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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Untversal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XXXII.

THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

or

Arts, Sciences, and Literature,

BY
ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

SS ——Ee
IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXII.

I

LONDON:
Paintep For LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parenrnosrer-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELI,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, K. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND ©0.,

J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

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; 2

CYCLOP ZEDI4A:

OR,

A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

eS Ven SC rE N-C E'S.

COTLAND, in Geogrohy, an ancient, and formerly an
independent kingdom, put now conftituting an integral
of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; is

shel exclufive of sts iflads, between 54° 37! and 58° 42!
north latitude, and betweent® 47' and 6° 7! weft longitude,
from London. It is boundd on the fouth by the Solwa
frith, and the rivers Efk, lark, Liddel, and Tweed, which
divide it from England; on the ea(t and north by the
Northern ocean ; and on th weit by the waters of the At-
lantic. Its greateft lengtt in a direétion due north and
es HG miles, and its reateft breadth 147 miles; but
its br is extremely vasus, and in’ one place does not
exceed 36 miles. Accordir to calculation, the fuperficial
contents of the mainland aunt to 25,520 fquare miles of
land, {quare miles of frea-water lakes, and 5000 {quare
miles of falt-water lochs, orakes. The iflands, which are
a claffed under two wifions, the Hebrides on the
* weft, and the Orkney anc Zetland iflands towards the
north, comprehend an areaf 4224 fquare miles, fo that
_ Scotland, with its lakes anciflands, exclufive of its bays,
: a furface of 30,238 fuare miles. Politically {peak-
ing, it ah ey 33 countieswhich are named in the fequel
under the Parliamenta entation, and contains,
to the population edfus
and eee inhabitants.

Hiflorical Events.—The biory of Scotland, previous to
the union of the two crowns,1as been divided by Dr. Ro-
bertfon into four Serer 3 thfirit reaching from the moft
remote ages to the reign oiKenneth II.; the fecond,
fron Kenneth’s conqueft of t! Pi@s to the death of Alex-
ander III.; the third, fronthat event to the death of
James V.; and the lait, thee to the advancement of
- James VI. to the throne of ugland. The firft of thefe
periods, obferves the fame auvr, is the region of pure fa-

Vor. XXXII.

1811, 317,763 houfes,

SCOTLAND. ,

ble; truth begins to dawn in the fecond period with a lighr,
feeble at firft, but gradually increafing: the events which then
happened may be flightly touched, but merit no laborious
inquiry. Inthe third period, Scottish hiitory, chiefly by means
of records preferved in England, becomes more authentic ;
not only are events related, but their caufes and effects ex-
plained ; the charaéters of the ators are difplayed ; the
manners of the age defcribed ; and the revolutions in the con-
ititution pointed out. During the fourth period, the af-
fairs of Scotland were fo much mingled with thofe of other
nations ; its fituation in the political ftate of Europe was fo
important ; its influence on the operations of neighbouring
kingdoms was fo vifible ; that its hiftory becomes an obje¢t
of attention, not merely to Scot{men but to foreigners: as,
without fome knowledge of the various and extraordi
revolutions which happened there, it would be impoffible for
them to form a juft notion with refpe& either to the great
tranfactions, or the diftinguifhed characters, of the fixteenth
century.

After a minute examination of nearly all the works which
have been written refpecting the early hiltory of Scotland,
it is impraéticable to unravel the myttery in which it is in-
volved, and to feparate authenticated faét from ingenious
conjecture. Inthe prefent article, therefore, we fhall advert
to the firft periods only in a general way, and hall dilate our
narrative, in proportion as events become more certain, im-
portant, and interefting.

Hiflory of the Firft Period.—It is agreed by Pinkerton and
Chalmers, though on moft other points they materially
differ, that the aboriginal inhabitants of Caledonia were a
colony of the Celtz, who are generally allowed to have been
the firft poffeffors of weftern Europe. Refpecting the era
of their arrival in North Britain, and the route by which
they reached the country, —s is known ; nor has record,

or

SCOTLAND.

or tradition, preferved to us the {malleft trace of their hif-
tory, till the period of Agricola’s invafion, when their de-
{cendants appear to have been divided into twenty-one diftinét
clans, called by the Romans the Ottadini, Gadeni, Selgove,
Novantii, Damnii, Horeftii, Venricones, Taixali, Vacomagi,
Albani, Attacotti, Caledonii, Cante, Logi, Carnabii, Ca-
tini, Merte, Carnonace, Creones, Cerones, and Epidit.
Thefe various: tribes, who are ufually mentioned in the
Latin writers by the generic name of Caledonians, on the
advance of the Romans into their country, united under the
authority of Galgacus, one of their moft powerful chief-
tains, to refift their progrefs. The utmott efforts of va-
lour, however, proved unavailing again{t the military fiill
of the great Agricola, and the difcipline of the legionary
troops. In his firft campaign in North Britain, A.D. 80,
that celebrated general penetrated, according to Tacitus,
as far as the river Tay ; and in the year following he con-
{tru€&ted a chain of forts between the friths of Clyde and
Forth, within which he had retired for the protection of the
fouthern country againft the inroads of the free tribes of
the North. The fummer of 82 was employed in fubduing
and fecuring the diftri& which extends from the Solway to
the Clyde. Thus freed from the danger of a flank attack,
he again pafled the Forth, and advanced, without oppofition,
as far as Loch Leven, eftablifhing, as he proceeded, military
pofts to keep the inhabitants in fubjeétion. Thefe pofts the
Caledonians had the hardihood to attack; and by this dif-
play of daring intrepidity, feem to have ftruck great terror
into the Roman foldiers. In this dilemma, Agricola di-
vided his army into three bodies, and puthed forward the
weakeft to Lochore, where he ordered it to encamp, while
he ftationed the other two at fhort diftances on the right
and left. ‘The Caledonians, perceiving the Romans thus
feparated, made a vigorous attack during the night on the
intrenchments at Lochore, and had already entered the camp,
when Agricola arrived with the light troops of the other
divifions, and, after a furious combat, repulfed the aflailants,
and forced them to a diforderly and precipitate flight. This
vidtory, though dearly bought, infpired the Romans with
renewed ardour; but it did not intimidate the Caledonians,
who magnanimoully refolved to difpute every foot of ground
with the invaders. Agricola confequently found fufficient
employment during the remainder of the year in fubduing
the Horettii, the inhabitants of the ifthmus between the Tay
and the Forth. The following year he advanced to the bafe
of the Grampian mountains, where the Caledonian warriors
lay encamped and prepared to receive him. The battle
which enfued was contefted with the moft obftinate valour,
but at length terminated in the complete overthrow of the
latter. . Agricola, however, feems to have derived little ad-
vantage from his victory, for after a few days {pent in afcer-
taining the condition of the enemy, he led his troops back to
the country of the Horeftii, and terminated the campaign.
The Caledonians immediately advanced, and demolifhed all
the forts in the territories which the Romans had abandoned.
Agricola, in the interim, ordered the commander of the
Roman navy to fail round Britain, on a voyage of difcovery,
and with the defiga of intimidation. This voyage was hap-
pily accomplifhed, by the return of the fleet to the Forth,
before the commencement of winter. With thefe remarkable
exploits the campaigns of Agricola terminated ; for, having
excited the jealoufy of the emperor Domitian, by the fplen-
dour of his achievements, he wae foon afterwards recalled
to Kome. :
From this period to A.D. 120, the Roman authors are
entirely filent refpeGting the affairs of Britain; but from an
incidental expreffion in- Tacitus, fome later writers have

fuppofed that, during that interval, the Caledonians fuc-
ceeded in recovering the country conquered by Agricola, as
far as the Solway on the weit, and Tynemouth on the eaft.
This opinion feems to receive fome confirmation from the
fact, that when the emperor Adrian vilited our ifland in the
year laft mentioned, he caufed a rampart to be conftru@ed
between thefe two eituaries, ** which has in every age been
a monument of his power, and a memorial of his circum{pec-
tion.”’? Chalmers, however, contends that this meafure was
merely precautionary, and that the Roman legions ftill held all
the country fouth of the Forth and Clyde. The emperor, on
his departure, left Julius Severus as his lieutenant in Britain,
who does not appear to have attempted any military exploit,
Antoninus, who aflumed the purple on the death of Adrian,
named Lollius Urbicus to the chief government of the ifland;
an officer who equally poffeffed talents for peace, anda genius
for war. Having tranquillized fome infurre€tionary move-
ments in the fouth, he carried his arms from the Forth to
the Varar, and fettled {tations in| the intermediate country ;
throwing the whole of that extefive diftri& into the form
ofa Roman province. Under hii direGtions was conftru&ted
the rampart of Antoninus (naw called Grimes’ dyke),
which extends from Caer-riden m the Forth, to Alcluid on
the Clyde, a diftance of thirty-ix miles, fix hundred and
twenty paces. Several military loads, and numerous ftations
and encampments, were likewifeformed in all the provinces,
both of North and South Britan. Lollius was fucceeded
in his government by Calphurnus Agricola, during whofe
time the Romans abandoned all te country north of Grimes?
dyke. Chalmers afferts that tlis retreat was not the con-
fgpence of weaknefs, but fimpljof choice. It neverthelefs
in{pired the unconquered tribes with frefh vigour. Breaking
through the barriers of Antonnus, they pillaged a large
traét within thet boundary, an( put numbers of the Ro-
mans to the {word ; but Ulfius Marcellus foon drove them
back again into their own territries. They renewed their
inroads again in the year 200, wth better fuccefs ; and for
fome years afterwards feem to hye made fuch progrefs, as
to induce the emperor Severus t aflume the government of
Britain in perfon. On his ae at the head of a larger
army than had ever before vilite(this ifland, the Caledonian
tribes fued for peace, but Sevens rejecied their propofals.
The particulars of his expeditin into Caledonia are very
imperfeétly narrated. It is clez, however, that he pene-
trated as far to the northwar¢as the frith of Cromarty,
though, as Dion aflures us, withte lofs of no lefs than 50,000
men. Before he fet out, he onitructed a wall from the
Solway to the Tyne, parallel yth the rampart of Adrian,
in order to facilitate his retreath the event of difafter.

On the return of Severus taYork, he left his fon Cara-
calla in the government of Nort Britain ; whofe condué& is
faid to have incited the Caledjians to aéts of agegreffion.
Irritated at this, the aged emtror iffued orders to renew
the war, and to {pare neither/ge nor fex ; but his death,
and the conteft for the empire }tween his fons, feem to have
prevented their execution. all events, it is certain that
Caracalla made peace with t} Caledonians, and gave up
to them all the country northard of the Forth and Clyde.
From this period, for nearly, century, we hear nothing
re{pecting the Caledonians, w}) may therefore be prefumed
to have made no ferious attepts to mole{t the romanized
Britons. At length, howevejabout the year 306, we are
informed that the emperor Comins found it neceflary to come
into Britain to repel ** the Calejnians and other Piéts.”’ This,
Chalmers affirms, is the firft\me the Pi&ts are mentioned
in hiftory, and contends thathe Caledonians were on this
occafion called Picts, “‘owing) their peculiar feclufion from
the

SCOTLAND.

incials on the fouth of the walls.’ Pinker-
omega hand, maintains, that they were a Scythian
colony, who had fled themfelves of the eaftern coatt of
Scotland before the Chriftian era; but his opinion is not
fu

by evidence or probability.

flantius having driven back the Caledonians, and other
Pidts, within their own territories, retired to York, where he
died July 25, A.D. 306. Almottforty years clapfed before
were again able to infeft the territories of the roman-
eed Britons, though the empire was haraffed by civil
wars. In 343, however, they made fome inroads, but were
foon repelled, and the provinciel again enjoyed peace for
feventeen At the clofe of that period, when Conftan-
tine and Julian noe seating fir the imperial fway, the
Scots and Piéts made a formidalle attack upon the pro-
vinees. Lupicinus, an able office, was fent to oppofe them,
but does not feem to have effectei the object of his miffion,
This is the firft time the Scots se mentioned in the pages
of Roman flory. Ammianus, inwhofe work they are no-
ticed, joins them with the Piéts, a if they formed one army,
thou had no connection whatever by neighbourhood,
lineage, or interefts : they were, § fact, an erratic people of

Ireland, who were much accufbmed to naval predato

excurfions againit the Roman e incials during the fourt
and fifth centuries, but they bd no territories in North

364,

ive than

P
and deftru

the wall of Antonine, whi

within it into a province, by the
indeed, was the gy sie his % } :
his precautionary meafures for © maintenance of peace,
that the Scots and Piéts did not ¢e to renew their aggref-
fions tll the year 398, and evenhen they were eafily re-
The Roman empire, hcever, was now rapidly

on the decline. In 407, the revoof the troops in Britain
transferred the government to Gtian, and after his death
to Conftantine, who conveyed t y with him into Gaul.
The Britith provincials, thus left |a manner to themfelves,
affumed a fort of independence, whh was fanétioned by the

Such,
ions, and the wifdom of

t,’? to quote the words
n occafioned them to
-D. 422, though the
troops, the provincials
nm againft the defultory
could be more eafily
n is faid to have been
the invaders, 3, for the laft time, re-
i overawed the Pictith

provincials were again told, in a more defponding tone, that
they mutt rely on their own efforts for their future govern.
ment and offen defence. The abdication which Ho.
norius feemed willing to make in A.D. 409, AStius thus
ery completely efieéted in A.D, 446." Caledonia,
vol, i.
After the final departure of the Romans, North’ Britain
was occupied by two races of men, the Pi@s, and the
romanized Britons of the province of Valentis, ‘The latter,
fome authors contend, united themfelves under one ruler to
refifl the inroads of the Piéts, and thus formed the kingdom
of Cumbria, or Strathcluyd. Of the exiftence of fuch
a monarchy, however, within the limits of proper Scotland,
is much room to doubt. At all events, it is very im.
probable that this new nation was able to confine the Piéts
within their ancient boundaries. On the contrary, it is moit
likely that the Piéts, in conjunétion with the Scots from Ire.
land, conquered and occupied the greater part of Valentia.
At a later date, the Anglo-Saxons of Northumberland
polleffed themfelves of the ealtern coatt of that province ; but
it does not appear certain that the Lothians ever were inte-

- gral portions of the Northumbrian or Bernician monarchy ;

though they might be fora time annexed to it by temporary
conquett from the Piéts. Sce Srxaruciuyp.

Several ancient Scotti{h writers, upon the authority of
monkifh legends, contend that their anceflors firft fettled in
Argyle 330 years before the Chriftian era; and they give a lift
of kings, and a narrative of their ations, from that remote
period. Later inveitigations, however, have fhewn that thefe
details are moft probably fictitious, and that the Scots did pot
colonize any part of prefent Scotland till the year A.D. 503,
when a body of them paffed over from the north of Ireland,
their proper country, and fixed themfelves in the diflri@ of
the Britifh Epidii, which they denominated Caentir. Thefe
colonilts were led by Loarn, Fergus, and Angus, the three
fons of Erc, a chieftain or petty tad of Dalriada, viz. the
portion of Rhiada in Uliter, whence the Scots were fome-
times called Dalriads. The derivation of the name Scot is
uncertain, but the moft plaufible opinion is, that it was a
corruption of the word /ceite, which fignifies in Irith dif-
perfed or feattered, and was therefore applied generally to
denote the roving tribes who had habituated themfelves to
maritime excurfions againft the weftern fhores of romanized
Britain.

Chalmers juitly obferves, that there fcarcely occurs a period
of hiftory fo perplexed and obfeured as the annals of the
Scoto-Irith, from the date ef their fertlement in Argyle, till
their afcendancy over the Pi@tsin 843. This confufion and
obfcurity originated in the want of contemporaneous writin
and were afterwards greatly increafed, by the contetts of
Trifh and Scottifh antiquaries for pre-eminence in antiquity as
well asinfame. Inthe fitter ifland, however, there have hap-
pily been preferved various documents, particularly the annals
of Tigernich and Uliter, which throw many flathes of light on
the tranfaétions of that dark era. Several brief chronicles and
hittorical documents, calculated to elucidate the fame fubj &,
have likewife been brought into notice by Innes; and Pink -
ton firft publifhed a Gaelic poem, which profefles to give a
genealogical account of the Scoto-Inth kings. From an
attentive confideration of all thefe, and from an accurate
examination of other documents, Chalmers compiled his
genealogicaland chronological table of the Scottifh monarchs,
to Kenneth inclufive, from which it appears that they were
twenty-nine in number, and occupied by their united reigns
a ape of 340 years. The firft was Fergus, who became
fole chieftain, or king of the new colonifts, foon after their
arrival. He died in 506, leaving his power and pretenfions

B 2 to

SCOTLAND.

to his fon Domangart, who reigned five years, and then
tranf{mitted his dominions to his eldeft fon, Comgal. This
prince enjoyed his fovereignty twenty-four years, during
which time he had leifyre to extend his dominions and con-
folidate his authority. Dying in 535, he was fucceeded by
his brother Gawran, to the exclufion of his own fon, Conal.
Gawran reigned twenty-two years, and engaged in a war
againtt the Piéts, which terminated in his defeat and death.
Conal then obtained the feeptre, and held it for fourteen years.
Aidan, the fon of Gawran, next claimed it; but Duncha,
the fon of Conal, oppofed his pre terfions. The bloody field
ef Loro, in which Duncha fell, put an end to the difpute,
and gave Aidan poifeffion of the crown. He was inaugurated
by St. Columba in 574, on the holy iland of Jona; and
proved himfelf, throughout a reign of thirty-five years, to be
a prince of great enterprize. He extended his dominions along
the weltern coaft of VWalentia, which had been feized upon
and colonized by various tribes of “ Sceites” from Ireland,
by confolidating the whole of them under his fuperior {way.
In 577, having advanced into Cumberland, he engaged
Rydderch, king of Cumbria, but the battle feems to have
been indecifive. He afterwards entered into a league offenfive
and defenfive with the Cumbrian monarch again{t the Saxons,
who were defeated with great flaughter at Sianmore, mn
Wreitmoreland. Buchanan afferts this was a league as well
againit the Pits as the Saxons, and further intimates, that
Aidan was monarch of the diltri@, now included in the
counties of Renfrew, Ayr, Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and
Dumfries ; and this view of the fubje& certainly bears the
itamp of greater probability than the opinion which confines
his territories to the ifthmus of Cantire and the neighbour-
ing iflands. Adan, according to all the writers who treat of
his reign, fought feveral battles again{ft the Saxons, in molt
of which he was victorious; but in the year 603, he was
completely defeated by Ethelfrid, king of Northumbria,
at the battle of Dawitane, in Roxburghfhire. ‘This difatter,
joined to the death of St. Columba, his kinfman and friend,
fo much affeéted him, that he died in the fecond year there-
after, at the advanced age of eighty, and was buried in the
chapel of Ciaran at Campbeltown. The fucceffor of Aidan
was Eocha-bui, called by Buchanan Eugeninus, who, accord-
ing to Chalmers, carried on a fuccefsful warfare againit
the Cruithne of Ireland; but the Scottifh hiltorian mentions
only that he harafled the Piéts and Saxons by continued
incurfions. Eocha died in 621, and had for his fueceffor
Kenneth the Aukward, his fon. This prince is faid to have
profecuted the Infh war begun by his father with great
vigour, till his death, which happened in the unfortunate
confliGt of Fedhaevin, when he had fcarcely reigned three
months. Ferchard, the fon of Eogan, of the race of
Loarn, next obtained the throne. Chalmers fays he reigned
fixteen years, but left no events for hiftory to recount.
Buchanan, however, affirms that he was a great tyrant, and
that the nobility, irritated at his oppreffions, and at the
circumftance of his embracing the Pelagian herefy, con-
fpired againft him, and threw him into prifon, where he laid
violént hands on bimfelf. His fueceflor was Donald, who,
as Chalmers informs us, invaded Ireland with an army com-
poled of Scots, Picts, Britons, and Saxons, but was totally
defeated on the plain of Moyrath in 637, and compelled to
feek fhelter in Cantire. Donald, however, continues our
author, derived no wifdom from this difafter, for in the
following year he attacked the Pitts, and was again over-
thrown with great flaughter. He was ultimately flain at
Straith-Carmac, by Hoan, one of the reguli of Strathcluyd,
in the year 642. Suchisthe hiftory of Donald, as given by
Chalmers, but not a word on the fubjeét either of Irifh or

PiGith wars occurs in Buchanan. By that hiftorian, on the
contrary, he is reprefented as an excellent man, the protec»
tor of Ofwald, afterwards king of Northumberland, during
the misfortunes of his early life, and his afliftant in more
fortunate times, in the propagation of the Chriftian religion
among his htathen fubjects.

From this period to the year 736, the events of Scottifh
hitory are fo involved and fo unimportant, that we fhall
pafs them over in filence, remarking only, that nine kings
reigned in the interval, whofe names are thus recorded by
Chalmers; Conal TI., Donal-duin his fon, Mal-duin, Ferchar-
fada, Eocha-rineval, Ainbhceallach, Selwach, Eocha III.,
and Muredach. The lat monarch had been unwillingly
drawn into hoftilities wilh the Pi&ts, and tranfmitted their
enmity to his fucceflor, Foghan, or Ewan, a feeble prince,
who died in 739, when fodhfin feized the fceptre, and foon
evinced himfelf equal to tlz arduous tafk of government, even
in the moft troublefome tines. In 740 he boldly encountered
the mighty Ungus, king a the Picts, and forced him to quit
his territories. Aodhfin ied foon after, having reigned with
greater glory than any of .is predeceflors, for the long period
of thirty years. He lefthis kingdom, but not his talente,
to his fon Fergus, who’eigned about three years, whilft
that of his fucceflor, Selach I1., lafted twenty-four years.
The government of Koaa IV., or as he is called by Bu-
chanan, Achaius, the nex king, was marked by feveral im-
portant tranfactions. Sme authors affert that he formed
an alliance with Charlemane, and inftituted the moft ancient
order of the Thiftle, but oth thefe ftatements are erroneous.
Itis true, however, thathe entered into a treaty of great
importance to himfelf, h children, and his country, for he
made peace with the Pits, and received the hand of Ur-
gulia,y daughter of Urgis, and filter of Conftantine and
Ungus, all of which in frceffion {wayed the Pictith fceptre,
Eocha died in 826, aftr a reign of thirty years. Bu-
chanan fays, that the {cceffor of Eocha was Congallus,
but Chalmers makes nonention of this monarch, aflerting
that Dungal, the fon ofelvach II., obtained the throne on
the death of Eocha. EF died in 833, when Alpin, the fon
of Eucha and Urguis, ws acknowledged king. Chalmers,
who does not admit thecottifh monarchs to have poflefled,
even in this reign, antterritories beyond the diftri@ of
Cantire, and the diipute tracts of Argyle and Lorn, ftates
that Alpin, ambitious f reigning over ricuer people and
more extenfive domain landed on the coa{t of Ayr in
836, and penetrated aonfiderable way into the country,
but was at length deated and flain near the {cite of
Laicht caftle, on the céines of Galloway. Buchanan, on
the other hand, affertshat Alpin fell in a battle fought ©
near Dundee againft theiéts. Kenneth, the fon of Alpin,
next fueceeded to the rone, and waging war againft the
Pidts, after feveral obflate battles overthrew their govern-
ment, and united the twrival monarchies into one kingdom,
under the name of Stland, an event.which brings us to
the clofe of the firft pod of Scottifh hittory.

Hiflory of the SeconPeriod.—Kenneth, having thus ac-
complifhed the union che two kingdoms, endeavoured by
every means in his per to render that union permanent.
He enacted many excent laws for the better adminiftra-
tion of the governmi, and removed the ftone chair in
which the kings of Siland were wont to be crowned from
‘Argyle to Scone. ter a reign of twenty-three years,
fixteen of which he ed over his new monarchy, he died
in 854, when Donalhis brother, was proclaimed king.
This prince relaxed 1 public difcipline eftablifhed by his
predeceffor, and gavimfelf up to the moft fhameful ex-
cefles. The Piéts r in open rebellion againft his au-

thority,

of Scotland. He afterwards

SCOTLAND.

thority, and formed alliances with Ofbreth and Ailla,
monarchs of two of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms adjoinin
Scotland. ‘Thefe princes entered Merch with a powerfu
army i and from thence difpatched heralds to Donald, re-
quiring him to re-eltablith the Piéifh monarchy. Donald,
roufed by a fenfe of his danger, marched againtt them, and
totally defeated their united forces on the Jed, a river of
Teviotdale. ‘This victory enabled him to recover Berwick and
all the territory to the north of the Tweed; but his fuccefs
was of very fhort duration, for having indulged too far the
natural licentioufnels of his troops, the Englith took ad-
save of their carelefsnefs, fet upon them in the night,
them with great daughter, and made Donald prifoner.
The enemy afterwards advanced to the Forth, which they
attempted to crofs in fhips, when a violent ftorm arofe, and
occafioned the wreck of half of their fleet. This event fo
weakened their forces, that they were induced to conclude a
with the Scots, upon the condition of their abandon-
tg all the country fouthward of the Forth and Clyde.
OF the Picts nothing was {aid in the treaty, and hence mott
of them, deceived in their hopes, pafled over into Denmark
and Norway. Donald, having returned from captivity, {till
continued his voluptuous conduct, which fo exafperated the
nobles, that they committed him to prifon, where he laid
violent hands himfelf in the year 858. Such is the
account of 3 but Chalmers {peaks of him with
praife, and fays that he died at the palace of Balachoir in
the year 863, and was buried at [colm-kill.
_ Conttantine, fon of the great Kenneth, now mounted the
throne. Being a prince of great valour and lofty fpirit, fays
Buchanan, he was anxious to eradicate the ignominy which

Douald had brought upon the kingdom, and to recover the
territorics he Jott, but his nobles diffuaded him from

the attempt. He therefore dire&ed his attention to the
reformation of the public morals, particularly thofe of the
military and pric In this reign the Danes invaded

land, by landing a large army in two divifions in the
ifthmus of Fife. Conftantine haltened to oppofe them, and
fortunately overthrew one divifion before the other could
arrive to its afliltance. Upon this, the reft of the Danes
retreated to an entrenched camp, which they had conitructed
near their landing place. The Scots, flufhed with victory,
too rathly the Danifh works, and were defeated
with the lofs of their king and half their army. The Danes,
however, had fuffered fo much, that notwithftanding this
fuecefs, they immediately reimbarked for their own
country.

Othus, or Aodth, brother to Conftantine, fucceeded him
inthe regal dignity. His reign was fhort and difturbed by
rebellion ; terminated, according to Chalmers, in confe-
quence of a wound received in the battle of Strathal. Bu-
on the other hand, afferts that he was thrown into
by the nobles for his tyrannical and licentious conduét,
that he died there before he completed the firlt vere
reign. Gregory, or Grig, who next reigned, emula
virtues and ere Fe the Kenneth. While
internal policy was mild and juft, he rendered himfelf
and refpected by foreigners. The Danes having feized

out
a

1

.

33

ager’

| the Exglith part of the country fouth of
he py tag of it, and ea) Hea efta-
at the northern boun:

1 feated the Englith, who had

tered the weltern diftri&t of the kingdom, and com
to give up Cumberland and Weftmoreland to the Scots.
ory afterwards landed in Ireland, and having defeated
in a battle fought on the river Bann, advanced

:

z
:
:

way and the

@

oF

to Dublin, which furrendered without refiftance. Here he
found king Dunean, then a minor, with whom he coucluded
a peace, and immediately returned to his owas dominions,
where he died in Bg2, greatly regretted by his own fubjeéts,
Such was the life of Gregory, as reprefented by the Scottith
hiftorians; but the refearches of Chalmers have difcovered
that inftead of being a hero aud a cenqueror, he was a man
of unprincipled morals, an ufurper, and a hypocrite ; and
was driven from his throne by the indiguation of his people.
Gregory was fucceeded by Donald, the fon of Conttantine,
during whofe reign the Danes made feveral defcents upon
Scotland, but were, in every inftance, repulfed. Chalmers
informs us that the king fell, gallantly fighting in defence of
his kingdom againft a body of thefe invaders, who had pene-
trated almoft to the Scottith capital. Buchanan, on the
other hand, flates that he died during an expedition to quell
a feud betwixt the Roffians and the Merch-men; and Boe-
thius aflerts that he expired in Northumberland in 98°
His fucceflor was Conttantine, the fon of Aodh, the early
part of whofe reign was equally diflurbed by the inroads of
the Danes. He afterwards engaged in a war with Athelflan,
king of England, who ravaged all the country as far as the
Forth and Clyde, and forced Conftantine to {ue for peace.
Conftantine, however, only obferved it till an opportunity
for revenge occurred, and then, joining with Aolaf, one of
the molt powerful of the Anglo-Danith princes, their united
forces failed for the Humber, and difembarked without
oppofition. Athelitan, who had forefeen and prepared for
this event, foon came up with the invaders, and after a battle,
tillthen unexampled in the Englith or Scottith annals, gained
a complete victory, and Conttantine and Anlaf only faved the
remains of their army by a {peedy re-embarkation. In this
action Conttantine having loft his fon, and moft of his no-
bility, refigned the kingdom in favour of Malcolm, the fon
of Donald, and retired to a monaltery at St. Andrews,
where he ended his days. Soon after the acceflion of Mal-
colm, the copquered provinces of Cumberland and Wett-
moreland revolted from the Englifh monarch, who, fearful
of his ability to retain them, agreed to furrender both to

the king of Scotland, on condition, as Buchanan ftates,
that Malcolm and his fucceffors would acknowledge they
held them of the crown of England, in fealty ; the con-

dition was accepted, and Malcolm pafled the remainder of
his reign in reforming the adminiftration of juftice, and the
licentious charaGter of his fubje€&ts. With this view he
made a tour through the whole of his dominions every two
years, and is {tated to have been paying his lait biennial wifit
to the north, when he was aflaflinated in Moray, in the fif-
teenth year of his reign. His fucceflor was Indulfus, who
formed an alliance with the Englifh, and enjoyed peace
during the firft feven years of his rule. At length the
Danes unexpettedly difembarked in Lothian ; the Scottith
king marched and gave them battle, overthrew them with
great flaughter, but unfortunately perifhed himfelf in the
ardour of purfuit.

Duffus, the fon of Malcolm, next fwayed the fceptre,
and appointed Culenus, the fon of Indulfus, governor of
Cumberland. This monarch having held the reins of go-
vernment with a firm hand, many of his nobles rofe in open
rebellion againft the royal authority. By his vigorous mea-
fures, however, he was enabled to crush the infurreétion, and
to bring the leading offenders to punifhment. He after-
wards direéted his endeavours to crufh the banditti who in-
fetted the counties of Moray, Rofs, and Caithnefs. Many
of thefe were flain in various fkirmifhes, but the principal of
them were fecured and brought to the town of Forres, in

order

SCOTLAND.

order to render their fate more exemplary. Here the king
was aflaflinated by the governor and his wife, who had vainly
interceded to fave fome of the criminals, their relations.

Culenus, the fon of Indulfus, now mounted the throne ;
and immediately inftituted an inquiry into the murder of his
predeceffor, and vifited with condign punifhment all who
were concerned in that tragical event. But with thefe aéts
the merits of his reign ceafe, for fearcely had the executioner
performed his duty, before the king abandoned himfelf to
every {pecies of vice, and gave equal licence to the younger
nobility. Having been, in confequence, {ummoned to anfwer
for his conduét in an affembly of the {tates convened at
Scone, he was affaflinated on his journey thither by the
thane of Methven, whofe daughter he had injured. Culenus
was fucceeded by Kenneth, the brother of Duffus, a man
in every refpect the reverfe of him in character and conduct.
His firft objeét was to put an end to the abufes of the former
reign ; which he had fcarcely accomplifhed, when the Danes,
made a defcent on Aberdeenfhire, and pillaged the country
as far as the town of Perth, to which they laid fege. The
king hattened to give them battle, and after an obftinate and
bloody conteft, was defeated and put to flight. This
difaiter being perceived by the chief of the clan, Hay, he,
and his fons and vaflals, placed themfelves in a narrow pafs,
through which the main body of the Scots fled, and by
their exhortations and courageous conduét, fucceeded in
changing the fortune of the day. The Scots turned upon
their conquerors, and after a fecond rencounter, {till more
furious than the firft, gained a complete victory. The gal-
lant Hay was rewarded with extentive eitates, and raifed to
the dignity of nobility, which is ftill enjoyed by his defcend-
ants. From that time peace continued for feveral years,
during which period Kenneth attempted to regulate the fuc-
ceffion to the royal dignity, fo as to render it hereditary. in
his own family. In the purfuit of this obje@ he committed
the only crime with which his reign is {tained, the murder of
Malcolm, the fon of king Duffus, who was confidered by
the nobility as the next fucceffor to the throne. All his
efforts, however, proved unfuccefsful ; for though he ob-
tained a vote of the {tates in favour of his views, yet when
the throne became vacant by his death, which happened in
the year 994, Conftantine the Bald was proclaimed king.
Malcolm, Kenneth’s fon, colle€ted a large body of troops
to aflert the preference of his rights, but on the approach
of the royal troops he difmifled his army, and retired into
Cumberland. Kenneth, his natural brother, regarding this
condu& as difhonourable, prevailed on moft of the foldiers
to join his ftandard and continue the war. A battle foon
afterwards enfued, in which both Conftantine and Kenneth
fell, each by the hand of the other, at the very moment
when victory had declared for the latter.

In this critical emergency, the nobles elected Grimus,
the fon of Duffus, to the fovereign authority. This prince
feems to have poflefled greater popularity than his prede-
ceffor, for he was no fooner declared king than moft of his
opponent’s partizans deferted to his caufe. Malcolm’s
party therefore deemed it advifeable to negociate for peace,
and accordingly a treaty was concluded, by which it was
agreed that Grimus fhould retain the kingdom till his death,
when it fhould revert to Malcolm and his heirs, according to
the intentions of Kenneth. This peace was fcrupuloufly
obferved during eight years; but after that period, Grimus
having begun to evince a moft tyrannical difpofition, Mal-
colm thought himfelf juftified in again taking up arms. He
accordingly marched into Scotland, and as the tide of popu-
larity was now decidedly in_his favour, he foon acquired a

large army. Grimus marched to oppofe him, but being
betrayed by his foldiers, he was feverely wounded in the
firft battle, and foon after terminated his exiltence.

Malcolm, on afluming the fceptre, laboured to compofe
the various factions which agitated the ftate, and to deftroy
the numerous banditti of robbers who had taken advantage of
the laxity of the old government, to infeft almoft every
diftri& of the kingdom. He renewed, in his capacity of
king of Scotland, the league which he had formed with the
Englifh, as governor of Cumberland, and in virtue of its
conditions fent a corps of troops to affift them in oppofing
the Danes. This meafure fo roufed the indignation of the
Danifh monarch, that he difpatched a large fice and army
to invade the Scottifh territories, under the command of
two of his belt generals, Olave and Euceus. A landing
was effected in the province of Moray, which being fub-
dued, the invaders laid fiege to the fortrefs of Nairn. Mal-
colm, who, during thefe operations, had been bufily engaged
in levying forces, arrived while the garrifon yet continued a
gallant defence ; but being defeated, they were compelled
to furrender ; and the fortreffes of Elgin and Moray were
evacuated without refiltance.

Upon thefe fuccefles the Danes refolved to fix their
habitation in Moray, and with this view fent home their
fhips to bring over their wives and children. In the mean
time Malcolm re-organized his army, and made head againtt
the enemy again at Mortlich, m the diftri€t of Marr. At
firit the Scots, difcouraged by the fall of three of their com-
manders, retreated to their camp, where they made a vigorous
ftand, and changed their flight into a glorious viGtory. Mal-
colm, however, did not deem it prudent to advance far in
purfuit, nor to attempt the expulfion of the whole Danifh
colony before he had recruited his forces with new levies.
This cautious policy afforded time to king Swein to difpatch
a fecond body of troops to the affiftance of their country-
men. “They were commanded by Camus, a general of tried
courage and abilities, and difembarked near Aberbrothick,
in Angus, whence they marched forward to the village of
St. Bride, near which the Scots lay encamped, and ready to
receive them. The aétion that followed terminated in the
total rout of the Danes, who, finding their retreat to their
fhips cut off, difperfed in different direGtions. Camus and
the moft confiderable party fled towards the mountains, with
the intention of penetrating to Moray; but before they had
proceeded far from the field of battle, they were overtaken,
and either flain or made prifoners. A fimilar fate attended
all the other fugitive bands.

This fecond difccmfiture, though more fignal than the
firft, did not yet difcourage the Danifh king. Immediately
on being apprized of it, he fent a third armament under his
own fon, Canute, which landed in Buchan without oppo-
fition, and plundered the furrounding country. Malcolm,
who had fcarcely recovered the lofles fuftained in former
battles, neverthelefs haftened to oppofe this new imvafion.
At firft he declined rifking a general engagement, but when
he had afcertained that his opponents were lefs flrong than
was originally fuppofed, he feized a favourable opportunity
to fall upon them with his whole forces. The battle was
the moft dreadful hitherto fought againft the Danes; the
Scots remained matters of the field, but were unable to purfue
the enemy, who retreated without moleftation. Next day
both parties, equally afraid to hazard another contett, eagerly
liftened to the interpofition of the clergy, and concluded a
peace, in which it was ftipulated that all the Danes fhould
leave Scotland, and that neither Swein nor Maletlm fhould,
in future, wage war againft one another. t

Malcolm

SCOTLAND.

Malcolm having feen the firft article of the above treaty
ormed, difbanded his army, and reigned for fome years
in greater {plendour and glory than any preceding monarch
of tere § As old age approached, eae he acquired
an exorbitant love for money, a paflion which led him to
commit many acts of oppreflion and injultice. ‘This conduct
excited the hatred of the nobility, and eventually occafioned
his aflaflinatien, though authors are not agreed as to the
tors of the bloody deed.
unean, the grandfon of Malcolm, by his daughter Bea-
trice, fucceeded to the vacant throne. he was a prince of
popularity, which he had juttly acquired; but while
is virtues him to the wile and good, they awakened
feelings of enmity in the breaits of the turbulent and {edi-
tious. Macdu , a chieftain of the welt, firft raifed the
ftandard of jon, and attraéted to it many of the
iflauders, and a body of Irifh, whe joined him in the hope
of rs The king difpatched one Malcolm, a thane of
igh rank, to quell this infurreétion, but he was unfortu-
nately defeated and taken prifoner. Alarmed at that event,
Malcolm fummoned a council, in which Macbeth, one of his
relatives, declared, that if he were made general of an expe-
dition, in conjunétion with Bancho, thane of Loch Abyr,
ae tes foon bring the traitors to punifhment. Mac-
obtained the wifhed-for command, and performed his
without refillance; for {uch was the terror in-
the rebels by his known character for feverity,
_— they endeavoured to fave themfelves

pang but the main body was overtaken, and mott of
the {word.

Duncan freed from domeftic fedition, but he
id not long enjoy 7 The N ians, under Swein,
king of Denmark, foon after landed in Fifefhire, and again
aroufed him from his natural inaGtivity. Having entru
to Macbeth the charge of levying a new army, he himfelf
‘advanced, with fuch troops as he could colledt, to oppofe
the he met at Culrofs, where a battle
which terminated to the difadvantage of the Scots.
retired to the town of Perth, which was imme-
aed by the Danes. In the mean time Macbeth
with the new levies, upon whofe arrival the king
a fudden attack upon the enemy’s camp, while they
totally unprepared, and routed themwith {uch flaughter,
a8 agg ‘and a few attendants, were enabled to
ps.

pia

ir thi

no fooner was Duncan relieved from this fecond

than he was alarmed by the news of the landin
‘the Danes in Fifethire. Bancho marched to oppote
their progrefs, and beat them back to their fhips. About
time, Macbeth, whofe ambition led him to afpire
he throne, was encouraged in his daring views by a
dream, in which he imagined that three women, naked, and
of uncommon beauty, appeared to him and faluted him,
one as thane of An another as thane of Murray, and
the third as king of Scotland. Henceforth he determined to
accomplifh his purpofe at all hazards ; and accordingly, hav-
over many of v nobles to his fide, he waylaid
the king at I Macbeth then haftened
where he was invefted with the royal authority.
The fons of Duncan, aftonifhed at thefe events, fled, one
into , and the other to the Hebrides. Shak-
fpeare has dramatifed fome of thefe events in his admirable

nagedy a yl?

~The firit a& of Macbeth’s reign was to fupprefs the
which fubfifted between the thanes of Caithnefs,
Sutherland, and Nairn. He afterwards defeated

and flew Macgill, lord of Galloway, who refufed to ac-

5

nF

2,
¥

knowledge his authority; and quiet having been thus reflored
to the kingdom, he applied his attention to the enatiment of
many falutary laws, and to the correétion of abufes in their
adminiltration. ‘Thus he reigned ten years with fo much jul-
tice, that the manner of his obtaining the throne was totally
overlooked. At the clofe of that period, however, he begaa
to give way to the natural cruelty of his temper, and to
convert his hitherto laudable government into an oppreflive
and cruel tyranny, The firft thock of his inhumanity was
vented againft Bancho, whom he invited to a feafl, and
caufed to be flain on his return home, giving out that the
deed was perpetrated in an sccidental fray or tumult.
Upon this, molt of the nobles departed to their own callles,
and only a few of them oceafionally repaired to court.
Hence mutual diftruft and jealoufy fprung up between
them and the king, who upon the flightelt pretences feized
their property, and put them to death. he confifested
eftates he employed to maintain a band of plunderers, whom
he kept as a guard about his perfon. But even with ther
rotection he did not confider himfelf in fafety, and there-
bore refolved to ere€t a caitle for his refidence on the
fummit of Dunfionan hill. In the accomplifhment of this
work, he ordered all the thanes of the kingdom to affift ;
but Macduff, thane of Fife, fent only workmen on his part:
this difobedience exafperated Macbeth fo much, that he
{wore vengeance againit Macduff, who, fearful of the confe-
quences, immediately fled to England, where he found
Malcolm, the fon'of Duncan, royally treated by king Ed-
ward the Confeffor. After feveral interviews wi
Scottifh prince, he encouraged him to aflert his rights to
the throne of Scotland. alcolm, aflured of Macduff’s
integrity, hefitated not a moment to adopt his views, aod
being affifted by king Edward with 10,000 men, he march-
ed dire&tly into Scotland, where he was joined by all ranks
of the people. Macbeth, not daring to hazard a battle,
endeavoured to efcape, but was arreited and put to death.

Malcolm, having thus recovered his father’s dominions,
was declared king in the year 1057. This prince is faid
to have seeadeend into Scotland titles of earl, baron,
and knight. Macduff, to whofe encouragement and ex-
ertions he owed the crown, is mentioned by Buchanan as
having been the firft who held the dignity of earl. At the
fame time, the privilege of placing the king in the chair of
fate at the ceremony of coronation was granted to him and
his pofterity. :

But though Malcolm thus eafily obtained the crown, he
was not allowed to enjoy it long in peace. The faction of
Macbeth proclaimed his fon, Luthlac, king, and for three
months contended openly for the maintenance of his preten-
fions. At length his erin were defeated and himielf
flain in Strathbogie. Malcolm now reigned for feveral
spi undifturbed either by foreign gr domettic enemies.

n the interim Edgar Atheling, who with his mother and
fifters bad fled from England to avoid the fufpicions of
William the Conqueror, was driven by diftrefs of weather
into Scotland, where they were courteoufly received by
Malcolm, who married Margaret, the filter of Edgar.
The Scottish prince further protected all Edgar’s banifhed
friends, and affigned them lands for their maintenance.
This condué& excited king William to declare war again
Scotland; but after feveral unfuccefaful actempts at i
vafion, he concluded a peace favourable both to Edgar and
Malcolm.

