes, which are always in reach of a little boy who fits at the top of the cradle in a feat made for the purpofe. Now the machinery for effecting this is the only difficulty : it is neceffary, in Heh a crane, that the machinery, when ca{t on to draw up the cradle, fhould move with a regular and equable velocity, without making any fhock or jerk when it firft ftarts; that it fhould flop the in- ftant it is required, otherwife it would be very difficult to fet the cradle, with its floor, exa¢ily on a level with any of the floors of the mill, and if not fo, it would be very incon- venient for the people to get in or out of it. The cradle muft alfo be let down by the power of the mill as well as drawn up, becaufe if fuffered to run down by its own weight, it would always run down too quick ar: too flow, and be dangerous and uncertain : it mult, at the fame time, be fo contrived, that the cradle itfelf will top the machine if drawn up too high, or let down too low, to pre- vent its being over-wound and breaking the works. All thefe conditions are effected, in the moft perfect manner, by very ingenious mechanifm, which was invented by Mr. H. Strutt, and has been adopted in all his father’s mills, ren- dering thefe cranes as fafe and manageable as poffible. “The rope {ufpending the cradle in the well is double, to enfure greater flrength, and 1s conducted over a pulicy, or grooved wheel, fituated in the roof gf the mill. ‘The other end has fuch a weight fufpended from it, afwill balance the weight of the cradle, together with half the weight of the ufual load the crane is expected to carry. This weight, therefore, draws the rope fo tight upon the grooved wheel, that it will, by turning round one way or the other, elevate or deprefs the cradle at pleafure, and at the fame time the balance weight, which has a {mall well of its own to work in, The axis of the grooved wheel has a cog-wheel on the end of it, which is turned round by a {mall pinion fixed on the extremity of an axis on which the mechanifm is placed ; it confilts, firlt, of a large wheel, like a coach wheel, fhewn at x, fig. 1, fixed on the middle of the axis, and on each fide of this are two broad riggers or drums to receive the endlefs ftraps, which give the motion againft thefe riggers on the outfide of each. A dead pulley or rigger is fitted loofely on the axis, and being exaétly the fame fize as the live riggers or pullies, the ftrap can be fhifted from one to the other in amoment. The axis is a€tuated by two endlefs flraps coming from one drawn at y, fig. 1, which is turned by wheel-work from the fhaft in the fitth floor of the mill, as the figure fhews. One of thefe {traps is crofied between the two drums, and the other is not, fo that the motion of the two dead pullies on which thefe {traps a&t are always in contrary direétions to each other, whilft the axis on which they run is ftationary. The two {traps are guided by pafling through eyes attached to a fide rail of a Friae frame, which includes the axis with both its rigpers and great wheel, and is fufpended from the top of the machine by four pendulous rods, fo that it has free motion to {wing backwards and forwards in a dire€tion parallel to the length of the axis of the pullies, which mos tion is communicated by a crank formed on a fpindle, having a grooved wheel on the end fit. An endlefs rope pafles over this wheel, and then defcends to the bottom of the well, where it: is {trained beneath another wheel, fo that the two fides of this rope are always in reach of the boy before- mentioned, who rides in a feat at the top of the cradle, giving him the means of turning the wheel and crank either way about, for by pulling down one of thefe guide ropes, he turns the wheel and crank, and draws the fufpended frame one way, or by pulling down the other guide rope it is drawn the other. The confequence of thefe movements is, that the endlefs {traps are fhifted both together on one or other of their live pullies, whilft the other ftrap will be fhifted upon the oppofite dead pulley ; confequently, the ftrap which is upon the live pulley turns the axis round one way or the other, drawing the cradle up cr down, as it happens to be the croffed ftrap, or the oppofite one, which is fhifted on the live pulley, fixed on the axis at either fide of the great wheel, which we firft compared to a coach’ wheel, This is, in reality, a brake wheel, having a broad {trap fur- rounding the lower half of it, both ends of which are con- ducted over two pullies, and levers with heavy weights draw down the ends, fo that it has a conftant tendency to prefs » upwards beneath the wheel, to break, or canfe fuch a fric- tion upon it, as will ftop its motion, when the two endlefs {lraps are fhifted upon their dead puilies; but when the {winging frame is thifted either way, by the boy pullin down one of the guide ropes, which go down to the bottom o the well, and either of the dtraps are thus fhifted upon the live pullies, the frame feizes the tail of a bent lever on each fide the wheel, and relieves the weights which draw the itrap againft the wheel, and it hangs quite flack beneath the wheel, with a confiderable {pace all round, fo that its motion » is quite free, and only under the influence of that flrap which, being upon one of the live pullies, gives it motion in either direction. The crank before-mentioned for fhifting the fwing- ing frame is fo contrived, that it always has a tendency, by means of a weight, to affume fuch a pofition, that it will direét the {winging frame, and the ftraps, both upon the dead pullies and the brake ftrap, being at the fame time in contaét with the lower half of the wheel, the cradle will ftand ea, MANUFACTURE OF COTTON. ftand ftill ; but when the crank, by pulling one of the guide ropes which go down to the bottom of the well, is turned to fhift the endlefs {traps either way, and confequently put the cradle in motion, the crank drops into a kind of hitch, or catch, which holds it in that potition, but not fo faft but that it can be relieved ina moment by fnatching the guide or rope, and if left to itfelf it then affumes that pofition in which the crane will ftand ftill. By this means the crane is inno danger of any accident, as it is always under the a€tion of one or other of the endlefs ftraps, which caufe it to afcend or defcend, or it is under the brake ftrap, which makes it ftand {till, and the great advantage of all thefe movements are, that they adt fo foftly, without any fudden jerks or fnatches in changing from one {tate to another. he well has a gate fixed up at every floor to prevent people falling down into the mill, and if any perfon, on the fifth flooz for inftance, withes to defcend to the third, he goes to the gate and calls the boy, who, with the cradle, is perhaps below, to come to No. 5, which he does by fnatching that guide rope which makes the crane draw up, when he fees the floor of the bafket come exactly oppofite the floor of the mill No. 5. He {natches the oppolite rope ; this jerks the crank out of its hitch, and it fhifts the ftraps and brake, itopping the cradle in an in‘tant, fo that it is feldom half an inch out of level with the floor. The perfon who wifhes to go down can now open the gate, which he could not do before, becaufe the latch of the gate is lifted up by the cradle, when its floor is level with the floor of the gate, and f{tepping into the cradle he mentions the floor he wilhes to go to, and the boy pulls down that directing rope which lets him down, and {tops it at the floor he wifhes, by fnatching the other rope ; but if he fhould pullthe wrong, no harm can enfue, becaufe the brake will always aGt to ftop the machine, if the traps do not a&t to move it. The bobbins of the {pinning frame, and the cops of the mule, are fet up in little frames mounted on wheels, and thus wheeled along by little children to the crane, and drawn up or let down as required, without any hard labour ; in fact the ftairs are fe\dom ufed except for the people to go up and down when they begin and leave off work. The ftove which warms all the mill is fituated down in the cave beneath the ftaircafe: it is very ingenioufly contrived with an iron cockle, or inverted cubical veflel, beneath which a fire is made, and the fmoke efcapes by a flue behind into achimney. The air is then bronght in a current to {trike upon the external furface of this cockle, and being thus warmed, rifes up through flues into every floor of the building, where it is admitted in any quantity at pleafure by regilters, which are regulated to produce an agreeable warmth, but as the warm air efcapes again with a draught through a proper ventilator, there is nothing of clofenefs connected with it. Our limits wiil not permit us to defcribe more of the in- genious contrivances with which Meflis. Strutts? extenfive rnills at Belper abound, neither could the reader form a good idea of them without additional plates, and we have already exceeded our propofed number. Meiirs. Strutts very liberally permitted the writer of this article to vilit their works, for the purpofe of compoting it, to take drawings of the principal machines, which are of the very beft conitruétion of any in the cotton trade. Thefe would have appeared here; but that the firft fix plates of our feries were drawn and engraved fome years ago, being intended for the ar- ticle Corron, at a time when the machinery was not brought to that perfeclion, in point of conftryétion, that it as now. Lndeed, the mechanical ingenuity called. forth in the whole manufacture of cotton, is beyond the conception of thofe who have not vifited the countries where it is carried on. The tools and implements employed in conftru€ting the different machines. are very curious ; for as there are fuch immenfe numbers of each part of every machine to be made, it becomes, in the fame manner as with the clock-maker, worth the machine-maker’s trouble to conftruét complicated tools and engines to expedite the manufacture of the parts; thus cutting engines for forms ing the teeth of the numerous wheels, fee Cutting Ex- cine. And here we would remark, that Mr. George Gilpin of Sheffield has, fince the printing of that article, invented a method of cutting wheels from folid caft iron, with as much accuracy and as good a finifh as brafs wheels have hitherto been cut, making a very great faving in the expence of brafs for a large mill, and much more durable when done. Card wires are manufaCtyred in’ a very ex. tenfive feale in Yorkfhire, cad many very curious ma- chines have been invented to diminith the labour of cutting and bending the wire teeth, and pricking the leathers for them: but a patent has been lately taken out, by Mr. J. C. Dyer, for a machine which cuts and bends the wires, pricks the leathers,’and puts them in all at one operation, and with fuch rapidity, that it com- pletes four ger fecond. It is one of the moft ingenious and pertect machines we ever met with, and it will prick and ftick any fort or fize of teeth, by altering adjaftments introduced for that purpofe. Drawings and a full defcrip- tion of this curigus machine are lodged in the patent office by the patentee, who brought over the invention from “America, where it has been fome time in conftant ufe. Curious lathes for turning {pindles, and various other cir- cular work, are ufed in the workfhops of the cotton mills and fluting machines, for cutting the flutes in the lengths of the rollers of the drawing and {pinning frames: in fhort, fuch works as Meffrs. Strutts’ at Belper, Mr. Arkwright at Crauford, in Derbyfhire, Meffrs. Phillips and Lees at Manchetter, Mr. Peeles’ and many others, are fchocls for mechanics in almo{t every department of the fcience ; and - good ones too, as the cotton manufacturers in general are convinced, that it is their intereft to attend to every mi- nutia in the con{truétion of their machines, which may render them more durable or their operations more perfeét. Among thefe improvements we may mention, what is be- coming very general, viz. the addition of governors, or re- gulating balls, to the water-wheel, which turn the cotton mills, as they always keep it moving at the fame fpeed, with- out which all the machines in the mill act irregularly, and it mult happen that the velocity of the common water-wheel varies, when any number of machines are ftopped, or cait in motion ; but the regulated water-wheel always adapts its draught of water to the work it has to perform, preferving an uniform velocity in itfelf and all the machines it turns. This is brought to fuch perfection, that many fuch mills have a clock turned by the mill; clofe to it another clock, regulated, in the ufual manner by a pendulum, and the motion cf the mill is fo regular, that thefe two clocks will never vary more than two cr three minutes. Both are made with dials and hands exaétly alike, but one has atitle on the dial, m#// time, and the other, clock time. We hall take an opportunity of explaining a regulated water-wheel, under WATER-WHEEL. We fhall here clofe this article, though we have only gone through the detail of cotton-fpinning, becaufe the {ubfequent procefles of weaving cotton-thread into cloth, drefling, finifhing, printing, &c., have been or will be ex- plained M AN plained under the following feveral heads ;. viz. for explana- tions of the weaving procefles, fee Draucur of looms, or Corpinc, Draw-Loom, Draper, Dimrry, Dornock. Though the three laft are rather Jinen than cotton, ftill the fame proceffes apply in part to the weaving of cotton goods} fee alfo Fusviay, and laftly, Weavinc. For the Grefling of cloth after weaving, fee CALENDAR, or rather Printixe of Calico, which precedes the calendar, except for fome particular goods and as a part of calico-printing fee Diprinc; alfo Buracuine, Dyeine, Discnanrcine, and WASHING-WHEELS. And, as we have before mentioned, a full account of the wonderful rife and progrefs of the co'ton manufaéture, which is wholly-founded upon the im- provements in the machinery for fpinning, will ‘be found under Corton. Under the head of Spinnina, we hall deferibe thofe variations of the cotton machines, which have been made to adapt them tothe fpinning of flax, wool, and wortted. MANUFACTURERS. Perfons-enticing artificers into ‘foreign countries incur the penalty of soo/. and twelve morths imprifonment, for the firft offence, for each perfon -fo feduced, and~1000/. and two years imprifonment, for -the fecond offence. (23 Geo. II. c. 13.) And fuch artificers not returning within fix months after warning, fhall be ‘deemed aliens, forfeit all their lands and goods, and be in- capable of any legacy or gift. (5 Geo. I.c.27.) By 22 -Geo. IIL. c. Go. if any perfon fhall contra with, or endea- your to perfuade any artificer concerned in printing calicoes, ‘cottons, muflins, or linens, or preparing any tools for fuch -manufa&tory, to go out of the kingdom, he fhall forfeit ‘soo, and be imprifoned for twelve months; for a fecond offence, 1000/. and be imprifoned for two years. MANUGASTA, in Geography, a town of South America, in the province of Tucuman; 20 miles S. of St. Yago el Efteros. MANULGCA, in Antiquity, that part of the catapulta to -which the cord ufed in working it was fixed. MANULBPA, in Botany, fo named, as it. fhould feem, from manulea, a covering for the hand, in allufion to the form of the corolla, the four fegments of whofe limb point- ‘ing one way, and the fifth feparate from them, fuggeft the idea of a glove, at leaft in Manulea Cheiranthus. Linnzns, who gave this name, fearcely ever deigned to give any ex~- -planation of the names he contrived, and we offer the above as a conjecture only. Profeffor Martyn leaves it unex- plained. Linn, Mant. 42. Schreb. 416. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 327. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Thunb. Prod. 100. Juff. roo, Lamarck Tluftr. t. 520. Gaertn. t. 55. (Ne- mia; Berg. Cap. 160.) Clafs and order, Didynamia Angi- ofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Pediculares, Jul. Scrophularia, Venten. ; Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep, linear, ereét, equal, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal, irre- ular; tube cylindrical, contracted at the mouth; limb F catkins in five deep awl-fhaped fegments, the four upper- moft of which are moft connected at their bafe, the lower one being reflexed. Stam. Filaments four, very fhort ; an- thers of the upper two in the mouth of the corolla, thofe of the two lower rather oblong, within the tube. Pi/. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; flyle thread-fhaped, the length of the lower ftamens; ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, the length of the calyx, with two cells and two valves, which laft when ripe are half cloven; partition double, formed of the inflexed margins of the valves. Seeds nume- rous, fmall, affixed to au oblong, compreffed, central colunoa. : MAN Eff. Ch! Calyx inferior, in five deep fegments. Dims of the corolla in five deep awl-fhaped fegments, the upper four of which are moft conneéted. Capfule of two cells, with many feeds. Obf. ‘The above characters are taken from the origin: fpecies, AZ. Cheiranthus above-mentioned, but they by no means agree, at leaft in the limb of the corolla, with the generality of thofe fubfequently referred to this genus in the Supplementum and elfewhere. Bergius gives as the eflen- tial chara&er of his Nemia, which includes AZ. Cheiranthus and rubra of Linneus, that the two upper anthers are — roundifh, the two lower oblong. This however is proba-~ bly variable, and certainly not very important. Thunberg indicates no generic character, but enumerates a great num ber of fpecies, 28, in his Prodromus Plantarum Capenfium, four of which have entire, 23 toothed or ferrated, and one pinnatifid leaves, Willdenow admits but 17 in all, not having, when he wrote, feen the fecond part of Thunberg’s work.—The chief difficulties are found in diftinguifhing be- tween Manuka, Erinus and Buchnera. Ventenat in his Jard. de la Malinaifon, 15, fuggefls that the two former are moft nearly allied, and differ only in the lobes of the corolla of Erinus being more or lefs notched or cloven, while thofe of the genus before us are entire. Buchnera, according to this writer, differs fo effentially from both as to belong to a dif- ting natural order, the Pediculares of Juffieu, as having the partition of its fruit, contrary to the valves; whereas the other two genera, having it parallel, belong to the Scrophu- Jarie of that author. As the matter is fo obfeure, and the plants fo little known, we fhall take a view of all thofe in Willdenow, giving what illuftration is peffible from original fpecimens, and adding what we can that has éfeaped him. 1. M. Cheiranthus. Hand-flowered Manulea. ‘Ginn. Mant. 88. Willd. n. 1. (Lobelia Cheirauthus 3 Linn. Sp. Pl. 1319. Nemia Cheiranthus ; Berg. Cap. 160. ‘Cheiranthus africana, flore luteo; Commel. Hort. v. 2. ‘83. t. 42.)—Leaves obovate-oblong, ferrated, hairy. Stems nearly leaflefs, fomewhat racemofe. Segments of the cd- rolla taper-pointed.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, as are all the following {pecies, Commelin cultivated it at Amfterdam in 1697, and named it Cheiranthus, from the re- femblance of the flower to a hand, an etymology that con- firms our explanation of the Linnean generic name above. The root is annual, fpindle-fhaped. Stems about a fpan high, ereét or afcending, nearly fimple, almofl leaftefs, each terminating in a fimple, elongated, braGeated clufter, of numerous yellow flowers, whofe form is deferibed in the generic character. The /eaves are almoft all radical, ftalked, obovate or oblong, ftrongly ferrated, more or lefs hairy, paler beneath. The herbage, calyx, braéteas, and even the outfide of the corolla, are befprinkled with filvery dots | or granulations. The cap/ule is elliptical and fmooth, its par- tition formed by the inflexed margins of the valves, and fo far parallel thereto. 2. M. corymbcfa. Corymbofe Manulea. Linn Suppl. 286. Thunb. Prod. 102. Willd. n. 2.—* Leaves obovate, toothed, fmooth. Flowers in level-topped, fomewhat um- bellate, clufters.’—We know nothing of this f{pecies but the above characters, given by Thunberg and the younyer Linneus. The /em is faid to be naked. 3- M. altifima. ‘Tall Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 286. Thunb. Prod. 102. Willd. n. 3.—Leaves radical, larceo- Tate, fomewhat toothed, hairy: Stem elongated, almott naked. Spike ovate-oblong. Lobes of the corolla rounded. —The /eaves are all radical, about four inches long, lane ceolate, tapering down into a footfalk; their edges un. equally MA IN Uae A. equally toothed; their furface clothed with fhort glandular white hairs. Stem two feet high, ereé&t, hairy in the fame manner, fcarcely at all branched, terminating in a denfe, rather corymbofe, /pite, of numerous, large, and apparently handfome, flowers, the fegments of whofe corolla are un- equal, fpreading horizontally, of a rounded fomewhat kid- ney-like fhape; the mouth clofed. Calyx hairy, divided to the very bafe. Capfule of the ftru€ture proper to the enus. . 4. M. plantaginea. Pilantain-like Manulea. Thunb. Prod. ro1. (M. Plantaginis; Linn. Suppl. 286. Willd. n. 5.)—Leaves ovate, obtufe, ftalked, entire or toothed, fmooth. Stems diffufe, nearly naked. Spikesovate. Brac- teas obovate, longer than the flowers. — Root long, fibrous, apparently annual. Stems three or four, decumbent, divari- eated, about two inches long, fimple, almoft leaflefs, hairy. Leaves not unlike thofe of a daify, ovate, obtufe, {mooth, flefhy, occafionally toothed, meafuring, with their foot/alk, rather above an inch in length. Spikes moftly folitary, fhort, round and denfe, of many {mall flowers, feparated by obovate, obtufe bradeas, twice their own length, whofe bafe only is hairy. Calyx bell-fhaped, hairy, not very deeply divided. Segments of the corolla rounded, and fome of them, if we miftake not, cloven, in which cafe this plant becomes an Erinus. 5- M. linifolia. Flax-leaved Manulea. Thunb. Prod. 100. —“ Leaves linear, nearly entire, rough with minute hairs.” —We received from Kew garden in 1791, fpecimens by the name of AZanulea, which an{wer exaétly to the above cha- raGters of Thunberg, of whofe plant we have no further information, it not being defcribed by Linnzus or Willde- now. Our’s has a flender, branched, leafy, nearly {mooth ftem. Vhe leaves are oppofite, {talked, an inch and half long, about a line broad, bluntifh, rough with minute glan- dular pubefcence; their margin occafionally toothed ; their bafe tapering into a flender footftalk. Flowers numerous, in loofe, compound, terminal clufters, with {mall oblong bradteas. Calyx {mall, obtufe, fmooth. Corolla flender, above half an inch long, its tube glandular in the upper part, its limb of a rich deep yellow, in five oblong, obtufe feements, whofe edges are reflexed, and one of which feems more {preading than the reft, as in the firft fpecies.—Can what we defcribe be Buchnera vifcofa, Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 357? L?Heritier’s figure has never appeared. 6. M. pinnatifida. Pinnatifid Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 286. Thunb. Prod. 102. Willd. n. 4.—‘ Leaves ovate, pinna- tifid; their fegments toothed.”’—This we have not met with. 7. M. capitata. Capitate Manulea. Linh. Suppl. 286. Thunb. Prod. ror. Willd. n. 6.—* Leaves ovate, ferrated, villofe. Flowers in globofe heads. Branches diffufe.”— Such is the Linnwan charaéter, but Thunberg fays the /aves are oblong and fmooth. It feems next akin to M. planta- ined. 3 8. M. antirrhinoides. Snap-dragon Manulea. Lifn. Suppl. 286. Thunb. Prod. 101? Willd. n. 7.—* Leaves ovate, toothed, fmooth. Flowers alternate.’’—Here again is fome contrariety between Linneus and Thunberg. The latter, who gathered the plant, defines it “ leaves ovato-lan- ceolate, ferrated, villofe. Heads of flowers globofe. Stem ere&.”’?- Linnzus fays it looks like an Antirrhinum. We have in vain attempted to determine it by his herbarium. — g. M. thyrfifora. Crowded-flowered Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 286. Thunb. Prod. 102. Willd. n. 8.—* Leaves obovate, downy, toothed. Corymb terminal, elongated, compound.’?—Thunberg defcribes the aves as crenate, the Vor. XXII. flowers panicled. We. have what feems to be this {pecies, gathered by Sparrmann in fhady places at the Cape. The » fem is fomewhat fhrubby, and very much branched, hairy. Leaves oppofite, hairy, ftrongly toothed. Inflorefcence at firft corymbofe, afterwards becoming more loofe and pani- cled. Calyx hairy, with long flender divifions, not quite fe- parate to the bafe. Segments of the corolla obovate. 10. M. argentea. Silvery Manulea. Linu. Suppl. 286. Thunb, Prod. 102. Willd. n. 9.—Leaves alternate, obo- vate, wedge-fhaped, ferrated, befprinkled with filvery dots. Flower-ftalks axillary, fingle-flowered, longer than the leaves. —Thunberg’s own {pecimen, given to Linnzus, here leaves nv doubt on our minds, though their definitions of it a little vary. The flem is woody, with numerous crowded leafy branches. Leaves ftalked, {mall, alternate, with little axil- lary tufts of ftill fmaller ones; their form obovate or round- ifh, ftrongly ferrated, wedge-fhaped and entire at the bafe ; the under fide, more efpecially, clothed with glandular filvery dots, as is alfo the deeply-divided calyx. Segments of the corolla rounded. The flower-ftalks are folitary, axil- lary, fimple, fmooth, about an inch long, much exceed- ing the leaves. Cap/ele proper to the genus. The plant turns black in drying. . 11. M. oppofitiflora. Oppofite-flowered Manulea. Ven- ten. Malmail. t. 15.—Shrubby, downy. Leaves oppofite, ovate, deeply ferrated. Flower-{talks axillary, fingle-flower- ed, the length of the leaves.—M. Ventenat defcribes this as a native of the Cape, ‘flowering profufely during the fummer and autumn. It has the fhrubby habit and afpeé of the laft, but the oppofite /eaves and flowers clearly diftinguith it. If Buchnera pedunculata, Andr. Repof. t. 84, be, as Ven- tenat fays, generically diftin&, and even effentially different in its capfule, from thefe two fpecies, it muft be allowed their habit is too fimilarto make fuch a difference credible in all the force he allows it. Buchnera ethiopica and capenfis of Linnzus if, as Thun- berg now makes them, {pecies of Afanulea, fhould follow here, the former being nearly akin in habit to the two or three lait deferibed. But as habit feems treacherous with regard to thefe plants, we dare not decide. See Bucu- NERA. 12. M. tomentofa, Woolly Manulea, Linn. Mant. 420. Willd. n. 10. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 498. Curt. Mag. t. 322. Thunb. Prod. 101. (Selago tomentofa ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 877.) —Leaves obovate, downy, bluntly toothed. Stem leafy. Clufter compound, terminal, many-flowered—Mr. Maffon is faid in the Hort. Kew. to have introduced this {pecies into the gardens of Britain in 1774. Itis we believe naturally fhrub- by and perennial. The branches are round, leafy, and they, as well as the foliage, inflorefcence, and even the outfide of the flowers, are clothed with denfe hoary pubefcence. Leaves mottly oppofite, an inch or more in length, obovate, very obtufe, unequally and bluntly toothed. F/owers very nu- merous, ina denfe, compound, hoary clufter, produced from May to November, having, according to Mr. Curtis, «a fingular but unpleafant fmell, not perceptible at a diftance.”” The outfide of the corsllais pale yellow, as is the upper fide of the limb when firft expanded, but the latter gradually affumes a deeper and deeper orange. There is a great affinity between thefe flowers and thofe of our M. linifolia, n. 5. 79s M. rubra. Red Manulea. Thunb. Prod. ro2z. Willd. n. 11. (Nemia rubra; Berg. Cap. 161.)—Leaves lanceolate, toothed, villous. Clutter lax. Flowers nearly feffile.-Linnzus had no fpecimen of this. Bergius defcribes it with an herbaceous, round, nearly 3 N {mooth Linn. Suppl. 286. MAN fmooth fem. Upper leaves, (or bra@eas,) linear, toothed, rough, feflile; the lower he had not feen. Clu/ler terminal, very long aud flender, its branches alternate, diftant and erect, the flowers nearly feffile. Calyx fringed. Tube of the corolla long, flender, pale red, thickened and hairy up- wards ; fegments of the limb linear-ovate, obtufe, hairy be- neath, fpreading, nearly equal, revolute inthe margin, deep fcarlet. 14. M. capillaris. Capillary Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 285. Thunb. Prod. 1o1. Willd. n. 12— Stem-leaves obovate, {mooth ; thofe of the branches linear. Spikes ovate.”’? Linn. Thunb. 15. M. cuneifolia. Wedge-leaved Manulea. Linn. Supp}. 285. Thunb. Prod.1a1. Willd. n. 13.— Leaves elliptic- ovate, toothed, nearly {mooth. Spikes at length oblong. Calyx fringed.—The /fem is fhrubby, much branched, leafy, round and downy. Leaves nearly oppofite, ftalked, about half an inch long, ovate, obtufe, with coarfe blunt fer- ratures ; both fides occafionally flightly hairy, often {mooth. Spikes. terminal, folitary ; at firft denfe and almoft capitate, with a linear, obtufe, fringed dradea to each \ flowers longer than the flower itfelf. Segments of the ca/y« very deep, linear, obtufe, fringed with foft hairs. As the fruit advances, the {pike becomes very long. The lobes of the corolla are rounded, obtufe and entire. Capfule elliptical, narrow, obtufe, with a {trong furrow at each fide. 16. M. cerulea. Blue Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 28%. Thunb. Prod. 101? Willd. n. 14.—« Leaves linear, op- pofite, downy, toothed. Flowers racemofe.’”’? Lian.— Thunberg defines the Zaves.as lanceolate, the flowers axillary and folitary. We have feen no {pecimen. 17. M. heterophylla. Various-leaved Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 285. Thunb. Prod. 101. Willd. n. 15.—* Leaves linear, fcattered, villofe, entire or toothed?’ Lina.— Thunberg fays ‘lower leaves ovate, fomewhat toothed, vil- lous ; upper linear entire. Heads of flowers globofe.” We know no more of this than of the latt. 18. M. integrifolia. Entire-leaved Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 285. Thunb, Prod. too, Willd. n. 16.—Leaves oppolite, ovate, nearly entire, {mooth. Flower-ftalks axillary, fingle- flowered, the length of the leaves.—This is perhaps next akin to our tenthand eleventh {pecies, though effentially dif- ferent in its ‘aves, being at moft but flightly ferrated. They greatly refemble thofe of Thymus Acinos, and the fpe- cies might well have been named shymifolia or ocymifolia. The Jjlem is fhrubby, round, much branched. Leaves oppofite, on fhort downy footftalks, which embrace the ftem;. nor are they by any means fcattered, as Linneus defines them. Calyx {mooth, its fegments long and narrow. ‘Tube of the corolla {welling upwards ; fegments of the limb rounded, obtufe. 19. M. microphylla. Small-leaved Manulea. Linn. Suppl. 285. Thunb. Prod. roo. Willd. n. 17. (Pluk. Phyt. t. 272. f. 7.)—Leaves denfely tufted, ovate, entire, fmooth. Flower-ftalks lateral, folitary, fingle-flowered, downy, much longer than the leaves.—Gathered by Sparrmann as well as Thunberg atthe Cape. Stem woody, with very nunierous branches, along which are arranged crowded denfe tufts of innumerable, extremely minute, /eaves, each tuft feeming the rudiment.of afuture branch. The flower-flalhs, {catter- ed here and there, are about half an inch long, folitary, fim- pm alcening rigs Segments of the calya oblong, obtufe, owny, deeply feparated. , Plukenet perhaps reprefents the calyx, not the corolla; the latter we have not feen.. His figure was juftly indicated by Linnzus himfelf on the fpeci- men, though omitted in the Suppl. id MAN We fubjoin the remaining fpecies of Thunberg, without regard to the order in which they ought to come, as we have no means of correétly afcertaining it. . 20. M. revoluta. Revolute Manulea. Thunb. Prod,. roo.—‘* Leaves linear, entire, revolute in the margin. Flowers axillary.”"—This he places next after his Jinifolia ; fee n. 5. 21. M. incana. Hoary Manulea. Ibid. 101.—** Leaves oblong, ferrated. Spikes level-topped. Calyx hoary.??— Before cuneifolia, n. 15. 22. M divaricata. Spreading Manulea. Ibid.—* Leaves elliptical, toothed. Spike terminal, level-topped.’’ 23. M. virgata. Wand-like Manulea. Ibid.—*« Leaves obovate, ferrated, villous. Branches panicled. Flowers alternate, remote.’’ 24. M. cephalotes. Great-headed Manulea, « Leaves oblong, unequally ferrated, fmoovh, fomewhat umbellate.’’ . 25. M.hirta. Hairy Manulea. Ibid.— Leaves obo- vate, doubly ferrated, hairy. Flowers axillary, remote.” 26. M. hi/pida. Hifpid Manulea. Ibid. 102.—** Leaves ovate, ferrated, villous. Stem decumbent.’’ 27. M. cordata. Heart-leaved Manulea. Ibid —« Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated. Stem decumbent, creeping.’ §, MANUMISSION, Manvumissio, an aét whereby a flave, or villain, is fet at liberty, or let out of bondage. The word comes from the Latin manus, hand, and mitterey. to fend ; quia fervus mittebatur extra manum, feu poteflatem do- mint fut. Some authors define manumiffion an at by which a lord enfranchifes his tenants, who till that time had been his vaf- fals, and in a ftate of flavery,. inconfiftent with the fanctity of the Chriftian faith. Among the Romans, the manumiffion of flaves was per~ formed three feveral ways. 1. When, with his mafter’s con- fent, a flave had his name entered in the cenfus, or public segilter, of the citizens, 2. When the flave was led before the pretor, and that magiftrate laid his wand, called vin- diéa, on his head. 3. When the mater gave the flave his freedom by his teftament. Servius Tullus is faid to have fet on foot the firft manner ; and P. Valerius Publicola the fe- cond. A particular account is given of the-third in the In- ftitutes of Juftinian. It was not neceflary that the praetor fhould. be on. his tri- bunal to perform the ceremony of manumiffion = he did it any where, indifferently, in his houfe, inthe ftreet, in going» to bathe, &c. He laid the rod on the flave’s head, pro- nofincing thefe words, ‘ Dico eum liberum effe more Qui- ritum,”? * £ declare him a freeman, after the manner of the Romans.” This done, be gave the rod to the liétor, who- ftruck the flave with it on the head,.and afterwards, with his hand, on his face and back ;, and the notary or {cribe, entered. the name of the new freed-man in the regifter, with the rea- fons of his manumiffion. The flave had likewife his head fhaved,.and a cup given him by his matter, as a token of freedom. Tertullian adds, that he had then alfo a third name given him:. if this were fo, three names were not a, token of nobility, but of free- dom. The emperor Conftantine ordered the manumiffions at Rome to be performed in the churches. Of manumiffion there have alfo been various forms in Eng- land. In the time of the Conqueror, villains were: manu- mitted, by the matter’s delivering them, by. the right hand,, to the vifcount, in full court, fhewing them the door, giving them a lance and a {word, and proclaiming them free. Others. Ibid.— Le 3 Flowers- MAN ‘Others were manumitted by charter. "There was alfo an implicit manumiffion ; as when the lord made an obligation for payment of money to the bondman at a certain day ; or fued him, where he might enter without fuit ; and the like. MANUPELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra ; eight miles S. of Civita de Chieta. MANURE, in Agriculture, that fort of fubftance or ma- terial, whatever its nature may be, that has the property or ‘effet when applied on, and incorporated with a foil, to in- creafe its fertility, and thereby promote the growth of dif- ferent kinds of plants, fuch as thofe of the grain, grafs, and other defcriptions. It may be noticed that the fubftances capable of being made ufe of in this way, are extremely numerous, and of different natures and properties. It has been ftated by a late writer, that on account of the changes that are continually taking place among bodies in nature, and the new combina- tions that are formed in confequence of them, a vaft variety of matters are unfolded, elaborated, and prepared for the nourifhment and fupport of vegetables ; fome of which poffefs a high degree of fluidity and volatility, as water, various gafeous materials, as oxygen, hydrogen, azote, and carbonic acid, in different ftates of combination, with other more fubtile and elaftic fluids, which are principally formed and applied in or upon the foils on which the plants grow andexift ; and in larger or {maller proportions, according to the feafon of the year, the nature of the climate in refpeét to theat or cold, and the ftate or condition of the land in regard to its properties ; while others exift in a more grofs and heavy ftate of conneétion with the different materials, and require to be applied and blended with the foils, or fpread out upon their furfaces, in order that they may exert their influence in promoting vegetation. But itis thefe laft, as being the chief means of fupporting various forts of plants, as crops, that are confidered as manures, though it is plain they muft un- dergo different changes to fit them for the purpofe. In ad- dition it is likewife remarked, that in the various fubftances applied in this way, there are great differences; ‘ fome are found to yield the matters which are neceflary for the fupport of plants much more readily, and more abundantly ‘than others, as animal, vegetable, and all fuch fubftances as are rich in mucilage, faccharine matter, and calcareous earth, and readily afford carbon, phofphorus, and fome aerial fluids, fuch as have been mentioned ; while others that are greatly deficient in all or many of thefe principles, or'do not readily part with them, are found to be of much lefs utility, when employed in the way of manures.’’ [tis fuppofed that this is *€a principal reafon why fome forts of manures or fub- ftances, when put upon grounds, are fo greatly fuperior to others, ufed at the fame time, and in the fame manner and proportion.” But befides thefe there are ‘* other ways in which fubftances, when applied to foils, may render them more fertile and produétive, and contribute to the aid of vegetation. Some, befides furnifhing fuch matters as are fuitable for the purpofe of promoting the growth of plants, are known to add confiderably to the quantity of vegetable and other matters contained in the foils on which they are placed, and thereby provide a more fuitable and convenient bed for the reception of the roots of plants; others contri- bute little in this way, but operate chiefly upon fuch ma- terials as are contained in them, breaking down their organi- zation or texture, and thus fetting at liberty different vola- tile and other ingredients, by which new compounds are formed, and brought to fuch ftates as are the moft adapted to the fupport of vegetable life ; others again aét principally by producing certain changes and alterations in the conttitu- tion or texture of foils, {uch as rendering them more open MAN and porous, or more ftiff and compat, and by fuch means bringing them iato the moft proper conditions for the bearing of different vegetable preduétions ; and there are ftill others that contribute in all or feveral of thefe ways at the fame time."" By different inquirers thefe fubftances have indeed been conceived to ‘operate im all the different ways by which vegetation is promoted: by imparting to the foil with which they are mixed the vegetable food which they contain: by communicating to it a power of attraéting this food in greater plenty from the air: by enlarging the vegetable pafture : by diffolving the vegetable food which it is already poffeffed of, and fitting it for entering the roots of plants. Some afford nourifhment only ; as rape-duft, foot, malt-duft, pi- geons’ dung, and in general all top or hand-dreffings. Oxhers give nourifhment, and alfo add to the foil ; as animal dungs, and all rotten animal and vegetable fubftances. Others again open the foil, and do not nourifh in their own nature ; as lime, light marles, fand, &c. And latlly, other manures fiiffen the foil, and at the fame time nourifh a little 5 as clay, clay marles, andearth.’’ Matters of this kind have alfo been “‘confidered by different agriculturifts as fimple and com- pound ; as natural and artificial ; nutritious and flimulating, or folvents and mucilages ; mechanical or chemical 3 as ani- mal, vegetable, and mineral, &c.’? All which diftinGtions may have their ufe, but are each attended with difficulties, and liable to obje€tions. ‘* Some of them operate in all the ways above-mentioned ; and there are probably none that do not operate in more ways than one. It is a fundamental miftake to fuppofe with Tull, that tillage may be fubiti- tuted in the place of manure. Manures will indeed be of little avail without it; but although good tillage, by fepa- rating the foil, may bring a greater number of nutritious par- ticles within the reach of the crop, yet the foil cannot poflibly continue to be fo completely divided as itis by the fermeuta- tion excited by dung and other manures; which are found to enrich the beft pulverized foil again and again, after ic is exhaufted by crops; and therefore promote vegetation by increafing the quantity of vegetable food. Some manures lofe part of their ftrength by being long expofed to the air. Thus after dung is fufficiently fermented, the longer it lies, the lefs is its value. Cow-dung dried on the patture, ga- thered and laid upon other land, has fcarcely any effect ; whereas the fame quantity carried from the cow-houfe, or collected by folding the cattle, enriches the land. Hence this kind of manure contains the vegetable food in itfelf, and does not receive it from the air. Other manures, on the contrary, operate fooner, and with greater violence, the longer they are expofed to the air, before they are ufed. Lime and marles are of this kind. They are obferved to have a ftrong power of attracting certain qualities from the at- mofphere ; and operate by communicating to the foil with which they are mixed a power of attraCting vegetable food from the air.”? And further, ‘‘fome manures exhauft land of its vegetable food, and do not reftore it again when im- mediately applied. This is thought by fome to be the cafe with lime. Land thoroughly limed, after having carried many very good’crops, feems to be exhaufted, and reduced to a worfe fituation than before. When in this cafe lime has been applied a fecond time, its effects have been found to be far inferior to what they were when firft applied. This manure, therefore, feems to operate by diffolving the vege- table food which it meets with in the foil, and fitting it for entering the roots of plants. It may however be noticed, that the exhauftion of land by lime, is owing to bad manage- ment and unmerciful forcing it with continued white crops. It is not certain that land will not bear a fecond liming. 3N2 But , MAN But it is certain that the effe&ts of the lime may belong kept up by the proper application of dung and other faponaceous manures ; and there have been inftances of the effect of lime continuing forty, fifty, or even a hundred years.'’ It is certain that almolt ‘all kinds of manures contribute to open the foil. Any perfon may be convinced of this, who will take the trouble to compare a piece of land on which dung or any other manure has been laid, with a piece contiguous that bas not been manured ; he will find the fermer much fofter, much more free and open than the latter. It muft be allowed, therefore, that all manures operate by enlarging the vegetable pafture of plants.’ ence, on account of the great differences that are thus met with in the properties and principles, as well as in the agency of the matters that are made ufe of as manures, it is difficult to bring them into any fort of praétical arrange- ment. That which tends to fhew the nature and qualities of the materials from which they are derived, feems to be the mot advantageous in the cultivation and improvement of land, Manures of the animal Kind.—It may be obferved, that the materials which conititute this fort of manure, are of very different kinds, but they may be conveniently diftinguifhed into fuch as are of a Soft and hard quality ;, the former com- prehending all forts of animal dungs, and various other ani- malized materials of a foft nature; the latter including all forts of hard animal matters, fuch as bones, horns, hoofs, and different other fub{tances of a fimilar kind. It has indeed been remarked by a late pra¢tical writer, that * all fubltances of the animal kind, when reduced by the procefs of putrefaétion or other means into a foft, pulpy, or muci- laginous condition, have been fhewn, by the experience of the motft correct and able cultivators, to afford thofe matters which are fuited to the nutrition and fupport of plants, with greater readinefs, and in a more copious manner, than molt other bodies. And chemical analytis has demontftrated, that the chief component materials of fuch fubftances, fo far as agriculture is concerned, are principally water, jelly, or mucilage, and faccharine oleaginous matters, with {mall portions of faline and calcareous earthy fubftances. Hence animal matters, though they agree, in fome circumftances, with vegetable productions, each having in common water, faccharine and calcareous matters, are far more compounded ; and in animal fub{tances fome of thefe materials are in large proportions, while in vegetables they only exift in a very, {mall degree; and the jelly, which in fome meafure refembles the gum and mucilage of plants, differs likewife from them, in its having much lefs tendency to become dry, as well as in its property of attraéting humidity from the atmofphere, and of running with great rapidity into the {tate of putre- faétion and decay.”’ And in addition, “all thefe principles of animal fubftances are, it is added, refolved by their ulti- mate decompofition into other matters, fuch as the different gafeous fluids that have been mentioned above, carbon, phofphorus, lime, &c.”? It is likewife fuppofed, that in animal fubftances of different forts, there may be differences in regard to the proportions o. thefe feveral ingredients or principles ; fome kinds affording one or more of them in greater abundance than others; while others again are def- cient in thefe, but abound in fome of the others. On this fuppolition, the different effeéts of fubftances of the fame clafs, when applied to foils of the fame kind, may, it is conceived, be eafily accounted for.”’ It is found, that all fubftances of this kind, ‘‘ on being deprived of their vital principle, have a quick tendency to take on or run into the ftate of putrefaction, a procefs which is confiderably affeéted and influenced by the circum- URE. flances under which it is produced, But in the horny and more compat animal matters, this tendency to putrefaétion and decompoiition is, under fimilar circumftances, much lefs rapid than in fuch as are of a lefs firm and denfe texture. The procefs of putrefaction is, however, greatly expedited by the conditions under which it takes place being favour- able; fuch as the fubftance, of whatever kind it may be, palleting. fufficient moifture, being expofed to the free ation of atmofpheric air, and a moderate degree of heat. On various accounts it would likewife appear, that the de- compofition of fuch fubltances may be promoted by moif- tening them with water, flightly impregnated with common falt, and perhaps fome other faline fubftances, fuch as the murtats of magnefia and foda, or fea-falt, as ingenioufly fuggelted by the earl of Dundonald.”’ And it is thought probable, alfo, “that the decompofi- tion of fome of the more hard and folid fubftances of this defcription, fuch as horns, bones, hoofs, and rotten rags, &c. might be greatly promoted, and rendered more imme- diately ufeful, by being reduced into much fmaller particles than has been ufually the praétice, as well as by the appli- cation of higher degrees of heat than that of the atmo- {phere, when it can be done with convenicnce, and in a fufficiently cheap manner. It is likewife further ftated, that “as the diffolution of animal as well as vegetable matters, is known to be much impeded by their being excluded from the air, or expofed to fuch degrees of heat as are capable of drying up and taking away their moifture, and by the mixing of fuch earthy fubftances with them as are capable, from their open and porous textures, or vitriolic and other qualities, of de- priving them of the fluid matters which they contain; it is evident, why under certain circumitances of their being mixed and applied as manures, they may prove lefs benefi- cial than in other initances.”’ There are other circumftances, befides thofe which have a tendency to render the decompofition of all fuch matters more quick and expeditious, as thofe of their being lightly depofited together, and not in too large heaps, or with too much earth mixed with or depofited upon them, by which the air is prevented from ating upon them fo extenfively as might otherwife be the cafe. The pra¢tice of {prinkling common water over them frequently, efpecially in hot and dry feafons, and where they are of the more hard and com- paét kinds, in many inftances might, probably, be ufeful in promoting their diffolution, and rendering it more fudden and complete, confequently, to fupply the food of plants more readily, and in greater abundance in any given ume. But the principal fubftance, and that which is molt com- monly applied as a manure, is the excrement produced, by various kinds of animals, which is found in very different conditions, or {tates of preparation and richne!e in fome meafure according to the kind of food on which the animal has been fed, and the materials with which it 1s incorporated or intermixed. ‘The writer of the Middlefex Report fays, that “ the dung of fat animals is unquettionably more rich, and, confequently, poffefles greater powers of fertilization, than the dung of lean ones; and that the quality of the dung of every fort of animal will, in a great meafure, be proportioned to the goodnefs or poverty of its food. Thus, when the auimal is fed on oily feeds, fuch as lint, rape, and others of a fimilar nature, it will be the moft rich; when kept on oil cake, or thofe feeds which have been deprived of part of their oily matter, the next fo; on turnips, carrots, and fuch like vegetable roots, the next; on the beit hay, next; on ordinary hay, next; and on ftraw, per- haps, MANURE. laps, the poorelt of all. The dung of lean hard-work- ing cattle, feeding on ftraw, muit, he conceives, be poor indeed.”? It may be noticed, that the foil of privies is fometimes met with in a ftate fit to be applied to the ground, when not much mixed with fluid matters, fuch as urine, and forms a moft excellent manure. It molt frequently happens, however, that it is in fuch a liquid ftate, as to require other more folid fubftances to be blended with it, before it can be conveniently applied to the foil. In doing this, a late writer fuggefts, that ‘ too little regard feems to have in common been paid to the choice of the moft proper mate- rials ; but it is obvious, that fuch as can be the moft fully ated upon, and the moft readily converted into the {tate fuitable for affording the nutrition of vegetables, by the principles of the matters thus employed as manures, mutt be the moft adapted for the purpofe, as well as the mott beneficial. When, therefore, the manure made ufe of in this way, is either wholly or principally conftituted of fuch animalized matters as, from their fluidity, are in an impro- per {tate cr condition to be fet on land, without having other fubftances previoufly mixed with them, fuch peaty, boggy, or black vegetable earths fhould be chofen, as con- tain large proportions of matter, which the ammonia or volatile alkali fo abundantly provided by the decompofition of fuch fubftances may exert itfelf upon, and reduce into that ftate of folubility which is fuitable for promoting the growth of plants. By duly attending to this practice, which has been fcientifically handled by the earl of Dun- donald, much advantage may be gained, not only in the quantity, but likewife in the quality of the manure. The refults of experiments attentively made in this way, indeed clearly demonftrate, that an inconceivable lofs is incurred by the inconfiderate practice of exficcating human excrement, as well as the negligent cuftom of permitting the liquor or fluid parts of dung heaps to run away. The trials which he has been enabled to make, alfo lead him to fufpe&, that it is a much more walteful praétice, to apply thefe liquors to the ground in their uncombined ftate, than in conjunétion with fuch earthy materials as have been mentioned above. Befides, much of them muft be imperceptibly carried off by the procefs of evaporation, even when they are carried out in the molt favourable feafons of the year; and they cannot, in this way, always be made ufe of on thofe foils that contain a fufficient quantity of thofe earthy materials, or principles, with which they can readily form combina- tions, and exert their moft beneficial and fulleft effe&s.’’ And it is farther ftated in the fame praétical work, that *« moft of the later pra¢tical writers on agriculture are de- cidedly of opinion, that the foil of privies is a manure of the moft enriching kind, but that its effects are not fo laiting as thofe of many other. fub{tances. In the trials which have been lately made with it by Mr. Middleton, ‘ it is faid to have produced {uch aftonifhing fertility, as to induce him to conclude that it exceeds ail other forts of manure that can be put in competition with it, for the firlt year after its appli- cation. ‘The fecond year he fuppofes it of fome fervice, but in the third its effeéts nearly, if not quite, difappear.’’ ‘The circumitances which render this fort of manure fo im- mediately a€tive in promoting vegetation, and fo quickly de- prived of its beneficial influence, would feem to be the a quantity of elaftic principles which it contains, in a loofe {tate of combination, and the fmall quantity of earthy mat- ter which it is capable of fupplying to the foil, by the lalt ftages of decompofition or decay. This alfo further fhews the advantage of mixing and incorporating with it fuch kinds of earthy fubftances as it may be capable of ating upon, and uniting with. From the caufes juft noticed, its moft active and nutritious properties are almoft immediately fet at liberty, and either directly contribute to the growth of plants, or form fuch new combinations as readily become ufeful for the purpofe, while but very little of the earthy material is left behind for further decompofition, and the du- rable aids of vegetable increafe. Mr. Middleton alfo far- ther remarks, that this matter is not only prepared in the mott fuitable manner for the purpofe of perfeét vegetation, but that the herbage produced by it is capable of fattening the /arge/f cattle in /e/s time than any other. And the firft of thefe writers knows from repeated experiments, that the fineft garden vegetables may be produced by it, when proper- ly employed, without the leaft injury to their tafte, even in the moft delicate of them, fuch as cauliflowers, white bro- coli, &c. Inftead of a bad tate being communicated to herbage by the ufe of this manure, it would feem probable, that it confiderably improves its flavour, as it has been ob- ferved, in the Annals of Agriculture, that the patches of fuch paftures as had been manured with this fub{tance, were conitantly eaten quite clofe by horfes, cows, and youn cattle, while in other places there was much longer grafs.?? From thefe faéts itis therefore concluded, that “the im- portance of this fubftance as a manure is fuch, that every poflible means fhould be contrived to prevent its lofs, which is fhamefully permitted, at prefent, to take place in large towns, to the aftonifhing extent of more than two- thirds of the whole, and fome method made ufe'of to render its conveyance and application more yeneral and convenient. See NiGHT-solL. It is further noticed, that it isnot only this, but the dungs of all thofe animals which feed on fuch forts of food as con- ftitute either wholly, or in a great part, the food of man, as has been fuggefted above, that are, from the experience of praétical farmers, found to be more effectual in promoting vegetation, when applied as manures to the ground, than thofe of fuch animals as are fuftained by fuch kind of mat- ters as are feldom or ever made ufe of in that way ; “hence it is obvious that the dungs of carnivorous birds, dogs, {wine, horfes highly fed, poultry, pigeons, and fuch like animals, muft be more powerful in their effeéts as manures, than thofe of horfes when fed only with hay or grafs, neat cattle, fheep, and other animals that live inthe fame manner. On the fame principle, too, it is fuggetted as not improbable, but that the excrement of infe&ts may be lefs efficacious as manures than their bodies, as it is well known that by their deftru€tion and decompofition the fertility of land is confi- derably increafed in particular inftances. It is probable like- wife, that the dungs of fome animals may, from the ftate of their ftomachs, and other caufes, as wellas the nature of their food, be more completely reduced and animalized in ité paflage through their bodies. That this is the cafe, at leaft in granivorous birds, in which the food is fubjected to conti- derable trituration in the courfe of its digettion, there can be little doubt, and thereby they perhaps become, in fome mea- fure, in a condition more fuitable to form new combinations, or afford the fupport of vegetation.” It is conceived, that “ this view of the nature of the ma- nures afforded by different animals, fhould lead the praGtical agriculturift to be more attentive to the fubje&, in order that he may render them more abundant, and be capable’ of employing them under the moft favourable cireumttances, which cannot be the cafe while they are, as at prefent, in- difcriminately niixed and blended togethér in the’ commion dung-heap. That they fhould not be uled in this way is clear, MANURE. clear, from the contradiétory accounts of them that have been prefented to us by various writers and experimenters, which would feem to have been caufed by employing them in ftates of mixture with other fubftances. By fome it is af- ferted that one load of /zvine’s-dung is nearly equal to two of moft other forts, and that it is the richeft of all animal -manures ; in this, however, they would feem to be miftaken, as from trials made by others, it has been fhewn that night- fail is certainly to be ranked much before it. In fome of the ingenious experimental attempts of Mr. Young, it is alfo fhewn, that the dungs of rabbits and poultry are fuperior to that of pigeons, and greatly-more durable. But poultry- dung, in the comparative experiments of Mr. Arbuthnot, was found to be more effe&tual than that of rabbits, and that of the latter greatly fuperior to wood-athes. Pigeons’ dung has, notwithitanding, been proved by much experience to be a powerful and efficacious manure, and probably, from its abounding with volatile alkaline principles, been concluded to be of ahot or ftimulating quality.’’ But itis « from the larger animals that the farmer derives the principal part of the dung that is made ufe of as a manure in the cultivation and improvement of land; the dung of horfes as are highly fed being found, as has been already feen, to be much more valuable for the general purpofes of agriculture, and fome ufes in horticulture, than that which is made by horfes when fed with hay or grafs only. Where the animals are kept in the latter way, it is probably not fo good as that of well fed cows and neat cattle in general, as inthefe it may, perhaps, become more animalized from the circumftance of their food being more intimately blended with the /aliva, or other juices, during the ruminant ftate of feeding in fuch animals. The dung of horfes is, however, in common, much more difpofed to take on the procefs of putrefaétion, and caufe more heat, than that of cows and other neat cattle, and in- deed thefe are the chief diftinguifhing circumftances between them as manures. The dung of neat cattle may alfo, on account of its lefs difpofition to run into the ftate of putre- faction, contribute more of the ea:thy material to the land on which it is applied. Hence, probably, its fuperior utility on the leaner and poorer, or thinner forts of foil. The dung and urine of animals, when newly voided, are not, except when the animals are morbid, ina putrefcent condition, the length of time in which they remain in their bodies being too fhort for its fully taking place ; but fome degree of, or ten- dency to putridity, is conftantly neceffary to their difcharge ; and the means which are further fuited to promote it in thefe fubftances have been fully defcribed and explained above, when fpeaking of the nature of animal fubftances in ge- neral. With refpeét to the experiments that have been made with the dung of fheep, they fhew “that it is equally valua- ble with that of many other animals that feed in the fame way, but agriculturifts have not yet turned their attention fufficiently to the means of collecting and preferving it, fo that it may be ufed alone asa manure. ‘The method by which it is at prefent applied to land, is by folding the animals upon it, under which method of management, on many foils, a great part of the advantage muft be derived from the operation or aétion of the ammonia of their urine upon the vegetable matters contained in them, as well as from the confolidation produced by their treading upon it. See Duna. Befides the above, there are many other /oft animal /ub- frances that may be of ufe for the purpofe of improving land as manures, fome of which have yet been but little attended toby the farmer. Of this fort are graves, or the refiduum which is left after making of candles, and the /cum which is colleéted in the boiling or refining of fugar- The author of a late pra€tical work obferves, that « dif- ferent trials upon a {mall fcale, with the former, have fully convinced him, that it is a fublftance that poflefles great powers, when employed as a manure. And although it is a fubftance which is generally procured at a high prices from its going a great way, and being a lafting manure, it may, probably, be more frequently had recourfe to than has hitherto been the cafe. It is moftly procured in the flate of hard compreffed {quare cakes, though fometimes in a foft condition, without having undergone any preflure. When, in the former ftate, the cakes mu{t be broken down, and re- duced into as great a ftate of divifion as poflible, which may be rather atroublefome and expenfive procefs, except a mill orfome proper machine for the purpo!e be employed. But when it has been even reduced to the fineft ftate poffible, it will ftill be improper for application as a manure, until it has been mixed and incorporated with a pretty large proportion of fome rich earthy fubftance with which it may combine. In the attempts which he has had an opportunity of making with this animal fubftance, after being much reduced, it has always been blended in the proportion of three or four parts of good vegetable mould, according to the conditien of the land, toone of the graves, and then fown as a top- drefling on grafs land, where it has never failed to produce a full crop of hay, confiderably greater than that by the ufual dreflings of dung, and a rich fweet after-gra{s, or fuch as cattle are remarkably fond of feeding upon. At Enfield, Dr. Wilkinfon found, in his trials, that the animal kingdom furnifhed the ftrongeft manures; among which, graves was the moft powerful and durable in its effects. ‘* From one ton to a ton and a half, he confiders as fufficient for an acre, according to the ftate of the land. The cakes, in his praétice, were minutely divided, which, on account of their hardnefs, is an expenfive and laborious operation; and that even in this ftate of minute divifion, unlefs mixed with mould, they frequently prove too ftrong for corn, as he found by experience, on applying them te barley, the grain of which being injured by the ranknefs of- the ftraw. They are, he conceives, pandcalt adapted to promote the growth of grafs, turnips, and the leguminous plants.’’ And it is further ftated, that “eight acres of pebbly loam were manured by him with dung, at the rate of ten loads of the commen Middlefex carts per acre, except one acre of the poore{t and moft gravelly, which was drefled with a ton and a half of graves. The turnips where the graves were {pread, and the fucceeding barley, (which were the crops on the whole piece,) were thicker and more vi- gorous than where common dung had been laid. He has obferved grafs rendered fo rank, by the ufe of graves as a manure, that cattle would not touch it till mellowed by the winter’s froft; and even in the fucceeding years he was able to trace, by the fuperior verdure of the grafs, to what ex- tent this manure had been {pread. He has alfo ufed, with fuccefs, falted fifh provifions, particularly herrings, which had been fpoiled on fhip-board, and has found them equal to the graves.. In the fame manner he has vfed falt meat, that has become putrid in a long voyage. His general mode of application has been to mix them with mould raifed from the head-lands of the field, where they were intended to be fpread. By letting them lie for fome time, the earth im- bibes the {trong fmell and virtues of the animal manure. Over thefe he has fpread with advantage the liquor drawn from the graves, and the wafhings of the cafks of falted meat, which has been fpoiled. When fprinkled immediately over \ ea MANURE. ever grafs in the fpring, he has alfo obferved this liquor at- tended: with confiderable efficacy in producing a plentiful crop of hay.” He adds, that ‘lait year (1800) he ufed with fuccefs a combination of lime and graves, mixed with mould from the head-lands, in the proportion of about fifty buthels of lime to a ton of graves. This compofition refembles jugar fium, which confifts of lime and bullock’s blood.” On the whole, “ from the large experience he has had of the benefits arifing from fugar feum, he thinks this combina- tion of lime and animal matter deferves further invefti- gation.’”’ On this it may be obferved, that ‘ there can be httle doubt but that by combining lime with animal fub- ftances, they may be rendered highly aétive as manures, efpecially when applied on foils that have a fufficiency of thofe earthy fubftances, on which they can exert their full influence. In this way they feem frequently to be rendered more a¢tive, than when employed in a fimple uncombined fate: but experiments are perhaps wanting to fully afcer- tain the utility and belt means of employing fuch matters.”’ It is however further added, that “ lime might thus be combined with bones or woollen rags, or with a compoft of earth and night foil, and would certainly greatly facilitate their converfion into manure, as well as render them more active in producing their effects in the fupport of vegetable crops: and by {ome of their properties being abforbed by the lime, during the time of their decompofition, and after- wards parted with more flowly in the foil, they may alfo by fuch means be probably rendered more durable and lafting as manures.” ) It has been flated by Dr. Wilkinfon, that ‘the Arabians, who take great pains to improve their lands, are accuftomed to make large pits: they there put in animal fubftances, and cover them with calcareous or clayey earths ; and afterwards thefe earths, which of themfelves are fertile, acquire the properties of the richeft manure.’? He adds, that ‘ he once ordered a heifer, which died in a field at a diftance from his houfe, to be buried in a compoft of lime and earth. He does not affert that this was its moft profitable application ; he had, however, no reafon to complain of his compott.”” And “ Mr. Wright, in his Survey of the Hufbandry of Scotland, he obferves, mentions a compoft of two parts lime, and one part pigeon’s dung, to’ remain mixed until a confiderable fermentation takes place, which ‘s known by. the effluvia. Six bolls of this compoft, it is faid, is fufli- cient for an acre, and will mark itfelf for many years after it has been applied.” There are various other combinations of this nature, which may be fuccefsfully made ufe of for the purpofes of agriculture, when properly made and applied to the foil. There are ftill other materials of this clafs, that may be employed as manures on land, fuch as the refufe of glue- makers, the cuttings of felt-mongers, the clippings of furriers, the /crapings of oiled-leather, and the chips or wafte of fhoe- makers, where they can be collected in fufficient quantities. Thefe, from their abounding in mucilage and oil, their great attraction for moifture, and their being readily foluble in water, contribute quickly to the fupport of vegetation, but are not probably fo durable in their effets upon land as many other fubftances: hence they fhould only be made ufe of with a view to the immediate crop, which, it is believed, is pretty much the cafe in thofe places where they are ea- pable of being obtained in fuch quantities’as to be employed tor the purpofes of the farmer. There are alfo of the fifh kind many fubltances that may be applied in this way, as the Jlubber, remaining after the preparation of oil from the whale, and other large tifhes, and different forts of {mall fifh, both of the thell and other kinds ; likewife the offals of fuch animals, where they can be pro= cured in large quantities, as in large towns, fea diftri€ts, and where they are cured or prepared in great numbers for the market. Thefe may be found beneficial in various cafes. All “thefe fubftances may be readily reduced to that ftate which is proper for manure, by mixing with them a {mall portion of the earbonat of lime, and afterwards, according to circumftances, a quantity, two or three times more than the whole, of good vegetable mould. Shell-fifh, fuch as mufcles, are commonly applied without being mixed with earthy matters; but this is certainly a watteful praCtice, as much of their valuable principles is diffipated and loft, as is- evident from the highly difagreeable ftench that affails the neighbourhood of the ground on which they have been ap- plied.””. By mixing good vegetable mould, fcrapings of ditches, or peat earth with them, the quantity of the manure would not only be greatly increafed, but the offenfivenefs attending the ufe of {uch manures, in a great meafure, cor- rected, and the effects of them, in promoting the growth of vegetables, probably rendered more extenfively advan- tageous to the farmer. And the wafte and refufe of flaugh- ter-houfes and butchers’ fhops are likewife capable of being prepared and made ufe of ina fimilar manner to that of fith : but as the manures formed from thefe animal materials are eapable of affording much elaftic volatile matters, during their decompofition, they of courfe require to be well mixed and blended with fuch earthy fub{tances as they can combine with, and render foluble, ard in proportions fuited to their powers, in order to produce the moft beneficial effeéts on vegetation, and afford the greateft advantages to the cul- tivator. The different forts of woollen rags, hair, feathers, and fuch like fubflances, though frequently made ufe of as ma- nures to land, from their having a lefs portion of oily or inucilaginous matter in their compofition, are probably in their effeis inferior. Thefe fubftances muft be cut or chopped into {mall pieces, before they can be advantageoufly applied to. the ground as manures. And the author of ‘ Praétical Agriculture’? concludes, «from the experiments that have been made with fuch ani- mal fubftances as manures, that it may be inferred, that their effects continue longer than thofe of many fubftances of other kinds ;”’ and that they are highly ufeful materials, in. many cafes, for being applied to the foil. It may be noticed, that among the harder forts of animal fubitances, that are capable of being employed as manures, there are confiderable differences in refpect to their texture | and firmnefs: fome being quite firm and folid, fuch as bones, horns, hoofs, fhavings of horn, and fome other fimilar fub {tances ; while others are more foft and pliable. ‘I'he bones of all animals are capable of affording much nutritious mat- ter to plants; but thofe which are procured from cattle, that have been kilied when fat, are faid to be the belt for the purpofes of manure. ‘Thofe which have been boiled are far inferior, in this view, to thefe which have not undergone that procefs, as by fuch means they are principally robbed: of their oily and: mucilaginous properties, and con{fequently mult yield much lefs nourifhment to the immediate crop, whether it be grain or grafs. All thefe forts of fubftances require to be ground’ down in mills-conftructed for the pur- pole, or otherwife reduced into fmall' pieces, before they are laid on and mixed with the foil, or formed into compofts. It is lated, that “the ufual method is to reduce them to about the fize of large filberts, but that there can be little doubt but that they would fooner run into the flate of putrefaction, if they were reduced into {till fmaller par- ticles,, MANURE. ticles, and thus be made to afford their nutritive properties much more expeditioufly, as well as more abundantly ; by which means, much lefs quantities would probably produce equally full effeéts with the large ones at prefent made ufe of: as, where the pieces into which they are broken are left large, they remain a great length of time in the foil, and are only gradually decompofed, without yielding that full fupply of nourifhment which is neceflary for the fupporting of crops. And when they have been even prepared in this way, too much earthy materials fhould not be mixed with or applied upon them; as, where this is done, by preventirg the free operation of the air, their decompofition is greatly retarded. Nor fhould they, upon the fame principles, when intended to be incorporated with the foil, be ploughed in too deeply ; as, by fuch a praétice, the crop will be de- prived of much of the advantages which it might otherwife have obtained from fuch manure.” It is now well known, that ‘ thefe fubftances are contti- tuted of a confiderable proportion of mucilaginous or gela- tinous matter, a flight portion of fat, and an earthy falt compofed of the phofphoric acid and calcareous earth. If great heat be applied, they afford a large quantity of Heese gas, carbonic acid gas, and a volatile alkaline liquor. From the nature of thefe different principles, it is evident that fome forts of fubftances may be blended and united with the reduced particles of bony matters fo as to promote their effects, as manures, in a confiderable degree, fuch as lime, chalk, peat earth, and good vegetable mould, in fuitable proportions, as by fuch means new combinations may be formed highly favourable to the procefs of vegeta- tion.”’? And that ‘ the confuming of bony or horny fub- ftances, by means of fire, for the purpofe of obtaining their afhes, is a wafteful diffipating praétice that ought never to be attempted by farmers, as by it the mucilaginous and oily materials are driven off and loft, and nothing remains but a phofphat of lime, which can be of but little ufe in promoting the growth of vegetable crops.’? Dr. Hunter found, from the application of reduced bones to a poor calcareous foil, with a grain crop in the proportion of 60 bufhels to the acre, that the crop was much fuperior, where this was ufed, to that which had not been dreffed in the fame way, and the grafs crops afterwards for fome length of time, on the fame place, difplayed a fuperiority, and ap- peared more early. He alfo found the fame fuperiority in turnip crops in different fields, when dreffed in the fame way. Mr. Young likewife found the effeéts of bone ma- nures to be very great ; but they did not correfpond to the quantities employed, as with 25 cart-loads the crop was better than with go. ‘This curious fact is, however, ex- plained in the opinion of the firft of the above writers, by his obferving that the foil was an extremely poor one, as in fuch a cafe there could only be a {mall portion of earthy matter for the ammonia and other fubftances afforded by the decompofition of the bone to a& upon, and reduced to that ftate of folubility the moft adapted to the fupport of vegetation. Hence the immediate, benefit that was derived from the manure probably depended folely on the oily and mucilaginous materials that were afforded on their being firlt applied. But where bony fubftances are not broken down into very {mall particles, it is fufpeéted, from fome few trials that the firft of the above writers has been enabled to make, that the effeéts of fuch fubftances will be equally, if not more apparent the fecond than the firft year, whether they be ufed on grafs land, or that which is under the plough. The trials which Dr. Hunter made with ground and un- ground bones, feem likewife to fupport this opinion, as he found, that for the immediate crop the unground bones were of little or no fervice, but the ground ones of much benefit. What effe€&t the unground ones had the fecond year is not exaétly known; however, from his concluding that thefe fubftances are in general, upon grafs land, more effe€tual the fecond than the firlt year, it may be eafily fup- pofed to have been the cafe. See Bones. Manures of the Vegetable Kind.—There are many different forts of vegetable matters, when deprived of their living property, by undergoing the procefles of decompofition, that feon become proper for the nutrition and fupport of new plants, and fit for being applied as manure. Their reduc- ticn into this {tate is greatly promoted by their being ex- pofed to the full influence of the air, moifture, and a fuit- able degree of heat. Under thefe circumftances different {ubltances are evolved, and new combinations formed that become ufeful in the fupport of vegetation. Thefe pro- cefles or decompofitions have been commonly fuppofed to fucceed one another with regularity, from that which is produétive of {weetnefs, to that which is the ultimate refult of putrefaétion. But Dr. Darwin has fuggetted, “ that it is more probable that different forts and parts of organ- ized matters, when dead, may undergo many different forts of chemical changes, and that hate may be different according to the differences in the degrees of heat, the quantity of water and of air to which they are expofed. He was led to this fuppofition from the faccharine procefs preceding the vinous fermentation, which takes place in certain {tates of animal ftomachs; and from what hap- pens in the germination or fprouting of grain, by which the mealy matter is converted into fugar. And from ob- ferving that the acerb juices of fome kinds of fruit are ren- dered {weet by baking, he conceives that the faccharine procefs may take place in a degree of heat which is about that of boiling water, and that by it the procefs of fermen- tation may be altogether prevented from occurring. By de- ftroying or injuring the life of fruits, it is alfo fuppofed, that the faccharine procefs of their juices may be promoted, as is found in many in{tances ; fuch as the ripening of fruits after being plucked from the trees; their being fooner ripened after being injured by infects, or other means ; and after partially cutting, or otherwife injuring the branches of the trees on which they grow; and this, which is termed the faccharine procefs, it is conjectured, may take place either beneath or upon the earth, in the incipient {tate of vegetable decompofition, before the vinous fermen- tation, and thus afforda very nourifhing matter to plants.’ And further, that in the vinous, or procefs which commences after the faccharine, carbon becomes united with pure air ina large proportion; and that probably at the moment of their combination, while they are in the form of a liquid, and before they aflume the gafeous ftate, they may be taken up by the roots of vegetables. And that, as in the procefs of putrefaétion, carbon is not only changed into carbonic acid, but water decompofed, as is alae by the {mell of hydrogen, it is fufpected that thefe inflammable fub- {tances may combine with carbon, as in the cafe of hydro- carbonate gas, and thereby become capable of being taken up as food by the roots of plants, without their na into the acid or gafeous ftates. The union of azote with pure air, towards the clofe of the putrefactive procefs, by which nitrous acid is produced, it is likewile conceived, may pof- fibly tend to promote vegetation. This, however, may be promoted from the circumltance of the pure air or oxygen adhering more loofely to its bafe, the azote, in the forma- tion of this than other acids, and on that account yielding it more readily to the abforbent roots of vegetables, But, 2 befides MANURE. befides thefe means of fupplying the nutrition of plants, as in the decompofition of vegetable fubftances by the procefs of putrefaction, the conftituent principles of the water which they contain are, as has been ju{t obferved, in fome meafure fet at liberty, and the hydrogen, one of them, uniting with the azote which is afforded by the diflolution of vegetable matters, though not in fuch large proportions as by animal fubitances, forms ammonia, which, from its ready union with fat and oily matters, and thus render- ing them capable of being taken up by the abforbent roots of vegetables, may contribute to the fupport of vegetation. And, in fome inftances, where faline, infoluble, earthy matters, or metallic falts are contained in the foils to which manurcs of this kind are applied, or in which ammonia may be formed, it may decompofe them, and by that means contribute to the formation of other new and lefs noxious compounds, or fuch as may be more capable of contribut- ing to the growth of vegetables.”’ It is added, that there is another fubftance which generally prevails in vegetables, and which is fuppofed to be a fimple material, obtained in great abundance from the recrements not only of putrifying vegetable, but animal fubftances, and calcareous earth, the latter of which is fuppofed to have been of animal origin in the early periods of the world. This matter, it is thought, when met with in the ftate of folution, may be taken up entire by the abforbent rocts of vegetables, as well as oc- cafionally formed and elaborated by them. It is therefore probable, that different matters fitted to the nutrition and fupport of plants, as crops, are formed and evolved during the different proceffes and ftages of decompofition of vege- table as well as animal fub{tances. But that in vegetable productions the changes are lefs rapid than in thofe of the animal kind, and probably much more varied, according to the various ftates and textures of the particular fubftances ; as it 1s obvious, from numerous facts and circumftances, that the more luxuriant and juicy vegetables are much more readily decompofed than fuch as are dry, and have a ligne- ous ftru€@ture. Hence it is, that frefh vegetable matters are much more quickly converted to that ftate of decay, which is fuitable for the fupplying vegetable nourifhment, than fuch as ftraw, hay, wood, and other dry materials of the fame nature. It is not improbable, but that fome vege- table matters may yield fome of the fubftances that are taken up by the abforbent roots of vegetables in much larger pro- portions than others; as it has been found that different forts of grain vary confiderably in the proportions of muci- laginous, and what is termed vegeto-animal matter, which they contain; and that grain, potatoes, carrots, and many other roots of the fame kind, on being confumed in the open air, afford much larger quantities of alkaline falts than hay, ftraw, or wood ; it is undoubtedly from thefe and fimilar caufes, that fome forts of vegetable matters, when reduced by means of putrefaction, are found to be fo much more effe¢tual as manures than others, when applied under the fame circumitances, and to foils in every refpect of a fimilar nature and quality. There is likewife a further circumftance to be attended to in fubftances of this nature, which is, that in general, when refolvea by the ultimate procefs of putrefaction, they yield larger proportions of earthy materials to the foils on which they are depolited, than moft matters of the animal kind, and confequently add more effeCtually to the fubftance of the land. And as this vegetable mould, or earth, from various caufes, is conftantly becoming more extenfively and more intimately blended with the other materials of the foils, and, of courfe, forming new combinations, by which fome of thofe matters Vor. XXII. which ferve for the nutrition of plants are fet at liberty, and brought into the ftate moft proper for being abforbed by the roots of vegetables ; it is evident why thofe manures, which are principally compofed of vegetable fubftances, are more durable in their effeéts than fuch as are prepared from many forts of animal materials. It is ftated that the fubftances of this kind which are capable of being beneficially converted to manure, are ex- tremely numerous; and confequently fuggefted that « all kinds of green vegetable produétions may be employed in this way; fuch as the luxuriant weeds of rivers, lakes, ponds, and ditches, ‘fern, and the refufe of different kinds of garden vegetables. Where green materials of this na- ture are made ufe of, they fhould always be cut down while in their juicy flate, juft before their flowers begin to appear, in order that they may be in the moft fuitable condition for becoming quickly putrid, and to prevent the injury that might otherwife be fuftained from the vegetation of their feeds. . They are afterwards to be colleCted into heaps of a moderate fize, and their putrefaction promoted by their being thrown together as lightly as poflible, and the occa- fional fprinkling them with water, if the feafon be hot and dry : and as lime is found, when applied to vegetables in their green moift ftate, to difengage from them both hy- drogen and azote, by the combination of which volatile alkali is produced, it may be advantageous to blend a por- tion of lime at firft with the heaps, and afterwards add a fuitable quantity of peat earth, or good vegetable mould, for the alkali thus formed to aét upon. By this method, the quantity of manure from fuch fubftances may be greatly augmented, and rendered more valuable. But when dry materials, fuch as hay, itraw of different kinds, fern, and rufhes, are made ufe of, fuch additions cannot be had re- courfe to with equal fuccefs, unlefs where much of the dung and urine of animals have been incorporated with them :’’ their refolution and decay may, however, be greatly ‘promoted by their being kept in a moderate ftate of moitt- ure, and not permitted to be trodden down too much by cattle, or other means in the farm yards, or other places where they are provided. And another means of fupplying vegetable manure, not fufficiently practifed, is that of pro- viding full fucculent crops of green vegetables; as clover, buck-wheat, tares, vetches, fpurry, peas, beans, turnips, and many other fimilar plants, to be turned down by the plough, in order that they may undergo the putrefactive procefs under the ground, and by that means be converted into manure, and fupply the food of plants. ‘In this practice it is fuggetted as probable by a late writer, that great advantage might be obtained, on the principles which we have juft ttated, by the {fpreading of a {mall portion of lime and peat, or rich vegetable earth, over fuch crops, and then rolling them down, that they may be completely turned in and buried by the plough; an operation which fhould be performed as quickly as poflible afterwards, and where the crops will admit of it, in the fummer or early part of autumn, while the fun has the power of promoting the decay of fuch vegetable matters. By this means, it feems probable that the putrefaction of fuch crops would not only be much expedited, but the principles thereby fet at liberty be capable of exerting their in- fluence much more extenfively than where the plants them- felves are only employed, and little additional expence be incurred by the farmer in executing the work.’ Where crops of this nature can be turned down, in fuf- ficiently hot weather, to erfure their running {peedily into a putrid flate, it is confidered by fome as a better and more 30 advan- MANURE. advantageous practice, efpecially where manures of other kinds are fcarce, than that of obtaining it by confuming them by the feeding or foiling of cattle, which, under other circumitances, is certainly an excellent mede, and one which fhould never be lott fight of by the farmer. Befides thefe there is another plant of the vegetable kind which is capable of being employed as a manure with great advantage, and which fhould never be overlooked where it is within the reach of the farmer. This is fea-weed, (quercus marina.) In the management of this fubftance there is confiderable diverfity : “in fome diftriéts it is the prac- tice to fpread it upon the land as foon as poffible after being cut from the borders of the rocks on the different fea-coalts, or colleéted after being left by the tides, and to plough it in: where this method is adopted, it is ad- vifed that as little time as poflible fhould be fuffered to elapfe after the cutting, or collecting of the weed, before it is ploughed down ; for as the plant in its green or fucculent {tate readily decays and becomes putrid, if there be any confiderable delay in the performance of the bufinefs, efpe- cially when the weather is hot, much of its valuable pro- perties as a manure is diflipated, and carried away by means of evaporation, as is fufficiently fhewn by the pungent and difayreeable {mell that iffues from it, on its being thrown upon the land while undergoing the procefs of putrefaétion : and, befides, when it is fuffered te become dry and hard before it is turned into the ground, the parts that remain are confiderably longer before they become decompofed, and reduced into the ftate fuitable for affording the nou- rifhment and fupport of vegetable crops.” It is believed to be, on thefe accounts, as well as that of the weed af- fording but little earthy matter in proportion to its bulk, on its decompofition, that it is found, in general, to be lefs permanent in its effects as a manure, than fome other vege- table matters. Something may likewife depend on the goodnefs and luxuriance ae the weed itfelf, and the flate which it is in when gathered from the fhores, or cut from the fides of the rocks. Asin moft other plants, this will undoubtedly be in the moft proper condition for the pur- pofes of being converted into manure, when cut or colle&ed in the moft fucculent ftate of its growth, before it has become too ald. Another method of pra@tice with this weed, is that of collecting it into large heaps, and letting it remain expofed in that {tate to the influence of the wea- ther until it be completely rotten, and in a condition to be put upon the land; but as the plant contains in its compo- fition a large proportion of faline matters, which, during the ftate of its decompofition, or decay, are brought into activity, it is plain that by fuch a method of proceeding much lofs mutt be futtained, not only from the diffipation of the volatile and more fluid aGtive parts, by the a&tion of the fun and wind, but by the rains diffolving and carrying down the faline materials that may have been formed. When it is not immediately to be applied as a manure, it would therefore feem to be the moft economical and ad- vantageous mode, efpecially where the weed is frefh, to firft blend a portion of quick lime with the heaps, and then have a fufficient quantity of frefh good earth, monld, or ether fimilar material, placed beneath them, as well as mixed with and covered over them, in order that the fub{tances afforded by the diffolution of the weed may have fomething to mix with and act upon, and be prevented from being wathed away by rains. In this way, the quantity of manure-may be much increafed, and at the fame time its effeé&ts rendered confiderably more lalting in the land. It is the cuftom in the ilands of Jerfey and Guernfey, where this weed is ex- tenfively employed as a manure, to cut it in the early part of the {pring, and about the month of July; the firit eut- ting, in moft cafes, being immediately made ufe of as z manure for barley and palture lands, and the latter princi- pally converted to the purpofe of fuel, the afhes only being employed as manure. In the practice of confuming the plant in its dry ftate, however neceflary it may be there from the great {carcity of fuel, the lofs in manure is extremely great, as the quantity of afhes thus produced are very {mall in proportion to the weed which is confumed. Such weed as is colleGted after having been thrown upon the fhore by the tides, is found to be much inferior as a ma- nure to that which is cut from the rocks and made ufe of in its green juicy ftate. This fhould, therefore, be well attended to where this plant is in ufe, Another material of the vegetable kind, that may be had recourfe toas a manure, is that of fuch bark as has been made ufe of for the purpofe of tanning leather. This fub- {tance, when made ufe of in this way, fhould be colleéted into moderate fized heaps, before it has become dry by too much expofure to the heat of the fun and wind; and then have a quantity of lime mingled with it, and be kept flightly moiftened with water, as by this means its putre-_ fagtion and decay may be greatly promoted. When in- tended to be applied to grafs lands, it fhould be confider- ably more reduced towards the ilate of vegetable mould, than when laid on land for the purpofe of fupporting crops of tle grain kind. There is another point that ought to be regarded in this material, which is, that as during its decompotition much heat is produced, and many elattic matters fet at liberty, it would feem as a manure to be more adapted to the ftiff, cold, and heavy foils, than thofe of the lighter kinds; a fact which the experience of agricul- turilts has fhewn to be well founded in geneval. And mud taken from the bottom of rivers, ponds, and other places where water has ftagnated for fome time, frefh or maiden earth from the borders of fields or other places, and the fcourings of old ditches, are other fubftances that may be occafionally employed with advantage as ma- nures, as being principally compofed of the recrements of decayed vegetable matters. They fhould not, however, be put upon grounds, efpecially thofe in the ftate of grafs, until they have been reduced into a confiderable degree of finenefs, by means of frequent turning over, and the mix- ing of portions of lime, rotten dung, or other materials of the fame kind, with them, in order to promote and render the decay of the more folid parts complete. In the appli- cation of manures prepared from fub{tances of this fort, as top dreflings to land, in the flate of grafs, they fhould not be fpread on too thickly, or in too large proportions at one time, as where that is the cafe great injury is often done to the fucceeding crop, the grafs not being able to {pread itfelf completely over the furface of the ground. There is another material in the duit which is feparated from malt in drying, mixed with the tails, ufually denomi- nated coombs, which, where they can be procured in large quantities, as in the malting diftri€ts, may be made ufe of for the purpofe of manure. Ina paper, by Mr. Farey, in the Annals of Agriculture, it is remarked, that the black malt-dutt, fuch as falls through the kiln-plate in the ope- ration of drying, is greatly preferable to the white, on ac- count of the feeds of charlock, with which it abounds, being deitroyed by the heat, and rendered fit for manure. The heat thus applied, by deftroying the vegetative prin- ciple of fuch feeds where they exift, probably renders them and the dult more readily difpofed to take on the Pape 0 MANURE. of decay and become putrid, and thereby afford the nutri- tion of vegetables more quickly as well as more abundantly than in other circumftances. It is well hinted by a late writer that ‘this, as well as faw-duft, where they can be had at a cheap rate, may be confiderably improved as_ma- nures by incorporating them, in pretty large quantities, with the dung and urine of animals, as by ftrewmg them in the bottoms of poultry and pigeon houfes, dung heaps, and neceflaries ; and alfo in the bottoms of refervoirs into which the urine of cattle, and the foap-fuds after wafhing are emptied ; from the action of thefe matters upon them, they are found to become more quickly ina ftate to be ufed with advantagwe as manures.’’ And i: is added, that ‘ ma- nures of this fort have been found very beneficial when ap- plied in the proportion of four quarters to the acre, fown with the crop for which it it employed. See Marr Duf. The hufks, or cakes, which are left after different oily feeds, fuch as thofe of rape, cole, &c. have been fubjected to preffure in mills in order to obtain their oil, are. other materials that may be converted to the purpofe of manure. Thefe fubftances are generally prepared for application by being reduced into the ftate of coarfe powder, by mills or other fuitable means, and then fown by the hand, and har- rowed in with the feed of the crop for which they are ufed. Some farmers, likewife, advife their being mixed, when thus reduced, thinly, with the materials of fuch dunghills as are deficient in richnefs, as where they have been made by lean ftock with a large proportion of litter. On turning over heaps of this kind, about a ton of cake is recommended to be well and evenly incorporated with every twenty or thirty tons of the dunghill compott ; by this praétice a rich and grood manure is faid to be formed. It is afferted, that “the fuccefs of thefe fubftances, when made ufe of as manures, has been found to depend, in a great meafure, upon the falling of rain foon after they have been put upon the land, as in dry feafons little benefit has been derived from their application.” The reafon of this feems to be, according to a late author, “that as the cake when ufed is moftly in an extremely hard and dry ftate, it does not undergo that decompofition which is neceflary, until it has been moiftened by the rain, by which it is rendered capable of running quickly into the ftate of putrefaétion, and confequently of affording fuch matters as are fuitable for the fupport of plants.” And it is added, that “when applied without being incorporated with any other fubftance, it is moftly laid on to the amount of four or five quarters to the acre, accord- ing to the condition of the land.”’ ; And there is ftill another vegetable matter found in the refufe or pulp of pears and apples which have been ground, and the liquor {queezed from them, that may likewife be converted to the purpofe of a manure, in the diftricts where cyder is prepared in large quantities. But it is advifed that fome heavy fubitance, fuch as good earth with a little dung, fhould be mixed with it before it is put upon the foil, as by being blended with fuch materials it may be more conve- niently and more extenfively applied to the land, and pro- bably with better effect. Manures of the Earthy or Foffil Kind.—It is well known that there are a great many different forts of materials of this nature that may be brought into ufe for the purpofe of improving the condition of lands. The chief of the fub- {tances of this defcription are of the calcareous kind, which are found to «¢ produce effeéts more or lefs powerful in pro- moting the growth of vegetable crops, in fome meature, according to the ftate and quantity in which they are ap- plied, the nature of the foils in which they are employed, and the properties of the matters with which they are com- bined. For though calcareous materials have been made ufe of as manures for a very great length of time, and have been applied in various ways, difficulties ftill remain concerning the manner of their operation, in many cafes, which feem principally, however, to proceed from the want of proper difcrimination in refpe@ to the ftate of the different cal- careous fubftances at the time of their application, and their being made ufe of to different foils without a fufficient dif- tinétion as to the properties of the materials of which they are conftituted or compofed.’’ T'he inquiries of a late ex- perimental writer “ have likewife fhewn it neceflary to attend to another circumftance, which is, the fubftances the calcareous material is combined with; as he has found that where magnefia is in union with the calcareous matter, it is not by any means fo beneficial for the purpofes of manure and promoting vegetation, as where no fuch mixture or com- bination is prefent, efpecially when ufed in the fame pro- portions.’ This is, however, a point that requires further examination, and which is by no means fully decided. It has alfo been obferved, «« that from fand entering largely into the compofition of lime-{tone or other calcareous matter, in fome cafes, as it is a fub{tance of much greater fpecific gravity than pure cautftic lime, confiderable differences in its effects as a manure may be produced.”? On thefe accounts it 1s concluded, that though lime may be produced from chalk, marble, different lime-ftones, coral and fhells, by . {ubjecting them to fuch degrees of heat as are neceflary to expel or difengage the carbonic acid or fixed air that they contain, which is apparently of the fame quality, it may vary in its effects when employed for the purpofes of the farmer. See Lime and Limr-srone. It is evident that lime, when newly burned, or before it becomes loaded or faturated with the moifture and carbonic acid, or fixed air, contained in the atmofphere, which, from their {trong tendencies to combine or unite with it, gene- rally foon takes place, is in its great {late of activity, and from the power which it poffefles of breaking down and dettroying the texture and organization of fuch animal and vegetable fubftances as come in contaé with it, termed cauffic or quick lime. When, under thefe circumftances, it is applied to grounds which abound either with frefh vegetable mat- ters, or fuch as have undergone fome degree of change, by being buried in the foil, as in moory and heathy mountain- land, peaty or boggy earth, and all fuch foils as have long remained in their original uncultivated ftate, covered with a variety of coarfe plants, it is faid to be « found to produce beneficial effects; in the firft cafe probably by its ready action on the different materials of the green plants, by which it difengages from them hydrogen and azote, from the fubfequent combination of which ammonia or volatile al- kali is produced, a fubftance which has great power in pro- moting vegetation, as is feen in cafes where fubftances that contain this matter in large quantities are ufed as manures; and in the fecond place, by its combination with the care bonaceous matter of fuch foils, or with that of the various animal and vegetable matters which are contained in them, in fome of the {tages of their putrefaction or decay, and by this means rendering it foluble in water, and thereby capa- ble of being taken up as food by the abforbent roots of vegetables.”” And, ‘ that though lime in its pure or cauftic {tate retards, in fome degree, the procefs of putrefaétion, efpecially when ufed im any large quantity, it is probable, that by its power of corroding and diffolving the hard and fibrous parts of vegetable and other matters, as is fhewn by its quickly reducing the ligneous particles of bark, which has been employed in the procefs of tanning, to the ftate of mould, it may bring the abundant vegetable and other ma- : 302 terials MANURE. terials contained in fuch forts of land quickly into that earthy condition, in which they afford the nourifhment and fupport of crops, which by the procefs of putrefaétion, and infe& digeftion, could only have been performed ina very flow and gradual manner.’’ Further, from its well- known property of deftroying different kinds of infects, fuch'as worms, fnails, flugs, grubs, &c. which are moftly abundant in rich frefh foils, it may furnifh much nutritious matter for the purpofe of promoting the growth of plants as crops. ‘There is, ikewife, another way in which it may contribute to the fame end, which is, from its having a greater tendency to combine with mucilaginous oily mat- ters than with fixed alkalies, as a kind of calcareous foap may in fome cafes be formed that may contribate, in its liquid ttate, to the nourifhment of plants, as has been no- ticed by Mr. Nicholfon, in his Philofophical Journal. Befides, it has alfo the power, when mixed with clayey foils which do not poflefs too great a degree of humidity, of rendering them lefs fliff and tenacious, confequently more fuitable for admitting the {mall fibrous roots of vegetables, which is efiefted, not only by the heat and other elattic matters that are evolved during the period of its becoming faturated with the moilture and fixed air, or carbonic acid, which they contain, but alfo by being thereby more inti- mately and minutely incorporated with them, from the fine impalpable powdery {tate to which it is neceffarily reduced. And when in fuch foils the fulphuric acid is predominant, it may alfo produce good effeéts, by forming with it a kind of gypfeous compound, and in cafes where other acids are prefent that are prejudicial to vegetation, by the power which it poffeffes of neutralizing them, and thus preventing their hurtful effects. And it is alfo further probable, that when burnt from the magnefian lime-ftone, it may prove ferviceable when applied to clayey or other foils that con- tain the fulphuric acid, ufually denominated four lands by farmers, by forming a fort of Epfom falt in the ground, a fubftance which the experiments of Dr. Home have long ago fhewn to be favourable to vegetation, when laid on ground in {mall quantities. It is found that this fubftance, on expofure to the atmo- {phere for fome time, undergoes a confiderable change, being rendered mild by the abforption of the carbonic acid or fixed air that furrounds it. In this {tate of combination, it has been termed, by modern chemifts, carbonate of lime, or effete lime : in which condition its power of aéting upon, deftroying and breaking down the texture of organized matters, isgreatly diminifhed. It has ftill, however, the effect of promoting their diffolution by forwarding the natural procefs of putrefac- tion, as is proved by the compoft dung-heaps with which it has been blended becoming more quickly in a proper ftate to be applied to land, than in the contrary cafes. By this means it confequently contributes much to the fupport of vegetation: and it has been lately fuggefted, that when dncorporated with fuch compoft of foil and manure, as are ima itate of generating nitrous acid, it may arreft the acid as it forms, by which means a calcareous nitre is produced, and thus the exhalation and ready efcape of a nutritious material be guarded again{t.. It is further conceived, alfo, that the combination of lime with carbonic acid, by ren- dering it foluble in water in its fluid ftate, without being expanded into gas or vapour, may fupply much carbona- ceous matter for the fupport of vegetation. And by the property it poffefles of {uper-faturating or overloading itfelf with moifture,- by attraéting or drawing it away from the air, in contaét with the furface of the ground and the earth underneath, and after depriving them of it, and the carbonic acid which they contained, permitting them to efcape again, as isevident in the cafe of new plaiftered walls, it may be of confiderable utility when applied to the dry and fandy forts of foil, by affording moifture and {uch aerial matters to the roots of the vegetable crops ; which it is capable of fupplying in a very equal and extenfive manner, from the extreme {tate of pulverization to which it is reduced when flaked by the dampnefs of the atmofphere, or by a very gentle fall of moifture. And in addition to thefe modes of pro- moting the growth of vegetable crops, it has been fuppofed — by Dr. Darwin, that calcareous earth, by containing phof- phorus, may be ufeful, as by its union with it a kind of hepar may be produced, and the phofphorus thereby ren- dered foluble in water, without becoming an acid by means of its combination with oxygen or vital air. It is conceived that phofphorus is probably as neceflary an ingredient in vegetable as animal bodies, as is evident, it is fuppofed, from the phofphoric light feen on rotten wood, in fome of the flages of putrefaction; in which, it is believed, the phof- pliorus is fet at liberty from the calcareous earth, or from the fixed alkali, or the carbon of the decompofing wood, and acquires oxygen from the atmofphere, both warmth and light being emitted during their union. And it may, perhaps, more frequently ‘exift in the form of phofphoric acid in vegetables, and be thus readily combined with their calcareous earth, or be feparated from its acid by the carbon of the vegetable, during the time of calcination, as well as in the procefs of putrefaétion. It is, therefore, plain, from this account of the nature and properties of lime, that it may be made ufe of in one or other of its ftates more gene- rally to foils, than has been commonly fuppofed. But it fhould never be applied without duly attending to the na- ture and quality of the foil on which it is to be laid, as upon this circumftance, its fuccefs in a great meafure de- pends in all cafes. It may be noticed, that the trials that have been made by farmers with this manure, fufficiently fhew, that the more minutely lime is blended and incorporated with the mould of - the land on which it is applied, the more full and complete are the effe&ts which it affords in fupporting the growth of different forts of crops. In fupport of this, it has been re- marked by Dr. Anderfon, that “if a heap of lime of a con- fiderable thicknefs fhall have been ever fo long on one fpot, and be afterwards carried clean away from it, fo that none of the particles of the lime remain to be mixed with the foil, that fpot will not be richer, or carry more luxuriant crops, than the places around it; which, every one knows, is not the cafe with regard to dung.”? And further, that “if lime be {pread upon the furface of the foil, and allowed to remain there without being ploughed in, its effeéts will f{earcely be perceived for feveral years, till it has had time gradually to fink through the fward, and mix with the foil ; after which its effe€is begin to be perceived, although much lefs fenfibly than if the fame had been intimately mixed with the foil by means of the plough and harrow.”? The fame writer adds, that he is not a itranger to the improvements that have been made in Derbyfhire by means of lime, with- out the plough; but this, he thinks, is no exception to what he has faid. The effe€is are flow, though certain. « Thofe who inhabit counties that do not admit of the plough, are often advifed to lay lime upon the grafs, and are made to believe that their pafture will be immediately mended by it, nearly in the fame perceptible manner as if it had been dunged. This he has tried, and has feen it tried by others ; but always found tnat the grafs for the firft year was rather hurt than benefited by it ; nor was it fo much improved in fucceeding years, as if the fame quantity of lime had been applied and immediately mixed with the — n ——— MANURE. In this mode of applying lime, it is long, he conceives, be- fore it yields a proper return ; and is not to be recommended to a poor man, unlefs where neceffity obliges him to praétife it.” On this fuppofition, it is conceived, that lime may be em- ployed much more advantageoufly when made ufe of, even in {mall proportions, than fuch calcareous fubftances as have been reduced into the ftate of powder without calcination; but much muft depend on the mode in which lime is Jaid on. “Tf it is fpread as foon as it is flaked, while yet in a pow- dery ftate, a very {mall quantity may be made to cover the whole furface of the ground, and to touch an exceedingly great number of particles of earth; but if it is fuffered to lie for fome time after flaking, and to get fo much moifture as to make it run into clods, or cake into large lumps, it can never be again divided into fuch {mall parts; and there- fore a much greater quantity is neceflary to produce the fame effeét, than if it had been applied in its powdery ftate. But if the foil is afterwards to be continued long in til- lage, (as thefe clods are annually broken f{maller by the action of the plough and harrows,) the lime mutt continue to exert its influence anew upon the foil for a great courfe of years; it will produce an effet nearly fimilar to that which would be experienced, by annually ftrewing a {mall quantity of powdered lime over the whole furface of the foil: but as the price of the lime mutt, in the firft cafe, be paid by the farmer altogether at the beginning, which only comes to be fucceffively demanded in the other cafe, this deferves to be attended to, as it may become a confideration of fome importance where lime is dear, and money not very lentiful.’’ . With refpe& to the ufe of lime, there is another point to be confidered, which is, the quantity that may be neceflary. The opinions of practical farmers are much at variance in refpeé&t to this point, fome contending that a {mall quan- tity can only be applied with fafety and advantage, while others maintain that fcarcely too great a proportion can be made ufe of. Jt is plain, a late writer thinks, “‘ from the differences that take place in foils, that no particular pro- portion can be fuitable in every cafe, but that it muft be varied very confiderably according to the circumftances, as well as from the fituation or condition of the Jand on which it is laid, and the proportion of real calcareous matter that may be contained in the lime that is to be applied. As it has been fhewn that lime, when in its moft aétive ftate, foon becomes reduced fo as to be perfeétly mild by its property of abforbing moifture, and the carbonic acid from the air, there can be little danger of injury from its cauftic quality, though it may, on its firft application, have a tendency to unite with and deftroy fuch green or other vegetable pro- duétions as may be prefent.’’ It is, however, the remark of an able farmer, that “ moft kinds of /fone-lime fhould be applied with a {paring hand, and with a confiderable degree of caution, as the cauflic quality is many times greater in this than in lime made from chalk.” He has had many opportunities, he afferts, of feeing total barrennefs induced by a too liberal ufe of it; very generally at the feveral places where the carts were {topped for the men to fpread it, at the bottoms of every heap, and once an entire clofe. It is well known that lime has been made ule of as a manure in different proportions, from one hundredto fix or feven hundred bufhels on the acre, on different forts of foil, by fome under fimilar circumftances, with benefits in pro- portion to the quantities applied. Befides, accidental ex- periments in Dr. Anderfon’s practice have demonttrated that it may be ufed in {till larger proportions, with advan- tageous effects. And he concludes, that “on foils which do not naturally abound with chalk, or other calcareous matter, there is lefs danger in giving too much, than too little, except in thofe cafes where an over-luxuriance is dreaded in the land.”’ It may be obferved, that the permanency of the effects of this material in promoting the growth of vegetable crops, mutt be different, according to the difference of circum- ftances in the land to which it is applied ; the proportion of it that is made ufe of, the kind of crop that is cultivated, and other caufes of the fame fort. But from the faéts that have been recorded by practical writers, in refpeét to its lafting powers of difpofing lands on which it has been laid to the growth of particular forts of crops in preference to others ; of rendering the operation of other kinds of ma- nure, and other methods of culture, more effe€tual than where it had never been ufed; that it affords ufeful changes in the foils to which it is applied. Of this we have an ad- ditional proof in the well-known circumftance of the quality of the grain, from fuch lands as have been limed being much improved, having a thinner fkin, and yielding much more flour than that from ground where it has never been employed; which is fuppofed, by a late writer, to proceed from its containing more ftarch and lefs mucilage, on ac- count of the tendency of the lime to promote the converfion of the latter fubftance into the former, by expediting the ripening of the grain. This is a circumftannce which alfo fhews the utility of this manure in thofe kinds of land that are late in bringing their grain crops to perfeétien,; whether from the nature of their foils, fituations, or other circumftances. It is obvious that this fubitance, with proper care, may be ufeful on many different forts of land, but in its active ftate it is laid on to the moft advantage on thofe of the moory, peaty, heathy, and other kinds that abound in coarfe vegetable matter. On which account it is, perhaps, that it has been found by experience to be equally, if not more beneficial, on poor than on rich foils; and its requiring to be mixed and incorporated with but a fmall portion of earth or mould, to render it high!y produ€tive, is in favour of the fame thing. From thefe faéts it may be concluded, that this fubftance, befides being ufeful when blended with foils, in rendering the matters they contain proper for the recep- tion of plants, is beneficial in fupplyimg fuch materials as contribute to their growth and increafe. See Liar. Other materials, fuch as lime-{tone, and various hard cal- careous bodies, which, without being fubjeéted to the pro- cefs of calcination by heat, may, in fome cafes, as where fuel cannot be procured to burn them into lime, be bene- ficially applied for the amelioration of land, as has beea fhewn by numerous experiments. When thus ufed they fhould be well pulverized, by fuch mechanical means as can be cheaply performed ; much of the advantage to be de- rived from them probably depending upon their being re- duced into a confiderable ftate of finenefs, by which they may be more minutely blended with the mould of the {oils on which they are applied, and of courfe aét upon and af- ford nutritious principles more extenfively, for the fupport of crops; and at the fame time render the heavy and more cohefive foils lighter, by being more uniformly incorporated with their clayey and earthy materials. But as fuch fub- ftances can never be reduced, by any fort of machinery, to the fine powdery {tate to which they are capable of being carried by means of calcination, it ts probable that, when employed upon land, they will be lefs beneficial in many cafes, than when ufed in the ftate of lime. The fame prin- ciple likewife holds-good, probably, in refpeét to the fcrap- ings of roads, made with calcareous and other fub{tances, which are found beneficial in different inftances, as a.large portion of them is in the frate of an extremely fine MANURE. from the attrition caufed in different ways. It has been fug- gefted, by the experiments of an able philofophical inquirer, “that even magnefian time-itone is made ufe of in this ftate of reduction, without being converted into lime; it may not be fo friendly to vegetation as that which is perfectly calca- reous, efpecially when employed in the fame proportions ; a circumitance which may, in fome degree, account for the difference which has been obferved in the utility of fuch fub- {tances as manures.” It is obvious that fuch lime-{tones as contain the largeft proportions of argillaceous earth in their compofitions, when employed in this reduced ftate, muit be the moft proper for the thin light foils: as by that means the depth and texture of them may be increafed to the great advantage of the crops. In the application of this fort of material to land, the farmer fhould be attentive to the ftate or condition to which it is reduced, as well as the nature of the foil, and adapt the quantities as much as poffible to them. See Lrve-sTone. Lime-ftone gravel is another fubftance of this nature, which has been fuccefsfully employed in Ireland ; it is a kind of itony marle, which might probably be equally or more beneficial, in much lefs quantities, by having the ftony lumps which it contains firlt more perfeétly reduced; as it has been found that where the pieces are large, a much greater proportion is required, and the effects are flower than when made ufe of in a more reduced {tate of powder. See Lime- sTONE Gravel. And chalk is another material of the fame fort, capable of producing beneficial effe€ts on land, when applied in a proper manner in its uncalcined ftate. From the portion of argillaceous or clayey matter united with it in fome cafes, it partakes of the nature of marle. It has been ftated that, where it is made ufe of to the more ftiff, clayey, loamy, and heavy forts of foil, it fhould, in moit cafes, be as much pul- verized and reduced as poflible before it is laid on, in order that it may be fpread with greater exa¢tnefs, and be more regularly mixed and blended with the {tiff and compact ma- terials of fuch lands; from which they may be rendered more capable of admitting the fibrous roots of vegetable crops to f{pread themfelyes in them, and thereby take in more perfeétly the nutritious matters which are prefented to them.’? ‘That this is an ufeful practice, is evident from the circumftance of farmers, in moft of the diftriéts where chalk is employed as a manure, finding it more beneficial when made ufe of in the {pring, after Tanne been dug up in the autumn, and expofed to the fro{t and moifture through the following winter, as by that means it is much pulverized and broken down. The advantage of breaking down the large lumps is alfo in favour of the fame opinion. It is ftated by the author ef Practical Agriculture, that ‘*it would pro- bably, however, be a {till more advantageous practice to break it down, and apply it as quickly as poffible, after digging it out of the pit; as by leaving it expofed to the atmofphere for fome length of time, it not only becomes hard, but likewife lefs foluble, and therefore lefs proper for the purpofes of manure. Hence it probably is, that far- mers, where the chalk hufbandry is pra¢tifed, find the drefl- ings more efficacious when the chalk 1s dug from a confi- derable depth, than where it lies near the furface of the ground. In the dry and light foils too it may, probably, be more ferviceable in this reduced and powdery ftate, from the circumitance of its poflefling more moilture, on account of amore extended furface being expofed to the air, and the particles of the foil, from which it may abforb and attract it, and afterwards part with or afford it in a more regular and uniform manner, to the abforbent roots of the growing vegetable crops. The obfervations of praétical farmers, however, invariably fhew, that on fuch foils it is mach more beneficial when made ufe of in the form of compoft, either with rich peat, or vegetable earth and mould, or with good dung ; as by this means a great defect in fuch kinds of land, the want of well reduced vegetable matter, is remedied, and a greater proportion of nutritious materials afforded for the fupport of crops.”’ But in ufing it upon wet and poachy kinds of ground, there is not, probably, the fame neceflity for its being re- duced to a great degree of finenefs, as it may be apt, under fuch circumitances, to diffolve, and fink down too much by being fo greatly djluted with water, while in the rounder ftate it may be retained near the furface, and thereby be capable of abforbing and taking away the fuper-abundant {urface-moifture more effetually. In Such foils, where the principal intention is the deftruétion of mofs, rufhes, and other coarfe plants, the growth of which depends upon a great degree of fuperficial wetnefs, it may, however, be employed to moft advantage in a fltate of confiderable re- duGtion, as from its greater readinefs to fink down, it may the more quickly take away from their roots the exceflive moifture that fupports them. When acids exit under cer- tain combinations in fuch foils, it may, probably, alfo neu- tralize them more readily when applied in its pulverized ftate, than in the lumpy one in which it is moftly laid on fuch lands. it may be ftated, that the quantity or proportion in which it may be applied, muft depend, ina great meafure, upon the flate of the foil, the nature of the crop, and the inten- tion with which it is employed. In the fouthern diftri€@s it is laid on the {tiff clayey foils in large quantities, as from twelve to fourteen or fifteen waggon loads, or from fifteen to twenty hundred weight each, to the acre; and on the fandy foils in fome parts of Kent, at the rate of one hun- dred and fixty bufhels to the acre. On deep and ftrong kinds of foil, the praétice is moitly either to lay it on the clover leys while feeding off, or upon the fummer fallows. And it is frequently ufed in the form of compott on light foils, to the wheat fallows, as well as grafs grounds. But as it cannot be reduced to the {tate of powdery finenefs of lime, and cannot of courfe be fo equally {pread out, or fo minutely blended with the foil, much larger proportions muft be employed to produce the fame effeéts upon the foil ; three or four times the quantity is in moft cafes requifite. On this account it has been fuggefted, that where it muit be carried from a great diftance in its wet, heavy ftate, it may be the moit economical praétice to have it firlt converted into the ftate of lime, as it will thereby be much more ealily conyeyed to the places in which it is wanted. See CHALK. There is another fubftance of this nature, in fome forts of marle which may be made ufe of as manure to different forts of foils with great benefit, according to the difference of their nature. Where fubitances of this kind are laid upon land, for the purpofe of fupporting immediate crops of either corn or grafs, the moft crumbly, or thofe the moft readily redu- cible into a powdery ftate, are the mnoft proper; but where they are laid on with the intention only of aflilting future crops, or of producing more lafting effeéts, thofe that are more hard, and lefs aioe to fall into pieces, may be more ~ advantageoufly employed, the firft of which is fhewn to be the cafe, by the obfervation of praétical hufbandmen in matling diftri€ts, that it does not exert its full effe&s on the foil until it has been well mixed and incorporated with it by frequent aration, and by the praétice of letting it re- main fome time on the furface of the ground before it is 2 turned .f MANURE. turned down, from which it becomes much reduced into a powdery ftate: and the latter, by the circumftance of the harder forts remaining a great length of time upon, or within, the ground, before they are fully decompofed, or broken and carried down into the foil to be blended with it. It is clear that fubftances of this kind produce beneficial effe&s on moft forts of foil in their different forms; the fhell, ftone, and thofe kinds of marle which abound molt with calcareous earth, or which have fand in their compo- fition, are the moft adapted to the ftrong, ftiff, clayey foils, as by the infinuation of fuch matters they are not only ren- dered more light and friable, but a great part of the in- jurious moifture which they contain is removed. While thofe in which clay confiderably predominates, are found more advantageous in the light, dry, fandy, gravelly, and loamy foils, as by fuch fubftances the defects of lightnefs are remedied, and the neceflary moifure in fome meafure preferved. The writer of the Middlefex Report ftates, that on the ftronger forts of loamy foil, clayey marle will moftly be improper, as it has much tendency to render fuch forts of land more wet and adhefive, by which they may be greatly injured. Thefe, have been found to be the effects refulting from the application of it even upon a temperate loam, in fome parts of Suffex. And, befides, it is fome- times apt te bring up coltsfoot, a weed which is difficult to be eradicated.” In refpe&t to the quantity or proportion of thefe fub- ftances which is applied, it differs confiderably in different diftriéts, which in fome degree depends upon the nature of the foils; the heavy, clayey, or loamy, demanding in ge- neral a much larger proportion than the light, fandy, or gravelly forts. The average quantity employed may be eltimated at from about one to four or more cubic roods of fixty-four yards to the ftatute acre, according to the ftate of the marle, and particular nature and condition of the ground on which it is laid. According to the Survey of Lancafhire, “it may in many cafes be the moft advifable practice not to apply too thick a covering at one time, but to have recourfe to light dreflings more frequently, as by fuch a method the fertility of the land may be better pre- ferved and kept up, and the crops be rendered more ful! and abundant.” It is ttated in a praétical work, that manure of this fort is employed on lands in a courfe of tillage, as well as in grafs. On the former it is often made ufe of as a prepara- tion for barley, turnips, and other fimilar crops, or applied upon clover or other new leys, previous to their being ploughed up for wheat ; in which modes of making ufe of it, the common praétice is to leave it fpread out upon the fur- face for fome length of time before it is turned in, in order that it may be well reduced into a powdery form ; for the more perfectly the marle is broken down and fpread out, the more effectual it is found in promoting the growth of the crops. It has been noticed, that in its application in the latter cafe ‘ it is frequently laid on in too large quantities, or left too long in its lumpy ‘tate ; from both which circum- fances difadvantages are produced to the growth of the .grafs, when either to be cut for hay, or fed off by cattle ; as by the former, where the marle contains much of the ar- gillaceous material, a kind of cruft is formed that prevents its {pringing, as happens where the {tiff mud of ponds, and fuch like manures, are too thickly laid on lands; and from the latter, the grafs is not only injured by the {mall clods, as is experienced where imperfeétly reduced clayey earth is applied, but the effects of the manure are prevented from being fully exerted on account of its not being well broken, and carried down to the abforbent roots of the graffes, by the fre- quent rains that may take place after its application.” And that “ when employed in large proportions, whether upon the heavier or lighter forts of land, a confiderable {pace of time appears, from experience, to be required to elapfe, before it can with advantage be had recourfe to again ; for if this circumftance be not properly attended to, or too many white crops be fucceffively taken, a very great degree of ex- hauftion is foon produced, as has been experienced in many of the marling counties of England, and in Forfarfhire in Scotland. Thefe injurious confequences are, however, found to be eafily prevented, by adopting the alternating fyftem of corn and grafs, or other green crops.”” And it is further fuggeited as probable, « that by taking corn and grafs crops in fucceflion, or, after having one or two grain crops, letting the land be laid down for two or three years with artificial grafles, the application of marle in fmall quantities might be more frequently renewed, to the great advantage of the farmer, and the improvement of the land. In fome of the places where this kind of manure is made ufe of, as in Lan- cafhire, fomething of this praétice is adopted with much benefit. And when mixed with dung and other fubftances, in the form of compott, it is generally found capable of being repeated, at fhort intervals, with the moft beneficial effects.’” From thefe facts, the writer therefore concludes, “ that fuch injuries are rather to be afcribed to the mode of cropping, than to the nature of the manure. Something may alfo, he fuppofes, depend on the manner in which it 1s applied, as it has been found to be more efficacious, when well mixed and incorporated with the foil, than where this has not been the cafe; and that, as it has been found highly advantageous in promoting and bettering the condition of the grafs-lands in fome diftriéts, while in others it has been objected to as injuring them, it is {till farther probable, he conceives, that much depends on the ftate and manner of its being put in or upon lands, and that it is only where it is laid on in a moderate fuitable proportion, and ‘after it has been well broken down and reduced into a fine powdery form, fo that it may be very minutely and intimately blended with the foil, that its beft effeéts can be exerted upon the land. - And the general method of digging it up in the fummer feafon, and {preading it over the ground in its lumpy ftate, in order that it may be aéted upon and reduced by the heat of the fun, and the frofts during the fucceeding winter, isa proof of the fame conclufion. See Marue. Another ufeful material as manure, is found in the fhelly fand, found in beds in the hollows, and other parts of the fea-coaft, in different diftriéts, as containing not only calca- reous matter, in a ftate of confiderable finenefs, but a por- tion of animal and vegetable fub{tances, with a {mall quantity of the muriate of foda or fea-falt ; the laft of which, from its well-known property of promoting the procefs of putre- faction in animal and vegetable matters, when in fuch pro- portions, and that of deftroying different kinds of living in- jects, may contribute greatly to the good effeéts experienced from it, This is rendered highly probable, from the cir- cumltance of that which is taken from underneath the water. or from fuch banks and places as are daily covered by the tides, being the moft efficacious when applied to the foil. The proportion of calcareous matter contained in fubftances of this fort vary very much, according to the particular cir- cumitances of them. It has been obierved, that ‘ where the quantity of calcareous matter is large, and in a very re- duced or attenuated ftate, it is by much the molt valuable ; as when there is much fand amongtt it, a much larger quan- tity will be required, and the expence of application be of courfe much increafed,”? It is conceived that this fubttance 1s / MANURE. is ‘more proper for the clayey or loamy foils than thofe of the lighter kinds, efpecially where the proportion of the calcareous ingredient is large. _When equally fpread, and well incorporated with fuch lands, it is generally found to produce good effects for a great length of time.’’ And it has been obferved by Dr. Anderfon, that “ a confiderable lefs quantity of calcareous matter, when in this fine ftate, will have a more fenfible effe&, than when it is in that of any kind of earthy marle, as it admits of being {pread over the ground with greater equality, and of being more minutely and intimately blended with the foil.” With regard to the quantity employed, it muft obvioufly be different, according to the nature and circumftances of the foil, as well as the fand; but twenty tons to the acre is, for the moft part, confidered as a proper dreffing. It is faid to be frequently applied on the fummer fallows for wheat, and fometimes as a preparation for barley ; and may likewife be laid on clover or other leys, before they are ploughed down for grain crops, but infuch cafes fo large a quantity is not requifite. When put upon grafs-land, in not too large a proportion, it commonly produces great and fudden effects, the crops quigkly becoming very luxuriant.’’ And it is alfo obferved, that fuch lands as have been treated in this way, when again brought into tillage, moftly produce abun- dant crops of the grain kind. It has been itated by Dr. Anderfon, that ‘the effects of this fort of manure on the weit coa{ts of the northern parts of the ifland have been very extraordinary, efpecially upon the heathy or mofly foils; and it is fuppofed that fuch kinds of fand are more common on the eatt coafts than has been generally fuppofed from the little attention that has been beftowed by the farmer in fuch fituations to procure it for ufe.’’ Although common fand cannot be properly confidered as a manure, it is often found ufeful in the ftiff, clayey, and loamy foils, in leflening their tenacity, and rendering them more light and mellow. This fubftance has been laid upon rough pafture and meadow land, with the effeét of rendering the furface more equal, and bringing up a clofe thick crop of grafs with much white clover. In thefe cafes, the quan- tity fhould be proportioned to the ftiffnefs of the foils; but the beft practice is, not to apply too large a drefling at a time, as injuries may be done where a very large portion is put on at one time. Manures of the faline Kind.—There are various fubftances of this fort, when in combination with earthy and other in- gredients which are found beneficial as manures in many inftances, when properly employed. The materials that are principally made ufe of in this way are the refufe of different manufactures, fuch as thofe of bleaching and foap-boiling, where in fufficient quantities, as in the neighbourhood of large towns, and where fuch bulfinefles are conduéted on an exten- five fcale. The afhes which remain after the combuftion of various green vegetable matters, wood, pit-coal, peat, &c. and fome other fubftances, fuch as foot and fea-falt, are of the fame nature. It is fuggelted in a late praétical work, that “it is probably to the different alkaline principles con- tained in thefe fubftances, from the great facility and power which they poffefs of aéting upon and diffolving the parts of animal and vegetable matters, efpecially fuch of the latter kind as have been rendered infoluble by the abforption of the oxygen, or pure air of theatmofphere, from long or fre- quent expofure to it, and even foffil coal, under fimilar cir- cumiftances, and by this means forming new faline compounds which are foluble, that their beneficial effets as manures are chiefly to be afcribed.’? And “ that as fuch inert or info- luble vegetable or peaty matters, when decompofed or re- duced intoa ftate of folubility by alkaline fubftances, affume a brownith-red colour, and become infipid; the alkalies, in fuch cafes, mult enter into combination, and be neutralized by the acid or acids contained in them, which will be found to be the phoiphoric and the oxalic, or acid of forrel ; from which will be formed, according to the nature of the alkali contained in the fubftance made ufe of, phofphats and oxalats of potath, foda, or ammonia, which are:matters capable of promoting the growth of plants.”” But, befide their forming in the foils, or the earthy materials with which they are mixed, fuch compounds as are beneficial in promoting the growth of vegetables, they may be ufeful in many cafes, when properly applied, and ufed in fufficient quantity, in correcting the acidity, in altering the ftate or condition of the lands, as by taking away moifture from the furface where it prevails in an over-proportion in meadows and paftures, and thereby fupports crops of coarfe vegetables, and by ren- dering the texture of {uch grounds as are under the plough more open and mellow, confequently more fuitable for the reception of the roots of grain, and other crops. But fome of thefe materials, fuch as the bleacher’s refufe, contains vegetable and mineral alkali, in fuch proportions as ren- der it incapable of being made ufe of without being pre- vioufly mixed with other materials. For which purpofe, it is fuggefted, that ‘ frefh mould or peat earth fhould be pro- cured ; and after having been well mixed and blended with it in the quantity of about eight or ten parts of the earth to one of the refufe, a proportion of rotten dung, fuitable to the purpofe for which the manure is intended, may be added, by which means a good manure will be formed.” And the wafte of foapers is another fubltance that may be made ufe of in the fame way ; but io this, it is obferved, there is a confiderable portion of lime mixed with the alkaline matter. - The lees, cr liquors, which are drawn off after making foap, as containing much alkaline faline matter, may likewife, where they can be procured in fufficient quantities, and at a reafonable rate, be made ufe of ina fimilar manner. All thefe different fubftances, when combined with good rich vegetable mould,:turf or peaty matters, and made ufe of as manure, areconttantly found to be the molt beneficial upon the {tiff clayey and loamy foils; as in fuch forts of land it is fuppofed that they probably not only contribute to the increafe of the crops, by furnifhing fuch foluble mat- ters as can be readily taken up by their abforbent roots, but, by leffening their fliffnefs and tenacity, render them more proper for their reception.” In regard to the proportion or quantity of thefe manures which may be neceffary, it muft, as in other cafes, vary ac- cording to the particular circumftances of the ground or foil upon which they are applied, and the views of the farmer in their application. But it is ufual to apply them upon lands ina ftate of tillage, as well asunder grafs ; in the fir they are generally either put on in the {kate of compolt, at the rate of about ten loads to the acre, juft before the feed fur- row is given or fown over the furface, and harrowed in with the grain; in whichever mode they may be applied, it is re- quifite to have them fpread as equally as poflible, in order that they may produce their effeéts in the molt extenfive and perfe&t manner.’”’ In the latter it is obferved, that «« though they may in fome inftances be ufed alone, it is probably a much better praétice to have them mixed with fuch earthy fubftances as have been juft mentioned before they are laidon the {wards, as by fuch a pratice their effe&ts as manure may be renderéd more complete and permanent. Upon grafs lands they are often ufed to the amount of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty bufhe!s. And moft grafs lands are improved by the application of fuch manures, but efpecially fuch as are wet, and difpofed to the produc- tion MANURE. tion of coarfe four vegetables, fuch as rufhes, wild forrel, and various other plants of the fame kind. But the ahes, or earthy faline matters, arifing from the combuftion of dif- ferent frefh vegetable products, though beneficial as manures, are too wafteful and uneconomical in their production to be made ufe of, except in particular inftances, as where wood and other vegetable produétions are very abundant, and ufed commonly as fuel. Or where they cannot be readily cleared away by other more advantageous methods, as ten or fifteen parts, and in fome cafes confiderably more, of fuch mate- rials are diffipated and loft during the procefs. Where they are in fufficient quantities for this purpofe, it is fuggetted that they may probably be employed to the greateft advantage by being mixed with a good portion of rich vegetable mould, or peat earth, and a quantity of well fermented dung; as, in fuch a compound ftate, they are capable of being applied more extenfively, and atthe fame time in the molt favour- able condition for the {upport of vegetation. When made ufe of on the heavy foils, the quantity of afhes in the compoft fhould be much greater than on thofe of the lighter kinds ; they are, in general, the moft effectual when applied as a top drefling to grafs lands, efpecially fuch as are commonly termed four, or have much tendency to the produiion of mofs on their furfaces.”” See Asues. And peat earth is another fubftance met with in different diftrié&s, which, after being cut and dried by the heat of the fummer, is made ufe of as fuel. By the confumption of this fort of earth in this way, a confiderable lofs in refpe& to manure is fuftained ; as it has been found, that, ‘in many cafes, nineteen parts out of twenty of the material are diffi- pated and carried away in the procefs of combuttion, which, as it has been fhewn, that the inert vegetable or peaty matter, produced by the ation of oxygen, or the pure air of the atmofphere fora great length of time, is capable of being rendered foluble, by mixing lime in certain conditions with it, and ftill more efiectually by alkaline faline fubftances, might have been preferved and rendered ufeful.”” However, in Berkfhire it is the common praétice to dig up peat earth, merely for the purpofe of burning it into afhes, in order that it may be ufed as a manure upon land in various cafes. But as it is only from frefh or green vegetable produétions that alkaline faline fubftances can be olstained when burned, none being afforded by the combuttion of dead or decayed vegetable matters, it would feem that the afhes of peat earth feldom contain much faline matter. It has, however, been obferved by fome, that all peat earths afford alkaline faline matters in a greater or lefs proportion when burned, and that in fome it is from a twenty-fecond to a thirty-fecond part of their weight. It is ftated, that “* the afhes produced from the burning of peat about Reading in Berkfhire, which long experience has fhewn to poffefs great fertilizing powers, are afferted to contain no alkaline falts, nor, from the haity analyfis of them which was made by lord Dundonald, was any faline matter, except a fmall proportion of fulphat of magnefia, or Epfom falt, found. Butitis added, that “ if the analyfis had been more carefully made, and when the afhes were newly burnt, they would moft prebably have been found to contain a hepar of lime, which is a faline fub- itance foluble in water, while gypfum, the fubitance to which it returns on being expofed to the air, is infoluble.’’ The fertilizing effects of thefe afhes may, therefore, it is fup- pofed, probably materially depend upon this hepar, a cir- cumltance which is rendered {till more probable from the ob- fervation of Mr. Middleton, in the Middlefex Report, that «« the hills on each fide of the meadows which produce the Newbury peat-a/bes, confilt of chalk, eafily diffolvable by Vor. XXII. heavy rain, which wafhés it off the ridges down the furrows, ditches, and {treamlets, to the low grounds, where, mixing with the floods, it is floated over the meadows, and depo- fited in the peat. Confequently the peat of this diftria& differs from that of moft others, by the quantity of chalk which it contains; and, when dug, dried, and burnt, the fire reduces the chalk to lime, and the reft to afhes. Hence Newbury afhes are a mixture of lime and vegetable athes; and it is very probable that any common peat-afhes, or the afhes of rough grafs land, of turf, heath, furze, ling, wood, &c. produced by the operation of paring and burning, being mixed with chalk lime in due proportion, would be as equally fertilizing as thefe noted afhes.’”? But it has been fuggefted, that there is another circumiftance that may produce a differ- ence in the faline and other fubftances contained in the athes of different peaty earths, which is that of the prefence of mineral {prings. When, by this means, an over large por- tion of fulphat of iron, or green vitriol, happens to be pre- fent in the peat, the afhes produced from its combuftion muft in confequence become injurious, or at leaft much lefs bene- ficial to the growth of vegetables, than in cafes where fuch a fubftance is not prefent. Its prejudicial effeéts, accordin to lord Dundonald, may be corrected by the ufe of either lime, magnefia, alkaline falts, or dung; but that preference is to be given to magnefia and alkaline faline fub{tances, as they not only decompofe the vitriolic falt, but form other faline fubftances, which are found favourable to vegetation or the growth of plants. And where dung is made ufe of in fuch cafes, the vitrio- lated iron is brought into its metallic conditien, and the ful- phuric acid, thus fet at liberty, enters into combination with the ammonia or volatile alkali formed from the dung, and produces fulphat of ammonia; or, by uniting with the cal- careous matter, and the additional affiltance of the inflamma ble, or putrefcent matter of the dung, it may be converted into a hepar that may be beneficial to the growth of plants as crops. Afhes of thefe defcriptions may be ufed as a manure, either by being harrowed in with the grain-crops, or fown over them asa top drefling after they have come up. In the former cafe it is advifed, that they fhould be employed in a fomewhat larger proportion than inthe latter ; in which “« the beft practice is to fow them over the crops before they are grown too high ; and if the weather be rather inclined to ‘wetnefs, it will be the more favourable: the quantities com- monly employed in this way are from fifteen to twenty buthels the acre, according to the {tate or condition of the Jand. Where laid on grafs lands, whether thofe of the ar- tificial or natural pafture kinds, they often produce great improvements, rendering the grafles thicker, finer, and more clofe and abundant, often removing much of the mofly mat- ter which infefts them. See AsHes. And peaty fub{tances, in the reduced ftate of duit, are fometimes made ufe of with great benefit ; but it is fugeetted by lord Dundonald, that this fort of earth may generally be employed to molt advantage by being well mixed and incor- porated with fuch fubftances as contain alkaline falts, or with alkaline hepars, or by a mixture of fulphat of foda with lime in its aétive ftate.’’ It is likewife fuppofed, that the powdery or dulty matter of pit-coal might, probably, be applied with the fame advantage if prepared ina fimilar manner, and it is capable of being rendered foluble in the fame way. And it 1s further aflerted by the fame writer, “as the refult of experimental trials, that the effeéts of peat earth, mixed and incorporated with alkaline faline fub{tances, are equal, if not fuperior, to thofe from dung, the weight 3P ° MANURE. of each being the fame 3?" which, if it be well-founded, fhews the fuperiority of employing peat earth in this way, inftead of converting it into afhes, to be much more than has been already believed to be the cafe. See Pear-du/?. And the afhes obtained from pit-coal, when applied as ma- nures, are found to be ufeful in many refpeéts ; but it is fuppofed, as they can contain faline matter only in propor- tion to the quantity of frefh vegetable products that may have been confumed along with them, little of the effe& which is produced can depend upon it; much more, pro- bably, arifes from the portion of calcareous earth which they contain. It is alfo added that “ fomething, in many cafes, probably depends on the animal fubftances that may have been occafionally barnt, or afterwards mixed with them, before they are made ufe of asamanure. And that * they may alfo be ferviceable on the ftiffer forts of foil, by ren- dering them more open and difpofed to admit the roots of growing vegetables.” This ** feems to be fhewn by their utility in the {tiff clayey grounds, from which brick earth has been dug, and on what are generally termed four lands. On the more tenacious loamy foils, they may operate by giving friability, and at the fame time the calcareous princi- ple, ina {mall degree, where it is deficient, which is further fupported by their having been found from experience to be much lefs ufeful in the poorer forts of land, than thofe that are of a good quality.’’ It may be noticed, that the application of thefe afhes to ftiff foils, from which brick earth has been taken, renders it fufficiently friable to afford good crops of beans, a fort of plant which, though it grows well on heavy foils, could not be produced on lands fo very {tiff as the bottoms of brick grounds, without thefe afhes. However, except in fuch cafes as the above, this manure is probably beft adapted to grafs land as a top-drefling, and it may be occafionally ufed in this way to young grain crops in particular cafes. With regard to the proportion in which it may be laid on, it muft be different according to the views of the farm- er, the nature of the crop, and the flate of the ground, as well as other circumftances. See Coal-Asuers. Another faline fubftance is met with in foot, that ex- perience has fhewn to be of much utility, when applied to land as a manure. It is probable, that the beneficial effeéts refulting from the ufe of this fubftance depend, in a great degree, on the quantity of alkaline faline matter which it contains ; which by its aétion on the rich vegetable mould of the foil or earth with which it is blended, mgy render it more capable of fupplying the nutrition of veggtables ; and it may bring the grofs oleaginous matter of the foot into fuch a ftate as to be capable of folution or diffufion in water, and in that way render it fit to be taken up by the abforbent roots of vegetables. It is fuppofed, that «the earthy mat- ter of this fub{tance, as well as that of different kinds of afhes, may probably be rendered more fuitable for the pur- pofe of promoting vegetation, by their having been expofed to the action of fire, as is well known to be the cafe with clay.”? The great ftate of finenefs in which foot is found, may, likewife, it is fuppofed, be ferviceable, as by that means it becomes capable of being more regularly and more extenfively mixed with the foils on which it is applied. And it is believed, that “ the good effeéts of moft fub- ftances employed as top-dreffings depend, in fome meafure, upon this circumftance.”’ It is thought probable, that this fubftance, as containing alkaline falt in a confiderable pro- portion, may probably be ufed with greater advantage by being well mixed or blended in rich mould, or peat-earth, and by fuch a method the quantity of manure would be greatly increafed. This fhould not, however, be attempted where the deftruétion of infe&ts forms any part of the defign of the farmer in its application upon his land. Soot is a fubitance which is chiefly made ufe of as a top dreffing to grain crops and grafs lands. ‘* On the former it has been found extremely ufeful in deftroying the wire- worm and other deftruétive infects. This is probably effeGted by the bitter oleaginous liquid formed from the union of the alkali and the oil of the foot, impregnating thofe parts of the plants on which they feed, and thereby caufing them to be rejeéted by fuch infeéts.”” It may alfo produce fome advantage in this refpect, by promoting a rapid vegetation, and thereby rendering the texture of the plants, very quickly, too firm to be preyed upon by them, as has been obferved by lord Dundonald. That it is very powerful in promoting the vigorous growth of vegetable crops, is fhewn *‘ by the change which takes place after fowing it over fuch young wheat crops as have a yellowifh fickly appearance, as they frequently put on, in a very fhort time afterwards, the healthy green afpet. On mea- dow and patture lands, experience has likewife fhewn it to be highly ufeful, not only by encouraging the growth of a finer fort of grafs, but by deltroying or correéting the fre- quent difpofition of fuch grounds to produce mofs, and fome other coarfe forts Of vegetable produétions.” In refpet to the quantity or proportion that may be applied, this muft vary according to the circumttances of the cafe ; the moft common quantity is generally from about forty to fifty bufhels on the acre. See Soor. It is advifed, where any of thefe or other materials that contain faline matters, are to be employed as manures, that “‘ they fhould always be preferved in fheds, or other con- venient places, from rains, or the accidental application of water to them, as whcre this practice is negleéted, the faline fubftances are foon diffolved and carried away in a liquid form. It is chiefly from this caufe, that fubftances of this kind, which have been long expofed without being covered, are often foung fo inferior in their effe€ts to thofe which are frefh or newly made. On this account alfo, if fuch fub- itances are laid en land at too early a period of the feafon, they will be liable to have much of their valuable properties carried away by the rains that may take place.” The muriat of foda, or fea-falt, is a fubitance, the uti- lity of which has been already noticed, but which, * for the purpofes of manure, feems not yet well afcertained, as by fome it is confidered as poflefling confiderable powers of promoting vegetation ; while others have experienced little or no advantage from its application. But though it may prevent putrefaction when employed in large proportions by its antifeptic property, as has been fhewn by different trials, when ufed in fmall quantities it has a tendency to promote the procefs. On this account, it may therefore, it is fup- pofed, be ferviceable when incorporated with farm-yard dung, and other animal or vegetable matters, in {mall portions.” The author of * Practical Agriculture” has fuggefted, that “¢as every where in the vicinity of the fea a ready means of obtaining this faline material in unlimited quantities offers itfelf, it may deferve more particularly the notice of the agriculturiit ; and more efpecially as many other fub- ftances that are known to contain, or be impregnated with it, fuch as the weed thrown up by the tides, and the fand over which they flow, can be eafily procured.” There is ftill another fubftance of this nature, that « exilts in the bittern, watte, or refufe of falt works, which. generally contains muriat of magnefia in large proportions. 12 Tt aa ee MANURE. It has been found to poffefs very great feptic qualities, and may, therefore, be highly beneficial when mixed with ee or earthy matters. Ixperience has fhewn it to be capable of promoting vegetation in a great degree. The above writer thinks, that ‘*in whatever manner fub- ftances of the faline kind may produce their effeéts in pro- moting vegetation, when employed as manures, it is evident, from their containing in themfelves little or nothing of fuch matters as are capable of affording nourifhment to plants, that they may, in moft cafes, be made ufe of to the greateft advantage, by being mixed and incorporated with fuch fub- ftances as they are capable of a&ting upon and reducing to a ftate proper for the fupport of vegetable crops; {uch as rich earthy materials, imperfeGtly reduced dung, and other matters of a fimilar kind. Where fubftances that contain the muriat of foda, or fea-falt, are employed, they may probably be applied to much advantage, by being mixed with imperfeétly burnt clay, when reduced to the ftate of powder. And if upon trial they thould be found effectual in this form, they may be very conveniently made ufe of in the way of top-dreflings to grafs or grain crops in the fpring.”’ r $ Manures of the mixed or compoft Kinds.—It is extremely evident, from what has been ftated and explained in refpeé& to the nature of the different fubftances that are capable of being ufed as manures, that many of them may frequently be mixed and blended with each other, or with materials of other kinds, fo as to be not only confiderably increafed in quantity, but often rendered more effectual and proper for application than in their fimple ftates. At the fame time, it is clear, that fome of them may be thus mixed and incor- porated with each other with much more benefit than others ; for although the conftant experience of farmers has deci- cidedly fhewn the great importance and advantage of em- ploying compotts, till lately they have paid little regard to the mixing together of fuch matters as are, from the prin- ciples which they originally contain, or which are formed from them, in the changes which they undergo in the dif- ferent ftages of their decompofitios, adapted to act in the mott fuitable manner for producing fuch combinations or alterations in the materials, as are capable of being bene- ficial in the greatett poffible degree in promoting vegetation, when applied to the land or foil. It is obvious, that the manure raifed in the farm-yard is the moft common application of any, and which, from its being formed by the gradual decay of various kinds of vegetable matters, as hay, ftraw, fern, and various other materials of a fimilar nature, with which the dung and urine of animals is incorporated and combined, it is to be con- fidered as a compound manure. And from the largenefs of the proportion in which fuch vegetable produétions enter into its compolition, and the quantity of earthy materials that is in moft cafes added, efpecially where the manage- ment is judicious, by laying of fuitable foundations or bot- toms, it is lefs frequently requifite to blend it with other fubftances than moit other manures. But as moft of the vegetable materials that conftitute the chief part of it are made ufe of in a dry and hard ftate, and do not fo quickly ferment or run into the ftate of decay, notwithftanding the quantity of animalized matters that may be blended with them; it becomes ufeful to turn them over once or oftener, in order that their complete putrefaétion may be promoted, and at the fame time the different materials minutely blended together. And it has been fuggefted, that “ in forming of this manure, care fhould alfo be conftantly taken, that the heaps be fo fituated, as that they may not become too dry, or too much foaked in water, as in either cafe they mutt be greatly injured,” and that “ whenever it may be requifite to incorporate any earthy material with this fort of manure, the agricultor fhould carefully attend to the ftate or richnefs in which it may exift in the yard, and pro- portion fuch additions accordingly.’’ It cannot, however, ever demand a portion nearly fo large as that of fuch ma- nures as are almoft wholly compofed of animal fubftances of fuch earthy matters. After obferving that ftraw or litter is the bafis of farm- yard manure, or what is often termed dung, a late writer fuggetts that, for light and heavy foils, the dung fhould be prepared in different ways, be ufed at different feafons, and applied to different crops. For light foils, he thinks, ma- hure requires to be much higher prepared than is neceflary for clayey foils; and that every ftep of the previous pre- paration, to be perfect, ought to be executed in a quite dif- ferent manner. ‘ For foils of the firft defcription, where turnips are taken as a firft crop, dung can hardly be too well prepared ; becaufe the nature of the crop, to which it is ap- plied, renders a complete incorporation with the ground abfolutely neceflary, without which the young plants might be ftarved at their very entrance into life. In the beft farmed Englifh counties, which have come under his ob- fervation, dung is often kept over year, in order that it may be perfectly rotted: and the late Mr. Bakewell was in habits of not applying it till it was reduced to a ftate fome- thing like black f{nuff.” He does not, however, approve of fuch protraétion; for, when the preparatory fteps are conduéted with judgment, there is rarely any neceflity for keeping dung over year upon turnip-farms ; befides, {uch a delay caufes a watte of the article, and mott likely diffipates its ftrength: at all events, a year’s intereft of the value of the increafed produce muft be loft. In general cafes, there is not much difficulty in preparing dung upon turnip-farms ; becaufe, in the drieit feafon, from the nature of the food ufed, fuch a quantity of liquid paffes from the animals, as to prevent burning, provincially fre-fanging, the greateft obftacle to the rotting of dung that can be experienced. If turnip dung is regularly removed ; if it is properly mixed with the horfe litter, and other excrementitious matter ac- cumulated upon the farm, it will be found an ealy talk to prepare all that is made by the middle of April, at which time the fold-yard fhould be cleared. What is produced after that time fhould be ftored up feparately, receive wa- terings, if the weather is dry, and be referved for clover ftubbles, or other fields that are to be dunged in autumn.” But though the middle of April is mentioned “ as a good time for clearing the fold-yard, this does not prevent the work from going partially forward through the winter, when fuitable opportunities occur. When drove out of the fold-yard, the dung fhould be laid up in a regular heap or pile, not exceeding fix quarters, or four feet and one half in height: and care fhould be taken not to put either horfe or cart upon it, which is eafily avoided by backing the cart to the pile, and laying the dung compaétly together, with a grepe or fork. It is alfo ufeful to face up the extremities with earth, which keeps in the moilture, and prevents the fun and wind from doing injury. Perhape a {mall quantity of earth ftrewed upon the top might alfo prove ufeful. Dung, when managed in this manner, generally ferments very rapidly: but if it is difcovered to be in a backward ftate, a complete turn over, about the firft of May, when the weather becomes warm, will quicken the procefs ; and the better it is fhaken afunder, the fooner will the end ir view be gained.” A fecluded {pot of ground, not much expofed to wind, and perfectly fecure from being floated with water, ought always to be chofen for the {cite of fuch 3P 2 piles MANURE. piles or heaps, If the field, to which it is to be applied, is at hand, a little after-trouble may be faved, by depofiting it there, in the firit inftance; but he has always found it moft convenient to preferve a piece of ground, adjacent to the home-ftead, for fuch a purpofe. There it is always under the farmer’s eye ; anda greater quantity can be moved in a fhorter time, than when the fituation is more diftant. Befidee, in wet weather, and this is generally the time chefen for fuch an operation, not only are roads cut up, by driving to a diftance, but the field, on which the heap is made, may be poached and injured confiderably.”” This he conceives to be “ the moft approved method of procuring dung upon turnip or light farms.”” = Me ay “ upon clay foils, where wheat forms a prin- cipal part ef the crop; where great quantities of beans are cultivated, aad few turnips fown, unlefs for the ufe of milch cows, the rotting of dung is not only a troublefome, but an expentive affair. Independent of what is coniumed by the ordinary farm-ftock, the overplus of the ftraw muft fome how or another be rotted, by lean cattle kept in the fold- yards, who either receive the ttraw in racks, or it is thrown acrofs the yard, to be eaten and trod down by them. Ac- cording to this mode of confumption, it is evident that a {till Marg neceflity arifes for a frequent removal of this unmade ung; otherwife, from the trampling of the beafts, and the ufual want of moilture, it would comprefs fo much as to prevent putrefaction altogether. Yo prepare dung fuffi- ciently upon farms of this defcription is at all times an ar- duous tafk, but fcarcely praéticable in dry feafons: for if it once gets burnt ( fire-fanged), it is almott phyfically im- poflible to bring it into a fuitable {tate of preparation after- wards ; and, at all events, its virtues are thereby confider- ably diminifhed. The ftraw flung out in confiderable por- tions to the fold-yard, after being compreffed by the tramp- ling of cattle, becomes rather like a well-packed ftack, than a mafs of dung in a preparatory ftate. The fmall uantity of water and dung made by the animals is barely fafiicient to caufe a flight fermentation; and this fermenta- tion, when the heaps get into a compreffed ftate, is fure to bring on the injury of fire-fanging. ‘To prevent fuch an in- jury, no meafure can, it is conceived, be fo fuccefefully ufed, as a frequent removal of this unmade dung, efpecially if the weather is wet at the time. If people can ftand out to work, you cannot have too much wetnefs when executing this operation ; for there is always fuch a quantity of the ftraw, that has not paffed through the entrails of the cattle, as renders it almoft impoffible to do injury, in the firft in- ftance, by an accefs of moifture. What he would there- fore recommend, upon every clay-land farm, efpecially thofe of confiderable fize, is a frequent clearing of the fold-yard ; and that the greateft care fhould be taken to mix the ftable or horfe-dung in a regular way with what is gathered in the fold-yard, or made by other animals, in order that a regular heat or fermentation may be f{peedily produced. Where the materials confift of a fmall quantity of dung. or excremen- titious matter, and a large ftore of unrotten {traw, only par- tially moiftened, he is apes that no damage can enfue from putting horfes and carts upon the heap; nay, he rather thinks that a pofitiye benefit will be gained from this flight compreffion. He is, however, at the fame time, well aware that the fentiments of many «ble and judicious farmers are different from his on this point; they being of opinion, that the natural preffure of the materials is quite fufficient, and that any more is attended with injurious confequences. He is, however, fatisfied, that fuch ideas are unfounded ; having tried both methods upon an extenfive feale, and, from the refults, feels himfelf juftified in recommending the manage- ment. Perhaps this difference of fentiment may arife from not attending to the very different qualities of dung on dif- ferent farms; for he has already fully recognifed the pro- priety of ab{taining from putting horfes and carts upon fuch heaps or piles, containing materials which can be called dung, even though it may be in an unripe ftate. He con- tends, however, that no injury is fuftained in flightly com- prefling a mafs of rough materials ; nay, that fuch is at- tended with beneficial effeéts; for, if the materials were laid up with a fork, or a grepe, as is recommended in the cafe of turnip or half rotten dung, the {mall portion of moifture therein contained would f{peedily be wafted or evaporated ; a circumftance which he has repeatedly witneffed, efpecially when dry weather fucceeded the period when the heap was made up. Befides, driving a one-horfe cart over the fur- face of materials, only one ftage removed from the condi- tion of dry ftraw, will never prevent fermentation. If left in the fold-yard, he grants that the conftant treading of the cattle therein confined, and the daily increafed weight of the heap, would undoubtedly produce that evil; but fuch is effectually prevented by frequent removals, efpecially if rainy weather prevails at the time. The heap or pile, as in the former cafe, fliould be formed in a fecluded fpot, if fuch can be got at hand; becaufe the lefs it is expofed to the in- fluence of the fun and wind, fo much fafter will fermentation proceed. It fhould be conftruéted on a broad bafis, which leffens the bounds of the extremities; and feveral feparate heaps are neceflary, fo as too much may not be depofited at once, which, to a certain extent, would bring on the very evil he has been endeavouring to avert. By fhifting the f{cene frequently, and allowing each covering or coat to fettle and ferment, before laying on any more, the moft happy effets will follow; and thefe heaps (all fuch as are completed before the firlt of May) may reafonably be ex- pected to be in a fit condition for applying to the fummer fallow fields, in the end of July or firit of Auguft. If the external parts get dry at any time during the procefs, it is proper to water them thoroughly, and, in many cafes, to turn over the heap completely. He may add, that he has repeatedly experienced great advantage from laying a thick coat of {now upon fuch heaps, as, by the gradual melting thereof, the whole moiiture 1s abforbed, and a flrong fer- mentation immediately follows. He would continue the fame method of management during the fummer months, fo far as circumf{tances permitted ; though it rarely happens that dung colleéted at this advanced period is fit for ufe in the fame feafon, unlefs it be fuch as is made by keeping horfes or cattle in the houfe, upon green food. Perhaps, as a general principle, it is proper to thrafh out all grain before f:mmer arrives, (a {mail quantity for litter and other purpofes excepied,) in order that the full value of the raw materials, when converted into manure, may be gained. Straw thrafhed in the fummer months always wants a good deal of its original flrength: it is broken and hafhed by the mills, therefore a large portion mult at once be thrown to the fold-yard, where its itrength is {till more exhaufted and diffipated. Even when ttacked carefully, it will be found, next winter, to produce much lefs bulk of dung, than if it had been ufed at the proper time ; a:d intereft of the amount for one year is loft; all which things, added together, will be found equal to one-half of the original worth.” It may be obferved that in cafes where animal matters are thrown together in any quantity, a great increafe of good manure may be made by combining with them, as already meitioned, rich furface mould, peat earth, or the fcrapings of old ditches and roads ; as in this way the ammonia fermed during the decompofition of the animal materials is re vente i hae RP et isnt ee MANURE. vented from efcaping, as would otherwife be the cafe, and which, by combining with and acting upon the earthy mate- rials, quickly renders them proper for the purpofes of manure. And as fubflances of the animal kind have been found to run yery rapidly into the ftate of putrefaction, it has been remarked, that “ they may frequently be incorporated with fuch vegetable materials as are little difpofed, or with diffi- culty made, to rot or become putrid, and by fuch means good compotts be more expeditioufly formed. In making ufe of fuch earthy materials, it may be of much advantage to have them expofed to the influence of the atmofphere for a confiderable length of time, frequently turning them over, before they are mixed with the manures, as by fuch means they become in a more pulverized ftate, and are capable of being more intimately blended with fuch materials, and af- terwards fpread over the land with much greater equality, a circumftance upon which their effets very much depend. And that when, in performing this bufinefs, the earthy {ubftances are formed into a fort of ridge, about five or fix feet in height, and nearly thefame breadth in the bottom, they will be in the moft proper fituation for being united with dung or other matters that may be intended to be blend- ed with them.”’ By a late writer it has been remarked, that “ lime is a fub- ftance that has often bee» too indifcriminately made ufe of in -the formation of compofts, but which, by attending to the fol- lowing circumitances, may admit of being employed exten- fively and with more beneficial effects. Where the deftruc- tion cr decay of green or frefh vegetable matters, efpecially thofe of the more coarfe and hard kinds, is intended, it fhould be ufed in its cauttic ftate in {mall quantities ; as in this condition, thus {paringly employed, it reduces more ex- peditioufly the ligneous and hard parts of fuch matters to an earthy ftate ; and as, during its ation in this way on thefe fub‘tances, fuch elaftic matters are fet at hberty, as by their fubfequent combination afford ammonia or volatile alkali, it may frequently be a beneficial praétice to blend fuch earthy fub/tances as have been juft mentioned with them, and thereby prevent the ela{tic matters from being diffipated and loft. If a portion of rich farm-yard dung be fome time afterwards incorporated with the materials, a valuable compolt will be formed.’”? And it is added, that ‘* quick lime is like- wife fouid ufeful, fometimes in bringing the hard parts of dead vegetable matters, as tanners’-bark, fern, ftraw, cabbage-ftalks, leaves, &c. quickly into the {tate of earth or mould; but whenever it is made ufe of in this way, it fhould be had recourfe to only ina very fcanty proportion to thofe of the matters with which it is mixed, as when it is employed in large proportions, it 1s liable, from the heat that is extricated or difengaged by its combining with the moifture of fuch fubftance, being fo augmented during its flaking, as to convert them into a coaly fub{tance that is infoluble, and at the fame time to force off, in the form of gas, their elaftic principles, except {uch a quantity of carbonic acid as may combine with the lime during the procefs.”” It is evident that, ** by the common practice of blending quick or cauftic lime with farm-yard dung, much lofs is fre- quently fultained ; as by its violent operetion upon fuch fub- {tances, fome of the elaitic matters are not only fet.at liberty and quickly conveyed into the atmofphere, but, with what remains infoluble faline, compounds are tormed which carinot affilt vegetation. It is conceived that the complete putre- faction of fuch manures, when neceflary, is bett promoted by the ufe of lime inits mild fate. But iv cafes where itis “to be blended with peat or earth, the moft advantageous method is to ufe fuch lime as has bees newly made and well flaked, in the proportion of about one part of the lime to five or fix parts of the peat or mould, which fhould not be too much exficcated, or dried, before it be made ufe of. By this means the heat which is generated will not be fuf- ficient to produce any injurious confequences, either by form- ing a coaly matter, or forcing off the elaftic principles in the {tate of gas. snd the volatile alkali, which is compofed infuch cafes, by being allowed to enter into combination, as it is formed, with that part of the peat or mould which has not been a¢ted upon by the lime, in confequence of its being employed in fo {mall a proportion, and in its effete ftate, will form a foluble faline fubftance, capable of promoting vegetation.” Lord Dundonald ftates, that there ‘‘ are other fubftances that may be {till more beneficially employed in forming com- pofts with peat earths, when they can be procured in fuch quantities and at fuch cheap rates as render them capable of being made ufe of in this way,’? fuch as “ alkaline faline matters, or fuch fub{tances as contain them in any quantity ; as by mixing thefe with the peaty materials as above, they are made perfectly foluble, while by the ufe of lime only, fuch a proportion of them is rendered foluble, as can be aéted upon by the quantity of ammonia or volatile alkali formed during the time it is mixed with them.” And {till farther, that infoluble compounds, fuch as have been noticed, are formed in the latter circumftance. But the practice common, in different diftri&s, of mak- ing compolts with lime and mould on the headlands, or other parts of the fields on which they are to be applied, which cannot be done to advantage, except where the furface mould is rich in vegetable matter, isnot to be much recommended, but wherever fuch compofts are to be formed, the land fhould always be ploughed or dug up to a great depth, and be re- duced into as perfect a powdery ftate as poffible ; freth lime may then be depofited in {mall heaps, along the middle ridge of the headiand, and the earth in this fine ftate be thrown over them, in the proportion of about four parts of earth to one of lime, being kept clofe by being beaten down with the back of the {pade. It is obferved, that from the gradual flaking of the lime in this fituation, by the moifture of the earth, elaftic matters are fet at liberty, which combining with the mould or earth, render it itill further reduced, and by being afterwards very intimately blended by means of the {pade with the very fine particles of the lime caufed by the flaking, a valuable compott is made for the {tiffer forts of foil, efpecially if a {mall quantity of good rotten dung be well incorporated with them fome time afterwards. Although farm-yard manure is feldom ina {tate to admit much addition of earthy matter, yet where there is much liquid oozing from fuch compofts, or ftagnating about the bottoms of them, fome of the earthy materials which have been mentioned may be laid around them in order to abforb or take it up, and prevent the great waite that mutt other- wife take place, as may often be obferved in the fituations where dung compotts are made. And it is advifed, that “ this fhould be more particularly attended to, where fuch compoits are laid in fituations that have not been properly formed as dung-lteads.”” In fuch cafes, it may often be an ufeful practice to place a confiderable thicknefs of fuch ma- terials in the bottoms, before the farm-yard compott is care ried out, and laid upon them, as by that means the manure heap may be greatly increafed, and at the fame time a proper fubftance for the volatile alka'1 contained in {uch liquors to act upon fupplied. Tius method is fully confirmed by the practice being in ufe wherever any attention is directed to economy in the forming manures of this kind. With regard to the application of this fort of manure, the nature of the foil, the ltate or coudition of the land, 3 and MANURE. and the goodnefs of the matters, are circumftances which render a Eiserence in the quantity of fuch manures neceffary. The heavy forts of foil, fuch as thofe of a clayey or deep loamy nature, require compofts conftituted of the lighter forts of earthy materials ; while the thinner and more ligt forts ftand in need of thofe which are formed of clayey, loamy, or the more tenacious matters. But “in general, the allowance of fuch manures fhould be from fixteen to twenty loads to the ftatute acre, each containing feventeen or eighteen hundred weight. On many occafions, however, a much larger proportion may be required, and in others a lefs may an{wer the intentions of the farmer.” Itis added, that “the mixture of dung and litter, and other materials which are gradually colleéted and formed into heaps in the farm-yard, is, in general, when employed without havin any other fubftances incorporated with it, laid on fuch lands as are under preparation for wheat, turnip, or barley crops. It is likewife in fome places laid on for a pea crop, where wheat is intended to be the fucceeding crop.’’ The compoft manures, which are colleéted from the ftreets of large towns, are formed of a great variety of fubftances, as the recrements of decayed vegetables, putrid animal matters, and afhes; but from their abounding for the moft part with fubftances of the latter kinds, they may, on the principles juft ftated, be in many inftances greatly increafed by having rich furface mould or peat earth tended with them ; and by fucha practice, where the manure heaps are in a condition to admit of it, the rif of wafte by the efcape or diffipation of their more fluid contents in the aerial or gafeous ftate be effeétually prevented. But fuch additions can only be advantageoufly made where the pro- portion of animalized materials in the manure is large ; in other cafes it is better to employ them in the ftate in which they are met with when collected. It is found that compoft manures are capable of being ufed with great benefit on different foils, and in preparation for different forts of grain crops, as well as thofe of the grafs kind, It is ftated, that “‘ when applied in the proportion of fifteen or twenty tons to the acre, they generally pro- duce great fertility. They fhould, however, be applied according to the particular circumftances of the foils, and the nature of the crops for which they are made ufe Cry So It may be noticed, that the refult of praétical trials fully proves that the moft beneficial compofts are all thofe which are formed by the combination of earthy materials with ani- mal matters. See Compost. Manures, Means of increafing and preferving them.—A fter what has been already advanced, the beft means of augment- ing, preferving, and mana ing manures may be confidered, as upon this in a great meafure depends the general fertility of farms, and the goodnefs of the crops that are raifed upon them. It is of courfe a matter of great intereft and 1m- portance to the farmer to fee that nothing is deftroyed, wafted, or thrown away, that can in any way be converted to this purpofe. It has been remarked by a late writer, “« that there are many fub{tances that may be rendered ufe- ful in this way, which have hitherto been little regarded by the cultivators of land, there can be little doubt, when the daily walte of animal, vegetable, and other matters that take place in every country, from their being carried away by rivers, or etn ced by fires, is fully confidered.” By ett attention to the cutting of grain, fo as to pre- erve as much ftraw as poffible, as well as care in getting together the ftubble, in many inftances valt advantage may be gained in this view. And that “another great caufe of lofs in the prodution of manures is from the want of adopt- ing or putting in praétice fuch modes of management, in re{fpeét to different fubftances, as are capable of renderin them fit for the purpofe of application in the moft quick and expeditious manner ; for it is obvious, that if by pro- perly attending to fuch means, the fame quantity of manure can be prepared in a fhort {pace of time, which under other circumttances muft have required a long one, much increafe of thanure may be effected, and confequently great advan- tages be gained by the cultivators of the ground.” It is ftated, that what is neceflary to be done in order to faci- litate and haften the decompofition and reduétion of dif- ferent materials into the proper ftates for being applied to the foil are, as has been feen, ‘ in fome meafure, the free admiffion of atmofpheric air, a quantity of moifture fuited to the condition of the matters made ufe of, and a due de- gree of heat. Andalfo the proper blending of animal with vegetable fubftances, in the incipient ftages, and the addition of the lime, according to circumftances, and in proportions fuited to the ftate and nature of the ingredients.” And in this intention, it is obferved by the fame author, “as the principal refource, on mott farms, is the farm-yard, it fhould be conftructed in fuch a manner, as that every thing may with eafe and facility be converted to the purpofe. In eneral one dung-ftead may be fufficient ; but where the lize of the farm is large two or more may be neceflary, as the putrefaétion of fuch heaps proceeds with greater regu- larity and expedition, from the accefs of air and moifture being more free when they are not made too large; and, befides, they can be more conveniently turned over or re- moved. The parts of the yard on which they are fituated fhould, while they are convenient for depofiting the dung, and other matters from the fheds and other offices, upon, be neither too much elevated, fo as to caufe the dung to be- come dry, nor fo greatly depreffed as to favour the ftagna- tion of water upon it, and thereby deprive it of the pro- perties mott effential to the promotion of vegetation, Before each of the dung-fteads a refervoir or bafin ought to be made, into which not only the drainings from all the dif- ferent fheds and places where animals are fed or kept may empty themfelves, but likewife the urine from the necef- faries, the fuds from the wafh-houfes, and the wafhings of the various utenfils employed in the family. Without thefe advantages in the conitruction of farm-yards, much Jofs of manure muft daily occur from the liquid matters of fuch places continually running away, and being otherways waited, as well as from their not being made ufe of to forward the converfion of other fub{tances into the condition of ma- nures.”? But that, where thefe and other fuitable accom- modations have been provided, the farmer will have little more to do than “ be careful in faving or providing fuch matters as are fuitable for the purpofe, and caufing 4 Bn to be properly placed and removed, in order to have them {peedily reduced into the ftate of manure, and the quantit of his dung-heaps thereby greatly increafed and extended. With the fame defign, various vegetable matters, fuch as hay, ftraw, fern, leaves, rufhes, coarfe grafles, flags, and many other aquatic plants, fhould be colleéted and preferved in as large quantities as poffible, by allowing nothing of the kind to be fold or carried from farms, except in fome par- ticular inftances, as where they are fituated near large cities or towns, where fuch articles can be advantageoufly difpofed of for the purpofe of feeding and littering horfes, or other animals, and at the fame time an equivalent in good manure be brought back to the farm; by mowing and raking together the wheat or other ftubbles, the fern from the commons, and leaves where they can be obtained, as in the vicinity of parks and other wood-lands, and by cutting the coarfe graffes and Ce ee ee MANURE. and aquatic vegetables at fuch periods as they are in the moft juicy and fucculent itates. The whole, after being fufficiently dried, fhould be carried to the farm-yards, and itacked up in convenient fituations, either in or near them, for the purpofe of being made ufe of as litter, and by that means being converted into manure. And in addition to thefe means, every leifure opportunity fhould be taken, be- fore the commencement of the foddering feafon, to bring into the farm-yards fuch quantities of peat or boggy earth, rich furface mould, marle, dry mud from ponds or ditches, fcrapings of roads, loam, and other fubftances of the fame kind, as can be conveniently obtained, for the purpofe of being applied as bottoms for the abforption of the liquid matters.” It is farther ftated, that when fuch materials as are ne- ceflary have been thus procured, ‘ the beft mode of pro- ceeding feems to be that of covering the whole of the yards where the cattle {tand and tread, and even the pig- fties, in fome cafes, with layers of thefe earthy mat- ters, eight, ten, or more inches thick, according to the number of cattle and other circumitances ; and alfo to de- polit in the refervoirs before the dung-{teads proper quan- tities of the fame fubftances, for the liquid matters which come into them to act upon. Upon thefe earthy bottoms, at the time the cattle are confined, pretty thick litterings of one or more of the materials that have been collected and ftacked up may be placed, and the ftables, cow and ox-ttalls, pig-fties, &c. cleaned out upon them. Where it is the practice to tie up and confine the cattle in the night-time, the ftraw or other fubftances, after having been broken down and reduced by littering them, may be ufed for co- vering the bottoms of the yards, by which means their decay may probably be rendered more quick and convenient. It appears alfo probable, that where ftubble, fern, ruthes, leaves, or other vegetable matters, the textures of which are hard and ligneous, are employed, their decay or reduc- tion into the itate of manure may be greatly expedited by means of a flight portion of lime, in its a€tive ftate, being fpread over the earthy bottoms before they are applied, as has been found to be the cafe with tanners’ bark.’? And that, “where the matters made ufe of in the way of ma- nures are liable to be rendered too dry by the weather, their putrefaétion and decay may be much promoted, by having them f{prinkled over occafionally with water, which may be, conveniently and readily performed by having a pump-with troughs fixed properly for the purpofe ; or where thefe are wanting, from a pondin the yard.””