The danger of foreign troubles being removed, feveral
of the clans raifed the ftandard of rebellion agaiaft the

t, and for a time threatened its fubverfion ; but
valour of Macduff, and of Walter, grandfeuof Bancho,

evestually

SCOTLAND.

eventually reftored quiet ; for which fervice the latter was
conttituted lord fteward of Scotland, and from him the
royal family of Stewart were defcended. Malcolm now
applied himfelf to the reformation of the public morals,
and eftablifhed the two new bifhoprics of Caithnefs and
Moray. In 1079 he took advantage of the civil war in
Normandy, between king William and his fon, Robert, to
devattate the county of Northumberland: to revenge this
aggreffion, the Englifh monarch fent an army into Scotland,
but Malcolm’s cautious policy prevented it from effeGting
any important exploit, and a treaty was foon afterwards nego-
ciated between the two kingdoms. The acceflion of Wil-
liam Rufus, however, again proved the fignal for hoftilities.
Malcolm advanced into England as far as Chefter-in-the-
Street, whence he retreated, as foon as he underftood that
the Englifh army was in march to oppofe him. William, in
his turn, prepared for the invafion of Scotland both by land
and fea, and had aétually pafled the borders, when the de-
ftruGion of his fleet, and the interceffion of Robert, duke
of Normandy, and Edgar Atheling, induced him to con-
clude a peace with his’antagonift. Malcolm promifed the
fame homage which he had yielded to the conqueror; and
William engaged to furrender to the Scottifh king twelve
manors, which Duncan had held in England, and to pay him
twelve marks of gold annually: but peace did not continue
long; William fortified Carlifle in the fubfequent year, a
meafure which Malcolm pointedly refented: a perfonal
interview was propofed in the hope of accommodating mat-
ters, but it had an oppofite refult. The Scottifh king,
therefore, led his army into Northumberland and befieged
Alnwick ; where he was furprifed and flain, as was alfo his
eldeft fon Edward, earl Mowbray, on the 13th of No-
vember, 1093.

Donaldbane, the brother of Malcolm, fucceeded, but
he was foon driven from the throne by his nephew, Duncan,
who was affiited in recovering his dominions by king Wil-
liam Rufus; Duncan, however, had not enjoyed his dig-
nity above fix months, before he was aflaflinated at the in-
{tigation of his uncle, who once more ufurped the crown,
and reigned about two years, when he was a fecond time
dethroned, and Edgar, the fon of Malcolm, fet ‘up in his
ftead. This prince cultivated peace with king William
Rufus, and his fucceflor Henry I., to whom he gave his
fitter Matilda in marriage. Edgar died at Edinburgh on
the 8th of January, 1106—7, and was fueceeded by his
brother Alexander I., who likewife preferved peace with
his fouthern neighbours; but his reign was difturbed by an
alarming rebellion at home, and by the ecclefiaftical pre-
tenfions of the archbifhops of York and Canterbury. His
promptitude and valour, however, foon quelled the former,
and his fteady oppofition to the latter enabled him to main-
tain the rights of his country and the independence of his
government. Alexander died in April 1124, and was fuc-
ceeded by David, the younger fon of Malcolm and Mar-
garet. This prince, having been educated at the court of
Henry I., had acquired a knowledge of the Englith laws,
and gained confiderable experience in the art of govern-
ment. Like his prédeceffor, he refifted with fuccefs the
efforts of the court of Rome to deftroy the independence
of the Scottifh church. His attention was afterwards
Gawn to an infurreétion raifed by Angus, earl of Moray,
whe was defeated and flain at Stracathrow, one of the
paile: of Forfarfhire. During thefe tranfaGions David
maintained the ftri€teft amity with England, till the civil
diffentions which enfued upon the death of Henry, when
he took up arms in fupport of the emprefs Matilda; but
he afterwards concluded a treaty with the ufurper, Stephen.

This lafted about two years, when David again paffed the
borders, and fought the battle of the « Standard” on the
22d of Auguft, 1138. In that aGtion the Scots were
overthrown with great flaughter, and the king himfelf, with
the remains of his army, found great difficulty in fecuring a
retreat to Carlifle. David neverthelefs foon recruited his
troops, and fhewed himfelf to be ftill formidable, by re-
ducing the caftle of Werk; but his further progrefs was
arreited by the conclufion of peace. After this David ap-
plied himfelf chiefly to the laudable tafk of civilizing his
yet femi-barbarous fubjeéts. He founded feveral towns, and
enacted the “ Leges Burgorum,’’ which {till continue in
force. He likewife introduced into the kingdom many
Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Norman, and Anglo-Belgic inhabit-
ants, a meafure that met with great oppofition, but which
neverthelefs was eventually advantageous to Scotland.
David died at Carlifle in May 1153, and was fucceeded by
the grandfon of Malcolm, who had fearcely feated himfelf
on the throne, before Somerled, a Hebridean chief, invaded
the Mainland, and forced him to take the field. After
various confli€ts, Somerled was repulfed, but not fubdued ;
and Malcolm was forced to conclude a peace with him,
upon terms degrading to the dignity of the Scottifh
monarch. :

About this time, the demife of Stephen placed the crown
of England on the head of Henry II., who not only dif-
regarded his folemn engagements to cede to Scotland the
country lying between the Tyne and the Tweed, but de-
manded reftitution of thofe territories which Malcolm held
in England. The latter, confcious of his inability to wage
war with fo powerful a monarch, complied with this unjuiti-
fiable demand ; and in return, Henry conferred on him the
honour of Huntington, for which he did homage in 1157,
referving all his dignities. Malcolm on that occafion was
invefted with the honour of knighthood ; after which he
accompanied Henry to France. Thefe circumitances ex-
cited great difcontent among the barons, and Somerled
took advantage of the diftraéted ftate of the country to
renew his inroads. Malcolm, however, on his return tri-
umphed over all his adverfaries; but did not long enjoy
his good fortune, having died at Jedburgh on the gth of
December, 1165. ,

William, the brother of Malcolm, now afcended the
throne, and almoft immediately repaired to the Englifh court
to demand the reftoration of Northumberland. Henry
amufed him with fair promifes for twelve months, when
William began to perceive the futility of further folicita-
tion; and therefore entered into a league with France, in
1168, though it does not appear that war was the im-
mediate refult. William, however, waited the borders in
11733 and in the fubfequent year engaged in a fimilar ex-
pedition, during which he was furprifed in his camp at
Alnwick, and taken prifon ; an event which coft him the
ancient independency of his crown: for, in order to gain
his liberty, he ftipulated to do homage to Henry for Scot-
land, and all his other poffeflions; engaged that all the
barons and nobility of his kingdom fhould alfo do homage;
that the bifhops fhould take an oath of fealty ; that both
fhould {wear to adhere to the king of England againft their
native prince, if the latter fhould break his engagements ;
and that the fortrefles of Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick,
Roxburgh, and Jedburgh, thould be delivered up to Henry
till the performance of all thefe articles. ‘‘ This fevere
and humiliating treaty,’’ fays Hume, ‘“ was executed in its
full rigour. William, being releafed, brought up all his
barons, prelates, and abbots, and they did homage to
Henry in the cathedral of York, and acknowledged ao

an

SCOTLAND.

and his fucceffors for their fuperi
monarch ftretched {till further the ri
which he exaéted. He en aged the king and fates to
make a perpetual ceflion “y the fortrefles of Berwick and
Roxburgh, and to allow the caftle of Edinburgh to remain
in his poileffion for a limited time."" ‘This is the firtt great
afceadant which England obtained over Scotland,

Thefe difyraceful meafures, and the feeble conduct of
William, rendered him extremely unpopular. The lords of
Galloway and Rofe fucceffively difplayed the tlandard of
rebellien, and though eventually compelled to fubmit, a
the ki in a tate of difquictude for fome years. In
1188, Heory LI, feot Hugh, bihhop of Durham, and

feveral prieits, into Scotland, to collect a di/ue for the Holy
Land; but this met with the warmeft oppofition. He
next offered to reftore the caftles of Roxburgh and Ber-
wick to William, if he would give the tenths of the king-
dom for the holy war; and his confent was only withheld,
in confequence of the barons and clergy indignantly de-
claring, that “they would not pay, although both ings
fhould have {worn to levy them.” This was the laft pro-
ge of Henry affe@ting the independence of Scotland ; as
died foon afterwa leaving his crown to his fon
Richard, who reftored to William all the rights and terri-
tories which had been wrefled from him during the govern-
ment of his father; thus Scotland again refumed her in-
though her monarch became the baronial vaiffal
as earl of Huntington. In the latter capacity
William did homage to king John A.D. 1200, and after
the ceremony demanded reftitution of the three northern
counties of England, a demand which was tacitly refufed.
In 1209, both monarchs allembled their troops on the
borders, but the interference of their refpective barons
Srtsd Weldon Hood fa pons il his ont which oopared
i iam lived in peace till his » which occu

on the 4th of December, 1214.
H., the fon of William, fucceeded to the
almoit immediately engaged in hoftilities againft
king John, in fupport of the barons. John loft no time
in making a fignal retaliation. In 1216 he paffed the
Tweed, and burnt the towns of Dunbar and Haddington.
Alexander next entered England to join Lewis, the
French prince ; but the death of John, and the fubfequent
of Lewis, prevented the accomplifhment of his
defigns, and a treaty was foon after concluded with
III. This pacification lafted till the year 1233,
when the Englith king thought proper to call in queition
the validity of Alexander’s coronation, and even intrigued
to deprive him of his crown. In an interview between the
two kings at Newcaftle, they endeavoured in vain to ac-
commodate their differences. They adjufted them never-
thelefs at York, in September, 1237; but as the terms of
their a it were unequal, it was not of long duration.
Jealoufies arofe between them in 1244; Henry colleéted a
large force at Newcaftle, and Alexander marched to the
frontiers a highly difciplined army, amounting, as fome
ftate, to the number of 100,000 men, all animated
determined refolution to defend their country.
‘The appearance of fo formidable a force induced the Englith
| to mediate a peace, which was accordingly agreed
A was next roufed from fe by an infur-

Galloway, which he had f{carcely quelled, before
lord of le, affumed independence, and refufed
to acknowledge foverei of the Scottith crown.

gr ing eae

lord. The Englith
ur of the conditions

perly charaGterifed by Forduo, * as a king, pious, jafl, and
brave; as the thield of the church, the fafeguard of the
people, and the friend of the miferable."’

Alexander LIL. was crowned at Scone July 1%, 1249)
after having been knighted by Dawid de Bernetham, bithop
of St. Andrews. In 1251 he celebrated his nuptials with
Margaret, daughter of Henry LIT,, and on that occation did
homage for his Englith lands. ‘The felfithnefs of Henry led
him to demand homage for the kingdom of Scotland alfo,
but the young king, with equal fortitude and pridence, re-
plied, that he had come to England to be married, not to
treat of affairs of flate; and that he could not comply ®uh
his defire without the approbation of the great council of
the Scottith nation, With this prince commenced that feries
of regal minorities which caufed fo much diltraction to
Scotland for feveral centuries, through the intrigues of the
nobles, and of the court of England, to fecure the chief
influence in the flate, Henry began to forward his views, by
difmiffing all the leading meu attached to the late king, and
elevating a more fubfervient faction to power; but this ar-
rangement was quickly overthrown by a coalition of the
nobles, headed by the Cumyns, who feized the perfons of
the king and queen, and reled in their names. As this party
confifted of the moit powerful perfons in the kingdom,
Henry found it neceflary to accommodate himfelf to the flate
of attains, and a new regency was formed, including the
chiefs of all the faétions. Thue domeflic peace was reltored ;
but foreign invafion almoit immediately fucceeded. In the
year 1263, Haco, king of Norway, came into the Clyde
with a fleet of 160 fail, and landed a numerous army near
Largs, in Ayrfhire. The Scottifh forces, commanded by
Alexander, haltened to oppofe him, and in a decifive battle
fought on the fecond of Oétober, in the fame year, com.
pletely routed the Norwegians. Haco with difficulty cones
to his fhips, attended only by a few followers, and foon after
expired in Orkney. Magnus, his fucceflor, made over to
Alexander all the iflands of the Hebrides in full fovereignty,
but he {till retained the iflands of Orkney and Zetland.
From this period the Scottifh king was chiefly occupied, for
feveral years, in afferting the independence of the Scottifh
church again{t the pretenfions of the pope, and in curbing
the ambition of his own clergy. In 1278 he went to Lon-
don, to attend the coronation of king Edward I., and to do
homage for the lands held by himin England. The events
which enfued were at once afflicting to the king, and ulti-
mately difaftrous to the nation. Within one year, viz. ip
1283, Alexander, the young prince of Scotland, and his
filter Margaret, who had married Eric, king of Norway,
died. The former had no iffue, but the latter left an only
daughter, Margaret, commonly called the Maid of Norway.
The Scottifh king, anticipating the dangers of a difputed
fucceffion, refolved, if poflible, to avert them. He aflem-
bled the great council of the nation at Scone, in which it was
declared that the princefs of Norway fhould fucceed to the
throne, “ failing any children Alexander might have, and
failing the iffue of the late prince,” whofe widow it was
fuppofed might be pregnant. To add itrength to thefe
prudent laa Sues, Alexander himfelf married, for his fecond
wife, Joletta, daughter of the count de Dreux ; but the
feftivities for that event had fcarcely ceafed, when he was
killed by a fall from his horfe, near Kinghorn, on the 16th
of March 1285—6.

Hiflory of the Third Period. —On this fatal accident, Marga-
ret was unanimoufly declared queen, and a regency, confilting
of fix principal os and barons, was appointed to govern
the kingdom during her abfence and minonty. Through their
exertions, and proteéted by = father Enric, and her greed

uncle,

SCOTLAND.

uncle, king Edward of England, fhe feemed firmly feated
onthe throne; a circumftance fromwhichthe Englifh monarch
was led to anticipate great advantages. Having lately fub-
jugated Wales, he formed the plan of marrying his eldeit fon,
Edward, to the Scottifh queen, hoping thereby to confoli-
date the whole ifland into one monarchy. With this view he
drew clofer the ties of amity between England and Nor-
way, and did all in his power to attach the Scottifh regency
ad nobles to his intere(t. The friendfhip which had of late
prevailed between the two nations greatly facilitated the exe-
cution of this defign, fo favourable to the happinefs and
grandeur of both kingdoms. The {tates of Scotland not
only gave a ready affent to the marriage, but agreed that
their young fovereign fhould be educated in the court of
Edward. Anxious, at the fame time, to enfure the inde-
pendence of their country, they took care to ftipulate very
equitable conditions before they entrufted themfelves into
the hands of fo ambitious a monarch. It was folemnly
agreed that they fhould enjoy all their ancient laws, liberties,
and cuftoms; that in cafe their queen fhould die without
iffue, the crown of Scotland fhould revert to the next heir,
and fhould be inherited by him free and independent ; that
the military tenants of the crown fhould never be obliged to
leave Scotland, in order to do homage to the fovereign of
the united kingdoms, nor the chapters of cathedrals, col-
legiate or conventual churches, in order to make elections ;
that the parliaments. f{ummoned for Scottifh affairs fhould
always be held within the bounds of that kingdom ; and that
Edward fhould bind himfelf, under the penalty of 100,000
marks, payable to the pope, to obferve all thefe articles.
It is not eafy to conceive that two nations could have treated
upon terms of greater equality than Scotland and England
maintained during the whole courfe of this tranfaction ;
and though Edward gave his affent to the article concerning
the future independence of the Scottifh crown, with a faving
of his former rights, this referve gave no alarm to the nobi-
lity of Scotland. The marriage treaty was therefore figned
at Brigham, on the r8thof July 1290, with the cordial con-
currence of all parties.

But this proje&, fo happily planned, and fo amicably
conduéted, failed of fuccefs by the fudden demife of the
Norwegian princefs, who expired in Orkney, while on her
paflage to Scotland, and left a very difmal profpeé to the
kingdom. Though for the prefent diforders were prevented
by the authority of the regency, the fucceffion of the crown
was now become an object of difpute, and the regents could
not expeét that a controverfy, which is not ufually decided
by reafon and argument, would be peaceably fettled by them,
or even by the ftates of the kingdom, amidit fo many power-
ful competitors. As the pofterity of king William became
extin@ by the death of the Maid of Norway, the right to
the throne devolved on the iffue of David, earl of Hun-
tington, brother of William, whofe male line being alfo
extiné, left the fuccefiion open to the pofterity of his
daughters.

The earl had three daughters, Margaret, married to Allen,
lord of Galloway ; Ifabella, wife of Robert Bruce, lord of
Annandale; and Adama, who efpoufed Henry, lord Haftings.
Margaret, the eldeft of the fifters, left one daughter, De-
vergilda, married to John Baliol, by whom fhe had a fon of
the fame name, one of the prefent claimants. Lfabella, the
fecond, bore afon, Robert Bruce, who was now alive, andalfo
urged his pretenfions ; Adama, the third, left a fon, John
Haflings, who contended that the kingdom of Scotland, like
other inheritances, ought to be divided equally among the
three daughters of the earl of Huntington, and that he had
a right to athird of it, as reprefenting his mother. Baliol

and Bruce united againft Haftings in maintaining the indivi
fibility of the kingdom, but each of them fupported by
plaufible arguments the preference of his own title. — This
octafioned a long and complicated invettigation and difpute.
Edward of England was appointed umpire, and he pro-
nounced in favour of Baliol; but as he treated him in many
re{pects as a vaflal, impofing upon him the moft degrading
fervices, Baliol was foon incited to refit his pretenfions,
and the two kingdoms were thus involved in a war, which
terminated in the conqueft of Scotland. Edward, having
fettled the government, and, as he thought, enfured tran-
quillity, returned to the fouth, carrying with him the ftone
chair in which the Scottifh kings were feated during the ce-
remony of coronation. Baliol was fent a prifoner to the
Tower of London, where he remained two years, and was
only liberated upon the condition of refiding upon the con-
tinent durmg the remainder of his life. At this period
William Wallace, one of the greateft heroes of which the
annals of hiftory can boatt, appeared as the vindicator of his
country’s freedom. Beginning with {mall attempts, in
which he was always fuccefsful, he gradually proceeded to
more momentous enterprifes, and difcovered equal caution
in fecuring his followers, and valour in annoying the enemy.
His intimate knowledge of the country enabled him, when
purfued, to enfure a retreat among the morafles, in the foretts,
or the mountains. At times he difperfed his affociates in
one place, and colle&ting them again in fome diftant quarter,
furprifed and routed the Englifh before they had any idea of
his approach. Every day was marked by fome daring ex-
ploit, which increafed his influence and means. At length
he refolved to ftrike a.decifive blow, by attacking Ormefby at
Scone. The jufticiary, apprized of his intentions, fled
haftily into England, and was followed by all his colleagues
in office, an event which gave a new charaéter to the efforts
of Wallace. Many of the principal barons, and particu-
larly fir William Douglas, ‘now openly countenanced his
party, and the nation at large prepared to defend, by an
united effort, that liberty, which they had fo unexpeétedly
recovered. : ;

In the mean time, the earl of Surrey having muftered an
army of 40,000 men, haftened to fupprefs an infurrection,
which had become formidable in a great meafure from his
ownnegligence. After traverfing Annandale, he marched
along the weftern coaft to Irvine, where he found the Scots
encamped, and fufficiently formidable by their numbers to
have punifhed his temerity, if diftruft and difunion had not
weakened their ranks. Fortunately for him, however, the
jealoufies of the nobles were ftill ftronger than their
patriotifm, and many of them auguring no advantage from
refittance, fubmitted to the Englifh, and received pardon,
Others, who had not fo unequivocally declared themfelves,
likewife jomed the oppreflors of their country. Wallace
alone remained inexorable to bribe or threat ; but thus de-
ferted, he was unable to give battle to the governor, and _
therefore marched to the northward, with the intention of
prolonging the war, and of turning to his advantage the
mountainous diftriés of the Highlands. When Warrene
arrived at Stirling, the Scottifh hero lay encamped at Cam-
bufkenneth, on the oppofite fide of the Forth; ‘the Englifh
commander again endavoured to negociate, but Wallace re-
plied, that his obje& was not to treat, but to fet Scotland
free. This bold language being conftrued by the Englifh
as. a defiance, they demanded to be led againit the enemy.
Warrene hefitated, but Creflingham urged an immediate
attack, and his counfels prevailed. ‘The Englifh began to
pafs the bridge that feparated the two armies, but before
half of them had reached the oppofite fide, they were at-

tacked

SCOTLAND.

either pufhed into the river, or de-
Among

For this purpofe he aflembled an immenfe army,
which he laid
in the mean time, fenfible of the jealoufy of the Scortith
nobles, voluntarily refigned his authority as guardian to the
Stewart of Scotland, and Cumyn of Badenoch, men of emi-
nent birth, ander whom he hoped the great chieftains would
be more willing to fight in the defence of their country.
Thefe two commanders took pot at Falkirk, and deter-
mined there to await the affault of the Englifh. Wallace
ught his troops hither, and placed them at the dif-
regents. The refolution of the Scottith chiefs

5
uF

to rifk a general battle was highly agreeable to Edward,
whofe army was already much {trai for provifions, and
was in of mutiny. He advanced ‘ore with great

to Falkirk, and immediately on his arrival his
the attack. Cumyn, with his divifion, fled on the
and left that of the Stewart to be cut to pieces.
is cowardly conduét decided the fate of the day ; but in
general route, Wallace’s military {kill enabled him to pre-
ferve his Pal bands entire. Aftera gallant refiftance he
raga gee i oy aay the banks of the Carron, followed
a ° uglifh army under the orders of
aang ok Tale a sortinen4 with the Scottifh hero,
in which the latter fully convinced him of his want of pa-
trioufm, in efpoufing the caufe of the oppreflor of his
country. ,
ay after this victory, Edward returned to England, and

F2RIS
He

The Englith king accordingly prepared for that event with
his ufual activity and prudence. He affembled both a great
ficet and army, and entering the kingdom, proceeded abobe
to its furtheit extremities, without encountering any oppofi-
tion. All the nobles, and even the t himfelf, made
their fubmiflions to the conqueror. The only fortrefles
which did not immediately yield were thofe of Brechin and
Stirling. So gallantly, i did the garrifon of the latter
defend their truit, pa it was nearly demolifhed before
Edward, after a fieye of four months, was enabled to take
it by affault, an event which again placed the whole of
Scotland under his power. Still, however, he diitruited

the permanency of his fuccefs, for Wallace was yet alive,
unfullied in his charaéter, and unfubdued in his {pirit.
Edward employed every art to difcover his retreat, and to
obtain oflellion of his perfon ; and he at length (ucceeded,
through the treachery of fir John Monteith, whom Wallace
had always regarded as one of his bofom friends. By him
he was arrefted, and fent in fetters to Loadon, where he was
tried as a traitor, though he had never made fubmiflions or
{worn fealty to England, and was executed on Tower-hill,
on the 23dof Auguft, 1305. Such was the unworthy fate
of the greatelt hero and mot difinteretted patriot of his
own or perhaps of any other age.

By this unjuft and barbarous treatment of the gallant
Wallace, Edward hoped to trike terror into the Scots, and
enfure their fubmiffion. Thefe calculations, however, were
foon fhewn to beerroncous. ‘The execution of Wallace, and
the expofure of his mangled limbs in different towns of the
kingdom, ferved only to inflame the refentment of his
countrymen. Even the nobles, whofe jealoufy of his in-
fluence had prevented his final {uccefs againft the tyranny
which opprefled them, bewailed his fate, and vowed ven-
geance againit his murderer. Bruce, in particular, became
more confirmed in his purpofe of afferting his rights, and
vindicating the liberties of his country. Flying to different
parts of the kingdom, he incited the people to rife againft
their oppreflors, attacked and defeated the detached parties
of the Englith, fecured the pofleffion of many fortreffes,
and having eltablifhed his authority jn moft places of the
fouth, proceeded to Scone, where he was folemnly crowned
on the 27th of March 1306.

Bruce having by repeated fuccefles driven all the Englifh
from Scotland, except fuch as fled to the few fortreffes ftill in
their hands, Edward difpatched Aylmer de Valence to cruth
this new and formidablerevolt. ‘That nobleman advanced
without oppofition to Methuen, in Perthfhire, where he found
the Scottith forces encamped, attacked them before they
were aware of his approach, and gained a complete victory.
The Scottifh king fought with great courage, but was at
lait obliged to quit the field, and to feek fecurity for himfelf
and a few followers in the Weittern iflands. All the prifoners
of note were executed as rebels, and many acts of outrageous
opprefiion were exercifed againft thofe of inferior rank. On
the death of Edward, which happened in 1308, Bruce re-
folved again to try the fortune of war. e attacked and
brought under his dominion the territories of Argyle, and
thereafter took the fortrefles of Invernefs, Rosier, and
Brechin. By thefe exploits he gradually increafed his in-
fluence, and reconciled the barens to his caufe. Indeed,
fuch was the alacrity with which the people in general
feconded his operations, that in three months the whole of
Scotland, except one or two fortified places, were wreited
from the tyranny of the Englith. Edward, harafled by
diffentions at home, now found it neceflary to agree to a
truce, which, though it was only of fhort duration, enabled
Bruce to confolidate his power, and organize his govern-
ment. At its conclufion he entered England, and gratified
the revenge and cupidity of his followers by laying waite and
plundering the northern counties. Edward, in his turn, be-
came the affailant during the fame yéar, and advanced be-

ond Edinburgh. But the want of provifions foon obliged
im to retire, without having gained any material advantage.
But though he abandoned Scotland for the prefent, he re-
folved to undertake its conqueft again at no diftant period.
With this view he fummoned the molt warlike of his vafials
from Gafcony, enlifted numerous foreign troops into his
fervice, and affembling the whole military force of England,
marched towards the borders with an army compoled of
C2 100,000

SCOTLAND.

100,006 nien. The Scots at this time were befieging the
cattle of Stirling, and had compelled the governor to a ca-
pitulation, unlefs relieved by a certain day. Bruce, judging
that Edward would endeavour to fave this fortrefs, potted
his army at Bannockburn, about two miles to the fouthward,
where his right flank was protected by a precipitous hill, and
his left by a deep morafs. This gallant band confilted only
of 30,000 combatants, but all of them men of tried courage,
determined to perifh or to enfure the liberties of their
country. The Englifh arrived in fight on the 24th of June,
and on the fame evening difpatched a body of horfe to pene-
trate to the caftle. Bruce ordered his nephew, Randolph,
earl of Murray, to intercept their march, and a furious en-
gagement enfued, which terminated in the total difcomfiture
of the invaders, and contributed greatly to the confidence of
the Scots. Early on the following day the Englifh king led
his army to a general attack. The earl of Gloucefter, who
commanded the cavalry, rufhed forward to the charge with
the utmott impetuolity, and fell into the covered pits which
Bruce had formed in front of his line. The Scottifh ca-
valry, commanded by fir James Douglas, advanced upon
then, and after a prodigious flaughter, chafed them from
the field.” Returning, they threw themfelves upon the rear
of the infantry, who were engaged by the Scottifh foot.
At this critical moment, the waggoners and fumpter boys of
the army, whom Bruce had fupplied with military ftandards,
appeared on the fummit of a neighbouring hill, and decided
the fortune of the day. The Englifh, {uppofing them to be
another army, were panic ftruck, threw down their arms, and
fled in the utmoft confufion. They were purfued by the
viGtors as far as Berwick with immenfe lofs; and the king
himfelf efcaped only by the fleetnefs of his horfe. The
Scots, befides an ineftimable booty, took many perfons of
quality prifoners, and above 400 gentlemen, all of whom
Robert treated with great humanity. Barton, a monk of
Scarborough, who had accompanied Edward to celebrate
his sane compofed a poem in honour of the victory of
the Scots, as the price of his liberty; and the ranfom of
the other prifoners brought a great acceflion of wealth to
the viftorious army. Such, fays an eminent hiftorian, « was
the great and decifive battle of Bannockburn, which fe-
cured the independence of Scotland, fixed Bruce on the
throne of that kingdom, and may be deemed the greateft
overthrow that the Englifh nation, fince the conquett, has
ever received. The number of flain on thofe occafions is
always uncertain, and is commonly much magnified by the
victors. But this defeat made a deep impreflion on the
minds of the Englifh, and it was remarked, that for fome
years no fuperiority of numbers could induce them to keep
the field againft the Scots.”

After this victory the caftle of Stirling furrendered ac-
cording to agreement, and that of Berwick was taken by
aflault. Bruce likewife attempted to make himfelf matter
of the town of Carlifle, but his efforts were baflled by the
bravery of its garrifon. In April 1315, he aflembled a
parliament at Ayr, to fettle the fucceflion to the crown,
which was declared to devolve to fir Edward Bruce, his
brother, in preference to the king’s own daughter Margery,
who gave up her rights for the benefit of her country. Sir
Edward immediately pafled oyer into Ireland, to aid the
Irifh againft the Englifh, and he was foon after followed by
the king himfelf, but the latter returned to Scotland in the
fame year. His brother, however, continued to purfue his
projeéts of conquett, till his defeat and death in the battle at
Dundalk, which was fought in 1318. This event rendered
a new fettlement of the regal fucceffion neceffary, and ac-
cordingly a parliament met-at Scone in December, and ac-

knowledged as heir, Robert, the infant fon of Margery’,
who had married the Stewart, and died in 1316. But this
deftination of the crown was alfo rendered nugatory in the
firft inftance, by the birth of a fon to the king himfelf, in
1323. In the mean time the war continued to rage with
various fuccefs, and Robert difpatched Randolph as ambaf-
fador to France, to conclude a treaty offenfive and defenfive
with Charles [1V. In March 1327, the Englifh government
agreed to acknowledge the kingfhip of Bruce and the inde-
pendence of Scotland, and paffed afolemn a& of parliament
to that effect. The treaty of Northampton was the imme-
diate confequence, and fettled the peace between the con-
tending kingdoms as independent fovereigntiecs. One of its
ftipulations was, that David, the infant fon of Robert,
fhould mary Jane, the fifter of the Englifh king. Bruce,
having thus obtained the confummation of his magnanimous

efforts, died in the year following, at the age of fifty-five.
David I. now afcended the throne, which the abilities and
vigour of his father had re-eftablifhed, apparently on a firm
foundation, Randolph, earl of Murray, was declared
guardian to the young king; but, unfortunately for the prince
and for Scotland, he died in 1332, the very year in which a
new competitor for the crown arofe in the perfon of Edward
Baliol, fon of that John who had fo meanly furrendered his
kingdom to Edward I. This pretender, with the fecret
fupport of the Englifh monarch, collected a confiderable
body of troops, and landed in Fifefhire. The new regent,
Donald, earl of Mar, haftened to oppofe this invafion, and
for that purpofe is faid to have muftered an army of 40,000
men. Hisimprudence and want of flall, however, deftroyed
the advantages which {uperiority of numbers gave him over
his antagonitt. Both armies, encamped oppofite to each
other, feparated only by the river Erne; and the regent, con-
fiding in that fecarity, and the {mall force of the enemy,
neglected all order and precaution. Baliol, apprized of this,
paffed the river in the night, penetrated into the camp of the
Scots, threw them into confufion, and purfued them from
the field with great flaughter. Baliol, on this unexpected.
fuccefs, marched for Perth, and made himfelf matter of that
important ftation. Here he was befieged by the earl of
March and fir Archibald Douglas, but their efforts were
defeated, and Baliol was proclaimed king. David and his
betrothed queen were fent over to France, and the leaders
of his party fued for and obtained a truce from his compe-
titor, whofe power they were unable to refift. Thus did
Baliol, bya difplay of the moft chivalrous valour, feat him-
felf on the throne of Scotland. His reign, however, was
of fhort duration, for having difmiffed the greater part of
his Englith followers, he was attacked and defeated near
Annan, by fir Archibald Douglas, and other chieftains of
the Bruce faction. By this difafter Baliol loft his kingdom
more rapidly than he had gained it. But in the interval he
had induced the Englifh king openly to fupport his caufe, by
offering to acknowledge his fuperiority, to renew the ho-
mage for his crown, and to efpoufe the princefs Jane, whofe
marriage with David was not yet confummated. Edward
had eagerly embraced thefe offers ; and as the dethronement
of Baliol now rendered them ineffeGtive, he refolved to rein-
ftate him in the poffeflion of the crown, an enterprize which
he flattered himfelf would be eafy. Accordingly, he be-
fieged Berwick, which the governor, after a gallant defence,
agreed to furrender, unlefs relieved by a certain day. The
regent being informed of this capitulation, was forced, con-
trary to his wifhes, to rifk the fate of the kingdom on the
iffue of one battle. He attacked the Englifh at Halydon
Hill, north of Berwick, and as he himfelf was flain at the
firft onfet, his army was totally routed. The Englifh
writers

SCOTLAND.

writers calculate the lofs of the Scots in this ation at

men; while Edward is faid to have loft only one

night, one efquire, and thirteen private foldiersy an ine-
q » a8 Hume properly remarks, almoft incredible.

By this victory Baliol again obtained the fovereignty, and
was y acknowledred king in a parliament aflembled at
Edinburgh, ‘The terms on which he acquired that dignity,
however, were too degrading for the Scottifh nation to fub-
mitto long; as he not only {wore fealty to Edward, but
actually ceded to him, in perpetual pofleflion, all the fouth-
eaitern counties of the kingdom. No fooner, therefore,
were the Englith troops withdrawn, than the Scots, a fecond
time, the expulfion of Baliol. Edward marched

in into Scotland, and the patriots pradently retired to their
hulls and faltneiles, whence they iffued immediately on his re-
wered their country. A third time the

ame the invader, and with fimilar fuc-

The

ith king about this time was led to advance pre-
netics of France, which foon embreiled him
with that kin

m. This event elated the hopes
who lly reduced all the fortified places

y the Englith within their territories ; and in order that
a have the countenance of fovereign authority,
in David and his ee | to return to Scotland.
sane) anded at Innerberry, in the

i 1342. Undignant at the defolation that
his eyes, David immediately entered Eng-
the country as far as Newcaltle, to which
3 but ad feveral a nels he was
enterprize. David again invaded

in 1347, and advanced to the poteee ot Durham,
encountered by an Englith force, raifed by the

energetic. of queen Philippa. The conte(t was
warmly ined for fome time on both fides, biit the
Scots were in the end defeated, and the king himfelf, and
of the nobility, made prifoners. Baliol, who com-
the Enghth army in this action, profecuted his vic-
art re great vigour. Before the conclufion of the year
» had reduced the caftles of Hermitage and Roxburgh, and
extended his conqueils over Annandale, Teviotdale, and
Tweedale. In the next year fuccefs continued to attend his
march ; but in 1348 he was forced to retreat mto England,
and a truce was agreed to. On its expiration, in 1355, the
Brucées once more took the field, which they were better
enabled to do by means of a confiderable affiltance, both in
men and money, fyrnifhed to them by the French king.
» commanded by lord Douglas, completely de-
the ifh marchers at Nifbet Moor, and after-

25
oF

#E7E
3

ee

i
i]

LF
3

i

Mie
ji t uent {kirmifhes, -
in y were fo fuccefsful, hed Edward was foon

i in England, but in May 1357, a
wherein i ledged

know!

the two fir inftalmeats of bis ranfor ; but he found it im-
practicable to raife money for the third psymest, After
various unfuccelsful expedients, therefore, hd was obliged
to appeal to Edward himfelf, and to conclude a treaty with
him in 1363, in which it was (tipulated that the latter thould
fueceed to the throne of Scotland, and that a federal union
of that kingdom with Eugland fhould take place, provided
David died without ue. But the Scottith nobles having
rendered this treaty nugstory and unavailiag, another was
agreed to in May 1365, by which Seotland became bound
to pay to England the fum of 100,000 pounds within the
{pace of 25 years. From this period no event occurred
worthy of notice in the hiltory of Scotland, till the death
of David, which happened in Feb, 22,.1370—715 when
Robert IT. fueeeeded to the throne, and was crowned at
Scoue on the 26th of March 1 371, at the advanced age of 55.
Among the firlt a¢is of his government, was the difpatch
of ambaffadors to France, by whom was negociated a treaty,
which ftipulated that neither the king of Scotland nor the
king of France fhould be obliged to make war upon Eng-
land; thet not even the dif{penfation of the pope fhould re-
lieve either party from their engagement to each other ; that,
in the event of a competition for the crown of Scotland,
the king of France fhould take care that no Englith in-
fluence was ufed; that he fhould acknowledge the king

eluéted carat § to the laws; and that no Frenchman
fhould ferve again{t Scotland, nor any Scotchman againit
France.

Robertand Edward continued to keep up a friendly cor-
refpondence, notwithitanding their refpective borderers were
engaged in perpetual hoitility, and the former was punétual
in dilcharging the initalments of his uncle’s ranfom.

Robert, who had-a numerous progeny, and feems to have
feared fome difputes might aril relative to the fucceffion
after his death, convoked a parliament at Scone, in April
1373, in order that their declaration might guard the king-
dom from a repetition of its paft misfortunes. This parlia-
ment recognized, in the firlt inftance, the title of John, earl
of Carrick, and the Stewart of Scotland, his eldeft fon by
Elizabeth More, his firlt wife, thereafter his other fons by
the fame lady, according to their feniority ; his fons by Eu-

hemia Rofs, his fecond wife; and laltly, “‘the true and

wful heirs of the blood and {tock royal.”? Buchanan erro-
neoufly calls Euphemia Rofs the firft wife, and Elizabeth
the fecond wife, alleging that the children of the latter were
born during an illegitimate conneGion in early life; but
fufficient evidence has been adduced from papal archives to
fhew that the king married Elizabeth More at a date priof
to his marriage with queen Euphemia, and that the died
lovg before he afeended the throne.

n 1377 the border wars began to rage with fignal fury.
The lord Percy, now earl of Northumberland, ravaged the
eitates of the earl of March, and a party of Scots, com-
manded by one Ramfay, furprifed the caltle of Berwick,
and declared that they held it for the king of France. It
was re-taken, however, by affault, after a hege of nine days,
when all the garrifon, except Ramfay, were pnt to the
fword. The Englifh army then marched into Scotland, but
their advanced guard having been entirely cut off, they de-
fifted from their expedition. In 1379,. the Scotmth bor-
derers again invaded England, and laid wafte the country.
The earl of Northumberland, in retaliation, fitted out

rivateers, and captured fome Scotch fhip:; but the Eng-
ith government refented thefe proceedings, aud erdered the
border earls not to provoke the Scots, but to obferve the
truce. ‘Thefe commands, however, not being attended to,
the earl of Douglas bur into Cumberland with 20,000

men,

SCOTLAND.

men, plundered the town of Penrith during its fair, and re-
turned with an immenfe booty in merchandize, befides
40,000 head of cattle.

The duke of Lancafter, about this time, was fent to re-
prefs the borderers, and alfo to obtain fome fatisfaction from
the Scottifh king for the many infraétions of the exifting
truce, which had been committed by his fubjects. Before
he entered upon hottilities, however, he invited the Scots to
a treaty, and a truce was agreed to for ten months, which
was afterwards prolonged for feven months more. But this
convention feems to have related only to the borders, as the
Scottifh monarch does not appear as a party to it. This
pacific conduét of the duke created him many enemies 1n
England. Hence, when the people rebelled againtt his
nephew’s government, he found it neceflary to feek fafety
for a fhort time in Scotland, where he was hofpitably re-
ceived. On his return, the Scots having aflaulted the cattle
of Werk, he was again difpatched to demand reparation,
and to treat of a general peace. Conferences were accord-
ingly held with the earl of Carrick, but nothing definite
was agreed to. Indeed the continuance of peace appears
not to have been the wifh of the Scottifh monarch, for he
foon after renewed the ancient league with France, and com-
menced hottilities by taking the caftle of Lochmaben. On
this the duke advanced as far as Edinburgh, whence he was
obliged to return to Berwick, without having gained any ad-
vantage. The Scots again became the aggreflors, and had
laid wafte the country as far as Newcattle, when the con-
clufion of a new truce put an end, for a time, to regular hof-
tilities. The border wars, however, {till raged, and the town
of Berwick was taken by the Scots, but was given up again
on payment of 2000 marks.

On the expiration oftthe truce, Robert, who had received
confiderable fupplies from France, prepared to invade Eng-
land, and create a diverfion in the north, while a French
army fhould landin thefouth. But in the interim the French
king was obliged to abandon the intended defcent upon Eng-
land, and hence Robert was left to contend, fingle-handed,
againft the undivided force of that powerful monarchy.
Richard marched into Scotland at the head of 60,000 men.
The Scottifh king wifely refufed to vifk a general action,
though ftrongly urged to do {fo by the officer commanding
the French auxiliaries, contenting himfelf by haraffing the
enemy by frequent attacks, till they were forced to retreat
within their own territories. After this, the earl of Douglas
invaded Ireland and the Ifle of Man, whence he returned
with immenfe booty. Robert, elated by thefe fuccefles, re-
folved to attempt an invafion of England ona grand {cale.
Accordingly a powerful army entered Northumberland, and
laid fiege to Newcattle, which was defended by Henry
Percy, furnamed Hotfpur. This nobleman challenged
Douglas, the Scottifh general, to meet him in fingle combat,
and the challenge having been accepted, a conteft took place
in fight of both armies, and terminated in the overthrow of
Hotipur. Next day Douglas ordered a general affault, but
was unfuccefsful ; and as the Englifh had received reinforce-
ments during the night, he deemed it prudent to retire
towards Scotland. Percy, eager to wipe off the difgrace of
his perfonal defeat, purfued, and came up with the Scots at
Otterburn, where a battle was fought by the light of the
moon, and is reprefented by hiftorians as the moft obftinately
conte‘ted of any that occurred in that age. Earl Percy, and
above a hundred perfons of diftinétion, were made prifoners,
and contributed, by their ranfoms, to enrich their conquerors.
Scarcely was this battle finifhed, when another Englifh army
appeared in view, under the orders of the bifhop of Durham.
The Scots, notwithftanding their fatigued itate, refolved to

venture a fecond conteft, and nobly difdaining the cuftomary
barbarity of putting their prifoners to death, (though nearly
as numerous as their whole army,) drew up in martial array,
having fimply required them to give their word of honour
that they would not interfere in the aétion, The bifhop,
who imagined the Scots would fly at his approach, perceiving
their bold attitude, thought it more advifeable to retreat than
to hazard the deflruétion of his army. The Scots hence-
forth continued their march unmoletted ; and, in teftimon
of the honourable conduét of their prifoners, they difmifled
all thofe of inferior rank without ranfom, and accepted
obligations from their fuperiors, all of which were punétually
fulfilled ; examples of honour and generolity worthy of the
mott enlightened period of fociety.