? And in order “ to render the plan the mott effeétual it is capable of, the whole of the cattle fhould be {tri€tly confined to the fold or fod- dering yards during the winter, and not turned out, as is frequently the cafe, into the paftures, by which the making of much manure is prevented, great injury in many fituations done to the grafs-lands, and the flock, from being much expofed to cold and other caufes, benefited in a far lefs degree than is commonly imagined. By purfuing this me- thod, from the great confumption of {traw and the coarfer forts of food by the young lean cattle, and of hay and luxuriant vegetable roots of plants by the others, fuch quan- tities of animalized matters are voided, as by mixing with the bottoms of the yards haltens their putrefaétion, and affords not only animmenfe increafe of manure, but of fuch as is of a very valuable kind. If there be not a fufficient proportion of animal dung and urine incorporated with the other matters, which can feldom be the cafe where the cattle are not regularly confined to the fold-yards, the manure, though it may be nearly as large in quantity, is found by experience to he very inferior in its effects when applied to land.” It is likewife ftated, that “where the number of cattle confined in the fold-yards is great, it may be necef- fary, occafionally, to remove the bottoms, and the matters littered upon them, to the dung-fteads, after they have be- come in fome degree manures, by being well faturated and blended with the urine and other animalized matters. Thefe muit be immediately replaced by ethers in the way juft no- ticed. And farther, « the earthy fubftances from the re- fervoirs fhould alfo be occafionally emptied ont upon the dung heaps, and replaced by quantities of frefh materials of the fame kinds, and the ftems of different grofs vege- table produts from gardens or other places.” Betides, “at the clofe of the feafon, when the cattle are - turned out of the yards, the heaps of manure which have been thus colleéted and thrown together, fhould be turned over, in order that the animalized matters may thereby not only be {till more intimately incorporated with the earthy fub- ftances, but, likewife, that more of the pure zir of the ate mofphere may be retained among the clods, from their being rendered much {maller by {uch means, and the putrefactive procefs be thereby more perfeGtly produced.’?? And, « af- ter this bufinefs has been well performed, as little delay as poffible fhould be fuffered to take place before the manure is applied to the foil; as, from the combination of oxygen or pure air with the carbonaceous material of the dung, and of azote with hydrogen, under thefe circumitances, fuch fluid matters are formed as conftitute its moft beneficial pro- perties, but which are afterwards continually waiting, {fo long as it remains unapplied to the ground or foil.”’ Hence, “on thefe accounts, as well as thofe which have been already ftated, manure heaps fhould not be made too large, but of fuch fizes only as that they can be expeditioufly turned over, and put upon the land. And another advantage which attends the having different heaps, and their not being large, is, that one can be prepared and carried away at atime, without the other’s being in the leaft injured by any delay that may happen from unforefeen caufes of any kind.’ It is noticed in an ufeful periodical work, that “ in many fituations where the above-mentioned articles are plentiful, they are fuffered to go to wafte, though they may be ufed to great advantage for littering the {tables and fold-yards. Ferns and rufhes do not rot fo foon as ftraw, but make a rich manure, and if well turned over in the fpring, are fufficiently rotten in June.”? In winter and {pring, when dung is taken from the {table or fold-yards to the fields, it is conceived better to throw itup with forks than allow the carts to be taken upon the dung-hills, a practice which prevents a {peedy or complete fermentation. At thefe times, the quantity of manure may be much increafed by mixing with the dun large quantities of rich earth, taken from old dykes, fedi- ments of ponds formed by running water, and fuch other places as were mott likely to afford it, well mixed with freth or diffolved vegetable matter.’’ But it is well obferved, that the praétice of mixing carth with dung requires to be managed with a delicate hand, efpecially in forming a dung- hill with materials that have not been previoufly fubjeted to fermentation, for, as in carting upon it, by prefling and confolidating the mafs, it greatly retards, and, in fome in- {tances, almott entirely prevents, fermentation ; indeed, by mixing any confiderable quantity of foil with dung in an un- fermented ftate, by prefling the {traw and other matters into a {mall fpace, it fo effectually excludes the air, that the dung, at the diftance of feveral months, is found in a {tate very little different from what it was when put in the heap; and, after all, when itis in common language faid to be rot- ten, it is, upon examination, found to be only decayed, and the produce, in place of abounding in rich mucilaginous fub{tances, MANURE. fubftances, which all well-fermented dung does, is found to confift almoft entirely of vegetable earth. There is, how- ever, it is faid, a mode of applying earth to dung-hills, that is not only fafe, but highly beneficial: “ It confifts in cover- ing the whole furface of the dung-hill lightly, either with common earth or broken peat, every time the ftables or fold- yards are emptied ; a covering of that kind not being heavy enough to prefs materially upon the mafs, does not retard the festa tatSpn and has the great additional advantage of preventing the lofs daily fuftained about moft farms by eva- poration, and the diffipation of the greateft part of the va- luable gaffes generated during the procefs of fermentation, all of which are entangled and retained by the earth ; which, by that means, not only acquires high fertilizing powers, but renders the dung more valuable.’’ And that «* when a proper fyftem is followed of carrying out the manure from the {tables and yard to the dung-hill—as once amonth, if it is fpread equally over the whole, and a covering of the kind jut mentioned laid above it, a confiderable addition may be made to the quantity of manure upen every farm yearly, not only without rifk, but with very great advantage."’ This fort of manure has been found upon light gravelly hills, or fertile clays, particularly ufeful. It is fuppofed that “the rich earth alone would no doubt have very much improved fuch ground, but by being mixed with dung, it probably became impreg- nated with fomething of a fertilizing nature, which ole otherwife have been loft." In fome cafes, inftead of mix- ing as above, the earth has been occafionally laid ona foot or two deep, asa foundationto build dung-hills upon; at other times in fituations where the drainings of fold-yards, or the urine of fat cattle, could eafily be conveyed into it, and no doubt confiderable advantages may be reaped from thefe methods of increafing the quantity of manure. In re- d to the propriety of ufing rotten or rank dung, the Fiveey is fuppofed very improper management, though purfued by fome farmers, who do not wifh to haften putre- faétion by leading out and turning, not only becaafe thefe operations are troublefome and expenfive, but becanfe they believe that the quantity of dung is thereby leffened. They certainly lefien the bulk, but probably not the quantity of ood manure. Perhaps they prevent the lofs of fome very Fecikiaing particles, which are exhaled by the folar heat, or otherwife injured by the weather, when the dung is applied in its rough ftate, and confequently not properly covered in. There can, however, be no doubt of a {mall quantity of ret- ten dung making land more produétive than a much larger one of {uch as is rough or half rotten. And it is believed that, “ by mixing lime with manures compofed of earth, and dung inthe more advanced {tages of their preparation, fome increafe of quantity may likewife be produced ; and at the fame time, by its uniting with the ni- trous acid during its formation, may prevent that fubftance being thréwn off into the atmofphere ina gafeous form, or readily wafhed down from the compofts by rains ; and there- by preferve a material that has long been found ufeful in pro- moting the growth of plants.”’ As great wafte of manure is continually taking place from the evaporation of the more liquid parts of manure heaps, where they are much expofed to the influence of the fun or winds, and the wafhings of the r ins, it would tend greatly to the faving of fuch matters, and at the fame time confider- ably promote their complete putrefaGiion and decay, to have them placed in fituations that are much fhaded by trees or other means. It is fuggelted, that, in farm-yards, move- able coverings of fome light kind of material might probably be highly advantageous for this purpofe. By means of this nature, the manure heaps, in fuch places, may be effectually fereened from the aétion of the fun in the fummer, and pre-~ vented from being injured by the heavy rain or fnow that falls in the winter feafon. And asa further inducement to adopt fuch methods, the manures which have been preferved from the effects of the weather in this way, are faid to have been found, by praGtical trials, to be far more efficacious in promoting the growth of crops, than under other circum- {tances ; and of courfe capable of going much further in their application to foils. In order to procure manure from the articles of food and other matters produced on the farm, different modes have been purfued in different fituations. Some have ‘trenuoufly contended, that the moft advantageous plan is to have the whole of the hay and ftraw confumed by the different ani- mals, without employing any of them in the way of litter, floors or {landings for them being conflruéted in fuch a man- ner, as that they can be tied up, and kept clean and dry merely by fweeping, without being littered with ftraw or other fimilar materials ; while others maintain, on the ground of actual experience, that the method of eating the jie by the ftock, and employing the whole of the ftraw, as well as other matters, in the way of litter, is by much the moft cer- tain and effeétual in promoting the increafe of manure. On thefe different opinions, it has been obferved, that “ though each of the methods may be praétifed with more or lefs ad- vantage, according to the nature of the farms ;—as where there is much grafs and little tillage Jand, the former may be preferable ; but where the quantity of grafs is fmall, and that of arable ground large, the latter ;—it is probable, that a judicious combination of both may be the moft beneficial, efpecially where, in addition to the common articles, coarfe vegetable and rich earthy matters are provided, and made ufe of in the way which has been mentioned, as by fuch a com- bination the full effect can only be produced. In the former method, the lofs by means of digeftion and animalization is probably much greater than has been generally gr yes by thofe who have maintained the fuperior utility of the prac- tice.?” In the foiling of horfes, and different kinds of cattle, with rich green food, as clover, lucern, fummer tares, and other artificial praffes, cut frefh every day during the fummer feafon, and placed in cribs in the fheds or foddering-yards, the bottoms or floorings of which have been prepared and ftrewed with earthy materials and litter, in the manner al- ready directed, there is another way of making great ad- ditions to dung-hills, asthe evacuations of cattle fed in this way are very confiderable. The earl of Dundonald has fuggelted, ‘* that experience only can teach or warrant the belief of how few acres of ground, under the culture of ar- tificial graffes, when cut green, and daily given to working horfes and other cattle, will fuffice for their maintenance. The artificial grafles, or plants beft adapted to this purpofe, are, he fuppofes, red clover, tares, and faintfoin. thofe fucculent plants with large ftems aud leaves anfwer fo well to be depaitured as to be mown; not only on account of the injury they receive in being bruifed by the treading of cattle, but, by being conftantly cropped and kept short, they are deprived of the nourifhment which they principally receive by their ftems and leaves. Saintfoin is, he thinks, beft fuited to chalky or dry foils, and to the fouthern parts of Britain. It has often heen tried without fuccefs in the northern parts of England and Scotland. Winter tares have alfo been fown, but have not been found to anfwer any valuable purpofe. Clover and fummer tares, therefore, fhould be the only plants of which the cultivation on a large f{cale fhould in thefe parts be attempted; and every prudent far- mer will take care to have a full fupply of them, as in the event None of MANURE. event of a fuperabundant quantity for green food, thefe crops are equally proper for hay. ‘Tares fhould always ac- company the culture of clover, to fupply the deficiency of herbage between the firft and fecond cuttings of the tlover.”’ And “the quantity of manure that may be formed in this way is, probably, much greater than can be fuppofed by thofe who have not a@ually made a trial of the method. By fome French writers it is ftated, that from three to four hundred fheep, kept in this mode, manure fufficient for nearly an acre of land may be daily procured; and the ma- nures, thus ebtained, are likewife afferted to be preferable to dung procured in the common method."’ It has likewife the advantage of preventing the great wafte that unavoid- ably muft take place in feeding off fuch crops, and of bringing the whole of them immediately into ufe: befides, the manure, thus produced, becomes of a fuperior quality, from the vaft quantities of worms and other infeéts that are generated during the hot fummer weather, where it is going on to any great extent. And the author of “ PraGical Agriculture” ftates, that * by means of covered fheep-folds, a great increafe might alfo be made annually to the ftock of manure. If this negle&ted, but highly beneficial, practice were regularly employed here, as is the cafe in many other countries, by having proper fheds and inclofures for the purpofe, con- ftructed of any flight materials near to the fold-yards, or other more convenient places of the farm, fo that the fheep might have frefh air, and fufficient liberty to run about, and, at the fame time, have the means of being fheltered from rain, fnow, and the coldnefs of the winter feafon, the ad- vantage to the flock would likewife be confiderable, befides the great fupply of manure that muft be provided. In or- der to promote the latter advantage, the bottoms or floorings of fuch fheds and inclofures fhould be covered with fuch earthy materials as have been recommended for the cattle yards, and alfo littered upon in the fame. manner; all of which ought to be removed and cleared away to a heap, or the common dung-fteads of the farm-yards, as often as they become perfeétly faturated and blended with the dung and urine of the fheep, and frefh materials of the fame kind fupplied. In bad weather, it will be advantageous to keep them conftantly in the covered folds, and feed them with hay in ftanding racks; but when it is fine, they may be fuffered to go into the paftures in the day-time, and only be put into the folds during the night.” It is added, that «« the practice of keeping fheep in covered folds is made ufe of in Flanders, for the purpofe of raifing manures, with great fuccefs; and very dry fand is fometimes employed for the bottom of the folds, inftead of litter.”? And that, ** where the houfe-lamb fy{tem is carried on to any extent, the preparing and littering of the fheds and yards, into which the ewes are occafionally put, and the lambs kept and fuckled, might be practifed with great advantage, in refpe&t to the production of manure; as animals, under fuch kinds of management, are conftantly found to void urine and dung in much larger quantities than in the ordinary courfes of feeding.”” Where deer are kept, the fame management may hikewife take place, and much good dung be raifed. See Sheep-Forp. The ploughing down of full rich green crops of different kinds, in their moft fucculent ftates, is alfo another means of increafing manure, that may occafionally be adopted with great advantage. And the practice of feeding off different green crops on the land by fheep, bullocks, or other animals, is another method by which much fertility may occafionally be given Vor. XXII, ‘ to the foil at a cheap rate, as the expence of carriage is prevented, and a confiderable faving of manure effected. Mr. Middleton ftates, that, by this mode of management, the great lofs of urine and dung, that unavoidably occurs in the other methods, may be moft effectually prevented ; “‘ for in the ftables, cow-houfes, fheds, fold-yards, and dung-hills, even under the beft management, there is a great waite, perhaps of half, including dung and urine: under ordinary management, three parts of this manure is loft; but in the foiling of tares, turnips, cole, clover, &c. in the fields, there is no lofs; the whole is immediately applied, without the coft of carriage, to the enriching of the foil.” In this way there muft, however, be much more wafte than is here fuppofed: by evaporation, from the aétion of the fun and wind over fo exténfive a furface, much of the valuable matters of the manure, in fuch fituations, muft be daily carried away; and the more fibrous or ligneous parts of the materials, which are rejected as food by the cattle, from their being thinly feattered over a large furface, become dry and hard, and mutt be longer before they decay, or are ren« dered fit for the purpofes of manure, than where they are colle&ted together in large quantities, and in more confined fituations. Another mean of increafing manures to a very great ex- tent, is by adopting fuch methods as may effectually pre= vent the foil and urine of privies, and the various animal and vegetable materials that are continually thrown into them, in cities and large towns, from being ufelefsly re- tained in deep pits, or places conftructed for the purpofe, or inconfiderately wafhed away and walled, by being conveyed into rivers or ponds by fewers and drains. Mr. Middleton has ftated, that, from want of fuitable modes of preferving fuch fubftances, the annual lofs, in this country, is pro- bably not lefs than five millions of cart-loads, which, if turned to the ufes of agriculture, would be worth to the cultivators of the foil two millions and a half, and to the community five millions of pounds fterling! And the eager- ne{s which is manifefted in many other countries to preferve and promote the increafe of fuch manure, {hews that it is a fubftance of vaft utility, and that an abundant fource of fer- tility is thus neglected, and loit to the public, It is fup- pofed, by a late practical writer, that ‘* the moft eafy and convenient methods of preferving fub{tances of this kind, in the country, would be, probably, by having pits formed for the reception of them, as near as poffible to the dung- fteads in farm-yards or other places, and prepared with floors of clay, or fome other material, through which the liquid matters could not readily pafs: thefe might be con-~ nected with the privies by proper drains, and have covers fitted to them, in order that a quantity of mould, peat-earth, faw-dult, lime, {tems of coarfe garden plants, or other fubftances of the fame fort, might be occafionally placed in them, and removed to be blended with the common dung heaps, as often as they become fully reduced by putrefac- tion, and well faturated and impregnated. But im large towns or cities, where {uch manures are produced in greut quantities, refervoirs or bafons af large fizes fhould be con- {truéted with floors of the above kind, and be conneéted with the privies of different parts, by means of fewers or drains. Such refervoirs ought to be fo fituated as to be capable of being emptied with eafe and facility, as often as. neceflary, by perfons appointed for the purpofe, and their contents carried away in the night-time. Where there is the convenience of rivers, however, as in London, and: many other populous cities and towns, a large proportion of fuch manures might, in moft cafes, be readily emptied from bafons of this fort, formed on their banks for the pun- 32 pofe, MANURE. pole, or perhaps from the extremities of the common fewers themfelves, by means of proper fluices, into covered boats or barges, and thus cheaply carried to a diftance, for the advantage of agricultute ; a method, in fome refpeéts, prac- tifed with fuccefs in Sweden, See Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. i. But “as this kind of manure is extremely liable, from the agitation of the carriage in which it is moved, to become fo quid as to be conveyed with great difficulty, it is pro- bable that, by having fuch earthy or orber fubftances as have been mentioned above, or as could be conveniently procured in fuch large cities or towns, fuch as the long littery dung from livery ftables, lime rubbifh from the pull- ing down of old houfes, and the frefh earth dug up in pre- paring the foundations for new ones, mixed and blended with it in the pits or refervoirs, for fome time before they are cleaned out, the difficulties attending the carriage of it might not only in a great meafure be obviated, but the dif- agreeable fmeil iffuing from it be much corrected, and the quantity of manure greatly augmented. By fome method of this nature, under the management and direétion of pro- per perfons, vait ftores of fertility might, it is conceived, be provided in fuch places for the neighbouring diftri€s, which inattention or popular prejudice at prefent withhold from the ufe of agriculture.” See Nicu'r-soix. Befides, in particular fituations, as near the fea, where fhell and other fmall fifhes can frequently be procured in large quantities, by having them well mixed and incor- porated with good furface mould, turf, or peat-earth, or other matters of that fort, a vatt increafe of good manure may alfo be provided. The weeds cut from the fides of the rocks, and which are thrown up by the tides, whien col- le€ted into heaps, and mixed with {mall proportions of lime and fuitable quantities of mould or earth, may likewife con- tribute greatly to the increafe of the compoft heaps in fuch diftriéts and fituations, Another material, capable of augmenting the manure heap very much, is the rich vegetable mould, and other matter, contained in the bottoms of ditches, and in boggy, hollow places, where water frequently {tagnates, and large crops of aquatic or other plants alternately vegetate and de- cay. ‘This fhould be occafionally dug up and applied to the foil, for which it is proper, either in the ftate in which it is found, or after having been formed inta compoft heaps with dung, lime, or other fubftance of a fimilar nature. And clay, though not aétually a manure, is a fubftance that may alfo be employed with great advantage on fandy and other light foils, and by that means fave the more va- luable manures. It has been made ufe of with great effec in its crude ftate, in the praétice of an improving Suffolk farmer, but it would feem to be the moft ferviceable for this ufe after being imperfeétly burnt in clamps and kilns, pro- bably from the produ&ion of oxygen or pure air that is thus combined with it, or with the metallic matters which it contains. It is well remarked, by a late wwiter, that “it is neceffary, in order to increafe the ftock of manures on farms to the greateft poffible extent, to be careful that none of fuch animal or vegetable fub{tances as are capable of ‘being converted into manure, be thrown away or confumed by fire, but that they be all conveyed ‘to the dung-fteads in the farm-yards or other places, or laid in heaps of them- felves, and {uffered to pafs into fermentation, by which they may be fpeedily reduced to manure. Where the matter thus made ufe of chiefly confifts of weeds and the ftems or roots of coarfe plants, fuch as peas, beans, cabbages, docks, nettles, &c. their decay may be greatly promoted by a little ~ quick-lime being blended with them. Such heaps fhould alfo be covered over pretty well with fome of thofe earthy matters that have been mentioned above.) It is added, that as “*the different materials which are made ufe of for the purpofe of manure, pafs through different tlages of de- compolition and decay, in each of which fuch matters of the folid or fluid kinds are formed, as are capable of contri- buting to the nutrition and fupport of vegetable crops, but which are liable to be diffipated or carried away by the agency of various cavfes, it may be neceflary to guard againtt fuch wafte by keeping the dung-liexps covered in every fituation, as much as poffible, with earth or foil, both in the early periods in which heat is evolved, and at the latter ones, when ammonia or volatile alkali is formed; as by fuch management the procefs of decompofition, when too rapid, may be reftrained, and the elattic matters that are gradually fet at literty be abforbed by thefe coverings, while the more fluid ones are detained by the earthy bottoms: on which they had been placed, and thus the whole of the valuable properties of the manure be preferved.” Manure, in Gardening, « term ufed to fignify all fuch fubflances or materials, whether of the dung, compott, or other kinds, as are ufeful in the improvement of garden boats fo as to praduce good vegetable crops of various inds. It is obvious that materials of this kind are neceflary to all foils to recruit them when exhaufted by the growth of vege- tables, and cure their defe&is; being thus beneficial in en- riching and fertilizing fuch as are poor, and in rendering fuch as are ftrong or {tubborn more light, loofe, and friable, as well as thofe which are very lizht, loofe, and dry, more compact and moift, and thofe that are too wet, drier, &c. In thefe views moitt {tiff land is the moft improved by light manures, Which: open and loofen its particles; very light land by the more heavy and moift forts ; and wet Jand by dry light compofts. Some garden foils alfo require manure annually, and others only once in two or three years. See Duna, &c. On the whole, the moft proper forts of manure for the ufe of the kitchen-garden are thofe of the ftable, cow, fheep, pigeon dung, foot, lime, loamy marle, fhell marle, fea-weed, wood, whin, fern, and coal-afhes; the vegetable mould of decayed tree-leaves, and decayed vegetables of all kinds, as cabbage leaves, haulm, weeds, &c. And to thefe may be added the fluid fubftance which drains from dung- hills, whichis capable of affording the nutrition of plants in a very high degree, from the large proportion of carbo- naceous matter with which it is loaded. All thefe feveral materials may be applied either in a fimple or compound ftate; but the latter method is probably in general the moft eligible ; as it is fuppofed by fome, that if they have not undergone a proper degree of fermentation, they have the efle& of giving a rank and difagreeable fla- vour to fome fruits and vegetables ; and when a large quan- tity is applied, of producing a confiderable degree of un- wholefomenefs, tainting the juices of the plants. This effect is, however, much to be difputed, fince the different fub- tances are changed and elaborated in the veffels of the vege- tables before they become fit for the purpofe of their in- creafe, It is afferted by the author of the Scotch Forcing Gar- dener, that ‘a combination of {table dung, fea-weed, lime, and vegetable mould, which has lain in a ae for three or four months, and has been two or three times turned durin that period, will make an excellent manure for moft kinds of garden Jand."’ Alfo that of “cow dung and fheep dung, mixed with foot or any of the kinds of afhes ;”’ and that s* pigeon dung, marle, and vegetable mould, well mixed, sl Beanery |) MANURE. ‘make an excellent manure for heavy land ; or even for lighter foils, provided the pizeon dung be ufed fparingly.” But that ‘pigeon dung, lime, foot, afhes, &c. fhould never be applied in a fimple ttate ; the quantity of them required being comparatively fmall, and the regular diftribution difficult without the admixture of other matters. It is further ob- ferved, that he has “ witneffed the aftonifhing effects of whin afhesalone, in producing herbage in a five or fix-fold degree ; which was the more obvious, on account that the field on which they were applied was much alike in quality (a itff, wet, clayey loam), and the afhes applied partially. ‘he effet was vifible for feveral fucceffive years. Alfo, on the timber trees with which the field was afterwards planted.”’ He conceives that ‘marle is an excellent manure for almoft any foil; and may be applied as a fimple manure with as much propriety as any of the kinds of cattle dung, or even vegetable earth. The kind called fhell marle is, it is fup- pofed, much to be preferred; and fhould be freely applied to {trong lands, but {paringly to light ; the loamy kind being beft adapted to light lands.’ Where ftable dung is ufed ina fimple ftate, it * fhould not,’’ it is fuppofed, «be applied in too rank a ftate, nor fhould it be too much fermented. It fhould generally lie in a heap for two or three months ; during which time it fhould be turned twice or thrice. A ton of it in this ftate is worth three that has been ufed in the hot-bed, and are a year old. This manure, and indeed dung of any kind, when thus ap- plied, fhould never be carried from the heap to the ground till'it is to be digged in; as, hy its expofure to the air, the virtues evaporate, and it is the lefs effectual.” And when made ufe of in a fimple condition, it is imagined «the neceffity of the inftant application of fea-weed after its landing, is even greater than in the above cafe; asit inftantly corrupts, and its juices not only evaporate, but flow down- wards, and are lok. If this manure be ufed asa compound, the heap wherein it is compounded fhould be more frequently turned on its account, that none of the juices may be loft, but that the other part of the compoft may abforb them.” Itis his opinion that ‘ vegetable mould may either be ufed in a fimple or compound ftate, and may be applied with equal propriety to all foils. None can be hurt by it in any de- gree; fince almoft every plant will grow luxuriantly in it entirely, without the aid of any foil or manure whatever. It is conceived that manures have the effe& of correcting tenacity, crudity, and porofity in foils, exciting their fer- mentation, communicating nutritive matter to them, and af- fording nourifhment to the roots of plants, by which the ve- getation and perfe€&t growth of them are promoted and in- creafed. There are likewife confiderable differences in the materials made ufe of as manures, in their affording their nutritious properties, fome affording them much more readily and more abundantly than others. This is the cafe with animal, vege- table, and all fuch matters as are rich in mucilage, the fac- charine principle, and calcareous earth, and which readily afford carbon, phofphorus, and fome gafeous fluids, fuch as the carbonic acid gas, oxygen, &c. while others which are reatly deficient in all or moft of thefe principles, or which fo not part with them eafily, are found by experience much Jefs beneficial in promoting the growth of vegetables, fruits, &e. However the effets and importance of manure are now generally acknowledged and underltood, it would appear to be the indifpenfable duty of the gardener and cultivator to be particularly careful in the colleétion of it, and alfo to dif- tribute it with the moft fcilful frugality. <‘ Por this pur- pofe, it is fuggefted that where it is capable of being formed, a well, ciftern, &c. fhovld be contrived fo as to colle the dung-hill drainings; and that in the application of manure of any kind, the greateft care fhould be taken to divide it equally, according to the quantity to be applied.”” Alfo, further, that ‘¢ the dung-hill may be confiderably increafed by throwing the haulm, ftalks, and leaves of all vegetables into a common heap, letting them remain till well rotted, and afterwards, or, in the procefs of colleétion, mixing them with lime, marle, athes, foot, &c. Watering the whole fre- quently with the drainings of the dung-hiil would alfo greatly enhance its value.’’ It is likewife evident that the ground of gardens may often be greatly ameliorated and improved by proper drain- ing, before the manures are applied, and fometimes by the ufe of fandy, gravelly, and other fimilar materials, that have the power of opening, and rendering it lefs clofe and adhefive. See Manure, /upra. MANURING 9 Land, in Agriculture, the application of the va~ious fubltances which are cipable of being employed as manures to the foil, in fuch a way as to produce the moft beneficial effeéts in the production of crops, whether of the grain, grafs, root, or other kinds. In this bufinefs various cireumilances are neceffary to be confidered, {uch as the {tate or condition. of the manures which are to be made ufe of, .the nature of the ground on which they are to be laid, the kind of crop that is to be promoted by them, and the fea- fon of the year in which they are to be put into er upon the land ; for as it has been fhewn that chaages are continually taking place from the moment the materials of the dung- heap are thrown together, to the period in which they are reduced into a black carbonic earthy matter; and that in moft of the different flages through which they pafs in this procefs of decompofition, fuch fub{tances are formed as are capable - of contributing to the nutrition and fupport of vegetable crops ; it is conceived ‘probable, that in cafes where ma- nures are to be turned into the ground, and fuch crops cul- tivated as require afupply of nourifhment for a length of time, they fhould be employed in their long or more imper- feéily reduced ftates, as by the heat which is evolved in the commencement of their diffolution, the procefs of early vegetation may be greatly promoted, and their gradual de- compofition and decay afterwards, under the ground, afford amore durable and regular fupply of nutrient materials, and thereby contribute more effectually to the growth of the crops ; but that where they are to be buried in, or applied to the furface of the fotl, and intended merely for the benefit and fupport of fuch crops as-are of thort duration, or quickly arrive at their full growth, they may be more advantage- oufly made ufe of aiter they have been more fully and com- pletely reduced, as in this ftate the manure is, 10 the cafe of grafs lands, not only capable of being fpread out in a more regular and uniform manner, by which it becomes more evenly as wellas more generally carried down to the roots of the plants by rains, but it is in the moft fuitable condition for allow- ing the young plants the means of {pringing up with facility, and at the fame time, whether ufed under or upon the foil, of affording the crops that abundant fupply of nourifhment which is neceffary to their fpeedy growth and great luxuri- ance, and by thefe means,to contribuee molt perfecily to the promotion of their increafe.’’ In addition to “ thefe ad- vantages of jong, or imperfectly decayed manures; they have others that depend on the foil into which they are turned, andthe nature of the crops that are {own or planted with them, Where they are employed in fuch tiff, clayey, or loamy grounds, as have a great tendency to become dry 30 2 and. MANURING OF LAND. ard hard, and thereby incapable of admitting the tender fibrous roots of grains or other plants to {pread or extend themfelves, and draw iv more abundant fupplies of nourifh- ment, they may be ufeful by keeping the earth around them in amore open and porous ftate, from the flownefs of their decompofition, and the gradual and continued manner in which the different elaftic matters are fet loofe and united with the foil. Hence, when barley, or fuch kinds of grain as require a rather light and open ftate of foil, and thofe bulbous or knobby-ooted plants, fuch as potatoes, that require much room to fhoot and extend themfelves, are cul- tivated on fuch ftiff foils, they are generally found to be the more produétive, where {uch long or imperfectly reduced ma- nures have been made ufe of in the preparation of the land.” And that “as in the flow and gradual decompofition of the materials which are made ufe of for manures, when flightly depofited beneath the foil, there is much lefs wafte of heat and thofe elaltic matters which contribute fo greatly to the fupport of vegetation, than-where they are made to undergo the various proceffes of diffolution in large maffes, as in dung-heaps, they may probably fometimes on that account be moft advantageoufly employed in this ftate.”” Alfo “on this principle the ploughing down of freth vegetable crops, in many cafes, in their molt fucculent ftates, may be a more economical as well as more beneficial praétice ; efpe- cially in fuch light and dry kinds of foil, as will more readily admit of their gradual putrefaétion and decay, than to cut and take them off for the purpofe of being by other means converted into manure. It feems likewife probable, on the fame grounds, that for the produétion of crops of the bulbous-rooted vegetables on the more {tiff and tenacious foils, the matters made ufe of as manures may be employed with the greateft advantage, when put into the earth before they have undergone any great degree of decay by means of putrefaction, as in this way there is no waite, the whole being ultimately converted and applied, though more flowly, to the fupport of the crops for which they are immediately employed.’’ It has been {tated as the opinion of a practical farmer, that {table dung never anf{wers better than when carried on to the land as foon as made. He laid it-ona piece of wheat in frofty weather, and at harveit the crop was laid to the ground. And on grafs lands, it is fuppofed, svhen laid on in the fpring, to {creen it from the cold winds, aad occafion it to be more forward, and that in the fummer the ftrawy part protects the land from the fun ; and in either feafon it is {oon grown in and nearly loft to the eye. See Communications to the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. Manures, proper Seafon of Application.—In regard to the time or feafon of applying manures “ with the greateft be- nefit and advantage, though in praétice it mult, in fome meafure, depend on the ftate of the land, the nature of the crop, and the convenience of the farmer, it fhould, in cafes where they are buried in the ground, be as nearly as poffible to the periods in which the feeds, or the roots which they are defigned to fupport, are fown or placed in the earth ; where they are to be laid upon the furface of the land, it ought probably to be juft before the crops of grafs, or other vegetables, begin naturally to {pring or fhoot forth.” As in this praCtice of depofiting and blending the manure with the foil, nearly at the time the crops are putin, there is fcarcely any waite of the fertilizing properties of fuch fubftances, which, as they gradually proceed in their decompofition and decay under the ground, muft otherwife be the cafe, the’ roots of the plants not being in the moft proper tates for taking them up and converting them totheir fupport. Be- fides, in ftiff, loamy, or clayey foils, they have a tendency, as has been remarked above, to produce a degree of lightness: and friability that is fuited to the early procefs of vegeta. tion.’ The author of Phytologia has well remarked, that “the atmofpheric air, which is buried along with the manure in the inter{ticés of the earth, and which for many weeks, or even months, renders the foil loofe and eafily im- prefled by the foot on walking on it, gradually evolves, by its union with carbon, a genial heat, very friendly to vege~ tation in this climate, as well as the immediate produétion of much fluid carbonic acid, and probably of a fluid mixture of nitrogen with hydrogen, which are believed to fupply much nutriment to plants.’ The ufing of fuch manures as are made ufe of in the way of top-dreffings in the early {pring, is a praétice by which. “ they are laid on at the mott favourable period for affording their nutritious principles, and for their being drank up by the roots of plants, and confequently become ufeful at the time they are moft wanted for the promotion of the crops, and the great wafte which mutt otherwife,be caufed, either by the exceflive falls of rains and floods in the winter feafon, wath- ing down much of the valuable properties into the adjoining rivers and ditches,’ or the evaporation of their more volatile or elaftic matters by means of the {ummer heats, is mott ef- fe&tually guarded again{t and prevented.’” [Et is:hinted that the pra¢tice common in fome places of applying manure to: grafs lands in the latter end of the fummer or beginning of autumn, after the firft crop of hay has been.taken from the ground, and the after-grafs has begun to make fhoots, is not by any means fo favourable as that of early fpring, as. in the latter cafe the generation of thofe materials that con- tribute to the fupport of vegetation is greatly promoted by- the con{tantly increafing heat of the vernal and fummer months; while in the former itis corttantly checked and retarded by the increafing coldnefs of the autumn and winter feafons. Be- fides, the manure, by being {pread out upon the furface of the land under fuch circumitances, muft be the caufe of great lofs,. by contaminating the after-grafs, and rendering it incapable of being eaten off by cattle or other kinds of live ftock.’” Yet, ‘‘ where a fecond crop of hay is to be taken, it may fome- times be put on at fuch times with advantage to it, efpeci- ally if the weather be not too hot, and the manure in a per- fectly fine and reduced ftate, fo as not to impede the mow- ing. It has been remarked by doétor Fenwick, in his in- genious refleétions on manures, “that it is fearcely poflible to fuggelt a worfe mode of ufing manures on grafs lands, than that which is almoft univerfally pra¢tifed in the neigh- bourhood in which he refides ;” and it is the fame in many other parts of the country, as is evident from the reports that have been lately publifhed by the Board of Agriculture, “When,” fays he, ‘*a fevere froft has bound up the land in a ftate of impenetrable cohefion, the farmers wheel on their dung, perhaps even when {now has covered it. While the froft lafts, the land can derive no advantage from the manure, and when a thaw fupervenes, it is evident that the wath from the melting fnow, or from the rains which gene- rally fall in fuch weather, mutt deprive the mafs of every part that is foluble. The ground, inthe mean time, retains the froft for many days, and is therefore incapable of ab- ike the wet which falls upon its furface; and even when the influence of the milder air has reached it, it can imbibe but little, being in general previoufly filled with water, and the quantity which flows over it being too great for foil, under any circumftances, to drink up.” _ Itis believed by the fame writer, that in fupport of this deftruétive and walteful practice, however much it may have been defended on the ground of the farmer’s leifure or convenience, and the little injury ee ie ee F } ‘ MANURING OF LAND. ‘mjury done to the tarf or fward of the land, there can be only one reafon alleged, which is, that manure, when {pread early in the winter, may protect the roots of graffes from the feverity of frofts. And this, the author of “« Praétical Agriculture’’- fays, “* is probably a miftaken notion, as it is known to every one that the common grafles are feldom in- jured by the fevereft frofts ; and other kinds of graffes may probably not fuffer lefs injury from the application of manure at fuch a feafon, than from the feverity of frofts.’’? {t 1s therefore concluded, that ‘fon all thefe accounts, farmers fhould contrive as much as poffible to apply the manures, intended as top-dreflings to grafs lands, as early in the {pring as it can conveniently be done, which may be eatily ma- naged on thofe that are dry, and on {uch as are inclined to be wet and poachy, it may probably be greatly facilitated by having {mall light carts conftruéted for the purpofe, and placed on broad cylinders as wheels.’? For he is convinced, from the trials which he has made in applying manures to grafs lands at fuch periods, that the trouble of the farmer will not only be rewarded by much larger crops of hay, but alfo by aconfiderable increafe in the quantity of the after-grafs ; and, befides, his crops in both inftances will be more forward than in the ordinary methods of putting them on, either in the autumn or winter months, which in many cafes is a circum{tance of great importance.’”? ‘There are others, however, who confider the early autumn as by much the belt feafon, as may be feen under the head of manur- ing new laid down grafs lands at firlt. See Lavine down vo grafs. ‘ In Young’s calendar of hufbandry, it is ftated, that «the proper feafon for laying on feveral forts of manure, fuch as foot, coal-afhes, wood-afhes, lime, malt-duft, &c. and in general all thofe that are {pread in too fmall quantities to zequire a whole winter's rains to wafh them in,’ is in February. The ufe of thefe manures, and other light dreflings at this period, is, he fays, very beneficial; ‘ but, throughout the management of purchatfed manures, experi- ments fhould be formed for a year or two, before the practice is extended, to fee which, at a given price, will fuit the Jand bett. Without this precaution, a farmer may probably expend large fums of money to little purpofe. Nor would he advife him to truft to the mere appearance of the effect foon after the manuring; for fome of them, particularly foot and. malt-dutt, will thew themfelves after the firft heavy fhowers, ina finer green than the reft of the field; but the proof of the effect does not arife from fine greens, but from weight of hay ; for he has himfelf found from experience, that the latter is. not always an attendant on the former. Contiguous half-acres, or roods, fhould be marked out, the prices of the manures calculated, and on each piece a fepa- rate one fpread, all to the amount of 20s. an acre, for in- Hance, at hay-time, the crops fhould be weighed. It will then be known which manure, at the given prices, fuits the foil beft. This knowledge will prove true experience, and a very different guide from general ideas.’ And « this is likewife, he adds, the feafon for fpreading fuperficial dreflings on the green wheats, fuch as feot, afhes, malt- duft, pigeons’-dung, poultry-dung, rabbits’-dung, &c. and many other forts in the neighbourhood of great cities. It is very good hufbandry ; but the profit depends on the ex- pences.”” He therefore recommends trying them in {mall portions, (a rod, for initance, to each) before extending the practice to whole fields, efpecially thofe which are not dungs. As to the latter, provided the prices be not extra- vagant, there can be no doubt of their anfwering to all fils. Whenever a farmer has the choice of manures, never let him befitate about which to take. He may lay it down as a maxim, that dungs of all forts are excellent. Other mae nures may be the fame, but they are not, he thinks, fo univerfally beneficial to all foils.’’ ; It is allo ftated, that furriers’ clippings are fown by hand from the feed {cuttle, at about 3d. per quarter, in March,. on the land intended to be fown with wheat or barley, and immediately ploughed in, after which the feed is fown and. harrowed in, when fuch pieces of the clippings as are left. above ground by the harrow, are pricked or fhoved into the ground by the end of a tick, to prevent their being devoured. by dogs or crows, who feize them greedily. Frem two to- three quarters are ufually fown per ftatute acre. Thefe clippings are faid to anfwer well ca light dry chalk or gra- velly foils, where they are fuppofed to hold moiiture, and help the crop greatly in dry feafons, but they have little effeét on wet foils. And horn fhavings, which are of two forts, {mall and large, are ufed in the fame way and quan- tities as the above article, except that they want no prick- ing; and the large are generally ploughed into the land three months before fowing wheat or barley. This fort of fhavings anfwers well in moit foils and feafons, except very: dry ones, when they will not work. The {mall fhavings are much the moft ufeful. Woollen rags are alfo fown by hand and ploughed in three months before fowing wheat or barley; the quantity ufed is from fix to ten cwt.. per ftatute acre. Woollen rags, like furriers? clippings, hold. moifture, and are adapted for dry, gravelly, and chalky. foils, and fucceed in dry feafons better than moft. manures, but they do little good. on wet foils,, London rags are found much better than thofe collected in the country ;. but the danger of catching the fmall-pox in chopping and fow- ing them, deter many farmers from making ufe of them. Sheeps’-trotters,, and fellmongers’ cuttings, are ufed in the. fame way as furriers’ clippings, from 20 to 40 bufhels per. acre,.and, need pricking in, as dogs and crows are very fond of them. They do not an{wer on wet land, or in. very dry feafons ; indeed nothing does fucceed in exceflive dry. feafons on thefe foils. Mialt-duit is alfo fown by hand from 24 to 32 bufhels fer acre, at the fame time.as barley, and: harrowed in with the feed. It fuits molt foils and feafons ;. but it quickly {pends itfelf, and is therefore never fowa with wheat; as a top drefling to wheat in March, at about 30 buthels per acre, it would probably fucceed on thefe forts of foils. Pigeons’-dung is ufed in the fame manner as malt-dult, and does good.in any foil or feafon. Soap boilers’ afhes have alfo a great effect on cold {ward. Hogs? hair, when applied in the {ame manner as clippings, is faid to anfwer well, And feal hair, rabbits’ dung, and lime, have been tried upon thefe kinds of foils, but not. found. to anfwer in any very advantageous degree. Depths of depofting Manures in Soils.—It is ftated by as late writer, that as ‘* the putrefaction and decay of animal and vegetable matters, whether above or beneath the ground, is greatly promoted by the free admiffion of aire and a fuitable degree of moilture, it is evident that they thould not be buried fo deep in the earth, as that they may be prevented from readily receiving the aid of fuch caufes in torwarding their decompolition ; nor, as the procefs is known to be much retarded by the fubitances being rendered too dry, fhould they be placed fo near the fur- face,.or be fo thinly covered.as to permit the ation of the {un and winds, before the crops have rifen to fuch heights as to prevent it from. diffipating and carrying away their nutritious properties. he introduétion of the manure to a middling depth, as three or four inches, would of courfe, on thefe accounts, as well as from its contributing more expeditiously and more fully to the vegetation of the crops thar MANURING OF LAND. that may be put in with it, feem, in general, to be the mot advantageous praGtice; but on the lighter and more friable ‘foils, it may be advifable to plough it into a greater depth than in fuch as are heavy arid tenacious. In every cafe, ‘however, whether the manure made ule of be in a long ora more reduced ftate, it fhould be perfectly covered or loughed into the earth. ‘The practice of burying manures p in the foil, has been defended by fome on the ground of its being the nature of elaftic matters to rife or force themfelves towards the furface ; but when they are placed to a confiderable depth in the earth, as the procefs of de- éompofition is thereby ftopped, or fuffered to proceed in but 2 vety flow and feeble manner, little or nothing efcapes for the fupport of vegetation, or it is furnifhed in fo very flow and fparing a way, as to be of fcarcely any fervice to the immediate crops. Thus, in the cultivation of fuch crops as are placed in rows or drills, where the manure is put into-a great depth and covered pretty thickly with earth, on digging them up at the end of many months, it may fre- quently be obferved nearly in the fame ftate it was when firft put into the ground. And the fame thing is often noticed by gardeners, where imperfeétly reduced, or long dung is placed in deep trenches and covered to a confidera- ble thicknefs with mould.’”’? It is alfo added, that ‘*in order that manures may produce their effects in the moft perfe& manner, they fhould be {pread over the furfaces of the grounds as evenly as poffible, whether they be intended to be turned into the foil or left upon its furface as top- dreffings ;”” a point that ‘* may be greatly facilitated by placing the manure out at firft in very {mall heaps, as by fuch a pratice it may be {pread over the ground with much greater eafe and exaCtnefs; and on grafs lands much lefs mjury will be done by the bottoms of the heaps.’’- And it is evident, that on tillage lands, manures fhould always be turned in, or otherwife covered, as foon as poflible after they are {pread out; for if this be neglected, much lofs may be fuftained, efpecially in hot feafons, by the quick evaporation that takes place-in fuch cafes. The beft practice is, of courfe, not to carry more out from the dung-hill-at a time, than can be conveniently fpread upon and plotghed into the earth ima fhort time afterwards. Tt is obferved in a periodical work, that the fhorteft poffible fpace Of time fhould be fuffered to elapfe between the {preading out the manure, and the ploughing it into the Jands, as well as between this laft operation and that of fowing the feed. And it has been fuggefted, that ‘in fpreading manures employed as top dreffings on grafs lands, much advantage will be gained by breaking and reducing the clods or humps into as fine a ftate as poflible, as by fuch means they are not only applied more perfectly, but wafhed by the rains much more readily to the roots of the grafles. The fpringing of the young ¢graffes is alfo lefs retarded, where the mantres are rendered fine and powdery, than where they are left'in a cloddy, rough ftate.’”. The nature of the foil, and the purpofe for which the manure is applied, fhould likewife be carefully attended to in this bufineis, as ho One micthod is adapted to every cafe that may happen. It is Rated, in refpeét to the economy of their applica- tion, that «it {vems not improbable but that fome degree of faving may occafionally be made, by applying them on lands under tillage, as well as others, nearly at the time the feeds and roots are put into the ground, or when the grafles begin to fhoot; as from the whole of the manure being in this way made to contribute dire€tly to the fupport of the crops, a lefs quantity’may be fuffictent for the purpofe : how far they may be fafely diminifhed on this principle, can only be thewn by actual experiments and accurate deductions made from them’; but there are fufficient grounds, from what has been obferved, for fuppofing that it may be con- fiderably more than can be ealily apprehended by thofe who have not adverted much to this circumitance. There is an~ other economical mode of employing manure, which is, by placing it in the drills or hollows formed for the reception of different crops which are cultivated in rows, as beans, cabbages, potatoes, &c.: by this method, that part of the ground which is intended to bear the crop, is only manured, the intervals or {paces between the rows not re~ ceiving any, from which, where the bufinefs of putting the manure into the drills is properly performed, a great faving mult of courfe be made.” According to the conclufions of fome, ‘the faving of manure in this way 1s fo great, as to conftitute oné the chief advantages of the drill fyfem of cultivation. And the calculation of the experienced farmer is, that by “ drills being made two feet afunder, and each drill fix inches wide at the bottom, there will be juft one-fourth part of the gout covered with manure; for as fix inches multiplied by our gives two feet, which will be the diflance from drill to drill, and as four multiplied by four makes fixteen, it follows, that if the whole of the land had been covered with manure, fixteen loads would have been required for what is as fully and beneficially performed by four, that is, by one quarter of the quantity ufed by the old method of dreffing, fuppofing it of the fame thicknefs and quality."’ Befides, from the manure being in this way kept more clofely toge- ther, and the creps oheed immediately upon it, they mult, he fufpe@s, receive the advantage of the dreffing in a more full and complete manner than under other circutitances could be the cafe. Dr. Dickfon, in his work on practical agriculture, fug- geits, that ‘as it appears probable that in the decay of dif- ferent materials in the foil, all the nutritious matters as they are formed immediately become ufeful for the purpofe of vegetation, without any wafte being fuftained, as muft al- ways be more or lefs the cafe where they are depofited to- gether in heaps, it may be an economical praétice, in cafes where the crops to be benefited by them require a regular and lafting but not large fupply of nourifhment; or where the ground is required to be kept in an open and rather light ftate, for a confiderable length of time, to employ fuch manures in their lefs decompofed ftates, as by the ploughing down of green fucculent vegetable crops, and the turning in of long ftrawy fubftauces. By adopting fuch means, the more perfeétly formed manures of the farm may be referved for fuch crops of luxuriant vegetables as de- mand more f{peedy and abundant fupplies of nutrient mat- ters.’ And in what refpeéts the advantage of uling one fort of manure in preference to another, it may be remarked, “that as animal matters are found in general to undergo more fpeedily the procefs of putrefaction or decompofition than thofe of the vegetable kind, and as in moft inftances they afford thofe mucilaginous and elaftic principles that contribute fo largely to the fupport of vegetable life in greater proportions; fuch manures as are either wholly or in a great meafure compofed of them, muft be the mof be- neficially employed, where quick and abundant fupplies of nourifhment are required, as in the growth of all the more grofs and luxuriant crops, whether of grain, plants, or grafles; and that as thofe vegetable fubftances which con- tain faccharine, farinaceous, oily, faline, or mucilaginous principles in the largeft quantities are afcertained from ex- perience to proceed the moft readily into the ftate of diffo- lution or decay, and confequently to’afford more fully and more cxpeditioufly the nutrient food of new plants, where manures MAN manures are principally formed from them, they fhould be preferred to fuch as have been made from the harder and more ligneous vegetable fub{tances, that contain fuch pro- perties in {carcely any, or much fmaller degrees, for all the purpofes of agriculture.” Laftly, that ‘¢fuch fub{tances as are found to contain thofe elementary materials of which vegetables are principally conitituted in their more foluble or loofely combined flates, as carbonaceous matter in the black earths or moulds, and oxygen, azote, and hydrogen, in burnt clay, raddle, manganefe, and calamy, fubltances which have hitherto been little employed, as well as in water and air, fhould be made uie of in preference to thofe which poffefs them in flight proportions or fearcely at all.” With regard to the particular modes of preparing and making ufe of the feveral articles that are capable of being applied to lands fo as to ameliorate and improve them in the production of different forts of crops, they will be more fully explained under the particular heads to which they im- mediately relate. MANUS was anciently ufed for an oath, and for him that tcok it as a compurgator. And it often occurs in old records: fertia quarta, Sc. manu jurare ; that is, the party was to bring fo many to fwear with him that they believed what he vouched was true: and we read of a woman acculed of adultery: mulieri hoc neganti purgatio fexta manu extitit in- di@a: i.e. She was to vindicate her reputation upon the teltimony of fix compurgators. Reg. Eccl. Chrift. Cant. If a perfon {wore alone, it was propria manu & unica. The ufe of this word came probably from its being required at a perfon’s hands to jutlify himfelf; or from laying the hand upon the New Teflament, on taking the oath. Manus interofei, in Anatomy. See INTEROSSEI. MANUSCRIPT, a book, or paper, written with the hand. By which it ftands oppofed to a printed book, or paper. A manufcript is ufually denoted by the two letters MS. and, in the plural, by MSS. or MMSS. What makes public libraries valuable, is the number of ancient manuferipts depofited in them. See ALEXANDRIAN, CaM- BRIDGE, CLERMONT, CorTonIAN, HarLElAn, VATICAN, &c. MANUZIO, Atpo, the elder, in Biography, a cele- brated printer and man of letters, was born at Baffano, in 1447- Having laid a good foundation, at his native place, in grammat learning, he was fent to Rome, where he pur- fued his claffical fludies under Gafpar da Veronna, and re- moving thence to Ferrara, he had the advantage of learning Greek from Battifta Guarino. During his refidence at the latter city he was employed to give private leffons to Alberto Pio, prince of Carpi, and to Hercules Strozzi, afterwards a diftinguifhed poet. In the war between the Venetians and the duke of Ferrara, in 1482, Aldo was obliged to quit that city, and he took up his abode with that patron of li- terature John Pico of Mirandola. He afterwards vifited his pupil Pio, and it is probable, that with the affiftance of thele two enlightened nobles, he fet up a printing office at Venice, for the purpofe of giving correé and elegant edi- tions of the Greck and Latin claflics, His firft work did not appear till 1494, after the prefs had been ettablifhed about fix years; but in the courfe of the next twenty years he had printed almoft every Greek and Latin claflic, as well as a number of other books. He was the inventor of the Italic chara&ter, called for a confiderable time the /dine, and obtained from the fenate of Venice, and the pope, pa- tents for its exclufive ufe for a number of years. ‘Lo ren- ‘der the editions that iffued from his prefs corre¢t, he, pro- cured the affiftance of fome of the beft {cholars of the age as editors. Aldo likewile eftablifhed a kind of academy in MAN his own houfe, at which the literati of Venice affembled, on fixed days, to difcufs various literary topics. Aldo was very defirous of rendering his academy perpetual, but it did not long furvive him, though it was fucceeded, not long after his death, by the Venetian academy. He married the daughter of Andrea d’Afola, from whom he obtained fome pecuniary affiftance, and with whom he entered imto partner- fhip. The wars of Italy impeded their labours, and by thefe Aldo lott a very contiderable property, which he took much pains to recover, and in the attempt fell into the hands of the foldiers of the marquis of Mantua, by whom he was plundered and imprifoned; but on making himfelf known, he was liberated with much refpe@. This was in the year 1506, and during the fix fubfequent years, he printed very little, but in 1513 and 1514 he refumed his labours; ard was clofely engaged in his employment, when he was car- ried off by difcafe in Apriligi5. Aldo .Manuzio held a fchool in Venice for the Greek language: that his own learning was confiderable, there are abundant proofs in the differtations and prefaces of his own compofitions, which are prefixed to his editions of the Greek and Roman au- thors; and alfo in his Latin letters that have been printed in various epiftolary colleétions. He publifhed a Latia grammar compiied by himfelf; anda treatife «De Metris Horatianis :”” he tranflated various picces from the Greek into Latin, and he compiled with great labour a Greek dic- tionary. He was vifited by all the learned ftrangers who came to Venice; but to prevent a wafte of time which he could ill afford, he put ep an infcription over his ftudy door, defiring that vifitors would make their ftay very fhort, unlefs they had fomething important to communicate. Though his editions were not, and could not be expedted to be, -im- maculate, yet there are but few perfons.to whom literature is more indebted than to Aldo Manuzio. Manuzio, Pauro, fon of the preceding, an eminent {chelar and printer, was born at Venice in 1512. He re- ceived the rudiments of an excellent education at Afola, whence he was early removed to a more learned inftruétor at Venice, under whom he made extraordinary progrefs. When he had attained te his twenty-firit year, in 1533, Paulo re-opened the printing office which had been fhut trom the death of Andrea, and the bufinefs was condufted under the joint names of the heis of Aldo and Andrea. In 1535 he paid a vifit to Rome, on the promife of an eftablifhment there, but his hopes were for the prefent entirely difap- pointed, and the only advantage which he derived from his journey was the friendfhip of fome learned men in that capi- tal. After his return, he opened an academy for the inftruc« tion of twelve young men of family, -in polite literature : he continued in this employment about three years, and then made a tour through the cities of Italy, for the purpofe of examining the bet libraries. His reputation for learning procured him feveral offers of profefforfhips, but he did not engage in any of them, and his appointment to fuperintend a printing office fet up by the academy of Venice gave occa- fion-to his becoming diftinguifhed in his proper profeffion, by feveral very elegant and accurate works; the inftitution was, however, but of a fhort continuance. About this time his eyes were fo weak, or difeafed, that he was obhged to quit his ftudies till he obtained complete relief by the afliftance and advice of Fallopius. A liberal and magnificent: plan had been formed at Rome for the printing of all the moft valuable Greek MSS, inthe Vatican. In the mean time, the progrets of the Reformation, and the fitting of the council of Trent, had rendered theological works in great requeft, and it was determined to give Vatican editions of the fathers and other ecclefiaftical writers, which might furnidh weapons to the defeaders MAN @efenders of the church. To unite corre€tnefs with ele- gance in thefe editions, the pope, Pius IV., invited Paulo Manuzio to Rome; he accepted the invitation, and arrived in the fummer of 1561. The prefs provided for him was in the Capitol, the palace of the Roman people, whence the works printed at it were inferibed “ Apud Paulum Manutium in AEdibus Populi Romani.” In 1570, either diffatisfied with his emoluments, or finding the air of Rome injurious to his health, he returned to Venice. From this period he fpent much of his time in travelling from place to place, till at length pope Gregory XIII. engaged him to ftay at Rome by the offer of a penfion, which allowed him to devote all his time to his ftudies. He died at Rome in April 1574, in the fixty-fecond year of his age. The learned world is in- debted to Paulo for many valuable works of his own, be- fides thofe of others which he ufhered into the world. He was the diligent annotator on the works of Cicero and Vir- gil; he was much attached to the ftudy of Roman anti- quities, and was the firft who difcovered the Roman calen- dar, which he publifhed from his fon’s prefs with two traéts, «¢ De veterum dierum ratione,’’ and “ Kalendarii Romani explicatio.”” He had formed the plan of a great work in which every topic of Roman antiquities was to be illuftrated, but of this he only publifhed « Decuria Romana.” He formed a colleétion of letters, as well Italian as Latin, and among thefe, his own letters in both languages may be com- pared with the beft of other writers. His Latin letters have frequently been reprinted, and are truly Ciceronian in their ftyle: the Italian compofitions are valued for their un- affeéted elegance and fimplicity. He publifhed many other works which were efteemed and applauded by the firlt {cho- Jars of his age: and as a printer he has merited high praife, as well on account of the beauty as the accuracy of his editions. Manvuzio, Apo, the younger, fon of the preceding, was born in 1547. His father paid the utmoft attention to his education, and fo extraordinary was the progrefs of the youth in learning, that he was enabled to give the world “« A Colle&tion ef elegant Phrafes in the Tufcan and Latin Lan- ‘guages,’ when he was only eleven years of age. Other ju- venile works at different periods marked his advances in claffical literature, and he foon became his father’s affiftant in his labours, both learned and typographical. He, when wery young, conduéted the printing bufinefs at Venice while his father was engaged at Rome. In 1572 he married a lady of the Giunti family, fo well known in the annals of typography, and on the death of his father, in 1574, all the concerns of the Aldine prefs devolved upon him. He was, however, lefs calculated for the bufinefs of a printer, than for the profeffion of an author. In 1577 he was appointed profeffor of the belles lettres in the fchool of the Venetian chancery, in which young men defigned for public employ- ments were educated. This office he held till the year 1585, when he was made profeffor of rhetoric at Bologna. In the fame year he publifhed the ‘* Life of Cofmo de Medici,” which was fo well received, that he was almoft immediately invited to undertake the profefforfhip of polite literature at Pifa, which he accepted, although he received an invitation at the fame time to a profefforfhip at Rome, which had been lately held by Muratus. During his ftay at Pifa he received the degree of doétor of laws, and was admitted a member of the Florentine academy, on which occafion he delivered an eloquent oration “* On the Nature of Poetry.’