Inthe year 1389 a treaty was concluded between the kings
of England and France, to which the Scots were invited to
accede; but as the earl cf March and the lord of the Ifles
were admitted as parties, great oppofition was manifefted to
it by the nobles, who confidered both thefe noblemen as
fubjeéts of the Scottifh monarchy, and therefore not en-
titled to treat as independent perfons. The king, however,
inclined to peace, and after fome explanations on the part of
the French and Englith ambaffadors, the nobles were induced
to give a reluctant confent to the termination of hoftilities for
three years. Robert died foon afterwards, opprefled with
grief and age, April rgth, 1390, and was fucceeded by
his eldeft fon, John, earl of Carrick, who affumed the title
of Robert III. . In earlier life he had commanded armies,
and negociated treaties, with ability and fuccefs, but he had
lived for fome time in retirement. Now that he was called
to the throne, he committed the direGtion of public affairs to
his brother, the earl of Fife, by whofe advice he confirmed
the late truce, and renewed the ancient league with France.
In this reign a violent feud broke out between the clans
Chattan and Kay, which raged for nearly three years with
the moft ruthlefs fury. The earl of Crawford was fent to
reftore peace; but fearing that the employment of force
might caufe an union againit the government, he had re-
courfe to the following expedient, which ferves to illuftrate
the character of the Highlanders, and the general {tate of
fociety in that age. He propofed that their quarrel fhould
be decided by thirty champions from each clan, who fhould
fight with the fword only, in prefence of the king and his
court. The propofal, being perfectly agreeable to the [pirit
of the feudal laws, was fanétioned by both parties. A level
{pot near Perth was fixed upon for the {cene of aétion, but
when the combatants were muttered, it was found that one
of them, belonging to clan Chattan, had failed to appear.
In this difficulty it was fuggefted that one of clan Kay
fhould be withdrawn, but all of them refufed to relinquifh
the honour and danger of the combat. Various other ex-
pedients were ftarted with no. better fuccefs. At length
Henry Wynd, a {mith, no ways conneéted with either clan,
offered to fupply the place of the abfentee, and his offer
was accepted. ‘The champions on both fides now joined
battle, and after a conteft probably unparalleled for its fury,
victory declared for clan Chattan, principally owing to the
fuperior heroifm of Wynd, who, with ten of his comrades,
all defperately wounded, alone furvived the conteft. Of
clan Kay one only was left alive, who, being unhurt, threw
himfelf into the Tay and efeaped. This fingular combat
happened in the year 139635 and in 1398, as the truce with
England had nearly expired, it was prolonged, and feveral
regulations were made tending to preferye the peace of the
borders. Inthe fame year the title of duke was firft intro-
duced into Scotland, by the elevation of the king’s eldeft
fon David to the dukedom of Rothfay; and of his own

brother,

SCOTLAND.

brother, the earl of Fife, to the dukedom of Albany, A
cuftom alfo began to prevail in the border treatics, of naming
cautidners, who aéted as confervators of the peace, aad were
a kind of attornies for their fellow fubjedts, in all matters
izable in the border courts, which had been lately efta-
on both fides. Thefe regulations are juftly confi-
as important fteps in the progreflive civilization of the
two kingdoms. ;
The events of the year 1401 were the molt difaftrous in
themfelves, and in their confequences, which ever occurred
to Scotland, The death of ear! Douglas was followed by
thofe of William Trail, archlithop of St. Andrews, a pre-
late of great weight ; and queen 4 heey a woman of ex-
virtue dence. ‘This princefs, by her influence,
ufies of feveral branches of the royal
ular had rettrained the impetuous temper
of the duke of Rothfay, the heir apparent to the throne,
murdered foon after by the duke of
The truce with England being now expired, war
was renewed on the borders, and a fevere action was fought
at WeRern-Nifbet, in which the Scots were defeated. So
contefted was this battle, that it is affirmed that few
of either army efcaped unhurt. It was fucceeded in the

:

following by another combat, fought between the
eel of : Eletiper and Douglas, at Homeldon,
where the were again victorious, and numbered

the earls of Douglas, Fife, Angus,
Montgomery, Erfkine, Graham, and Orkney,
i and about 10,000 gentlemen and private
battle, fo immediately difaitrous to Scot-
in its refults no lefs foto England. King
earl Percy and the other barons not
their pri they that mandate as
fuch a i eee their feudal rights, that
oe nae f revolt againft the government,
for a time defied all its efforts. “The vidory of Shrewf-
bury, and the fall of Percy, terminated this formidable in-
rival of Percy, was prefent in
ifoner, but his conduét had fo
greatly excited the admiration of the English king, that he
gave him se Sa ei ranfom.
ithftanding this vi€tory, was extremely
concluding a peace with tland, in order
that he might employ te whole force of his government in
ing his difcontented fubje€ts. He firft attempted to

:

z

f
i

rr
;

4

overawin,
a negociation through the medium of the French am-
befladoreat the phen. dg but finding that meafure un-
availing, he di {pecial commiffioners with the fame
view. The refult was unfavourable, and hottilities con-
tinued, without any remarkable tranfaGtion on either
fide. All this time Robert remained i t of the fate
of the duke of Rothfay, but it foon neceflary to
make him acquainted with it. The king, unable to punith
adopted the prudent refolution of fending
his fecond fon James to France ; he did not reach his defti-
nation, havi tured by an Englifh privateer, and
fent as’a pri to London. The news of this fecond
fo affefted Robert, that he died three days after-
in 1405.
the fates of the kingdom ‘nominated the
t. This prince was a man of con-
lities, but ambitious, and hence appears to have
been lukewarm in his endeavours to obtain the liberty of his
of the le, however, forced him
En but it was foon terminated
during which it was propofed to enter into ne-
Bociations for a permanent peace. Conferences were, in

H

confequence, held for that purpofe, butzhey ended only in a
prolongation of the truce, at the clofe of which the war wae
renewed, and Henry prepared to tlrike a decifive blow sgaintt
Scotland; but thele preparations were vever carried into
effet, as a treaty was agreed to which laited tll igt5. This
period of Scortith hiftory ws diftinguifhed by the foundation
of the univerfity of St. Andrew's, the firlt inttuution of
the kind of which Scotland can boalt. (See St. Anpnews.)
It may therefore be regarded as an era of peculiar wterelt,
as from it may be dated the rife of learning in that kingdom ;
which, though confefledly among the latt to devote itfelf to
{cience, has contributed as much to its progrefs as any other
nation of modern Europe.

The truce laft-mentioned being ended, the Scots befieged
Berwick, but that enterprize was unfuccefsful, and all that
was done during the campaign was the burning of Penrith
by the Scots, and of Dumfries by the Englith. Next year
negociatious were entered into for the liberation of James,
but thefe were as fruitlefs as the former, and the war con-
tinued. No aétion worthy of record, however, occurred
during five years, and hence it has been, with fome pro-
bability, furmifed that there exifted an underitanding
between the regent and the Englith general; though this
would not feem to have been the opinion of his contempo-
raries, for we are told that, on his death, which happened
in 1420, the Scots held his memory in fuch veneration that
they conferred the regency on his fon Murdoch, folely from
refpe& for the father.

n 1421, king Henry being informed that the earl of
Douglas was meditating an invafion of the northern coun-
ties, invited him to a conference at York, when the earl,
with the confent of James, agreed to ferve the Englith king
during life. At the fame time fome ftipulations were made
relative to the releafe of the Scottifh monarch, but that
event did not take place till the year 1424. Henry V. was
then dead, and the tide of fortune in France had fo com-
pletely changed, that the Englifh regent found it neceflary
to conciliate the Scots, and if poflible to detach them from
the French intereft. He therefore treated James with the
greateit attention, and propofed a negociation for his liberty.
Commiffioners were, in confequence, named on both fides,
who agreed that the Scottifh king fhould be ranfomed for
40,000 pounds, and fhould marry fome lady of the firft
quality in England. James, it 1s probable, had already
fixed his choice upon the lady Joan, daughter to the late
earl of Somerfet, fon to John of Gaunt, duke of Lan-
cafter, by his fecond marriage ; but he made his people the
compliment, not only of confulting their opinion, but of con-
cluding the match. The royal nuptials were celebrated in
the begiuning of February 1424, when the young king of
England prefented James with a fuit of cloth of gold for the
ceremony, and the next da ve him a legal difcharge for
10,000 pounds, to be de aBied from the amount of his
ranfom, as the marriage portion of the lady.

Hitherto the hiftory of Scotland confilts of little elfe but
a detail of battles and predatory excurfions ; of feuds between
lawlefs clans, and rebellions againft the fovereign authority.
Neither the government nor the people were fufficiently
enlightened to recognife fixed principles of foreign or
domeftic policy. The great barons, though bound to
reuder homage to the king, and to perform feveral feudal
fervices, affumed all the importance, and exercifed moft of
the funétions, of independent princes. On the acceflion of
James I., however; to actual power, the annals of the king-
dom begin to afflume a new afpe&. The reiterated theme
of defeats and victories, of negociations and truces, may
henceforth be diverfified with more interefting intelligence,

and

SCOTLAND.

and the arts of peace may afford a pleafing contraft to the
devaitations of war.

James, fhortly after his arrival in Scotland, was folemnly
crowned, with his queen, and Murdach, duke of Albany, as
earl of Fife, performed the ceremony of placing his fovereign
on the throne. His firft public act was to convene a parlia-
ment, and-to direct their deliberations to the ena&tment of
falutary laws. Among other enactments it was declared,
that the ancient privileges of the church be confirmed ; that
the king’s peace be firmly held, and no private wars allowed ;
that no man fhould travel with more followers than he
could maintain; that efficient adminiltrators of the law be
appointed through the realm; that no extortions, from
churchmen or farmers in particular, be admitted; that the
cuftoms and borough rates be afigned to the king, alfo
mines-of gold and filver, under certain reftrictions ; that
the clergy fhould not pafs the fea without the king’s per-
miffion, nor have penfions out of benefices in Scotland ;
that gold and filver fhould not be exported, but upon paying
a high cuftom; that all perfons under twelve years of age
fhould be taught archery ; that agriculture be proteéted ;
that certain cultoms be raifed on horfes, cattle, fheep, her-
ringsand firs; that inns be kept in every borough; and that
no beggars be allowed, except permitted by the fheriff in the
county, and in towns by the alderman or bailie. ‘T'wo other
enactments were made by the fame parliament, which merit
feparate confideration: the firft granted to the king a large
fubfidy, by taxation, for defraying his ranfom, which occa-
fioned fo much diflatisfaction, that he was obliged to avert
the danger of a general infurreétion, by giving up the idea
of levying the impofed taxes. Unaccultomed to pay direct
contributions toward the fupport of the government, the
people confidered this ordinance as an act of oppreflion, and
were blind to the advantages which might have refulted from
its completion. The fecond enactment ordered all fheriffs
to inguire what lands had belonged to the crown under the
three preceding monarchs, and authorized the king to fum-
mon the holders to fhew their charters. The object of this
decree was to recover the royal demefnes, which had been
parcelled out by the duke of Albany among his friends.
Determined to puniih that prince for his mal-adminiltration,
he arrefted him, his two fons, and the earl of Lennox, his
father-in-law, and took pofleilion of their eftates and caftles.
They were afterwards brought to trial, and a verdi&t having
been found againft them, they fuffered death at Stirling.
This part of James’s conduc is defended by. fome authors
as juft and politic, while others reprefent it as cruel and tyran-
nical. The whole reign of James pafled in peace with
England till within a month of his death, and it is certainly
much to his honour, that he employed himfelf in promoting
eivilization, and eftablifhing regular government among his
fubjects, rather than in waiting their lives and property in
the purfuit of war. He neverthelefs cultivated a clofe
alliance with France, and entered into a treaty with that
kingdom, by which it was agreed, that the dauphin fhould
efpoufe the young princefs of Scotland. Numerous ftatutes
were pafled during this period for the encouragement of
trade and agriculture, and for regulating the proceedings
in theadminiltration of the law. All thefemeafures were taken
with the approbation of the States, and feem to have been
approved by the nation at large. The feizure of the royal
eltates, however, had created James many virulent enemies,
and at length proved the caufe of his murder. He had further
awakened the jealoufy of his nobles by fome attempts to curb
their exorbitant powers; and they appear to have dreaded
left he fhould make ftill bolder and more decifive encroach-
ments on their feudal rights. Such were the fentiments and

2

feelings of parties when fir Robert Graham called a meeting
of the chief men to reprefent their grievances to the king.
A remonftrance was accordingly refolved upon, and Graham
was appointed to deliver it to James in the next parliament ;
but the violence of his conduét deltroyed all the benefit
which might otherwife have refulted to their caufe from
this ftep. Inftead of urging his fuit with the refpect due
to the tvereion Graham rofe with an enraged countenance,
and feized the king, faying, ‘ I arreft you in the name of all
the three {tates of your realm here aflembled in parliament,
for as your people have {worn to obey you, fo you are con.
{trained by an equal oath to govern by law, and not to
wrong your fubjects, but in juttice to maintain and protect
them.”? This proje& having failed, Graham refolved to
accomplifh the death of the king by a confpiracy, which he
put in execution during the feftival of Chriftmas, which
James held at Perth. Here, in conjunétion with fir John
Hall and his brother, they barbaroufly murdered the king,
in the 44th year of his age, and the 43th of his aétive
authority. He was a prince of fuperior abilities, and may
juftly be confidered among the greateft of the Scottifh
monarchs. If his meafures were fometimes fevere, they are
perfeétly defenfible upon the principles of found policy. He
had'to deal with a fet of men who regarded the virtue of
moderation as imbecility, and whofe lawlefs habits could
only be reftrained by the moft fummary examples of juttice.
The frequent meetings of the {tates of the kingdom during
his reign, and his conftant deference to their decifion,
fhew that James was not a tyrant. His patronage of
learning and of the ufeful arts, evinces that the grand
object of his ambition was the improvement and benefit of
his country.

James II., who was only feven years of age at his father’s
death, was crowned king at Edinburgh on the 25th’ of
March 1438. At the fame time a parliament was aflembled,
and denounced the fevereit penalties of the law againft all
thofe concerned in the regicide. The firft taken were fir
Robert Stuart and fir Chriltopher Chambers, who were
executed at Edinburgh. Athol was next feized, and be-
headed at the fame place; and Graham, with many others,
foon after fhared a fimilar fate at Stirling. Even at the
moment when he was writhing under the agonies of the moft
cruel tortures, that daring chief of the affaflins had the
boldnefs to declare that his conduét was fully juftified by
the tyranny of the king, and that his judges and the people
ought rather to applaud him as a patriot, than condemn him
as a traitor. The minority of the new king having ren-
dered a regency neceflary, Archibald, earl of Douglas,
affumed the direétion of affairs with the confent of the par-
liament ; but that nobleman unfortunately died within the
year. The ftates of the kingdom afterwards divided the
government between fir William Crichton, as chancellor,
and fir Alexander Livingfton, as keeper of the king’s
perfon, with the title of governor. ‘This proved a moft
unfortunate partition of power; for the chancellor and
governor foon quarrelled ; and the former feized the perfon
of the fovereign, and counteraéted all the ediéts of his col-
league by contrary proclamations. The queen-mother,
however, who was inimical to. Crichton, contrived ‘to
fteal her fon from his cuftody, and fled with him to the
cattle of Stirling. In this junéture the chancellor applied
to the young earl of Douglas for his fupport; but he
haughtily anfwered, that he was an enemy to all parties, and
was determined to aflume the government himfelf. Crichton
wasthus convinced of the neceflity for a union to guard againit
thefe arrogant pretenfions; and accordingly a compromife
with Livingiton took place in Edinburgh; by which it

was

SCOTLAND.

was agreed, that the king fhould remain in the cuftody of

the latter. : .

Iu the interim, the earl of Douglas continued to brave
of the government in a manner amounting to open
ion, which highly exafperated the chancellor in parti-
; and as he knew the earl was above the reach of the
law, he refolved to get rid of him by fummary means. With
this view he invited him to attend a parliament then about to
be held at Edinburgh, and having inveigled him and his
brother into the oie on the pretence of dining with the

, ordered both to be executed on the Caftle-till The
young monarch endeavoured to fave them; but the chan-
eellor was fixed in his purpofe, and had already ventured too
far to recede with fafet

i

E

atari ie ia ere

promifin he would ever afterwards condué&
peers A a dutiful and loyal fubj His fubmiffion was
‘oyfull , ; liately admitted

ge

he preten

So Mh te oom he thee at the
i n alfo refi all his poits,

of Misting calle, which be reteined

the fame pretence.

James demanded immediate furrender of both for-
the demand being refufed, the eftates of the
refult was a civil war,
— which almoft corner of the country pre-
fented a feene of defolation and bloodthed. It terminated
by the reconciliation of Crichton to the king, and the
facrifice ef Livingfton to the vengeance of Douglas.

The king, now in his 18th year, was married to Mary,

as the river Sark in Annandale, where it was totally defeated
earl of Ormond. Next year a truce was con-

an indefinite period, which bore this fingular
that either party might violate it upon giving 180
notice. The royal bride having arrived in Scotland
lage was ized with great

Houfe, an event which put an end to

glas, who retired to his eftates. James,
from thraldom,

oe se regan
‘majefty, or in war again

his violently, of whatever age the king be,
ont “ee re heat pe Foe Bape
3 Or garrifon houfes of their own in affiftance

<a tater geese gamete
a happen to without confest
Vou. XXXII.

of the three eftates, thall be punifhed as traitors." This
flatute has occafioned altercations between the favourers of
monarchy, and thofe who attach ideas of freedom to a par-
liament of the middle ages; though, im fa, the only dif.
pute lay between monarchy and ariltocracy. Many other
itatutes were pafled to increafe the power of the fovereign.
Douglas, chagrined at the lofs of his power, and withing
to difplay his pomp to the continental princes, went wo the
jubilee at Rome with a train of fix knights, fourteen gentle-
men, and eighty inferior attendants. In his abfence many
complaints were made againfl his dependants, which fo en-
raged James, that he feized upon the cattle of Lochmaben,
and demolifhed that of Douglas. The earl, on his return
home, fent a fubmiflive meflage to the king; and as he
could not in equity be reputed guilty of events which
happened without his knowledge, he was gracioufly re-
ceived ; but he foon proved himbelf unworthy of caaidleved
by engaging in treafonable practices, and foliciting the pro-
teétion ef England. Douglas having been prevailed upon
to vifit the court of Stirling, was conduéted into a fecret
chamber, where James mildly told him that he knew of the
league he had made, and advifed him to break off all fuch
i engagements. The earl treated the propofal with
his ufual arrogance, whereupon the king, roufed to mo-
mentary fury, exclaimed, “ If you will not break this

roe by I hall,” and drawing a dayger, initantly
bed Deuglas.
The brother and fucceflor of the late Douglas was re-

conciled to the king, and entered into a folemn engagement ;
1ft, not to pretend any title to the earldom of Wigton,
except with the queen’s confent ; 2dly, nor to the lands ot
Stewarton, a part of the patrimony of the duchels of
Towraine, his mother ; 3dly, to abandon in future all hatred
or enmity again{t all perfons; 4thly, to preferve the public
and make compenfations to perfons already injured ;
— to obferve the itriGeft duty and refpect to the king.
his inftrument, which was figued by Douglas and lord
Hamilton for themfelves and their adherents, affords a curious
picture of the ftate of government and manners in the age.
The interval of domeftic quiet which fucceeded this re-
conciliation was only of fhort duration ; but it was marked
by an event of fome intereft in the hiftory of Scottifh learn-
ing, viz. the foundation of the univerfity of Glafgow,
through the munificence of bifhop Turnbull. The itandard
of rebellion was again raifed by Douglas, aided by the
Yorkift party in England. The king, aware of this con-
{piracy, fummoned Douglas to appear before the privy-
council ; and upon his refufal ravaged his eftates, and be-
fieged his caftle of Abercorn. The earl of Crawford ad-
vanced with an army to its relief, determined to force his
fovereign to fight or fly the kingdom. James, di i
the loyalty of the fouthern counties, haftened to St. Andrews,
whence, by the advice of Kennedy, bifhop of that fee, he
iflued a proclamation, f{ummoning the array of the north, and
offering an annuity to all who fhould join his fervice. Ina
few days he found himfelf at the of a numerous bod
of troops, with whom he marched againft Douglas, whofe
army was encamped on the banks ofthe Carron. The effect
uced was almoft miraculous, for in lefs than twenty-four
sae Douglas was deferted by his whole army, excepting
the perfons who formed his houfchold. Upon this un-
expected change, he fied to Annandale, and afterwards to

ames next proceeded to crufh the remaining partifans of
the infurreétion, and to reduce the caftles of Abercorn
and Strathavan, which ftill refifted his authority. He
a + een a eae =

SCOTLAND.

the forfeiture of the earl of Douglas, with his mother and
brothers, was folemnly deereed. In another parliament
held in the fame year, feveral important and interelting
enactments were made, tending te confirm the paramount
power of the king, and to fap the foundation of the feudal
fyftem. :

He next turned his attention to the fubje&ts of foreign
policy enraged at the condu& of England for fupporting
the Douglafes, he invaded that kingdom, and {pread de-
folation throughout the northern counties. Meanwhile
Douglas was admitted to the titles of an Englifh fubject,
and continued in that allegiance till his death.

Not long after this invafion, a truce was negociated with
England, and James returned to his favourite occupation,
the enaétment of laws for the improvement and tranquillity
of the country. Inthe feveral parliaments held at Edin-
burgh, meafures were taken to reform the coinage, and to
regulate the internal commerce of the kingdom; a regular
militia was eltablifhed for the national defence ; and feveral
laws were made to promote agriculture, and to fix the con-
ftitution of parliament. But the moft important a& pafled
in this reign relates to the eftablifhment of a fupreme court
of juftice, independent of the king’s council. This court
confilted of three eminent clergy, three barons, and three
commiflioners of burghs, to be changed each month. It
was, in faét, a committee of parliament, the members
having been taken in rotation from that allembly ; and no
appeal lay from its decifions.

While thefe matters were under confideration in Scot-
land, England was diltraéted by the rivalfhip of the houfes
ef York and Lancafter. James feems to have inclined to
favour the former, but took no aétive part on either fide
till the captivity of Henry VI., when he commenced hof-
tilities, by laying fiege to the caftles of Berwick and Rox-
burgh. The latter enterprife he conduéted in perfon ; and
here he unfortunately met his death, by the accidental burft-
ing of acannon, on the 3d of Auguft, 1460. ‘The nobi-
lity who were prefent concealed his death, from the fear of
difcouraging the foldiers; but the {pirited condu@ of the
queen foon rendered this precaution unneceflary. Her
young fon, James, having arrived in the camp a few hours
after, fhe prefented him to the army as their king, and de-
clared fhe would at the part of their general herfelf.

Accordingly fhe aflumed the reins of government, and
pufhed the fiege of Roxburgh eaftle with fo much vigour,
that the garrifon was obliged to capitulate in a few days ;
after which the army took and. difmantled the cattle of
Werk. In 1466, negociations were begun for a marriage
between the young king and Margaret, princefs of Den-
mark; and in 1468, the following conditions were ftipu-
lated ; 1it, that the annual rent hitherto paid for the northern
ifles of Orkney and Zetland fhould be for ever remitted
and extinguifhed : 2dly, that Chriftiern, then king of Den-
mark, fhould give 60,000 florins ef gold for his daughter’s
portion, whereof 10,000 fhould be paid before his departure
from Denmark ; and that the iflands of Orkney fhould be
made over to the crown of Scotland, by way of pledge for
the remainder ; with this provifo, that they fhould return to
that of Norway 2fter complete payment of the whole fum :
3dly, that king James fhould, in cafe of his dying before
the faid Margaret his {poufe, leave her in poffeffion of the
palace of Linlithgow and caftle of Down in Mentieth, with
all their appurtenances, and the third part of the ordinary
revenues of the crown, to be enjoyed by her during life, in
cafe the fhould choofe to refide in Scotland: 4thly, but if
fhe rather chofe to return to Denmark, that in lieu of the
faid life-rent, palace, and cattle, fhe fhould accept of 120,000

florins of the Rhine; from which fum the 50,000 due for
the remainder of her portion being deduéted and allowed, the
iflands of Orkney fhould be re-annexed to the crown of
Norway as before. When the completion of thefe articles
became neceflary, Chrittiern found himfelf unable to fulfit
his part of them. Engaged in an unfuccefsful war witl:
Sweden, he could not advance the 10,000 florins, as agreed
to. He therefore applied to the plenipotentiaries. to ac-
cept of 2000, and to take a mortgage of the ifles of
Zetland for the other 8000. This treaty led to the final
annexation of Orkney and Zetland to the Scottifh crown.
In 1476 thofe misfortunes began to aflail James, which
afterwards terminated in his ruin. He had made his brother,
the duke of Albany, governor of Berwick ; and had en-
trufted him with very extenfive powers upon the borders,
where a violent propenfity for the feudal habits ftill con-
tinued. The Humes and the Hepburns could not brook
the duke of Albany’s greatnefs, efpecially after he forced
them, by virtue of a late aét, to part with fome of the eftates
which had been granted them in the preceding reign. The
pretended fcience of judicral aftrology, by which James
happened to be infatuated, was the eafiell, as well as the
moft effectual engine that could work their purpofes. One
Andrew, an infamous impoftor in that art, had been
brought over from Flanders by James ; and he and Schevez,
then archbifhop of St. Andrews, concurred in perfuading
James that the Scotch lion was to be devoured by his own
whelps. .
In 1482, the king began to feel the bad confequences:
of taking into his councils men of worthlefs charaéter. His:
great favourite at this time was Cochran, whom he had
raifed to the dignity of the earl of Mar. All hiftorians.
agree that this man made a moft infamous ufe of his power.

, The other minions of the king were James Hommil, a

taylor; Leonard, a black{mith ; and Torfifaw, a dancing-
matter, whofe profeflions rendered them wholly unworthy of
the royal countenance, The favour fhewn to thefe men gave.
fuch offence to the nobility, that they refolved to remove
the king, with fome of his leaft exceptionable domettics, to
the caftle of Edinburgh, and to hang all his favourites over
Lawder bridge, both which meafures were accomplifhed.
with the moit fpirited refolution. During his confinement,
James conduéted himfelf with great firmnefs, refufing all
terms of compromife with thofe who had feized his perfon,
or were engaged in the execution of his favourites. Having
been liberated by his brother, the duke of Albany, he im-
mediately repaired to Holyrood Houfe, whither moft of his
nobles came to pay their ref{peéts to him ; but fo much was
he exafperated by their conduét, that he imprifoned no
fewer than fixteen. Albany was appomted chief minitter,
and became a great favourite ; but this cordiality did not
laft long ; for in lefs than three years we find Albany fo-
lemnly denounced a traitor by aét of parliament. During
all this period, hoftilities were carried on with the Englifh
government; but a truce was agreed to in 1484; and James,
finding himfelf in tranquillity both at home and abroad,
infenfibly relapfed_into his former impolitic fyftem. The
refult was, an aflociation of feveral of the moft powerful
barons, who feized the perfon of the heir apparent, and in-
duced him to put himfelf at their head. James at this
period was making progrefs and holding courts in the
North ; but immediately on hearing of the infurre€tion he
hurried to Perth, which he appointed as the place of ren-
dezvous for hisarmy. When the whole were affembled, he
marched to Stirling, where he firft learned that his fon com-
manded the rebel forces who were advancing from the eatt..
Both armies drew up in battle array, nearly on the fame
9 ground

SCOTLAND.

ground which had been already confecrated by the vidtory
of Bannockburn. At firft the rebels gave way; but beiog
{upported by their fecond and third lines, the royalifts were
in turn forced to retreat, ‘This event, and the cowardly
Bighe of the king, terminated the ation with little effufion
blood. James, in pafling through the village of Ban
nockburn, was thrown from his horfe, and carried into a
mill, where he was flabbed by one of the rebels, who,
pretending to be a it, was conduéted to him by the
miller’s ete. Tho. perithed a nee, whofe natural
fs deferved a better fate, than to fall the vidtim
of a lawle{s ariftocracy, more inimical to public order than
the feeble defpotifm of their fovereign.
The duke of Rothfay, apprifed of his father’s fate, aflem-
bled a parliament at Edinburgh, in which feveral of the
’ of the late king were arraigned for high treafon.
He afterwards made a progrefs throughout the kiagdom,
and endeavoured to acquire popularity. In that pe
however, he was not immediately fucce(sful, as we find the
carly part of his reign was dilturbed by a formidable re-
The leader of this infurreétion was the earl of
Lenox, who was defeated and taken prifoner at Tilly-Moor.
James, however, afterwards became a t favourite with
the nation, on account of his zeal for the improvement of
the kingdom. The arts of thip-building and of archite¢ture
were particularly the wee of his patronage ; and indeed
a pitch did his anxiety to eftablith a
brought himfelf into ferious finaneial diff.
culties This diftinguifhed monarch clofed his and his
life in the celebrated field of Floddon, where moit of his
nobility perifhed with him.
esac aber afcended the throne, though only a year
and a half old. The long minority which enfued was
for internal intrigue, particularly for the
fixed eftablifiment of the French and Englifh faétions in
Scotland, which continued to diftraét the kingdom, more
or lefs, till the clofe of its exiilence as a feparate and inde-
jee ftate. From this circumflance the hiftory of
ith affairs sengerr Pg an tecpas pre inti-
mately connected wit general hiftory of Europe;
but as the limits of this article will not eet, of thee
being detailed at length, their bearings cannot be pointed
out in a fatisfatory manner...
The parliament, which met immediately after the fatal
to

battle of Floddon on the critical fituation of

to France to requeit
his arrival in Scotland, he was received with ev
ale Sy but as he attached himfelf clofely to the French
the Englith party, headed by the queen and lord
him in al his meafures, and excited com-
parts of the country. Henry VIII.
war a him ; and though it does
t feared the iffue of a conteft, he
it neceflary to make peace, on ac-
iled in the army, which he
had led to the borders with the view of invading England.
Shortly afterwards, the increafing oppofition manifelted

|

againit his authority induced him to refign the regency ;
when the fovereign power was again aflumed by the queea.
Arran, by feizing on the perfon of the king, and pretending
to rule in his name, foon overthrew the party of the queen ;
but his own elevation was not of much longer continyanece ;
for the king, having efcaped from his cultody, feized the
reins of government himfelf, and not only deprived Arran
of all his dignities, but had him denounced io parliament as
. traitor,

Thur, freed from the controul of all parties, James dif.
ers an excellent capacity for goverament. He called
requeat parliaments, and dire¢ted their attention principally
to the improvement of his kingdom. In 1532 he inils-
tuted the court of feflion, on the model of the parliament
of Paris. This court originally confifted of fifteen members,
half clergy and half laity, and was empowered to give
decifions in all civil fuits.

The years immediately fucceeding that laft-mentioned,
were marked by the mott Loreid atrocities, committed in the
name of religion. Many perfons of diftinguithed rank fuf-
fered at the flake for their opinions. A court of inquifition
was eitablifhed, of which fir James Hamilton was ap-
pointed prefident, and certainly no man ever fhewed himfelf
more worthy of his mercile(s {tation. During the fame period
the Scots had to deplore the miferies of a war with England,
which raged for two years with various fuccefs. But not-
withilanding thefe misfortunes, Scotland continued to rife
in power and importance. ‘The friendhhip of James was
anxioufly fought by all the great European fovereigns.
Even the pepe fent an ambaflador to the Scottith court,
m= emerge upon James the title of “ Defender of the

aith.”’

In the year 1536, the king negociated a treaty of mar-
riage with Marie de Bourbon, which was folemaly ratified
by the French king ; but it was afterwards annulled by
the vifit of Tames himfelf to the continent, where he ef-
poufed Magdalen, the daughter of Francis, who died in lefs
than two months after her arrival in Scotland. The
Scottifh king, however, did not long remain a widower ;
for in 1538 he efpoufed Mary of Guife, dowager duchefs
of Longueville.

In 1540 a parliament was held at Edinburgh, in which
an act of indemnity was pafled for all offences committed
during the king’s mmority. Shortly after war broke out
with England, and the duke of Norfolk invaded Scotland ¢
but was compelled to retreat by the {kilful movements of
the earl of Huntley. James refolved to purfue this advan-
tage by gaara into England; and the expedition
would moft probably have been fuccefsful but for the ap-
pointment of an ar gts favourite to the chief command
in the moment of attack, which fo much difgufted the
nobles, that they chofe rather to furrender to the Englifh,
than fubmit to his orders. This difgraceful occurrence
happened at Solway Mofs; and produced fuch an effe&
upon the mind of the king, that it brought him to his grave,
in the 31ft year of his age.

Mary, his infant daughter by Mary of Guife, fucceeded
to the throne, and cardinal Beaton, who had been for many
years prime miniiter, aflumed the regency ; in virtue of a
pretended teftament which he himfelf had forged in the
name of the late king, The earl of Arran, the next heir
to the crown, was however elected to the regency by the
nobles ; and thus new jealopfies were excited. The Eng-
lith monarch propofed his fon Edward as a match for the
young queen, but this was oppofed by the regent. A
war was the confequence ; but it was foon terminated by
a peace negociated with - French king, in which 5 or

2

SCOTLAND.

land was included. Shortly after this, cardinal Beaton fell
a facrifice to the hatred of the reformers, who were parti-
cularly incenfed again{t him for the barbarous execution of
one of their champions, named Wifhart. This event proved
fatal to the Catholic religion, and to the French interett in
Scotland; for though a large party in the nation {till con-
tinued zealoufly attached to both, the lofs of fo bold and
fkilful a leader rendered their influence and exertions much
lefs effeCtive.

In September 1547, Henry VIII. being deceafed, the

roteGtor, Somerfet, in purfuance of the intentions of his
Pie matter, entered Scotland with a large army, and having
engaged the Scots, commanded by the regent in perfon,
at Pinkey, near Muflelburgh, gained a complete victory.
Above ten thoufand men fell on this day, which was
fearcely lefs difaftrous to Scotland than the fatal one of
Floddon. The victory, however, was of little advantage
to the protector, whofe cruel ravages only increafed the
averfion of the Scots to unite with England ; and induced
them to form a clofe alliance with France. The queen
dowager, who, after the death of Beaton, took a confiderable
fhare in the direétion of affairs, feized every opportunity to
promote this obje&. By her advice ambaffadors were fent to
the court of Henry II. to offer the young queen in marriage
to the dauphin; and accordingly a treaty was concluded,
by which the parties were betrothed, and the Scots became
bound to fend Mary to receive her education in France.
In yain did a few patriots remonftrate againft fuch extra-
vagant conceffions, by which Scotland was made a French
province ; and Henry, from an ally, raifed to be mafter of
the kingdom.

While Mary was enjoying the pleafures of the court of
France, the only fcene in which fhe ever experienced the
{miles of fortune, Scotland, firft under the regency of
the earl of Arran, who had been dignified with the title of
duke de Chatellerault, and afterwards of the queen dowager,
Mary de Guife, was rent by faétions, and experienced all
the direful effe&ts of religious and feudal diflentions. The
whole time which had elapfed from the death of James V.
had been a feafon of anarchy, during which parties had
rifen and fallen in rapid fucceflion. To the commotions
fo common in every country, while the feudal fyftem was
in its vigour, and in none more than in Scotland, may be
added thofe caufed by the collifion of the principles of the
reformation, with the interefts of a powerful hierarchy.
Throughout Europe the wealth of the church was exor-
bitant ; but in Scotland it fo far exceeded the juft propor-
tion, that not lefs than half of the national property was
poffefled by ecclefiaftics. The mode of its difpofal like-
wife confiderably increafed their influence. Church lands
being let on leafe, at an eafy rate, and poflefled by the
younger branches of the great families, many eltates in all
parts of the kingdom were held of the church. This ex-
traordinary fhare in the national property was accompanied
by a proportionable weight in the national councils. The
number of temporal peers being fmall, and the lefler barons
and reprefentatives of boroughs feldom attending, the eccle-
fiaftical members formed a very confiderable body in the
Scottifh parliaments, in which they poileffed all the influence
that exorbitant wealth and fuperior talents could give.

A hierarchy eftablifhed on fo firm a bafis, with fo many
pillars for its fupport, it was difficult to overturn. The
progrefs of the reformation, however, gave a ferious alarm
«9 the clergy, and the {word of perfecution was effectually
drawn in defence of the privileges and emoluments of the
Catholic church.

In {pite of all thefe difficulties, however, the reformed

2

religion was eftablifhed in Scotland, by aét of parliament,
in 1560, and the exercife of religious worfhip, accord.
ing to the rites of the Popifh church, was prohibited,
under the penalty of forfeiture of goods for the firft, banifh=
ment for the fecond, and death for the third offence.
“Such ftrangers,”’? fays Dr. Robertfon, « were men at
that time to the fpirit of toleration, and to the laws of
humanity ; and with fuch indecent hafte did the very perfons
who had juft efcaped the rigour of ecclefiaftical tyranny
proceed to imitate thofe examples of feverity, of which
they themfelves had fo juftly complained.” The new
{yftem of church government, however, was yet to be
modelled ; and in this bufinefs Knox, a popular preacher,
of a rude but energetic eloquence, of rigid morals, and
republican ferocity, had a principal fhare. This reformer
had long refided at Geneva, and confidered the fyttem of
church government eftablifhed by Calvin in that city, as the
moit perfeét model for imitation. He, therefore, recom-
mended it to his countrymen, and fucceeded in accomplifh-
ing its eltablifhment.

When Mary returned to Scotland, fhe was received by
her fubjeéts with every demonftration of joy. Never did a
prince afcend a throne under circumitances of greater diffi-
culty, or condué herfelf at firft with more prudence. TFind-
ing the Proteftant religion completely eftablifhed over the
whole kingdom, fhe very properly took into power the moft
eminent men of that party ; and, to remove all dread of moleft-
ation from the minds of their followers, fhe formally declared,
“that until fhe fhould take final orders concerning religion,
with advice of parliament, any attempt to alter or fubvert
the religion which fhe found univerfally pra¢tifed in the
realm, fhould be deemed a capital crime.”? The divilion of
the property of the church, and the fettlement of the
Proteftant revenues, however, foon gave rife to animofities ;
and the queen, in her anxiety to pleafe both parties, loft the
confidence of the Papilts by her conceffions to the Protef-
tants, while the latter were offended at the {mall fhare of
{poil which was declared to accrue to them. Diflentions
broke out among the nobility ; and particularly between the
earls of Marr and Huntley. The latter, who was a zealous
Catholic, prefled the queen to reftore popery ; and finding
his counfels negleéted by the influence of Marr, firft attempted
to affaflinate him, and thereafter raifed the ftandard of rebel-
lion againft his fovereign. The earl of Murray marched to
oppofe him, and after a bloody conteft put his forces to the
rout. :

The year following thefe tranfaétions, Mary, who was
defirous of entering into 2 more intimate correfpondence with
Elizabeth, employed Maitland to defire a perfonal interview
with her, but the Englifh queen declined the meeting. In
1563, the Scottifh fovereign avowed her determination to
contract a fecond marriage, an event for which the nation
in general was extremely anxious, in order that the crown
might be continued in the right line of its ancient poffeflors.
Many fuitors of great eminence, among the princes of
Europe, prefented themfelves; but thefe were all re-
jeted in favour of Henry Stuart, lord Darnley, eldeft
fon of the earl of Lenox, who had been forced to feek
refuge in England in the reign of James V. The royal
nuptials were celebrated in July 1565, in conformity
to the rites of the church of Rome; and not content
with elevating this undeferving man to her bed, the queen
iflued proclamations at the fame time, conferring upon him
the title of king of the Scots. All thofe who had oppofed
the marriage were treated with great feverity ; particularly
the earl of Murray, who, having taken up arms, was de-
feated, and compelled to fly the kingdom. nie
it

SCOTLAND.

With this rath flep began the misfortunes of Mary,
Henceforth her life is one continued feene of political folly,
and perfonal imbecility.. Inttigated by hatred to all thofe
who manifetted an averfion to Darnley, the renounced
that prudent conduct which had hitherto enabled her to
maintain the dignity of her crown in the midil of con-
ficting fa@tions. Her Proteitant counfellors were now dif-
milled ; the joined the league of Catholic princes againit the
reformers ; and evinced her full determination to reilore the
Romith religion in Scotland.
of policy foon became vilible.

The effects of this new fyltem
The timeof the prorogation
of t was fhortened ; and by a new proclamation,
the reth of March was fixed for its meeting. Mary refolved,
without further delay, to proceed to the attauder of the
malcontent nobles, and at the fame time to take fome mealures
towards the re-eltablifhment of her favourite worfhip, ‘The
ruin of Murray and his party feemed now inevitable, and
the of the refo church imminent, when an Cre
unex pened which faved both. ‘his was the
of supe the queen's favourite, by her hufband,

and feveral of the nobility, in hee own prefence, which
roufed her indignation to the highelt piteh, and cents
alienated her afleétions from Darnley, who had already dil-

fled her by his infolence and his liceutioufnefs. Havin

+m however, by the confpirators, the was obliged
to diffemble, in order to detach the king from their party,
a in which fhe completely fucceeded, and thus was
to regain her liberty, Murray and the exiled nobles

were immediately received into favour ; and Morton, and the
reft of the murderers, were compelled to feek fafety in

oer

charm, which had at firfl attached the queen to
Daroley, and held them in a happy union, was now entirely
diffolved 4 and love no longer covering his follies and his vices
with its friendly veil, they appeared to Mary in their full
dimenfions and deformity. Though the king publithed a
ion difclaiming all knowledge of the confpiracy
inft Rizzio, the queen was fully convinced that he was
not acceflary to the contrivance, but to the commiffion
that odious crime. That very power, which, with liberal
unfuflpicious fondnefs, fhe had conferred upon him, he
ed to infult “aed Ril 7 limit her preroga-
endanger her perfon, Such an outrage it was
woman could bear or forgive. Cold civilities,
frequent fucceeded to cheir former

affeétion and confidence.
time a new favourite grew into credit with the
foon gained an afcendancy over her heart, which
-him to form defigns that proved fatal to himfelf
and This was James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell,
the head of one of the moit ancient and powerful families in
the When the confpirators againft Rizzio de-
in cuftody, he became the chief inftrument in re-
3 and ferved her with fo much fidelity and
deepelt impreffion upon her mind. Her
ge loaded him with marks of her bounty ; fhe raifed

im to offices of dignity and truit;

L

in
i

B
8

:

pif
ue

Sera ea abele ifiand, and unfortunate only for her.

Metiad keeled ria'cee nightrentochy, ni chanted
in one monarchy, an

of Great Britain oat firm foundation ; while

torn early from her fon by the cruelty of her fate, was

and tranfaéted no matter |

never allowed to indulge thofe tender paffions, nor to tale
thofe joys, which fill the heart of a mother,

The queen, when recovered, did not evince any change of
fentiment towards her hufband, On the contrary, the breach
between them beeame every day wider, notwithfasding the
attempts of the French ambaffador to ecficct a reconciliation,
Her attachment moreover to Bothwell increafed, in props.r.
tion as her love for Darnley declined. At length the leer
was murdered by the explofion of fome barrels of gua-
powder, placed under the houfe he had been inVced to
refide in at Edinburgh, and Bothwell was acculed of and
profecuted for the murder, but was acquitted ov, a trial b
his peers. Of his guilt, however, not the Mghteft doubt
can be entertained ; and it is much to be feared that Mary
herfelf was acceflary to the crime.

Bothwell now redoubled his affiduities to fix the affe@tions
of the queen, and having fuceceded in that objedt to his utmolt
with, he carried her to the caltle of Dunbar, where the
remained a willing prifoner, till matters were finally arranged
for their nuptials, when the remoyed to Holyrood Houfe, and
was foon afterwards united ty Bothwell, whom the created
duke of Orkney. his flep, the moft unjullifiable of all
her follies, was the prelude to her ruin. ‘The nobles almotft
immediately confederated againit her and Bothwell, whe
was obliged to feek refuge in England, while the herfelf fell
into the hands of ‘her incenfed {ubjects. By them the was
conduéted firit te Edinburgh, and fubfequently to Lochleven
caftle. The confederate leaders aflumed the title of lords
of the fecret council, and arrogated to themfelves the whole
— authority. Deliberations were held to fix the deftiny
of the nation, and to determine refpecting the perfor of the

ueen. The refult was, that fhe was compelled to refign

e crown in favour of her fon, who was inftantly pro-
claimed, and the earl of Murray was invefted with the dignity
of regent. f

Matters being thus arranged, the firit a@& of the regent was
to call a parliament, in which all the meafures of the con-
federates were confirmed. But notwithftanding this, Mary
{till had many friends who were ready to fupport her caufe,
if the could regain her hberty. Apprized of thefe favour-
able fentiments, fhe ufed every effort to effect her efcape, and
at length fucceeded in her obje@, in a manner no lefs fur-
prifing to her friends, than unexpeéted by her enemies. By
the influence of her charms, fhe captivated young Douglas,
the brother of the owner of the cattle, and prevailed upon
him to join in a plot for her liberation. Accordingly, on the
appointed night, having ftolen the keys from his brother’s
room, he sierra Mary to pafs out, and then locking the
doors again, threw the keys into the lake. The queen en-
tered a boat prepared for her, and landed fafely on the fhore,
where fhe was received by lord Seaton, fir James Hamilton,
and fome other of her friends, who had been apprized of
the plot. Inftantly mounting gn horfeback fhe fled to
Hamilton, where the was joined by anumber of the nobility,
and in a few days found herfelf furrounded by a formidab
army. In this critical fituation, the genius and prudence of
the regent were eminently difplayed. While he amufed
the queen for fome days by negociations, he employed him-
felf with the utmoit indultry 1a drawing together his adhe.
rents from different parts of the kingdom. As foon as he
was in a condition to take the field, broke off the nego-
ciation, and determined to hazard a battle. Mary, whofe
interelt it was to delay the decifion of her fate, imprudently
favoured ° Sere: She attacked his army in an advan-
tageous pofition at Langfide, and being completely defeated,
fled to Sehed, and ‘aa herfelf ate the pa, Lame of
queen Elizabeth, by whom fhe was detained a prifoner for

the

SCOTLAND.

the period of nearly twenty years, and was at laft tried and
executed upon an accufation of high treafon. See Mary.

In the meantime the regent Murray, by his vigorous ad-
minittration, foon reftored Scotland to tranquillity ; and
continued to govern without any ferious moleftation till his
Geath in 1570, by the hand of Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.
He was fucceeded in his high office by the earl of Lenox,
during whofe rule, and that of his fucceflors Marr and
Morton, the kingdom was diftra@ted by civilwar. ‘ Fellow
citizens, friends, brothers, took different fides, and ranged
themfelves under the ftandards of the contending factions.
In every county, and almoft in every town and village,
King’s men and queen’s men were names of diftinétion.
Political hatred deitroyed all natural ties, and extinguifhed
the reciprocal good will and confidence which hold mankind
together in fociety. Religious zeal mingled itfelf with thefe
civil diftin&tions, and contributed not a little to heighten and
inflame them.”

Morton, the Iaft regent, during the minority of James,
having excited the enmity of feveral of the nobility, was
accufed of being acceflary to the murder of Darnley, and
fuffered for that crime in 1581, though the proofs of his
guilt were far from being fatisfa@tory. After this event,
James himfelf began to exercife the fovereign authority ;
but his love for favouritifm proved prejudicial to his own
peace and that of his kingdom, by fomenting jealoufy
among his nobles. One of? thefe favourites, the earl of
Arran, conduéted himfelf in fo arrogant and tyrannical a
manner, that a confederacy was formed again{t him; and
the king was forced to deprive him of all his offices and
honours, and to declare him an enemy to the country.

James having been bred in the principles of the Proteftant
faith, exerted himfelf on every occafion to fecure the re-
formed church from the danger of being overthrown by the
Catholic party, which was fynonimous with the queen’s
party, and continued to be very formidable fo long as fhe
lived. When his mother was put to death by queen Eliza-
beth, however, he remonftrated ftrongly againit her condu@,
and even declared war; but that wily princefs foon found
means to foothe his anger, and regain his friendfhip. During
the whole of his reign, James was conftantly in danger of his
life from the plots of the Popifh lords, towards whom he
fhewed more lenity than was probably politic or prudent.
On one eccafion his perfon was feized by Bothwell, but he
happily contrived to efcape from his power, before any of
the ulterior objeéts of that bold meafure could be effected.
Several attempts to murder him were likewife made, by
various perfons; but the moft dangerous, though unfuc-
cefsful, confpiracy formed again{t his life, was that ufually
denominated the Gowrie confpiracy, from the title of the
principal aétor, John Ruthven, earl of Gowrie. From the
myftery in which all its circumftances are involved, it has
greatly excited the attention of hiftorians; fome even quef-
tioning the exiftence of any plot, and maintaining that the
king murdered the Ruthvens without any reafonable caufe.
This opinion, however, is juftly confidered by Dr. Ro-
bertfon as extremely improbable; though it muft be con-
fefied that the condu& of James, and the impreffion on the
public mind againft him at the time, caft an air of great fuf-
picion over the whole tranfaétion.

From this period no event of material intereft in the hif-
tory of Scotland occurred till the year 1603, when the
death of queen Elizabeth opened the way for the acceffion
of James to the throne of England, and laid the bafis of
that more intimate union, which has fince confolidated the
power and refources, and raifed to an unparalleled height
the happinefs, profperity, and glory of our ifland. The

annals of the two kingdoms are henceforth fo much iden-
tified, that it is {carcely poffible to treat’ them feparately.
The reader is, therefore, referred for the continuation of
the hiftory of Scotland to the article Encranp. He will
alfo find fome details of portions of the fubject under the
words Union, Sruart, Prince CHARLES, and others, de-
fignating leading events or characters.

General A/pe& of the Country, the Soil, and Climate. —The
mot prominent features in the general afpeét of Scotland
are its barren hills and mountains, and the numerous and
extenfive lakes which fill the intervening vallies. In fome
diftriéts the hills are covered with herbage, but in general
they exhibit only heath vegetating above peat, rock, or
gravel: hence, whether the eye afcends the mountains, or
glances over the vales, the fcenery which is prefented to the
view, though often grand and piéturefque, is feldom na-
turally rich. On the former, the figns of fterility are al-
ways apparent ; and as the foil of the latter is ufually mixed
with the fub{tances compofing the hills, no high degree of
fertility can be expeAed. Thefe remarks ee to almoft
every part of the Highlands, which comprehend about
three-fifths of the whole extent of Scotland. South of the
Forth, however, and even in a few of the eaftern counties
farther to the northward, the charaéter of the fcenery is
more improved, and the foil, though extremely various, is
frequently as fertile as in any diftri¢t of England. As to
the climate of this kingdom, it is fuch as a knowledge of
its latitude, and of its peculiar fituation with regard to the
Northern and Atlantic oceans, would point it out to be.
Both on the eaftern and weftern coafts, but particularly on
the latter, rains are extremely prevalent throughout the
whole year. Snow in general lies only for a fhort time,
even in the central diftricts ; for though it often falls in con-
fiderable quantities, it is feldom attended, as in fome more
fouthern counties, by intenfe and long continued frofts.
The loweft average heat is 41°.11 of Fahrenheit, and the
highelt 50°.326; fo that the annual average temperature
of the whole kingdom may be computed to be from 45° to
47° of the fame fcale. It is remarkable that, in fome of
the vallies of Moray, the influence of the fun’s rays is fo
affitted by circumftances, that corn ripens there as foon as
in Yorkfhire or Northumberland.

Rivers.—Scotland abounds with ftreams of various mag-
nitude, moft of which fall into the Northern or German
ocean. The principal of them are the Tweed, Forth, and
Tay, on the ealt coaft; and the Clyde on the weft coatt.
Tweed is a beautiful and paftoral river, which difcharges
its waters into the fea at Berwick. It is noted for its _
falmon fifheries, and for the circumitance of its forming the
boundary for feveral miles between England and Scotland.
The Forth and Tay both form large eftuaries, called the Friths
of Forth and Tay, which ferve important purpofes in com-
merce. On the former are fituated the town and port of
Leith, and on the latter the towns of Dundee and Perth.
The falmon fifheries of the Tay are the moft valuable in
Great Britain, and afford a conitant fupply to the markets
of London and Edinburgh. But Clyde claims a pre-
eminence over all thefe rivers in commercial utility, and per-
haps alfo in pi@turefque beauty. Taking its rife from a hill
in Tweedale, it flows firft in a northerly, and afterwards in
a welterly diretion, exhibiting in its progrefs much in-
terefting fcenery. On its banks are fituated the towns of
Lanark, Hamilton, Glafgow, Rutherglen, Dumbarton,
Port-Glafgow, and Greenock.

The other rivers of Scotland, which deferve notice, are
the Annan and Nith in Dumfriesfhire, the Eden in Fife-
fhire, the Dee and Don in Aberdeenfhire, the Spey in

Banfffhire,

SCOTLAND.

Banfthire, the Nefs and Beauly, which form the Moray
Frith, and the Grady and Conan, which form the Frith of
Cromarty.

Lakes and Lobs.—The numerous and beautiful lakes
interfperfed throughout Scotland, and efpecially through-
out its mountainous tras, conftitute a very ftriking and
interefting feature in its feenery, The chief in extent and
beauty is that of Lomond, ftudded with iflets, and adorned
with of the greatett diverfity. Eaftwards from this
lake are thofe of Kettering, Chroin, Achray, Vanachoir,
and Lubnaig; all of them diftinguifhed by fingular and
pidturefque fcenes. The lake of Menteith is alfo in this
vicinity. In Galloway are many fine lakes, on the banks
of one of which flands the village of New Galloway.
Lochleven, in Fifethire, derives at once from its
, and from its hiftorical intereft, as the refidence of

» when a prifoner in the hands of the confederate
lakes Gresad by the Tay are both numerous
and extenfive; the principal of them are Rannock, Lyd-
' eat Pe Tay. The latt, in particular, is
a and beautiful pistes of water, of fuch length as
to refemble a ndble river. Loch Nefs, in Invernefs-
fhire, mt og Rye for its extent and the charms of its
fcenery. Its ufual depth is from 60 to 135 fathoms ; and
hence 1s to be ined the phen
even in the winters. This lake forms part of the
chain of lakes which interfeé the kingdom, from the Moray
Frith to the Atlantic ocean, which, we trult, are deftined
fhortly to become of high importance in forwarding the
commercial profperity of the kingdom. The other chief
lakes of Scotland are Loch Loil, Loch Naver, and Loch
Shin, in Sutherland and Caithnefs; Loch Fainifh, in Rofs-
fhire; the Lochy and Laggen, in Invernefsfhire ; and Loch
Awe, in lethire.
Friths Lnlets of the Sea —Scotland is much indented
with arms of the fea, which enter deep into the land. This
indentation is highly beneficial: it facilitates commerce, as
each of thefe branches fo far ferves the purpofes of a canal ;
promotes the fifheries, as it brings them more within
reach ; and it renders the climate more temperate, from the
fea-breezes. As even the fhorteit defcription
iths and inlets feparately would extend this article
its prefcribed liauts, we fhall content our-
bare mention of their names. Thofe on the
beginning from the fouth, are the Frith of
rith of Tay, the Moray Frith, the Frith of
y Frith, the Frith of Dornoch, Thurfo and
Kyle of Tongue, Loch Eribol, and the bay
-_ Thofe on the weit coatt, beginning from the
ochard, Loch Laxford, Loch Affint,
Loch Broom, Loch Ew, Gairloch, Loch
Carron, Lochalfh, Loch Duich, Loch
ith, Loch Aylort, Loch Moydart, Loch
Lochiel, Loch Leven, Loch Creran,
Melfort, Craignifh, Loch Swain, Loch
Gair, Loch Streven, Loch Ryan, the
Wigton bay, Kirkcudbright bay, bay of
Frith. Moft of the above rivers,
and inlets of the fea, are noticed under their
under thofe of thé counties to which

omenon of its never freezing,

bers
it

wit

rye
fice
Log =

5

e
}

:

2

ith, and the
lakes, friths,

tends almoft entirely acrofs the kingdom, from the vicimty
of Aberdeen to the Cowal in Argylethire. In their welters
rauge, they form the fouthern boundary of the Highlands ;
and are celebrated in hiflory for the ttand made upon their
acclivities, by the Caledonians under Galgacus, agaimit the
Roman general Agricola. The fecond chain commences
vear Edinburgh, and runing fouthwards through Lothian,
joins ‘Tweedale hills; aod the third, beginning near the
eaftern coatt of Berwickhhire, ftretches to the weltward
through the Merfe, Io the province of Galloway is a
fourth extenfive aflemblage of hills, which do not, however,
form an uniform chain, With refpeét to the other moun-
tains of Scotland, they do not admit of arrangement into
diftin& groups; and, therefore, it will be fufficient to notice
fome ef the more remarkable among them for fize and eleva-
tion. Ben Nevis is the higheit mountain in Britain, ite
fummit being 4350 feet above the level of the fea. On its
north-ealt fide it prefents a mott prodigious precipice, nearly
dicular, which is faid to be 1500 feet i height.

he profpeét from this hill is truly fublime, and extends on
all fides a diftance of 80 miles. ‘The next mountain in
point of elevation is Cairngorm, or the Blue mountain,
which is conftantly covered with {now, and is remarkable
for quartz of different colours, well known to lapidaries
under the name of Cairngorms. The other chief mountains
in this diftri€&t are thofe of Braemaron, Scairfoch, and Ben
Awn. To the Grampian ridge belong Ben Lomond,
262 feet high; Ben Ledi, 3009; Ben More, 3903; Ben

awres, 4015; Shihallion, 3564; and Ben Verbch: 3300;
befides fome {carcely lefs important elevations on the eatt.
Mount Battock, in Kincardinefhire, is 3465 feet high ; and
Ben Cruachan, a folitary hill in Argylethire, 3300. In
the more northern divifion of the Highlands, the mountains
are yet more numerous, but not fo memorable. ‘The chief
of them are Ben Nevis, Ben Chat, Ben Chafker, Ben
Golich, Ben Fofkaig, Ben Nore, and the hills of Cuinak,
all in Rofsfhire ; and Ben Ormord, Ben Cliberg, Ben Grim,
the Paps of Caithnefs, Ben Hop, and Ben Lugal, in Caith-
nefs and Sutherland. Along the whole of the weftern coatt,
the fcenery is bold and precipitous in its character. One
part of it, extending from Loch Kichard 24 miles to the
fouth, prefents a molt fingular appearance, as if mountains
had been broken in pieces, and {mall lakes interfperfed
among the fragments.

Mineral Produ&s.—The mineral produéts of Scotland
are numerous, and are, in many inftances, fupplied in fuch
abundance, as to form important objeéts of traffic. Gold
was formerly procured in the fands of Elvan, a rivulet which
joins the Clyde ; and a place {till exifts, called Gold-feour,
where the Germans ufed to wafh the fands: but {carcely
any has been found recently.. The filver difcovered in
Scotland has hitherto been of little account ; the chief mine
was that at Alva, which has latterly only afforded cobalt.
Nor can Scotland boaft of copper, ugh a {mall quantity
was found in the Ochils, near Alwa; and it is faid that the
iflands of Zetland offer fome indications of that metal. It
has alfo been found at Colvend, in Galloway ; at C » in
Lothian; at Oldwich, in Caithnefs; and Kippern, in Rofs-
fhire. The lead-mines in the fouth of Lanarkfhire have
been long known. Thofe of Wanlock-head are in the
immediate neighbourhood, but in the county of Dum-
fries, and belong to another proprietor. ‘Thefe mines
i yearly above 2000 tons. ‘The Sufannah vein, Lead-
tills, has been worked for fixty years, and produced vait
wealth, Some flight veins of lead have alfo been found in
the weftern Highlands, particularly in Arran. Iron is
found in various parts of Scotland; the Carron ore is the

moit

SCOTLAND.

moit known, which Mr. Kirwan defcribes as being an argil-
laceous iron-ftone of a blueifh-grey, internally of a dark
ochre-yellow. It is found in flaty mafles, and in nodules, in
an adjacent coal-mine, of which it fometimes forms the roof.
At the Carron-works this ore is often {melted with the
red greafy iron ore from Ulveriton, in Lancafhire, which
imparts eafier fufion, and fuperior value. Calamine and zinc
are alfo found at ‘Wanlock-head ; and it is faid that plum-
bago and antimony may be traced in the Highlands. Coal has
been worked for a fucceffion of ages. Pope Pius II., in his
defcription of Europe, written about 1450, maintains that he
beheld, with wonder, black ftones given as alms to the poor of
Scotland. But the ufe of this mineral may be traced to the
twelfth century. The earlieft account given of the Scottifh
coal is contained in a book publifhed by one George Sinclair,
who calls himfelf profeflor of philofophy at Glafgow, but
his name cannot be traced in the univerfity lift. He explains
with fome exa¢tnefs the manner of working coal, and men-
tions the fubterraneous walls of whin which interfeét the
ftrata, particularly a remarkable one, vifible from the river
Tyne, where it forms a cataract, and pafling by Prefton-
Pans to the fhore of Fife. Mr. Williams has recently given
his obfervations on this fubjeét with much praétical fkall.
The Lothians, and Fifefhire particularly, abound with this
ufeful mineral, which alfo extends into Ayrfhire; and near
Iryine is found a curious variety, called ribbon coal. A
fingular coal, in veins of mineral, has been found at Caftle-
Leod, in the eaftern divifion of Rofsfhire. Among the
lefs important minerals of Scotland, is the new earth found at
Strontian, in the diftri& of Sunart, and parifh of Ardnamur-
clean, Argylefhire, which is now introduced into numerous
fyftems of mineralogy and chemiltry. Ben Nevis affords
beautiful granite. Fine ftatuary marble is found in Affynt,
and at Blair Gowrie, in Perthfhire. A black marble, fretted
with white, like lace-work, occurs near fort William; dark
brown with white at Cambuflang, Clydefdale. Jafper is
found in various parts; Arthur’s feat offers a curious va-
riety: and on the weftern fhore of Icolmkill, are many
curious pebbles of various defcriptions. Fuller’s-earth is
found near Campbeltown, in Cantire ; and it is fuppofed
that there muft be a vaft mafs of talc, equal to that of Muf-
covy, in the mountains which give rife to the river Findom,
as large pebbles of it are fometimes found in that ftream.
Natural Curiofities—Scotland, like other mountainous
countries, abounds with fingular fcenes and natural cu-
riofities. The caves on the fhore near Colvend, in Gal-
loway, are well worthy of notice; and the beautiful falls
of the Clyde, near Lanark, have defervedly excited much
attention. On the eaft of this part of Scotland, are the
pattoral vales of the Tweed and Teviot, celebrated in fong ;
the deep pafs of the Peaths ; and the romantic rock of Bafs,
the haunt of the folan goofe. The bafaltic columns of Ar-
thur’s feat, near Edinburgh, deferve infpeGtion. On the
northern fhore of the Forth, near Dyfart, a coal-mine has,
for ages, been on fire, probably from decompofed pyrites,
and has fupplied Buchanan with” a curious defcription.
The beauties of Loch Lomond have been often defcribed,
but the frofacs, or fingular hills around lake Ketterin, form
a new acquifition to the traveller. The hills of Kinnoul,
near Perth, conftitute a great curiofity, prefenting a mafs of
uncommon minerals. The numerous lakes and mountains need
not be again mentioned. Many of the rocks off the coatt of
Aberdeenfhire aflume fingular forms of arches, pillars, &c. ;
and the fpace from Trouphead to Portfoy abounds in
uncommon rocks, and fingular marine produ¢tions. The
caves of Nigg, in Rofsfhire, are worth vifiting, and the
more northern fhores prefént innumerable wild fcenes of

favage nature. Near Lathron, in Caithnefs, isa large caves
into which the inhabitants fail to kill feals. Nofs Head pre-
fents a fingular quarry of flate, marked with various me=
tallic figures. The ifles Stroma, near the northern fhore,
preferve dead bodies for along time without corruption.
Near Tong is the cave Frafgill, about fifty feet high and
twenty wide, variegated with a thoufand colours, which are
loft in each other with a delicacy and foftnefs that no art can
imitate. On the eaft of Durnefsis the cave of Smo, within
which is the refemblance of a gate, fucceeded by a fmall lake
of frefh water, containing trout; the extent of this fub-
terraneous lake has never been explored. The fingularity
of the coalt of Edrachills, fouth of Loch Inchard, may like-
wife be mentioned as a natural curiofity, as may alfo the
grand cataract of Kineag river, and the cave of Gandeman,
near Affynt Point. The cafcade of Glamma, in the heights
of Glen Elchaig, is truly fublime, amidft the conftant dark.
nefs of hills and woods. Ben Nevis will, of courfe, attract
notice from its fingular form and elevation. According to
Mr. Williams, it confilts of one folid mafs of red granite,
which he traced at the bafe for four miles along the courfe
of a rivulet on the eaft; the height of this mafs he com-
putes at 3600 feet, and above it are ftratified rocks, the nature
of which he does net explain, but he fays that thofe on the
fummit are fo hard and tough, that wrought iron is inferior
to them in thefe qualities. The ftupendous precipice on
the north-eaft fide exhibits almoft an entire feGtion of the
mountain. In Argylethire the marine cataraét of Loch
Etif, the beautiful lake of Awe, andthe environs of In-
verary, prefent the chief objeéts of curiofity.

Sketch of the Agriculture.—Scotland, with refpe& to agri-
culture, exhibits great variations, from caufes partly of a
moral, but chiefly of aphyfical nature. To give his readers
jutt ideas on this fubjeé, fir John Sinclair, in his «* General
Report,”’ has divided the country into nine diftri€s, each
diftinguifhed by fome peculiarities of furface, or relative
circumitances, from the reft. The firft diftri€@: includes the
counties of Roxburgh, Berwick, and the three Lothians,
and may be jultly termed, by way of eminence, the agri-
cultural diftri€t, as the art of hufbandry is carried on there
in as great perfection as in any country in Europe. The
proportion of land in cultivation is very confiderable, and
its farmers are, in general, remarkable for their intelligence,
indultry, and capital. In this diitriét is fituated the metro-
polis of Scotland, which unites to fignal advantages of
fituation, a degree of art and elegance in its buildings, un-
known in any other town in Great Britain. As it is the feat
of the courts of law, the public offices, and a celebrated uni-
verfity, the population within its bounds is much greater
than its agriculture or commerce would otherwife require.
The feveral counties which compofe this diftriét may be thus
difcriminated. Roxburghfhire, the moft foutherly, has a
great extent of hills of confiderable elevation, and only
adapted for the palturing of fheep ; but it alfo includes the
rich vale of Teviot, which is one of the moft improved tracts
inthe kingdom. Berwickfhire, though a large fhare of its |
furface is likewife beft fuited for palture, contains in the
Merfe, foil at once fertile and well cultivated. Ea{t Lothian,
throughout the greater part of its extent, is a rich and
highly improved plain, diverfified by a few gentle eminences 5
and yields to no county in Great Britain the palm of fupe-
riority in agriculture. Mid-Lothian, though inferior in foil
to Eaft Lothian, neverthelefs raifes excellent corn and green
crops, and likewife derives wealth from horticulture in the
vicinity of Edinburgh. Weft Lothian, befides being noted
for the carefulnefs of its agriculture, in the more cultivated
parts, is ornamented with many extenfive plantations, while

us

SCOTLAND.

its peculiar fituation on the fouthern bank of the Forth adds
much to the beauty of the fcenery, and to the advantages
which the count pofletfes within itfelf.

The Tecond di rit includes the counties of Peebles, or
‘Tweedale, Selkirk, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, and Wigton.
Here are the higheft mountains fouth of the Forth; and from
the t proportion of hills, and the fmall extent of arable
Sa care of the furface is appropriated to the feeding of live
flock than to the growth OF corn, Yet the vales, parti-

in Dumfriesthire, are of cenfiderable extent and
fertility, and exhibit much diverfity of appearance. The
tins of Tweedale, and the intervening vallies, are pro-
ofcorm. Only a {mall proportion of the territory, how-
ever, is po late harveits occafionally blatt the pro-
fpetts of the farmer. In the county of Selkirk, formerly
called the Forelt, a {till lefs proportion of the land is culti-
vated ; but new plantations beg to rife, and will in time
fupply the place of thofe natural woods, with which, feveral
centuries +g; this county abounded. The hills, both in this

county in that of Peebles, are covered by numerous
flocks of theep, y of the Tweedale, but pone by the
Cheviot race. t numbers of cattle alfo are found in

thefe diftri€ts. In Galloway, its excellent breed of cattle,
and hardy race of theep, are {upported much better than for-

a

of the fouthern Dee, in Kirkcudbright, has likewife
much improved; and though on the banks of that
there are neither coal-pits nor lime-quarries, yet im-

coal forms the chief article of fuel, and imported
the pri manure.

The third diftriG is wafhed by the Atlantic ocean, and by
means of a navigable canal communicates with the German
fea. It includes the counties of Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark,
and Dumbarton. Notwithitanding the humidity of the
climate, from its expofure to the fea, and the extent and
elevation of its hills, agriculture is much attended to, and
in man 8 is carried on with great fuccefs, as the exertions
of the are ftimulated by commerce and manufactures.
Still, however, this diftri& is more adapted to the rearing or
fattening of live-ftock, than to the raifing of corn ; and the
beft breeds of horfes and of dairy cows are to be found in it.
From the concurring caufes of commerce, manufactures, and
minerals, agriculture has flourifhed in an ungenial climate ;
and nearly one-half, or, more accurately, Rein Bitecmte
of the whole furface are under cultivation. With only one-
thirteenth part of the extent, nearly one-fourth part of the
Beet of Scotland is included in this divifion.

n the fourth diftri& are included the counties of Fife,
Kinrofs,.Clackmannan, Stirling, Perth, and Forfar or
An This diftri@ exhibits every variety of foil and
fi , from the level and rich carfes of Stirling, Falkirk,
and Gowrie, and the great valleys of Strathmore, Athol,
and Kethnefs, to the lofty Grampians, which fhelter a con-
fiderable y ion of the divifion from the northern blatts.
Tn the ie rl ie along ars 74 fea-coalt, it
produces > wheat, beans, b. » and broad clover.
And in fome of the inland diftritis’ are raifed excellent
0 aig bear, and oats. Its live-ftock in general

c *nt

af

is of an ex defcription. The towns of Dundee,
‘Pert ,Dumfermline, Stirling, St. Andrews, Clack-
mannan, Kinrofs, Forfar, Mattrok Brechin, and a num-

. res, contain two-fifths of its whole popu-
tation. In nap Sea diftriét, Fifethire is diftinguithed

agriculture, and its breeds of
‘Vor. XXXU. pena

éattle and horfes. The {mall county of Kiorofs, orma
mented by its lake, sod sbounding in coal and lime-flone,
is confiderably elévated above the level of the fea
it was not attraétive to a flranger, but its alpect is now
much improved. Clackmannan, of (ill more limited ex-
tent, but of preater fertility, is diftinguithed by a correét
cultivation of the foil, aud by the sbundanec of lime and
coal, ‘The half of its population refides in towns of very
moderate extent. The county of Stirling includes every
variety of foil, from the rich carfes on the fouth bank of
the Forth, to the barren rocks of Beu Lomond. Ia the
parithes of Enrick and Strathblane, there are rich fields,
cultivated by intelligent and enterprifing farmers; and the
feenery is much diverfified in all parts of the country. The
very extenfive county of Perth is ually remarkable for
the mott fertile, and the moft barren foils, and exhibits the
two extremes of correét and defeétive agriculture. In the
carfe of Gowrie, and the valley of Strathearn, there are
many opulent and enterprifing farmers, who cultivate fuc-
celsfully the moft fertile foil in the kingdom, In feveral
of the {maller vales an improved cultivation is alfo general.
But in the more remote highland glens, even where the land
is naturally good, improvements in agriculture are little
known and lJefs praétifed. In Forfarthire, along the fea-
coalt, and in the rich valley of Strathmore, the farmers
have been long diftinguithed for their exertions ; and in the
inland parts of the county, fhell-marle, obtained in abun-
dauce from the frefh-water lakes, has contributed very
much to the improvement of the foil.

The fifth diftri& includes the counties of Kincardine,
Aberdeen, Banff, Moray, and Nairn, and contains a greater
extent of fea-coaft than any of the préceding divifions. Yet
on the fouth-weft, where it extends to the middle of the
ifland, it is extremely mountainous; the Grampians ftretch-
ing from its boundary with Perththire nearly to the fea at
Aberdeen. By far the greatett part of the arable land is
either in the maritime ‘or midland parts, there being very
little near the mountains. It it remarkable, that the mari-
time parts of Moray enjoy perhaps the beit climate in Scot-
land, and that for many centuries wheat has been cultivated
there to great advantage. Wheat is alfo raifed fuccefsfully
in the maritime parts of Kincardine and Banffthire, aud its
cultivation is {preading rapidly in Aberdeenfhire. The
turnip hufbandry and artificial graffes are to be met with
over the principal part of this divifion in very great per-
fection. But the moft itriking feature in its cultivation is
the great expence at which barren land is improved, by
trenching with the fpade and mattock, which has been
known to exceed a hundred pounds for a fingle acre.
This diftri€& in general raifes food for the fupport of its
inhabitants, and in good feafons exports a confiderable
quantity of grain; but it is chiefly diftinguifhed.for the
rearing of excellent cattle, of which it fends yearly great
numbers to England. Owing to the large proportion
covered by mountains, only four eleventh parts of this diftri@
are as yet under cultivation. It is, however, much adorned
by plantations, particularly near the houfes of its proprietors,
and its natural woods in Braemar are extenfive and valuable.
Kincardinefhire, except that part of it which lies in Mar,
is fheltered on the north by the Grampian mountains.
This {mall county was early induced to attend to the cul-
tivation of its foil, by the examples of the late Robert
Barclay, efq. of Ury, and a few others of its landed pro-
prietors. Aberdeenfhire, which fifty years ago brought
moft of its work oxen from Fife and the Lothians, has now
taken the lead in the rearing of black cattle, and cultivates
for that purpofe fown grafs and turnips in greet perfeGion.

E Wheat

Formerly

SCOTLAND.

Wheat and beans alfo are railed fuccefsfully in the heavy
loams of Formater, and on the {till heavier clays of Buchan.
Banfffhire owed much to a diftinguifhed character, the earl
of Findlater and Seafield, who introduced an improved
fyitem of cultivation in that county, and encouraged his
farmers to imitate his example. Not only near the fea-
coaft of the Bogue and the Eurie, where that improved
fyitem began, but in the more inland parts, a {pirit of im-
provement has now become general, and has greatly altered
the face of the country. Though nature has done much
for Moray, yet the culture of turnips and of fown grafles
was not, till within the laft thirty years, fo general, as in
lefs favoured counties; but of late, both thefe and corn
crops, with the rearing of live ftock, have been attended
to with ardour and perfeyerance.

In the fixth diftri& are included the two extenfive coun-
ties of Argyle and Invernefs, comprehending nearly one-
fifth part of the whole furface of Scotland. About two-
nineteenth parts of this diftri@ are cultivated, and productive.
Near Inyernefs, at Campbeltown, in Argylefhire, and in
fome other fpots, wheat and turnips are fuccefsfully culti-
vated, but in general the country is unfit for tillage, except
on a {mall feale ; its grazings, however, are extenfive, and
well adapted for the rearing of live-ftock. It likewife con-
tains a great extent of plantations, and the remnant of the
Cocillmore, or great foreit of Scotland. The black cattle
of this diftri& are in high eftimation as excellent feeders.
The hardy breed of Tweedale fheep, and in fome inftances
thofe of Cheviot, occupy the hills. This divition extends
acrof{s the ifland; and the Caledonian canal is now carrying
on dire&tly through it, from the German fea to the Atlantic
‘ocean, which it is to be hoped will carry induftry and
wealth into this remote diltri@t, and furnifh the means of
facilitating and enlarging the commerce of the other parts
of the kingdom.

The feventh diftri& includes the counties of Cromarty,
Rofs, Sutherland, and Caithnefs. It is in fome refpeéts
fuperior to the former, though more northerly. Eaft Rofs,
with a part of Cromarty, contains a confiderable proportion
of excellent foil; and both the wheat and turnip hufbandry
are carried on fuccefsfully. The eaftern coaft of Suther-
land, and the plains of Caithnefs, are alfo good corn coun-
ties. Weft Rofs, and by far the greateft part of Suther-
land, of Cromarty, and of that portion of Caithnefs which
bounds with Sutherland, are rugged and unproduétive. Not
a tenth part of this diftri€t is capable of being cultivated,
and only a twelfth part of the people refides in towns or
villages ; yet, by the introdudtion of fheep-farming, by en-
couraging manufactures, and, above all, by the extenfive
fifheries of herring and cod, now fuccefsfully eftablifhed
along the coaft of Caithnefs ; this diftri€t muft foon greatly
increafe in value, and the inhabitants become richer and hap-
pier. The breeds of cattle have been much improved of
late years; the Tweedale breed of fheep is now fpreading
over the weftern parts of this diftri@ ; and there are already
about 4000 of the Cheviot breed in various parts of it,
more efpecially in Sutherland and Caithnefs. The Merino
breed, and croffes of them, have been fuccefsfully intro-
duced into Rofsfhire, and other parts of this diltri@t. Eat
Rofs and Cromarty are ornamented with the feats of the
proprietors, and extenfive plantations. Wood alfo thrives
in Sutherland, and in the more hilly parts of Caithnefs ;
but in the plains of Caithnefs, and near the fea-coaft, it can-
not be raifed to advantage, from the nature of the fubfoil,
in general a gritty clofe gravel of little depth, incumbent
on a horizontal flaggy rock, whieh keeps the water near
the furface.

The iflands which are included in the eighth diftri@,
were formerly denominated Ebude, but are now better
known by the name of the Hebrides, or the Weftern
Ifands. They contain about one-tenth part of the total
extent of Scotland, with about one-eighteenth part of its
population, Of the whole furface, nearly one-feventh part
is under culture. Wheat has been raifed in fome of the
iflands, more efpecially Bute, Iflay, and Coll; and turnips
have alfo been cultivated fuecefsfully in Skye, and fome of
the f{maller iflands. In all thefe ifles the breed of black
cattle is excellent, though in general {mall. The fifheries
and kelp manufacture are very valuable ; and by proper
attention to them, thefe iflands may furnifh a great addi-
tion both to the wealth and itrength of the empire.

In the ninth or laft diftri€t are the northern iflands of
Orkney, and Zetland or Shetland. ‘The former contain
about 440, and the latter nearly 880 fquare miles, and
form one county. Only about one-feventeenth part of the
whole furface of thefe iflands is in cultivation. Wheat and
turnips have both been tried, and not without fuccefs. The
pure Merino breed of fheep has been introduced into Orkney
recently, and a zeal for improvement has lately appeared in
thefe iflands, which may be attended with the beft effects ;
for they enjoy a very temperate climate, though in a high
northern latitude. ‘The ifles being fituated low, fnow fel-
dom lies many days, and ice is never more than two or three
inches thick.

Forefts and Woods. —That Scotland was anciently clothed
with extenfive and luxuriant foretts, is abundantly proved
by the concurring evidence of tradition, of hiltory, and
of the aétual remains of their {poils. Innumerable places,
where fearcely a tree is now to be feen, derive their names
from the circumftance of their having been covered with
wood, or from the particular kinds of timber with which
they abounded; as Woodhead, Woodfide, Aikenhead,
Afhyhurft. The great foreft of Selkirk, of which fcarcely
a trace remains, exilted, as appears from ancient documents,
as late as the 12th or 13th century ; extending over the
upper parts of Ayrfhire, Lanarkfhire, and Peeblesfhire.
The foreft of Paifley feems to have communicated with
that of Selkirk, extending, without much interruption,
through the higher parts of Renfrewfhire, the marches of
Ayr and Lanarkfhire by Loudon-hill, to near the fhores of
Galloway. The Caledonian foreft, of which the Roman
hiftorians {peak, appears to have extended in a fouthern
diretion to the Englifh borders ; and in a weitern, from
the boundary of Stirlingfhire, by Falkirk and Stirling,
(including the higher grounds of St. Ninian, once the
royal foreft of Dundaff,) as far as Gartmore in Perthfhire,
covering the great mofs, called Mofs Flanders, through a
traét of about twenty miles. Of this no trace remains,
except Callendar Wood, and Tor Wood, unlefs we trace
it, as we may, in the deep mofles, from fix to nine feet
under the furface, incumbent on the clay, its original foil.
Many other inftances of ancient forefts, long fince loft,
might be given from authentic records. In all our mofles,
from 20 feet above the level of the fea, to 500, and even
1000 feet above that elevation, the remains of trees of a
much larger fize than any which now exift in a growing ftate,
are found in abundance. In the northern mofles thefe are
principally of the pine tribe. To the fouth of the Forth
it does not appear that the fir ever grew fpontaneoufly.
The oak is, in that diltri€t, to be found every where im-
bedded in the mofles. In Dalferf parifh, in Lanarkfhire,
an oak was lately dug up 65 feet long, which is fo ftraight,
and fo equal in girth, that it is difficult to determine which
is its root end. In Mofs Flanders, innumerable trees aa

the

SCOTLAND.

the fame kind occur, Even the Hebrides, expofed as they
are to the fea, prefent venerable remains of ancient foretts.
A yew tree, which grew on a fea cliff in the ftormy iMand of
Bernera, when cut into logs, loaded a large boat, The
iMand has anciently been filled with woods, Though Lewis,
adds Dr. Walker, is now entirely deltitute of timber, there
are large trunks of alder, birch, and efpecially of Scots
fir, found in its extenfive mofles. OF the deftruGion of
thefe magnificent foreits, we are furnifhed with a fatisfac-
tory account both by hiftory and obfervation. Hero-
dian and Dion Caffius inform us, that the emperor Severus,
about A.D. 207, employed the Roman legions, with the
auxiliary troops, avd fuch of the natives as were under his
mace f in cutting down the foretts of Scotland, an under-
taking, in which tthe hiftorian tells us) he loft no lefs than
$0,000 men. The foreit that once covered Mofs Flanders,
to the weft of Stirling, appears evidently to have been thus
cut down; the proftrate trees lie under the mofs in every
dire@tion, which demonftrates that they have not been

overthrown y ftorms, which would have laid them down
uniformly. t a later period, John, duke of Lancafter,
fet 24,000 axes to work at one time to cut down the woods
of Scotland. Inthe northern parts of Scotland, the Danes
cut down and burnt many woods, as did king Robert Bruce
in his expedition agaiaft Cum . Mr. Graham of Gartmore
has in his an original document, relating to the
woods of A le, now the property of the duke of
Montrofe, of the earl of Menteith and Airth.
It is an order from Monk torcut down the woods
of Milton and Glefhart, on account of the thelter they af-
forded to the rebels.

Government.—The political conititution of Scotland, fince
the Union, has been blended with that of England. Previous
oe oo on ceende dhe coer che Mea England,
compofed and reprefentatives of counties and burghs,
with this difkingtion, that fat in one houfe. That wife
prince, James I. of Scotland, as has been mentioned, at-

to eftablith a houfe of commons, in imitation of
5 maintained the moft firm
The moit diftin-

in the next place.
porte ge and ‘aie are fourteen in number, befides a
prefident ; on ir “appointment affume a title, gene-
rally derived from the iim of an eftate, by which eee
addreffed, as if i by creation. The only appeal from this
court is to the houfe of lords. It has long been a fubjeé
of that the caufes were not determined by jury, as

pbs mar But this age of complaint has been very
y removed, and t judges have been appointed to
prefide in a court where civil fuits are to be determined by a
pec x> Bi ie Thefe judges have been named lords
The court o eis oe of five

j all lords of feffions, with a prefident, ftyled the lord
clerk, as reprefenting the lords juftice . This is

the fupreme court of all criminal cafes of importance, which
are determined by the majority.of a jury, and not by their
per as in England. The court of exchequer confifts
pra ere 08 yl liae in the court of admi-
The law of Scotland difers effentially from that of Eng-
— being founded, in a great degree, upon the civil law.

confifts of itatute law, but many of the ancient
ema€tments never having been enforced, reference is made to
the decifions of the court of feffion, which are carefully pre-

ferved and publithed, and which afford precedents generally
reckoned unexceptionable. There is {carcely a veitige of
common law, fo that the civil and canow laws may be deno-
minated the bafis of Seortifh judicature. The inferior courts
are thofe of the therifls of counties, the magiftrates of bo-
roughs, the commifluries, and the juftices of the peace.
While the feudal fyitem prevailed, the hereditary jurif-
di@tions were nearly abfolute, and every chief maintained
an unlimited coutroul over the lives and property of his
vailals and followers: but this fyttem is now happily abo-
lithed.

Parliamentary Reprefentation.—Scovland is reprefeated in
the Britith cartinainat by fixteen peers and forty-five com-
moners, in conformity to the treaty of union between the
two kingdoms. The fixteen peers are elected for every
new parliament by the whole body of the peerage duly
qualified to vote at the period when the election takes place,
and are not, when once ele@ed, continued for life, as is
the cafe in regard to Irith peers, by the recent union with
Ireland.

The following table will give an idea of the diminution
that has taken place in the members of the Scottith peerage
fince the Union, and their amount at prefent.

Tables of the Scottife Peerage.

1. Number of the Scotch peers at the Union, 154
2. The duke of Rothfay, when entitled to vote, d 1
3. Added by fubfequent orders of the hovfe af lords, 4
159

1. Extant, or dormant, including the title of Solway, 41
2. Merged in, or united to other titles, - = 10
3- Forfeited, - - - - - 26
77

Remain 82

Of thefe, 23 (including the duke of Rothfay) are Britith
peers, but who itill retain the privilege of voting at elec-
tions, and even continue eligible ; though it can hardly be
{uppofed that thefe hereditary peers would perfuade their
brethren not enjoying the fame privilege to ele& them. At
the laft eleétion, on the 13th of November 1812, there were
three minors, three peerefies, and two Roman Catholics, con-
fequently eight difqualified from voting. The peers who
actually voted were fifty-two, and twenty-two were out of
the kingdom, or did not vote. ,

Of the forty-five commoners, thirty reprefent counties,
and fifteen boroughs.

The county members are eleéted by frecholders pof-
felled of goo/. Scotch of valued rent, in land held of the
crown. ‘The only exception to this rule is found in the
county of Sutherland ; where, as the ater part of the
land is held of the ear! of Sutherland, it became neceflary to
give the vailals of that earldom a right to vote as well as the
vallals of the crown ; and in confequence of the inconfider-
able number of {mall proprietors in the county, the qualifi-
cation of the frecholder was reduced to 200/. Scotch of
valued rent.