? He now aid a vifit to Lucca in order to obtain materials for a * Hittory of Caftruccio Caftracani,’’ which he afterwards publifhed, and which is much applauded by De Thou. The Roman profefforfhip being referved for him he re- 7 MAN moved thither in 1588, and intending to {pend his life there, he caufed his whole library to be brought to Rome from Venice, at a very great expence. He was in high favour with Sixtus V., who gave him an apartment in the Vatican and a table at the public expence. He was alfo patronized in various ways by Clement VIII. He died in the o1ft year of his age in the month of O&ober 1597. He teft no potterity, and with him ended the glory of the Aldine prefs. His library, confifting of 80,000 volumes, colleéted by him- felf and his predeceffors, was fold to pay his debts. He was author of many performances befides thofe already mentioned, but the moft celebrated of his works were his «< Commentaries on all the Works of Cicero,’’ in ten volumes, His ‘Familiar Letters,” publifhed in 1592, were highly eftcemed. MANWAS, in Gengraphy, a town of Hindooftan, in Boggilcund; 30 miles S.E. of Makoonda. MANWORTH, in O/d Law Books, denotes the price, or value, of a man’s head. In ancient times, every man, according to his degree, was rated at a certain price, according to which, fatisfaGtion was made to his lord, if any one killed him. MANZANARES, in Geography, a river of Spain, which pafles by Madrid, and runs into Herares, about eight miles below that city —Alfo, a river of America, in the Caraccas, which wafhes the city of Cumana. Its re- frefhing ftream fertilizes lands otherwife fterle, which are thus rendered produétive of fruits and vegetables in abundance. MANZANAREZ, a town of Spain, in the province of New Cattile and diftri& of La Mancha, the population of which is eftimated at about 6768 perfons. The houfes are built with mud, and the poor are almoft naked.. It is one of the principal quarters of the royal Carabineers. The caftle, with a confiderable eftate, and the tithes, belon to the knights of Calatrava, and yield a revenue of 3295/, pet annum. The land about it produces corn, faffron, and good wine. ‘The vineyards are numerous, and this part of the country produces the beft wine in La Mancha, and which is moft efteemed at Madrid. It has the flavour of the richeft Burgundy, with the ftrength and body of the moft generous port. MANZANEDA, a town of Spain, in the province of Galicia; 20 miles E. of Orenfe. MANZANELLO, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon; 23 miles E.S.E. of Valladolid. MANZANILLA Key, a {mall rocky ifland near the S. coaft of Cuba. N. lat. 20° 54! W. long. 77° 38', MANZAT, a town of France, in the department of the Puy de Déme; 9 miles N.W. of Riom, MANZEL. See Cara vANnsERA. MANZINSKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, on the borders of China ; 30 miles S.S.E. of Selenginfk. N. lat. 49 5’. E. long. 108° 44!. MANZOLI, Grovannt, in Biography, an opera fin of the firft order, born at Florence, oa Tiked writ the feet Joprano voice which has been heard on our lyric ftage in our memory. He was, during many years, the firft finger in Italy ; and when the court of Spain'determined on having Italian operas performed under the direétion of Farinelli, Manzoli was engaged for the principal man’s part. From Madrid he went to Vienna, at the celebration of the em~ peror Jofeph’s firft marriage. In 1764, he arrived in Eng- land, during the opera regency of Metlrs. Gordon and Vin- cent, at which period the ferious opera acquired a degree of favour to which it had feldom mounted fince its firit eftablifh- ment in this country. ; The M A;O ‘Lhe expectations which the high reputation of this per- former had excited were fo great, that, at the opening of the theatre in November, with the pafticcio of Ezio, there was fuch a crowd aflembled at all the avenues, that it was with very great difficulty we obtained a place, after waiting two hours at the door. Manzoli’s voice was the mott powerful and voluminous foprano that had been heard on our ftage fince the time of Farinelli; and his manner of fing- ing was grand and full of tafte and dignity. In this firft opera he had three fongs, compofed by Pefcetti, entirely in different ftyles: Recagl quell’ acciaro, an animated aria par- Jante ; Caro mio bene addio, an adagio ina grand ftyle of can- tabile ; and Mi dona mi rende, of a graceful kind, all which he executed admirably. The lovers of mufic in London «vere more unanimous in approving his voice and talents than thofe of any other finger of the lafl century. The applaufe was hearty, unequivocal, and free from all fufpicion of artificial zeal ;—it wasa univerfal thunder. His voice alone was commanding from native ftrength and {weet- nefs; for it feems as if fubfequent fingers had _poffeffed more art and feeling; and as to execution, he had none. However, he was 2 good aétor, though unwieldy in figure, and not well made in perfon; neither was he young when he arrived in London; yet the fenfations he excited feem to have been more irrefiftible and univerfal, than we have ever been witnefs to in any theatre. This great finger remained in England but one feafon, when, returning to Italy, he was fucceeded by Elifi. ; ; In 1770 we heard Manzoli fing at Florence in a convent at the lait confecration of fix nuns; he had quitted the ftage,. and his voice, though in a {mall chapel, feemed much lefs powerful than when he was in England ; and it was then faid by thofe who had heard him before, that, powerful as his voice appeared to all who heard him for the firft time, it had been {till better. This great vocal performer and wor- thy man died at Florence in 1791. _ ; MANZORA, or Cuireira, in Geography, a river of Africa, which joins the Zambeze, S. lat. 16° 35’. E. long. 34°. ; : ar MANZORAH, a river of Hindooftan, which is a branch of the Godavery : this is a confiderable river, which rifes in the country of Amednagur, and after a circuitous courfe, joins the main river below Nander. f MANZUREKA,, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Lena, N. lat. 53°45’. E. long. 106° 34’. MANZURSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, at the junétion of the Manzureka and Lena ; 32 miles S.E. of Vercholenfk. ; MAO, or Mau, in Botany, a name by which fome au- thors have called the magna Indica, or Indian mango-tree. Mao, in Geography, a city of China, of the fecond clafs, in the province of Se-tchuen; 55 miles N. of Tching-tou. N. lat. 31° 38’. E. long. 103° 32’. MAON, a {mall ifland in the Adriatic, near the coaft of Dalmatia. N. lat. 44°44'. E. long. 15° 1!, : Maon, in Ancient Geography, a {trong city of Paleftine, in the tribe of Judah, which gave name to the neighbour- ing wildernefs. It ftood on a barren eminence, at a little diftance to the S.W. of the Dead fea. MAOPONGO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Benguela, and capital of a diftrict. S. lat. 10° 30’. : MAOUNA, or Massacre i/land, one of M. Bougain- ville’s Navigator’s iflands in the South Pacific ocean, vifited by La Peroufe in 1787. ‘This ifland is furrounded by a reef of coral, on which the fea breaks with great force ; but the reef almoft joined the fhore, and the coaft formed feveral little coves, in front of which were inlets where ca- Vor. XXII. MAO 3 noes could pais, and probably, fays La Peroufe, our barges and long boats. At the bottom of each of theft creeks were numerous villages, whence came out a number of canoes in fucceffion laden with pigs, cocoa nuts, and other fruits, which were exchanged for glafs trinkets. When M. de Langle and feveral officers landed, night came on, and the Indians lighted a great fire to make the landing place clear ; and hither they brought birds, pigs, and fruit. Upon the firlt vifit, while perfe@ tranquillity and ap- parent good humour prevailed, and wiulft the cafks of La Peroufe’s frigates were filling with water, he’ entered‘ a charming village fituated in the midft of a wood, or rather orchard, the trees of which were weighed down by fruit. The houfes were placed in the circumference of a circle, about one hundred and fifty fathoms in diameter, the centre of which formed a large open place, with a grafs plat of the moft beautiful verdure, and the trees which overe fhaded it kept up a delicious frefhnefs. Women, children, and old men accompanied their new ‘vifitor, and invited him into their houfes, where they fpread the fineft and frefheft mats upon the ground, formed by {mall picked pebbles, and which they had raifed about two feet to pro- teét them from the damp. In the handfomett of thefe lute, probably belonging to the chief, was a large room of lat- tice work, equally well executed with thofe about Paris. This charming country, fays our navigator, united the twofold advantage of a foil fertile without culture, and a climate which required no clothing. Bread fruit, cocoa- nut, banana, guavas, and orange trees furnifhed the in- habitants with abundance of wholefome nourifhment ; while fowls, pigs, and dogs, which live on the refufe of thefe fruits, afforded them an agreeable variety of food. They were fo rich, and in want of fo little, that they difdained our inftruments of iron and ftuffs, and coveted only fome beads: burdened with real goods, they only wifhed for things that were ufelefs: Our navigator was ready to pro- nounce the inhabitants of this richly ftored and beautiful ifland the moft happy beings on earth. But he foon found -that this pleafant abode was not the manfion of innocence. Although no arms were perceived, yet the bodies of thefe Indians, covered with fcars, proved that they muft fe at war with their neighbours, or quarrel among themfelves ; and thew countenances indicated a ferocity imperceptible in the phyfiognomy of the women, whofe perfons were agree- able, and manners foft, lively, and engaging. Nature, fays our author, had without doubt left this {tamp on the figure of the Indians to denote, that man, almoft wild and ina ftate of anarchy, is a being more mifchievous than the fierceft of the animal creation. This firft vifit, how- ever, did not pafs off without private quarrels, which were terminated by prudent and wary condu& on the part of our navigators. The iflanders became in procefs of time bold and infolent, and regardlefs of every reftraint to which they were fubjeéted. The two frigates had during their flay trafficked for 500 pigs, a great quantity of fowls, pigeons, and fruit, and all at the expence of a few beads of glafs, La Peroufe gave orders for quitting the ifland before the ftorm burft, which he perceived to be gathering, and the harmonious intercourfe that had fubfifted was interrupted, which he faw likely to be the cafe; but M, de Langle, the poft captain, perfifted in his purpofe of obtaining a few long-boat loads of water before he left the ifland: the confequence was difaftrous; the iflanders became turbulent ; and M. de Langle formed a body of 60 men from among the choiceft men oF the crews, armed them with mufkets and cutlaffes, and mounted fix {wivels in the long-boats, and thus prepared, they landed in order to ob- gR tain M A P tain water. The number of canoes increafed, and the number of iflanders, who were colle&ed in hoftile array on the fhore, amounted to 10 or 1200. M. de Langle and his com- panions betook themfelves to their boats amidft vollies of ftones, and the Indians furrounded them within the diftance of a toife: after a fhower of ftones, M. de Langle had only time to fire his mufket twice, when he was knocked down, and unfortunately fell over the larboard fide, 200 Indians 1mmediately maffacring him with clubs and ftones. Of the 61 men who had engaged in this expedition, 49 faved themfelves by {wimming to the barges of the frigates, but the remaining number fell a facrifice to the relentlefs fury of thefe favages, and all the others were grievoufly wounded more or lefs. M. de Lamanon, the philofopher and natu- ralift, was one of the number who Tott his life on this oc- cafion. Many of the Indians were killed or wounded in this confli&. M. de Vaujuas clofes his narrative of this event with the following general remark: ‘ All thofe who were on fhore can bear witnefs, like me, that no violence, no imprudence on our fide provoked the attack of the favages. Our captain had, with refpe& to this, iffued the mott ftri&t orders, which no one difobeyed.”’ Captain Ed- wards calls this ifland ‘¢ Otutuela.”” The anchoring place was in S. lat. 14° 22’. E. long. 189° 1'. Peroufe’s Voyage, vol. ii. MAP, a plain figure, reprefenting the furface of the earth ; or a part of it, according to the laws of perfpective. A map is a projection of the furface of the globe, or a part of it, on a plane furface, reprefenting the forms and dimenfions of the feveral countries and rivers; with the fituation of cities, mountains, and other places. Maps are either univerfal or particular. Maes, Univerfal, are thofe which exhibit the whole fur- face of the earth, or the two hemifpheres. Maps, Particular, are thofe which exhibit fome parti- cular region, or part of the earth’s furface. Thofe of each kind are frequently called geographical, or land-maps, in contradiftinétion to tee ee or fea-mups, reprefenting only the feas and fea-coaits; and properly called charts ; which fee. There are three qualifications required in a map: 1. That all places have their juft fituation with regard to the chief circles of the earth, as the equator, parallels, meridians, é&c. becaufe on thefe depend many properties of regions, as well as celeftial phenomena. 2. That the magnitudes and forms of the feveral countries have the fame proportion as on the furface of the earth. 3. That the feveral places have the fame diftance and fituation with regard to each other, as on the earth itfelf. For the foundation of maps, and the laws of projec- tion, fee Psrspective, and Progection of the Sphere.— The application of thefe principles and laws, in the con- ftruétion of maps, is as follows. Conflruaion of a Map, the Eye being placed in the Avis.— Suppofe, v. g. the northern hemifphere to be reprefented with the eye on the point of the axis, v. g. the fouth pole: for the plane on which the reprefentation is to be made, we take the plane of the equator, and, from all the points of the furface of the northern hemifphere, conceive lines paffing through the plane to the eye; which points, con- neted together, conftitute the map required. In this cafe, the equator will be the limit of the projec- tion; the pole, the centre. ‘The meridians will be right lines paffing from the pole to the equator: the parallels of latitude, &c. circles concentric with the equator; and all the other circles, and arce of circles, as the horizon, ver- MAP tical circles, &c. ecliptic, &c. conceived in that hemifphere, will be ellipfes, or arcs of ellipfes. The better to apprehend the proje€tion of the circles of the plane, conceive a radiant cone, whofe vertex is the eye, its bafe the circle to be reprefented, and its fides the rays pafling between the circle and the eye. Suppofe this cone cut by the plane, it is obvious, that, according to the various pofition of the cone, there will be a dif ferent feétion, and confequently a different line of repre- fentation. For the Application of this Dodrine in PraGice. Ina plane, v. g.a paper, take the middle point P (Plate I. Geography, fig. 4.) for the pole; and from this, as a cen- tre, defcribe a circle of the intended fize of your map to reprefent the equator. Thefe two may be pitched on at pleafure, and from thefe all the other points and circles are to be determined. Divide the equator into 360°, and drawing right lines from the centre to the beginning of each degree, thefe will be meridians ; whereof that drawn to the beginning of the firft degree, we fuppofe the firft meridian. For. the parallels.—There are four quadrants of the equator; the firlt, 0.90; the fecond, 90.180; the third, 180.270; the fourth, 270.0; which, for the better dif- tinction, we will note with the letters AB, CD, BC, DA. Taking one of thele, v. ¢. BA; from the feverat degrees of it, as alfo from 23> 30', and 66° 3o! of it, draw occult right lines to the point D, marking where thefe lines cut the femidiameter A PC; and from P, asa centre, defcribe arcs paffling through the feveral points iw APC.—Thefe arcs will be parallels of latitude. The parallel at 23° 30! will be the tropic of Cancer, and that at 66° 30', the artic circle. The meridians and parallels thus defcribed, from a table of longitudes and latitudes, lay down the places; reckoning the longitude of each place on the equator, commencing at the firft meridian, and pro- ceeding to the meridian of the place; and for the latitude of the place choofing a parallel of the fame latitude: the point in which this meridian and parallel interfe&, repre- fents the place: and in the fame manner all the other places may be determined, till the map be complete. For the ecliptic, half of which comes in this hemifphere, we have obferved, that it makes an ellipfis; fo that the points through which it paffes are to be found. The firft point, or that in which the ecliptic cuts the equator, is the fame with that in which the firft meridian cuts the equator, © which is therefore diftinguifhed by the fign of Aries: the laft point of this half ellipfis, or the other interfeétion of the equator, and ecliptic, viz. the end of Virgo, will be in the oppofite point of the equator, wiz. at 180°. The middle point of the ellipfisis that in which the meridian 90 cuts the tropic of Cancer. Thus we have three points of the eclip- tic determined : for the reft, viz. for 1° and 15° of Taurus, 1° and 315° of Gemini, 1° of Leo, 1° of Virgo; the de- clinations of thofe points from the equator muft be taken froma table, and fet off in the map. See DectinaTion, &e. Thus, where the meridian of 313° cuts the parallel of 5°, that point will be 15 degrees of Aries. Where the meridian 26° cuts the parallel 114, will be the firft sti of Taurus; and fo of the reft. Thefe points, being all joined by a curve line, will be a portion of an ellipfis reprefenting the ecliptic. Mari of this projeGtion have the firft qualification above required ; but they are defective in the fecond : the furface being ftretched farther, as it approaches nearer the equator. With refpe& to the third, they are ftill farther Bah ¥, MA By this method may almoft the whole earth be reprefented in one map, placing the eye, v.g. in the antar@tic pole, and af- fuming for the plane of projection that of fome circle near it, v.g. the antarétic circle. Nothing is here required befides the former projeétion, but to continue the meridian, draw paral- lels on the other fide of the equator, and complete the eclip- tic ; but this diftorts too much for pra€tice. 4 This projection is the eafieft: but that where the eye is placed in the plane of the equator, ts preferred for ufe. It is, in effeét, of the latter kind that maps are ordinarily made. The former are added to them, in {mall, by way of fupple- ment, to reprefent the intermediate {paces left between the two hemifpheres.—Farther, as the fituation of the ecliptic, with regard to the earth, is continually changing; ftrictly {peaking, it has no place on the earth’s furface: but is ufed to be reprefented according to its fituation, at fome certain moment ; viz. fo that the beginning of Aries and Libra may be in the interfe¢tions of the firft meridian and equa- tor. Conftru&ion of Maps, with the Eye in the Plane of the Equa- tor.—This method of projeétion, though more difficult, is yet much more juft, more natural, and more commodious, than the former. To conceive it, we fuppofe the furface of the earth cut into two hemifpheres by the entire periphery of the firft meridian, each of which hemifpheres we reprefent in a diftin@ map. The eye 1s placed in the point of the equa- tor go° diftant from the firft meridian: and for the tranf{pa- rent plane, wherein the reprefentation is to be, we take the plane of the firft meridian, In this proje¢tion, the equator isa right line, and the meridian, go° diitant from the firlt, is ’ alfo aright line ; but the other meridians, and all the paral- lels of the equator, are arcs of circles, and the ecliptic is an ellipfis. The method is thus: From a point E as a centre (fig. 5.) defcribe a circle according to the intended fize of the map. This reprefents the firft meridian, and its oppofite ; for drawing the diameter B D, there arife two femicircles, the one of which, B A D, is the firft meridian, the other, B C D, its oppofite, or the meridian of 180°. This diameter, B D, reprefents the meridian of go degrees, of which the point B is the arétic pole, and the point D the antarétic. The diameter A C, perpendicular to that BD, is the equator. Divide the quadrants A B, BC, C.D, D A, each into go degrees ; and to find the arcs of the meridians and pa- rallels, proceed thus: divide the equator into its degrees ; viz. 180 (as being indeed only half the equator) ; through thefe feveral divifions, and the two poles, defcribe arcs of cir- cles, reprefenting meridians, as Bio D, B 20D, &c.— How to find centres for defcribing thofe arcs, fee under the word Cuorp. See alfo Geometrical Conftruétion of the Gio- BULA& PROJECTION, infra. Indeed the operation will be both more eafy and accu- rate, if performed by a canon of femi-tangents. Thus, by means of afeétor, divide the equator A C into two lines of femi-tangents E A and EC, which will repre- fent the degrees of longitude. Then with the fecant of 80°, as aradius, defcribe the arc of the circle B 80 D, which reprefents a meridian cutting the plane of projection at an angle of 80°; with the fecant of 70° defcribe the arc B 70 D, which reprefents a meridian cutting the plane of projection at 70 ; and proceed in the fame manner with the reft of the meridians, which are ufually drawn at every 10° of longitude, as the parallels are at every 10° of lati- tude. To defcribe the parallels, the meridian B D muft be in like manner divided into 180 degrees; then through each ef thefe divifions and the correfponding divifions of the qua- PS. drants A B, C B, defcribe arcs of circles. Thus fhall we have parallels of all degrees, with tropics, polars, and me- ridians. The parallels may be drawn with the tangents for radii, as the meridians are with the fecants, 1to10 reprefenting the parallel of 10°, with the tangent of 80°, that of 20° with the tangent of 70°, &c. The ecliptic may be defigned two ways ; for its fituation over the earth may either be fuch, as that its interfe€tion with the equator may be over the place A; in which cafe the projeGtion of its femicircles, from the firft degree of Cancer, to the firft of Capricorn, will be a ftraight line, to be determined by numbering 23° 30' from A towards B, and from the extreme of that numeration draw- ing a diameter through E; which line will be half the eclip- tic in this fituation, and may be divided, as before, into de- sree to which the numbers, figns, &c. are to be affixed. ut if the ecliptic be fo placed, as that its interfeGtion with the equator is over the place A, in the firft meridian, its pro- jection in that cafe will be a fegment of an ellipfis: whereof two of the points are A, C; a third, that wherein the meri- dian go cuts the tropic of Cancer. The other points mut be determined in the manner laid down above ; viz. by taking the declinations and right afcenfions of 15° of Aries, 1° of Taurus, 15° of Gemini, &c. For where the parallels, ac- cording to their feveral degrees of declination, cut the me- ridians, taken according to the feveral right afcenfions, thofe points of interfeGtion are the points of the 15° of Aries, &c. A curve line therefore being drawn, thefe will give the projection of the ecliptic. Nothing then remains to complete the map, but to take the longitudes and latitudes of places from a table; and to fet them off on the map; as was dire€ted under the former method. In this proje€tion the whole furface of the earth may be reprefented in one map ; if, inftead of the plane of the firft meridian, fome other plane parallel to it, but very near the eye, be taken; for by this means the entire parallels and me- ridians will be defcribed. But as this diftorts the face of the earth too much, it is feldom ufed ; and we rather make the two hemifpheres in two diftin& tables. One great advantage in this projeétion is, that it repre- fents the longitudes and latitudes of places, their diftance from the pole and from the equator, almoft the fame as they really are on the earth. Its inconveniences are, that it makes the degrees of the equator unequal; being the greater as they are nearer the firft meridian D A B, or its oppofite BC D; and for this reafon equal tracts of the earth are re- prefented unequal ; which defe€&t may be in fome meafure re- medied, by removing the eye far from the earth. And, laftly, the diftances of places and fituation, with regard to each other, cannot be well determined in maps of this pro- jection. é Conftruéiion of Maps on the Plane of the Horizon, or wherein any given place fhall be the centre or middle. Suppofe, for inftance, it is defired to have London the centre of the map. Its latitude we will fuppofe to be 51° 32’. The eye is placed in the nadir. The tranfparent table is the plane of the horizon, or fome other plane, if it is defired to reprefent more than a hemifphere. Take then the point E (fig. 6.) for London; and frém this, as a centre, defcribe the circle A BC Dtoreprefent the horizon, which you are then to divide into four quadrants, and each of thefe into go de- grees. Let the diameter B D be the meridian, B the north- ern quarter, D the fouthern ; the line of equinoétial eaft and weft fhews the firft vertical, A the weft, C the eait, or a place of go degrees from the zenith in the firft vertical. All the verticals are reprefented by right lines drawn from 3R2 the M APS. the centre E. to the feveral degrees of the horizon. Divide B D into 180 degrees, as in the former methods ; the point in EB, reprefenting 51° 32! of the are BC, will be the projection of the north pole, which note with the letter P. The point in ED, reprefenting 51° 32 of the are DC igesinur from C towards D), will be the proje¢tion of the interfe€tion of the equator and meridian o London, which note with the letter Q; and from this, towards P, write the numbers of the degrees, 1, 2, 3, &c. As alfo from Q towards D, and from B towards P; viz. 51, 52; 53, &c. Then taking the. correfponding points of equal degrees; viz. 99 and 99, 88 and 88, &c. about thofe, as diameters, defcribe circles, which will reprefent parallels, or circles of latitude, with the equators, tropics, and polar cir- cles, For the meridians, firft defcribe a circle through the three points A, P,C. This will reprefent the meridian go degrees from London. Let its centre be M in B D (conti- nuing to the point N, which reprefents the fouth pole), PN being the diameter; through M draw a parallel to A C; wiz. F H, continued each way to K and L. Divide the eircle, P H N F, into 360 degrees, and from the point P draw right lines to the fevéral degrees, cutting 1 lta bg Bye through the feveral points of interfeétion, and the two poles P, N, as through three given points, defcribe circles repre- fenting all the meridians. The centres for deferibing the arcs will be in the fame K L, as being the fame that are found by the former interfeGtion ; but are to be taken with this caution, that for the meridian next B DN towards A, the moft remote centre towards L, be taken for the fecond, the fecond from this, &c. The circles of longitude and la- titude thus drawn, infert the places from a table, as has been directed. Coghiarien of Maps on the Plane of the Meridian.—This projection is taught by Ptolemy, and recommended by him as proper for that part of the earth then known. In this the equator and parallels are arcs of circles, and the meri- dians arcs of ellipfes; the eye hanging over the plane of that meridian which paffes over the middle of the inhabited world. But in regard the defcription of ‘thefe ellip‘es is fomewhat perplexing, and becaufe this method feems calcu- lated only for a part of the earth, it is not now ufed, There is a fecond method, fomething akin to it, which re- prefents. the circles of latitude by right lines, and the meridians by arcs of ellipfes: as muft be the cafe, if lines be conceived to fall from the feveral points of each hemifphere perpendicularly on the plane of the firft, meri- dian, and the eye be fuppofed at an infinite diftance from the earth, fo that all the rays emitted from the places of the earth to it may be accounted parallels, as well as perpen- diculars to the plane of the firft meridian. In his *« Companion to a Map of the World,’ (London, 1794, 4to.) Mr. Arrow{mith has offered the following re- marks on projeétion; and as they ‘are immediately con- neéted with the fubje& of the conftruction of maps, we {hall ‘here fubjoin them. « As the earth is of a form approaching very near to a “globe or {phere, it is evident that the only map which can truly reprefent the figure of the various countries, and their relative beari gs and diltances, mutt be delineated on the fur- face ofa globe. But as globes of a fize proper to exhibit a map fufficiently accurate, and containing all the information that is neceffary or defirable, mutt be very bulky, and very expenfive, it is neceflary to have more portable and cheaper maps, executed upon a flat furface ; thefe, fince the art of copper-p ate printing has been in ufe, have generally been made up-n paper. « It is obvious that {uch a map, wherein is attempted to reprefent upon a plane furface that which is really {pherieal, muft depart confiderably from the truth; efpecially if it comprehends the whole, or a confiderable portion of the world. It has, therefore, been an objeét which has engaged the attention of the moft eminent geographers, to difcover a projection (or arrangement of the proportional parts of the map) which fhould be liable to the feweft errors. « The moft natural method of reprefenting a Sphere upon a plane feems to be to divide it into two equal parts, and infcribe each of them in a circle: but as the equator and the polar axis, which interfeéts that circle at right angles, and makes one of the meridians, muft be fuppofed equal in length to the half of the periphery (of which it is not quite two-thirds), it follows, of courfe, that the countries delineated upon or near thefe lines muft be reduced to fomewhat lefs than two- thirds of the fize of the countries of equal extent, which lie at the extremity of the ciccle ; and that the lines drawn to meafure the latitude, which are parallel to each other, or nearly fo, muft, in order to preferve as nearly as poffible their proportional angles at the points of interfection with the meridian, form fegments of circles, of which no two are parallel or concentric. «There may be as many different projeStions as there are points of view, in which a globe can be feen; but geogra- phers have generally chofen thofe which reprefent the poles, at the top and bottom of the map : thefe, from the delinea- tion of the lines of latitude and longitude, are called the ftereographic, orthographic, and globuar proje@ions.” See PROJECTION. ; ‘¢ T do not propofe to detain the reader with a defeription of all the projections; fome of which are fo numerous (for the purpofe of conftru€ting of maps) as to deferve being configned entirely to oblivion. But as projections of maps form a pleafing and inftruétive exercife, and, indeed, indif- penfibly neceflary to the right underftanding of geography by ftudents, I fhall defcribe the manner of conttructing the map that accompanies this work ; but firft hint at the ftereo- graphic proje€tion. ei great geographer, d’Anville, has conitruéied his map of the world upon this projection, adapt- ing it to Caffini’s fy {tem of the figure of the earth, which makes the polar diameter longer than the equatorial.) Among the various pofitions affignable to the eye, there are chiefly two that have been ado ted, wherein the eye is placed either in the point D \ fg. 7.) or removed to an infinite diftance ; and hence this projection is liable to the great error of diftortin the form of the countries, reprefented upon it, much more than is neceflary. ‘The only advantage is, that the lines of latitude and longitude interfe@ each other at right angles. “This being obferved by that excellent aftronomer, M. de la Hire (Hilt. Acad. Sc 1701), he invented a remedy for the inconvenience, by affigning to the eye a polition at the point 10) (fe: 7.) the diltance of which, from the globe at D, is equal to the right fine of 45 ; and hence the right line, G O, which bifeéts the quadrant BC, allo bifeéts the radius EC, and produces the fimilar trangles O F G, and OEL; ad thus the other parts of the quadrant BC, and, in like ‘manner, of the whole femicircle A BC, are repre- fented in the projection nearly proportional to each other, and to the eye perfeGtly fo. re pA « This projection, as coming the neareft to a’ true re- preféiitation of the globe, is called the * Globular Projec- tion’;’? it is equal to the ftereographic in point of fob, and valtly fuperior to it in point of truth. , ; “ Geometrical Confirudiion of the GLOBULAR ProsecTion — From the centre C (jig 8.), with ‘any radius, as C B, defcribe 2 circle; draw the diameters A B, and go, go, (being careful to draw them at right angles), and divide them into 2 nine | | MAPS. nine equal parts; likewife divide each quadrant into’ nine equal parts, each of which contains to degrees: if the fale admits of it, every one of thefe divifions may be fubdivided into degrees : next, to draw the meridians, f{uppofe the meri- dian Se” W. of Greenwich, we have given the two poles, g0, go, and the point So in the equator, or diameter A B ; defcribe a circle to pafs through the three given points, as follows ; with the radius go C, fet one foot of the compaffes on the point go, and deferibe the femicircles X X and ZZ; then remove the compaffes to the point 80 on the equator, and defcribe the arcs 1, 1, and 2, 2; where they interfe& the femicircle, make the point as at 1 and 2, and draw lines from 2 through the point 1, till they interfeét the. diameter B A, continued, in E, then will E be the centre from which the meridian go, 80, go, mutt be drawn, and will exprefs the meridian of 80° W. longitude from Greenwich. The fame radius will draw the meridian exprefling 140° W. longitude in like manner. Draw the next meridian with the radius CB, fet one foot of the compaffes in the point d, and defcribe the arcs aa andé4; then draw lines as before, which will give the point D, the centre of go” W. longitude, and fo of all the reit. «© The parallels of latitude are drawn in the fame manner, with this difference, that the femicircles X X and Z Z mult be drawn from the points A and B, the extremities of the equator.’’ See Conffrudion of Maps, with the Eye in the Plane of the Equ tor, {upra. « In the manner above-defcribed, with great labour and exaétnefs, I drew all the meridians and parallels of latitude to every degree in two hemifpheres, which laid the founda- tion of the map now before us. «* We fhall now drop a few hints on the advantage and difadvantage of Mercator’s projection. « A method has been found to obviate fome of the difli- culties attending all the circular projections by one, which, from the perfon who firlt ufed it (though not the inventor), is called ‘* Mercator’s Projeétion.”’? In this there are none but right lines; ail the meridians are equidiltant, and con- tinue fo through the whole extent; but, on the other hand, in order to obtain the true bearine, fo that the compafs may be applied to the map (or chart) ifor the purpofe of naviga- tion, the fpaces between the parallels of latitude (which in truth are equal, or nearly fo) are made to increafe as they recede from the equator in a proportion which, in the high latitudes, becomes prodigioufly great. “The grzat advantages peculiar to this projection are, that every place drawn upon it retains its true bearing, with refpeét to all other places; the diftances may be meafured with the niceft exaétnefs by proper {cales, and all the lines drawn upon it are right lines. For thefe reafons, it is the only projection in drawing maps or charts for the ufe of navigators.’” See Carr. “ Tts only difadvantage is, that the countries in high la- titudes ave of neceffity increafed beyond their jult fize to a monitrous degree, «Thus it appears, from this fhort view of three of the beft modes of projecting maps of the world upon a plane furface, that each of thofe which have been more parti- cularly defcribed, is attended with advantages and difad- vantages peculiar to itfelf; itis obvious, that the only means to acquire a jult idea of the various countries upon fuch a furface, is by a comparifon of two maps, one laid down on the Mercator’s projection, aud the other upon the belt of the Circular projections.” See Progecrion. Maps, General, are the hemifpheres; which are for the molt part conltructed {tereographically. Maps, Reéilinear, are thofe wherein both the meridians and parallels are reprefented by right lines, which by the laws of perfpeétive is impoffible; in regard there can no fuch pofition be affigned to the eye and the plane, as that the circles both of longitude and latitude {hall be right lines. In the firft method above laid down, the meridians are right lines, but the parallels are circles: in the fifth, the parallels are right lines, and the meridians ellipfes. In all other perfpective methods, both kinds of circles are curves : one method indeed mult be excepted, wherein the meri- dians are right lines, and the parallels hyperbolas ; as when the eye is placed in the centre of the earth, and the plane, through. which it is viewed, is -parallel to the firft meridian; but this method is rather pretty than ufeful. I Reétilinear maps are chiefly ufed in navigation, to faci- litate the eftimate of the fhip’s way. See CHART Conftruétion of particular Maps.— Particular maps of large trads, as Europe, Afia, Africa, and America, are projeted after the fame manner as general ones; only let it be ob- ferved, that for different parts, different methods may be chofen. Africa and America, for inftance, as the equator paffes through them, cannot be conveniently projeGted by the firlt method, but much better by the fecond. Europe and Afia are moft conveniently reprefented by the third ; and the polar parts, or the frigid zones, by the firft. To begin then, draw a right line on your plane, or pa- per, for the meridian of the plane over which the eye is conceived to hang, and divide it into degrees, as before, which will be the degrees of latitude. Then from the tables take the latitude of the two parallels, which terminate each extreme. The degrees of thefe latitudes are to be noted in the meridian ; and through them draw perpendiculars, bounding the map towards north and fouth. This done, meridians and parallels are to be drawn to the feveral de- grees, and the places to be inferted, till the map is com- plete. For particular Maps of lef extent.—In maps of {maller portions of the earth, the geographers take another method, Firlt, a tranfverfe line is drawn at the bottom of the plane, to reprefent the latitude, wherein the fouthernmoft part of the country, to be exhibited, terminates. In this line, fo many equal parts are taken as that country is extended in longitude. On the middle of this fame line ereé&t a per- pendicular, having fo many parts as there are degrees of latitude between the northern and fouthern limits of the country. How big thefe parts are to be, may be deter- mined by the proportion of a degree of a great circle to a degree of the parallel reprefented by the tranfverfe line at bottom. Through the other extreme of this perpen- dicular, draw another perpendicular, or a parallel to the line at bottom, in which are to be feen as many degrees of longitude as in the lower line, and thefe, too, equal to each other, unlefs the latitudes happen to be remote from each other, or from the equator. But if the loweft parallel be at a confiderable diftance from the equinoétial, or if the la- titude of the northern limit go much beyond that of the fouthern ; the parts or degrecs of the upper line mutt not be equal to thofe of the lower, but lefs, and that according to the proportion which a degree of the more northern parallel bas to a degree of tue more fouthern. After parts have been thus determined, both on the upper and lower line, for the degrees of longitude ; rght lines muit be drawn through the beginning and end of the fame number, which lines reprefent the meridians; then through the ifs yera MAPS, veral degrees of the perpendicular ereSted on the middle of the firft tranfverfe line, draw lines parallel to that tranfverfe line: thefe will reprefent parallels of latitude. Latftly, at the points wherein the meridians of longitude and the pa- rallels of latitude concur, infert the places from a table, as before direéted. But though there are various modes of conftructing thefe maps, they are, in general, defeétive, fo as not to be applied with accuracy and facility to the pur- pofes intended, in gecte the courfes or bearings of places, their diftances, or both. Suppofe it were required to draw the meridians and pa- rallels for a map of Britain. This ifland is known to lie between 50° and 60° of latitude, and 2° and 7° of longi- tude. Having therefore chofen the length of your degrees of latitude, you mutt next proportion your degrees of longi- tude to it. By the table of degrees of longitude corre- {ponding to every degree of latitude, under DecrEe, you will find that in the latitude of 50°, the length of a de- ‘gree of longitude is to one of latitude, as 39.054 is to 60 ; that is, a degree of longitude in lat. 50°, is fomewhat more than half the length of a degree of latitude. The exact proportion may be eafily taken by a diagonal fcale; after which you are to mark out feven or eight of thofe de- grees upon a right line for the length of your intended map. On the extremities of this line raife two perpendi- culars, upon which mark out 10° of latitude for the height of it. Then, having completed the parallelogram, confult the table for the length of a degree of longitude in lat. 60°, which is found to be nearly one half a degree of latitude. It will be always proper, however, to draw a vertical meridian ex- adtly in the middle of the parallelogram, to which the meri- dian on each fide may converge; and from this you are to fet off the degrees of longitude on each fide. Then having divided the lines bounding your map into as many parts as can conveniently be done, to ferve for a fcale, you may by means of thefe fet off the longitudes and latitudes with much lefs trouble than where curve lines are ufed. This method may always be adopted where a particular kingdom is to be deli- neated, and will reprefent the true figure and fituation of the places with tolerable exa¢tnefs. The particular points of the compafs on which the towns lie with refpe& to one another, or their bearings, cannot exa¢tly be known, ex- cept by a globe or Mercator’s projeGtion. Their diftances, however, may thus be accurately exprefled, and this is the only kind of maps to which a fcale of miles can be truly adapted. , The Rev. T. Bowen has juft publifhed an excellent ap- paratus for deferibing the lines of longitude and latitude on maps, on a fcale adapted for the ufe of {chools. In like manner, thefe lines may be defcribed on maps of any fize with unerring accuracy, The apparatus confifts o} a feale and a pair of compafles fufficiently large to deferibet ‘e pr>pofed lines, with a book to explain the method of ufing them. The fhort lines at each end of the fcale reprefent the equators, the meridians, the north, the fouth, the eaft, and weft lines graduated ; from which the outlines of the maps are to be conftruéted, and the degrees laid down. The lines extending the whole length of the fcale on the other fide, contain the centres of the different circles which compofe the lines of longitude and latitude mathematically found. The radius of each line to be defcribed on the map, is the diftance between that line and its correfponding number on the feale ; confequently, by placing one limb of the compaffes on the central point on the feale (when adjulted according to the direétions given), extending the other to its correfponding number on the me- II ridian, and then moving it from eaft to weft, the parallel of latitude is formed; from north to fouth through its cor- refponding number on the equator, and the line of longitude is defcribed. For an abftra& of La Croix’s paper on the projeétion of maps, fee Pinkerton’s Geography, vol. i. Introd. For Maps of Provinces, or {mall tracts, as parifhes, ma- nors, &c. we ufe another method, more fure and accurate than any of the former. In this, the angles of pofition, or the yuna: of the feveral places, wit regard to one another, are determined by proper inftruments, and trans- ferred to paper. This conftitutes an art apart, called Surveying. Maps, the Ufe of, is obvious from their conftruétion. The degrees of the meridians and parallels thew the longi- tudes and latitudes of places, and the feale of miles an- nexed, their diftances; the fituation of places, with re- gard to each other, as well as to the cardinal points, ap- pears by infpection, the top of the map being always the north, the bottom the fouth, the right hand the eaft, and the left the weft; unlefs the compafs ufually annexed fhew the contrary. Maps of Effates, in Agriculture, {uch plans or outlines of lands as are neceflary to direé&t their management in the moft eafy and economical manner. Inan ufeful work on ‘* Landed Property,”’ it is advifed that the different diltin& parts or farms into which they are divided, fhould be outlined, co- loured, and introduced on a general map, as well as each feparately delineated, more particularly on a {mall pocket one, fo as to fhew the farms with diftin€inefs, or the lands intended to be laid into them, with the wood-lands, waters, &c. &c. that are in hand. The pocket maps fhould ex- hibit at once the outlines, the names, and the contents of the different fields, or pieces of land of which they are feverally conttituted, which by being coloured according to occu- pancy, the feveral fields of the exifting farms es intermixed parts of farms intended to be united ), though fcattered, may be readily diltinguifhed. And ‘if feparate columns of con- tents be indorfed on the backs of the maps, one of them of the intended farm, the other of the exifting farms or parts of farms, with their totals fubjoined ; all the doubts and perplexities which are wont to arife on large eftates, from the intermixture of farm-lands, will be avoided.” And thefe maps of farms fhould be of a portable fize, as ten inches by eight, and be bound up in volumes correfpond- ing to the general maps ; fo that the fuperintendant-manager in going over any part of the elftate, may have with him the maps that belong to it. Each map fhould be folded double, and be hung in loofely within flexible covers, by a guard or flip of paper patted on the back, in order that when opened each may lie flat and fair, and be conveniently portable when fhut. Maps, Geognoflic. The idea of exhibiting in maps, by means of figns or illumination, the principal geognottic fea- tures of a given traét of country, the afpect of its furface, the nature of its rocks, their alternation and relative po- fition, is as new as the fcience which teaches us to diftinguifh from each other the manifold materials that compofe the cruft of the earth as far as we are acquainted with it. Se- veral methods have been lately adopted for accomplifhing the above obje¢t; of all which that of colouring the fpaces occupied by the different rocks appears by far the moft convenient. It is this method which has been improved and carried to a high degree of precifion by the celebrated Werner, who has happily removed all tole obitacle which e are indebted to hitherto prevented its general adoption. — -as MAP to profeffor Jamefon for an account of the Wernerian me- thod of colouring maps, communicated in the firft volume of the “ TranfaGtions of the Wernerian Society’’ lately pub- lifhed. The following rules fhould be obferved in illumimating maps for the above purpofe: 1. In every cafe fuch colours are to be ufed as will allow the ground-work of the map or delineations of the mountains to appear through them dif- tin@ly. 2. The colours fhould agree as nearly as poffible with nature ; they fhouldcorrefpond with the moft common colour of the roek, or, at leaft, differ from it as little as poffible, and agree with the tranfition fuite of the colours. 3. The ufe of all bright colours muft be avoided. 4. The colours mutt not be too pale or too deep, and they ought to be laid on as much as poffible of the fame intenfity : per- feétly dark and light coloured rocks are exceptions to this rule. 5. The colours of mountain-rocks mutt form fuites or tranfitions, in order to exprefs the tranfitions of the rocks into each other ; at the fame time they muit be fufficiently diftinét from each other. The following colours are employed by Werner for dif- tinguifhing the particular rocks :—quartz ; reddifh-white, in- clining a little to yellow :—topaz-rock ; pale brick red :— granite; pale cochineal red, approaching carmine-red :— white-ftone; pale flefh-red:—gneifs ; lilac-blue :—mica flate ; pearl-grey :—primitive clay-flate ; greenifh-grey, approach- ing to blue:—alum-flate ; pale blueifh-black, approaching to grey :—fletz-flate ; deep afh-grey :—grey-wacke-flate and grey-wacke ; greenifh-grey, pafling into yellow :—trap- rocks, fuch as granular primitive trap, green-ftone, green- ftone flate, hornblende flate, blackifh-green inclining to blue : —bafalt ; greenifh-black :—porphyry-flate ; pale greenifh- black :—amygdaloid ; pale greenifh-black, flightly inclining to brown :—terpentine ; pale piftachio-green :—talc and chlorite-flate ; pale grafs-green:—porphyry; pale reddifh- brown, flightly inclining to yellow :—fienite ; pale reddifh- brown, inclining to blueifh, that is, clove-brown pafling into blueifh-red :—granular primitive lime-ftone ; pale Berlin- blue :—compaét primitive lime-{tone ; fmalt-blue, faintly in- clining to red :—tranfition lime-ftone ; indigo-blue, flightly inclining to grey :—-fletz-lime-ftone; pale blueifh-grey :— chalk; blueifh-white :—calcareous tuf; {moke-grey :— ypfum ; pale fky-blue :—rock-falt, and rocks from which alt-fprings iffue ; pale verdigris-green :—coal-formation ; pale blackifh-brown, approaching to yellowifh-brown :— alumn-earth and brown coal; liver brown :—conglomerate and clay-ftone; pale orange-yellow, flightly inclining to reddifh-brown :—fand-ftone; ftraw-yellow :—loam and clay ; yellowifh-grey pafling into ochre-yellow :—iron-clay and calamine ; pale ochre-yellow :—turf and peat; liver-brown ftreaks :—bog-iron ore ; ochre-yellow ftreaks. All thefe rocks may, likewife, be diftinguifhed by particular figns or fymbols ; for which, if they fhould be deemed ufeful, we refer to the Wernerian TranfaGtions. Not only particular rocks, but alfo formation fuites, may be reprefented in colours. ‘Thus, the flate formation fuite will be red fhaded into blue, the blue into grey ; this latter into green, and the green into yellow. ‘he inflammable foffils, fubordinate to thefe formations, will be dark brown. The lime-ftone formation fuite will be blue, which will pafs into grey, and laftly into white. The falt and gypfum formation fuites, which are allied to the preceding, will be greenifh-blue and blueifh-green; the trap fuite, greenifh- black and blackifh-green, fhaded into blue; the porphyry fuite, light brown; the talc and ferpentine fuite, pale yel- lowifh-green. The relative pofitions of the different rocks, Werner ex- MAP preffed in the following manner: boundaries of fupere impofed rocks are to be marked with a broad line of the fame colour as the rock, only darker; and where we are uncertain as to the fuperpofition of the rock, the junétion is to be merely ftreaked. Beds, when they appear at the fur- face, fhould have their boundaries diftinguifhed by a broad, but darker, line of the fame colour as that of the rock of which they are compofed. When the beds are inclinedy the lower fide fhould be marked with a broad line of the fame colour as the bed itfelf; but its upper fide by a broad dark line of the colour of the rock that refts on it. Veins are reprefented by lines drawn in the dire@tion of the veins of the diftri@. Metalliferous veins fhould be pointed out by red lines; and veins filled with mountain- rocks, by lines of the fame colour as the rock of which they are compofed. The dip of the ftrata is exprefled by black coloured ar- rows, whofe length fhould be in proportion to the angle of inclination, and their direGtion to the point of the compafs towards which the ftrata dip or incline. When the ftrata are vertical, or under any angle from go° to 80°, they are marked by two crofs lines, thus x ; horizontal ftrata, or ftrata under any angle from o to 10°, by two lines crofling each other at right angles, and having a head of an arrow at each extremity. The intermediate angles from 80° to 10° are marked by fimfle arrows, one-eighth, one-fourth, and half an inch in length. The arrow one-eighth of an inch in length intimates that the ftrata are inclined at any angle be- tween 80° and 60°; the arrow one-fourth of an inch in length, that the ftrata are inclined at any angle between 60° and 40°; the arrow half an inch in length, that the ftrata are inclined at any angle between 40° and 10°. The firlt or fhorteft arrow is meant to point out ftrata inclined under an angle of 70°; the fecond arrow, ftrata under an angle of 50°; the third arrow, ftrata under an angle of 25°., Pro- bably, according to Mr. Jamefon, an equally convenient mode would be, to mark the angle of inclination alongfide the arrow, and proportion its fize to the length of the map. Thus, if the map were on a large feale, the arrow might be three-quarters of an inch long; if on a fmaller feale, half an inch, or even one-quarter of an inch in length. The higheit points on a mountain-range, Werner diftinguifhes by a crofs, + 3 a level, by a figure refembling a door, ; and a fhaft, by a fmall parallelogram, (3. MAPANA, in Geography, a lake of Thibet, from which the Ganges is faid to iflue. The head of this majeftic river is compofed of two ftreams, which run weftward ; and the fouthernmoft of thefe branches runs through two lakes, the firft of which is named Mapana, and the fecond « Lanken.’? MAPANIA, in Botany, a name in Aublet, of whofe derivation or meaning no account is given, but which is re- tained by Juffieaand Vahl. Aubl. Guian. v. 1.47. Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 391. Juff. 27. Lamarck Uluftr. t. 37.~ Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Cala- marie, Linn. Cyperoidee, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Involucrum mavy-flowered, of three very large, fpreading, equal, ovate, acute, fmooth leaves, much longer than the flowers. Perianth inferior, of fix ovate, acute, concave leaves. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments three, inferted into the receptacle, capillary, longer than the calyx; anthers oblong, quadrangular, of two cells. Pif. Germen ovate, fuperior; ftyle thread-{haped, equal to the ftamens ; fligmas three, awl-fhaped. eric. none. Seed one, roundifh, naked. Eff. Ch. Involucrum of three leaves. Perianth inferior, of fix leaves. Corolla none. Seed one, naked. 1. M. fylvatica, Aubl, t. 17.