The following table fhews the amount of the valued rent
in. each county, as it ftood in 1674; alfo the number of qua-
lified freeholders returned in the lift drawn up for the year
1811, fince which there has been very little variation.

E2 Tass

SCOTLAND.

Taste of Landed Reprefentation.

No. of

\Freelolders

Valued Rent in Scotch

ies reprefented.
Counties reprefentec Money:

~o°

Aberdeen

. Argyle

Ayr

. Banff

Berwick =

Bute & re
Gather ¢ Fog es
Clackmannan & ) per |
Kinrofs S vices |
Cromarty &] per
. Nairn JS vices

235,665
140,595
191,605
79,200
178,366
15,042
375256
26,482
20,250 15
12,897 - I4.
15,162 Wei fea)
158,502 7.
339327 ae
191,054 125
65,603 35
363,129 207
1715239 117
168,873 70
739188 49
74921 73
| 124,597 5)
162,131 638
75,018
573786
5929317,
339,892
69,172
752043
314,663
80,307
108,509
26,093
67,641

147
50
146
35
120
x7
21

249)

mo0o00

OD SI ANE Y pm
e
NFO RW

. Dumfries - -
- Dumbarton

. Edinburgh

- Elgin -

. Fife =

. Forfar -
. Haddington

. Invernefs

. Kincardine

- Kirkcudbright
. Lanark =
. Linlithgow

« Orkney and Zetland
. Peebles

. Perth =

. Renfrew

- Rofs

. Roxburgh

. Selkirk

. Stirling

. Sutherland

- Wigton

Mm~Iv0 O
ie

OWW ARWOW OF AAWF O

=|
ye

It is to be remarked, that fix of thefe counties are repre-
fented in parliament by only three members, two of them
united for that purpofe electing a reprefentative alternately,
(a circumftance of a moft particular nature, which is much
complained of ) ; and that the Zetland ifles, owing to fome
defe&t regarding their valuation, though entitled to fhare in
the reprefentation of Orkney, have as yet no freeholders on
the roll.

The fifteen members for royal boroughs reprefent in all
fixty-fix towns, whofe united population amounted, in 1812,
to about 500,000 fouls; the number of voters, however, is
very inconfiderable, confilting, in general, of the magiltrates
and town-council of the different boroughs only. The fol-
lowing are the towns from which members are fent.

Members.
Edinburgh, including North and South Leith, and
the Weft Kirk or St. Cuthbert’s parifh, G I
Jedburgh, Lauder, Haddington, Dunbar, and
North Berwick, = z 2 I
Selkirk, Peebles, Lanark, and Linlithgow, = I

Stranraer, Wigton, Whithorn, and New Galloway, I
Sanquhar, Kirkcudbright, Dumfries, Lochmaben,
and Annan, - - = eve
Ayr, Irvine, Rothfay, Campbeltown, and In-
verary; - - - - I

Members.

Glafgow, Rutherglen, Renfrew, and Dumbarton, rf
Stirling, Culrofs, Dumfermline, Inverkeithing, and

Queensferry, - - - Z I
Burntifland, Kinghorn, Kirkaldy, and Dyfart, — - I
Anftruther, Ealt and Welt Pittenweem, Kilrenny,

and Crail, - - - = 1
St. Andrew’s, Cupar, Fife, Dundee, Perth, and

Forfar, - = - = a I
Brechin, Abroath, Montrofe, Berire, and Aberdeen, I
Kintore, Inverary, Banff, Cullen, and Elgin, = I
Forres, Nairn, Invernefs, and Fortrofe, = X
Dingwell, Tain, Dornock, Urick, and Kirkwall, I

State of Religion.—According to the prefent eftablifhment
of the church, Scotland is divided into 15 fynods, compre-
hending 78 prefbyteries, and 893 parifhes, which are repre-
{ented in the general aflembly of the church, which meets
annually at Edinburgh. In its deliberative and judicial
capacity this ecclefiaftical court is jultly accounted among
the moit enlightened and ref{peétable in the Chriftian world.

In the divifion of the country into fynods and prefbyteries,
conveniency has been principally attended to, the limits of
counties being no further obferved than they are confiftent
with contiguity to the ref{peétive fynodical and pref{byterial
feats; but in the arrangement of the whole into parifhes,
contiguity to the churches has not been fo much obferved.
Hence, in many inftances, remote parts are conjoined into
one parifh, to the great inconvenience of the parifhioners, as
well as of the officiating clergyman. With refpect to ex-
tent and population alfo there is a great difparity ; the firlt
was fettled in remote times; the fecond has been deter-
mined, in a great degree, by the effects of manufactures and
commerce.

The names of the fifteen fynods are as follow: 1. The
fynod of Lothian and Tweedale. 2. The fynod of More
and Teviotdale. 3. The fynod of Dumfries. 4. The fynod
of Galloway. 5. The fynod of Glafgow and Ayr. 6. The
fynod of Perth and Stirling. 7. The fynod of Fife.
8. The fynod of Angus and Mearn. g. The fynod of
Aberdeen. 10. The fynod of Moray. 11. The fynod of
Rofs. 12. The fynod of Sutherland. 13. The fynod of
Argyle. 14. Glenelzh, or fynod of Lochaber and the Ifles.
And,.15. The fynod of Orkney. Thefe fynods come
in the place of the bifhops, and have jurifdi€tion in eccle-
fiaftical queltions ; in regard to which there is an appeal
from the prefbytery to the fynod, and thence to the general
aflembly.

In former times, particularly before the revolution in
1688, Scotland, with refpect to ecclefiattical government,
was divided into two archbifhoprics, St. Andrews and Glaf-
gow, and twelve bifhoprics, Edinburgh, Dunkeld, Aber-
deen, Moray, Brechin, Dumblane, Rots, Caithnefs, Orkney,
Galloway, Argyle, and the Ifles. The country in general
was parcelled out among the refpeétive fees, in an arrange-
ment having fome regard to contiguity, but not always fo ;
for feveral partlhes were attached to bifhoprics, and many
to the archbifhoprics, that were very remote from the pre-
vinces ii which they were locally placed. This {till remains
the cafe with the jurifdictions of the different commiflaries,
which have been fubftituted from thefe bifhoprics, in what
is called confiftorial courts. At prefent, the Scots Epifco-
pals have only eight bifhoprics, viz. 1. Edinburgh and Fife ;
2. Glafgow; 3. Aberdeen; 4. Moray; 5. Rois; 6. Dun-
keld; 7. Brechin; and, 8. Dumblane; comprehending
feventy-fix cures, ferved by fixty clergymen. The Aube.

©

SCOTLAND.

of their adherents is fuppofed to be about 19,000, whieh, per-
haps, with the children, may amount to 28,000, ‘The Roman
Catholics divide Scotland into two dillricts only, the Lowland
and the Highland, ia order chiefly to make a feparation be-
tween the two languages, the Englith and the Gache, Over
each they have a vicar apoltulic, and a bithop coadjutor.
In the counties they have about thirty officiating
ielts, and in the Highlands eighteen; hearers about 27,000
m number. The Soceders from the Scotch Prefbytenaa
ecclefiaftical church divide the country among them thus.
The Burgher A tlociate fynod lay it out i tea pretbyteries.
They have w all 130 congregations in Scotland, with about

hearers.

The AstiRorghe frceders divide it among three {ynods,
containing eleven fteries, They have 134 congrega-
i = about ts hearers. ‘The — of Re icf
Sividee the country into fix prefbyterics, including 76 con-
guanine with about 50,000 hearers. ‘The other pref-
ytcrian Scots, as the Cameronians, Xc. may amount to
about 14,000. The feparatits of various perfuafions, as
Bablitls, Bereans, Glaflites, may amount to nearly 50,0c0,

The Methoditts, of whom there are fuppoled to be about
6000 members, or, including children, about gooo fouls,
divide the country into circuits, eleven in all, ferved by

teen °

Friends, or Quakers, are fo few in number, that they
only five a of meeting, wiz. Glafgow, Hawick,
i apt o, and Kinmack, near Old Meldrum ;

their whole number does not exceed 2000.
Chief Citics and Towns.—The molt important towns in
both as to extent and population, are Edinburgh
and Glafgow; the former the metropolis of the kin "
and the latter the emporium of its manufa@ures and com-
merce. They both contain nearly the fame number of in-
habitants, wiz. about 100,000 perfons, and are royal burghs,
governed each by a lord provolt and town council. The
next towns to thele in importance are Perth, Aberdeen,
Dundee, and Paifley, each containing about 30,000 fouls.
The other towns of note are Berwick, Dunbar, Hadding-
ton, Muliclburgh, Aberbrothick, Montrofe, Portfoy, El-
gin, Invernefs, and Dingwall, fituated on the eattern fide
of the kingdom; Ayr, Greenock, Paiiley, Inverary, and
Campbeltown, fituated on its weltern fide ; and Dumfries,
Lanark, Surling, Dunfermline, Dunkeld, Falkirk, Linlith-
ir Hamilton, Selkirk,.and many others little inferior to
» which are fituated in inland counties. Many of the
above towns enjoy the advantage of feparate jurifdiction,
but others are under the authority of the county magiltrates,
and of this clals is Paifley, the greateft manufacturing town

in nd next to Glafgow.

Commerce.—Previous to the Union, Scot-

ita

pro! a os Ae At all events, it is certain that the
commerce of the ki was at a very low ebb during the
feventeeuth century, and that it has only rifen into im-

within the lait fifty years, Formerly the ftaple
of the kingdom was linen; but that has now

ratively {peaking, to the weaving of cot-
"The chief fama 2 former ee are

P and ts vicinity, and the county of Fife; and of the
iysies jes of Lanark and Renfrew, including the
wus of Paifley, and others of inferior note.

Woollen cloths are only made for home confumption, and in
‘rifling quantity, excepting carpets, the manufacture of

which is very confiderable, Several other kinds of manu-
facture are carried on in Scotland, but that of iroa is the
only one which deferves to be {pecified in this article, The
works of the Carron are probably the mott celebrated in
Europe for the founding ef cannon, call.irow wheels, dc.

With refpedt to the commerce of Scotland, it may be re-
marked, that though on a f{maller {cale, it is much aflimilated
to that of Enyland, ‘The chief exports are linen, grain,
iron, glafs, lead, foap, cotton goods of every defeription,
alfo earthenware, ib sa leather, candles, and innumerable
other articles, which it is unnecellary to mention. ‘The imports
are wines, brandy, and all kinds of colonial produce, likewile
butter, linen, ilk, wood, oil, andtallow. T principal ports
are thofe of port Glafgow and Greenock, on the weit coait,
and Leith, Dundee, Perth, and Aberdeen, on the call coal.

To the above fources of Scottith commerce, may be very
properly added the fifheries, which, if placed under appro-
priate regulations, would prove a fuad of great wealth, not
merely to Scotland, but to the Britith empire at large. To
effet this object feveral enaétments have been made, but
their beneficial operation has hitherto been much reflriéted.
A bill, however, is now in progrefs, which it is hoped will
produce a more favourable fats.

Roads and Canals.—In the Lowlands of Scotland the
geet roads are not inferior in formation to thofe of

ngland; but they are not yet fufficiently numerous, nor
are they always planned in the molt judicious manner.
Rapid improvements, however, are making in this branch
of political economy, fo indifpenfable to commercial pro-
{perity, and the advancemeut of national civilization, From

mountainous character of the Highlands, the conftruc-
tion of good roads is perhaps impoffible ; but even in that
wild diftrict, efforts are daily making to render communica-
tion more eafy.

The principal canal in Scotland is that which conneéts the
navigation of the Clyde and Forth. It was begun in 1769,
and conftructed according to a furvey furnifhed by Mr,
Smeaton. The depth of this canal is feven feet, and its
width at the furface fifty-fix feet. In fome places it is
carried through moily ground, and in others through folid
rock, and appears evidently, throughout its whole extent, to
have been planned and executed with great ability. An-
other canal has been propofed between Edinburgh and Glaf-
gow, and is believed to be in progrefs of execution. There
1s alfo a canal formin a the ifthmus of Cantire, to
conneét the Frith of Clyde with the Atlantic ocean, to the
north of Jura. But the chief work of this defcription new
going on, is the grand canal from the Moray Frith, through

Nefs and Loch Lochy to the inlet of the fea called
Loch Linnhe, on the weitern coaft. Parliament has already
voted a Jarge fum towards this undertaking, which it is com-

uted will require upwards of 400,000/. to complete it. See

ANAL, Javerne/t.

Literature. —The literature of Scotland, shone it can-
not boait of great antiquity, has acquired a diltinguifhed
pm in the annals of fame, by the rapidity of progrefs and

rilliancy of its luitre in later times. The Culdees, indeed,
the venerable hermits of Jona, are reprefented by ancient
hiflorians as having been men of extenfive learning and great
erudition ; but their claims to this eulogy are probably over-
rated. The earlieit genuine work relative to Scotland is the
Chronicon Pidorum, written by an Irish clergyman, fuppofed,
with confiderable probability, to have been a dignitary of the
church of Abernethy, in the commencement of the eleventh
century. In the twelfth century the chronicles publithed
by Innes, and thofe of Melrofe and Holyrood, deferve to be
noticed. About the year 1270 flourifhed Thomas of Er-

celdon,

SCOTLAND.

celdon, commonly called Thomas the Rhymer, who wrote a
metrical romance, called Sir Triftram, lately republifhed by
Mr. Scott. The next writer of confequence is John Bar-
bour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, who wrote a poem in com-
memoration of the heroic ations of Robert Bruce, in the
year 1375, not lefs celebrated for its hiftorical fidelity than
for its poetical merit. About this time flourifhed John
Fordun, defignated the father of Scottifh hiftory. In the
fifteenth century, James I. of Scotland wrote fome poems
of great merit, and he was fucceeded by Holland, and Henry
the Rhymer. Next arofe Dunbar, whofe merit has entitled
him to be placed at the head of the ancient Scottifh poets.
[n the beginning of the fixteenth century flourifhed Gawin
Douglas, and fir David Lindfay. Thefe were followed by
many others of various merit, till the middle of the feventeenth
century, when the unhappy events of that turbulent period
checked the career of the arts and fciences. Before this,
however, the illuftrious Drummond had configned to the
world his exquifite poems. In modern times, the field of
poetical merit has been more luxuriant. The names of
Thomfon, Ramfay, Blair, Armitrong, Beattie, Burns, Camp-
bell, and Scott, with many others, are held in univerfal eiti-
mation.

In the other departments of {cience, though of later cul-
tivation, the Scots have made rapid progrefs. In hiftory,
the names of Boethius and Buchanan are every where revered.
The claffic elegance and purity of the ftyle of the latter,
has entitled him to rank with the firft authors of antiquity.
In our-own age, among other hiftorians of great merit,
have arifen Hume and Robertfon, whofe works will ever be
read with enthufiaftic delight by the admirers of tafte and
genius. In the mathematical department, lord Napier, the
celebrated inventor of the logarithms; Maclaurin, no lefs
celebrated for his aftronomical works; and Dr. Simpfon,
noted for his knowledge of ancient geometry, have acquired
a lafting reputation. In medicine, the names of Pitcairn,
Monro, and Cullen, may be mentioned as holding the higheft
rank; and in the department of metaphyfical and moral
fciences fhe perhaps ftands unrivalled. The labours of
Hume, Hutchinfon, Reid, Campbell, Beattie, Monboddo,
Kaimes, Smith, and Fergufon, will be regarded with admi-
ration, fo long as the philofophy of the mind continues to be
a fubjeét of intereft, and the Englifh language is underftood.
Scotland has alfo attained the praife of fuperior excellence
in other departments of {cience, particularly in political eco-
nomy and in chemittry.

Univerfities —The univerfities in Scotland are four in
number: St. Andrews, Glafgow, Aberdeen, and Edinburgh.
The firft was founded by bifhop Wardlaw, in 1412 ; the fe-
cond by bifhop Turnbull, in 1453; the third by bifhop
Elphinitone, in 1500; and the lait by James VI. in 1580.
As the reader will find each of them defcribed under their
refpeGtive names, we fhall only obferve farther concerning
them in this place, that the univerfity of Edinburgh is the
moft celebrated medical fchool in Europe, and is annually
attended by from 1200 to 1500 ftudents.

Education.—T he mode of education adopted in this country
is highly laudable, and is probably the beft practicable
fyitem eftablifhed in any kingdom. ‘he plan followed in the
cities and large towns is nearly fimilar io that of England ;
that is, by private feminaries and great public {chools, of
which the High School of Edinburgh is the moft emi-
nent. But the chief advantage of the Scottifh education
arifes from the circumftance of every country parifh having
a {choolmafter, regularly appointed by the heritors, in the
fame way as the clergyman, who receives a {mall falary, which
enables him to educate the children of the parifhioners at a

rate eafy and convenient even to the moft indigent parents.
In the Highlands, the children of the poor are occupied as
herds during fummer, and in winter attend {chools. To be
unable to read and write is confidered fo difgraceful in Scot-
land, that fuch perfons are {carcely ever to be met with.

Manners and Cufloms.—In every part of the kingdom, but
more efpecially throughout the Lowlands, the higher orders
in Scotland are charaCterifed by much the fame features as
in England, Their drefs, their mode of living, and their
amufements, both public and private, are nearly alike. The
inferior orders in the Lowlands are likewife much affimilated
to their fouthern neighbours in their ftyle of drefs, but
their food and diverfions materially differ. The ordinary
diet of the Scottith peafant 1s parich, a compofition of oat-
meal and water, boiled together till it aflumes a thick confift-
ence. Jt iseaten with milk twice and fometimes thrice a day,
and is feldom yaried, except by broa/e, which differs from pa-
rich only in having the addition of butter, and not being
boiled. Butcher’s meat is rarely eat, except on Sunday ; but
vegetable broths made with butter are not unfrequently ufed
for dinner. Pork and eels were formerly held in great abhor-
rence, and even yet are regarded as impure articles of food,
on account of fuperftitious opinions refpeéting them. In
the Highlands thefe fentiments are particularly ftrong ; and
hence the rearing of {wine is very little attended to in that
diftri&. In the fame divifion of the kingdom, the national
drefs is {till prevalent ; but the tartan kilt has very generally
given place to pantaloons of the fame material. From the
influence of education, and the well-direéted exertions of the
clergy, the peafantry have long been diftinguifhed for fo-
briety, induitry, and moral reGtitude ; and, in point of intelli-
gence, are indubitably the firft in the world. Even the arti-
fans are entitled to fhare in this eulogy, though it muft be
confefled that exceptions to the rule are too numerous, ef{pe-
cially in the great trading towns. The exiltence of witches,
fairies, and ghofts, is ftill part of the creed of the Scottifh
peafant ; and the Highlander confidently believes in the
power of {econd fight, or the capability of perceiving future
events. Some relics of the idolatrous worfhip of his remote
anceftors are yet difcernible, both in his amufements and his
more ferious occupations ; but they are gradually becoming
fainter, and will, no doubt, difappear in the progrefs of
refinement and civilization. For information on the amufe-
ments, fuperftitions, and manners of the Scottifh peafantry,
the reader cannot confult any works with greater advantage
than thofe two exquifite poems, the ‘* Halloween,” and
“ Cottar’s Saturday Night,’’ of the celebrated Burns. Re-
ferring, therefore, to them, we fhall only further remark
under this head, that in their religious ceremonies, con-
fiderable variations exift from the forms in England. - Thus,
for inftance, in baptifms, godfathers and godmothers are
inadmiflible, the parents alone being made an{werable for
the education of their children in the path of morality and
religion.

Antiquities. —Monuments of antiquity of every age, from
the Celtic colonization of the kingdom, are yet vifible in
various diftri€ts. Thofe of the firlt epoch are all of the
tumular kind, and are only to be difcovered by nice invefti-
gation in the more wild and uncultivated tras. Of the
Roman period, the remains are numerous, confilting of vef-
tiges of roads, ftations, encampments, foundations of walls,
and other minor antiquities. The celebrated wall of Anto-
ninus may yet be traced, with perfect accuracy, nearly the
whole of its extent from the Forth to the Clyde ; and many
interefting infcriptions are frequently dug up from its ruins.
Near it was formerly a {mall edifice called Arthur’s Oven,
which the mott intelligent antiquaries fuppofe to have been

a temple

SCO

a temple dedicated tothe god Terminus. ‘The molt northerly
Roman camp yet difcovered is fituated on the river Ythan,
iw Aberdeenthire ; avd there are fume roads extending into the
county of Angus; but the chief remains of them are fouth of
the walls. The monuments of the Pidtith era confilt of thofle
cireles of flones, cromlechs, &c. ufually, but erroneoully,
denominated Druidical temples; and of thofe artificial
mounds, or hills, whence the Pidtith and Dalriad kings
were wont to promulgate their laws, ‘The molt remarkable
fione circles in the kingdom are thole in the ile of Lewis,
and on the Mainland of Orkney. ‘The {trugtures commonly
called “ Piéts’ houfes,’’ and the heaps of tlones called
* cairns,” or * karns,’’ have alfo beens fuppofed to belong
to this age; but Pinkerton refers the latter entirely to the
Dalriads, or Scots, and thinks the former may be Danith,
as it is certain fimilar edifices have been tr in Scandi-
navia. They feem to have confiited of a vatt hall, open to
the ficy in the centre, and having recefles for beds, &e. in
the “ Thefe buildings,’”’ fays the author laft men-
tioned, “ are remarkable, as difplaying the firft elements of
the Gothic caftle ; and the caitle a Gelediand in York-
sci ony a tranfition.”” The remains of

which are y

battles and treaties of peace ; the vitrified forts, and
churches, abbeys, and caitles almoit innumerable... Among
ings which owe their origin to

aad the chapel of Roflyn,
of the moft fingular and intereft

The following is a lift of the books occafionally confulted
during the compilation of this article. Joannis de Fordun

and a third, eatitled Detectio Marie Regine Scotorum ; his
poems, and fome pieces on language. Colleton of
Treatifes, in folio, concerning Scotland, written by fir Ro-
bert Sibbald, Edin. 1707. "Phis work comprifes, among
other pieces, Hiftorical Inquiries concerning Roman An-
tiquities ; j concerning the Roman Ports, Colo-
nies, and Forts ; and An Account of the Writers ancient and

:

Defeription » ancient and modern; fol. Edin.
1683. The Libertie and Independencie of the Kingdom
and Church of Scotland afferted from ancient Records ; by
Robert Sibbald ; 4to. Edin. 1703. Selectus Diplomatum

et Numifmata Scotiz. Thefaurus, &c. ; ab Jacobo Ander-

fono. Edited by Thomas Ruddiman ; fol. Edin. 1739. f
Scotland,

Hiftory of the Affairs in Church and State in
1

SCO

from the Commencement of the Reformation to 19684 by
Robert Keith; fol, Edin, 174 The Hitlory of Boeot-
land, by David Scott; fol. Weltminiler, 1727. Itinera-
rium Septeatrionale ; by Alex. Gerdon ; fol. Lond, 1726.
Scotorum Hilerie a prima Gentis Origine, &c. Hettore
Boethio audtore 5 fol. Parifiis, 1574. Lives of the Officers
of State, by George Crawford; fol. Edin, 1726. Lives
and Characters of Scottith Writers, by George Mackenzie ;
3 vols. folio, Edin, 1708. Iconographia Scotica ; or, Por-
traits of illullrious Perfons; by ras Pinkerton ; 410,
Lond. 1797. Hittory of Scotland, from the earheft Ac-
counts to A.D, 14375 by William Maitland; continued
by another hand; 2 vols. fol, Lond. 1757. The Hiitorie of
the Reformatioun of Rehgioun within the Realm of Scot-
land, by John Knox ; edited from his MS. in the Univerfity
of Glafgow ; fol. Edin. 1732. The true Hiflory of the
Church of Scotland, from the Begining of the Reformation
to the Death of James VI.; by Dawid Calderwood ; fol.
1678. Hiftorical Account of A ka Scottifh Parliament, by
George Redpath ; 8vo. 1703. Scotie Indiculum ; by Philo-
atris; i8mo. 1682. Hiuttorie of the Warres between
Zogland and Scotland, from William the Conqueror to the
Union under James; 4to. Lond. 1607. The Auld Lawes
and Conititutions of Scotland ; fol. 1609. The Laws and
A4s of Parliament of Scotland, from 1424 to 1707;
12mo. 3 vols. 1682, 1707. Memoirs of North Britain ;
8vo, Lond. 1715. . Memoirs of Scotland during the Reign
of Queen Anne; 8vo. 1714.

Articles of the Union with Scotland; 4to. 1707. In-
quiry into the Evidence againft Mary Queen of Scots;
8vo, Edin. 1772. Inquiry into the Reign of Queen Elifa-
beth, in reference to Queen Mary ; 8vo. 1726. B phia
Scoticana; 8vo. 1796. Gordon’s Theatre of Seottith
singe 4to. 1709. Fragments of Scottifh Hiftory ; 4to.
1798. Jamiefon’s Hiftory of the Culdees of Jona; gto.
1811. Pinkerton’s Inquiry into the Hiftory of Scotland
before the Year 1056; 2 vals. 8vo. 1704. Pinkerton’s
Hiftory of Scotland from the Acceffion of the Stewarts to
the Death of James V.; 2 vols. gto. 1812. Pinkerton’s
Modern Geography, vol. i. 4to. 1807—1811. General
Report of Scotland ; by fir John Sinclair; § vols, 8vo. and
vol. plates, 1813. Sinclair’s Hufbandry of Scotland ;
2 vols. vo. 1814. Dalrymple’s Annals of Scotland, from
Malcolm III. to Houfe of Stewart; 4to. 2 vols. 1776.
Dalrymple’s Traés relative to the Hiftory of Scotland ;
4to. 1800. Culloden Papers; 1815. Smith’s Gaelic Ar-
tiquities; 4to. Roy’s Military Antiquities; fol. Gu-
thrie’s General Hittory of Scotland; 10 vols. 8vo. 1767.
Chalmers’s Caledonia; 2 vols. gto. 1807—10. Hume's
Hiftoryof England, &c. Slezer’s Theatrum Scotiz, edited
by John Jamiefon, D.D. fol. 1814.

ScorLanp Neck, a town or rather village of America, in
Halifax county, North Carolina, in which is a poit-office ;
250 miles S. of Wathington.

ScorLann, New. Nova Scotia.

ScoTLanp River, a river, or rather rivulet, in the ifland
of Barbadoes, which rifes in St. Andrew’s parifh, and falls
into Long bay, on the E. fide of the ifland, 4 miles S.S.E.
of Cuckold’s point, or 24 miles N.W. of St. Jofeph’s mver,
the only other {mall brook of the ifland.

SCOTODINOS, a term ufed by medical writers to ex-
prefs a vertigo, or dizzinefs of the head, attended with a
dimnefs of fight.

SCOTOMIA, or Scoroma, a giddinefs, or oe
confufion of fight ; nearly fynonimous with vertige ; whi

et.
SCOTS, in Geography, the name of ove of the two great
tribes,

SCO

tribes, into which the inhabitants of the northern region of
Caledonia was divided, ‘as early as the reign of Conttantine ;
Piéts being the denomination of the other. The name and
almoft the memory of the Picts have been extinguifhed by
their fuccefsful rivals ; and the Scots, after maintaining for
ages the dignity of an independent kingdom, have mul-
tiplied, by an equal and voluntary union, as Gibbon ‘ex-
prefles it, the honours of the Englifh name. The hand of
nature hath contributed to mark the ancient diftinGion of
the Scots and Piéts: the former were the men of the hills,
and the latter thofe of the plain. The eaftern coaft of Cale-
donia was a level and fertile country, and produced, in a
rude {tate of tillage, a confiderable quantity of corn; fo
that the epithet of cruitnich, or wheat-eaters, exprefled the
contempt or envy of the carnivorous highlanders. Never-
thelefs, the love of arms and rapine was {till the univerfal
paffion of the Picts; and their warriors, {tripped for a day
of battle, were diftingutfhed, in the eyes of the Romans, by
the ftrange fafhion of painting their naked bodies with gaudy
colours and fantaltic figures. (See Picrs.) The weftern
part of Caledonia irregularly rifes into wild and barren hills,
which fcarcely repay the toil of the hufbandmen, and are
mott profitably ufed for the pafture of cattle. Accordingly
the highlanders were condemned to the occupations of fhep-
herds and hunters; and as they were feldom fixed to any
permanent habitation, they acquired the expreflive name of
Scots, which, in the Celtic tongue, is {aid to be equivalent
to that of wanderers or vagrants. That the Irifh defcent
of the Scots, though lately revived by Mr. Whitaker, is a
fable, has been fatisfaétorily evinced by Mr. Gibbon; and
he has traced the foundation upon which this fabulous fuper-
ftruture has been gradually reared by the bards and the
monks, two orders of men, who equally abufed the privilege
of fiétion. It is probable, fays this fagacious and elegant
hiftorian, that in fome remote period of antiquity, the fertile
plains of Uliter received a colony of hungry Scots; and that
the ftrangers of the North, who had dared to encounter the
arms of the legions, fpread their conquefts over the favage
and unwarlike natives of a folitary ifland. It is certain,
that in the declining age of the Roman empire, Caledonia,
Ireland, and the Ifle of Man, were inhabited by the Scots ;
and that the kindred tribes, who were often affociated in
military enterprifes, were deeply affected by the various ac-
cidents of their mutual fortunes. They long cherifhed the
lively tradition of their common name and origin; and the
miffionaries of the Ifle of Saints, who diffufed the light of
Chriftianity over North Britain, eftablifhed the vain opinion,
that their Lrifh countrymen were the natural, as well as
fpiritual, fathers of the Scottifh race. The Scottifh na-
tion, with miftaken pride, adopted their Irith genealogy ;
and the annals of a long line of imaginary kings have been
adorned by the fancy of Boethius, and the claffic elegance
of Buchanan. Gibbon’s Hitt. vol. iv. See ScorLtanp.

Scots Tunes. In February 1722, the newfpapers of the
times inform us, that there was a concert for the benefit of
Mr. Thomfon, the firft colle€tor and publifher of Scots
tunes in England. To this colle@tion, for which there was
a very large fub{cription, may be efcribed the fubfequent
favour of thefe national melodies fouth of the Tweed.

After this ‘* confort, at the defire of feveral perfons of
quality, was performed a Scottifh fong.”’

In 1744, in the opera of “ Rofelinda,” fet by Veracimi,
at that time the leader of the opera band, the firft air that
prefents itfelf, in the printed copy of the favourite fongs,
is © The Lafs of Patie’s Mill;?? which Monticelli. con-
defcended to fing, and to_which Veracini added parts and
ritornelli, in order, as they imagined, to flatter the Britifh

12+

SCO

nation.. But as few of the North Britons, or admirers of
this national and natural mufic, frequent the opera, or mean
to give half a guinea to hear a Scots tune, which perhaps
their cook-maid, Peggy, can fing better than any foreigner,
this expedient failed of its intended effet. See Paara.

Scors, or Scott, in Geography, a county of Kentucky,
containing 12,419 inhabitants. Its chief town is George-
town, containing 529 inhabitants.

Scov’s Bay, a bay on the S.W. coaft of the ifland of
Dominica, towards the S. extremity of the ifland; 4. miles
S. of Charlotte-town.—Alfo, a bay of the North Pacific
ocean, on the W. coa{t of America; 10 miles S. of Queen
Charlotte’s found. *

Scor’s Cove, a bay on the S.W. coatt of Jamaica.

Scot’s Head, a cape at the fouthern extremity of Do-
minica. N. lat. 15°20’. W. long. 61° 24!.

Scor’s J/lands, a clutter of iflands in the North Pacific
ocean, near the N.W. coalt of the ifland of Quadra and
Vancouver. N. lat. 50° 57!. E. long. 231° 9/.

SCOTT, Joun, in Biography, a clergyman of the church
of England, was born in 1638, at Chippenham, in Wilt-
fhire. He was firlt apprenticed to a trade in London,
which not being congenial to his tafte, he qtitted, and en-
tered himfelf as a commoner of New Inn, Oxford. After
receiving orders, he obtained a reétory in London, and a
prebend in St. Paul’s cathedral. In 1685 he took his
degree of D.D.; and in 1691 he was appointed to the
rectory of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, and was made canon of
Windfor. « The Chriftian Life,’? which was publifhed at
different times, and finifhed in 1686, acquired for, him fo
high a reputation, that, after the revolution, he was offered
the bifhopric of Chefter; which, however, he refufed, be-
caufe he could not confcientioufly take the oaths required.
He was afterwards offered the bifhopric of Worcelter, and
a prebend of Windfor, which he hkewife declined, becaufe
they were the places of perfons who had been deprived for
an adherence to thofe principles, which he himfelf fecretly
cherifhed. Neverthelefs he had ftrenuoufly oppofed the pro-
grefs of Popery in the reigns of Charles II. and James I1.,
and publifhed fome works in controverfy with the Papifts,
while the latter prince was ftill on the throne. Dr. Scott
died in 1694, leaving the character of an excellent man and
worthy parifh-prieft. Befides the work already mentioned,
he wrote “ Cafes of Confcience refolved, concerning the

-Lawfulnefs of joining in Forms of Prayer in public Wor-

fhip ;”? and « Twelve Sermons,’? preached on different oc-
cafions. His “ Chriltian Life’? 1s a book very generally
read in the religious world.

Scorr, Micuart, a celebrated Scotfman of the 13th
century, was born at Balwearie, in Fife, about the begin-
ning of the reign of Alexander TI. At a very early period
he made great progrefs in language, as well as the mathe-
matics; and having finifhed his itudies at home, he went
over into France, where he remained fome years; but hear-
ing that the emperor Frederic Il. was a great patron of
learning and learned men, he repaired to the court of that
prince, and applied himfelf clofely to all the branches of
philofophy then ftudied. After refidmg fome time in Ger-
many, he proceeded to England, and was high in the favour
of Edward IJ.; but it is not at all known how long he
continued here. Upon.his return to Scotland he received
the honour of knighthood from Alexander III., and was
afterwards fent, with Michael de Wemys, to bring to Scot-
land the Maid of Norway, who, being taken ill at fea, was
landed on one of the Orkney iflands, where fhe died in the
year 1290. At this time fir Michael was probably far ad-
vanced in life: he died in 1291. He was efteemed a man

of

sco

of great learning, though fo much addidted to the oceult
{eiences, that he palfed among his contemporaries as a fkilful
magician, Boceseero and ins both exhibit him as
fuch; the former in one of his novels, and the latter in his
macaronic poem; and he is introduced under the fame cha-
raéter b ante. It is not known where he was interred,
but it feems generally admitted that his books of magic
were either buried with him in his grave, or preferved in the
convent where he died, A Latin tranflation of Anttotle’s
works is aferibed to fir Michael Scott, but probably upon
infufficient evidence. There is a tranfation of that philo-
fopher’s works, partly from the Greek and partly from the
Arabic, by various hands, undertaken at the command of
the emperor Frederic I1., at whofe court fir Michael -re-
fided fome time; and as he is reported to have tranflated
Ariftotle’s Natural Hiltory of Animals from the Arabic
verfion of Avicenna, it has been aflumed that this is the
only part of the work which fhould be aferibed to him.
The title of the work is “ Ariftotelis Opera, Latiné verfa,

partim ¢ Grxeo partim Arabico, per viros lectos et in
utriufgue Lingue prolatione peritos, jufflu Imperatoris Fre-
derici II. Venet. 1496."" The mea of fir Michael Scott

are numerous, among which the following may be mea-
tioned: “ Ph ia et de Hominis Procreatione ;"
*« De Secretis Menare 3” “ Queftio curiofa de Natura Solis
et Lune.” The fubjeét of this laft work is the pretended
tranfmutation of metals, gold and filver being reckoned
among alchemifts the fun and moon. According to the
ion of Riccioli, Scott was a diligent obferver of the
and, at the requeft of the emperor Frederic I., he
wrote a treatife on the {phere of Sacrobofeo. Gen. Biog.
Scorr, Grorce Lewis. This learned and accomplifhed
man was not only an able mathematician, but an excellent
mufician. He was an intimate friend of Dr. Pepufch, and
aflitted him in drawing up mo for the Royal Society,
on the genera and fyitems aucient Greek mufic ;
and whatever articles he furnifhed to the Supplement of
Chambers’s Diétionary, concerning harmonics or the ratio
of founds, may be depended on. Mr. Scott was a per-
former. on the Lerefichond, and very fond of mufic; but al-
ways calculating, during his own performance and that of
others, as to the legality of modulation. And we well re-
member his being much dilturbed at the unrelative fucceflion
of chords, in the opening of Pergolefi’s Stabat Mater,”
at the fecond har, where that moft pleafing author furprifes
the ear, as well as the eye and intelleét, in modulating from
F minor to Eb major. De Moivre, who had no tafte or
feeling for mufic, ufed to calculate ratios for the ingenious
and worthy organiit of the Charter-houfe, and laugh at him
for his Greek and mathematical pretenfions; but Scott, the
{ub-preceptor of his prefent majeity, was in ecarnefl, and
wifhed to make difcoveries in Greek mufic, as much as Pe-
For though attached to old matters of eminence, as
well as the Carthufian maeitro di ca » he enjoyed the
productions of the moderns ex ly, when he could dif-
cover in them either genius or f{cience.

As we the honour to be perfonally acquainted with
him, we are fure that the elaborate article Temperament, in
in the additional volume to Chambers’s Dictionary,
was drawn up by the late learned and fcientific Mr. Scott,
who was one of the very few theorifts that ever paid the leaft

chs ng to do with harmonics.
TTA, or Scorrus. See Scor

SCOTTI, Tanzsa, in Biegraphy, the firft woman in
the of 1764 and 1765, in which Manfoli fung.
Scotti, with an elegant figure, a beautiful face, and

sco

a feeble voice, fung in a very good tafle; and though is
— of power, the pofleiled great flexibility and expref.
ion.

SCOTTIA, in Botany, bears that name, as we prefume,
in memory of Robert Scott, M.D,, late profeilor of Bo-
tany at Dublin, commemorated by Mr, Dawfoo Turner in
the preface, as well as the dedication, of his Mu/cologie
Hibernice Spicilegium.—Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew, wv. 4.
268.-—Clafs and order, Di ia Deeandria. Nat. Ord.
Papilionacea, Linn, Leguminese, Jul.

EM. Ch. Calyx with five rather unequal teeth; its bafe
clothed with imbricated appendages. Standard folded,
fhorter than the wings, which are the length of the keel.
Stamens all conneéted. Legume ftalked, compretled ;
thickened at each margin. Seeds few, crefted.

1. S. dentata. Tooth-leaved Scottia.—Found by Mr.
Brown on the fouth-weit coalt of New Holland. A /bred,
fent to Kew garden, in 1803, by Mr. Peter Good. It is
kept in the greenhoufe, and flowers from Jane to Sep-
tember,

SCOTTSBURG, in Geography, a poft-town of Vir-
ginia; 256 miles W. of Wathington.

SCOTUSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, on the banks of the river Strymon, in the Odoman-
tica, near Berga. — Alfo, a town of Greece, in Theffaly.
Ptolemy.

SCOUR a Line, To, in the Military Language, is to
flank it fo as to fee dire&ly along it; that a mufket-ball,
entering at one end, may fly to the other, leaving no place
of fecurity.

Scour, among Cattle, a difeafe of the flux kind, which
frequently affects cows, calves, fheep, and other animals.
See ScouninG in Cows, and in Calves.

This is a difeafe in theep, which is common in the winter
feafon, being believed to originate from the feverity of the
frofts, efpecially when they fet in faddenly, or alternate fre-

uently with thaws, The chief dependence for a cure, in
thefe cafes, is upon an expeditious change to dry keep; as,
in the practice of fome good fheep-farmers, the ufe of hay,
on the mornings when ) iat are prevalent, has been
found a good preventative. It is fometimes called the gail
by theep-farmers. Early, foft, tathy, luxuriant pafture-
grafs, is alfo liable to produce this complaint, efpecially in
previoufly worn-down fheep. It arifes frequently, too, from
fudden changes from dry, warm, poor paftures, to fuch as
are rich, call, and damp; or the contrary. It is fome
times likewife the confequence of other affeGiions, as well as
of the local weaknefs and relaxation of the bowels, In all
thefe inftances, the above changes of food will be highly
ufeful and neceflary. The difeafe may be ttopped, except
where it is critical, after clearing the inteftines of any irritat-
ing matters, by mild purgatives, by the following means, par-
ticularly where there is great weaknefs of the affected parts.
Boil four ounces of the fhavings of logwood in two pints of
water, until it be reduced to one pint; theu add one ounce
of cinnamon water, and give one half at atime. Where this
is not ftrong enough to check the diforder, half a drachm of
the extraét of catechu may be diffolved in it, with fifty or
more drops*of the tinéture of opium. Thefe will moftly
leffen the over-aétion of the bowels, and {peedily remove the
complaint. In mild cafes of this nature, it will feldom be
neceflary to have recourfe to the above remedy, at they will
eafily be removed by the ufe of water, in which a little cal-
cined chalk and hartthorn fhavings have been boiled. In
high ftates of the difeafe, the ftrength of the medicine muft
be increafed.
F The

co

The dlack feour is, however, feldom capable of being
retrained by any means that have yet been had recourfe to ;
it therefore, for the moft part, terminates fatally.

Scour, White, a difeafe in fheep of the more violent flux
kind, fuppofed to originate in confequence of their feeding
upon putrefcent vegetable food, efpecially that of the hells
of fuch turnips as have been left upon the feeding grounds.
In thefe cafes, it has been advifed to give two or three large
fpoonfuls of the following mixture, every two or three days ;
the difeafed fheep being feparated from the reit of the flock.
Take of finely powdered and fifted bay-falt, half a pound,
and diffolve it in good old yerjuice, one pint; to which add
of good common gin half a pint ; mixing the whole of them
well together.

And in order to facilitate the removal of the difeafe, the
fheep fhould be put upon good dry food, in an upland paf-
ture. See SHEEP.