—Native of marfhy forefts, about MAP about the rivers Aroura and Orapu in Guiana, where Aublet found it flowering in June. | One. of his {pecimens is before us. Root perennial, creeping, firm, throwing up. feveral fimple, triangular flems, about two feet high, rough with minute harfh points or prickles, and clothed at the bafe with feveral fheathing, imbricated, membranous, reddifh/ales or leaves. The reft of the fem is naked, but its top is crowned with the three f{preading involucral leaves, each five or fix inches. long, obovate, pointed, ribbed, entire, {mooth, green, and foliaceous, in whofe centre is ftationed a round feffile head of feveral flowers. Vahl, who had examined a fpecimen, juftly remarks, that the leaves of the calyx are not toothed, as Aublet defcribes them, but entire. MAPELLA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de- partment of the Mincio. MAPLE, in Botany. See Acer. Mapte Tree, in Agriculture, the common name of a tree of the deciduous kind, cultivated for the purpofes of timber and ornament in plantations and other grounds. ‘There are feveral {pecies and varieties of this tree, as the great maple or fycamore, the common or f{maller maple, the afh-leaved Virginia maple, the Montpelier maple, the plane-tree like Norway maple, the fcarlet flowering maple, the fugar maple, the Tartarian maple, the Italian maple, the Penn- fylvanian. mountain maple, and the Cretan maple. And there are two varieties of the great maple or fyca- more, one with broad leaves and large ren. the other with variegated leaves: the latter, when blended in large planta- tions, affords a pleafing variety. This tree is frequently known by the name of /ycamore, mock plane, and plane tree. See SycAMORE. j The common maple is a tree of much humbler growth than the great maple, and by no means fo ornamental; it may, however, be ufeful in extenfive plantations and plea- fure grounds, _ It is alfo very good for timber, being clofe in the grain of the wood, When cut down, it affords an excellent underwood. i The afh-leaved maple fhould be made ufe of in fituations * that are not much expofed to the winds, as it is faid to be apt to be {plit by them. The wood is foft and brittle, and of courfe lefs ufeful as timber. The Montpelier maple is chiefly ufeful for the variety it affords in ornamental plantations. And the Norway maple is principally ufeful for affording fhelter, and alfo as a timber tree. ‘There are two varieties, one with variegated or ftriped leaves, and the other with cut leaves. There are two varieties of the fcarlet-flowering maple, the Virginian fcarlet-flowering maple, and fir Charles Wa- ger’s maple. Both of them are chiefly propagated for the fake of the flowers, which are of a {fcarlet colour. The fort called fir Charles Wager’s, produces larger clufters of flowers than the other, on which account it is in more efti- mation. In America, the inhabitants tap the fugar maple in the {pring, and boil the liquor, which affords an ufeful fugar. The fycamore, the afh-leaved, and the Norway maples alfo abound with a faccharine juice, from which fugar might probably be prepared with advantage in fome fitua- tions. The Italian maple is common in many parts of Italy, and is a lofty tree, and, from its having a {preading head, adorned with large and beautitul foliage, deferves the atiention of ornamental planters. It may be alfo ufeful as a timber tree, in fome cafes. The Cretan maple is only ufeful as an ornamental tree. There is a variety of it, in which the leaves continue green M AP moft part of the year, when fheltered, and which is dene. minated the evergreen Cretan maple. It may be noticed, that all the forts and varieties of the maple are of eafy cultivation; each being capable of being raifed by feed, and many of them by layering, cuttings, and budding. They thrive well in molt foils and fituations, pro- vided they be not too moift; the common forts fucceeding the beit in fuch as are deep and inclined to moifture, but not hard or {tiff; and the American kinds in thofe that have a dry and rather clofe ftate of mould or foil. In raifing them in the firlt method, as the feeds do not, in all the forts, ripen well in this country, the beft way is to procure them from the places where they grow naturally. A cool fhady place is the molt fuitable for this purpofe. The mould being made fine, and nurfery beds marked out four feet wide, with length proportionate to the quantity, in thefe the feeds are to be regularly fown in the autumn, fifting over them the fineft mould to the depth of half an inch, When the plants are come up, they muft be kept clean. from weeds, and frequently watered during fummer. In the {pring following, the ftrongeft may be drawn out and planted in nurferies, in rows two feet afunder, and at the diftance of a foot from each other in them, leaving the others to gain ftrength. In tle fecond fpring, thefe alfo muft have the fame culture; and they may remain in the nurfery, without any other trouble than keeping the ground clean ip the fummer, digging between the rows in the winter, and taking off all {trong and irregular fide-fhoots, till they are fit to be planted out. ‘The trees raifed in this way grow fafter, and arrive at greater heights, than thofe from layers ; but they do not in general produce fuch quantities of flowers, which makes the latter mode more eligible for thofe who want thefe plants for low fhrubbery ules. In thefe cafes, they fhould always have four or five years growth be- fore they are finally planted out. It is, however, advifed by fome, that the feeds of the common or Norway maples fhould not be put into the foil immediately after becoming ripe, but be dried and preferved in fand till February or March, as the feafon may prove favourable, when they may be fowed in dri'ls or beds eighteen inches broad, with alleys the fame width, and covered three quarters of an inch thick with mould. In the following February or March, the alleys fhould be dug, and ghe roots of the plants cut about five inches under ground, which may be eafily performed by means of a fharp fpade, drawing the plants out where too thick. ‘Thefe may be replanted in any good mellow foil, in rows eighteen inches afunder, and eight or nine inches from each other in the rows. In O&ober, when the plants in general will be about two feet high, both the feedlings and thofe that were tranfplanted fhould be raifed, fhortening their tap-roots, cutting off any crofs lateral branches, and re- moving them into rows two feet and a half apart, and fifteen inches diltant in them, in order that they may continue for a year or two. Remove them again at the fame feafon the fucceeding year, and plant them in 10ws five feet afunder, and two and a half from each other, that they may continue four years. Thefe will now be from twelve to fifteen feet high ; and if required of a ftill larger fize, they may be re- moved, and planted again eight or ten feet afunder; when, any time after two and not exceeding eight or ten years, they may be finally planted out where they are to remain, The ufe of removing thefe trees frequently when young is, that they are apt naturally to grow with tap-roots, which this management prevents, and makes the plants rdot better, and become more eafy and certain in their growth, when tranfplanted at a large fize. The timber forts are belt raifed from the feeds, without being removed at all. Though all ‘the a ae ee, MAP the fpecies are capable of being propagated by layers, it is never practifed for the common maple. In this method the young fhoots may be laid down at any time, in the autumn, winter, or early in the {pring ; but the firft is probably the belt. By the fame time in the following year they will have ftruck root, and have become good plants, when the ftrongeft may be fet out in the places where they are to re- main; while the weakeft may be planted in the nurfery, in the fame manner as the feedlings, for a year or two, in order - to gain ftrength. But in propagating by cuttings, though all thefe trees are capable of it, it is a method chiefly praétifed on the afh-leaved and Norway maples, as they take root this way more readily. The cuttings fhould be taken from the bot- tom part of the lait year’s fhoots early in OGober, and be planted in rows ina moilt fhady place. . In the {pring and fummer following they fhould be watered, as often as dry weather makes it neceflary, and be kept perfectly clean from weeds. In the autumn they will be fit to remove into the nurfery ; though if the cuttings are not planted too clofe, they may remain in their fituations for a year or two longer, and then be finally fet out without the trouble of being previoufly planted ia the nurfery. Thefe trees are alfo to be raifed by budding and grafting, but as the other methods are more eligible, thefe are feldom or ever prac- tiled, except for the variegated forts and the large broad- leaved kind. The latter indeed is to be continued in no other way than by budding it on ftocks of the common fycamore ; as the feeds, when fown, afford only the common fycamore. But the feeds of the variegated kinds produce variegated plants ; which renders the propagation of thefe forts very expeditious where plenty of feed can be had. But where it is not to be obtained, in order to propagate thefe varieties, recourfe muft be had to budding; in per- forming which fome plants of the common fycamore one year old, are to be taken out of the feed-bed and placed in the nurfery in rows a yard afunder, and about a foot and a half diftant from each other in the rows. The ground muft e kept clean from weeds all fummer, and be dug, or, as the gardeners call it, turned in the winter ; and the {ummer fol- lowing the ftocks will be of a proper fize to receive the buds, which fhould be taken from the moft beautifully ftriped branches. The beit time for this operation is about Augutt ; as, if it is done earlier the buds will fhoot the fame fummer, and when this happens a hard winter is apt to kill them. Having budded the ftocks the middle or latter end of Augutt, the eyes, or buds, being inferted on that fide the ftock which faces the north towards the beginning of Otober, the bafs by which it was tied may be removed, as it will begin to pinch and corfine the bark as well as the bud too much. In the fpring, juft before the fap begins to rife, or the trees begin to fhoet, the head of the ftock fhould be cut off in a floping direétion juft above the in- ferted ; by thefe means, and that of rubbing off fuch fhoots as come from the ftocks, the fhoot from the inferted bud will be rendered more ftrong and healthy. The trees thus raifed may remain in their fituations for a year or two longer, or be tranfplanted into the places where they are intended for, in the autumn or {pring following ; care being con{tantly taken to keep the land between the rows well dug, fo as to: prevent their being injured by the growth of coarfe weeds, and the fide buds trimmed from their ftocks occafionally, Tn refpe€& to the time of planting, the autumn feafon is upon the whole the beft time for placing thefe and other deciduous trees, when they are {trong and well rooted; yet when very young they are apt to be injured by frolts, and Vor. XXII. MAP. to be thrown out of the ground in fevere winters, when planted in that feafon of the year. In fuch cafes the {pring is better. Marte Sugar, a kind of fagar made from a fpecies of the maple, called by Monfieur Sarazin, acer Canadenfe face chariferum frudiu minori. M. Sarazin, a phyfician at Que- bec, intending to inquire at large into the nature of this fort of fugar, obferved that there were four fpecies of maple common in the places where it was made, all which he fent over to the garden at Paris. One of thefe {pecies, diftinguifhed from the reft by the fmallnefs of its fruit, ie called the fugar-maple ; this grows to fixty or eighty fect high, and its juice, which is very redundant in the monthe of April and May, is eafily made into a very good fugar. They procure this juice from the tree by piercing a hole into the trunk, and placing veflels to receive it. This juice, being evaporated, yields about onc-twentieth part of its own weight in pure fugar. A middle-fized tree, of this fpecies, will yield fixty or eighty pints of this juice, without receiving any damage as to its growth; and much more than this may be drawn, but then the tree manifettiy fuffers for it. M. Sarazin obferved fome very remarkable particulars in regard to the faccharine quality of this juice, without which it never had it in the proper perfection. 31, The tree, at the time that the juice is drawn out, muft have its bottom covered with fnow; and if it is not naturally fo, the Indians know fo well the neceflity of it, that they al- ways bring’ {now from elfewhere, and heap it up round it. 2. This {now muft afterwards be melted away by the fun- fhine, not gradually thawed bya warm air. 3. There muit have been a frofty mght before the opening of the hole in the trunk. It is remarkable that thefe circumftances are fuch as cuftom and experience alone could have pointed out, fince they feem contrary to reafon; and fo it is in many of the operations in chemiftry, where the moft feemingly rational means fail, while thofe which fhould feem quite contradictory to reafon fucceed. It is obferved, that if the juice of the maple be not in a condition to become facciia- rine while the {now lies at its root unthawed, that it almoft immediately becomes fo on the melting of the fnow, and its penetrating into the earth. Mem. Acad. Par. 1730. The juice of the maple, unboiled, has beer drank as an antifcorbutic ; the fugar and molafles, which are faid to be lefs fweet than thofe extra€ted from the fugar-cane, are fup- pofed to be more medicinal in diforders of the breaft. Mapte Jflands, in Geography, two {mall iflands of Ame- rica, in lake Superior, near the E. coait. N, lat. 46° 44’. W. long. 84° 54/. MA-POU-HOTUN, a town of Corea; 46 miles E.N.E. of Peking. MAPOURITA, in Botany, Aublet. Guian. v, 1. 175- t. 67, a fhrub of Guiana, found by Aublet. on the banks of the river Sinémari, flowering in September. It is called by the natives AZaypourt-crabli, becaufe the maypouris, or wild cattle, are fond of the leaves and branches, and thence the above name was con{tructed. The root throws up many foft, brittle, juicy /lems, about eight or nine feet high, clothed with a greenifh bark. Leaves oppofite, each pair croffing the next, oval, pointed, entire, pliable, {mooth and fhining, with one rib, and numerous tranfverfe parallel veins ; each leaf eight inches long at moft, and about half as broad, fupported by a footfalk an inch in length. Svi- pulas intrafoliaceous, in pairs, ovate, large, deciduous. Panicle terminal, trichotomous, many-flowered, with op- polite minute drafeas at its fubdivitions. Flowers {mall. Calyx {aperior, of five teeth. Corolla white, of one petal, 38 its "MAP its limb in’ five ferments, about twice the length of the tube. Stamens five, as long as the limb, inferted into the tube between the fegments. The mouth of the tube is befet with white hairs. | Germen inferior, oval; {tyle fimple, as long as the ftamens; ftigma of two oblong lobes. J’ruit unknown. Juffieu, Gen. 205, prefumes this plant to be of the fame genus with the Simira of Aublet, t.65, and perhaps with his Palcourea, t. 66. The latter is the Stephanium of Schreber, of which we fhall fpeak in its proper place, and was referred by Solander to Muffenda. They appear to us very near to P/ychotria, at leatt to fome plants referred to that genus, ‘They all belong to the Pentandria Mono- gynia of Linnezus, and to the feventh fetion of Juffieu’s rreat natural order of Rubiacee. MAPPARIUS, an officer among the Romans, who in the public games, as thofe of the circus, and of the gladia- tors, gave the fignal for their beginning, by throwing an handkerchief caapae) which he had before received from the emperor, coniul, pretor, or other fupreme officer then refent. MAPPIA, in Botany, received its name from Schreber, in memory of Mark Mappi, M.D. formerly a phyfician and botanift at Strafburgh, who in 1691 publifhed a 12mo. catalogue of the plants in the public garden of that univer- fity. He alfo publifhed, as Profeffor, fome inaugural differtations on tea, coffee and chocolate, and on the rofe of Jericho. His Hifforia Plantarum Alfaticarum appeared in 1742, after the author’s death, by the care of Dr. Ehr- mann, of the fame place. ‘This is a quarto volume of 335 pages, with a few plates, difpofed in alphabetical order. Mappi died in 1701, at the age of 69. Schreb. Gen. 806. Mart.. Mill. Diét. v. 3. (Soramia; Aubl. Guian. 552. t. 239. Jufl. 433. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 463.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep, roundifh, concave, permanent fegments, coloured on the infide. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, {preading, fcarcely longer than the calyx, fupported by fhort claws. Stam. Filaments numerous, (about 60,) the length of the corolla, capillary, dilated upwards, inferted into the receptacle ; anthers oyate. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, globofe ; ftyle cylin- drical, incurved; fligma capitate. Peric. Berry ovate, of one cell. Seed folitary, large, ovate, involved in a thick vilcid tunic, Eff, Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Berry fupe- rior, of one cell. Seed folicary, involved in a vifcid tunic. 1, M. .’ M. obliqua. Oblique-leaved Arrow-root. Rudge Guian. 8. t. 2.— Leaves Atiptical, oblique at the point, on very long footftalks. Spikes cluttered. Brateas crowded, fheathing, cylindrical —Found by Mr. Alexander Anderfon in the Welk Indies, according to the Bankfian herbarium. Mr. Rudge had it from Guiana. Of the form of the whole plant we are uncertain, but by our fpecimen it appears herbaceous, the /eaves being radical, on footfalks two feet long, fheathing in their lower part, and crowned with a cylindrical, fearcely {welling knot, above an inch in length. The leaf itfelf is about a foot long, and fix inches broad, elliptical or fomewhat ovate, terminating in a very fhort, oblique or lateral, curved point ; {mooth on both fides ; the veins tranfverfe, extremely numerous and clofe, five times as numerous as in Mr. Rudge’s figure. Spikes apparently terminal, three together, either accompanied by a fheathing- ftalked leaf, as in the figure jult mentioned, or by one com- mon braéea larger than the reft, asin our fpecimen. Each Jpike is about a foot long, almoft perfeétly fimple, flightly zigzag, flender, cylindrical, acute, clofely enveloped in nu- merous, alternate, cylindrical, crowded, but fcarcely im- bricated, hard, downy JraGeas, above an inch long, each containing two flowers. About half a dozen lanceolate cartilaginous bodies are feen projecting juft beyond the point of each braéea, looking like the anthers of a grafs. Thefe appear to us the tips of a number of linear, membranous, internal dra@eas, about three of which furround each flower, and which might be taken for the ca/ya, were they not in- ferted below the germen. There are alfo two or three broad membranous bradeas, external with refpeét to thefe, but inclofed within the common fheathing one. Of the real calyx or corolla our {pecimen gives no opportunity of judg- ing. The germen appears to be turbinate, crowned with denfe upright hairs. Style compreffed, the length of the braéteas, with the proper inflexed ftigma of the genus. Mr. Rudge reprefents the corolla as about twice the length of the external draéea, with a long flender tube, and a ftructure analogous to the preceding fpecies. The /ip, it feems, 1s undivided. 8._M. /picata. Long-ftalked Spiked Arrow-root. Aubl. Guian. 4.—Leaves ovate-oblong, unequal-fided, oblique at the point, on long footftalks. Spike fimple, folitary, on a long ftalk.—Gathered by Aublet in a boggy foreft in Guiana. One of his leaves was given by fir Jofeph Banks to the younger Linneus, who has, in his herbarium, ac- companied it wi-h a rough drawing of the fpike of flowers, and a note in Swedifh, faying he had “ feen four leaves, all of the fame {trange fhape.’’ Thefe materials, though im- perfect, are valuable, as Aublet has given no fizure of this, any more than of his M. 4rouma, Famili, or lutea, about which therefore following botanifts have been much in the,dark. Our haf of M. /picata is a foot long and three inches broad, {mooth and thining, with numerous principal, as well as intermediate, ran veins; the bafe is rather unegual, and the two halves of the leaf upwards much more fo, one margin beihg curved, the other ftraight; the mid- rib running up perfectly ftraight till it reaches the former margin, when it turns fuddenly mto the very fhort lateral or oblique point. The footfalk is, perhaps, as long as the Teaf; bordered or fheathing below ; crowned with a cylin- drical finely downy knot, an inch long, where it joins the leaf, Spike ereét, three inches in length, fupported ‘by a very long, round, fimple, ere&, naked fale (which we may prefume to be radical), and fubtended by a large ovate fheathing bradea. Each flower, or perhaps ‘pait of flowers, appears alfo to have an appropriate much narrower bradea, an inch long, and thefe draéleas are about ten in all, ‘imbri- MAR cated in feveral rows. Aublet fays they are firm and cori- aceous, and the flowers white. 9: M? Allouia. Lateral-tufted Arrow-root. Aubl. Guian. 3. (Naru kila; Rheede Malab. v. 11. 67. t. 34.)— Leaves radical, ovate, acute, on long ftalks. Head of flowers feffile, from a lateral cleft in the footftalk. We venture to adopt this {pecies from Aublet, becaufe the figure he cites in the Hortus Malabaricus gives an idea of Heat he intends. He found his plant in the fame marfhy foreft with the laft. The root is furnifhed with knobs of various fizes, good to eat when roafted. Leaves radical, large, on long foosfalks, fome of which bear a lateral tuft of numerous white feffile flowers ; a mode of flowering analogous to that of the dcorus. The genus however of this fpecies mutt depend on Aublet’s authority, His three others above-mentioned, fee n. 8, we muft leave in the un- certainty in which we find them. 10. M? comofa. Leafy-headed Arrow-root. Linn. Suppl. 80. Willd. n. 4. Rofcoe Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 340. (Curcuma nova; Amoen. Acad. v. 8. 251.)—Leaves radical, elliptical, on long ftalks, Flowers mm a terminal tuft, crowned with leafy éra@eas.—Sent by Dalberg from Surinam. The aves have the habit of the lait. Both fpecies feem to want the knot at the top of their foor- Jfalks, which isa ftrong prefumption of their being no true Marante. Indeed Linneus himfelf expreffes his doubts of the prefent plant. The fower-/falk is radical, three feet high, round, fimple, fmooth and naked, except at the top, where it beare a fine crown of elliptic-lanceolate leafy brageas, like that of an Eucomis, under which the flowers are {tationed, in feffile drooping tufts. We find their habit and {tru€ture very unlike what are proper to this genus, and the /famen is more like that of an Alpinia, to which we fhould, at a venture, remove this plant, without much feruple. j We omit M. malaccenfis, Willd. n. 3, adopted by that author from Burmann (Galanga malaccenfis ; Raumph. Amb. v. 5. 176.t. 71.f. 1.), as the figure of Rumphius fhews it to be, in habit and charaéter, an .lpmia, to which genus Mr. Refcoe has referred it in Tr. of Linn. Soc. Bieta k Dome Maranra, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbace- ous, perennial, exotic kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the Indian arrow-root (M. arundinacea). The root of this plant, when wafhed, pounded fine, and bleached, makes a fine nutritive powder, which is made ufe of as food in many cafes where the ftomach is weak and incapable of digefting more folid kinds. ' Method of Culture—ANl the plants of this fpecies may be increafed by dividing the roots and planting them in pots of light rich earth, in the fpring, juft before they begin to fhoot, plunging them in the bark hot-bed of the ftove, where they muft be kept in general, being frequently re- frefhed with water, when in a ftate of growth, having free air, after they become of fome ftrength, admitted to them. Ornament and variety are afforded by them in ftove col- lestions among other tender plants. MARANTABUAN, in Geography, afmall ifland in the Eaft India fea, N. of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 55'. E. long. 117° "20". i MARASA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Wan- ara, on the Niger. N. lat. 16% E. long. 17°. MARASCA, a town of Italy, in the department of the Upper Po; tliree miles W. of Cremona. ‘“MARASCH, or Merascn, a town of Afiatic Turkey, “and capital of a Sangiacate, under the pacha of Carama- nia, ee oe et ae + 4 | —EE—E—>E———E————— a a MAR nia, and the fee of a Jacobite bihhop ; 140 miles W.S.W. of Diarbekir. N. lat. 37° 24'. IE. long. 36° 35/. MARASIND Isranps, two {mall iflands in the Eatt India fea. S. lat. 5°15/. MARASKER, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia... N.lat. 63° 21’. E.Jong.21°25'. MARASMUS, in Medicine, from prec, to walle, is a term applicable to every chronic difeafe, in which great emaciation of the folids take place. A marafmus is faid to be prefent in the latt ftage of every {pecies of confump- tion or decline; but the term is more efpecially ufed to denote the me/enteric conf{umption, or that {pecies of decline which occurs in children, and originates in derangement of the abdominal vifcera. This difeafe will be found defcribed at length under the article Invanrs, Di/ea/es of, § 4. MARASNA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Wan- gara. N.lat. 14°52! E. long. 16 12’. MARAT, Joun Pau, in Biography, a native of Swit- zerland, who became a promineut ator in the French revo- lution, was born in1744.: he went to Paris to ftudy phyfic, and, probably, not having patience to purfue the profeffion ina regular courfe, he became an empyric. felling his medi- cines at an extravagant price. On the breaking out of the re- volution, he took the lead among the moft violenz.and fayage of all the faGtions that diferaced the capital. He publifhed a periodical paper, entitled the ‘¢ Publicifte Parifien,’”? in which he, without {cruple, and without any regard to de- eency and truth, attacked the virtuous Neckar, and other men eminent for their integrity and public talents. This journal did not Jaft long, but the author had other projects in view, and he next fet on foot a paper, entitled “* The Friend of the People,” in which he unblufhingly exhorted the people to revolt, pillage, and murder. He excited the troops to ufe their.arms again{t their generals, the poor to pluuder the rich, andthe people at large to rife againit the king. After the depofition of Lewis XVI. he was named adeputy of the department of Paris, to the convention, in which affembly he appeared armed with piftels. In April, 1793, he publicly denounced the leaders of the Briffotine party, accufing them of treafon againit the flate ; he was fupported by Robefpierre, a violent. tumult enfued, but Marat and his friends were {ubdued, and himfelf impeached and profecuted ; in afew days being brought to trial he was acquitted. The triumph of his party was now unbounded, and they foon gained fuch an afcendancy over their enemies, thar they murdered or banifhed all that attempted to ob- ftruct the progrefs of their nefarious projects; ull at length their leader Marat fell a victim to the cnthufialtic rage of a female, Charlotte Corde, who had travelled trom Caen, in Normandy, with a determination of re{cning, as fhe hoped, her country from the hands of barbarians, by the affaflina- tion of one of the chief among them. He died unpitied by every human being who was not of the atrocious faGtion which /he led, having, for fome weeks, a¢ied the moft fa- vage parts, and been the means of involving many of the molt virtuous charaéters in France in almott indifcriminate flaughter, Previoufly to joining in revolutionary politics, he was known as an author, and publifhed a work “On Man, or Principles of the reciprocal Influence of the Soul nd Body,” in two volumes, 12mo:-alfo, fome tra@s on leétricity and Light, in which he attacked the Newtonian Syftem. New. Ann. Reg. 1793. m MARATE, in Geography, a low defert ifland in the Eaft India fea, about eight miles from the coalt of Africa, four miles in circumference. On the S. coaft isa good haven, fecure from all winds, formed by two points of land, an- clofiag a {pacious harbour, narrow.at the mouth, where MAR lies a very long flat ifland with fome fand-banks: the depth is three fathoms in the fhalloweft place. _N. lat. 18° 35/. MARATHON, in Ancient Geography, a {mall city of Attica, near the fea, about 40 miles from Athens, famous for the vitory of the Athenians over the Perfians. The Perfian army commanded by Datis confifted of 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horfe ; that of the Athenians amounted in all but to 10,000 men. This latter had 10 generals, of whom Miltiades was the chief; and thefe 10 were to have the com- mand of the whole army, each for a day, one after another. It was a fubject of great difpute among thefe officers, whe- ther they fhould hazard a battle, or expect the enemy within their walls. The latter opinion was that of a great ma- jority ; Miltiades and Ariftides were for rifking an immediate engagement, and this meafure was adopted. Ariftides, well knowing that a command which changed every day mutt neceflarily be feeble and flu€tuating, judged it prudent to veft the whole power in a fingle perfon, and in order to induce his colleagues to adopt this plar, he himfelf fet the firft ex- ample of refignation. When his day of command occurred, he refigned it to Miltiades, as the more able and experienced general. The other commanders followed his example ; fo that Miltiades had the fole command. Whenthe day of battle arrived, he endeavoured, by the advantage of the ground, to gain what he wanted in ftrength and namber. Accordingly he drew up his army at the foot of a mountain, that the oppofing army might not be able to furround him, or charge him in the rear. On the two fides of his army he caufed large trees to ‘be thrown, in order to cover his flanks, and vender the Perfian cavalry ufelefs. As foon as the fignal for battle was given, the Athenians ran againft the enemy with all imaginable fury, which*was the firit inftance, fays Herodotus, in which the Grecians thus began an engage- ment. ‘Lhe battle was fierce ;and ob{tinate. Miltiades had made the wings of bis army very f{trong, but bad left the main body more weak and not fo deep. Ashe shad but 10,000 men to oppofe to,a.very numerous army, it was im- poflible for him to make a large front, or to giye an equal depth to iis battalions, He therefore concluded. that he could fucceed only by the efforts which he fhould make with his two wings, in order to-break and difperfe thofe of the Perfians; not doubting that when his wings were victorious, they would be able to attack the enemy’s main body in flank, and compiete the victory without much difficulty. This was the plan which Hannibal afterwards followed at the battle of Cannz. The Perfians attacked the main body of the Grecian army, and made their greateft effort upon, their front. This .was led by .7. The art was prattifed by Mr. Bird, a ftone-cutter at Oxford, before the year 1666;. but his method is not re- corded. Mr. Robert Chambers, of Minching Hampton, in Gloucefterfhire, difcovered and practifed a method of colouring marble, which he kept a fecret. Mr, Da Colta has publifhed an account of experiments made on feveral pieces of marble ftained by this artilt. Phil, Tranf. vol. li, art. §. p» 30, &c. Spots of oil ftain white marble, fo that they cannot be taken out. See Srainine of Stones. Marsie, Poli/hing of. | The art of cutting and polifhing marble was, of courlfe, known to the ancients, whole mode of proceeding appears.to have been nearly the fame with) that employed at prefent; except, perhaps, that they were unac- quainted. with thofe fuperior mechanical means which’ now greatly facilitate the labour, and diminifh the expence of the articles thus praduced,. ‘There are. many celebrated manu- 6 factories MARBLE. factories of this kind generally called marble mills, on the continent, and alfo in Great Britain; but as the principle on which they proceed is nearly the fame in all, it will fuf- fice in'this place to give the defcription of one or two of the latter. The following defcription, together with fome pre- liminary obfervations, communicated by a perfon practically acqnainted with this fubjeét, relate to the manufactory of Mefirs. Brown and Mawe at Derby. An effential part of the art of polifhing marble is the choice of fubftances by which tle prominent parts are to be removed. The firft fubftance fhould be the fharpeft fand, fo as to cut as faft as poflible, and this is to be ufed till the furface becomes perfeétly flat. After this the furface is rubbed with a finer fand, and frequently with a third. The next fubitance after the fineft fand isemery of different degrees of finenefs. This is followed by the red powder called tripoli, which owes its cutting quality to the oxyd of iron it contains. Common iron-ftone powdered and Jevigated anfwers the purpofe very well. ‘This laft fubftance ives a tolerably fine polifh. This, however, is not deemed Fifficient. The laft polith is given with putty. After the firft procefs, which merely takes away the inequalities of the furface, the fand employed for preparing it for the emery fhould be chofen of uniform quality. If it abounds with fome particles harder than the refit, the furface will be liable to be {cratched fo deep as not to. be removed by the emery. In order to get the fand of uniform quality, it fhould be levigated and wathed. The hard particles, being generally of a different {pecific gravity to the reft, may by this means be feparated. This method will be found much fuperior to that of fifting. The fubftance by which the fand is rubbed upon the marble is generally an iron plate, efpecially for the firft procefs. A plate of an alloy of lead and tin is better for the fucceeding procefles, with the fine fand and emery. The rubbers ufed for the polifh- ing, or laft procefs, confitts of coarfe linen cloths, fuch as hop bagging, wedged tight into an iron plane. In all thefe proceffes, a conftant fupply of fmall quantities of water is abfolutely neceflary. The fawing of marble is performed on the fame princi- ples as the firft procefs of polifhing. The faw is of foft iron, and is continually fupplied with water and the fharpett fand. The fawing, as well as the polifhing of {mall pieces, is performed by hand. The large articles, fuch as chimney- pieces and large flabs, are manufaétured by means of ma- chinery working by water or fteam. We fhall next give a defcription of this branch of manufacture in the large way, as carried on by Brown and Mawe at Derby, and in London, N° 149 Strand, who have juftly attained great celebrity as workers of {par and marble into different orna- ments. Fig. 1. Plate XK11T. Mifcellany, is a fide view of a mill for fawing and polifhing flabs of marble; fg. 2. being a ground plan of the fame, and marked with correfponding letters. ABC is a frame of wood, fufpended by the upright ‘frames of wood, D, E, F, G, from the beams H, H, H, H, fo as to be capable of an ofcillatory motion. Motion is given to this frame by the rod I communicating with the crank O K, which is turned by water or fteam. This frame, being put in motion, gives motion to the faw frames L, L, M, M, andto the polifhing arms N, P,Q, which work on the pivot P, and are pufhed backwards and for- wards by the conneéting iron rods n, » The faws are iron plates fhaped like a common faw, and faftened into oblong rings by means of pins. Thefe rings are put upon the crofs bars E, E, J, 4, and the faws are ftretched tight by the {crews s, 5,8, and C. R,R,S,S, are four upright pofts conftituting a frame, in which are placed the blocks of marble to be fawn into flabs, which are at the fame time to guide the frame of the faw. At each end of this frame there are a number of upright fquare bars of iron i, i, be- tween which the faws pals which bars, a&t as conduétors. The pots R, R, can be removed to a greater diftance, fo as to make the frame longer for receiving different fized blocks. The part T, to which the faw is attached on the moveable frame, flides upon the upright poft AC. It is fufpended by a rope, which goes over a pulley c, and is counter- balanced by the weight W. By this means the faw may be made tO prefs upon its work with any degree of force. It will be evident that the moveable frame, from its pen- dulous motion, does not move in a ftraight line, but a curye. The fliding part T, therefore, ferves to induce a retilineal motion of the faw. The upright bars of iron i, i, and C, are of a fize equal to or lefs than the thinneft flabs, fo that the faws may be placed at different diftances, according to the thicknefs of the (labs. In order to alter the faws for this purpofe, nothing more is neceflary than to loofen the ferews s,s, &c. and fhift the oblong rings which contain the faws. The flabs of marble to be polifhed are laid upon the car- riage 4, foas to correfpond with the rubber Q, which paffes over it in the direétion of its length. In order to extend the rubber to the other parts of the flab, the carriage, 4, has a lateral motion, by means of tour grooved wheels run- ning upon the iron guiders let into the beams g,g. The endlefs {crew c, in the main fhaft, turns the wheel r. This gives motion to the lever ew, fig. 2, by means of the crank g. The lever communicates with the crank £, and turns the wheel /, more or lefs of a revolution, according to the length of this crank, which can be altered at pleafure by fhifting the temporary pine. By this latter motion the wheel, 4, works the ratch v, and gives the lateral motion to the carriage. By this means the whole of the furface is expofed to the a¢tion of the rubber. Round articles of {par, gypfum, and marble, are turned in the lathe with pointed inftruments of hardened iteel. The pieces to be turned are attached to a wooden chock by means of cement. The gyp{um is very foft, and turns with great facility. The fluor {par and marble require the tool to be very hard, while the part to be turned requires a conftant fupply of water, which drops from a veflel above. After the articles are turned into the given fhape, they are dreffed with fand and emery, and afterwards polifhed with tripoli and putty. Small {pecimens for collections of marbles are generally polifhed upon a lap, which runs in a lathe. Thefe laps, however, ought to run with the axis perpendicular to the horizon, the face of the lap being truly flat and horizon- tal. he lap ufed for the firft procefs fhould be of iron ; the fecond of an alloy of lead and tin; andthe third, which is for polifhing, fhould be of iron with pitch. By means of — fome auxi.tary machinery, a number of pieces might be polifhed in this way at once, which would tave much ma- nual labowr, Small pieces of marble may glfo be polifhed on the large machine, by cementing them with plafter on the furface of a large flab. By being placed on the fame level, the large rubber {weeps them all at once. The marble mill tn the neighbourhood of Kilkenny, in Treland, mentioned under the article IRisu MARBLES, fupra, and which was invented by alderman Collis, grandfather of the prefent proprietor, is remarkable for the fimplicity of its ftruéture, and for the powers it exerts. One wheel, ten feet diameter, with twelve floats or ladles, gives motion, by a crank at one end of its axis, to a frame containing twelve faws, which do the work of about twenty men, By a y) crank MAR crank at the other end, it moves a frame of five polifhers, which do the work of about ten men. At this end Mr. Collis has lately fitted a frame beneath the polifhers, with eight faws, tothe motion of which he has found the power of the machine fully equal. This mill may be fairly faid to do the conftant work of forty-two men daily, During the night the mill ftepped, a conftant attention being required to fupply the faws with fand, and to attend the polithers. The faws are made of foft iron, and laft about a week; they are conftantly fupplied with water and fand ; the latter is taken out of the bed of the Nore, and wafhed till nothing remains, but very fine and pure filiceous particles. A faw cuts ten inches in a day, and twelve when the water is trong ; it would require two men to do the fame with a hand faw. The marble taken from the mill is firft polifhed with a cove-flone, that is, a brown fand-{tone imported from Chefter, and which takes its name from being ufed in chimney coves. It is afterwards polifhed by a hone-/lone, which is a piece of {mooth nodule of the argillaceous iron ore, found in the hills between Kilkenny and Frefhford. It redeives the laft polifh in the mill with rags and putty. By means of this mill, the marble is fo eafily worked as to be fold at a very moderate price. A great improvement in cutting marble and other {tones, but particularly columns by machinery, was invented in Ire- land by the late fir George Wright, bart., who procured a patent for it. By this a number of hollow columns can be cut from a folid block, each decreafing in fize, fo that nothing of the ftone is loft, except what is converted into duft by the faw. i Marsre Harbour, in Geography, abay in the Mergui Archipelago, on the E. coaft of Sullivan’s ifland. N. lat. 10° 55’. Marszex J/land, a {mall ifland of the Mergui Archipela- go, atthe entrance of Marble harbour.—Alfo, an ifland in Hudfon’s bay. N. lat. 62°35’. W. long. 91° 30’. MARBLED, fomething veined, or clouded, refembling marble. Marbled paper is a paper ftained with various clouds and fhades, refembling, in fome meafure, the divers veins of marbles ; the method of making which, fee under Paper. Mars.ep China-ware, a name given by many to a fpe- cies of porcelain or China-ware, which feems to be full of cemented flaws. It is called by the Chinefe, who are very fond of it, ¢/ou-tchi. It is generally plain white, fometimes blue, and has exac- ly the appearance of a piece of China which had been firlt broken, and then had all the pieces cemented in their places again, and covered with the original varnifh. ‘The manner of preparing it is ealy, and might be imitated with us. In- ftead of the common varnifh of the china-ware, which is made of what they call oil of ttone and oil of fern mixed together, they cover this with a fimple thing made only of a fort of coarfe agates, calcined to a white powder, and fe- parated from the groffer parts by means of water, after long grinding in mortars. When the powder has been thus pre- pared, it is left moift, or in form of a fort of cream, with the laft water that is fuffered to remain in it, and this is ufed as the varnifh. Our cryf{tal would ferve full as well as thefe coarfe agates, and the method of preparation is periectly eafy. Obferv. fur les Coit. del Afie. The occafion of the fingular appearance of this fort of porcelain is, that the varnifh never {preads evenly, but runs into ridges and veins, Thefe often run naturally into a fort of mofaic-work, which can fearcely be taken for the effect of chance. If the marbled China be defired blue, they firlt give Vou. XXII. MAR it ageneral coat of this colour, by dipping the veffel intoa blue varnifh; and when this is thoroughly dry, they add another coat of this agate-oil. MARBLEHEAD, in Geography, a port of entry, and poft-town of America, in Effex county, Maffachufetts, con- taining one epifcopal, and two epnereeatpnal churches, and 5211 inhabitants. The harbour lies in front of the town S.E. extending from S.W. to N.E., about a mile and a half in length, and half a mile broad. A battery and citadel were ereted here in 1795, for the defence of the place, by order of Congrefs. The bank-fifhery employs the principal at- tention of the inhabitants, and more of this bulinefs 1s done here than in any other place in the ftate. The exports of the year 1794 amouted to 184,532 dollars.- Marblehead was incorporated in 1649, and lies 4 miles S.E. of Salem, and 19 N.E. of Bofton. N. lat. 42° 30’. W. long. 69° 49!. MARBLES, Prayine, are moftly imported from Hol- land, where it is faid they are made by breaking the ftone ala- bafter, or other fubftance, into pieces, or chips of a fuit- able fize ; thefe are put into an iron mill which turns by wa- ter: there are feveral partitions with rafps within, cut float- ways, not with teeth, which turn conftantly round with great {wiftnefs ; the fri€tion againft the rafps makes them round, and as they are formed they fall out of different holes, into which fize or chance throws them. They are brought from Nuremberg to Rotterdam, down the Rhine, and from thence difperfed over Europe. MARBLETOWN, in Geography, a townfhip in Ulfter county, New York, on the W. fide of Hudfon river, N.W. of Pultz, adjoining. It contains 2847 inhabitants. MARBLING, the art or act of painting or difpofing colours in fuch a manner, that they may reprefent marble. Thus we marble books, paper, wood, &c. See Paver, and Colouring, Sc. of Bonz. Marsxinc of Books, among Binders, denotes the {prink- ling over the cover of a book firft with ink, and afterwards with weak aquafortis. See Boox-binding. They alfo marble books on the edges; but, in this marbling, there is no black ufed, but, in lieu thereof, red, blue, &c. MARBQUF, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Eure; 12 miles N. of Conches. MARBOS, a town of France, in the department of the Ain; § miles N. of Bourg-en-Brefle. MARBURG, a town of the duchy of Stiria, feated on the Drave, which had formerly counts of its own; 31 miles S. of Gratz. _N. lat. 46° 40’. E. long. 15° 37’. MarsurG, or Marpurg, a town and capital of Upper Heffe, on the W. fide of the Lahn, defended by a caftle, in which the landgraves of Heffe formerly refided. This town has an univerlity, founded in 1527 by the landgrave Philip the Magnanimous, alfo an academy for claffical literature, and three Proteftant churches. About the beginning of the thir- teenth century, this place was raifed from a village to a town, In 1261 and 1319 it was wholly deftroyed by fire. In 1759 it was garrifoned by French troops, who were foon after obliged to furrender themfelves prifoners of war ; 36 miles N. of Francfort-on-the-Maine. N. lat. 50° 48’. E. long. 8° 48!. MARC, in Biography. See Marcosians. MARCA, Perer pe, a celebrated French prelate, was born at Gant, in the principality of Bearn, in the year 1594. Having laid a good foundation in claffical learning and polite literature, he went through a courfe of philofophy under the Jefuits at Touloufe ; after this he {tudied the law, and at the age of twenty-two was nominated by Lewis XIII. countfellor 2 ¥ in MAR in the fovercign council of Pau, in which, though he was the only Catholic in that court, he conduéted himfelf with fo much prudence, that he maintained perfeét harmony with all his coadjutors, and was Suecefsful in bringing back feve- ral of the reformed imto the bofom of the Catholic church. Inthe midft of other important engagements, he devoted much of his time to the ftudy of theolegy and ecclefialtical antiquities. In 1639 he was called to Paris, and was ho- noured with the rank and dignity of counfellor of ftate. In the following year he publifhed his “ Hiltory of Bearn,’’ which tended greatly to confirm the reputation that he had already acquired for learning and abilities. About this time M. Herfent publifhed an artful defence of the Papal pre- tenfions over the Gallican church, in the form of a fatire on the policy of cardinal Richelieu, which, it pretended, aimed at the feparation between the churches of Rome and France, fimilar to the f{chifm produced by Henry VIII. in England ; and the ereétion of a patriarchate in France in the perfon of the cardinal. T’o counteraé the effets of this work, Riche- lieu employed the pen of M. de Marca, who, in 1641, pub- lifhed a piece entitled « De Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii, five, de Libertatibus Ecclefie Gallice.’’ ‘This was a very learned, and generally efteemed excellent, vindication of the rights and liberties of the French church and {tate, and it was received with great applaufe by thofe Catholics, who, though fteadily attached to the do¢trines_of the church of Rome, refifted the tyranny and injuitice of its afpiring pon- tiffs: but inthe court of Rome it excited much indignation againit the author, of which he foon felt the effets. The king appointed him to a bifhopric, which the cardinals, by certain maneeuvres, prevented him from entering upon, till he had retraéted or explained away every fentiment that had given offence at Rome, and by declaring his unreferved fub- miffion of what he had written, or might in future write, to the fovereign judgment of the holy apottolic fee. Having by this fervile condu& appeafed the refentment of the papal court, he was ordained prieft, and immediately afterwards confecrated bifhop. This was in the year 1648, and in 1652, as a reward for other fervices, he was nominated archbifhop of Touloufe, but, by a new oppofition from the court of Rome, he was not tranflated till the year 1654. In 1658 he was made a minifter of ftate, and followed the king to Lyons, after which he was appointed to prefide over the ftates of Narbonne, upon the death of the archbifhop. After Cardioal Mazarin had concludeda peace, he was fent to Rouffillon for the purpofe of determining, with the com- miffioners of the king of Spain, the precife limits between France and Spain, according to the boundary line of the ancient geographers. Upon the death of the cardinal, in 3661, Marca was felected as one of the perfons to prefide over ecclefiaftical affairs, and in the following year he was, in confequence of the refignation of cardinal de Retz, nomi- nated to that dignity, but he did not live to enjoy, or even totake pofleffion of this high office. He died about the fixty-eighth year of hisage : he was a man of profound eru- dition, of a fine underftanding, and of an extraordinary ge- nius for bufinefs. He wasa great politician, agood lawyer, a learned divine, and an able critic. He never ferupled to make his principles give way, if by fo doing he could pro- mote his own intereits. A few months before his death he diGiated to his fecretary A Treatife on the Infallibility of the Pope,” with the exprefs view of recommending himfelf toa cardinal’s hat. The beft edition of his celebrated work « De Concordia” was publifhed after his death, in 1704, in which the conceffions with which he had purchafed the pa- pal bull to obtain the prelacy, were, by his order, directed to 3 MAR be omitted, and the work given in its original ftate. He was author of feveral other pieces, among which were ‘ Marca Hifpanica,’”? containing a curious and valuable geographical and hiftorical defcription of Catalonia, Rouffillon, and the neighbouring countries: «* An Account of what pafled in the Affemblies of the Bifhops’ in 1653:” * Theological Treatifes ;?’ and two volumes of ** Opufcula.’? Moreri. MARCANTHUS, in Botany, isa genus of Loureiro's, fo called by an unaccountable, though we prefume accidental, miftake for Macranthus, fince the isipattats of its name be- ing avowedly from j«xeor, long, (which he erroneoufly writes pcexos,) and arbor, a flower ;the genus being very remarkable for the great length ofits flowers. Loureir. Cochinch. 460. —Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. WNat.Ord, Pa- pilionacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jui. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, tubular, coloured,. downy, permanent, cloven into four, acute fegments, the two lateral ones fhorter. Cor. papilionaceous, very longs almoft clofed. Standard ovate, emarginate, connivéDty longer than the calyx. Wings oblong, ere&, thrice aslong as the ftandard. Keel longer than the wings, with an acute, afcending point. Stam. Filaments ten, fimple and nine-cleft, all linear-turbinate, acuminated and itvaight, four vf them three times as thick as the reft; anthers of the thicker ones ovate, incumbent ; of the others oblong and upright. Pift. Germen fuperior, oblong, cylindrical ; ftyle thread-fhaped, hairy all over, the length of the ftamens; ftigma obtufe, roughifh. Pertc. Legume ftraight, nearly cylindrical, thicky ointed. Seeds numerous, nearly ovate. Eff. Ch. Keel and wings very long. Legume thick, fome« what cylindrical. 1. M. cochinchinenfis. WLoureir. Dau med, of the natives; —A native of cultivated ground in Cochinchina.—The Jfiem isherbaceous, long, round, twining, branched. Leaves ternate, ovate-rhomboid, hairy. Flowers white, with a calyx of the fame colour, on many- flowered, axillary ftalks. Legume efculent, although neither well tafted nor falubrious. MARCAPATA, in Geography; atown of Peru, inthe jurifdiGtion of Quifnicanchi. MARCARIA, a town of Ftaly, in the department of the Mincio, onthe Oglio; 14 miles S.-W. of Mantua. MARCASI, three {mall iflands in the Pacific ocean, near the coaftof Peru. S. lat. 11° 30!. MARCASITE, in Mineralogy, Avfenical Porites of Kire wan. See ARSENIC. MARCAY, in Geagraphy, a town of France, in the de- artment of the Vienne ; 7 miles S. of Poitiers. MARCEL, Sv., a town of France, in the department of the Ardéche ; 24 miles S. of Privas.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhéne; 5 miles E. of Marfeilles.—Alfo, a town of New Navarre ; 130 miles S.W. of Cafa Grande. MARCELLIANISM, in L£eclefiaflical Hiflory, the doc- trines and opinions of the Marcellians, a feét of ancient he- retics, towards the commencement of the third century, fo called from Marcellus of Ancyra, their leader, who was ac- cufed of reviving the errors of Sabellius, It is generally fuppofed that Marcellus, bifhop of Ancyra, in Galatia, was prefent at a council of Ancyra in 314, as bifhop of that city. He wasalfo at the council of Nice in 325, where he fignalized himfelf againft the Arians ;-and it is concluded, from the teftimony of Epiphanius, that he died in 372, when he had been bifhop almoit 60 years, and had lived almoft or quite a century. Socrates fays, that in op- poling Afterius, againft whom and other Arians he wrote a book Stipulas thread-fhaped. . MAR book in the year 334 or 335, Marcellus went into the other extreme, and embraced the opinion of Paul of Samo- fata, who fays, that Jefus Chrift isa mere man. He was depofed by an aflembly of bifhops at Conftantineple, in 336, but reftored by the fynod at Sardica in 347. His book, which was a large work, and the only one he had pub- lifhed, was anfwered by Eufebius of Czfarea, from whofe quotations and arguments, as well as froin Marcellus’s letter and confeffion of faith, delivered to Julius, bifhop of Rome, about the year 341, which is preferved by Epiphanius, that he received the fame {criptures with other Chriflians, and paid them a like refpe&t. Socrates and Sozomen feem to have fuppofed, that he adopted the opinion of Paul of Samo- fata ; but Eufebius continually charges him with Sabellian- ifm. Theodoret fays, that he denied a trinity of perfons. However, there have been formerly, as well as lately, different apprehenfions concerning the real fentiments of Marcellus ; but, according to Dr. Lardner, there is fufficient reafon to think, that he wasa Sabellian or Unitarian. Montfaucon is of opinion, that not long before his death, about the year 372, he fent a deputation to Athanafius, with a confeffion of his faith, completely orthodox ; but this ftory, as Dr. Lardner thinks, is not well fupported. If the dotrine of Marcellus be carefully examined, it will appear, fays Mo- fheim, that he confidered the Son and Holy Ghoft as two emanations from the divine nature, which, after performing their refpective offices, were to return again into the fubitance of the Father; and every one will perceive, at firft fight, how incompatible this opinionis with the belief of three dif- tin& perfons in the Godhead. Lardner’s Works, vol. iy. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. i. MARCELLIN, Sr., in Geography, a town of France, and principal place of a diftriét, in the department of the Ifére ; 30 miles S.E. of Vienne. The place contains 3047, and the canton 14,589 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres, in 16 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Rhéne and Loire ; g miles S.S.E. of Montbrifon. MARCELLINO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; five miles E. of Scalea. MARCELLINUS, Ammranus, in Biography. See Ammianus MARcetLinus. MancrxLinus, pope, a native of Rome, fucceeded to the fee of that city in the year 296. He was accufed by the Donatifts of having apoftatized under the Dioclefian perfe- cution ; of having given up the feriptures to be burnt by the Pagans; and of offering incenfe even to the gods. It fhould, however, be obferved, that the innocence of Marcel- linus was defended, and his conduét juftified by St. Augul- tine and Theodoret, who affirm that he acquired great glory during the perfecution. He nrefided over the Roman church fomething more than eight years, and died in the year 304. Moreri. Maxrcex.inus, count of Illyria under the emperor Juf- tinian, drew up achronicle, commencing at the point in which Jerome finifhes, and carrying it down to the year 534. It is much applauded by Cafliodorus, who fays that the count alfo compofed a very minute defcription of Conftanti- nople and Jerufalem. ‘The chronicle has been feveral times printed, firft by Schoonhovius, in the fixteenth century : then ‘by Jofeph Scaliger, and {till more correctly by father Sirmond. Moreri. MARCELLO, Beseperro, a Venetian nobleman, de- fcended from one of the moft illuftrious families of that re- public; he had cultivated mufic fo ferioufly and fuccefsfully asa dilettante in the art, under the guidance of the celebrated MAR Venetian maefiro di capella, Gafparini, that no contempo- rary profeffor was more reverenced for mufical {cience, or half fo much praifed for his abilities asa compofer, as Mar- cello. This accomplifhed nobleman, befides his mufical pro- duétions, confilting of pfalms, operas, madrigals, fongs, and cantatas, was frequently his own poet, and fometimes afflumed the character of lyric bard for other muficians. It is probable that Marcello had received fome difgutt in his early attempts at dramatic mufic ; for, in 1720, he publifaed a fu- rious fatire upen compoflers, finging-maiters, and fingers in general, under the title of «* Teatro alla Moda,’ or An eafy and certain Method of compofing and performing Italian Operas in the modern Manner.’ But his great mufical work, to which the late Mr. Avifon’s encomiums and Mr. Garth's publication to Englifh words, have given celebrity in our own country, was firft printed at Venice in eight volumes folio, under the following title: * Eftro poetico-armonico, Para- frafi fopra i primi 50 Salmi, Poefa di Girolamo Afcanio Giuftiniani, Mufica di Benedetto Marcello, Patrizj Veneti, 1724 & 1725."’ ‘Chere is a long and léarned preface to the firft volume, in order to give weight and authority to the au- thor’s plan and ftyle of compofition. But befides the great difplay of mufical reading, fagacity, and fuperior views to any of his predeceflors, letters are prefixed to each volume from the author’s friends and admirers, in the fame encomiaf- tic {train as the recommendatory yerfes, with which almoft every book was ufhered into the world during the feventeenth century. But not dazzled by thefe, or the hyperbolical praifes of Algarottior Avifon, we have confcientioufly ex- amined the whole eight volumes of the Italian edition, and find, though there is confiderable merit in the work, that the author has been over-praifed : as the fubje&s of many of his fugues and airs are not only common and old-fafhioned at prefent, but were far from new at the time thefe pfalms were compofed. But Marcello was a Venetian nobleman, as Venofa was a Neapolitan prince ; both did honour to mufic by cultivating it; but both expected and received a greater return in fame, than the legal intereft of the art would al- low. Marcello was a dilciple of Gafparini, and died in ‘ 1741. We found ftill fubfifting at Venice, a fociety for the per- formance of Marcello’s compolitions exclufively, and were invited to one of its meetings. Several of Marcello’s pfalms were here very well {ung by the Abate Martini and fome other dilettanti, among whom one had a very good bale voice, and between the pfalms, fung Marcello’s famous cautata, called Caffandra, where this compofer has entirely facrificed the mufic to the poetry, by changing the time or ftyle of his movement at every new idea which occurs in the words ; this may, perhaps, fhew a compofer to be a very fenfible man, but at the fame time it muft difcover him to be of avery phlegmatic turn, and wholly free from the enthufiafm of acreative mufical genius. And, indeed, fince melody has been allied to grace and fancy, mufical disjoiated thoughts on various fubjects would be but ill received by the public. One of thefe gentlemen performers was old enough very well to remember Benedetto Marcello, and favoured us with fe- veral anecdotes concerning him and his family which full fubfifted, and the head of it then was ambaflador from the {tate to the Porte. Marcello was not only his own poet in dramas which he fet to mufic, but fometimes furnifhed words to other mufical compofers. He was author of a drama called ‘ Arato in Sparta,”? which was fet by Ruggieri, and performed at Ve- ice in 17043 and in 1710 he produced both the words and 7°45 7 Te fet the the mufic of an oratorio, called ‘* Ginditta.” sé Pfyche’” an 2 MAR os Pfyche’? of Caffini, about the fame time. In 1718, he Publifhed fonnets of his own writing, without mufic: and In 1725 he both wrote and fet a ferenata, which was perform- ed at the imperial court of Vienna. To fome of his madrigals and cantatas, of which we pre- fer the compofition to that of many of his pfalms, we were told at Venice that he was his own poet. But we have lately been favoured witha complete fcore of an oratorio by Marcello, of which we had never before heard of the exiltence. Its title, which is fomewhat long, and its fubje&t fingular for an oratorio, is the following : * 1] Trionfo della Poefia, e della Maufica, nil celebrarfi la Morte, la Efaltazione, e la Incoronazione, di Maria fempre Vergine affunto in cielo, Oratorio fagro a 6 voci 1733- Mutica e Poefia di Benedetto Marcello.’ The interlocutors are Poetry, Mufic, Painting, Sculpture, and chorus of Poets, Liberal Arts,and Old Muficians. But thefe perfonifications are not fo wide from facred fub- jects as Alexander’s Feaft, and Semele, which are indeed facred fubje&ts of Paganifm. And though the fubjeét of this drama may be too playful, and the airs too gay for an oratorio, yet it is amufing to fee how a great man may amufe himfelf in trying to annie others. The airs are much fupe- rior to thofe of the noble author’s pfalms, and more inge- nioufly accompanied. The overture, which begins with a f{pirited movement, ends with an admirable fugue in double counterpoint, inftead of an air. There are ingenious airs and duets in echo, in the firft part, and the coro finale is an alla-breve fugue on the hexachords. In the fecond part there are many curious airs, duets, and choruffes, well accompanied ; and all in clear and good counterpoint, and though it is called an oratorio, the move- mentsare as gay and cheerful as any fecular mufic of the fame period. It muft be owned that the chorufles and accompa- niments of Handel’s oratorios have made the Englifh fatti- dious about facred mufic. But Marcello mutt ever be ad- mired for Italian grace and {moothnefs, and Handel for German force and vigour. MarceLLo, St., in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Dora; 5 miles S.E. of Aofta. MARCELLUS, furnamed Empinicus, the Empiric, in Biography, was a native of Bourdeaux, and held an appoint- ment under the emperors Theodofius and Arcadius. He died in the reign of Theodofius, the younger, who afcended the throne of the eaftern empire in the year 408. It does not appear that Marcellus purfued the ftudy of medicine as a profeffion, but took it up as an amateur, without acquir- ing any profound fkill in it. He compiled from authors, both ancient and contemporary, and efpecially from Scribo- nius Largus, whom he copies literally without acknowledg- ment, and alfo from popular report, a colleétion of medicines and receipts for all the difeafes of the body; in which, however, his fuperftition is more confpicuous than his judgment. Neverthelefs his work has been preferved, and printed under the title of ** De Medicamentis empiricis phyficis et rationalibus Liber a Jano Cornario verfus,”’ Bafil, 1536, &c. and was included among the ‘‘ Medice Artis Principes,’’ collected by Henry Stephen. Marcellus dedicated this compilation to his children, in an epiftle which is preferved, with a view of teaching them the means of relieving their difeafes by fimple remedies ; but at the fame time he counfels them not to negle& the more compound ones when neceflary, and to confult the moit expert phy- ficians before they employ them. Eloy Dié. Hitt. Marcettus Donatus, a phyfician of the fixteenth cen- MAR tury, quitted the practice of his profeffion, and became fecretary to the duke of Mantua. He is known as the author of a compilation of medical cafes and obfervations, colleéted from the Greek, Arabian, and later writers, who had preceded him. This work was firft publifhed at Man- tua, in 1586, quarto, and afterwards at Venice, 1588, and 1597, in fix books, with the title of « De Hittoria Me- dica Mirabili Lib. VI." Horftius afterwards republifhed it at Franckfort, in oétavo, in 1613, with a feventh book, on difeafes reputed magical, and on extraordinary abfti- — nence. Marcellus was alfo author of a traé&t, “ De Va- riolis and Morbillis,’’ printed at Mantua in 1569, quarto, and 1597, octavo, with another tract, ‘ De Radicé pur- gante, quam vocant Mekoakan."’ Eloy, loc. cit. Marcettus, Marcus Craupivs, a celebrated Roman general, defcended from a plebeian, but an ancient and con- fular family, entered early into the military fervice of his country, and obtained many honorary rewards for his valour and heroifm. He was eleéted conful with Cn. Cornelius Sci- pio in the year 222 B.C. They were, immediately after their eleGtion, obliged to take the field againft the enemies of the republic ; and Marcellus was fingled out by Viridomarus, king of the Gefatz, for fingle combat. The conful foon deftroyed his enemy, and confecrated his {poils to Jupiter Teretrius, which being reckoned propitious to his defigns, he attacked the enemy, and gained a complete vitory. On account of this fuccefs, a triumph was decreed to Marcel- lus, of which the nobleft ornaments were the opime {poils, that is, thofe taken from a flain king. The greatnefs of this diftinétion may be inferred from the lines which are referred to him in Virgil’s profpeétive view of the Trojan progeny : « Afpice ut infignis fpoliis Marcellus opimis Ingreditur, victorque viros fupereminet omnes.” fEneid vi. In the fecond Carthaginian war, Marcellus was appointed pretor of Sicily, and had got ready a fleet for that fervice, when the event of the fatal battle of Cannz induced the fe- nate to fend him to take command of thofe who furvived that difafter. He threw himfelf into Nola, which was threat- ened by Hannibal with a fiege, and gave that commander a confiderable check, which revived the courage of the Ro- mans, and faved the place. In the year B.C. 215, Marcellus was again unanimoufly chofen conful, but a thunder-ftorm happening at the time of aflembly, it was thought the elec- tion was difpleafing to the gods, and he refufed to accept the office, though prefled to it by the people. Fabius Maximus was elected in his ftead, and Marcellus was continued ina proconfular command over the troops at Nola. After this he was chofen conful in conneétion with Fabius Maximus, and thus it was faid, Rome was defended at the fame time by her /wordand her /hield, which were the epithets applied to thefe two great commanders. Marcellus was now called to a¢tive exertions in Sicily, in which ifland the Carthaginian intereft was very prevalent ; he invelted Syracufe, the capital, then one of the richeft and ftrongeft cities in this part of the world. He fir propofed terms of accommodation, which being rejected, he laid fiege to the city by land and by fea, taking command of the Roman fleet upon himfelf, while the pretor Appius commanded the land forces. ‘This fiege was rendered yery remarkable by the various mechanical contri- vances of the great Archimedes for its defence. By their means, the firft attempts of the Romans were defeated with great lofs: and Marcellus, converting the fiege into a blockade, led the greater part of his troops again{t the re- volted cities of Sicily, many of which he reduced to obe- dience. MAR aience. After his confulfhip was expired, he was continued as proconful in the chief command in Sicily, and bent every effort to the finifhing a fiege upon which the eyes of all par- ties were attentively fixed. Marcellus determined on making an affault upon Syracufe, and fixed on the enfuing fettival of Diana for this purpofe, in which it was imagined the garri- fon would probably be buried in wine and fleep. At the appointed time a choice band of troops fcaled the walls with- out difcovery, and certain quarters of the city were taken without refiftance Marcellus, furveying from an eminence the vaft and opulent city which was about to fuffer all the miferies of a capture, is faid to have fhed tears, becaufe he could not perfuade the inhabitants to fave themfelves from plunder by atimely furrender. They were deaf to remon- flrances, and Marcellus had to fuftain a furious attack from the Carthaginians without, and the Syracufans within, which he repulfed with vaft lofs to the affailants. A plague which broke out in Syracufe added to the calamities of that unfor- tunate city: it ravaged likewife the Carthaginian camp to fuch a degree as to break it up after carrying off the com- mander. It. was not, however, till the end of three years, that Syracufe was taken by aflault, when it was impoflible to fave the inhabitants from the effeéts of a fack: the houfes were pillaged, and many citizens were put to the fword, among whom was Archimedes, whofe fate was particularly afflicting to Marcellus, and who was flain while he was calm- ly working a mathematical problem. The Roman com- mander, as foon as he was able, put an end to the atrocities of his foldiers, and difplayed much perfonal clemency and humanity to the vanquifhed, but he carried away all the public monuments of art which decorated Syracufe for the ornament of Rome. Marcellus continued fome time longer in Sicily, but his laft action ended in a confiderable victory obtained over the combined forces of Hanno and Epicydes, after which he returned to Rome with great glory. In the year 210 B.C. he was again chofen conful, when he was ac- cufed by the Syracufans with cruelty anda violation of trea- ty. He was, however, after due enquiries, acquitted of the charges, and his fubfequent behaviour would have dove honour to any man: he raifed up the Syracufan deputies, who had been his accufers, and had fallen at his feet to im- plore forgivenefs, aflured them not only of his pardon, but of his future proteétion, and obtained of the fenate that the people of Syracufe fhould be reinftated in their liber- ties, and confidered as the allies of Rome. They, unwil- ling to be behind in refpeét for his manly virtues, expreffled their gratitude to him by a decree, that when he or any one of his family fhould vifit Sicily, the people fhould walk in proceffion before him, crowned with garlands, and celebrate the day with public facrifices ; and that thenceforth the whole ifland fhould be under the peculiar patronage of the Marcelli. After this Marcellus was a fecond time called upon to oppofe Hannibal. He difplayed as ufual his great mili- tary talents in his operations again{t this general, but was not fufficiently vigilant againft the fnares of his adverfary. He imprudently feparated himfelf from his camp, and was killed in ambufcade in the 6oth year of his age, and in his fifth confulfhip, being the year 208 B.C. When the body of this great commander was brought to Hannibal, he furveyed it a confiderable time in thoughtful filence ; and caufed it to be buried, or, as others fay, to be burned ona funeral pile, and then fent the afhes enclofed ina filver urn, and crowned with laurel, tohis fon. Plutarch. Marcetuus I., pope, anative of Rome, became a pref- byter under Marcellinus, and was his fucceffor in the bifho- pric of that city in the year 308, after the fee had been va- cant for more than three years and a balf. The particulars MAR relating to this pope are not given on fufficient authority. Lt is faid, in his epitaph, written by pope Damafus, that his firmnefs in maintaining the difcipline of the church, and in obliging thofe who had fallen during the times of perfecution to give proof of the genuinenefs of their repentance, ex- cited again{t him the general hatred, which was not confined to private difputes and divifions, but ended in public tu- mults, bloodfhed, and murders. He adds, that Marcellus was fent into banifhment, and died in the fecond year of his pontificate, in the year 310. The church of Rome has given him a place in her lift of martyrs, but in the moft an- cient martyrologies he has only the title of confeffor. Mo- rerl. Bower. Marcettus II., pope, asnative of Fano, in the Marche of Ancona, was fon to the receiver-general of the revenues of the holy fee. He was educated at Sienna, and honour- ably diftinguifhed himfelf in literary purfuits. He after- wards went to Rome under the pontificate of pope Paul III., who appointed him his principal fecretary. He accompa- nied cardinal Farnefe, the nephew of the pope, to attempt to bring about a reconciliation between Francis I. and the emperor Charles V.: he at this time had the title of bifhop, and was promoted to three different fees in fucceffion, and upon his return to Rome, Paul created him cardinal prefby- ter of the holy crofs of Jerufalem, and nominated him one of the prefidents of the council of Trent. He fucceeded to the popedom on the death of Julius III., in the year 1555. Fle ts reprefented as being a man of inflexible integrity, of invincible refolution and conftancy, and as having formed great defigns for the reformation of the court and of the clergy, but he died before he could carry any of them into execution, and within a month of his confecration. Bower. Moreri. Marce tus, in Geography, a military and poft-town of America, in Onondago county, New York, fituated on Skaneatates lake, 11 miles W. of Onondago caitle ;_ in- corporated in 1794, and containing: 909 inhabitants. MARCENAT, a town of France, in the department of the Cantal, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Murat. The place contains 2058, and the canton 8957 inhabitants, on a territory of 2821 kiliometres, in 7 com- munes. MARCENOPOLI, a town of Bulgaria, anciently Marcianopolis: it was deftroyed by Attila; 20 miles W.N.W. of Varna. N. lat. 43° 10’. E. long. 27° 24!. MARCGRAVE, or Mararave, a kind of dignity in Germany, anfwering to our marquis. The word is derived from the German marche, or marke, which fignifies @ frontier, formed, as Junius conjectures, from the laft fyllable of the Greek zex-yeepy which fignifies both a mark, and a limit ; and graffe, count, governor ; mares graves being originally governors of cities lying on the frontiers of a country or {tate. MARCGRAVIA, in Botany, was named by Plumier, in memory of George Maregraf de Liebftad, a native of Saxony, who travelled with Pifo in the Brafils, and fubfe- quently vifited the coafts of the Mediterranean. He died in pafling over to Africa, at the age of 34, in 1644. His account of the plants, animals, and inhabitants of the Brafils, has been publifhed by De Laet, along with fome of the writings of Pifo, in a folio volume, dated 1648, il- luftrated with wooden cuts. ‘The eighth book of this is repeated in another edition of the works of Pifo, with thofe of Bontius, publithed at Amfterdam, in 1658. Marcgraf is mentioned by Pifo, p. 107 of the laft-mentioned volume, as ‘his excellent and very diligent domettic, of fome of whofe drawings and obfervations he has made ufe, which he acknowledges, MAR acknowledges, left evil-minded perfons fhould accufe him of evriching his works with ftolen decorations.” Linneus fays, Crit. Bot. 79, that a relation of Marceraf has accufed Pifo of deriving all his information from the papers of the former, after his death. He is reported, moreover, to have been himfelf the fervant of the man he attempts, in that refpect, to debafe. It feems that Marcgraf was of a good family, unlefs his furname (de Liebflad) merely, as Haller fuppofes, indicates the place of his birth. Pifo became a phyfician at Amfterdam. (See Prisonra hereafter in its proper place.) Linn. Gen. 260. Schreb. 347. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1127. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 284. Juff. 244. Plum. Gen. 7. t. 29. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 447.—-Clafs and order, Polyandria ee Nat. Ord. Putaminee, Linn. Capparides, Juff. Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, of fix im- bricated, roundifh, broad, concave leaves; the two outer- moft largeit. Cor. of one petal, vertical, ovate, fomewhat conical, undivided, covering the organs of impregnation like accap, at length feparating all round at the bafe, de- ciduous. Stam. Filaments numerous, awl-fhaped, fhort, {preading, deciduous; anthers large, ovate-oblong, erect, Piff. Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyle none; f{tigma capitate, permanent. eric. Berry globofe, coriaceous, of many cells, and many imperfect valves. Seeds numerous, {mall, oblong, lodged in foft pulp. Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, vertical, cap-fhaped, de- ciduous. Calyx of fix imbricated leaves. Berry of many cells. Seeds numerous. 1. M. umbellata. Climbing Marcgravia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 719. Jacq. Amer. 156. t.96. (M. fcandens; Browne Jam. 244. t. 26. Plum. Ic. t. 173. f. 1.)—Native of woods in South America and the Welt Indies. Browne fays.it is frequent in Jamaica. The lem is at firft lender and weak, climbing up the trunks of large trees, by means of fibres like thofe of ivy, and furnifhed with alternate heart- fhaped, emarginate, entire /eaves, on very fhort footitalks. When it reaches the fummit, it “lays its trunk,” fays Browne, ** more commodioufly over fome of the larger branches of the tree: then it begins to ftrengthen, and caits many flender, dependent aud fubdivided branches from the upper parts. But as it increafes at the top, the ftem grows thicker, feparates from the fupporter, throws off its now ufelefs leaves and roots (fibres), and appears a ftrong withey fhrub, whofe trunk is frequently no lefs than four or five inches in diameter.””? The pendulous dranches are a foot or two in length, roundifh, warty, bearing numerous, alter- nate, elliptic-oblong, pointed, entire, {mooth, fomewhat flefhy /eaves, on fhort ftalks, fpreading in two direCtions, each about three inches long, furnifhed with a ftrong rib, and feveral {mall tranfverfe veins. Svipulas none, except a little intrafoliaceous gland, juft above the infertion of each footftalk. Umbel terminal, pendulous, folitary, fimple, of about a dozen flowers, on widely fpreading downy ftalks, {welling upwards, above aninch long. "The flowers appear to be turned downwards. Their corol/a, while it remains, gives them tie appearance of {mall acorns, being about one-third of an inch long,-and might eafily be miftaken for a feed-veflel. Of its colour we find no mention. The fruit is the fize of a moderate goofeberry, with a thick rind, which is but imperfe&tly difpofed to fplit into valves. ‘The internal partitions originate from it, and are narrow and thin. ‘The pulp and /éeds are faid to be of a vivid fearlet. We prefume, from the natural affinities of this plant, that it is of a poifonous quality. Its greateft peculiarity confifts in four, five, or more appendages to the umbel, placed in MAR the centre, each on a ftalk half the length of the flowet- ftalks. Thefe are above an inch long, tubular, obtufe, and clofed at the extremity, but furnifhed with a dilated lip at their orifice where the ftalk is inferred. Being, from the pofition of the umbe!, pendulous, Browne fays they catch the water that trickles down the branch in rainy weather ; but their ufe has not been fully explained. Linnaeus fup- pofed them neéaries. If fuch, they may ferve to tempt infects or humming-birds to frequent the flowers, and affilt impregnation, as in numberlefs other cafes. Willdenow has adopted another fpecies, A. coriacea; from Vahl’s Ecloge. Of this magnificent plant we have been favoured by Mr. 'T. F. Forfter with 4 fine fpecimen from Guiana. It has the habit of AZ. umbellata, but more ellip- tical, obtufe, coriaceous, fhining, and almoft veinlefs, aves. The umbel, like all the other parts, is much larger. The fuppofed neilaries, or pouches, grow, without any flalks, on the lower part of each flower-ftalk, and are fhorter and more inflated than thofe of the former. This plant has cer- tainly all the habit of the genus in queftion, but neither. Vahl nor Willdenow feems to have known any thing of the corolla, which is totally different, confifting of five feparate concave petals, fo that it proves to belong to Schreber’s genus A/cium, the Norantea of Audlet; which differs in that refpeét only from Marcgravia, having exa@tly the fame fort of pouches, though they have been called dradeas, becaufe the inflorefeence in Aublet’s plant is racemofe. JZarc- gravia, therefore, differs from A/cium exadily as Swartz’s Calyptranthes differs from Myrtus, and no further; for the difference in their inflorefcence, which might have been thought of fome moment, is done away by this new fpecies, which is in that refpet a Marcgravia, though in generic chara@er an _Afcium. See Ascrum and CALYPTRANTHES. MARCH, Martius, in Chronology, the third month of the year, according to the common way of computing. Among the Romans, March was the firit month; and, in fome ecclefiaftical computations, that order is ftill pre- ferved; as particularly in reckoning the number of years from the incarnation of our Saviour, which is done from the 25th of March. In England, (before the alteration of the ftyle,) March, properly fpeaking, was the firft month in order, the new year commencing from the 25th; though, in complaifance to the cuftoms of our neighbours, we ufually ranked it as the third; but, in this refpe@, we [poke one way, and wrote another. Till the year 1564, the French reckoned the beginning of their year from Eafter; fo that there were two months of March in one year, one of which they called March before Eafier, and the other March after Eafter ; and, when Eater fell within the month of March, the beginning of the month was in one year, and the end in another. It was Romulus who divided the year into months: to the firft of which he gave the name of his fuppofed father Mars. Ovid, however, obferves, that the people of Italy hed the month of March before Romulus’s time; but that they placed it very differently, fome making it the third,. fome the fourth, fome the fifth, and others the tenth month of the year. ‘ In this month it was that the Romans facrificed to Anna Perenna; that they began their comitia; that they ad- judged their public farms and leafes; that the miitreffes {erved the flaves and fervants at table, as the maflersadid in the Saturnalia; and that the Veitals renewed the facred fire. ; ‘The month of March was always under the protection of Minerva, and always conlifted of thirty-one days, The an- cients ainsi MAR cients held it an unhappy month for marriage, as well as the month of May. Marcu, in Geography, a market-town in the parifh of Doddington, hundred of Witchford, ifle of Ely, Cam- bridgefhire, England, is fituated 26 miles diftant from Cambridge, 15 from Ely, and Sr from London, nearly midway between Chatteres and Wifbech, on the banks of the river Nene; from which circumftance it has the advan- tages of a confiderable trade. The population, as returned to parliament in the year 1801, was 2514, occupying 555 houfes. The chapel is a fpacious edifice, with ‘a {pire, ereéted about the year 1343: A market is held on Fridays, and three fairs annually. Many Roman remains have been difcovered in this vicinity. When the road was making from March to Wifbech, inthe year 1730, three urns were _ dug up, full of burnt bones and afhes; and alfo a pot, con- taining 160 Roman denarii, of all the emperors from Vef- pafian to Antoninus Pius, but chiefly of the latter. Various other coins have been found, and an altar 21 inches high. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. Maren, in Military Language, is in general the motion of a body of men from one place to another. ‘The beat of the drum, upon particular occafions, is like- wife called the march ; which fee. It is likewife a word of command, when a battalion is to alter its difpofition. Neither mufic nor drums: are now ufed to regulate the march, which is in three meafures. 1. Ordinary time, in which 75 paces are taken ina minute. 2. Quick time, in which there are 108 fleps in a minute. 3. The quickeft time, or wheeling march, which is at the rate of 420 fteps of 30 inches each, or zoo feet in the minute. This lait is ufed only for wheeling. For a more particular account of the fubject of this article, fee BATTALION. As many accidents may happen in the march of an army from defiles, marfhes, woods, and the like, it is the pru- dence of a general to order his march accordingly, and to take care that the columns of his army have a free com- munication one with the other. The march of an army is compofed of an advance guard, the main body, and the rear guard, and is fometimes.in two, four, fix, or eight columns, according as the ground will allow. The order of march of the troops muft be fo difpofed, that each fhould arrive at their rendezvous, if pofflible, on the fame day. ‘The quarter-matter-general, or his deputy, with an able engineer, f{bould fufficiently reconnoitre the country, fo as to obtain a perfect knowledge beth of that and of the enemy, before he forrns his routes. Before a march, the army generally receives feveral days’ bread. The quarter-mafters, camp-colour men, and pioneers, parade according to orders, and march immediately after, com- manded by the quarter-matter-general, or his deputy. They are-to clear the roads, level the ways, make prepara- tion for the march of the army, &c. The “ general,” for inftance, beats at two, the.** aflembly” at three, and the army commence their march in 30 minutes after. Upon beating the “ general,” the village and general officer’s guards, quarter and rear-guards, join their refpective corps, and the army pack up their baggage. Upon the “ af- fembly,’” the tents are to be ftruck, and fent, with the baggage, to the place appointed. The companies draw up in their feveral ftreets, and the rolls are called. At the time appointed, the drummers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head of the line; upon which the companies march out from their feveral ftreets, form battalions as they advance to the head of the line, and then halt.. The feveral battalions will be formed into columns by the adjutant- general, and the order of march, &c. be given to the general MAR officers who lead the columns. ‘The cavalry generally march by regiments or fquadrons, The heavy artillery always keep the great roads, in the centre of the columns, efcorted by a ftrong party of infantry and cavalry. The field-pieces move with the columns. Each foldier generally marches with 60 rounds of powder and ball, and three good flints; one of which is to be fixed in the cock of his fire-lock. The routes muft be fo formed, that no column may crofs one another on the march. See BaTTraxion. Marcu, in Mufic, a military air played by martial inftru- ments to regulate and inark the fteps of the foldiery, to which the drums ufually beat time. There are military pieces for field inftruments on the parade, which are called marches, though the regiment or corps is ftationary. In Perfia, according to Chardin, when a building is to be. pulled down, the ground to be levelled, or any work to be performed that requires difpatch, and the united efforts of a multitude, all the habitants of a diftrict are aflembled, who work to the found of inftruments, and the bufinefs is done with more zeal and promptitude than it would be in filence. Marfhal Saxe, in his Reveries, fhews, that the effe& of drums is not confined to a mere ufelefs noife; but as the pulfations are more or lefs rapid, they naturally inform the foldier to accelerate or retard his pace. It may alfo be faid, that the melody or movement of marches fhould have different charaGters, according to the occafions upon which they are played; and this is implied by the names given to certain beatings of the drum, as the general, the retreat, the charge, &c. ; but all the advantages of fuch fignals have not been taken that might be. The meafures that are beaten or played, have hitherto been confined to one ftyle, to fuit the common beat of the drum. And there are many airs that are denominated marches which fulfil that obje& very imper- feétly. The French troops ({aid Rouffeau, in 1768,) having few military inftruments for the infantry, except fifes and drums, have likewife very few marches, and thefe, in general, ill compofed ; but how admirable are thofe in the German troops. It is only the infantry and light horfe that have particular marches. The kettle-drums of the cavalry have no regular march; the trumpets have only a fingle note fometimes, and never more than a ftantare, or flourifh. The march, pace, or movement, in mufic, is ufed figurately by the French in {peaking of the fucceflion of founds in melody, which follow each other in a certain order ;. as the bafe and treble proceed by contrary motion, the bafe moves in quavers, the treble in femiquavers, &c. For the argreement between the mufical air and the mili- tary fteps, Rouffean has given the firft part of the march of the Moufquitaires of the king of France at the time when his Diét. de Muf. was printed, which we have copied in our mufical plates. It was found by Englifh travellers, four or five years after Rouffeau’s Di¢t. was publifhed, that the French military mufic in Flanders was very much improved by the adoption of the inftruments and ftyle of mufic ufed in the bands of the Walloon and German regiments in the Auf- trian Netherlands.. German Mutical Tour, vol. i. In the Supplement to the firlt edition of the Encyclopédie, it is truly faid, that a march fhould be always compofed in common time, with an odd crotchet or quaver at the begin- ning ; and that it is almoft impoffible to march in cadence to a movement in triple time, unleis it is compofed in fuch a manner that the cefura is felt at the end of every two bars ; that is to fay, unlefs the compofer has written an air in common time, as if it were in triple. The arfis, or up part of the bar, naturally marks the lift- ing up of the foot in marching ; on.which account the air ulually begins with an odd uote. . Of MAR Of the marches and military mufic of our anceftors, we may form fome judgment by the remains of our venerable compofer, William Bird, tranfcribed in the Virginal book of lady Nevil, which is {till preferved, and in the pofleffion of Dr. Burney. This book, curioufly written in 1591, contains no lefs than forty-two pieces by the admirable Bird ; among which are the following military movements, fet for the Virginal by that venerable compofer, and very neatly copied on fix-line paper. The orthography of the names of the tunes, and of the copyilts termination of the MS. are here preferved. The March before the Battell. The Battell. The March of Footmen. The March of Horfemen. The Trumpetts. The Irifhe March. The March to Fighte. Tantara. The Battells bejoined. The Retreat. The Galliarde for the Victorie. We fhall give the motivo, or fubjeét, of fome of thefe pieces, on one of the mufic plates. The copyift of this curious MS. having terminated his labour, has made the following record of his achievement. finis : fGnifbed and ended the (Cebenth of September in the peare of our Lorde God, 1591, and in the 330 veare of the raigne of our Cof- feraigne ladie Clijabeth by the grace of God qneene of Englanve, Gc. By me Jo: Baldwine of GHindfore : Laudes : Deo. Marcu, Ausias, in Biography, the beft known of the Limofin poets, was born in Valencia, of Catalan parents, and flourifhed about the middle of the 15th century. He was educated in the duke of Gandias houfhold, and married a woman of noble family, but, like Petrarch, whofe example he followed, he fell in love with another man’s wife, and {pent his time in writing verfes upon her in the Provencal fiyle. Could the Catalans have fhaken off the yoke of Arragon, againft which they ftruggled, their dialeét would have become a cultivated tongue, and Aufias March would have been the father of its poetry. As it is, his reputation is very great, confidering the obfolete language in which he wrote. His poems have been frequently printed: the earlieft edition is that of Valencia, in 1539. The Valladolid edition of 1555 contains a copious gloflary, with obfervations = the grammar and pronunciation of the language. Gen. iog. MARCHAND, Prosper, born towards the clofe of the 17th century, was brought up in the bookfelling trade at Paris, and acquired a great knowledge of books and literary anecdotes. His attachment to the Proteftant religion, and his conne&tion with Bernard, the continuator of the ** Nou- velles de la Republique des Lettres,’”? induced him to remove to Holland, where he aéted fome time as a bookfeller, till at length he entirely devoted himfelf to literature. His ftudies led him chiefly to bibliography and French hiftory, and on thefe topics he was occafionally confulted by perfons from all parts of Europe. He took an active and leading part in the ‘ Journal Literaire,’? and he furnifhed other literary journals with curious extraéts, which he had col- le&ted by his extenfive courfe of reading. He died at an advanced age in 1756, and left his library and manufcripts to the univerfity of Leyden. He had publifhed, in 1740, i MAR “ L’ Hiftoire de ? Imprimerie :’”’ “ DiGtionnaire Hiftonique ; ou, Memoires Critiques et Literaires ;’’ and a new edition of Bayle’s DiGtionary and Letters.” Marcuanp, Joux Lewis, a celebrated French organift during the early part of the laft century, ufually per- formed at the Jefuits’ church of St. Benoit, rue St. Jaques, and at the Cordeliers, where he was followed by all Paris, and always heard with new pleafure. Rameau, his friend and moft formidable rival, frequently declared, that the greateft pleafure of his life was hearing Marchand perform; that no one could be compared to him in the management of a fugue; and that he believed no mufician ever equalled him in extempore playing. The Germans relate a ftory, which no French writer has confirmed: that Marchand, being at Drefden, challenged to a trial of {kill all the organifts of Germany, which none but Sebaftian Bach ventured to accept. It was an honour, fays M. Mar- ~ purgh, for Pompey to be only defeated by Cefar, and to Marchand to have no fuperior but Bach. His independent and difinterefted fpirit, fays M. Laborde, prevented him from ever thinking of his fame or his fortune. As he chiefly loved to play extempore, he feldom committed his thoughts to paper, and has left only two books of harpfichord a behind him. He was more happy in his mind and fancy when he played the organ to two or three real connoifleurs, during the hours that the church was fhut, than when on feftival days he drew together a crowded congregation to hear him. It was at fuch times that he chiefly exerted him- felf and feemed infpired; on other days he only performed what belonged to the fervice of the mafs. This mufician was born at Lyons in 1669, and died at Paris in 1732. MARCHANTIA, in Botany, fo named by John Mar- chant, in the Memoires de Acad. des Sciences for 1713, in honour of his father Nicholas, author of feveral effays in ~ the fame colleétions There feems to be a confufion betwixt thefe two perfons, and Nicholas the fon of the former, in Haller’s Bibl. Bot. and Dryander’s Bibl. Banks. Linn. Gen. 565. Schreb, 763. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Hedw. Theor. 96. t.24—26. Spreng. Crypt. 342. Hudf. 519, With. v. 1. 388. t. 15. f. 60—67. v. 3. 884. Jufl. 9. Lamarck Ditt. v. 3. 107. Illuftr. t. 876. Mich, Gen. 1, t.1. (Hepatica; Mich. Gen. 3. t.2. Lunularia; ibid. 4. t.4. Lichen; Dill. Mufc. 515. t. 75 —77.)—Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Alga, Linn. C. Hepatice, Schreb. Nat. Ord. Alga, Linn. Hepatice, Jufl. Gen. Ch: Male, either flalked or feffile. Cal. Perianth a membranous border, undivided or lobed, permanent, fur- rounding a tuberculated horizontal difk. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments none; anthers numerous, oval, of one cell, im- merfed vertically in the difk, each encompafled by a vertical ring, and opening by a pore at the furface of the difk. Female, on the fame, or a feparate, plant. Common Cal. large, flellated, hemifpherical or conical, fous under- neath, the florets pointing downwards. _Perianth feffile, bell- fhaped, membranous, tender, coloured, with four or five teeth. Cor. Veil feffile, fhorter than the perianth, oblong or fomewhat globofe, membranous, very thin, crowned with the ftyle, and at length fplitting at the top into from two to five fegments, one of which retains the ftyle at its fummit. Pift. Germen feffile, oblong, fomewhat globofe, invefted with the veil; ftyle ftraight or incurved, fhort, prominent from the top of the veil; ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule at- tached by a capillary fhort {talk, obovate, of one cell, open- ing at the top with from five to ten, ufually eight, teeth, which at length become revolute. Seeds very numerous, globofe, attached to feveral elaftic, {pirally contorted, threads. Obi. MARCHANTIA. Obf. Some fpecies bear, befides the flowers, little cups, “oothed at their edges, full of grains which prove to be buds, gemma. Linneus, truiting to Dillenius, miftook thefe for the female fruGtification, and the real female flowers for male ones, the feeds being fuppofed the pollen. ‘The true male flowers, afcertained by Hedwig, were, in the fpecies in which they were obferved, thought a mere variation of form. Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx falver-fhaped. rous, annulated, imbedded in its diflc. Female, Calyx peltate, flowering underneath. Capfules deflexed, opening at the top by feveral revolute valves. Seeds attached to elaftic filaments. This genus is next akin to Jungermannia, (fee that article, ) with which it very much agrees in habit, efpecially with thofe {pecies that have no {tem feparate from the leaves, and grows like them in damp umbrageous places. The herbage how- evér is, on the whole, of larger dimenfions than in Junger- mannia, and the fru@ification more elaborate, or at leaft better defined, as well as effentially diftiné& in characters. Five fpecies are defcribed as natives of Britain, and Lin- neus has two befides, and we add an eighth from Scopoli, his friandra. 1. M. polymorpha. Star-headed Marchantia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1603. Bulhard, t. 291. Hudf. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 210. (M. fquamis marginalibus, calyce plano; Schmid. Ic. 38. t.9. Marchantie 1—5; Mich. Gen. 2. t. 1. Lichen fontanus major, ftellatus qué, ac umbellatus, et cya- thophorus; Dill. Mufc. 523. t. 76. f. 6. IL. domefticus minor, ftellatus eque, &c.; ibid. 527. t.77. f.7.)—Calyx of the female flowers cloven into about ten narrow fegments. —Very common in damp places, about {prings, wells, and fhady court-yards, throughout Europe, varying much in fize, in proportion to the moifture of its fituation; being often a moft troublefome weed in gardens, over-running pots that are obliged to be kept moitt, as well as beds of alpine or American plants. It flowers about Midfummer, and is perennial. Few plants are endowed with fuch ample and pertinacious powers of propagation. The fronds {pread horizontally, creeping clofe to the earth, ftone, or wall, by means of denfe, fibrous, foft, and filky radicles of a fhining brown. They are feveral inches in extent, bluntly lobed, of a dark fhining green, fringed with fcales, and more or lefs reticulated ; lefs reticulated and fhining in Dillenius’s t. 77. f. 7, though Schmidel obferves that it is hardly poffible to draw a line between thefe two varieties, or fuppofed {pecies. The latter feems to grow in drier fituations than the former, The upper furface of the /eaf or frond is ttadded with feveral pale cups, toothed at their edges, half filled with green len- ticular buds, as mentioned above. By thefe the plant is copioufly increafed, in lefs moift places, where it does not readily Hower. “Che proper flowers grow from marginal clefts, on ere¢t fimple talks, from one to three inches high, thofe of the females talleft, and on a feparate plant. ‘The common calyx of the latter is deeply cut into eight or ten deep, linear, radiant, obtufe fegments, from the under fide of which, towards their bafe, the flowers are produced. The feeds are yellow, and the fpiral filaments to which they are attached, have an apparently fpontaneous motion, which however arifes merely from their elafticity, and exquifite fufceptibility of moifture. z. M. chenopoda. Goofe-foot Marchantia, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1603. (Lichen anapodocarpos; Plum. Til. 143. t. 142. Dill. Mufe. 531. t. 77 £. 8.)—Calyx of the female flowers halved, palmate, with four obtufe fegments.—Native of the Welt Indies, on moilt rocks. The fegments of the frond are oblong, finuated or wavy attheedge. ruit-/lalks nearly Vou. XXII. Anthers nume- terminal. Common calyx of the female flowers remarkable for being cut away on one fide, all its four fegments being directed the other way, like the fingers of a hand, or toes of a web-footed bird. We have from Jamaica, gathered by Browne, what feems to anfwer to Plumier’s figure and de- {cription, which Dillenius has copied; we have alfo the fame from Dr. Swartz. In both ipecimens the upper fide of the frond is befprinkled with fine pellucid dots or grains. Mr. Dickfon efteems thefe fpecimens a different {pecies from the original one of Plumier. 3. M. eruciata. Crofs-headed Marchantia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604. Hudf. n. 2. (Lichen feminifer lunulatus, florifer pi- leatus, tandem cruciatus; Dill. Mufc. 521. t. 75. f. 5. . Lunaria vulgaris ; Mich. Gen. 4. t. 4.)—Calyx of the fe- male flowers in four deep, crofs-like, tubular fegments. Native of fhady damp places in Italy, France, and Eng land, fru€tifying in July. The fronds ave {maller than in M. polymorpha, and dilated outwards. Flower-flalks each from a toothed cup on the dif of the leaf. Common calyx of the female flowers at firft conical, but foon becoming deeply divided into four fpreading, cruciform, tubular feg- ments, from whofe extremities the cap/ules and /eeds are protruded. Dillenius has a remark unworthy of fo great a philofopher, that “ the flowers are rarely produced, but the feeds very frequently." Surely, as no feeds can come with- out flowers, this might have led him to difcover that what he tcok for feeds were really buds ! 4. M. tenella. Slender Marchantia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604. (Lichen pileatus parvus carinatus, capitulis fimbriatis ; Dill. Mufe. 521. t. 75. £. 4.)—-Calyx of the female flowers hemifpherical with a little point ; its margin radiated.—Ga- thered by Gronovius in Virginia. he frond of th’s deli~ cate {pecies {preads circularly, but is not all together much above aninch broad. The /fa/ks are nearly terminal, very flender, above an inch high. Ca/yx very convex, crowned with a minute blunt point, and fringed with numerous feg- ments that bear the cap/ules. 5- M. hemifpherica. Hemifpherical Marchantia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604. Hudf. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 503. Schmid. Ice ‘t. 34. (Lichen pileatus parvus, foliis crenatis; Dill. Mufc. 519. t. 75. £. 2. Hepatica media, capitulo hemifpherica ; Mich. Gen. 3. t. 2. f. 2.)—Calyx of the female flowers hemifpherical, cloven into about five oval fegments. Stalks naked at the bafe.—Native of Europe, about the banks of rivers and ditches, or the moift crevices of rocks, fomes times in expofed fituations, flowering in the early f{pring. The fronds are lobed, forming broad patches; their upper furface granulated, of a fine green, often purplifh at the edges. Stalks not above an inch high. Calyx convex, rounded, without any terminal point ; the margin in five, or more, oval fegments. Capjfules and feeds black. By a ftrange overfight, a barren {pecimen of this {pecies was de- {cribed as a new genus by Forfter, under the name of Aitonia, fee his Genera, t. 74.3 and adopted by the younger Linnzus, by thatof Rupinia ; fee his Supp]. 6g and 452. 6. M. triandra. Three-celled Marchantia. Scop. Carn. ed. 2. 354, t. 63. Web. Goett. 163. (M. tenella; Thunb. Prod. 175.)—Calyx of the female flowers hemifpherical, undivided, of three or four cells.—Found by Scopoli in Carniola, by Weber in Hercynia, and by Thunberg at the Cape of Good Hope; for the original fpecimens of the tenella of the laft-mentioned author prove to be this plant. We have others from Siberia, which appear the fame, but their condition is not fufficiently good for us abfolutely to decide. This is a {mall {pecies, whofe fronds are at moit but an inch long. Svalks half an inch high, or thereabouts, purplith, Calyx convex, granulated, without a point; its margin MAR margin wavy, not cut or lobed. Cells three or four, very prominent underneath, furnifhed with long, taper, briftle- like appendages. The fpecific name alludes to the old innwan idea, of the female being the male flowers. 7. M. androgyna. Monoecious Marchantia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1605. Dickf. H. Siec. fafes 4. 21. Crypt. fafc. a. 17. With. 886. (Lichen pileatus anguftifolius dichotomus ; Dilk. Mufe. 520. t. 75. f. 3. Hepatica mmor anguttifolia, capitulo hemifphzrico ; Mich. Gen. 3. t. 2. f. 3.) —Calyx of the female flowers hemifpherical, half four-cleft, of four eells.—Native of Italy, France, Switzerland, and Scot- Jand. This is much larger than the laft. Fronds two inches or more in length, various in breadth, fmooth. Sva/ks one and a half or twoinches high. Calyx very convex, {mooth, its margin in four blunt lobes, beneath which the four cells are very prominent. Linneus miftook his Siberian {peci- men above mentioned, which we judge to be ériandra, for the true androgyna, and therefore erred in his {pecific character of this latter. We conceive Scopoli’s M. guadrata, Carn. ed. 2. 355. t. 63, to be no other than the estunlaattet 8. M. conica. Conical Marchantia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1604. Hudf. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 504. Schmid. t. 31. (Lichen vul- garis major, pileatus et verrucofus ; Dill. Mufe. 516. t. 75. fr. Hepatica vulgaris major, vel officimarum Italie; Mich. Gen. 3. t. 2. f. 1.)—Calyx of the female flowers ovate, pointed, with five marginal notches. Male flowers in feflile warts.—Common in damp fhady places in Britain and other parts of Europe, but the female fruétification is rare. The fronds are broad, reticulated, bluntly lobed, highly aromatic and fragrant, giving their perfume to the air, efpecially after rain, like many Jungermannie. Stalks from clefts between the lobes, two inches high, white and tender. Ca/pa coni- cal, with four {mall marginal lobes. Cap/ules and feeds black. On feparate plants from thefe are found hemi- {pherical feflile warts, fuch as M. androgyna appears to bear on the fame plant with the capfules, and which Hedwig be- lieves to be the male flowers. We prefume, however, that what are reprefented on a portion of a frond in Engl. Bot. are not thefe, but gemmiparous cups, like thofe of M. poly- morpha, by which the plant is ufually propagated. S. MARCHADX, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrit of Befancon. The place contains 382, and the canton 8894 inhabitants, on a territory of 220 kiliometres, in 38 communes. MARCHE, Oriver ve 1a, in Biography, fon of a entleman of Burgundy, entered, in early life, into the Panice of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, by whom he was highly valued. After this Charles the Bold raifed him to the pofts of mafter of the houfehold and captain of his guards, and knighted him at the battle of Montlheri, in 1465. He was with that prince at the fatal battle of Nancy, and was made prifoner. We find him next, firft mafter of the houfehold to Maximilian of Auftria, and afterwards to his fon the archduke Philip, by whom he was fent on anembafly to the court of France after the death of Lewis XI. He died at Bruffels in 1501, leaving behind him “* Memoirs or Chronicles,”’ relating to the two dukes of Burgundy; thefe were publifhed at Lyons in 1562, and again at Bruffels in 1616. He alfo wrote ‘ Le Parement et le Triomphe des Dames d'Honneur:”? © 'Traite fur les Duels et Gages de Battaille,”” and other pieces. Moreri. - Marcue, La, in Geography, was before the Revolution a province of France, bounded on the N. by Berri, on the FE. by Auvergne,on the S.by Limofin,and on the W. by Poitou; lying between 45° 45' and 46° 35''N. lat., and between 0° 45' and 2° 31' E.long.; being from N. to S, 10 leagues, MAR and zo from W. to E, ‘Its rivers are the Torion, the Great Creufe, the Gartempe, and the Vienne. This pro- vince was formerly under the dominion of the Romans, Viligoths, and Franks. Under the lait of thefe powers it was governed by counts, and was confifcated by Philip the Handfome. Francis |. annexed it to the crown A.D. 1531. Some tracts of this province are tolerably fertile, yielding grain and fruits, and others are covered with excel- lent paiturage. The foil is compofed of fandy and friable loams, fome on granite, and others on a calcareous bottom. The chief towns in Upper Marche, on the ealtern divifion, are Gueret, Ahun, Aigurande, Aubuffon, Felletin, Bour- ganeuf, Grandemont, and Benevent ; and thofe in Lower Marche are Bellae and Dorat. ‘This province now princi- pally conftitutes the department of the Creufe, and part of that of Vienne. ~ Marcus, a town of France, and principal place of a diftri&, in the department of the Sambre and Meufe, fitu- ated on the Marferte, in the road from Paris to Liege. The place cantains 1257, aud the canton 6382 inhabitants, ona territory of 250 kiliometres, in 25 communes. The parifh-church is a handfome ftru€ture ; 20 miles S.E. of Namur. Marcue, La, a town of France, in the department of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Neufchateau, fituated near the fource of the Mouzon; 27 miles W.N.W. of Luxeuil. The place contains 1554, and the canton 13,928 inhabitants, on a territory of 335 kiliometres, in 26 communes. N. lat. 48° 4’. E. long. Prbols ; Marcue, La, a {mall territory of Switzerland, in the canton of Schweitz, fituated S. of the lake of Zurich. MARCHECK, or Manrex, a town of Autftria, on the Marfch; 14 miles N.W. of Prefburg. N. lat. 48° 15’. E. long. 16° 56!. MARCHENA, a town of Spain, in the province of Seville, fituated on a hill, having in its fuburbs the only well in the town or neighbourhood ; feven miles S. of Carmona. It was anciently called « Colonia Marcia.”’ MARCHENOIR, a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Loir and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrict of Blois; 15 miles N. of Blois. The place contains 421, and the canton 8340 inhabitants, on a terri- tory of 260 kiliometres, in 18 communes. MARCHERS, or Lords Marcuers, in our Old Writers, noblemen that lived on the marches of Wales, or Scotland. Thefe, in times paft, according to Camden, had their laws, and power of life and death, &c. like petty kings. But fuch powers were abolifhed by the ftat. 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 27, and 1 Edw. VI. cap. 10. MARCHES, Marcuia, from the German, march, i.e. limes, or from the French marque, viz. fignum, being the notorious diftinétion between two territories, are the limits between England and Wales, or Scotland ; which laft are divided into weit and middle marches. (4 Hen. V. cap. 7. 22 Edw. IV. cap. 8. 24 Hen. VIII. cap.9.) And there was formerly a court, called the court of the marches of Wales, where pleas of debt or damages, not above the value of sof. were tried and determined; and if the council of the marches held plea for debts above that fum, &c. a pro- hibition might be awarded. Marcues, Les, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of Mont Blanc; four miles W. of Mont- melian. ‘ MARCHESI, Lurct, in Biography, one of the greateit vocal performers which Italy has produced on the opera ftage fince the firft eftablifhment of the mufical drama, “i Tiv —— MAR rived in England in April, 1788. This finger, whofe ta- lents have been the fubje@t of praife and admiration in every great theatre of Europe, where mufical dramas are per- formed in the Italian language, firft appeared at Rome in 1774, in a female character, the ufual introduGtion of a young and promifing finger, with a foprano voice and beau- tiful perfon. In 1775, he performed the fecond man’s part at Milan with Pacchierotti, and at Venice with Millico ; but the fame year he was advanced to the principal cha- raéter at Trevifo. In 1776 and 1777, he fung as firft man at Munich and Padua; and in 1778, he had worked his way to the great theatre-of San Carlo at Naples, which is the criterion and poft of honour of an opera finger. He continued here two feafons, and has fince performed with increafing celebrity at Pifa, Genoa, Florence, Milan, Rome, Peterfburg, Vienna, and Turin. The « Giulio Sabino’’ of Sarti, was the firft opera in which Marchefi performed on our ftage. The elegant and beau- tiful mufic of this drama did not pleafe fo much here as it ought, and had done in other parts of Europe. Several of the fongs, indeed, had been previoufly fung here at concerts, and did not appear new. Marchefi’s ftyle of finging is not only elegant and refined to an uncommon de- gree, but often grand and full of dignity, particularly in his recitatives and occafional low notes. His variety of embellifhments and facility of running extempore divifions are truly marvellous. Many of his graces are new, ele- gant, and of his own invention ; and he muft have ftudied with intenfe application to enable himfelf to execute the divifions, and running fhakes from the bottom of his com- pafs to the top, even in a rapid feries of half notes. But befides his vocal powers, his performance on the itage is ex- tremely embellifhed by the beauty of his perfon, and grace and propriety of his geftures. We expected a great finger, but that does not always include a fine actor. 4 As Marchefi was the laft of three great fingers who appeared on our ftage at the latter end of the eighteenth century, and as each had his exclufive admirers, it would be difficult to draw a ftudied parallel between them to the fatisfaGtion of all parties; comparative praifes, as well as cenfure, would be thought invidious. But as we have re- ceived great pleafure from the talents of each of thefe exquifite performers, and never expe to find abilities ex- aéily fimilar in different fingers, we are always thankful for the good we find, and endeavour to hear the reft with can- dour. In difcriminating the feveral excellencies of thefe great per- formers, we fhould witheut hefitation fay, that Pacehierotti’s yoice was naturally {weet and touching ; that he had a fine fhake, an exquifite tafte, great fancy, anda divine expref- fion in pathetic fongs. ‘That Rubinelli’s voice was full, majeltic, and fteady ; and befides the accuracy of his into- nations, that he was parfimonious and judicious in his graces. And that Marchefi’s voice was elegant and flexible ;. that he was grand in recitative, and unbounded in fancy and embellifhments. All feem to have ftudied their art with great diligence during youth, and to read mufic as eafily as their native language. As ators: Pacchierotti feemed in earneft on the ftage, and confequently interefted the fpeétator. Rubinelli had great dignity in his deportment, though he difcovered but little fenfibility by his geftures or tone of voice. Mar- chefi, with an elegant figure and pleafing countenance, is at once graceful and intelligent in his demeanour and aétion. Marchefi has continued to fupport his character of a great MAR and refined finger, ever fince he quitted England fifteen years ago, and we believe {till continues to exercife his ta- lents on the ftage. When the French firft invaded the Milanefe, during the revolution, report fays that he was treated by the military with favage indignity, for declining to obey a peremptory order to fing to the Gallic general’s lady ; to which he felt a repugnance from gratitude to the Auitrian government, under which he had frequently refided, and been not only honourably but kindly treated. On his not inftantly obey- ing the ungracious order that was fent him, he was feized by a party of foldiers, who, to deface his perfonal charms, ee him of one eye-brow, and of half his fine head of lair. MARCHESINA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the department of the Montagna; 10 miles S.W. of Lecco. MARCHESVAN, in Chronology, the eighth month of the Jewith ecclefiaftical year, anfwering to part of our Oc- tober and November. MARCHET, or Marcnerra, a pecuniary fine, an- ciently paid by the tenant to his lord, for the marriage of one of the tenant’s daughters. This cuftom obtained, with fome difference, throughout all England and Wales, as alfo in Scotland ; and it ftill con- tinues to obtain in fome places. According to the cuftom of the manor of Dinover in Carmarthenfhire, every tenant, at the marriage of his daughter, pays ten fhillings to the lord, which, in the Britifh language, is called gwahr-merched, i. e. maid’s-fee. See AMABYR. In Scotland and the north parts of England, the cuftom was, for the lord to lie the firft night with the bride of his tenant; but this ufage was abrogated by king Malcolm LII. at the inftance of his queen; and, inftead thereof, a mark was paid by the bridegroom to the lord: whence it is called marcheta mulieris. See Boroucu-Lngli/h. MARCHETTI, La, in Biography, a finger from Bo- logna, engaged for the Pantheon in 1774. She had a powerful, brilliant, and fweet-toned voice, with which fhe might have become a finger of the firft clafs, if want of health had not prevented her from that perfevering practice, which is fo neceflary to the vanquifhing of vocal difficulties, Befides finging at the Pantheon during her refidence in England, fhe performed the fecond woman’s part in Sac- chini’s operas of ‘ Nitteti’’ and “ Perfeo.”’ Marcnertt, Peter px, a phyfician, was profeffor of anatomy at Padua, his native place, where he continued to teach that art from 1652 until 1669, when he was allowed to refign his chair to his fon Anthony. In the year 1661, he alfo obtained the appointment to the firft pro- fefforfhip of furgery, the duties of which he fulfilled at the fame time with thofe of his anatomical chair. His merits in thefe departments of the profeffion obtained fox him the honour of knighthood of the order of St. Mark. At the age of 80 years, he retired altogether from the univer- fity ; and, after having enjoyed a fhort period of repofe, he died in April 1673. He left the following works: « Ana- tomia,”’ in gto. Venice, 1654. ‘ Sylloge Obfervationum Medico-chirurgicarum rariorum,’’ Padua 1664, which was afterwards feveral times reprinted, and was tranflated into German. It contained fifty-three cales of fome intereft; and three traéts on ulcers, on fiftule of the urethra, and on {pina ventofa. His two fons, Dominic and ANrtHONY bE Mancnert, were likewife both profeffors in their native univerfity of Pa- dua. The former was author of a good compendium of anatomy, according to the judgment of Haller, which 323 patled MAR pafled through feveral editions, under the title of « Ana- tomia, cui Refponfiones ad Riolanum, Anatomicum Pa- rifienfem, in ipfius animadverfionibus contra Veflingium, addite funt,’? Padua 1652, &c. Eloy Di&. Hitt. de Med. Manrcuetty, ALEXANDER, a’ poet and mathematician, was born at Pontormo, in the Florentine territory, in the year 1632. Being deprived at a very early period of his father, he was intended for a mercantile life; but it being foon difcovered that he had decidedly a literary turn, he was placed with a profeffor of the civil law. This proved as little adapted to his tafte as trade; and he was fent by the kindnefs of Leopold, cardinal de Medici, to the univerfity at Pifa, where he purfued\his favourite fludies in belles lettres, in conjunction with philofophy and mathematics, in the latter of which he enjoyed the particular inftruétions of Borelli. He took a doétor’s degree in 1659, and became profeflor of logic in that univerfity, and alfo taught the ele- ments of geometry to a private clafs under Borelli. In 1669 he publifhed a mathematical work, entitled “ Refif- tentia Solidorum ;”’ and ina fhort time after, another with the more general title, “* Exercitationes Mechanic.” By the former he gained a high reputation; but the latter did not at all anfwer the expectations which he had raifed by the other. About the fame period he accomplifhed his tranflation of Lucretius, “‘ De Rerum Natura,” into Italian blank verfe, which has contributed more to eltablifh his fame than all his other pieces. It has been faid that it fur- paffes almoft every other claflical verfion in modern language, in dignity, elegance, and clearnefs. Marchetti was defirous of dedicating this performance to Cofmo III., great duke of Tufcany; but the piety of that prince was fo much fhocked by the impious doétrines of the Epicurean philo- fophy, that he not only refufed the dedication, but pro- hibited the publication of the work in his dominions ; and it was not printed till after the author’s death, by Paul Rolli, in the year 1717. It has fince been frequently reprinted, and is allowed a place among ftandard works of the kind, He died in the year 1714, in Lis eighty-third year. In his youth he had tranflated the firlt five books of the A®neid, and likewife the odes of Anacreon. He had alfo compofed feveral original poems, efpecially of the lyric kind, which were reckoned to poflefs great merit. Thefe and other pieces have been printed in colleétions of Italian poetry. Marchetti had a very high opinion of his own talents as a mathematician and philofopher; but he was, at the fame time, mild and eafy, and ready to do good offices to any perfons. He had been in habits of correfpondence with many literary chara&ters of diftinguifhed eminence. MARCHETTO ba Papova, an intelligent writer on mufic in the thirteenth century, of whofe works we found two inedited MSS., preferved in the Vatican library, N° 5322. The firft is entitled « Lucidarium Artis Mutice plane,” beginning, *¢ Cum inquit,””? &c.; and the fecond, 4s Pomerium Artis Mufice Menfurabilis: quatuor funt Caufe,’ &c. The Lucidarium is frequently mentioned by Franchinus, Pietre Aaron, and other old mufical writers of Italy. There was a copy of this laft-mentioned traét in the Am- brofian library at Milan, in 1770, D. 5, in folio, where it is faid to have been begun at Cefena, and finifhed at Verona, 1274: ‘¢ Luceidarium in Arte-Mufice plane, inchoatum Cefena, perfectumque Verone,”? 