SCOURING in Cows, a difeafe in thefe animals of
the flux kind, in which there are frequent liquid dejeétions
from the inteltines, proceeding from irritation, the excre-
ments, according to Downing, being flimy, bilious, or black ;
fometimes they are limpid and fluid, like water caft out ;
at other times they are frothy, greafy, and mixed with a
fat clayifh coloured’ fubftance. ‘This diforder is generally
attended with a bad appetite, a weak depreffed pulfe, harfh
dry fkin, dull countenance, and fomething of a flow fever.
This difeafe is fo obvious, that it needs no further de-
{cription; for the copious evacuation of the excrements,
and many other figns, make it evident to the knowledge of
every perfon. And he fuppofes, that the firft {tage of it
is a companion of the joint yellows, and may be traced out
to the fatisfa&tion of any one who will take the trouble to
open any animal that dies of this diforder. ;

According to others it affe€ts oxen as well as cows,
and arifes from want of fufficient food, both in quality
and proportion ; from being overheated or overworked; by
feeding on wet unwholefome fog or after-grafs; by not be-
ing lodged in dry fituations; fometimes from giving them
too large a quantity of cut hay or ftraw, hotter than their
natural temperature; though it is fometimes a conftitu-
tional taint, and in cows is caufed by their taking cold
while calving. But whatever be the caufe, as foon as it
begins to appear it will be necefflary to houfe the beatt,
and put it to dry food, which, in early ftages of the dif-
eafe, often effe€ts a cure. But in this cafe Mr. Downing
advifes the following :

Take of mutton fuet, one pound ; oil of turpentine, four
ounces ; boil thefe together in three quarts of milk till the
fuet is diflolved, and give it at night milk-warm; and the
next morning give the following medicine :

Take pomegranate powder, eight ounces; logwood in
powder, two ounces; new pipes pounded, two ounces;
Peruvian bark in powder, two ounces; roch alum in pow-
der, fix ounces: mix them together, to be given in two
quarts of old ale or urine, and repeated every other day.
The beaft fhould faft two hours before and two after
taking the medicine. He afterwards has recourfe to crab
verjuice, in the quantity of a pint, for feveral mornings.
And alfo the following. Take calcined oytfter-fhells in
powder, four ounces ; ditto pipe-clay, one ounce ; oak-bark
powder, two ounces ; grains of paradife, one ounce; roch
alum, ose ounce. Mix thefe together for one dofe, to be
given in a quart of old beer and a pint of red wine, or in
three pints of oak-dip irom the tan-pits.

But others advife half a pound of grofsly pulverized
tormentil root, to be boiled in two quarts of water till re-
duced to one quart, then ftraining it off, and adding a

wiCrO

quart of red wine, a quarter of a pound of finely powdered
chalk or whiting, and two ounces of diafcordium, without
honey. ‘The mixture fhould be preferved in a bottle, and
occafionally well fhaken together, making it lukewarm be-
fore it is given. The dofe is half a pint, given three times
in the day, at equidiftant periods: Or half a pound of
pulverized common chalk may be boiled in two quarts of
water, till diminifhed to three pints, then adding four ounces
of hartfhorn fhavings, and one ounce of caffia, ftirring the
whole carefully. . When cold, two drachms of tingture of
opium, and one pint of lime-water, may be added; the
whole bemg kept clofely ftopped in a bottle, and well
fhaken before it is ufed: the dofe is one or two horns-ful
in the day.

Scourine in Calves, a difeafe to which they are very fubje&t
at an early period, being often caufed by improper manage-
ment in putting them too foon to the teat, or letting them
remain too long at it. It is alfo fometimes caufed by too
frequently changing the milk.

But in order to effeét a cure, it has been advifed to re-
ftrié the calf in the quantity of its food, giving a hard
boiled egg, made fine by chopping, in a drench, the firft
thing in the morning. Chalk powdered and mixed up with
flour into balls with gin has alfo been recommended as ufe~
ful and fafe in thefe cafes, by a writer in the Annals of
Agriculture.

In Effex, fome farmers have found the following remedy
almoft infallible. Two tea-fpoonfuls of rhubarb in fine
powder, and a table-fpoontful of peppermint water, kneaded
well together. If once giving of this does not ftop the
complaint, a fecond dofe is given, with a little red port
wine added to it, which mo{tly completes the cure. In
one cafe an apparently dying calf was reftored by the ufe
of this medicine. ;

Powdered chalk given in their troughs, with the barley
meal for fattening them, is found to have a good effect in
this intention, as well as in other ways.

And a decoétion of calcined chalk, hartfhorn fhavings,
and a little coarfely pounded caffia, with a very {mall quan-
tity of the tin@ure of opium, will moftly be found of
great benefit in cafes of this nature, when given to the ex-
tent of from two or three to five or fix table{poonfuls once
or twice in the courfe of the day.

ScourinG in Lambs, &c. a difeafe which is common to
them in many places, but efpecially to thofe which have
been fent to winter on the hills from the Romney-marth
lands in the fouthern part of the kingdom. Thofe alfo
which continue in the Marfh during the fame feafon, are
liable to be attacked with the complaint on the approach
of fpring. Sheep which are weakened in their conftitu-
tions, and have experienced a quick tranfition from poor,
low, to rich, full keep, are the moft fubject to be affected.
Likewife when they are firft brought upon the marfh-lands
in the early {pring, particularly when moilt warm weather
fucceeds to keen frofts, though it often fhews itfelf at other

times of the year, as already noticed. The writer of the

Romney-marfh fheep-grazing fyftem remarks, that the
farmers there confider it falutary, and believe that the fheep
fatten more quickly after it: but he fuggefts, that when it
is long continued, the powers of their fyftems mutt be
greatly injured and reduced. In fuch cafes, the diforder
ought mottly to be reftramed and removed by having re-
courfe to dry food, and the ufe of fuitable remedies. The
above writer has had twenty lambs attacked with it in a
feafon, and not being able to learn them to eat hay, fuc-
ceeded in faving molt of them, by means of giving them an
aitringent cordial drink, with a {mall portion of opium, and

turning

sco

turning them upon dry, found, old, artificial pafture-land,
But three of the number, to which fuet boiled in milk had
been given, all died, ‘lar mixed with the finely powdered
lime of an old wall, and formed into fuitable balls, is faid,
in fome inflances, to prove an elleétual remedy for this
complaint.

Onthe whole it is thought, that as the diforder evidently
arifes either from cold, moiflure, and poor food, or from
weakly theep being fuddenly put upon too rich keep, the
moit proper and rational method of removing the afleétion is,
in the firft circumttances, to turn the fheep immediately into
a new warm paiture, and fupply them well with frefh good
hay, &e.; od in the latter cafe, to put them upon fount old
fward land. In fupport of this practice, a theep farmer in
the fame neighbourhood atierts, that he conftantly keeps his
wether lambs on or near to the above Marth, and that he
never has’any of his flock affected with the difeafe ; which
he imputes to the allowing of them old grafs upon the land.
grounds are warm, and well fheltered by trees and

1g

_ Scounine, Preventative Remedics, for Horfes, {uch as are
given to work and other horfes, as well as occafionally to
other forts of live-flock, for the purpofe of preventing the
eccurrence of difeafe in them. The incautious and indif-
criminate ufe of remedies of this nature among horfes and
other cattle has been the caufe of much lofs and mifchief.
Asimals by no means ftand fo frequently in need of medi-
cines of this fort as has been fuppofed, though they may
i ve occafion for them. The ftate and circum-
of the animals, with a full knowledge of the man-
ner in which they have been kept, and the labour or exer-
cife which t had, or ~ conden
and judgment in on care of them,
os bet point out a ei they may be neceflary and ufe-
ful ; x on the rare improper and hurtful.
Calomel and aloes are probably the moft proper fubftances
to be generally employed in this way, though others of the
/purging kinds may fometimes be joined with them to pro-
mote thei * wee with much advantage and effe@. How-
ever, from the natural motion of the bowels of horfes bein
flow, and the length of the inteftinal canals great, unlefs
the ftimulant purgative power of the fubitance continues
for fome time after it has pafled from the itomach, no effec
will be produced upon them. This accounts for the failure
of fuch remedies in many cafes. Yet op the fame grounds,
it may naturally be fuppofed, that a powerful dofe of fuch
medicines may increafe this a€tion in fuch a manner, and
— contents of the cb in fo forcible a degree,
as to uce great pain, inflammation, or other mifchief,
which may either Kill the animal or greatly injure it, as is
uently exemplified.
fequently, in every cafe where the ftrength and the
ftate of the animal are not well known, the beft method may
be to begin with giving not too dofes of remedies of
this nature, but increafing them wards where found
neeeflary. In this way there will be every advantage
fecured, without the danger of injury being done.

Such horfes as are newly taken up into warm ftables
from cold expofed fituations, will often ftand in need of
one or two gentle dofes of this kind. But horfes employed
in team labour, or hard work of other forts, will very feldom
require fuch afliftance. It may, however, be occafionally
ufeful. lings of the legs, inflammations of the eyes,
coughs, and arifing ae ted fudden change of tem-
perature, may in many cafes vented, by renderin
the ftables more ombesl airy on the seats “anlage fill
taken up into them, efpecially if they be clofe and warm.

SCR

Strong young horfes mottly require a few dofes on their
firlt coming iuto the fable, but by no means fo many as
are ufually given, Horfos too, after being long foiled on
green food, fometimes are the better for fuch remedies.
Alfo fuch as have fwelled and cracked heels from high
feeding and too much ina¢tion. ‘There may be fome other
cales in which fuch remedies are beneficial, but they are
only few, as it is not at all neceflary to have recourfe to
them in that general way which is commonly imagined.

The moft ufual, and probably the beit mode of giving
fuch remedies, is that of letting the animal have the calomel
balls in the evening, and thofe of the aloe kind in the
morning, fo asto work them off im fome meafure.

From one drachm to two drachms, in proportion to the
ftrength of the animal, of the firft or calomel, with half
an ounce of fome aromatic powder, made up with treacle
or honey, will form a proper ball for the evening dofe,
And from half an ounce to one ounce, according to the
ftate of the animal,®of finely powdered Barbadoes aloes,
with two drachms of powdered ginger, made up in the
fame way, will form a {uitable morning ball in this in-
tention.

Proper mafhes and feeds, with fuitable work or exercife,
and grooming, are to be had recourfe to at the fame times
The {pace of eight or ten days fhould always elapfe before
the dofes are repeated.

SCOURINGS, among Farriers, {uch gentle purges
as preferve horfes from noxious humours.

COUTS, in Military Language, are generally horfe-
men fent out before, and on the wings of an army, at the
diftance of a mile or two, to difcover the enemy, and give
the general an account of what they obferve.

SCOUZIE Heap, in Geography, a cape of Scotland,
on the E. coaft of the county o Caithnels ; 3 miles S. of
Duncanfby Head. N. lat. 58° 31’. W. long. 2° 25’.

SCOW, in Agriculture, a term ufed by farmers to fig-
nify the fheath of a horfe.

SCOW BEGAN FA ts, in Geography, falls which boats
cannot pafs, in the Kennebeck river, in the ftate of Maine,
North America, near the town of Canaan.

SCRABY, or Scraza, a {mall poft and fair-town of the
county of Cavan, Ireland, near Lough Gawnah; 60 miles
N.W. from Dublin, and 7 N.W. by W. from Granard.

SCRAPER, an initrument ufed in mezzotinto engrav-
ing, formed much in the manner of a knife, except that
the edge is ftraight till near the point, and there flopes off
at an angle from both fides; the lines of which flopes meet-
ing form another angle of the point; but the flope on one
fide is much longer than that of the other.

SCRAPING in Mezzotinto. See Mezzorrmto.

Scrapiye, in Naval Language, is the att of thaving off
the dirty lurface of the plank, in a fhip’s fide or decks,
particularly after a voyage, or when the feams have been
covered with a new compofition of melted pitch or rofin.
The initrument with which this is performed is called a

feraper.

SCRATCH, in the language of the falt-workers of
our country, the name of a calcareous, earthy, or ftony
mee which feparates from fea-water in boiling it for

This forms a thick cru{t in a few days on the fides and
bottoms of the pans, which they are forced to be at the
pains of taking off once in a week or ten days, other-
wife the pans burn away and are deflroyed. (See Sart.)
This is no other than the fame fubhance which crufts
over the infides of our tea-kettles, and is truly a {pars
fuitained more or lefs in all water, and feparable from it by

F2 boiling.

SCR

boiling. The fhells of fea-fifh have great affinity in their
fubftance and nature with this, both being powerful alkalies,
and both eafily calcining into lime.

The magnefia alba, fo celebrated in Germany for its
mild purgative and alkaline virtues, feems very nearly allied
to this earth; and it is probable, according to Hoffmann,
that the purging virtues of many f{prings are owing to the
quantities they contain of this fubitance.

SCRATCHES, among Farriers, a diftemper incident
to horfes, confilting of dry {cabs, chops, or rifts, that
breed between the heel and the pattern joint.

There are various kinds of feratches, diftinguifhed by vari-
ous names, as crepances, rat-tails, mules, kibes, pains, &c.
which are all fo many {pecies of the fame malady, engen-
dered from fome hot humours falling on the legs, or from
the fumes of the beatt’s own dung lying under his heels,
or near them, or for want of rubbing his heels, efpecially
after a journey, from over-hard riding, &c.

The diforder begins firft with dry {cabs in the pattern
joint, in feveral forms. It is known by the ttaring, dividing,
and curling of the hair on the part. For the cure of this
diforder, fee GrraseE.

In order to prevent it, the heels fhould be kept fupple
with curriers’ dubbing, which is made of oil and tallow:
by ufing this precaution before exercife, and wafhing the
heels with warm water when the horfe comes in, the {eratches
will be prevented.

SCRATCH-PANS, in the Englith Salt-Works, a name
given to certain leaden-pans, which are ufually made about
a foot and a half long, a foot broad, and three inches deep,

and have a bow, or circular angle of iron, by which they |

may be drawn out with a hook, when the liquor in the pan
is boiling. See Sar.

‘The ute of thefe pans is to receive the fcratch; and thefe
pans being placed at the corners of the falt-pan, where the
heat is leait violent, catch it as it {ubfides there.

SCRATCH-WORK, Scrarriata, a way of paint-
ing in fre‘co, by preparing a black ground, on which is
laid a white plafter; which white being taken off with an
iron bodkin, the black appears through the holes, and ferves
for thadows.

This kind of work is lafting; but being very rough, it
is unpleafant to the fight. It is chiefly ufed to embellith
the fronts of palaces, and other magnificent buildings.

SCRAWLY, in Agriculture, a term provincially figni-
fying thin and ravelled as grain.

SCREAMER, in Ornithology. See PALAMADEA.

SCREEN, an inftrument for keeping off the wind, or
the heat of the fire.

ScreEEN is alfo ufed for a frame of laths to fift earth,
fand, gravel, &c.

ScREEN, or Screen-Machine, in Agriculture, a fimple con-
trivance, invented for the purpofe of clearing grain of dif-
ferent kinds, of various injurious forts of {eeds, by paffing
it through it. It confifts of a wooden frame, which has
ledges on the fides, with a fort of hopper in the upper part
of it, to which is attached a kind of valve, that moves to
fuitable diftances by means of a fcrew, for letting proper
quantities of grain pafs down upon a fquare wire fieve,
which is fixed below in the frame, and communicates with
the happer in fome meafure. The fcreen ftands up ina
floping pofition by means of a leg, that draws out behind
it, and which is eommonly regulated by a cord, while the
operation of fcreening or clearing the grain is going on.
It is a very ufcful and convenient machine on {mall arable
farms, but on large ones the work.is now ufually done
by a fomewhat fimilar contrivance in the threshing ma-

SCR

chine, while that is going on with it. Sce THREsHING
Machine. t

Screen-Fences, fuch fences as are raifed for the pur-
pole of affording fhelter from winds, {torms, &c. The writer
of the traét on improving landed eftates fuggeits, that for
the purpofe of fhelter to pafturing flock, a tall impervious
fence is nearly equal to.a depth of coppice-wood, and infi-
nitely preferable to an open grove of timber-trees ; befides
its additional ufe as a fence, or means of inclofure. And
that there appears to him to be only one kind of fence
which is properly adapted to this purpofe, which is that
of the coppice mound hedge of Devonfhire and South
Wales; and which confifts in a high wide bank or mound
of earth, planted with coppice-woods. This becomes, im-
mediately on its erection, a fhelter, and a guard to pafture-
grounds round which it is formed.

And in refpeét to the method of forming fences with this
intention, it is that of carrying up long piles of earth, be-
tween two fod-facings, battering, or leaning fomewhat in-
ward, to the required height ; and planting on the top the
roots and lower {tems of coppice-plants, gathered in woods
or on waite grounds, or with nuriery plants adapted to the
given fituation. If the mound be carried to a full height,
as five or fix feet, and about that width at the top, and this
be planted with {trong plants, with {tems cut off about two
feet above the roots (in the ufual practice of Devonfhire), a
fufficient fence is thus immediately formed againft ordinary
{tock ; but if the bank be lower, or it nurfery plants be put
in, a flight guard run along the outer brink, on either fide,
and leaning outward over the face of the mound, is, he ob-
ferves, required (efpecially againtt fheep), until the plants
getup. But where a hedge of this kind is raifed as a plant-
ation-fence, (efpecially on the lower fide of a flope,) the
outer fide only requires to be faced with fods ; the hedge-
plants being fet in a rough fhelving bank, on the inner fide
of the fence. ‘

Further, with refpe& to the {pecies of hedge-woods pro-
per for mound fences, they depend entirely, he thinks, on
the foil and fituation. On mounds of bad foil, in a bleak
fituation, he has feen the furze alone affording much fhelter,
and a good fence. The fides being kept pruned, fo as to
fhew a clofe firm face rifing above the top of the bank, it
was a fecure barrier, even againft the wilder breeds of Welfh
fheep. The beech is commonly planted in high expofed
fituations ; and in places more genial to the yrowth of wood,
the hazel, the afh, and the oak are the orainary plants of
hedge mounds. The willow tribe have a quality which
recommends them in fituations where they will flouri{h ; they
grow freely from cuttings, or truncheons fet in the ground ;
whereas to feeure the growth of ordinary coppice. woods,
rooted plants are required. The fallow ( falix cuprea) will

row in high and dry fituations, in a manner fo as to be
ufeful in this fort of bulinefs. And it may be further no-
ticed in regard to this defcription of fences, that on thin
foiled ftony furfaces, tall mounds are difficult to raile; and,
there, ftone walls are*not only built at a {mall expence,
but are convenient receptacles for the ftones with which the
foil is encumbered. But a {tone wall, unlefs it be carried up
to an inordinate height, at a great expence, is, he conceives,
ufelefs as a {creen-fence, and is faid to be dangerous as fuch
in a bleak, expofed fituation; for as foon as the drifting
{now has reached the top of the wall, on the windward fide,
it pours over it, and inevitably buries the fheep which may
be feeking for fhelter, on the leeward fide. [t is therefore
conceived, that it is neceflary that a {tone fence fhould be
backed with a fereen-plantation, in order to render it more

fafe and effectual for the purpofe.
10 It

SCR

Tt may be remarked, that thefe forts of (ereen-fences thould
be more attended to by the proprietors of land in all expofed
fituations, as they have much effeét in promoting the im-

wement of differeat forts of live-ftock in fuch expofures,

Scnexn-Plantations, and Planting, a term fometimes ap-

ied to fuch belts, clamps, or hedges, as are planted with
a view of affording thelter in expofed fituations. And Mr.
Marthall, in his work on “ Landed Property,” confiders

effet of fuch plantations, not merely that of giving
fhelter to the animals lodging immediately beneath them ;
but likewife in breaking the uniform current of the wind ;
thattering the cutting b afts, and threwing them into eddies ;
meliorating the air to fome diltance from them. Aud,
moreover, he is of opinion, that living trees communicate
of aétual warmth to the air which envelopes them.
leaft, he thinks, a probable truth, that where there
is life is warmth, not only in animal but in table
The feverett frott rarely affects the fap of trees ;
it confequently appears to him, chat trees and thrubs, pro-
ply i pated in a bleak fituation, tend to improve the
fo caecrea in Ti! rae Bn for a of
agriculture: , iviny ter to ftock, by break-

the currents of reid, and by communicating ; de

or foftnefs to the air in calmer weather, or w

the feafons are more mild.

Belides, it is fuggefted that the proper difpofal of fereens
in this intention, is in lines acrofs the mott offenfive winds,
and in fituations bell calculated to break their force. Placed

vallies, dips, or more open plains in bleak expofures,
they may, he fuppofes, be of fingular ufe ; and alfo on the
ridges, as as on the points and hangs of hills, and other
elevated places.

And in rd to the width of fuch fereens, they ought

y> he thinks, to be regulated by the value of the land
icultural ufes, and the advantages of the fituation for

and delivery of timber. In ordinary cafes, it is con-

ceived that from two to four ftatute poles may moftly be
confidered as an eligible width for fuch purpofes. With
refpe&t to the nature or fpecies of plants which are moft
fuitable, they mutt conftantly be adapted to the given foil
and fituation. Mr. Marfhall thinks, that in bleak and barren
erally be found the mott pro-

fitable as timber. ing deciduous, it does not in
winter afford fo much fhelter as the common fir. A fereen
to thelter live-flock fhould be clofe at the bottom: it is
otherwife injurious rather than beneficial. Not only the
ires additional current, but {now is liable to be

high, would,
fuppofes, afford the required thelter fora length of years.
thus treated, would be induced to throw out

and feather tothe ground ; while the larches,
vanced {tate of growth, would, by permit-
winter’s winds to pafs through the upper part of
break the current and me atgty and in
a complete fhelter be provided ; but in other more

tuations, the beech, by retaining its leaves in winter,
ially while it is young, forms a
that, if the outer margins were kept

might, See Nenae 20 cannceie degree,
pd ap rersiag ith but little trouble. And in deep-foiled,

diftri€s, which not unfrequent!y want fhelter, fcreens of
oak might, he conceives, be managed in a fmilar way : and

Hi

Lf

SCR

hollies, or other hardy evergreens, planted as underwood in
groves of either of the above deferiptions, would, if fuitable
fituations were afligned tu them, he fuppofes, aflit much im
this intention, efpecially where proper care was taken in
planting and proteéting them.

This fort of plantation, when firit formed, thould always
be well fuited to the nature of the expolure, both m ref pect
to the kinds of the trees and plants which are made afe of
for the purpofe, and the {pace or extent of the me
which will be neceflary for efle@ting the bufinefs. ln com-
mon, narrow flips never anfwer the intention in any perfedt
manner, as the trees neither rife well, nor afford the thelter
which is wanted io fuch cafes. See Suevren.

Screen-Bulkhead, in Ship- Building, the after-bulkhead
under the round-houfe, when the thip has a walk, or balcony.

SCREW, or Scnus, Cochlea, in Mechanics, one of the
fix mechanical powers; chiefly ufed in prefling or {queezing
bodies clofe, though fometimes alfo in raifing weights. See
Mecuanicat Powers.

The ferew is aright cylinder, as A B ( Plate XXXVIII.
Mechanies, fig. 1.) furrowed {piral-wile ; it is generated by the
equable moun of a right line FG ( fy. 2.) around the fur-
face of acylinder ; while, at the fame time, the point I de-
fcends equably from F towardsG. Or, it may be conceived
to be made by cutting a piece of paper into the form of an
inclined plane, or half-wedge, and then coiling it round a
cylinder ; fo that its a¢tion depends on the fame privciples
as that of an inclined plane. ‘The force tending to turn the
ferew round its axis may be confidered as applied horizon-
tally to the bafe of the wedge, and the weight which is to be
raifed as acting vertically on its inclined furface: the cir-
cumference of the cylinder will reprefent the horizontal
length of the wedge ; and the diftance between the threads,
meafured in the direétion of the axis, will be its height, pro-
vided that the threads be fingle; confequently, the forces
required for the equilibrium are to each other, as the height
of one {pire to the circumference of the {crew. But befides
thefe forces, it is neceflary that fome obitacle be prefent,
which may prevent the body, on which the {crew ats, from
following it in its motion round its axis ; otherwife there can
be no equilibrium. If the furrowed furface be convex, the
{crew is faid to be male; if concave, it is female.

Where motion is to be generated, the male and female
ferew are always joined ; that is, whenever the {crew is to
be ufed as a fimple engine, or mechanical power; and when
thus fitted together, they are fometimes called a {crew anda
nut. The nut s&s on the fcrew with the fame mechanical
power as a fingle point would do, fince it only divides the
preflure among the different parts of the {pire. . When joined
with an axis in peritrochio, there is no occafion for a fe-
male; but in that cafe it becomes part of a compound
engine.

he fcrew cannot properly be called a fimple machine, be-
caufe it is never ufed without the application of a lever, or
winch, to affift in turning it. Sometimes the fpires of a
{crew are made to a& on the teeth of a wheel, when a very
flow motion of the wheel, or a very rapid motion of the
{crew, is required for the purpofes of the machine. *

Screw, DoGrine of the. 1. If, as the compafs, defcribed
by the power in one turn of the {crew, is to the interval or
diftance between any two immediate threads, or {piral wind-
ings, as BI (meafured according to the length of the ferew),
fo is the weight or refiftance to the power ; thea the power
and the ber ati will be equivalent one to the other; and,
confequently, the power being increafed, fo as to counteract
the fnétion of the ferew, which is very confiderable, will
overcome the refiitance. For it is evideut, that in one turns

of

SCREW.

of the ferew, the weight is fo much lifted up, or the refiftance
fo much moved, or the thing to be preffed is fqueezed fo
much clofer together, as is the diftance between two imme-
diate fpirals; and in the fame time, the power is fo much
moved, as is the compafs defcribed by the faid power in one
turn of the fcrew. Wherefore the velocity of the weight
(or whatfoever anfwers thereto) will be to the velocity of
the power, as is the faid diftance between the {pirals to the
compafs defcribed by the power, in one revolution or turn-
ing round of the ferew ; fo that the gaining in power is here
recompenfed by the lofs in time.

2. As the diftance between two threads, BI, is lefs;
the power required to overcome the faid refiftance is lefs ;
therefore the finer the thread, the eafier the motion.

3. IF the male fcrew be turned in the female, at reit,
a lefs power will be required to overcome the refiftance, as
the lever or {cytala C D (fig. 3.) 1s the longer.

4. The diitance of the power from the centre of the ferew,
CD, the diftance of the two threads I K, and the power to
be applied in D, being given, to determine the -refiltance
it will overcome : or, the refiftance being given, to find the
power neceflary to overcome it.

Find the periphery of a circle defcribed by the radius C D ;
then to the diftance between the two threads, the periphery
jut found, and the given\power ; or, to the periphery found,
the diftance of the two threads I K, and the given refiftance,
find a fourth proportional. This, in the former cafe, will
be the refiftance that will be overcome by the given power ;
and, in the latter, the power neceflary to overcome the re-
fiftance.

E. gr. Suppofe the diftance between the two threads, 3,
the diltance of the power from the centre of the ferew C D,
25, and the power 30 pounds ; the periphery of the circle
to be defcribed by the power, will be found 157. 'There-
fore, as 3: 157 :: 30:1570, the weight to which the
refiftance is equal.

5- The refittance to be overcome by a given power being
given ; to determine the diameter of the {crew, the diftance
of the two threads I K, and the length of the {cytala, or
handle: the diftance of the threads, and the diameter of the
{crew, may be aflumed at pleafure, if the male be to be
turned in the female by ahandle. Then, as the given power
is to the refiftance it is to overcome, fo is the diftance of the
threads to a fourth number, which will be the periphery to
be defcribed by the handle CD, in a turn of the fcrew.
The femidiameter of this periphery, therefore, being fought,
we have the length of the handleC D. But if the female
{crew be to be turned about the male, without any handle,
then the periphery and femidiameter found will be very
nearly thofe of the fcrew required.

E. gr. Suppofe the weight 6000, the power roo, and
the diftance of the threads 2 lines; for the periphery to be
pafled over by the power, fay 100 : 6000 :: 2: 120; the
femidiameter of which periphery being +d of 120 = 40
lines, will be the length of the handle, if any be ufed ;
otherwife the fide of the female ferew muft be 40 lines.
Mr. Hunter has defcribed a new method of applying the
ferew with advantage in particular cafes. Phi. Tranf.
vol. lxxi. parti. p. 58, &c.

A cylindrical {crew is bored, and made at the fame time
a tubular ferew, with a little difference in the diftances of
the threads, fo that when it is turned within a fixed nut, it
rifes or finks a little more or Jefs than the internal fcrew,
which perforates it, would rife or fink by the a&ion of its
own threads; and a weight attached fo this internal {crew
afcends, in each revolution, only through a {pace equal to
the difference of the height of the two coils. Here the

9

machine is analogous to a very thin wedge, of which the
thicknef{s is only equal to the difference a the diftances of °
the threads, and which of courfe aéts with a great mecha-
nical advantage. It might, in fome cafes, be more conve-
nient to make two cylindrical ferews of different kinds,
at different parts of the fame axis, rather than to perforate
it. The friction of fuch machines is, however, a great ime
pediment to their operation.

Screw, Lndle/s. If a, {crew be fo fitted as to turna
dented wheel DF (jig. 4.) it is called an endle/s, or per-
petual ferew, becaufe it may be turned for ever, without
coming at anend. From the {cheme, it is evident enough,
that while the ferew turns once round, the wheel only ad~
vances the diftance of one tooth.

Scraw, Doéirine of the Endlefs. 1. If the power applied
to the lever, or handle of an endlefs ferew A B, be to the
weight, in a ratio compounded of the periphery of the axis
of the wheel E H, to the periphery defcribed by the power
in turning the handle, and of the revolutions of the wheel
DF, to the revolutions of the ferew C B, the power will be
equivalent to the weight.

Hence, 1. As the motion of the wheel is exceedingly
flow, a {mall power may raife a vat weight, by means of an
endlefs {crew ; for this reafon, the great ufe of the endlefs
{crew is; either where a great weight is to be railed through
a little fpace; or, where a very flow gentle motion is
required. On which account it is very ufeful in clocks and
watches.

2. The number of teeth, the diftance of the power from
the centre of the {crew A B, the radius of the axis HE,
ane the power, being given; to find the weight it will
raife.

Multiply the diftance of the power from the centre of
the {crew A B, into the number of teeth: the produé is
the {pace of the power pafled through, in the time the
weight pafles through a {pace equal to the periphery of the
axis. Find a fourth proportional to the radius of the axis,
the {pace of the power now found, and the power. This
will be the weight which the power is able to fuftain. Thus,
if A B = 3, the radius of the axis H EH = 13; the power
100 pounds, number of teeth of the wheel DF 48; the
weight will be found 14,400; whence it appears, that the
endlefs ferew exceeds all others in increafing the force of a
power. ;

A machine for fhewing the power of the ferew, may be
contrived in the following manner. Let the wheel C (fig. 5.)
have a {crew a6 on its axis, working in the teeth of the
wheel D, which we may fuppofe to be forty-eight in num-
ber. Itis plain, that for every revolution of the wheel C,
and {crew a 4, by the winch A, the wheel D will be moved
one tooth by the {crew ; and, therefore, in forty-eight revo-
lutions of the winch, the wheel D will be once turned
round. Then, if the circumference of a circle, defcribed
by the handle of the winch, be equal to the circumference
of a groove eround the wheel D, the velocity of the handle
will be forty-eight times as great as the velocity of any given
point in the groove. ‘Confequently, if a line G goes round
the groove e, and has a weight of forty-eight pounds hung
to it below the pedeftal E F, a power equal to one pound :
at the handle will balance and fupport the weight. To prove
this by experiment, let the circumferences of the grooves of
the wheels C and D be equal to one another ; and then, ifa
weight H of one pound be fufpended by a line going round
the groove of the wheel C, it will balance a weight of forty-
eight pounds hanging by theline G ; anda {mall addition to
the weight H will caufe it to defcend, and fo raife up the
other weight. If the line G, inftead of going round the

groove

OE

? "s Mech, edit. 410.

SCREW.

of the groove ¢ exceeds the circumference of the
; and if we fuppofe it to be fix times, then one pound
Hi will balance fix times 48, or 288 pounds hung to the
the axle; and hence the power or advautage of
hine will be as 288 to 1; 7. ¢& aman, who by his
gth could lift ahundred weight, will be able to
88 hundred, or 14,7, ton weight by this engine.
» Archimedes, oan Spiral pump, or as it is
in Germany, the water /nail, is a machine for the

ifing of water, Rei invented by Archimedes. :
ufe will be underitood by the following
of it. ABCD (Plate XIV. Hydraulics,
St. saphe awheel, which is turned round, according to the
the fall of water E F, which need
feet. The axle G of the wheel is
elevated fo as to make an angle of about 44°, or between 45°
and 60°, izon ; and on the top of that axle is
a wheel H, which turns fuch another w I of the fame
number of teeth ; the axle K of this lait wheel being parallel
axle G of the two former wheels. The axle is cut
double-threaded ferew (as in
the axis of the
if the
but it muft be a left-handed {crew, if the ftream

wheel the contrary way ; and the ferew on the axle
be cut in a contrary way to that on the axle K, be-

AG

“hp
;

eFE
(
rE

:
F
g

Letty
ire

: HE

thefe axles turn in contrary dire¢tions. Thefe ferews

be covered clofe over with boards, like thofe of a cy-
cafk ; and then they will be fpiral tubes. Or,

hey may be made of tubes of tiff leather, and wrapt round
Sete amen prot cat therein, as in fg. 13- The
lower end of the G turns conitantly in the ftream that
turns the wheel, and the lower ends of the {piral tubes are
open into the water. So that, as the w and axle are
turned round, the water rifes in the {piral tubes; and runs
out at Lthrough the holes M, N, as they come about
below the axle, Thefe holes, of which there may be any
number, as four or fix, are in a broad clofe ring on the
top of the axle, into which ring the water is delivered from
the u rate Bes fore cubes. and falls into the
open N. ‘The lower end of the axle K turns on a
gud in the water in N ; and the {piral tubes in that
up the water from N, and deliver it into another

,
box under the top of K ; on which there may be fuch
wheel as I, to turn a third axle by fuch a wheel upon
And ia this manner water be raifed to any given
where there is a ftream fufficient for that purpofe to
on the broad float-boards of the firft wheel. Fergufon’s
Supplement, p. 22.

An intlrument of a fimilar nature is called by the Ger-
mans a water {crew ; it confitts of a eylinder with its {piral
s detached from the ex cylinder or coating,
which it revolves. This machine might not impro-

confidered as a pump, but its operation is precifely

the ferew of Archimedes. It is evident

Betlaced a gee elevation than 30° ; it is alfo very eafily
r by accidental impurities of the water ; yet it has
to raife more water than the ferew of Archi-
when-the lower ends of both are immerfed to a con-
fiderable depth ; fo that if the height of the furface of the

water to be raifed were liable to any pn veriations, the
water {crew might be preferable to the ferew of Archunedes.
Plate XIV. Hydrewlus Ag. 14,

When a [piral pipe, coulitting of aes convolutioas, ar-
ranged cither in a fingle plane, or in a cylindrical or conical
{urface, and revolving round a horontal axis, is coupetied
at one end by a water-tight joint with an alcending pipe, while
the other end receives during each revolution nearly equal quan-
tities of air and water, the machine is called a{piral pump. It
was invented about 1746, by Andrew Wirtz, a pewterer at
Zurich, and it is faid to have been uled with great fuccefs at
Florence and in Ruflia; it has alfo been employed in this
country by lord Stanhope ; and I have made trial of it eye
Dr. Young) for raifing water to a height of forty fect. T
end of the pipe is furnithed with a {poon, contaiming as moch
water as will fill half a coil, which enters the pipe a little
before the {poon has arrived at its higheft firuation, the other
half remaining full of air, which communicates the preflure
of the column of water to the preceding portion, and in tus
manner the effeét of nearly all the water in the wheel is
united, and becomes equivalent to that of the column of
water, or of water mixed with air, in the afcending pipe.
The air neareft the joint is comprefled into a {pace much
{maller than that which it occupied at its entrance, fo that
where the height is confiderable, it becomes advifeable to ad-
mit a larger portion of air than would naturally fill half the
coil, and this leflens the quantity of water raifed, but it
leffens alfo the force required to turn the machine. The joint
ought to be conical, in order that it may be tightened when
it becomes loofe, and the preflure ought to be removed from
it as much as poffible. The lofs of power, fuppofing the
machine well conitru@ed, arifes only from the friétion of
the water on the pipe, and the friétion of the wheel on its
axis; and where a large quantity of water is to be raifed to a
moderate height, both of thefe refiitances may be rendered in-
confiderable. But when the height is very great, the length
of the fpiral muft be much increafed, fo that the weight
of the pipe becomes extremely cumberfome, and caufes a

t friction on the axis, as well as a itrain on the machinery:
thus, for a height of 4o feet, Dr. Young found that the
wheel required above 100 feet of a pipe which was three
quarters of an inch in diameter ; and more than one half of
the pipe ‘being always full of water, we have to overcome
the Fin of about 80 feet of fuch a pipe, which will re-
quire 24 times as much excefs of preffure to produce a given
velocity, as if there were no friction. The centrifugal force of
the water in the wheel would alfo materially impede its afcent
if the velocity were confiderable, fince it would be always
poffible to turn it fo rapidly as to throw the whole water
back into the fpoon. The machine which Dr. Young had
ereéted being out of repair, he thought it more eligible to
fubftitute for it a common forcing pump, than to attempt to
make any further improvement in it, under circumftances fo
unfavourable. But if the wheel with its pipes were entirely
made of wood, it might in many cafes {ucceed better: or
the pipes might be made of tinned copper, or even of earthen-
ware, which might be cheaper and lighter than lead. See

> Fhe
fe 55: “centrifugal force, which is an impediment to the
operation of Wirtz’s machines, has fometimes been employed
together with the preflure of the atmofphere, as an imme-
diate agent in rang water, by means of the rotatory
pump. This machine confilts ot -a vertical pipe, caufed to
ve round its axis, axd connected above with 2 horizontal
ipe, which is open at one or at both ends, the whole being
urnifhed with proper valves to prevent the efcape of the
water when the machine is at reil. As foon as the rota-
es

Sot OP

tion becomes fufficiently rapid, the centrifugal force of the
water in the horizontal pipe caufes it to be difcharged at the
end, its place being fupplied by means of the preflure of
the atmofphere on the refervoir below, which forces the
water to afcend through the vertical pipe. It has alfo been
propofed to turn a machine of this kind by the counter-pref-
fure of another portion of water, in the manner of Parent’s
mill, where there is fall enough to carry it off. This machine
may be fo arranged, that, according to theory, little of the
force applied may be loft; but it has failed of producing in
practice a very advantageous effect. Young’s Phil. vol. i.
See CentrireuGaL Machine, and WHEEL.

Screw, Bed or Barrel, a powerful machine for lifting
heavy bodies ; and, when placed againft the gripe of a fhip
to be launched, for ftarting her. It confifts of two large

oppets, or male fcrews, having holes in their heads to admit
ecm to turn therewith, a bed formed of a large oblong
piece of elm, with female ferews near each end to admit the
poppets, and a fole of elm plank for the heels of the pop-
pets to work on. When ufed for launching of fhips, the
furface of the fole is inclined fo as to ftand {quare to the ftem
or gripe.

Hand-ferews, or jacks, double or fingle, are ufed by
hand to lift weighty bodies. It confifts of an elm box, con-
taining cogged iron wheels, of increafing powers. The
outer one, which moves the others, is put in motion by a
winch or handle on the outfide. They are called fingle or
double, according to their increafing force.

Screw, inthe Manege. See SPLENT.

Screw-Pine, in Botany.. See PANDANUS.

Screw-Shell, the Englifh name of the Turbo ; which fee.
See alfo ConcHoLoey.

Screw-Tree, in Botany. See HELICTERES.

SCRIBE, Scrisa, SI5D> Sopher, derived from 75D,
faphar, numeravit, whence “53, /epher, liber, a principal
officer in the Jewifh law, whofe bufinefs was to write and in-
terpret fcripture.

The Scribes, according to the etymological meaning of
the term, were perfons employed about books, writings,
numbers, or accounts ; in tranfcribing, reading, explaining,
&c.

We find no mention of Scribes, in the Old Teftament,
before Ezra, chap. vii. 6, whence fome learned men have
concluded, that the office was brought from Chaldwa and
Aflyria, and firft eftablifhed by the Jews after their return
from the Babylonifh captivity. However, Ezra’s being
called a Scribe, which was a general title given to men of
literature, will not prove the office of ecclefiaftical Scribes,
as it occurs in our Saviour’s time, to have been fo ancient.
It probably grew up by degrees, after the f{pirit of pro-
phecy ceafed among the Jews ; for when they had no prophet
to refolve their doubts about doétrine or worfhip, they fell
into difputes, and {plitinto feéts and parties; which made
an order of men neceflary, whofe proper bufineis it fhould
be to ftudy the law, that they might explain and teach it to
the people.

The Scribes were in great credit and efteem among the
Jews, and had even the precedency of the prielts and
facrificers.

The Scribes are referred by moft authors to two general
clafies: viz. civil, and ecclefiafical Scribes: the former were
employed about any kind of civil writings or records, and the
latter were fuch as addiéted themfelves to ftudying, tran-

,{cribing, and explaining the holy fcriptures. Of the civil
Scribes there were various ranks and degrees, from the com-
ron f{erivener, or public notary or {choolmatter, to the prin-
cipal fecretary of ftate. As for the ecclefiaftical Scribes,

SCR

they were the learned of the nation, who expounded the
law, and taught it to the people; and they are, therefore,
fometimes called souodidaoxaao, doors of the law, or YOHALXOby
lawyers. Compare Matt. xxii. 35. with Mark, xii, 28.
Thefe Scribes, who were generally Pharifees, were the
preaching clergy among the Jews; and whilft the priefts at

tended the lacrifices, they inttrn¢ted the people. But
though the greateft part of the Scribes took part with the
Pharifees, and adhered td their opinions and tenets, as we
learn from the gofpel-hiftory, yet itis probable, from feveral
paflages of the New Teltament, that fome of them were of
the fect of the Sadducees. Some of the Scribes made it
their bufinefs to explain the traditions, which they called
the oral law, that is, the law delivered by word of mouth,
which, as they pretended, had been conveyed from Mofes
down to them, from generation to generation, by the tradi-
tion of the elders. They much ref{peéted thefe traditions,
confidering them as the key of the law, and giving them the
preference to the law itfelf. Hence this blafphemous maxim :
‘the words of the Scribes are more lovely than the words
of the law of God.’’ But it is evident, from the frequent
reproaches pronounced by our Saviour on the Scribes and
Pharifees in reference to this point, that under pretence of
explaining the law by their traditions, they had a@tually made
it of no effeét. Matt. xv. 2, 3,6. Mark, vil. 7, 8,9. The
Talmud will amply juftify thefe reproaches.

Jof. Scaliger endeavours to eltablifh a diflinétion between
the Scribes of the people, referred to by Herod, Matt. ii. 4,
and the Scribes of the Jaw.. The former he confiders as
a fort of public notaries, who were employed in. fecular
bufinefs ; the latter as preachers and expounders of the law.
But the phrafe, Scribes of the law, no where occurs in {crip-
ture ; and the Scribes of the people, whom Herod confulted,
were applied to, on account of their fkillin explaining {crip-
ture prophecies. (Matt. xvii. 10.) And they were probably
called Scribes of the people, becaufe they were the ttated
and ordinary teachers of the people. (Mark, i. 22.) Ca-
mero obferves, that a key was delivered to each Scribe, as a
badge of his office, when he firft entered upon it, to which
our Saviour may be fuppofed to allude, Luke, xi. 52.

Scrize, Scrida, was alfo the title of an officer among the
Romans, who wrote decrees or a¢ts, and made out authentic
copies of them.

Every magiftrate had his /criba, or fecretary ; fo that there
were feribe edilitit, pretorii, queftori, &c.

The /cribe were not admitted to the management of the
principal offices of the republic, unlefs they relinquifhed
their profeffion.

In the time of the emperors, they were alfo called notarii ;
becaufe they made ufe of abbreviations, and fhort notes, in
writing.

SCRIBING, in Joinery, &c. aterm ufed, when one fide
of a piece of fluff being to be fitted to the fide of fome cther

piece, which la‘t is not regular ; to make the two join clofe .

together all the way, they feribe it.

That is, they lay the piece of ftuff to be feribed clofe to
the other piece they interd to feribe to, and open their com-
patles to the greateit diftance the two pieces any where ftand
from each other; then, bearing one of the legs againft the
fide to be feribed to, with the other point they draw a line
on the {tuff to be feribed. Thus have they a line on the irre-
gular piece parallel to the edge of the regular one; and if
the ftuff be wrought away exa¢tly to the line, when the two

ieces are put together they will feem a joint.

SCRIBONIUS Lareus, in Biography, a Roman phy-
fician, who lived in the reign of Claudius, and is faid to have
accompanied this emperor in his campaign in Britain, He

wrote

SCR

wrote a treatife “De Compofitione Medicamentorum,"’
which is often quoted by Galen, and was “ molt im-
gadeily oleae and tranferibed” by Marcellus the em-
iric, according to Dr. Freind. ‘This work Seribonius de-
Sated to Julus Calliftius, the moft favoured of all the
freed-men of the emperor ; and he {peaks of Meflalina and
Claudius in a way which evinces that they were living at that
time. After giving the formula of a dentifrice, he adds,
“ Meflalina Dei nottri Cefaris hoc utitur.”” Great faith
was, in that age, im in particular formule, or combi-
nations of drags, which were fuppofed to poflefs peculiar
of healing ; and it was the pratice of many phy-

to keep their compofitions fecret. Scribonius, how-

i his colleétion, and exprefled great confi-
em are trifling and

in His language, too, is fo much inferior in
ce to that of Callas, who had written but a

ral chara¢ter which
of Claudius, that
ribonius wrote his

has the air of originality ; and it is remarked, that
o~ iftius, EP cc meg the te for

ing feized the opportunity of ferving him by prefentin
SelM Wether arin: is Latin’ to Af a m4
“ Scripta mea Latina medicinalia.”” It is remarkable, in-
deed, that two men, living about the fame time, fhould
write their native language fo differently as Celfus and
Seribonius; but the latter was probably a man of inferior
education. The farcafm of Freind is, however, not far from
the truth. Scribonius Largus, who cannot,’’ he. fays,
“ well be reckoned any more than a mere empiric, though
he wrote in the time of the firft Claudius, when the Roman
ees eo of purity, ought, as
, to be tranflated into Latin, in order to be un-
deritood by thofe who are converfant only with the claflics
; ? The treatife of Scribonius has been feveral
times reprinted, and ftands among the “ Medic Artis Prin-
a of Henry S' 1567. See Freind’s Hittory

Medicine, vol. i. Sprengel, Gefchichte der Arznei-
kunde, ii. Theil. Le Clerc, Hift. de la Médécine, p. 3.

SCRINIA, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Po, five miles N. of Tortona.

i

SCRIPTORIUS Caramus. See CALamus.

SCRIPTUARY, among the Jews. See Cararres.

SCRIPTULUM, among the Romans, the twenty-
fourth part of an ounce, and equal to two oboli. See

us.
SCRIPTULUS, a word ufed by fome inftead of /eru-
» or weight of twenty grains.
the Meche enites anos the patture-lands, of
my ek Beta commonwealth, and which
to nee It was fo called, becaufe
i ome re were par 4 into
patturages, was regiftered ; it was b num-
the yeetlf Eine which they cogeged Gus: wen er.
RIPTURE, or Scriptures. See Buster.

| The colleétion of traéts, fays the learned and juflly
Vor. XXXII.

SCR

elleemed fir William Jones, in his “ eighth anniverfary dil.
courfe,"” (Works, vol. ii. p. 183, Bvo.) which we call
from their excellence “the feriptures,”” contains, inde-
pendently of a divine origin, more true area, more €x-
quifite beauty, purer morality, more unportant flory, and
finer flrains both of poetry and eloquence, than could be col-
legted within the fame compafs from all other books that
were ever compofed in any age or idiom. ‘The two parts, of
which the feriptures confifl, are connetted by chain of
compofitions, which bear no refemblance i form or ttyle to
any that can be produced from the flores of Grecian, Indian,
Perfian, or even Arabian learning ; the antiquity of thefe
compofitions no man doubts; and the unftrained appli-
cation of them to events long fubfequent to their publication,
is a folid ground of belieh, that they were genuine pre-
diétions, and confequently infpired. Our author, in a
fubfequent difcourfe, adds, that on the fuppofition, that
the firft eleven chapters of the book, which it is thought
proper to call * Genefis,”” are merely a preface to the oldeft
civil hiftory now extant, we fee the truth of them confirmed
by ant nt reafoning, and by evidence, in part highly
probable, and in part certain ; but the conneHion of the Mo-
Jaic bittory with that of the Gofpel, by a chain of {ublime
rediGtions, unqueltionably ancient, and apparently ful-
mutt induce us to think the Hebrew narrative more
than human in its origin, and confequently true in every fub-
ftantial part of it, though poflibly exprefied in figurative
language ; as many learned and pious men have believed, and
as moft pious may believe without injury, and =
with advantage, to the caufe of revealed religion. If Mo
then, fubjoins our author, was endowed with fupernatural
knowledge, it is no longer probable only, but abfolutely
certain, that the whole race of men d from Jran,
or from a centre, whence they migrated at firft in their great
colonies (viz. Indian, Arabian, and Tartarian) ; and that
thefe three branches grew from a common itock, which had
been miraculoufly preferved in a general convulfion and im-
undation of this globe.

Scriprursg, Canon of. See Canon.,

Scripture, Scofing, &c. at, is punifhable by fine and
imprifonment. See BLASPHEMY. my

SCRIVEN, in Geography, a county of America, in the
ftate of Georgia, containing 4477 inhabitants. Its chief
town is Jackfon-borough, containing 20 inhabitants.

SCRIVENER, one who lends money out at intereft ; it
is alfo ufed for one who draws contracts.

Scriveners are mentioned in the ftatute againft ufury and
exceflive intereft of money. (12 Ann. cap. 6.) Ifa feri-
vener is entrufted with a bond, he may receive the intereft ;
and if he fails, the obligee fhall bear the lofs ; and fo it is if
he receive the princi = ge deliver up the bond ; for being
entrufted with the fecurity itfelf, it fhall be prefumed he 1s
entrufted with the power to receive the principal and interett ;
and the giving up the bond on payment of the money is a
difcharge thereof; but if a fcrivener be entrufted with a
mortgage-deed, he hath only authority to receive the in-
tereft, not the principal; the giving up the deed in this
cafe not being fufficient to reftore the eftate, but there muft
be a re-conveyance, &c. Decreed in Chan. Hill. 7 Ann.

1 Salk. 157.

SCRIVERIUS, Perer, in Bi » an eftimable
man of letters, was born at Haerlem m 1576. He was
educated firft at Amfterdam, where he had an uncle in the
pe sep i haedage ala Leyden, with a view to the pro-
fe of the law, but having a decided turn for literature,
he married and fixed his refi at Leyden, devoting his
time to reading and as He became the editor of

many

SCR

many ancient authors, which he illuftrated by comments of
his own: among thefe works were thofe of Vegetius, Fron-
tinus, Hyginus, Apuleius, Martial, and Seneca the tra-
gedian. Scriverius wrote a work in the Dutch language on
the * Hiftory of Printing,’? in which he maintained the
claim of Laurence Colter to the invention of that invaluable
art. He publifhed a collection of Batavian antiquities, and
other pieces relative to the early hitory of the united pro-
vinces. Scriverius, at the age of 74, loft the ufe of his
eyes, but he continued to folace himfelf with literature till
his death in 1660. His funeral was attended by the uni-
verfity of Leyden in a body, and an eulogy was pronounced
over him by Frederic Gronoyius. A colleétion of philolo-
gical’and poetical pieces from his MSS. was publifhed at
Utrecht in 1737. Moreri.

SCROBICULUS Conxpts, in Anatomy, the {mall de-
preflion in the middle of the upper part of the abdomen,
juit over the enfiform cartilage. In common language it is
called the pit of the ftomach. 4

SCROBILUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
the Arabic gulf, which feparated the Heroopolitic and Ela-
nitic guilfs.

SCROFA, in Zoology. See Sus.

Scrora, in Ichthyology. See ScorP#NA.

Scrora, in Entomology. See SCARABZUS.

SCROFANELLO, in Ichthyology, a name by which
fome have called a fmall fifth of the Mediterranean, more
ufually known by the name of the {corpzna. :

SCROFULA, or ScropHuta, from oxe0zy [wine,
called alfo fruma, or the king’s evil, in Surgery. The name
of {crofula was derived from an opinion that fwine were par-
ticularly fubjeG to this difeafe. The fcrofulous conftitution
is obferved to be, in many inftances, denoted by particular
fymptoms. The complexion is often fair, and the colour
of the hair either reddifh, or of fome other light tint ;
people with dark complexions and black hair being much
lefs fubje& to ferofulous complaints. The flcin is remarkably
foft and white, and the face often has a fhining polifhed
fmoothnefs. The wheeks are in general florid; and the
tunica albuginea is frequently of a dead white colour, and
more pale than ufual. The edges of the eye-lids are fome-
times affeGted with a degree of tendernefs which eafily dege-
nerates into a troublefome inflammation, that diftreffes the
patient by its continuance, and produces a difagreeable de-
gree of deformity. There is likewife frequently a {welling
of the upper lip, with fome thickening of the noftrils and
point of the nofe. Ruflellon Scrofula, p. 8.

One of the moft frequent fymptoms of {crofula is a {well-
ing in the fuperficial lymphatic glands, efpecially in thofe
of the neck. Such glands {well without any previous com-
plaint, and often attain a large fize before the {welling at-
traéis notice. The fwellings are frequently unaccompanied
with pain or difcolouration ; a circumftance which favours
the conclufion that the inflammation attendant on {crofulous
difeafe is flow, and the complaint of an indolent nature.

The frequency and great number of fuch tumours of the
lymphatic glands have led many furgeons to fuppofe fcrofula
to be altogether a difeafe of the lymphatic fyftem. Mr.
Ruffell, however, entertains doubts refpecting the accuracy
of the doGtrine ; for he obferves that many other parts of
the body, which are not very glandular, are often the
primitive feat of fcrofula. It very frequently attacks the
joints of the extremities, the bones, and the mucous mem-
branes, without any previous or concomitant affection of
the lymphatic fyftem. Befides, it is to be recollected that
the abforbent fyftem is not only liable to idiopathic attacks
ef f{crofula, in common with the reft of the body, but is

4

SCR

likewife expofed to fuffer_fymptomatically, in confequence
of the difpofition of the glands to {well and inflame from an
caufe of irritation propagated along the courfe of the ab-
forbents ; and from this fource of error the commencement
of ferofula in the lymphatic fyttem may be fuppofed more.
frequent than what the natural proportion of idiopathic
cafes warrant.

Scrofulous fwellings of the glands are often ftationary, or
at leaft very flow in their progrefs of increafe or diminution.
The fame indolence and abfence of inflammatory fymptoms,
which characterize {crofulous fwellings of the lymphatic
glands, likewife diftinguifh fimilar affeCtions in other parts of
the body. The commencement of the attack is, in general,
unperceived, and the progrefs flow ; though the tumefaction
which follows is frequently very confiderable.

The greater number of fcrofulous affeftions are accom-
panied with a preternatural {welling of the parts attacked.
The tumour is of two kinds, one remarkable for its foftnefs,
the other of a more firm confiftence. _ Soft fcrofulous
tumours are always formed by the effufion of a fluid, and it
may be remarked that they are fomewhat variable in their
fize, being one day more prominent and tenfe, the next more
funk and flaccid. When they are opened in the early ftate,
they are found to contain nothing but a ferous fluid, which
lies in the cells of the cellular membrane. As the fluid is
not contained in one common cavity, the tumour has a {oft
flabby feel, and imparts to the fingers of a furgical examiner
no diftingét fenfation, either of elafticity or flu@tuation.
But when the fluid has been for fome time effufed, a ftriking
difference occurs, a fluid lodged in a particular cavity now
being evidently perceptible. This change feems to proceed
from the deftruétion of the partitions which are between the
cells of the cellular fubftance. As thefe colleGtions, how-
ever, are not accompanied with any fenfible degree of in-
flammation, they are not furrounded with a firm, folid, cir-
cum{cribed bafe ; and they do not betray any great tendency
to ulcerate the fin, and burit of their own accord. Hence
they fometimes become very prominent, and the {kin is gra-
dually diftended to a furprifing degree.

The matter contained in fuch tumours alfo undergoes a
change. After a time, the more folid parts are depofited
in the form of ‘little maffes, refembling coagulated milk.
The remaining portion of the fluid is rendered thinner, and
refembles whey. A quantity of purulent matter is alfo
formed on the internal furface of the cavity, which feems
to be attacked with a flow kind of inflammation. The
admixture of this purulent matter greatly changes the
appearance of the contents of the tumour, and they
now bear more refemblance to thofe of a common abicefs.
They never acquire, however, exaétly the properties of
healthy purulent matter, being always thinner, more
tranfparent, and more of a greentfh colour.

Although the tendency to ulceration is not confiderable,
the fkin at length. gives way, and allows the matter to
efcape through a narrow opening. After the contents are
evacuated, the tumour fubfides ; but there being in general
little difpofition in the parts to heal, a f{crofulous fore is
ufually formed, which difcharges unhealthy matter, and con-
tinues open for an indefinite length of time.

The other more firm kind of {crofulous fwelling always
increafes flowly, and moft commonly. attacks the neighbour-
hood of joints. The affeGted part enlarges, without ac-
quiring any circumferibed determinate form. By degrees,
the tumour becomes fofter, and at lait particular portions
near the furface become more prominent, inflame, fuppurate,
burft, and difcharge matter. But as the fuppuration is
only partial, and the difcharge inconfiderable, they have ee

effe

SCROPFULA.

effe& in diminithing the fize of the (welling, or in producing
any other change of importance, ‘The only diflerence oc-
eahoved is the addition of little ulcerations, which lead to
finufes, and emit matter,

A common abfcefs in a perfon of a ferofulous conftitution
exhibits appearances, which betray the difeafed {late of
the fyttem, The matter firit feereted is formed with extra-

eeiiery epicity ; the {welling is fomewhat more tranfpa-
rent;

?

furface more fhining, and the colour of the tumour

more blue, than is obfervable in a cafe of healthy abfcefs,
abfcefles alfo contain, before they burit, a larger

quantity of purulent matter, in relation to their fize, than
common ic abfcefles, When abfcefles in fcrofulous
i rit, an empty cavity is not left; but there is feen a
mais of cellularmembrane apparently deprived of life. It
refembles ton, and often feparates in the form of a
The feparation is effected without pain. ‘This

of the cellular membrane bears fome remote analogy

of the central parts in a carbuncle ; but it
differs from the latter difeafe by there being no malignity,

ral
maller

Fy
4
4
i

are
the bones by {crofula, will be noticed in the articles Spine,
Curvature of, and Wurre SWELLING.

With regard to ferofulous ulcers, their margin is commonly
of a pale red or purplith caft, with a ete furface ; the
edges in general thin ; and the furface of the fore funk fome-
what below the level of the furrounding parts. Thefe fores
are moftly.attended but with a {mall = tage inflammation,
and little pain ; Ln spp ote » and have no great
difpofition to {p The matter difcharged from them is

ifei aemenT on coler, and often an offenfive {mell.
In confequence of its vifcidity, it adheres to the furface of
the fore, and covers the ions. It is to be obferved,
however, that ferofulous at ag — a more
malignant afpect, havio indurated and
fungous central «Seon hy accompanied with ap an
difcharge. In thefe cafes, they may counterfeit
appearance of cancerous ulcers; but though the re-

femblance may be very im general able to

so riehrs A with accu former
: : fores, or other proofs of a {crofulous conititution,

Scrofulous fores often continue to difcharge for a long
while, with very little change of ap . In time,
however, i to heal, and, for the moft part, dry up

stogec sy “ce las ugly red irregular cicatrix,
fcrofulous i

are moft troublefome
ing, and get better towards the end of the fummer.

been confidered as an hereditary dif-

eafe. men have thought the applica-
tion » to fcrofula, and indeed to dif-
eales | ingly wrong, becaufe the affeGtions in
quettion régularly defcend from parents to children,
and m perfons, none of whofe relations are
known to have had fuch difeafes. That there is truth in

thefe argaments mutt not be difputed. But itis at the fame
time certain, that the children of {crofulous parents are much

9

more likely to be affeéted with ferofula, than the ing
of perfous who never have had any fymptoms of this
difeafe, ‘The children of {crofulous parents may, however,
remain during life free from every mark of the difeafe,
This fact is not at all queftioned by fach writers ae employ
the term hereditary ; for the whole of their meaning is, that
ferofulous parents more frequently have {crofulous children,
than is the cafe with perfectly healthy parents. The off-
{pring of the former, however, are not certain of being

ifeafed in this manner; nor are the children of the latter
{ure of not being fo.

Scrofula is undoubtedly not a contagious difeafe, nor can
it be communicated by contaét, or even inoculation, Kor-
tum tried to transfer {crofula from one perfon to another
by inoculation; but although he took great pains to infert
the matter completely, and repeated the experiment fre-
quently, yet all em attempts failed, as no difeafe was com.
municated to the perfon moculated, nor even any very evi-
dent irritation excited at the place where the matter was
inferted. De Vitio Scrofulofo, p. 218.

The proximate caufe of {crofula is a fubjeét, concerning
which many conjeétures have been ftarted ; but none that
appear to carry with them much probability. It is indeed
a quettion, that is at prefent not at all underitood.

Of all occational caufes, fays Mr. Rutlell, climate is the
moit powerful. ‘The extremes of heat and cold are equally
free from {crofula. It prevails moft in thofe climates, where
the atmofphere is perpetually loaded with cold vapours;
where the feafons are variable, and no weather fteady. From
latitude 45° or 50°, to latitude 60°, is the principal climate
of forofite. The climate of Scotland, which is within
this range, is remarkable for the frequent occurrence of
{crofulous complaints. When the temperature of the air is
juft above the freezing point, the cold is the moft difficult
to bear, on account of the great quantity of watery vapours
which float in the atmofphere. A greater degree of cold
condenfes the aqueous vapours, and renders the air clear;
a greater de of heat difperfes them. Accordingly, it
is an univerfal obfervation, both in the torrid and the frigid
zone, that perfectly dry air, whether produced by great
heat, or great cold, always brings the moit healthy wea-
ther. Mr. Dobfon, in his account of the /armattan wind,
which blows on the coaft of Africa, and is fo warm and
as to accomplith the cryftallization of pure alkali, obferves,
that all endemial difeafes get well during the blowing of this
wind. Mr. Graham, likewife, who was long governor of the
Hudfon’s Bay faGtory, fituated on the eaft coaft of America,
about the 6oth degree of north latitude, makes nearly a
fimilar obfervation with re{pe& to intenfe cold; as he inva-
riably found, that the raw, cold, damp weather, when the
mercury in Fahrenheit’s thermometer ftands between 30 and
40 degrees, was the molt intolerable to bear, and the moft
unfriendly to health. Now this (continues Mr. Ruflell) is

nearly the winter weather of Scotland. Upon the
whole, therefore, we may lay it down as a general maxim,
that the greateft degree of cold, which can be conjoined
with moifture, is the ftate of weather which tends moft to
favour the appearance of {crofula.

The long continuance of inclement weather increafes the
Lees ope to {crofula ; and in perfons already fufficiently
predifpofed to the difeafe, any uncommon, though tempo-
rary expofure to cold and wet, is often an exciting caufe of
an immediate attack.

Every thing which weakens the conftitution, predif-
pofes to fero Thus, breathing impure air, and livin
upon a feanty allowance of saviiesoane indigeftible foot,
promote the accefs of fcrofula. The fame may be {aid of

G2 uncleanlinefs ;

SCROFULA.

uncleanlinefs ; neglect of falutary exercife ; confinement in
cold damp fituations; and the want of fufficiently warm
clothing.

But one of the moft frequent occafional caufes of fero-
fula is external violence. Many accidents, which would not
be followed by any ferious confequence to a perfon in health,
produce fevere ferofulous affections in perfons predifpofed
to thefe difeafes.

It is almoft unneceflary to mention, that all thofe circum-
ftances which have been {pecified as occafional caufes, mutt
be avoided.

There is no medicine which, internally adminiftered, has
the power of completely correcting the peculiarity of con-
ftitution implied by the expreflion /crofulous habit. But there
are many medicines which feem to improve this {tate of
the fy{tem, and to promote the f{pontaneous amendments,
which flrumous affections frequently undergo, Scrofulous
patients, for the moft part, have conftitutions in which the
natural ations do not proceed with vigour, and perhaps
it is on this account, that every thing tonic is more or lefs
ufeful in cafes of {trumous difeafe. This obfervation is not
meant, however, to forbid the judicious employment of
evacuations, which, when the habit is difpofed to plethora
and coftivenefs, are indifpenfably neceflary.

The medicines which are given for the cure, or preven-
tion of fcrofula, are either fuch as are fuppofed to aét upon
fome general principle, or fuch as are fuppofed to poflefs a
{pecific virtue in the cure of this diftrefling difeafe.

A draught of falt-water is recommended almoft indiferi-
minately to every patient who is advifed to ufe fea-bathing.
It ats as a purgative, and proves a ferviceable medicine, fo
far as purging is indicated. The water of the fea, however,
is not nearly fo palatable, as the folutions of many of the
neutral falts, and its medicinal virtues do not appear to be
fuperior. Hence Mr. Ruilell believes, that it is prefcribed
rather from accidental convenience, than from its being in
reality a better medicine than feveral others.

In fome cafes of hereditary predifpofition, {crofula feems
engrafted on a conititution, otherwife healthy and vigorous,
where the patient feels no weaknefs, has no diforder of the
ftomach, and at the fame time has tendency to fulnefs and
corpulency. In cafes of this kind, a continued courfe of
purgative medicines often proves highly beneficial by pro-
curing a frequent and copious evacuation of the bowels,
and thereby reducing that difpofition to fulnefs, which very
much promotes the formation of glandular fwellings. But,
in general, fcrofula is not combined with the foregoing fort
of conttitution, and purgatives are then only ufeful for the
purpofe of obviating coitivenefs.

Several mineral {prings, befides faline ingredients, contain
fulphureous impregnations, which are fuppofed to increafe
the medicinal virtues of the waters. The reputation of the
waters of Harrowgate and Moffat is univerfally known.
Mr. Ruffell acknowledges that their efficacy may have been
over-rated; but he ftill thinks favourably of their effeéts in
cafes of fcrofula.

Calomel, or, as it is now called, the hydrargyri fubmurias,
is the moft celebrated of all the purgative medicines, which
have ever been employed in the treatment of fcrofula. In
order to derive the greateft benefit from it, however, it
fhould not be given in fo large a quantity as to produce the
fpeciiic effets of mercury in their full extent; for, as Mr.
Ruffell obferves, a deep and lafting impreffion on the fyftem
aggravates every fymptom of ferofula. Calomel, taken in
moderation, contributes more than any other medicine to
difcufs tumours, and refolve fcrofulous indurations. An
alterative courfe with this medicine, however, mult be main-

5

tained a fufficient length of time, in order to prove fuccefte
ful; conftant attention being paid that the effeéts of the
calomel do not amount to falivation, and fevere mercurial
action.

With refpe& to tonics for the cure of {crofula, the moft
efteemed of the vegetable clafs is the Peruvian bark. Mr.
Ruffell obferves, that cinchona 1s only ufeful, when the
bowels have been previoufly cleared of any morbid accumu-
lation of feces ; and that, under other circumttances, it op-
prefles the ittomach, amd does harm, inftead of good.
Neither, fays he, is it adapted to that flate of ferofula, in
which any tendency to fulnefs prevails, or when the glands
are {welled and indurated, or congeftions are prefent to any
extent. But when none of thefe objeétions to the admini-
{tration of cinchona exift, when weaknefs is a principal
fymptom, when the ftrength is to be fupported, and a
languid aétion to be roufed into more vigorous exertion,
cinchona may be ufefully employed, and has obtained the
character of an excellent medicine. Its virtues are beft cal-
culated to meet the indications of thofe cafes, where there
are extenfive ulcers, or large abfcefles, with copious ex-
haufling difcharges of purulent matter; and, in general, to
communicate that degree of energy to the actions of the
fyftem, which tends to fupport and confirm the patient’s
ftrength. The fimple powder is the preferable mode of ex-
hibition, when the ftomach can digeft a fufficient quantity
without oppreffion ; but if a dofe in fubftance opprefles the
{tomach from indigettion, then the lighter preparations of.
infufion, or decoétion, ought to be fubftituted. ‘Two or
three dofes a-day are as much as can ever be requifite. A
courfe of this kind may be continued for two or three
weeks ; it may then be left off for eight or ten days, and
afterwards refumed again.

Of the mineral tonics, iron and fulphuric acid are the
moft valued for their efficacy in cafes of {crofula. Tron is
lefs liable than cinchona to opprefs the {tomach, or produce
accumulation in the bowels. Mr. Ruffell alfo thinks that
it aéts more f{peedily and powerfully on the conftitution.
The dofe may be increafed fo long as the ftomach can bear
the quantity without oppreflion ; and the medicine may be
given without intermiffion for fome weeks. The carbonate
of iron, the muriatic folution, and the chalybeate waters,
are the beft forms in which the medicine can be given.

The fulphuric acid is grateful to the ftomach, and agrees
with all forms and ftages of ferofula. It is, according te”
the experience of Mr. Ruffell, peculiarly adapted to that
{tate of fever, which is conneéted with the putrid floughs,
that are often formed on the infide of large tumours, when
firft expofed to the air; and to that ftate of weaknefs, which
difpofes to copious perfpiration, upon every moderate exer-
cife. The beft mode of taking it is diluted with water, and
{weetened, fo as to form a common beverage.

Having noticed the effeGis of purgative and tonic medi-
cines, we proceed to the confideration of remedies, which
have been fuppofed to poflefs {pecific virtues in the cafe of
{crofula. The cicuta, or conium maculatum of Linnzus,
was molt highly praifed by the celebrated Dr. Storck of
Vienna. Upon the recommendation of this refpeétable
practitioner, fays Mr. Ruffell, it was univerfally tried all
over Europe, fo that a fair eftimate of the medicinal virtues
of cicuta, in the cure of f{crofula, may be made from the
re{ult of very general and extenfive experience. Its ori-
ginal charaéter, as an invaluable acquifition in the cure of
{crofula, was certainly much over-rated; although it ap-
pears to poflefs fome ufeful qualities, which may be advan-
tageoufly employed in certain modifications of the difeafe.
Mr. Ruilell thinks favourably of this medicine, for its effi-

cacy

4
:
1
:

SCROFULA.

acy in changing the condition and forwarding the cure of
certain mali t ferofulous ulcers, which counterfeit the
appearance of cancer, He has likewile found it of fervice
in promoting the cure of certain ferofulous affections of the
tongue, which bore a near refemblance to fome rare venereal
cafes. Ina few cafes, Mr. Ruilell has had reafon to alcribe
to cicuta fome thare of efficacy in promoting the refolution
of ferofulous {welliogs of the breait, The medicine mutt
be given in as large dofes as the conititution can bear. The
head being affected with a degree of giddinefs, and the
Romach with a little naufea, is the criterion of the dofe
ing fufliciently powerful.

rarer | ode has been recommended by Dr.
Crawford ; but though it has been frequently exhibited, its
reputation is far from being increafed ; a {ure proof that its

i were originally exaggerated.

muriate of lime is another remedy that has been of
late much talked of, for its good effects as a {pecific in cafes
of ferofula. In order to derive the utmott benefit from it,
Mr. Ruffell is of opinion that it is neceflary to preferibe it
in much ee dofes than thofe which have ulvally been
direéted. One of the mofl fucce(sful initances of its efficacy
the faturated folution
a » for many weeks, three times a day. It
well attention, however, that profeflor Thomfon
em muriate of lime in various cafes of {crofula, with-

outa example of its having any efficacy. He admits
that fome ts well, while under a courfe of muriate
of lime ; then he had no reafon to afcribe the cure to

the effeét of the medicine. In other cafes, on the contrary,
he found that the muriate of lime produced fevere ficknefs
of the ftomach, and that the patients got
daily worfe, till the medicine was left off, and other re-
pos Sh employed. The relief, experienced from the dif-
continuance of the muriate of lime, left no doubt with
regard to the injurious effeéts which the ufe of it had pro-
duced ; and from extenfive experience and accurate obferva-

Thomfon is fatisfied that, in many cafes of
the muriate of lime is attended with prejudicial

eflects.

With refpeé& to the local treatment, itimulant appli tions
are found not to be in general advantageous for {crofulous
see, For ulcers, the moft fimple and mild dreflings
are the beit. When the patients are ufing a courfe of fea-

- Cold fpring water is likewife a favourite
. oo feems to prove that the o

tion of cold is well {uited to counteraét the ftate of inflam-
mation which accompanies fcrofulous fores. Preparations
of lead are, upon the whole, very convenient and ufeful
ications, provided the folutions be ufed in a ftate of
dilution to prevent irritation. Liquid applications

are made by means of wet linen, which is “sa | whenever
-— dries, fo that the furface of the fore is kept conftantly

Upon the fame principle, fimple ointment and Goulard’s
cerate are, in ordinary cafes, the beit dreflings.

The employment of fimple applications and of cold,

is more properly adapted to the mild and pure

forms of ferofulous fores; for when thefe are more malig-

Bant, or combined with any other difeate, a different me

of dreffing becomes neceffary. Vewereal fores, for inftance,
breaking out in a perfon of a {crofulous conftitution, partake

of the nature of diforders, and require correfpondent
treatment. Even a pure fcrofulous fore, attended with
more inveteracy than ufual, may de:nand particular forts of

differest from fuch as are found to be moit proper

for common cafes. When the ulcer is extremely indolent,
ntle ftimulants may be neceflary; aod when there are
a ous granulations, they mull be deitroyed by efcharoties,

Thofe {crofuleus {wellings which contain a fluid, when
they are fuperficial, and not connetted with any parts of un-
portance, are in general better left untouched. They are
very flow in their progrefs, but they moftly burft at lait by
a fuperficial ulceration, which forms a {mall aperture. They
do not often admit of refolution. ‘The mott likely applica-
tions for promoting this defirable objet, are folutions of the
acetite of lead, and of the muriate of ammonia.

The progrefs of the cure, after the tumour has d'\. varged
its contents, is very various; though, upon the whole, i is
flow, and the cure often Locanie. The fides of the
cavity feldom adhere uniformly, or granulate from their
whole furface ; fo that little partial feparate cavities remain,
which form finufes, and continue to difcharge matter, ac-
companied with fome degree of pain and inflemmation, At
latt, however, often in after a confiderable time, the
difcharge ceafes altogether, and the fore completely heals.
When the finufes continue for a long time, without any
tendency to get well, it is fometimes proper to open them
to the bottom with proper incifions ; but in the generality
of fcrofulous cafes, fuch praétice is, upon the whole, fevere,
difadvantageous, and even dangerous.

Scrofulous abfcefles, when not large, need not to be
opened ; but deep-feated colleétions of matter, which in-
creafe — in fize, without fhewing any difpofition to
make their way to the furface of the body, ought to be
opened : for if this be not done, the matter het and the
difeafe acquires by degrees a dangerous extent. The open-
ing fhould not be larger than what is fufficient for the com-
plete evacuation of the matter ; aufe a large opening
excites great irritation, and is often the caufe of violent
inflammation of the whole cy{t of the abfcefs, attended with
alarming, and often with fatal, confequences. The fever
that occurs is accompanied with a rapid train of fymptoms,
which {peedily end in death. In ether inftances, the fever
is he@ic, being more flow in its progrefs, though not lefs
certainly fatal. According to Mr. Ruffell, fulphuric acid
and faline draughts, in a {tate of effervefcence, are the medi-
cines which agree beft with both forms of fever ; and he ob-
ferves, that neither of them feems to be much relieved by
the ufe of cinchona. (P. 116.) This author recommends
opening the tumour with a trocar, letting out the whole of
the contents, withdrawing the cannula, and bringing the
fides of the pun&ture together with fticking plafter. For
our own part, we prefer making the opening with a lancet,
and then clofing the wound with adhefive plafter, as advifed
by Mr. Abernethy in cafes of pfoas abfcefs. See Psoas
Abfeefs.

With refpeé& to the treatment of {welled glands, it is to
be remarked, that it is always defirable to prevent fuppura-
tion. When the glands are fuperticial, their progrefs may
be influenced by coe reeset but when they are
deep, they are fcarcely capable of being affeéted by fuch
remedies. In ordinary cafes, Mr. Ruflell recommends the
ufe of fomentations two or three times a day. Sea-water,
vinegar, aud water, dilute folutions of the acetite, or mu-
riate of ammonia, and a decoétion of chamomile, are cligble
for fomentations. Friction with camphorated and ammo-
niated oils, and with marine plants, has alfo been well
fpoken of.

In fuch cafes, Mr. Ruffell, however, does not place much
confidence in external applications, as he confiders that the
cure chiefly depends upon the tiate of the conitituuion, upon
regimen, and fick of internal remedies. [>

en

SCR

When enlarged glands, which lie fuperficially, are at-
tacked with inflammation, and in danger of fuppurating,
Mr. Ruffell ftrongly recommends the frequent ufe of topical
bleeding. This author is alfo an advocate for blifters, both
at the commencement of the inflammation, and on its de-
cline.

When the fwelled glands fuppurate, and healthy inflam-
mation predominates, the cafe muft be treated nearly in the
fame way as a common abfcefs. An artificial opening is
hardly ever neceffary, as the abf{cefs in a fhort time burits
of itfelf. The only initance, in which the furgeon is called
upon to open the {welling, is when the matter fhews a ten-
dency to f{pread over a large {pace. When the fuppuration
is completely f{crofulous, a {mall opening is at length fpon-
taneoufly formed, through which all the matter is dif-
charged. The aperture, though always {mall at firtt, fome-
times becomes larger, and frequently it remains for a long
while nearly in the fame ftate, fhewing little difpofition to
heal, acquiring a glofly appearance, and becoming thick
and callous at its edges. “In the end, however, a cicatrix
is moftly produced.

In cafes of indolent, {tationary, fcrofulous {wellings of
glands, where there is no hope of refolution, it has been pro-
pofed to remove or deftroy the difeafed glands by exci-
fion, or by the application of cauftic. Such praétice has
been particularly fuggefted for glandular {wellings of the
neck. The fuperficial fituation of the glands of this part
of the body rendering them very apt to be affected by cold,
the viciffitudes of the weather, and other external circum-
ftances, they mutt be fubje& to temporary impreffions. The
frequency with which they fwell, and the facility and fud-
dennefs with which they fometimes fubfide, afford {trong
arguments again{ft an operation in recent cafes. In other
examples, where the affection has exifted long, it often
happens that other more deeply feated glands are alfo dif-
eafed, fo that the removal of an enlarged fuperficial cervi-
cal gland would prove a very partial and ufelefs operation,
and would do nothing towards the. total extirpation of the
difeafe.

As for the mere removal of deformity, this is not an
adequate reafon for the operation, which would itfelf be
followed by a fear, that muft disfigure the | part quite ‘as
much as the {welled gland could poflibly do. We will fay
nothing of the danger and difficulty with which, in many
cafes, fuch an operation would be attended.

The attempt to deftroy a fcrofulous gland in the neck
with cauftic would be liable to objections, fully as {trong as
thofe which are applicable to the ufe of the knife. The
aGtion of cauftic can never be regulated with much precifion,
and the cicatrix, produced in this manner, is always a con-
fiderable deformity.

Firm fcrofulous tumours in the nore external parts of the
body do not ufually require local bleeding, unlefs attended
with fymptoms of inflammation. It is chiefly in the early
ftage of fuch cafes that the praétice is advantageous. In
general, warm fomentation, {timulants, iffues, and blifters
repeated, or kept open with the favine ointment, are the
moft eligible remedies. Here alfo the employment of friétion
as a difcutient deferves particular recommendation. — Its
fafety, fimplicity, and efficacy, are now well acknowledged.
There is no fubitance interpofed between the furface of the
fwelling, and the hand of the perfon who is employed in
rubbing it, except a little flour to prevent the {kin from being
chafed.. The fri€tion is to be applied two or three hours a
day, and the plan continued for fome months.

Permanent compreflion~by means of tight bandages, or
long ftrips of adhefive plafter, is another means of reducing

SCR

the indolent ferofulous induration and thickening of parts.
But of this practice, and of dry rubbing, or fri€tion, by the
hand, we fhall have occafion to fpeak in a future volume.
See Wuite SWELLING.

When a {crofulous difeafe is cireumferibed and incurable,
and attended with fo much pain and irritation, as to injure
the health in a ferious and dangerous degree, the removal
of the part by an operation becomes indifpenfable. The
fymptomatic enlargement of the lymphatic glands, which are
nearer than the difeafe to the heart, prefents no folid objec-
tion to fuch praétice; for this enlargement proceeds from
irritation, and not from abforption; and the glands often
fubfide, as foon as the original caufe of their {welling is re-
moved. Ruffell on Scrofula, p. 137.

SCROGS, in Rural Economy, aterm provincially applied
to fuch ftunted fhrubs as have been brouzed upon by cattle,
ashazel, &c. They are moftly met with on commons and
watle lands.

SCROLL, in Heraldry, is the ornament placed under the
efcutcheon, containing a motto or fhort fentence, alluding”
fometimes to the bearings, or the bearer’s name ; fometimes
exprefling fomewhat divine or heroic; fometimes enigmatical,
&c. It is often placed by the French and Scotch above the
achievement ; which, according to fir J. Mackenzie, is right,
when the motto relates to the creft ; otherwife it fhould be
annexed to the efcutcheon. Thofe of the order of knight-
hood are generally placed round fhields. See Escrow.

Scrou., in Ship-Building, is a {piral moulding of the
volute kind, ufed fometimes at the drifts, and the upper part
of the hair-bracket. A /croll-head fignifies that there is no
carved or ornamental figure at the head, but that the termi-
nation is formed and finifhed off by a volute, or {eroll turn-
ing outwards. If the {croll is turned off, or inwards, it is
then called a fiddle-head.

SCROON, in Geography. See Scaroon.

SCROPHULARIA, in Botany, an old name, fuppofed
by fome to have been given to the herbs of this genus,
becaufe fwine, /crofe, were fond of them. But the moft
probable derivation is from /erophula, the kng’s evil, for
which difeafe fome of them have been recommended as a cure $
efpecially S. zodofa, whofe knobby roots, compared to fcro-
phulous tumours, are thought to have given rife to that opi-
nion. Yet there can be no doubt that one of this genus is the
real yaasolsc of Diofcorides, as Fuchfius, and fome other old
botanifts, have maintained, which that original Greek writer
on the materia medica celebrates for its virtues in the above-
mentioned complaints, and even in cancerous ulcers. Yet
his identical {pecies, our S. peregrina, has no knobby roots.
It is probable therefore that the above explanation is of more
modern date, and it may account for the etymology of
Scrophularia, if not for the application of the herb to me-
dical ule. The Galeopfis of Fuchfius is indeed S. nodofa ;
Anguillara being, as far as we can find, the firft writer on
drugs who fixed upon the precife plant of Diofcorides, §.
peregrina, and whole opinion is confirmed by the recent en-
quiries of Dr. Sibthorp.—Linn. Gen. 312. Schreb. 408.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 269. Mart. Mill. Dict.v. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 662. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1.435. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 4.22. Purfhyv.2.419. Jufl.1ig. Tourn. t. 74.
Lamarck Di&. v. 7. 27. Illuttr. t. 533. Gaertn. t. 53.—
Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord.
Perfonate, or rather Luride, Linn. MSS. Scrophularie,
Jui.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, with five
rounded fegments fhorter than the corolla. Gor. of one
petal, unequal, reverfed; tube globofe, large, inflated :
limb very fmall, five-cleft ; its two lower fegments (turned

' uppermof)

SCROPHULARIA,

u ft) largeft, eredt ; two lateral ones {preading ; the

358 one deans downwards) reflexed, Stam, Filaments

four, linear, the length of the corolla, declining towards

»its lower a two of them later than the others;

authers two-lobed, Pif. Germen ovate; ftyle fimple,

g in length and pofition with the"ttamens; thgma

. Perie, Capfule roundith, pointed, of two cells and

two valves, buriting at the top ; partition double, formed

of the inflexed edges of the me Abt Seeds numerous, {mall.

roundi(h, protruding into each cell,

. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla nearly globular,
reverfed. Capfule fuperior, of two cells.

1. 8. marilandica. Maryland Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
863. Willd. n.1. Aitin.1. Purfha, 1. (5. nodofa 8,
americana; Michawx Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 21.)—Leaves
heart-thaped, doubly ferrated, acute, [mooth ; decurrent at
the bafe. Stem with blunt angles. Footttalks conneéted

a hairy line —In low grounds, from Pennfylvania to

i ing from June to Auguit, perennial. Floqwers

wn. Plant often more than four feet high.

Mr. Miller is faid to have cultivated this herb, ad

it is fearcely to be with in gardens, nor could it be ex-

to engage much attention, being fo like other com-
wey tar carefully weeded ae OF a ens. What
we have been thewn for it, in colle¢tions of primary autho-

» was S. ina. Michaux unites it with the fol-
ioe, » but Siar deter correét in diftinguifhing them.
fize of marilandica, its leaves are doubly,
more coarfely, ferrated; their bafe, ‘though heart-
not cut away to the lateral ribs, but decurrent along
An elevated hairy line runs acrofs the /lem,
the infertion of one fooffa/é to the other.
Ss. oF Knotty-rooted Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
Willd. n.2, Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1544.
Ger. Em. 716. Scrophularia; Riv. Monop.
f. 1; alfo S. minor; ibid. fuppl.) — Leaves
acute, nearly equally ferrated, imooth ; three-
bafe. Angles of the {tem acute.—Native of
in dry, rather fertile, places, throughout

in July and Auguit. The rost is peren-

leat Stem two or three = he h, erect,

n ey » {mooth. Leaves fite, it » neatl
per pocbere ferrated ; of a Seisleg Sark rece above ; ae
axillary and terminal, forked, an-
and glandular, Hr with lanceolate bra@eas, and
a compound, terminal, upright

en eae et

lip, bearing a {mall
when bruifed, has a

internal

a
with a livid purple, or
fetid feent, fomething like

i

Water Fig-wort, or Water Betony. Linn.
3- Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
Curt. Lond. fafe. 5.t. 44. Fl. Dan.t. 507. (Be-

faethe ge

d

Clufer terminal, compound, bratteated, without leaves.
Calyx bordered with a white membrane. Lips of the caredla
of a deep blood-colour, with the fame {mall iotermediate
lobe as in the former. Merb letad, (mooth.

4 5. awriculata, Eaar-leaved Fig-wort, Lion. Sp. PL
B64. Willd. n. 4. Ait. a. 4.-—Leaves oblong-heart-
thaped, doubly ferrated; downy beneath ; with « pair of
re at thetr bafe, Clutter terminal. Native of Spain,
from whence it feems Loefling fent feeds, which produced the
{pecimen in the Linnean herbarium. ‘This {pecimen appears
to us a mere variety of §, Seorodeaia, with accidentally auri-
cled /eaver; whereas the fynonym of Lobel reprefents a
sme parallel variety of S. aguatica. The figure we
uave cited above, from Ger, Em. 715, is the fame cut as
Lobel’s. Barrelier’s t. 274 has not the charaéter of the.
auricled /eaves, and the foliage is all too long for the Scoro-
donia ; ee betonicifolia hereatter, v. 6. 8. auriculata may
therefore, if we miltake not, be reduced vo a variety of the
following fpecies. We have not examined Mr, Aiton’s plant,
fent to Kew by Richard, in 1772. Scopoli’s auriculata, FI.
Carn, t. 32, ismoft afluredly very different.