1274. ‘The copy of his works in the Vatican was dedicated to Charles, king of Sicily, about the year 1283: ‘* Marchettus Paduanus qui fuum opus Karolo Regi Sicilia dedicavit circa annum 3283, MAR We obtained large extraéts from this MS., as it contained the moft carly mention that we had met with of the diefis, or accidental j/harp, of chromatic counterpoint, difcords, and the proportions of fuch concords and difcords as are ufed by the moderns in practical harmony. His examples of counterpoint, in the MS. whence our extracts were made, like thofe of Franco, are written upon only one ftaff of four, five, fix, or more lines, according to the diftance of the intervals, with two clefs, one for the bafe, and one for the tenor or upper part, with this peculiarity of notation, that the notes of the upper part are written’in red ink, and the lower in d/acé. 4 This MS. contains many curious attempts at infant har- mony. Marchetto is the firft who fpeaks of difcords and their refolution; and lays it down as a rule, that no two fevenths, or fourths, ufed as difcords, fhould fucceed each other; and that after a difcord, the part which has offended the ear fhould make it amends by becoming a concord, while the other ftands ftill: indeed he never mentions the prepara- tion of difcords. Marcuerro Cara, an Italian finger, mentioned with Bidon, another contemporary vocal performer, with great eloge, by Caftiglione, in his *¢ Cortegiano,”? written about the beginning of the fixteenth century. What kind of fe- cular mufic the Italians cultivated, before the general ufe of counterpoint was eltablifhed, we know not; but we find in the Lives of their firft Painters, that many of them had been brought up to mufic, as a profeflion. Leonardo da Vinci was a great performer on feveral in{truments, and invented a new {pecies of lyre, in the fhape of a horfe’s fkull. (Da Tefchio di Cavallo. Wafari, Vite di Pitt.) Italy had like- wife, at this time, fingers with great talents for execution and expreflion ; for Cattiglione, Eeskins of the variety and power of contraft in the arts, obferves, that “ inftances of diffimilar things producing fimilar effeéts that are equally pleafing and meritorious may be given in them all; parti- cularly mutic, in which the movement is fometimes grave and majettic, and fometimes gay and animated, yet equally delightful to the hearer. Thus, in finging, what can be more different than the performance of Bidon.and Mar- chetto Cara? The one artificial, rapid, nervous, vehement, and impaffioned, elevates and inflames the foul of every hearer ; while the other, more gentle, pathetic, and infinu- ating, fooths, calms, and affeéts by a forrowful and tender f{weetnefs, which penetrates the heart, and affords it the moft exquifite pleafure of a different kind.” This deferip- tion the late Mr. Galliard (Tranflation of Tofi, p. 170.) has thought applicable to the different powers of the two reat female fingers, Fauftina and Cuzzoni, the fuperiority of whofe abilities was fo difputable when they performed on the fame ftage in England, 1727, that the patrons and friends of the one became inveterate enemies to thofe of the other. Great natural powers will fometimes aftonifh and charm without much affiltance from art; and fo late as the year 1547, Pietro Aaron (Lucidario in Mufica, fol. 31.) gives a litt ef fuch extraordinary performers as were able to fing by book, cantori a libro; by which we may fuppofe that the art was new and uncommon, And according to Tartini, (Trattato di Mufita, p. 17.) ‘The old Italian fongs being only made for a {ingle voice, were fimple in the highelt de- gree; partaking of the nature of recifative, but Jargo:’’ (as the gondoliers at Venice ftill fing the itanzas ot Taffo.) « None were confined to regular bars; and the key was determined by the kind and compai{s of voice that was to fing them.” However, during the fixteenth century, when the or ©. MAR of Paleftrina appeared, the Italians may with juftice be faid to have given in{tructions to the reft of Europe in counter- point, as, ever fince operas were eftablifhed, they have done in finging. MARCHI, Francis, a famous military engineer, who flourifhed in the fixteenth century, was a native of Bologna. He is chiefly known by a book, entitled “ Della Archi- te€tura Militaire,” which was publifhed in’ 1599, in folio. This, which contains 161 figures, is an extremely fcarce book; a circumftance that has been attributed, by fome Italian writers, to the fuppreffion of moft of its copies by certain French engineers, who paffed off his inventions for their own. It was probably a work of vaft labour, as it was begun in the year 1546, and was not compleated till after the death of the author. It is faid to contain the germ ‘of feveral contrivances, which have fince been adopted. The Italian writers maintain, that in it is to be -found the origin of Vauban’s method of fortification; but the French admit only a trifling refemblance between the two authors. Gen. Biog, MARCHIENNES, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Douay; 7 miles E.N.E. of Douay. The place contains 2309, and the canton 13,493 inhabitants, on a territory of 112% kiliometres, in 16 communes. MARCHING, in Mihtary Language. See Marcu and BarraLion. Maxcuine Regiments, a denomination given to thofe corps who had not any permanent quarters, but were liable to be fent not only from one extremity of Great Britain to another, but to the moit diftant of her poffeffions abroad. Although the term “ marching” is infenfibly confounded with thofe of ‘line’? and “ regulars,” it was originally meant to convey the notion of fomething more than a mere liability to be ordered upon any fervice; for by marching the regular troops from one town to another, the inhabitants, who from time immemorial have been jealous of a flanding army, loft their antipathy to real foldiers by the occafional abfence of regular troops. At prefent, the guards, militia, and fencibles, may be confidered more or lefs as marching regiments. The marines and volunteer corps have {tationary uarters, MARCHIONIS Putvis, in the Materia Medica, aterm nfed for a certain compound powder, prefcribed in the Ley- den Difpenfatory, and greatly recommended by many as an anti-epileptic and abforbent. The ingredients are, male piony-root, half an ounce, wood of mifletoe of the oak, rafpings of ivory, elks? hoof, {podium, the tooth of the unicorn-fith, or, in its ftead, the antlers of the ftag’s horn, red and white coral, and pearls, ofeach a dram. Thefe are all to be rubbed into a powder, with twenty leaves of pure gold, and given half a dram twice a day. MARCIAC, in Geography, a town of France, in the department of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG& of Mirande; 10 miles W. of Mirande. ‘The place contains 1479, and the canton 8008 inhabitants, on a terri- tory of 1774 kiliometres, in 22 communes. N,. lat. 43° 31’. E. long. 0° 14/. MARCIANA, a townof Etruria; 30 miles E. of Flo- rence. MARCIANISL, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 10 miles N. of Naples. MARCIANUS, in Biography, emperor of the Eait, was born of ob{cure parents about the year 391. His father ferved in the Roman army, into which he himfelf en- tered as a privace foldier, Owing to ficknefs, he quitted MAR the ftation in 421; and upon the return of his health, be repaired to Conftantinople, and enrolled himfelf among the troops commanded by Ardaburius, and his fon Afpar. By his talents and good condu& he was raifed to the poft of fecretary, in which quality he attended Afpar into Africa in 431. He was there taken prifoner by Genferic, who agreed, after a time, to liberate him upon a promife never more to ferve againft the Vandals. He foon attained the rank of tribune and fenator; and on the death of Theodofivs the younger, in 450, he was affociated in the-empire with Pulcheria. Attila was, at this time, threatening both em- pires. He had already fent an infolent meffage to the court of Conftantinople, demanding the annual tribute which had been extorted from the weaknefs of Theodofius. The newly crowned emperer was not to be fo treated; he boldly replied, «that he had gold for his friends, but had prepared fteel for his enemies.”” This determined fpirit was probably the reafon that Attila turned his arms againft the weftern enipire, rather than the eaftern. By the death of Pulcheria, he became fole poffeffor of the throne. He executed with the moft pious fidelity her laft wifhes, by which fhe left a vaft property to the church and the poor. After the death of Attila, feveral tribes of barbarians de- ferted the banners of his fons, and obtained permiffion from Marcianus to fettle in Thrace and Illyrium; which countries had been almoft depopulated by the incurfions of the Huns. He died, much regretted, in the year 457, after a reign of about fix years anda half. His piety and zeal in defence of orthodoxy were highly applauded by ecclefiattical writers: his rigorous edicts againft heretics, and his kind= nefs‘in recalling thofe who had been exiled on account of tenets which he efpoufed, gave hima high rank, and the title of faint in the Greek church; and he is entitled ta general praife for his having beltowed his promotions only on perfons of known abilities and unblemifhed character, whence the departments of the ftate were at all times filled with credit. Univer. Hift. Gibbon. MARCIGLIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 9 miles N.E. of Naples. MARCIGNY, a town of France, in the department of the Saone and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Charolles; 12 miles S.W. of Charolles. The place contains 2414, and the canton 10,403 inhabitants, on a territory of 200 kiliometres, in t2 communes, N. lat. 46°17’. E. long. 4° 7!. MARCILLOT, a town of France, in the department of the Allier, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Montlugon. The place contains 4414, and the canton 70,002 inhabitants, on a territory of 255 kiliometres, in 16 communes, MARCILLY a ta Hayer, a town of France, in the department of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Nogent-fur-Seine. ‘The place contains 488, and the canton 6049 inhabitants, on a territory of 400 kiliometres, in 24. communes. MARCIONITES, or Marcronists, Marcioniffe, in Lcclefiaftical Hiftory, a very ancient popular feét of heretics, who, in the time of St. Epiphanius, were fpread over Italy, Egypt, Paleltine, Syria, Arabia, Perfia, and other coun- tries: they were thus denominated from their author Mar cion. Marcion was of Pontus, the fon of a bifhop, and at firlt made profeffion of the monattic life; but he was excome municated by his own father, who would never admit him again into the communion of the church, net even on his repentance. The caufe of his father’s difpleafure is faid by Epiphanius to have been a criminal connection with a young womas > MARCIONITES. sroman; but Beaufobre and Lardner have alleged a variety of reafons that render this ftory incredible, and that lead them to fuppofe that it was a fabrication of Epiphanius, Beaufobre fuppofes that the crime of this herefiarch, for which his father expelled him from the church, was his errors, which he had began to publifh in his own country. On this excommunication, he abandoned his native land, and retired to Rome, where he became acquainted with Cerdon, and, as fome have faid, became his difciple; and adopting his opinions, zealoufly propagated them. _ Cave fuppofes that he came to Rome in the year 127; and that about the year 130 he became a follower of Cer- don, and an open heretic. According to Pagi, Marcion came to Rome after the death of Hyginus, which, he thinks, cannot be deferred beyond the year 141. But he had be- fore broached his opinions in Syria, probably in the reign of Adrian, or at leaft in the beginning of the reign of An- toninus the Pious. When he came to Rome, the fee was vacant by the death of Hyginus; but as the prefbyters did not receive him, he returned to Afia, and {pread his tenets with lefs difguife and greater zeal, about the year 144, where Tertullian and alfo Petavius place him. As Juftin Martyr wrote againft Marcion, and his ** Apology”’ was written in the time of the elder Antoninus, in the year 140, or not long after, it is reafonable to think, fays Dr. Lard- ner, that Marcion had appeared in the year 130, or very foon after; for Marcion had many followers when Juttin wrote that Apology: and when he fays that Marcion was Rill living, it is implied that he had made a figure for fome time. Marcion, according to ‘Theodoret, maintained the ex- iftence of four principles, or unbegotten fubftances, as his expreffion is: one the good God, and unknown, whom he alfo calls the father of our Lord Jefus Chrift; and the Creator, called by him juft, and fometimes evil; and, be- fides thefe, Matter, and the evil one that governs it. Some, as Epiphanius and Cyril of Jerufalem, atcribe to Marcion and his followers the do&rine of three principles; Auguf- tine fays, that he held two principles ; and Tertullian often afferts, that Marcion believed two gods, though not both equal. Dr. Lardner apprehends, that Marcion believed in only two eternals; the Supreme God the Father, who was good, and Matter; for, according to him, the Creator was from the Father; and the Devil, fomehow or other, fprang out of Matter, which he thought to be eternal. After the ex- ample of the oriental do&ors, fays Mofheim, the Marcionites held the exiftence of two principles ; the one perfeétly good, and the other perfe@ly evil: between thefe they imagined an intermediate kind of deity of a mixed nature, who was the creator of this inferior world, and the god and legiflator of the Jewifh nation, who wages perpetual war with the evil principle; and both the one and the other afpire to the place of the Supreme Being, and ambitioufly attempt to fubjeét to their authority all the inhabitants of the world. The Jews are the fubjeéts of that powerful genius who formed this globe: the other nations, who worfhipped a variety of gods, were fuppofed to be under the empire of the evil principle. Thefe two conflifting powers exercile oppreflions upon rational and immortal fouls; and, there- fore, the fupreme God the Father, who had alfo a world of his own making, but better than this, immaterial and invifible, in order to deliver them from bondage, fent to the Jews a being moft like unto himfelf, even his fon Jefus Chrift, clothed with a certain fhadowy refemblance of body, that he might be vifible to mortal eyes; whofe commiffion was to deftroy the empire of the evil principle, and of the author of this world, and to bring back wandering fouls to God. This celeftial meffenger was attacked by the prince of darknefs, and by the god of the Jews, but without effe&t ; fince, having a body only in appearance, he was thereby rendered incapable of fuffering. Thofe who follow the direétions of this celeftial conduétor, mortify the body by faftings and aufterities, and renounce the precepts of the god of the Jews, and of the prince of darknefs, fhall, after death, afcend to the manfions of felicity and perfection. The rule of manners which Marcion prefcribed to his fol- lowers was exceffively auftere, containing an exprefs pro- hibition of wedlock, wine, flefh, and all the external com- forts of life. See MAanicH@ans. Marcion denied the real birth, incarnation, and paffion of Jefus Chrift, and held them to be all apparent only. He denied the refurreétion of the body ; and allowed none to be baptized but thofe who preferved their continence ; but thefe, he granted, might be baptized three times. In many things, he followed the fentiments of the heretic €erdon, and rejected the law and the prophets. He pre- tended the gofpel had been corrupted by falfe prophets, and allowed none of the evangelifts but St. Luke, whom alfo he altered in many places, as well as the Epittles of St. Paul, a great many things in which he threw out. In his own copy of St. Luke, he threw out the two firft chapters entire. Some ancient writers fay, that the Marcionites held, as above ftated, two gods, one good, the other evil; but, as at other times they reprefent them, calling one good, the other a judge, or fevere: this muft be their meaning. Jerom fays, that Marcion taught Jefus to be the fon = the good God, that is, not of the fame God fpoken of in the prophets, who is there reprefented as cruel, righteous, juft, a judge, and the like. To the fame purpofe is the reprefentation of Cle- ment of Alexandria, upon whofe teltimony we may rely. The Marcionites fay, that nature, or the world, is evil, be- caufe it is made ef matter, which is evil in itfelf ; and that the world was made by the Creator, who is juft.. They are, therefore, fpoken of as having but low thoughts of this world on account of its being very imperfeét, and not worthy of the Supreme Deity; and yet, as Tertullian fays, they refpeGied the Creator. The Marcionites feem to have been led into their erroneous notion of dividing the Deity from refpe& to his attributes. For they thought, if a good God had made the world, he would have excluded from it fin and mifery, and that all men would have been both holy and happy. Their reafonings upon this point are given by Ter- tullian, as well as fome other arguments, deduced from the law, and other parts of the Old Teftament, to prove the being from whom that was derived, different from the fupreme or good God, Although, in fome inftances, they feem to blame juftice, denominating it feverity, and reprefenting it as incon- fiftent with the charaéter of goodnefs in God; and for this reafon feigning to themfelves another God, different from the Creator, a God of unmixed goodnefs; yet they allowed there would be a future judgment. But*then the Creator was to be the judge, whofe juitice they reprefented to be fo ftri& as to approach near to feverity. It feems alfo to appear from the teftimony of Tertullian, and fome other evidence, that the Marcionites did not allow the freedom of human aétions, but were believers in a kind of neceflity. They thought that the virtuous would be put into poffeflion of eternal hap- pinefs after their departure out of this world, and that the place of their enjoyment would be where the prefence of the good God was, and where Chrift their faviour fhould alfo refide ; but they did not allow that the body would be a partaker of this happinefs, or at leait they denied the re- furreétion of the fame body ; for which reafon they are cen- fured by Tertullian. According to the account given by 2 Epiphanius, MARCIONITES. Epiphanius, if we may depend upon it, Marcion taught the tran{migration of fouls from one body to the other; but this is contradi@ted by a paflage in Clemens Alexandrinus, which implies that this was not the opinion of the Marcionites. According to Ireneus, Marcion taught that when Chrift defcended into hell, he delivered many wicked people, but left there the patriarchs, and many other good men of the Old Teftament. Upon this ftatement Beaufobre has made many pertinent and juit obfervations. Marcion was fo far from believing that our Saviour was born of a virgin, that he did not allow he was born at all. He thought the Son of God affumed the exterior form of a man, and appeared as a man; and that, without being born, or gradually growing wp to the full ftature of a man, he fhewed himfelf at once in Galilee, as aman grown. His gofpel of St. Luke, it is thought, began with thefe words, «© Tn the 15th year of Tiberius, God defcended into Caper- naum, a city of Galilee.” And the Marcionites alfo fup- pofed, that at the firlt moment of his appearance in this world, he was completely fitted for entering on his great work, and that he immediately affumed the character of a Saviour. Although Marcion acknowledged Jefus to be Chrift, he denied his being the Chrift foretold by the Jewith prophets. The deliverer promifed to the Jewifh nation was not, as he pretended, the Son of God; nor did the oracles of the Old Teitament agree to Jefus Chrift. Marcion, fays Tertullian, was a believer in two Chrifts, one who appeared in the time of Tiberius, for the falvation of all nations ; and another the reftorer of the Jewilh ftate, who is yet to come. Marcion allowed the truth of our Saviour’s mi- racles, and thought them a fufficient foundation for believ- ing inhim. His doétrine concerning our Saviour was, that, from love to the human race, and for their fake he de- feended into this world, and fubmitted to great humili- ations. Although, as his followers did not acknowledge him to have had real flefh, it may be fuppofed that they did not allow him to have really fuffered, yet they believed that he was betrayed by the Jews, at the inftigation of their God the Creator, and that he died and was buried. They even faid that the death of the Meffiah was neceffary for the falvation of man, though they did not fuppofe it to be an expiatory facrifice. They mutt, likewife, have believed our Lord’s refurrection. From various teltimonies, and from the arguments alleged by Tertullian, it appears that the Marcionites believed the whole hiltory of our Sav our’s ap- pearance ina human form, and of his death on the crofs. hey alfo believed that he was crucified between two male- faétors : they moreover allowed the truth of the miraculous earthquake and darknels at the time of his crucifixion. They acknowledged his having twelve apoftles, and that one of them was a traitor. They alfo admitted the reality of the appearance of Mofes and Elias on the mount, and of that voice from heaven which faid, ‘* This is my beloved Son, hear him.’’ Their manners, as we have already faid, were itri€tly vir- tuous. ‘Tertullian hints, that none were admitted by them to baptifm and the eucharift, the obligation of which initi- tutions they allowed, unlefs they had taken an oath againft having any children, asif they meant it againft the Creator ; and Clement fuppofes that they abitained from marriage, that they might not people the world of the Creator, and that they offered themfelves voluntarily to martyrdom out of hatred to the Creator. On the fabbath, or feventh day, they falted, becaufe it had been a day of relt to the Creator, or God of the Jews, whom they defpifed. They permitted women to baptize, and they repeated baptifm feveral times wpon the fame perfon, if he happened to commit any fin after this rite had been adminiftered to him; and at the eucharift they ufed only water in the cup. They had among them churches for the ftated performance of public worthip. The Old Teftament was altogether fet afide by Marcion, under the notion that it proceeded from the Creator, who, in his eftimation, was dettitute of goodnefs, and the author of all that fin and mifery which fubfit in the world: and his followers agreed, that the law and the gofpe! could not come frem the fame being, becaufe there are, in their opi- nion, feveral things contained in the former inconfiftent with many in the latter. They objected to the appointment of facrifices, and to the diftinction of meats into clean and un- clean; and they were difpleafed with the order given to the Jews, to fpoil the Egyptians. ‘Tertullian fays, that they alleged fuch and fo many objeétions again{t the law and the prophets, that they feemed more like the objeGtions of Hea- thens than of perfons who embraced Chriltianity, though ever fo heretical in their notions. heir averfion to the Old Teftament was fo great, that on this account they mutilated many paflages in the New, even in thofe books which they admitted ; rejeéting all which related to the law and the prophets, or which were quoted from them, as plainly fore= telling the coming of Jefus Chrift, and which {poke of his Father as the Creator of the world Confidering this Cre- ator, or God of the Jews, as of a character very different from the good God or Father of our Lord Jefus Chritt, they afferted that Chrift came to dettroy the law given by him, becaufe it was oppofite to the gofpel. Marcion received but eleven books of the New Telta- ment, and thofe were ftrangely curtailed and altered. He divided them into two parts, calling the one the Gofpel, and the other the Apoftolicon. The former contained only one of the four gofpels, viz. that of St. Luke, and this was mutilated and altered, and interpolated in a great va- riety of places. Not allowing it to be called the gofpel of St. Luke, he retrenched the firit and fecond chapters en- trely, and began his gofpel at the firft verfe of the third chapter, and this verfe he read in a different manner from our copies, as we have already obferved. He rejeéted the genealogy and baptifm of our Saviour; and it, therefore, feems not unlikely that he conneéted that part of the firft and fecond verfes of the third chapter which he retained, with the 3a/t verfe of the fourth chapter. He alfo rejeGted the hiltory of the ‘emptation, becanfe he would not attri- bute too much of human weaknefs to our Saviour; and the other itory contained in the fourth chapter of Chrift’s go- ing into the fynagogue, at Nazareth, and reading out of the prophet Efaias, was alfo rejected. ‘This they expunged with the whole that follows it to the end of the 3oth verfe. But it would be tedious to enumerate all the alterations, or omiffions, or interpolations, which Marcion and his fol- lowers made in the gofpel of St. Luke. They are recited from Epiphanius by Dr. Lardner. We may obferve, how- ever, that a fuflicient number of paflages remain even in the copies of the Marcionites, to eltablifh the reality of the flefh and blood of Chriit, and to prove that the God of the Jews was his Father, and a being of confummate goode nefs. Marcion rejected the Acts of the Apoftles from his canon of the New Teftameat; his Apottolicon confilting of ten of the epiftles of St. Paul. The reafon why he re- jected this book is very obvious, according to Tertullian, becaufe from it we can plainly fhew, that the God of the Chriftians, and the Creator, or God of the Jews, were the fame being; and that Chrift was fent by him, and by no other.. The ten epiltles of St. Paul, admitted by Mara cion, are much altered. Thofe which he receives, in a very mutilated MAR mutilated fate, are the epiftles to the Galatians, the firft and fecond to the Corinthians, that to the Romans, the firft and fecond to the Theffalonians, and that to the Ephefians, which he calls the epiftle to the Laodiceans, and thofe to the Co- lofiians, to Plrilemon, and to the Philippians, After all it is juftly obferved by Lardner, that the teftimony even thus afforded in favour of the books of the New Teftament is very ftrong. ‘By means of this heretic’s rejecting fome books entirely, and mutilating others, the ancient Chriftians were led to examine into the evidence for thefe facred writings, and to compare copies together, and on this ac- count to fpeak of whole books, and particular paflages, very frequently in their works; which hath enabled us of later ages to authenticate thefe books, and to come at the genuine reading of many texts, in a better manner than we cold otherwife have done.’’ Lardner’s Works, vol. ix. Motheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. i. MARCITES, Marcirm, a fe& of heretics in the fe- cond century, who alfo called themfelves the perfect, and made profeflion of doing every thing with a great deal of liberty, and without any fear. This do@rine they borrowed from Simon Magus, who, snhowever, was not their chief; for they were called Marcites, from one Marcus, who conferred the priefthood, and the ad- miniftration of the facraments, on women. MARCK, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Pome- relia; 12 miles S.E. of Marienburg. MARCKLOE, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Bartenland ; fix miles N. of Raftenburg. MARCKOLSHEIM, a town of France, in the de- partment of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Barr; 23 miles S. of Strafburg. The place contains 3996, and the canton 15,644 inhabitants, on a territory of 924 kiliometres, in 13 communes. N. lat. Aso ine) Bong: ya sin eS MARC-_LAJAILLE, Sr., a town of France, in the department of the Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Ancenis. The place contains 1509, and the canton 5235 inhabitants, on a territory of 160 kiliometres, in feven communes. MARCLISSA, a town of Lufatia, near the confines of Gilefia; 15 miles S.E. of Gorlitz. MARCO, Sr., a town of Naples, in the province of Otranto ; five miles N. of Leece.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; 12 miles N.N.E. of Benevento.— Alfo, a town of Naples, in Capitanata; eight miles N. of Monte St. Angelo.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra, the fee of a bifhop, eight miles W.N.W. of Bifignano. —Alfo, a town of Spain, in Galicia ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Mondonedo.—Alo, a town of New Navarre ; 45 miles S.E. of Cafa Grande —Alfo, a town of Italy, in Friuli; nine miles W. of Wdina—Alfo, a town of Sicily, in the valley of Demona; x5 miles W. of Patti.—Alfo, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Iftria. N. lat. 44°4!. E. long. 13° 53'.— Alfo, a river of Eaft Florida which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 30° 3'. W. long. 81° 40!. MARCOING, a town of France, in the department of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Cambray. The place contains 1175, and the canton 14,957 inhabirants, on a territory of 2124 kiliometres, in 20 com- munes. MARCOSIANS, or ConarpastAns, an ancient fect in the church, making a branch of the Valentinians. St. Irenezus fpeaks at large of the leader of this fea, Marcus, who, it feems, was reputed a great magician, Mat- fuet computes that Mare appeared about the year 160. Bafnage, on the authority of Eufebius, who underitood MAR Treneus to fay that Mare appeared about the fame time with Valentinus, {peaks of him at the year 127, Many learned moderns are of opinion, that Mare belonged to the Valen- tinian fehool, and they formed this opinion on the teftimo- nies of Irenzus and Tertullian. Neverthelefs Rhenford and Beaufobre fay, that the Marcofians were Jews, or juda- izing Chriftians; and Grabe likewife owns that they were of Jewith extraét. Irenzus leads us to imagine that Marc, who was an Afiatic, had come into Gaul, and made many converts there. Neverthelefs, learned moderns think, that they were only difciples of Marc, who came into that country where Irenaus refided, of whom, in one place, he makes particular mention. Irengus reprefents him as ex- ceedingly fkilful in all magical arts, by means of which he had great fuccefs. Tertullian and Theodoret concur in callin Mare a magician. Irenzus, after giving an account of the magical arts of Marc, adds, that he had, probably, an affilting demon, by which he himfelf appears to prophefy, and which enabled others, efpecially women, to prophely likewife ; this practice favoured his feduétion of many fe- males, both in body and mind, which gained him much wealth. He is alfo faid to have made ufe of philters and love-potions, in order to gain the affeétions of women, and his difciples are charged with doing the fame. Dr. Lard- ner, with his ufual candour and impartiality, fuggefts fome doubts as to the juftice of thefe accufations, oie his reafons for queftioning their truth. : The Marcofians are faid to have placed a great deal of myftery in the letters of the alphabet, and thought that they were very ufeful in finding out the truth. They are charged unjuitly with holding two principles, and as if they were Docetz, and denied the refurreGtion of the dead ; for which there is no fufficient evidence. ‘They perfifted in the practice of baptifm and the eucharift. As'to their opinion concerning Jefus Chrift, they feem to have had a notion of the great dignity and excellence of his. perfon, or his inef- fable generation : and, according to them, he was born of Mary, a virgin, and the word was in him. When he came to the water, the fupreme power defcended upon him; and he had in him all fulnefs; for in him was the word, the father, truth, the church, and life. They faid that the Chrift, or the Spirit, came down upon the man Jefus. He made known the Father, and deftroyed death, and called himfelf the Son of Man; for it was the good pleafure of the Father of all that he fhould banifh ignorance and deitroy death : and the acknowledgment of him is the overthrow of ignorance. From the account of Ireneus, we may infer’ that the Marcofians believed the faéts recorded in the gof- pels, and that they received moft, or all the fcriptures of the Old and New Teftament. Ireneus alfo fays, that they had an innumerable multitude of apocryphal and fpurious writings, which they had forged: and that they made ufe of that fiction concerning the child Jefus, that when his matter bade him fay, alpha, the Lord did fo: but when the matter called him to fay beta, he anfwered, * Do you firft tell me what is alpha, and then I will tell you what beta is.’? As this ftory concerning alpha and beta is found in the gofpel of the infancy of Jefus Chrift, ftill in being, fome are of opinion, that this gofpel was eompofed by the Marcofians. Lardner’s Works, vol. ix. MARCOTZL, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia; 20 miles N.E. of Kralovavelika. MARCOUF, Sr., two rocky iflands in the Englith Channel, near the coalt of France, about nine miles S.E. of La Hogue. The furface of each ifland, which is 18 or 20 feet above the furface of the fea at high water, com- prifes about an acre, ‘They were taken poffeflion of in 1795s ae MAR 1795, by fir Sidney Smith; and, in the following year, block-houfes, with detachments of marines, invalids, and 12 artillery men, were ordered out by government. In the year ¥798, the French difpatched a very numerous body of troops on board 52 gun-veffels, in order to recover thefe iflands ; but after having made a vigorous attack, they were com- pelled to retreat to La Hogue, with the lofs of 1100 killed, drowned, and wounded; but on the fide of the Britifh only one killed, and two wounded. N. lat. 49°31’. W. long. 1° 4’. MARCOUSSIS, a town of France, in the department of the Seine and Oife; 15 miles S. of Paris. MARCULUS, among the Romans, a knocker, or in- ftrument of iron te knock at the doors with. MARCUS Hook, in Geography, a place of America, in Chefter county, Pennfylvania, on the W. fide of Delaware river; 20 miles below Philadelphia, containing about 30 families. Here are two rows of piers, or long wharfs, for defending veffels from the driving of ice in winter. MARCZA, a town of Autftrian Poland; 16 miles S. of Halicz. MARD te Branc, St., a town of France, in the de- partment of the [lie and Vilaine ; feven miles W. of Fou- eres. ; B Marp, St., or St. Medard, a town of France, in the department of the Forefts ; 33 miles W. of Luxemburg. Maro /ur le Mont, St., a town of France, in the depart- ment of the Marne; 12 miles S. of St. Menehould. Marps en Othe, a town of France, in the departmen of the Aube; 13 miles S.W. of Troyes. : MARDAG, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a name given by fome to litharge. The Arabian writers have fometimes called it by this name, and fometimes by that of mardefengi. Many of their commentators have thought that they meant two different fubftances by thefe two names; but it does not appear to be truly the cafe, the two words ftanding, in different writers, for the fame thing. Avicenna has given usa chapter on mardus, in which he has tranflated the chapter of Diofcorides on litharge: and Se- rapion has given usa chapter on the marde/engi, in which he has given us an account of the fame fubftance, under the terms that Galen ufes for the defcription of litharge, and even quotes him for the account. MARDAITES, in Lcclefiaflical Hiflory. NITES. MARDICK, in Geography, a {mall town, or rather vil- Jage, of France, in the department of the North, fituated near the coatt of the Englifh Channel ; three miles S.W. of Dunkirk. This place was once famous for its canal, con- ftruéted after the peace of Utrecht, by order of Louis XIV. This canal, 3338 toifes and two feet in length, com- menced at the canal of Bergues, near Dunkirk, and ex- tended with a breadth of between 25 and 30 toifes, no lefs than 1500 toifes from E. to W. in length, and then winded from S. to N., and at the diftance cf 300 toifes farther it had a fluice with two bafins in it, one of which was 44 feet broad, for the reception of large veffels, and the sie 26 feet broad, for the accommodation of thofe that were {mall. It afterwards extended ‘till farther to the main fea. Many of the works con{truéted in this canal were deftroyed in con- fequence of a treaty with England in the year 1717, and no others were to be ereGied on that coaft within fix miles of Dunkirk and Mardick. MARDJE, a town of Egypt, fituated on a fpot abounding with palm trees; fix miles N.E. of Cairo. MARDIKERS, or Torassgs, a breed of Dutch, Pore Vou, XXII. See Maro- MAR tuguefe, Indians, and other natives, incorporated with the Dutch, at Batavia, probably deriving their name from Mar- dick, or Mardika, the fubje& of the above article. As the Dutch adventurers formed the leading party when Batavia was taken poffeffion of, the natives attached the appella- tion to all perfons of European defcent or conneétion, MARDIN. See Merny. MARE, Nicuoras pE LA, in Biography, was born about the year 1641, and was, in after life, a commiffioner of the Chatelet during the {pace of forty years. In confideration of his great zeal in the king’s fervice, he was made fteward of the houfhold of the count of Vermandois, and after the death of that prince, he had a penfion for his life. He was employed in various important commiffions relative to the revenue, and made feveral journies to the provinces on public occafions, in which he acquitted himfelf to general fatisfaction. He died in 1723, and was author of a work of high merit, entitled « Traité de la Police,’? 3 vols. folio, 1705—19. This contains a detailed account of the eltablifhment of ‘the police in France; the funétions and Beg ale of its magiftrates, its regulations, &c. A ourth volume was added in 1738, by M. le Clere de Brillet. Moreri. Mare, Puiviert pe LA, a literary charaéter, and coun- fellor of the parliament of Dijon, who flourifhed in the 17th century. He was author of feveral works in the Latin language, taking that of De Thou as an example, which were well received by the public. The chief of thefe is entitled «* Commentarius de Bello Burgundico apud Se- quanos,” containing a relation of the war of 1636. Ina fecond edition by his fon Philip, in 1689, is given a cata- logue of writers on the hiftory of Burgundy. M. Mare compofed a number of biographical fketches, chiefly of li- terary chara¢ters, and he left in MS. Memoirs of the public tranfactions from the year 1673, to his death, Moreri. Mare, in Rural Economy, the female of the horfe kind of animal. Mares intended for the purpofe of breeding, fhould be felected with great care and attention, fo as to be as free as poffible from faults or imperfections in their forms, and be well fuited in their kind to the purpofes for which they are defigned. The practice of making ufe of fuch mares as may happen to be on the farm fhould never be adopted, as it is prejudicial to the raifing of good horfe ftock. The particular direétions regarding the kinds of horfes to be bred, are thefe: if for the manege, or pads, the mares fhould have their heads well fet on, and their breafts broad; their legs not too long, their eyes bright aod {parkling, and bodies large enough, that the foal may have room to lie in their belly. They fhould be ofa good and gentle difpofition, and their motions eafy and graceful : the more good qualities the mares have, the better, in general, the colts will prove. If the owner would breed for racing, or for hunting, the mares mult be chofen lighter, with fhort backs and long fides ; their legs mult be longer, and the breaft not fo broad ; and fuch fhould always be chofen as have good blood in their veins, If the fpeed and wind of any parti- cular mare have been tried, and found good, there is the more certainty of a good colt from her; but fhe fhould be in full health and vigour at the time, and not above feyen years old, or eight at the utmoft. The younger the breedere are, the better, in general, the colts will be. Mares may be put tothe horfe when three years old, but it is 4 better practice to defer it a year longer, where it can be done with convenience, Some advife mares to be kept in 4A the MAR the houfe fome time before they are put to the horfe, but this feems of little confequence when they are in proper health. The belt feafon for putting mares to the horfes is in the {pring, about April or May, in order that the foals may be dropped fufficiently early, which is of confequence in their rearing afterwards. The length of time that they ufually go with foal is about eleven months, which is a circumftance that fhould be kept in the mind of the breeder, though there are often confider- able deviations. Mares fhould always be kept well while in foal, in order to have a tine healthy offspring. The cuftom of performing much work with the mares while in foal is improper, as being attended with danger, as well as liable to check the growth of the foals: when this is practifed with farm mares, they fhould only be gently wrought, and that with great care and attention. See Horse. ’ Marg, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of Scotland. N. lat. 56° 14’. W. long. 5° 45’. MAREB, a river of Africa, which rifes in Abyflinia, about fixty miles N.E. of Axum, and joins the Tecazzé, in the country of Nubia, 100 miles before its junGion with the Nile. Manresg, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen, and capital of the diftri€ of Bellad es Scheref. Its fheriff poffeffes this town with fome adjacent villages. The town confilts of only about 300 poor houfes ; fituated 16 leagues N.E. of Sana. It was known to the ancients by the name of « Mariaba,” as the capital of the Sabaans; and in its vicinity are ruins, pretended to be the remains of the palace of queen Balkis. The Sabzans had a famous refervoir for water, called by the Arabs “ Sitte Mareb,” which was a narrow valley between two ranges of hills, and a day’s journey in length. Six or feven {mall rivers meet in that valley, fome of which contain fifh, and their waters flow through the year; but others are dry, except in the rainy feafon. For confining the waters in this feafon, the entrance into the valley was fhut up by a high and thick wall, and as outlets through which the water thus collected might be con- veyed, in the time of drought, for watering the neighbour- ing fields, three large flood-gates’ were formed in the wall, one above another. The wall was 50 feet high, and built of large hewn ftones. Its ruins are ftill vifible. The tra- dition that the city of Mareb was deftroyed by a deluge, oc- cafioned by the fudden burfting of the wall, is fabulous. This accident, however, proved fatal to the city, by rendering the neighbouring fields wafte and barren, fo that it was thus left without the means of fubfiftence. The prince who for- merly reigned over Mariaba was a powerful prince; but Mareb is now the abode of a poor fheriff, who is hardly able to withftand the encroachments of feeble neighbours. Niebuhr. MARECA,, in Ornithology, the name of a Brafilian fpecies of duck, much valued there at table. It is of the fhape of our duck; its head is grey, but has a beautiful red {pot on each fide, at the infertion of the beak, and a whitenefs in the lower part under the eyes; its breaft and belly are of the colour of frefh-cut oak, variegated with black fpots; its legs and feet are black; its tail grey; and its wings ele- gantly variegated with grey and brown; but they have in the middle a large mixture of that gloffy green, which we fee in the necks of our drakes. ‘There is, befides this, an- other fpecies of the mareca, which is of a dufky olive- coloured brown on the back, white on the throat, and grey MAR on the breaft and belly, and very remarkable for the fine bright red colour of its feet. See Duck. MARECHAL. See Marsuat. MARECHAUX, Cape, in Geography, a cape which forms the north-eaft fide of the bay of Jacmel in St. Do- mingo. N. lat. 18° 18. MARECHITES, a denomination of Indians, who in- habit the banks of the river St. John, and around Paf- famaquaiidy bay, in North America. To this clafs of Indians belong about 140 fighting men. MARECKAN, one of the fouthern Kurile iflands, in the North Pacific ocean, about 30 miles long, called by the Ruffians ‘ Chimouchis.” N, lat. 47° 5’. E. long. 152° oO. MAREGORIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, about 15 miles long and 5 broad. S. lat. 0° 36’. E. long. 127? 18! MAREILLAC, a town of France, in the department of Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of Rodeés. The place contains 1216, and the canton 10,453 inhabitants, on a territory of 2524 kiliometres, in 1§ com- munes, MARELLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; a1 miles S.S.W. of Ongole. MAREMMES, Les, a diftri&t of the Sienna, in Etruria, divided into Maremma di qua, and Maremma di la; the former on the ealt, the latter on the weft fide of the river Ombrone; both bounded by the fea on the fouth. The foil is fertile, but the air is reckoned unwholefome. MARENA, in Ichthyology. See Sarmo Marenula. MARENGO, in Geography, one of the fix departments into which Piedmont was divided, after it was united to the French republic, Aug. 26, 1802: it is compofed of Mont- ferrat, Alexandria, Tortoneze, and Laumelline, and is bounded on the north by a part of Italy and the department of the Sefia, on the eaft by Parma, on the fouth by Genoa, and on the weft by the departments of the Tanaro and Doire. This department lies in N. lat. 44° 50/, and con- tains 181 fquare leagues, and 231,954 inhabitants. It is divided into five circles or diftriéts, viz. Cafal, containing 108,926 inhabitants; Alexandria, 76,081; Voghere, 67,2933; Bobbio, 21,288; and Tortone, 48,366. This department, lying between the Po and the Ligurian re- public, is hilly, but fertile, yielding all forts of grain, fruits, wine, and excellent paftures. There are iron mines in the vicinity of Serravalle. This department derives its name from that of a village, four miles eaft of Alexandria, which was rendered famous by a fevere and fanguinary battle fought there June 14th 1800, that terminated in fub- jeting Piedmont and Lombardy to the dominion of the French. This battle was commenced by the Autftrians, who compelled the centre ef the French army, though ably fupported, to fall back. The Auttrians advanced upon Marengo with a movement that produced dreadful carnage, and gaining frefh reinforcements, they took pofleffion of the village ; part of the centre of the French having given way, and fled in diforder from the field of battle. The right wing, thus infulated, was attacked by two lines of infantry, which marched again{t it with a formidable artillery ; and the retreat of the centre obliged it, after vigorous refiflance, to follow the fame movement. Nothing could fave the French army, in thefe defperate circumftances, but the body of referve under general Defaix, which was not yet ready for a€tion; Buonaparte, in order to gain time, having re- tarded its movement. ‘The retreat of the French was made under the fire of 80 pieces of artillery; and though the i carnage MAR carnage was horrible, they kept their ranks, and inftantly replaced thofe who fell with frefh troops. Victory now feemed to declare in favour of the Auftrians, whofe numerous and excellent cavalry covered the plain, fup- ported by feveral {quadrons of light artillery, and threatened to turnthe army. At this criticalmoment, the grenadiers of the confular guard marched to fupport the right, which was the only coiumn that had held firm. They advanced, and like a wall of granite, as they were called at the time, fuftain- ed three fucceflive charges. At the fame inftant, Monnier’s divifion, which formed part of the corps de referve, was ordered to attack the battalions which protected the Auftrian cavalry, part of which was purfuing the centre and left of the French. On the plain of St. Juliano, the referve under Defaix was drawn up in two lines, fupported on the right and left by the artillery under Marmont, and by the cavalry under Kellerman. Behind this corps the fugitives of the centre and left formed : and the prefence of Buonaparte, who flew from rank to rank, reanimated the foldiers, and at four in the afternoon, the battle which had raged for feven hours was about torecommence. The Autftrians, apprehending themfelves fure of victory, after having routed two-thirds of the French army and ready to furround the remainder, had not taken any account of a divifion that had not yet been attacked. They had therefore improvidently wafted their ftrength, and fcattered their battalions in the ardour. of pur- fuit. Buonaparte perceived the advantages which this ardour on the part of the enemy had given him. Defaix, at the head of his legion, rufhed forward with impetuofity among the victorious battalions, charging them with the bayonet ; the remainder of the divifion followed this movement, and the whole army, catching the enthufiafm, advanced at the pas-de-charge. The Anftrians, overwhelmed with afto- nifhment at this fudden explofion, withdrew their artillery, and the infantry began to give way. At this critical mo- ment Defaix fell; but the lofs of this brave officer, inftead of difconcerting, roufed the ardour of the troops into a fury, in order to avenge his death ; but the bayonet, which had driven back the tirft line of the Auttrians, could not pierce the fecond. The refiftance of the Auttrians topping the French in their career, rendered the event of the day ftill doubtful ; but its tate was decided by Gen. Kellerman, who, ordering a charge of cavalry, threw the Auitrians into dif- order, and made a whole divifion prifoners, to the number of 6000 men, among whom were feveral generals, and almoft all the officers of the ftaff. A third line of infantry yet re- mained as a corps de referve, fupported by the reit of the artillery, and the whole of the cavalry. Againft this laft divifion the right wing of the French advanced with the gre- nadiers of the confular guard, and part of the referve under Baudet, and fupported by the artillery under the command of Marmont. The Auttrian line [till maintained its ground ; put the French cavalry under Murat, having charged the Auftrian cavalry, this latter gave way precipitately, and was completely routed ; fo that night fcarcely put a ltop to the purfuit and carnage. The Trench boaft of having wounded, killed, and taken prifoners, 15,000 men ; the victory on their part, it muit be acknowledged, was fignal, but their lofs was probably equal to that of the army with which they contended. Many traits of heroifm were exhi- bited on occalion of this battle, and many confequences re- fulted from it which will render it memorable in the page of hiltory. Cruttwell. MARENNE, a town of France, in the department of the Stura; 4 miles N.N.E. of Savigliano, MARENNES, a town of France, and principal place MAR of a diftri&, in the department of the Lower Charente, at the mouth of the Seudre ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Rochefort. The place contains 4633, and the canton 9950 inhabitants, ona territory of 215 kiliometres, in fix communes. The prin- cipal article of its trade is falt. N. lat. 45° 49'. W. long. Tek MARENZIO, Lwvea, in Biography, an eminent and fa- vourite Italian mufical compofer, who flourithed during the latter end of the fixteenth century. This ingenious and fertile author, who diitinguifhed himfelf chiefly as a madri- galift, was born at Concaglia, in the diocefe of Brefcia, and the fcholar of Giovanni Contini, who was himfelf a volumi- nous compofer: having, in 1565, publifhed Cantic.ies, 6 vocum ; Introitus et Halleluja, 5 vocum, for fettivals ; Hymnos, 4 vocum; Threnos Hieremiz, 4 vocum, for Paffion-week ; and a Miferere, in four parts. The inclination of his difciple Marenzio leading him very early to the compofition of madrigals, he cultivated that ftyle more fuccefsfully than any of his predeceffors, and the number he compofed is prodigious. At Venice, between the years 1587 and 1601, were printed nine books of his madri- gals, for five voices; the two laft were pofthumous. Be- fides thefe, this author compofed fix books of madrigals, in fix parts. Madrigals for three voices ; another fet for five, and {till another for fix voices, different from all the former. Canzonets for the lute. Motetti, a 4, & Sacras Can- tiones, 5, 6, ac 7 Vocibus modulandus. All thefe works were firlt printed at Venice; and afterwards at Antwerp, and many of them in London, to Englith words ; fee «* Mu- fica Tranfalpina,”? two books, and a colleGtion of Italian madrigals, with Englifh words, publifhed in 1589, by Thomas Watfon. Quadrio,t. ii. p. ii. p. 324, gives a long litt of his Villanelle, a 3 voci ; and Draudius, p- 1614, of his motets, a 4, for all the feftivals throughout the year. Ven. 1588. Et ejufd. Completorium & Antiphone, a 6, 1595- Of the madrigal ftyle he was called in Italy, é/ piu dolce Cig- no; and the proud antagonift of Nanino, Sebattian Raval, the Spaniard, who was editor of fome of his works, ftyles him a divine compofer. He was fome time maeftro di cae pella to cardinal Luigi d’Efte; and, according to Adami and others, careffed and patronifed by many princes and great perfonages, particularly the king of Poland and cardinal Cinthio Aldobrandini, nephew to pope Clement VIII. Upon his return to Rome, after quitting Poland, he was admitted into the pope’s chapel, and dying in that city, 1599, he was buried in the church of St. Lo- renzo, in Lucina. Adami Offerv. per ben regolar il Coro Pontif. Our countryman, Peacham, in his Complete Gentleman, {peaks of his delicious afre and {weet invention in madrigals ; and fays, ‘* that he excelled all other whatfoever, havin publifhed more fets than any author elfe, and hath not anill fong.”” Adding, that ‘ his firft, fecond, and third parts of Thyrfis, ‘ Veggio dolce il mio ben, &c.’ are fongs the Mufes themfelves might not have been afhamed to have compofed.’’ To all this we can readily fub{cribe, and will not difpute his ftature, or the colour of his hair, when he further tells us, that ** he wasa little black man,’ but where he afferts that ‘he was organift of the pope’s chapel at Rome a good while,”’ he lofes all credence with us ; as there never yet was an organ in the papal chapel ; nor is it likely, however great his mufical merit may have been, that the niece of any reigning pope could have been fent for to Po- land, with fo little ceremony, as he tells us, inthe charaéter of alutenift and finger, in order to gratify the curiofity of 4A2 his MAR his Polifh majefty, and the affe€tion of Luca Marenzio. In- deed, the whole account favours of hear-fay evidence and abfurdity ; and is fo much the more incredible, as no other mufical writers, who were eager to record every memorial they could procure concerning Luca Marenzio, have ven- tured to relate thefe circumftances. There are no madrigals fo agreeable to the ear, or amufing to the eye, as thofe of this ingenious and fertile compofer. The fubjeéts of fugue, imitation, and attack, are traits of elegant and _pleafing melody ; which, though they feem fe- leéted with the utmolt care for the fake of the words they are toexprefs, yet fo artful are the texture and difpofition of the parts, that the general harmony and effect of the whole are as complete and unembarrafled as if he had been writing in plain counterpoint, without poetry or con- trivance. The firft fet of his madrigals for five voices, however, feems the moft elaborate ; the fugues and imitations here are more ingenious and frequent than in his other works, He ‘has, indeed, in thofe of later date more melody ; but as yet there was too little to compenfate for the want of contrivance. Whoever takes the trouble to {core and examine this fet, will difcover marks of real genius with refpe& to harmony and modulation, with many attempts at melody of a more grace- ful kind than is to be found in the works of his contempora- ries : as we may reafonably conclude this to have been one of his early produétions, of nearly the middle of the fixteenth century. We have never met with more than one entire movement, in triple time, among all the works of this excellent compo- fer; and that is in the eighth fet for five voices, ‘* La mia Clori e brunetta.’ Ina colleétion of his madrigals for fix yoices, publifhed at Antwerp, 1594, fome of the move- ments are gay and fpirited, and contain paflages that con- tinued in fafhion more than a hundred years after publication, as appears by the ufe that Purcell and Handel have made of them; and indeed there are others which modern Italians ‘have not difdained to adopt. The words of his ninth book of five-part madrigals are all from the Canzoniere of Petrarca, and of thefe the compefi- tion feems the molt free and fanciful of all his works. Though the madrigals of the fixteenth century appear now fo grave as to be fearcely diftinguifhable from the mufic of the church, yet the matters of that period had very dif- tint and charaéteriltic rules for compofing in both ftyles. Pietro Pontio, who had himfelf produced many that were excellent, in giving inftructions for compofing madrigals, fays, that “ the fubjeéts of fugue and imitation in themthould be fhort, and the notes of a quicker kind, and more’ fynco- pated than in church mufic ; otherwife they would not be madrigals.@ The parts likewife fhould frequently move toge- ther; but the greateit care fhould be taken to exprefs the fenfe of the words as exa@tly as mufical imitation will allow, not only by quick aad flow paflages, or notes afcending and de- {cending occafionally, but by modulation, which, when the fentiment of the poet implies harfhnefs, cruelty, pain, for- row, or even joy, pleafure, or the like, will affilt the expref- fion more than fingle notes.”’ Here‘he refers to the fourth madrigal of Orlando di Laffo (book i.) for an example of the happy expreffion of words. Though .compofers were now very timid in the ufe of flats, fharps, and tranfpofed keys, yet licences were taken in madrigals which were inadmiflible in mufic 2 capella. In the eighth madrigal of Luca Maren- zio’s ninth book, a 5, Solo e penfofo, a bold.and curious com- pofition, the upper part alcends from the key-note G to A, the ninth above by a feries of fifteen femitones, and then defcends 4 MAR from A to D by the fame intervals. "The anfwer to fubjeéts propofed in madrigals were more imitations than regular re- plies, according to the ftrié& laws of fugue ; yet, with refpe& to the melody of the fhort paflages or mufical fentences which were ufed, and the harmony with which they are accompa- nied, great pains feem to have been taken in polifhing both. Indeed, as this wasthe chief mufic of the chamber, where it is probable the critics and lovers of mufic attended, for neither public concerts nor operas had as yet exiftence, there can be no doubt but that every refinement was beftowed on this fpecies of compofition, which the ideas of mufical per- fection could then fuggett. MAREOTIS, in Geography, a lake of Egypt, S. of Alex- andria, which is become almoil dry, though occafionally, as it is faid, moiftened by inlets from the fea. “This lake, fays Sa- vary, whofe banks were covered with papyrus and date- trees, is no longer in exiftence, becaufe the Turks have ne- gleéted to preferve the canals which conveyed the waters of the Nile. Belon, who travelled in Egypt fome years after the conquelt of the Ottomans, affures us, that in his time lake Mareotis was only at half a league's diftance from the walls of Alexandria, and that it was furrounded by forefts of palm-trees. “¢ At the moment of my writing, ({ays the fame traveller, ) itis entirely occupied by the fands of Lybia. Thefe deplorable changes mutt be attributed to the deftruc- tive government of the Turks.” See ALEXANDRIA. ARESIGO, atown of Iftria; four miles S. of Capo d’ Tftria. MARETIMO, an ifland of the Mediterranean, near the — W. coaft of Sicily, about 22 miles in circumference, contain- ing a chateau and fome farms, 15 miles W. of ‘Trapani. N. lat. 38° 4!. E. long. 12° 15’. In this ifland, as well as Fa- voyanna, both belonging to the king of Naples, he ufed to banifh his ftate-prifoners. MARETS, Roxanp pes, in Biography, a native of Pa- ris, was born in 1594: he pleaded fome time as an advocate at the French bar, tll, difgufted with the contentions of the profeflion, he retired to a iife of literary repofe, and died in 1653. He was celebrated for an excellent {killin criticifm, and for his knowledge in the Latin tongue. He wrote a num- ber of Latin'letters on literary topics, which were publifhed after his death by M. de Launoy, under the title of “« Ro- an Marefii Epiftolarum philologicarum, Lib. ii.”” Moreri. ayle. Marets bE St. Sortin, Joun pes, brother of the pre- ceding, a man of letters of a fingular charaGter, was born at Paris intsg5. He very early diftinguifhed himfelf by the livelinefs of his parts, and was in great favour with car- dinal Richelieu, whom he ufed to aflift in his literary pro- duGtions. In recompence for his labours he had conferred on him the polts of comptroller-general of the war extraordi- naries, and fecretary-general of the marine of the Levant. He was one of the firft members of the French Aca- demy, and made himfelf known by a variety of ¢ompofi- tions in poetry andromance. He was likewifle a writer, and his molt popular piece is the comedy of *¢ Les Vifionnaires.”” He led a very licentious life, but in old age he became a devotee and fanatic, and was a bitter enemy of the Janfen- ifts, whom he attacked in writings full of extravagance. He applied the prophecies in the book of Revelations to ‘Lewis XIV., who, according to his account of the matter, was at the head of 144,000 men to deflroy herefy and Ma- hometani'm, and bring the whole world to the profeffion of the true faith. He died in 1676, at the age of eighty-one. Bayle. “MAREUIL, in Geography, atown of France, in the de- partmest MAR artment of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Montron; 21 miles N. W. of Periguenx. The place contains 755, andthe canton 9320 inhabitants, on a territory of 210 kiliometres, in 18 communes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Vendée, and chief place of acanton, in the diftriét of Fontenay-le-Comte ; five miles N. of Lugon, The place contains 240, and the canton 4239 inhabitants, on a territory of 160 kiliometres, in 17 communes. MARGA, Marte. See Marte. Marea, S#., in Geography, a {mall ifland of Hungary, in the Danube; so miles S. of Buda. MARGAB, or Marcus, 4 river of Perfia, which rifes about 30 miles E. from Herat, and lofes itfelf in the earth near Hamadan. MARGAMARGA, a river of Chili, which runs into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 33°. MARGAMI, a town of Japan, inthe ifland of Xicoco ; 8 miles N. of Ovith. MARGARET, in Biography, queen of Denmark, Nor- way, and Sweden, daughter of Waldemar III., king of Denmark, was \born in 1353: fhe was married, while very young, to Haquin, king of Norway, and fon of Magnus, king of Sweden. At her father’s death, in 1375, fhe was a widow, and her fon Olaus, then only nine years of age, was chofen king of Denmark and Norway, fhe being ap- pointed the regent. In 1387, Olaus died, leaving the male line of the three northern crowns extinét. Margaret was unanimoufly elected to the crown of Denmark, and after- wards to that of Norway. ‘The States urged her to enter into the matrimonial conneétion a fecond time, in order to prevent any difputes with regard to the fucceffion of the crown, but the declined the propofal, and nominated for her fucceffor apparent, the neareft of blood of the royal family, viz. Henry of Pomerania, from that time called Eric. Henry, duke of Mecklenburg, brother to Albert, king of Sweden, declared himfelf a competitor with Margaret, and engaged Albert in his caufe. Preparations for war were made on both fides ; a decifive battle was fought, in which Albert was defeated and made prifoner, and Margaret was prefented with the crown of Sweden. In 1395 fhe was fo- Jemnly crowned queen of the three northern kingdoms, She caufed Eric to be confirmed and acknowleged as her fue- ceffor, procured a redemption of the crown land alienated by Albert in Sweden, and adopted a number of prudent re- gulations for the confirmation of her authority, and the heal- ing of animofiies. She was particularly attentive to the adminiftration of jufticein her dominions, and to the enforce- ment of the laws upon allranks of her fubje&ts. She pro- tected and encouraged commerce, by providing for the;fecu- rity and good. treatment of foreign merchants reforting to her ports, and employed the moft vigorous means of fuppreffing piracy. In 1397 was concluded the famous union of Cal- mar, by which the three northern kingdoms were declared to be indiffolubly united under one head, who fhould be chofen fucceflively by each of the three, and then confirmed at an affembly of the whole, and fhould {pend his time equally be- tween them, applying the revenue of each to its own expen- diture. Other regulations alfo were enaéted for the mainte- vnance of the equal rights and privileges of the three king- doms, and the prevention of difputes. Notwithftanding, however, all the care that was taken on the fubjeét, this trea- ty proved the fruitful fource of wars and diflentions for fe- veral centuries. ‘Anattempt was foon after made to recover the ifle of Gothland from the Teutonic knights. There were likewife difputes with the houfe of Holftein, which MAR had been fuffered to gain poffeffion of Slefwick, and thefe continued, with little intermiffion, during the remainder of the reign. Margaret, by the vigour of her adminiftration, re- tained her full authority at home, and made herfelf refpected abroad. She was lefs friendly to her Swedifh fubjeéts than to thofe of Denmark, on which account the nobles of Sweden, in a body, prefented a remonftrance on the violations of their rights, to which fhe haughtily and imprudently replied, that “they might guard them with as much vigilance as fhe would keep the fortrefles of the kingdom.” She died in 1412, af- ter areign, including the regency, of thirty-fix years. From the extent of her dominion, the policy of her adminiftration, and perhaps from a fufpicion of irregularity in her morals, fhe obtained the title of the «* Semiramis of the North.” That fhe pofleffed the qualities of indultry, activity, fteadi- nefs, and refolution, there can be no doubt, and it is faid fhe hada natural eloquence fitted to imprefs a public aflembly. Univer. Hift. MARGARET 9g Anjou, celebrated in the hiftory of England, was the daughter of René, titular king of Si- cily, Naples, and Jerufalem, defcended from the count of Anjou, brother of Charles V. of France. Brought up in a court without power or rule, her natural ftrength of mind was not enfeebled by early indulgence, and fhe became diltinguifhed as the moft accomplifhed young princefs of her time, when fhe was fixed upon by cardinal Beaufort and his friends as wife of Henry VI. of England. Upon her marriage fhe threw herfelf into the hands of that party which had been the means of her elevation, and to her difgrace it has been charged upon her that fhe was a¢tually privy to the murder of Humphrey, duke of Gloucetter. The reign of Henry VI., at this time, was difquieted by rancorous and contending factions, and in 1454, while the national difcontents were rifing to a crifis, Margaret was deli- vered of a fon, and fhe was, almoit immediately upon her re- covery, called upon to exert herfelf in refifting the Yorkifts, who had gained the viétory of St. Alban’s. Henry was made prifoner, but his confort was not difpirited ; fhe raifed troops, and fupported the royal caufe with fo much {pirit, that fhe was able to reftore her hufband to a nominal fovereignty, and effect a favourable compromife. In 1459, the war was re- newed, when Henry feil again into the power of his enemies, and the queen, with her infant, was glad to efcape firft to Durham, and then into Scotland, whence returning to the north of England, fhe engaged the nobles and great men who lived in that part in her caufe, and foon by their meanscol- le&ted a powerfularmy. With this fhe met the duke of York at Waketield in the month of December 1460, and gave him a total defeat. ‘The duke was flain, and his head, by the exprefs command of the queen, was cut off, and placed on the gates of the city of York, being firft crowned, in deri- fion, with a paper diadem. After this fhe was again victo- rious in feveral actions, and in 1461 recovered the perfon of the king. In every inftance fhe difplayed a fanguinary and reyengeful difpofition towards thofe who fell into her hands, and again{t whom fhe bore any ill-will, The approach of Ed- ward with a fuperior force obliged her again to retreat to the north, and that prince was elevated to the throne by the people of London, an event which feemed to give a fatal blow to the hopes of the houfe of Lancafter. In the month of March, the molt bloody of all thefe battles was fought at Towton, in Yorkfhire, in which the Lancaftrians were totally defeated, and Margaret and Henry made a hafty re- treat into Scotland. After this fhe went over to France, to {eek that affiftance from the French which fhe had in vain fo- licited from her nearer neighbours the Scotch. For this pyre pofe MAR pofe fhe propofed to deliver Calais to the French king on the event of Henry’s being reftored to the crown, and on this condition fhe obtained two thoufand men at arms, with which fhe was allowed te land in Scotland. Here fhe was joined by others in her own intereft, and proceeded to Hex- ham, in Northumberland, where fhe was met by a force un- der lord Montacute, who routed and totally difperfed her troops. Margaret with her fon fled into a foreit, where fhe was defcried by a band of robbers, who {tripped her of her jewels, and treated her perfon with great indignity. Fortu- nately fhe efcaped while her plunderers were quarrelling about the booty, and penetrating into the depth of the foreft, fhe wandered about till fhe was exhaufted with fatigue and ter- rer. ‘At length, feeing a man approach with a drawn f{word, fhe fummoned refolution enough to go out to meet him, fay- ing, * here friend, I commit to you the fon of your king, for that protection which T am unable to afford him.” The man, though a robber, was difarmed of every ill intention by the confidence which was repofed in him, and devoted himfelf to their fervice. After concealing them fome time in the woods, and providing for their fupport, he conduéted them in fafety to the fea-coaft, whence they took an oppor- tunity of efcaping into Flanders. She lived feveral years in retirement, while her hufband continued a prifoner in the Tower of Londen. At length, in 1470, fhe was encouraged to joia the earl of Warwick, who had commenced a rebel- lion againtt Edward, which ended in that change of affairs which obliged the king to quit his country, and take refuge in Flanders. Margaret, with the view of feconding his ef- forts, landed at Weymouth witha {mall body of French troops, and on that day, the 14*h of April 1471, the bat- tle fought at Barnet put anend to the hfe of Warwick and the hopes of the confederacy. Margaret, relying fill on her good fortune, once more encountered the victorious Ed- ward at Tewkefbury, where fhe fuffered a total defeat, and was with her fon taken pri‘oner; the la'ter was flain an cold blood by the mercilefs conquerors. Margaret was thrown into the Tower of London, in which her hufband about that time perifhed ; fhe was afterwards ranfomed by Lewis XI., and retired into France, where fhe died in 1482. She un- derwent more changes of furtune, and fuffered a larger por- tio. of calamities, than can fearcely be parallelled in the hiftory of crowned females. Her great talents and unfub- dued {pirit excited general admiration, while her fanguinary and ferocious difpoftion, and the preference which fhe was inclined a* all times to give to her native country, rendered her an<.bject of abhorrence to the greater part of the Eng- lifh nation. Shak{peare, whofe luftorical plays are the echoof popu ar opinion, defcribes her in very dark colours, and gs deftitute of all the tendernefs and modefty of her fex. Hame’s Hitt. of England. Marcaret of Valois, queen of Navarre, filter to Francis L., king of France, was born at Angouléme im the year 1492. She married the duke of Alengop.in 150g, and became a widow in 1525. When her brother was prifoner in Spain, and