5. S. Scorgdonia. Balm-leaved Fig-wort. Linn, Sp. PL
864. Willd. n, 6. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 2209.
(S. Scorodonisx foliis; Morif. fect. 5.t. 35. Pluk. Phyt.

t. 59. f. 5.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, doubly terrated ; downy
beneath. Clufter leafy.—Native of watery buthy places in
Jerfey and Cornwall, as well as in Portugal and Italy, and
near Conttantinople, flowering towards autumn. Root pe-
rennial, fibrous. Stems two to four feet high, {quare, leafy,
clothed, like the backs of the leaves, with foft {preading
hairs. Leaves oppofite, falked, acute, various in fize,
veiny ; three-ribbed at the bafe, like S. modofa. Flower-
Jealks axillary and terminal, doubly forked, conttituting a
terminal leafy clufter, clothed with capitate glandular hairs.
Flowers rather {mall, of a paler more livid hue than in
our more common fpecies, their intermediate, or acceflory,

lobe green. Calyx downy, obtufe. te, ed {mooth. |
6. S. betonicifolia. Betony-leaved Fig-wort. Linn.
Mant. 87. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 7. (S. betonicx folio ;

Tourn. Inft. 166. S. aquatica montana mollior ; Barrel.
Ic. t. 274.) — Leaves heart-thaped, oblong, fomewhat
downy, doubly toothed ; veins radiating from the bafe.
Panicle leafy. Calyx downy. — Native of Portugal. Cul-
tivated by Linneus at Upfal. Root perenmal. Stem two
feet high, fquare, lightly downy, purplith, efpecially at
the bottom. Leaves all fimple, rather large, acute, broad
at the bafe, ftrongly and fharply’toothed, each tooth again
notched or ferrated, even in the original {pecimen ; nor do
we comprehend the defcription of Linneus, where he fays
« the teeth are quite entire, and therefore very like Ebu/us.”’
Flower-flalks branched and forked, rough with glandular
hairs, and accompanied by toothed leaves. Corolla dull
purple ; its little lip, or acceffory lobe, greenifh.—This is
nearly akin to the lait, but we have little doubt of their
being dittinét fpecies. Barrelier’s figure is as good as moft
of his, and tolerably expreflive. What he reprefents as
leaflets on the talk of his feparate leaf, and which originally
a led Linnzus*to quote this plate for his own auricu-
are probably {mall axillary leaves only.

7. S. nepetifolia. Catmint-leaved Fig-wort. (S. auricu-
lata; Scop. Carn. v. 1. 446. t. 32.)—Leaves bho ee
obtufe, nearly {mooth, fimply ferrated, on fhort broad foot-
ftalks. Clutter leaflefs. Bratteas lanceolate. Calyx fmooth.
Gathered by Scopoli on the mountains of Carniola. We
have a {pecimen, found by the late Dr. Brouflonet at Tan-

ier, flowering in June, which anfwers exactly to Seopoli’s
cription, and feems not referrible to any of the - ae in
inneus

SCROPHULARIA.

Linnzus or Willdenow. Inthis the eaves are about an inch
long, on broad, flat, fmooth footflalks, a quarter of that
length, along which the two lateral ribs are continued, by the
fide of the midrib ; the margin of the /eaves is neatly, regu-
larly, and acutely ferrated. Clufer ere&, long, quite naked,
except the lanceolate dra&eas; its fide branches forked,
rough, with glandular hairs. Segments of the ca/yx ovate,
obtufe, fmooth, bordered with a broad white membrane,
within which the mergin is of a brown or rufty hue, as
Scopoli deferibes it. 1e fays the corolla is yellow.

8. S. glabrata. Spear-leaved Fig-wort. Ait. n. 6.
Willd. n. 7, excluding Vahl’s fynonym. © Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 2. 44. t. 209.—Leaves oblong-heart-fhaped,
acute, doubly ferrated, fmooth. Clufter leaflefs, panicled,
compound. Braéteas lanceolate—Found in the Canary
iflands, by Mr. Maflon, who fent it to Kew in1779. This
is a bienmal greenhoufe plant, flowering in April and May.
The /lem is rather woody, {quare, branched, {mooth like
every other part of the plant. eaves often unequal at the
bafe, about two inches long, on foof/lalks half that length.
Clufters long and many-flowered, with {preading three-forked
branches ; no leaves, except at the very bottom, but many
Janceolate acute bradeas. Flowers of a deep blood-red.

g. S. peregrina. Nettle-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl.

866. Willd. n. 26. Ait. n. 18. Camer. Hort. 157.
t. 43. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 597, unpublifhed. (S.

folio urtice ; Bauh. Pin. 236. S. cretica altera; Cluf.
Hitt. v. 2. 210.)—Leaves heart-fhzped, acute, fimply fer-
rated, {mooth and fhining. Stalks axillary, two or three-
flowered. Bratteas lanceolate. Calyx acute.—Native of
Italy and Crete. Very common about hedges, paths, and
court-yards throughout Greece, as Diofcorides defcribes his
yorolis to be. We cannot but accede to the opinion of
Anguillara, Fuchfius, and Sibthorp, that this, and not our
Galeopfis, was his plant. The root is fibrous, annual, or
biennial. Stem two or three feet high, not much branched,
occafionally with five or fix angles. eaves of a dark
fhining green, an inch or more in length ; we cannot agree
with Willdenow that the upper ones are generally entire,
though fuch an accident may occur; as the upper part of
the ttem, now and then, in gardens, becomes elongated, and
the foliage in that part diminifhed in fize ; but this is rarely
the cafe. The natural ftate of the plant is to have axillary
flower-falks from near the bottom of the ftem to the top,
each bearing two, three, rarely more flowers, whofe tube,
as well as the limb, is of a blood colour, and the fegments
of the calyx are ovato-lanceolate, with fharp points, and no
membranous edges. The flower-/lalks, like the leaves which
they accompany, are more or lefs diftinétly alternate, rarely
oppofite. Wehave taken the liberty to remove this {pecies
from the end of the genus, to place it near thofe to which,
both on account of its fimple leaves and general habit, it is
mott clofely allied. In doing this we fhall here notice three
others, which conclude the’ genus in Willdenow. ‘Two of
thefe, at leait, require to be totally expunged, and the third,
if it has any right toremain, mutt ftand next to peregrina.

S. chinenfis, Linn. Mant. 250, confifts of an imperfe&
fpecimen of what feems to be an Ocymum, accompanied by
a ftill more imperfe& branch of what may be a Celfia, or
Verbafcum ; but neither of them has any thing to do with
Scrophularia, nor was Linnzus, when he originally defcribed
thefe {pecimens, at all fatisfied about them.

S. meridionalis, Linn. Suppl. 280, fent by Mutis, is in-
dubitably the fame genus, and very nearly the fame fpecies,
as Hemimeris urtictfolia, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 282, Alonfoa
incififolia, Ait. Hort. Kew~v. 4, 27. The capfule only feems
alittle more elongated, and the eaves lef deeply cut, than in

our garden plant ; fee Hemrmerts. The fhape of the cap»
Jule 1s indeed important in diitinguifhing the {pecies of this
genus. Weare at a lofs to ditinguith dlon/oa from Hemi-
meris.

10. S. coccinea. Scarlet Fig-wort. Linn, Sp. Pl. 866.
Willd. n. 25.—* Leaves ovate, four in a whorl. Flowers
whorled, {piked.’’—Native of Vera Cruz. Houftoun fent
an account of this plant to Miller, by the name of §. fore
coccineo, foliis urtice quaternis caulem ambientibus. Hence pro-
bably this definition reached Linnzus, and it was all he ever
knew of the plant, for he had nofpecimen. We fhould not
be furprized if it proved another Hemimeris, which Houftoun
might very excufably take for a Scrophularia. We now
return to more certain {pecies.

11. S. orientalis. Hemp-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 864. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 8.“ Schkuhr Handb.
Vv. 2. 196.t. 173.”’ (S. orientalis, folus cannabinis ; Tourn.
Cor. g.)—Leaves lanceolate, fharply ferrated, oppofite or
whorled; auricled at the bafe. Clutter leaflefs, with
whorled, corymbofe, downy, vifcid branches. Flowers
drooping. Calyx {mooth, obtufe.—Native of the Levant ;
fometimes feen in botanic gardens. ‘The roof is perennial.
Stem with four, or more, acute angles, leafy. Leaves often
three or four in a whorl, widely f{preading, ftalked, .four or
five inches long and one broad, {mooth, copioufly deeply,
and rather unequally, ferrated ; either fharply lobed, or fur-
nifhed with a pair of lanceolate ferrated {mall leaflets, at the
bafe. Cluffer terminal, long, ereét, its branches either op-
pofite, or more ufually three or four in a whorl, forked,
many-flowered, rough with glandular hairs, and furnifhed
with linear draéteas, but no leaves. Flowers greemfh. |

12. S. Janceolata. Lanceolate American Fig-wort. Purfh
n. 2.—** Leaves lanceolate, pointed, unequally ferrated ;
acute at the bafe. Footftalks without appendages. Branches
of the panicle corymbofe.””—In wet meadows and woods of
Pennfylvania, flowering in Auguft and September. Peren-
nial. Flowers greenifh-yellow. Purfh. This feems nearly
related to the laft, to which the author has not adverted.
We have feen no {pecimen. :

13. S. altaica. White-flowered Fig-wort. Murr. in
Comm. Gott. v. 4. 35.t.2. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 10.—
Leaves heart-fhaped, nearly fmooth, doubly toothed, fome-
what lobed ; the lower teeth turned towards the bafe. Cluf-
ter terminal, compound. Braéteas lanceolate. Calyx acute.
—Native of the Altai mountains of Siberia. Intraduced
into our gardens by Mr. Hunnemann in 1786, where it
proves a hardy perennial, flowering in May and June. ‘The
fiem is furrowed, one or one and a half foot high, obfcurely
angular, fcarcely branched. Leaves on long ftalks, of a
broad roundifh-heart-fhaped figure, with ftrong branching
ribs, pliant, nearly {mooth, fomewhat finuated, fharply
toothed. Flowers pale yellow, or whitifh, larger than the
following, from which they are effentially diftinguifhed by
the lanceolate acute fegments of their calyz.

14. S. vernalis. Yellow Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 864.

Willd. n. 14. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 567. Fi.
Dan. t. 411. (S. flore luteo; Ger. Em. 717. Bauh.
Prodr. 112. Riv. Monop. Irr. t. 107. f. 2. S. montana

maxima latifolia, flore Juteo ; Barrel. Ic. t. 273.)—Leaves
heart-fhaped, doubly ferrated, downy. Flower-{talks axil.
lary, folitary, forked, leafy. Calyx obtufe. Limb of the
corolla minute.—Native of bufhy places in Italy, Switzer-
land, and Germany, as well as in fome parts of England, but
rarely. Itis biennial, flowering in April and May. Stem
two feet, or more, in height, with four or five angles, in
which latter cafe the aves grow three tagether. They are
ftalked, broad, acute, pale green, copioufly veined, ae

airy

SCROPHULARIA.

aay Cena FF all axillary, about as long as
the leaves, bearing fome oppofite ferrated leaves, and a
few lanceolate entire brafeas. s numerous, pale yel-

low, with a large globofe tube, contraéted at the mouth,
and a very minute limb, the length of whole fegments is not
nearly equal to the diameter of the tube. Segments of the
aly wast re obtufe, downy, withoat any membra-
nous 4 ftriking refemblance between the habit and

flowers of this plant, and the Peruvian genus Calecolaria, ts
pointed out in Enghth Botany.

"ti S. arguta, Slender Upright Fig-wort. Ait. n. 12.
n. 15. — Leaves beat-haped doubly ferrated,
fmooth. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary, forked, leaflels.
Braéteas linear. Calyx obtufe. Limb of the corolla nearly
atlig tubese-Gathered by Mr. Maffon in Madeira and
' An annual greenhoufe plant at Kew, flowering
in Mayand June. Reor fibrous. Stem two feet high, erect,
— fmooth in the lower part. Leaves an inch or inch
half long, ak Me deeply ferrated. Flower-flalks,
and upper part of the ftem, downy and rather vifcid.
fmall, red, their limb rtion to the
Capfule ovate, poin , but fearcely

ing its ufual p
as in the

maximis
roundifh, coarfely ferrated ; the lower ones ternate.
: about lowered. Segments of the
orbicular, with a wavy membranous margin.— Native
,Corfica, and Portugal. A hardy biennial, fome-
with in curious gardens, flowering in fummer.
t a foot be Ry ee fai csey, 1 » nearly
thick, with blunt angles. Leaves oppofite,
and glaucous, about two inches long, and
broad, bluntifh, veiny ; many of the upper ones
the reft accompanied each by a pair of {maller
nore or lefs diftin€t or remote, at the top of the foot-
which is about an inch long. Flowers all axillary,
» two or three on each ftelk, which is fhorter than the
rough, with glandular hairs, and bears feveral
brafeas. Calyx cous, {mooth, with

tT deep, bi fegments. Corolla
an inch long, yellow, with
coloured limb. og .

Ae

!

f

i
if

an orange or rofe-

compound. Segments of the calyx orbicu-
wavy membranous in.—Native of the bor-
and the seighbo'

Barbary. We gathered it in A 1786, inthe royal
ary. e it in Au I in t
garden at Paris, where it was rai icon fils brought
proelr Desfntaines,buthave not fey theplastip England,
root is {aid to be ial. Plant en’ fm: of

eats laucous green, larger than the latt, to which it is moft
though effentially different ; particularly in its
stot? or fieiek Lacks wich iia aged dot
damvere axe very Gaile, sh iaesantabi
18. S. fens. Shrubby Fig-wort. Linn, Sp. Pl.
$66. Willd. n.10. Ait.n.9. (S. lufitanica fratefcens,
Vor. XXXII.

verbenace foliis; Tourn, Infl, 167, 8. peregrina fratet.
cens, foliis teucrii crafliufeulis; Herm. Lugd. Bat. 4g.
t. §47-)

8. Sm. Prodr, Fi. Grac. Sibth. no. 1459. (5. hetero.
phylla; Willd. n. 12. S. cretica frutefcens, foho vane
erafliori ; Tourn. Cor. 9.)

Leaves {mooth, rather glaucous; the lower ones cut,
lobed, or pinnate ; the floral ones elliptic-tanceolate, entire,
Clutter cylindrical; branches fimply forked, racemofe.—
Native of Portugal, Barbary, an the Levant. Gathered
by Dr. Sibthorp in Crete and Zante; the variety @ on
mount Athos. The fem is hhrubby, two or three feet high,
branched, angular, fmooth, purplifh, leafy. Leaves oppo-
fite, or partly alternate, coriaceous, {mooth, of a dee
glaucous hue, ftalked; the upper ones mott undivided,
tharply ferrated ; the reft deeply cut, lobed, pinnatifid, or
pets in various degrees, and from one to four inches
ong. Clufler terminal, long, cylindrical, ere€t, with alter-
nate branches, each of which is fimply forked, its divifions
racemofe, bearing three or four alteruate flowers; the ftalks
angular, roughith. Bra@eas lanceolate. The lower part
of the clufler, and fome of its branches, are scoala by
elliptic-lanceolate, perfe@ly entire leaves, various in fize.
Flowers {mall, deep red; the tube rather paler than the
limb. Segments of the calyx {mall, orbicular, fmooth,
with a brilliant white membranous edge.

19. S. rupefris. Rock Fig-wort. Willd. n. 11.—
« Leaves oblong, ftalked, toothed, nearly fmooth. Clutter
terminal. Stalks three-flowered.””—Gathered by the cele-
brated botanical traveller Marfchall von Bicberitein, on the
rocks of Taurida. Willdenow, to whom fpecimens were
fent, fays this plant is very nearly related to S. frute/cens, of
which it is perhaps only a variety ; but it differs in having a
Jftem only half a foot high, and very finely downy ; /eaver
all ftalked, more rigid, and of a {maller fize; a terminal clufler,
compofed of three-cleft three-flowered ftalks ; and {mall, ob-
tufe, not acute, bra&eas.

20. S. cafia. Sea-green Dwarf Fig-wort. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 1460. Fl. Gree. t. 604, unpublithed,
(S. orientalis minor, meliffe folio; Tourn. Cor.g? Buxb.
Cent. 5. 10. t. 17. f, 2 ?)—Leaves fmooth, rather glaucous,
lyrato-pinnatifid, cut. Stems numerous. Cluiter thort ;
branches two or three-flowered.—Gathered by Dr. Sib-
thorp on rocks about Athens and Meffena; as well as in
Laconia. The root is perennial, thick and woody. Stems
very numerous, fomewhat fhrubby at the bafe, {preading in
all direGtions, a {pan high, leafy, fearcely branched but at
the bottom, bluntly quadrangular, {mooth. Leaves oppolite,
ftalked, an inch and half long, tharply cut and toothed, of
three principal lobes, one of them very large and pinnatifid,
the others {maller, befides one or two very {mall ones below,
mottly entire. Clufler or panicle two or three inches long,
with entire oblong éra&as; its branches oppofite, fimply
forked, their lateral branches fingle-flowered, and one of them
often deficient. Segments of the ca/yx orbicular, {mooth,
with a white membranous edge. Tube of the corolla inflated,

nifh, brown on the upper fide; two larger fegments of
the /imb chocolate-coloured, the reft greenifh-white. We
can but guefs at the fynonyms. The /aves are not much
like balm, Melifa. Buxbaum’s rude figure is not unfuitable
to our plant.

21. S. fambucifolia, Elder-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp.
PL 865. Willd-n. 17. Ait.n.1g. Mill. Ic. t.231. (Si-
deritis fambucifolia; Alpin. Exot. 203. t. 202.)

&. S, mellifera; Ait. n. 15. Desfont. Atlant, v. 2. 53.
t.143. Willd.n. 18. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 68.

leaves interruptedly pinnate; upper ternate;
H leaflets

SCROPHULARIA.

leaflets heart-fhaped, ferrated, f{mooth ; unequal at the bafe.
Flower-{talks axillary, flightly branched.—Native of the
fouth of Europe, Barbary, and the Levant, in fandy
ground. The roofs are tuberous, according to Alpinus, pe-
rennial, but fubjet to rot ina garden foil. Herb thick,
f{mooth, fucculent, of alight glaucous green. Leaves oppo-
fite, or fomewhat alternate, irregularly, more or lefs fharply,
ferrated, varying much in fize and bluntnefs. //owers very
large, axillary, drooping ; their {talks ufually fhorter than
the footfalks, fimple, divided, or forked ; fometimes elon-
gated towards the upper part of the branch, and the leaves
being occafionally contracted, or wanting, there, the inflo-
refcence becomes racemofe. Calyx {mooth, or flightly
downy; fegments orbicular, with a membranous edge.
Corolla of a pale purplifh tawny hue, with a greenifh limb.
Capjfule as big as a {mall filberd, witha conical point.

We can find no decifive charafter between the two plants
of authors, which we have here combined. The /eaflets of
6 are commonly more rounded or obtufe, but a comparifon
of the ficures of Miller and Desfontaines will fhew that there
is no difference in their inflorefcence. A {pecimen from Bar-
bary, given us by the botanift laft mentioned, is Jambucifolia,
which not being mentioned in his work, he plainly did not
diftinguifh from his mellifera. Thofe who have mentioned
thefe two fuppofed fpecies, have not contrafted them with
each other, nor have we had an opportunity of comparing
them in a living ftate ; but it is to be prefumed the fame
honey-bearing glands are to be found in the bottom of the
corolla of each, they being in every other refpe&t fo much
alike. .

22. §. hifpid2. Uifpid Fig-wort. Desfont. Atlant.
vy. 2.55. Willd. n. 19. « Stem fquare, erect, hifpid.
Leaves vilious, pinnate, doubly crenate ; the terminal lobe
heart-fhaped, very large. Clufter compound, leaflefs.’’—
Native of the clefts of rocks on mount Atlas, near Tlemfen.
Root perennial. Stem erect, firm, flightly branched, about
two feet high, hifpid with very abundant fhort hairs. Leaves
oppofite, on fhort {talks, two to three inches long, and above
half as broad, villous, foft and hoary, of a few {mall ovate
- leaflets, often cut away at the upper edge, befides the large,
fometimes lobed, terminal one. C/u/ler terminal, fix or eight
inches long ; its branches oppofite or alternate, {ubdivided,
hairy. Braéeaslinear. Calyx {mooth, with rounded mem-
branous-edged fegments. Corolla the fize of S. nodofa.
Desfoniaines.

23. S.canina. Wing-lcaved Fig-wort, or Dog’s Rue.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 865. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. 16. Sm. FI.
Grec. Sibth. t. 598, unpublifhed. (S.n. 328; Hall. Hitt.
vy. 1.142. Rutacanina; Cluf. Hilt. v.2. 209. Ger. Em.
1256.)—Leaves pinnate; leaflets decurrent, cut. Stem
round. Clulter leaflefs ; its branches fimply forked, their
divifions racemofe. Flowers nearly feffile, without an inter-
nal lobe.—Native of Switzerland, France, Italy, and the Le-
vant ; frequent in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus. A hardy an-
nual, long known in botanic gardens, but not generally cul-
tivated, flowering moft part of the fummer. Root rather
woody. Stems two or three feet high, flightly angular,
purplifh, {mooth, leafy. Leaves dark green, {mooth, oppo-
fite or alternate, ftalked; leaflets deeply cut, or pinnatifid,
fometimes accompanied by fmall intermediate ones. Cluffers
one or more, terminal ; fometimes leafy at the bottom, but
for the moft part furnifhed throughout with lanceolate drac-
teas only ; their branches alternate, fimply forked, with a

flower in the fork, the two divifions fimply racemofe, or rather
{fpiked, varying greatly (from three to ten) in the number of
their fowers, which are-alternate, almoft feffile, each fub-
tended by a fmall dradea, and accompanied by a larger one,

on the oppofite fide of the ftalk. The white membranous
border of the calyx is very confpicuous. Corolla about the
fize and fhape ofS. aquatica, but deftitute of an intermediate
lobe ; its tube yellowifh-green ; two larger fegments of the
limb blood-red ; two lateral ones orange ; odd one green.—
Willdenow refers to this, as a variety, S. orientalis, chry-=
fanthemi folio, flore minimo atropurpureo; Tourn. Cor. 9,
which he fuppofes may be 8. /ucida of Pallas. We have no
knowledge of Tournefort’s plant, but, from its place in
his work, it fhould feem to be very nearly related to our
S. bicolor hereafter defcribed, or perhaps a variety of that
{pecies.

24. S. variegata. Spotted-flowered Fig-wort. Marfch.
von Bieberft. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 445.
Willd. n. 22.— Stems fhrubby at the bafe. JLeaves bi-
pinnatifid, downy. Cluifters elongated ; flower-{talks fhort,
rough, with hooked hairs.’’—Native of the {tony banks
of rivers, and barren hills, between the rivers Terek and
Kur, inthe neighbourhood of the Cafpian fea, flowering in
June and July. The root is perennial. Stem woody at the
bafe, with numerous long flender branches, clothed, like
all the reft of the herbage, with rough hairs. #/owers ra-
ther lefs than in S. canina. Corolla purplith ; its two upper
fegments fhort, obtufe, incumbent, one of them marked
with a white fpot ; three lower ones white, very {mall, ob-
tufe. Akinto the laft, but, according to this defcription,
fufficiently diftiné.

25. S. /ucida. Shining-leaved Fig-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
865. Willd.n. 21. ‘ Hort. Berolin. t. 57.7? Ait. n. 17.
Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 599, unpublifhed. (S. faxatilis
lucida, laferpitii maflilienfis foliis ; Tourn. Inft. 167. Bocce.
Mof. 166. t. 117. S. indica; Ger. Em. 716? S. glauco fo»
lio, in amplas lacinias divifo ; Tourn. Cor. 9. Voy. v. 1.
84, with a plate. )—Leaves pinnate, flefhy, {mooth ; leaflets
pinnatifid, decurrent, cut. Stem round. Clutter leaflefs ;
its branches forked, cymofe. Flowers ftalked ; without an
intermediate lobe.—Native of Italy and the Levant ; com-
mon in the iflands of the Archipelago. The root is woody,
and faid to be perennial. It is not eafy to diftinguifh this
{pecies, by defcription, from the canina, except that the
leaves appear to be more» glaucous, and the clufter of
flowers altogether more cylindrical, with fhorter compact
branches, of acymofe habit, the fowers all ftalked. The
four uppermott fegments of the corol/a are all of one nearly

“uniform blood-red, (without any intermediate lobe,) the

odd one green. Cap/ule nearly twice the fize of canina.
Linnezus quotes the plant of Tournefort’s Voyage as the
fame with what that writer had previoufly mentioned,
by another name, in his Jnffitutiones. Dr. Sibthorp’s ex-
actly anfwers to the plate of Tournefort, and is drawn with
leaves more glaucous than canina. _

26. S. filicifolia. Fern-leaved Fig-wort. Mill. Dia.
ed. 8.n. 10. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth.n. 1456. Fl.
Grec. t. 600, unpublifhed. (S. foliis filicis modo Jaciniatis,
vel ruta canina latifolia; Tourn. Inft. 167.)—Leaves pin-
nate; leaflets pinnatifid, decurrent, cut; in the lowelft
leaves obovate. Stem{quare. Clutter leaflefs; its branches
forked, divaricated, with from five to. nine flowers. Corolla
with an intermediate lobe.—Native of Crete. A large tall
fpecies, with dark-green eaves, of which the lowermoft are
a foot long, with broad, obovate, lobed, cut, decurrent
leaflets. It is readily diflinguifhed from §. canina, lucida, and
their allies, by the fquarenefs of its fem, to the very top of
the clufler, and the prefence of an intermediate lobe to the
corolla; the two upper fegments of whofe limb are of a pe-
culiarly dark red, or chocolate colour ; the lateral fegments,
like the lobe juft mentioned, of a pale red ; the lower one

green,

BA
;

SCR

green, and {mall. The are all nearly feflile ;
nine on the Mah branches of the clufter, feven on thofe
about the middle ; five or three on the ola Calyx
with a white membranous edge, as in all this tribe.

27. S. lieids. Livid Fig-wort. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree.
sitth. n. 1457. Fl. Gree. t. 601, unpublithed.—Leaves
pinnate ; leaflets prunatifid, decurrent, an ular and cut, all

' Stem f{quare. Clutter leaflefs, flraight ; its
branches forked, with from three to feven flowers. Corolla
with an intermediate lobe. —Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in
Afia Minor, probably near sor Ae This appears to be
annual, and differs from the laft in the uniformity, lighter
calour, and fmaller fize, of its /eaves, whofe fegments are
fmall, wedge-fhaped, angular and channelled. The inflo-

1s fimilar, but more ee and Se pena “
u fegments, and intermediate lobe, of t pa
bes or lilac-coloured ; lateral and lower ones, like the

tube, of a light green.

28. S. a Striped-flowered Fig-wort, Sm. Prodr.
Grac. Sibth. n. 1458. Fil, Gree. t. 602, unpublithed.
fanthemifolia ; Marfch. von Biebertt. in Sims and

of Bot. v. 2. 446? S. orientalis, chryfanthemi
minino

iegato; Tourn. Cor. 9.)—Leaves
narrow, y cut. Stem ri Clutter
3 its branches fimply forked, their divifions racemofe.
ftalked, without an intermediate lobe.— Native of
the Levant. A tall, branching, panicled {pecies,
narrow, {mooth, fhining /caves, whofe fegments
cut and pointed. The inflore forms a

icle, with numerous lanceolate braGeas. C

ith a purple line, within its white mar-
membrane. The two upper, as well as the lowelt,
of the corolla are of a b edged with white,
two lateral ones pure white ; tube blood-red, pale at the
We have little doubt of Tournefort’s fynonym,
is fo very appofite in character ; ee that of
Bieberitein, we are more doubtful. prefent ele-
Pace np aoe allied to the two lait, than to
are

am
>F
ad

i

u

if

EPaTE
:

<
g

preceding them; but its eaves
more finely divided than in any other known Serophu-

genus is more or lefs fetid when bruifed,

and of a noxious quality to moft of the larger animals.
i Gardenin » comprifes plants of the
herbaceous, and ihrubby kinds, of which the
ies cultivated are, the fhrubby fig-wort (S. frutefcens) ;
three-leaved fig-wort (S. trifoliata) ; the elder-leaved
et (S. fambucifolia) ; and the thining-leaved fig-wort

(5. lucida). d c
- Mebod of Culture.—Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, borders or other

fhould be fown in autumn int
where the areto remain. The plants fhould be
free from weeds ; when the roots continue feveral years,
+ te fevere frofts. It is therefore a good
practice to have in pots proteéted by a frame and

giaffes: and as the young plants flower the ftrongeit, a jafpers
friceallice Mannld be 2p

fown annually. They may

alfo be fometimes raifed from the parted roots; and the
by forts by cuttings or flips in the fummer or {pring
They afford ornament and variety in the clumps and
borders, as well as other parts, of pleafure grounds: alfo

when fet out colle€tions, in pots.
~ SCRO ARIA, in Botany, a natural order of
it remarkable and bett-

— named from one of the mo
genera, fee SonornuLania; making the fortieth

SCR

order in Juffieu's fyttem, or the feventh of his exghth clafs,
fee Laniara® and Gewriane, See ello Pexsonarm, a
Linnean order, to which that under confideration is, ina

at part, parallel, The charaéter of the Serophularia is
thus given by Juffieu,

Calyx divided ; often permanent. Corolla often irregular ;
divided in the limb, Stamens often four, two longer than
the others; rarely only two in all. Srl one; ftigma fimple
or two-lobed. Fruit capfular, of wwo cells, fnlit at the
{ummit, if not completely feparated, into two dir sol which
are in fome few initances divided again into two parts ; their
infide is naked and concave, with a central receptacle,
bordered vertically all round, and bearing feeds at each fide,
fupplying the place of a partition, being parallel to the
ws and often connedted, in its whole circumference, with
their margins. Seeds often numerous and minute.
herbaceous, rarely fhrubby.
Flowers brafteated.

Se@tion 1. Stamens four, two longer and two fborter.

Buddleia ; Seoparia ; Rufelia of Jacquin ; Capraria ; Ste-
modia; Halleria; Galvezia of Dombey; Achimenes of
Browne ; Scrophularia; Matourea of Aublet, fufpeéted by
Schreber to be a Vandellia ; Dodartia ; Gerardia ; ymbaria ;
Linaria of Tourvetort ; Antirrbinum, comprehending A/arina
of Tournefort ; Hemimeris ; and Digitalis.

Se€tion 2. Stamens two.

Pederota; Calceolaria ; and Bea of Commerfon.

Se€tion 3. Genera akin to Scrophularia, with oppofite
leaves. r

Columnea; Befleria; Cyrtandra of Forlter; Gratiola ;
Torenia ; Vandellia; Lindernia; Mimulus ; Polypremum ;
and Montira of Aublet.

m Section 4. Genera akin to Scrophulariz, with alternate
aves.

Schwalbea ; Schwenkia ; and Browallia.

SCROPHULOUS Tumours, in Hogs, {wellings of the
glands about the necks and other parts of them, arifing from
colds and obftructions caufed in other ways. They may
mottly be removed by mild camphorated mercurial ointments,
ufed two or three times in the day to the difeafed parts.
See Hoc and Swine.

SCROTOCELE, in Surgery, a hernia, or rupture, which
has defcended into the {crotum.

SCROTUM, in Anatomy, the bag of tkia which contains
the tefticles. See Generation.

SCROWLS, or Scro zs, in Archite@ure. See Voiure.

SCRUB, in Geography, one of the {maller Virgin iflands,
in the Weit Indies.

SCRUPI, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a clafs of
foffils, formed in detached mafles, without any cruits; of no
determinate figure, or regular flru€ture ; and compofed of
acryftalline or {parry matter, debafed by an admixture of
earth, in various proportions.

Under this clafs are comprehended, 1. The telaugia.
oe The petridia. 3. The lithozugia. 4. The jafpides, or
a

Stem
Leaves oppofite or alternate.

All thefe genera {trike fire with fleel, only fome more
readily than others.

SCRUPLE, Scruputus, Serupulum, or Scripulum, the
leait of the weights ufed by the ancients, which, amongft
the Romans, was the twenty-fourth part of an ounce, or
the third part of a drachm.

Scrupe is ftill a weight among us, containing the third
part of a drachm, or twenty grains.

Among gold{miths the {cruple is twenty-four grains,
Scrurie, in Chronology. The Chaldee fcruple is revs
H 2 part

SCcU

part of an hour, called by the Hebrews Ac/akin. Thefe
feruples are much ufed by the Jews, Arabs, and other
ea{tern people, in computations of time.

Scrupes, in Aflronomy. Scruples eclipfed, that part of
the moon’s diameter which enters the fhadow, exprefled in
the fame meafure in which the diameter of the moon is ex-
prefled. See Dicer. i

Scrurtes of Half Duration, an arc of the moon’s orbit,
which the moon’s centre defcribes from the beginning of an
eclipfe to its middle. :

Scruptes of Jmmerfion, or Incidence, an arc of the moon’s
orbit, which her centre defcribes from the beginning of the
eclipfe, to the time when its centre falls into the thadow.
See IMMERSION.

Scrupies of Lmerjion, anarc of the moon’s orbit, which
her centre defcribes in the time from the firft emerfion of the
moon’s limb, to the end of the eclipfe.

SCRUTATORES, among the Romans, certain officers,
or fervants, whofe bufinefs it was to fearch every body that
came to falute the emperor, in order to difcover if they had
any kind of arms concealed about them. They were firft
inftituted under the emperor Claudius.

SCRUTINY, Scrurimi, in datiquity, an examination,
or probation, praétifed in the laft week of Lent, on the cate-
chumens, who were to receive bapti{m on the Eafter-day.

The f{crutiny was performed with a great many ceremo-
nies: exorcifms and prayers were made over the heads
of the cathecumens. On Palm Sunday, the Lord’s prayer
and Creed were given them, which they were afterwards
made to rehearfe.

The procefs was called /erutinium, {crutiny ; becaufe here-
by the hearts of the catechumens were fcrutinized, or
fearched, that the priefts might underftand who were fit
to be admitted to baptifm.

This cuftom was more in ufe‘in the church of Rome than
any where elfe ; though it appears, by fome miflals, to have
been likewife ufed, though much later, in the Gallican
church. It is fuppofed to have ceafed about the year 860.
Some traces of this practice ftill remain at Vienne, in
Dauphine, and at Liege.

Scrutiny is alfo ufed, in the Canon Law, for a ticket,
or little paper billet, wherein, at ele€tions, the eleCtors write
their votes privately, fo as it may not be known for whom
they vote.

ScrRuTINY, among us, is chiefly ufed for a ftri& perufal
and examination of the feveral votes haftily taken at an
eleGtion ; in order to find out any irregularities committed
therein, by unqualified voters, &c.

SCRUTORE, or Scruroir (from the French efcritoire)
a kind of cabinet, witha door or lid opening downwards, for
conveniency of writing on, &c.

SCRY, in Falconry, denotes a large flock of fowl.

SCUD, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to fignify
to clear with a {pade or fpittle.

Scup, in Sea Language, a name given by feamen to the
Joweft and lighteft clouds, which are moit fwiftly wafted
along the atmofphere by the wind.

SCUDDING, the movement by which a fhip is carried
with great velocity before a tempett.

As a fhip moves through the water with fo great a velo-
city whenever this expedient is put in pradtice, it is never
attempted in a contrary wind, unlefs when her condition
renders her incapable of fuftaining the mutual efforts of the
wind and waves any longer on-her fide, without being ex-
pofed to the moft imminent danger. See Tryine.

A. thip either feuds with a fail extended on her fore-maft,

S€U

or, if the {torm is violent, without any fail; which in the fea-
phrafe is called feudding under bare-poles. In floops and
{chooners, and other {mall veffels, the fail ufed for this pur-
pofe is the fquare-fail. In large fhips, it is either the fore-
fail with or without areef, or goo/t-qwinged only, accordin
to the degree of the tempeft ; or it is the fore-top-fail coe
reefed, and lowered on the cap: which laft is particularly
ufed when the fea runs fo high as to becalm the fore-fail oc-
cafionally, a circum{tance which expofes the fhip to the
danger of broaching-to.

The principal hazards incident to fcudding are, generally,
a pooping fea ; the difficulty of fteering, which expofes the
vellel perpetually to the rifk of broaching-to ; and the want
of fufficient fea-room. A violent pooping fea may dafh in
the ftern or quarter, and caufe the veflel to founder. In
broaching-to fuddenly, fhe is threatened with being imme-
diately overfet ;: and for want of fea-room, fhe is endangered
by fhipwreck on a lee-fhore, a circumftance too dreadful to
require explanation.

SCUDENES, or Scureness, in Geography, an ifland
near the coaft of Norway, about 20 miles in circumference ;
18 miles N.W. of Stavanger.

SCUDERI, Grorce pr, in Biography, was born at
Havre de Grace in 1601, of an ancient family, originally
from Provence. According to his own account he pafled
his youth in military fervice, and in travels through the
greater part of Europe, but he was not known till he fettled
at Paris in the capacity of a writer, and in this capacity he
had a mott prolific pen, giving to the world plays, poems,
eflays, &c. in great abundance. Moft of his works are
funk in oblivion. His * Alaric ou Rome Vaincue,’’ has
been ranked in the fame clafs with the “* Pucelle”? of Cha-
pelain. His “ Obfervations fur le Cid’? obtained for the
author the favour of cardinal Richelieu. Scuderi obtained
admiffion into the French Academy, and he had alfo the gift
of a petty government in Provence, but he was fearcely
able to keep himfelf above a ftate of indigence. He died
at Paris in 1667.

ScupEriI, MaGpALEN DE, fifter of the preceding, born at
Havre de Grace in 1607, was educated at Paris, and at an
early age was admitted at the Hotel de Rombouillet, where
fhe was encouraged to enter the career of an authorefs: fhe
foon fhewed that fhe poflefled qualities of the heart and un-
derflanding, which procured her many friends of rank and
diftin@ion. She was particularly celebrated as a writer of
romance. Some of her works confilt of ten volumes. They
were much read when they firft appeared, though they have
long fince declined in reputation. They are faid, however,
to contain fome elegant writing, and much real elevation and
dignity of fentiment, which did great honour to the writer.
Their popularity was much augmented, as they were fup-
pofed to exhibit portraitures of many of the moft diltin-
guwifhed charaéters of the French court at that period. Her
“< Converfatiens et Entretiens,’’ are by fome accounted her
mott valuable publication, though the politenefs inculcated
in them would now appear formal and tirefome. Madame
de Scuderi carried into practical life the warmth of attach-
ment and honourable fentiments which her works difplayed,
and fhe even dared to manifeft her friendfhip for Pellifon
when he was confined in the Bajtille. She was in: habits
of corref{pondence with fome of the moft diftinguifhed lite-
rary charaéters of Europe; was elected a member of the aca-
demy of Ricovrati at Padua; was patronized by cardinal
Mazarin and Louis XIV.; and admitted to the friendfhip of
queen Chriftinae She died in 1701, at the age of 94.
Moreri.

-SCUDFRI,

?

y
i

sCcU

Sevpent, in G » @ mountain of Sicily, in the

of Demona, 10 miles 5.W. of Meffina, Next to

Etna, this is the highelt mountain ip Sicily, and retains fuow
all the year.

SCUDO, in Commerce, a money of account, axd alfo
a filver coin, m different parts of Italy, in Sicily, and alfo
at Malta. At Rome, accounts are kept in crowns or feud,
ealled feudi romani, and feudi moneta; each feudo being
into ro paoli or giuli, and each paolo inte 10 ba-
focehi. The feudo is hkewife divided into 3{ telteni, 500
quattrini, or rooo mezzi quattrini : fo that 5 quattrini make
1 paolo, and 3 paoli 1 teftone. ‘The feudodi ttampa d’oro,
which many of the foreiga exchanges are regulated, is
reckoned at 1523 or 1525 mezzi quattrini; that is, when a
bill is drawn from Rome on a foreign place, the feudo di
doro is reckoned at 15623 mezzi quattrini; but
when drawn from another place on Rome, it is reckoned at
1s25 ditto: this feudo is divided into 20 foldi, or 240
Among the filver coins are fcudi romani, and half
ditto. The feudo weighs 22 denari 10,'\ grains, Roman
weight, or ‘ty Englith grains; and the filver is 1034
ounces fine in the lb.; it therefore contains #08 grains of
Englith ftandard filver, and is worth 4s. 4d. flerling. The

di flampa d’oro, of 1533 hire - cesta is —e

6s. Coe i, 5¢d. iterling nearly ; or 1/.
a = 4 feudi 62 buoechi> all valued in filver. All
above 5 feudi are made in cedole, or fchedules, a

of bank notes, which cannot be refufed in payment,

and which are conitantly at a difeount. At Malta, accounts
kept in feudi of 12 tari, each taro being {ubdivided

2 carlini, zo grani, or 120 piccioli. Thefe monies of
account are ialeed in filver and copper money, filver money

being to co money as 3to 2. At Mantua, a feudo of
account is Tire, or 120 foldi. At Milan, a {cudo di cam-

bio, or imperiale, is reckoned at § lire 17 foldi, or 117
foldi imperiali ; a feudo corrente at § lire 15 foldi, or 115

foldi correnti: 1219 {cudi imperiali are equivalent to 1755
feudi correnti. the filver coins are fcudi of 18
denari 21,4 at 6 lire, and halves in proportion.

iy
the Toads are about 10 denari 18 grani (or 10 oz.

:—at Genoa, the fcudo di cambio, or crown of ex-
Shag worth 36%.75 in filver, and 36%.02 in gold ; and
the @oro marche 854.49 in filver, and 834.77 in gold:
—at Lucca, the feudo d’oro is 55*.50 in filver, and 58427

3 the feudo corrente 51°.80 in filver, and 54°.39 in

:—at Malta, the feudo, or crown, is 214.32 in filver,
in gold:—at Milan, the feudo imperiale is

P havery and 61*°.60 in gold; and the fcudo cor-

an

rente 424.32 in filver, and 424.78 in gold :—at Novi, the
feudo d’oro marche is 85%.49 in filver, and 83%.77 in
gold :—at Rome, the feudo, or crown, is 524.05 in filver,
and in gold ; and the feudo di ftampa d’oro 79%.37
in fifver, 784.73 in gold:—at Sicily, the feudo, or
crown, is 49%.02 in filver, and 494.92 in gold, For the
affay, value, &e. of the feudo, {ee the table under Coin.
For the impr on the fcudo, and other particulars, we
refer to Kelly’s Univerfal Cambitt.

-_SCUFFLE, or Scurecer, in Agriculture, an implement

a

fomewhat the fame kind as the {carifier, but which is

SsCU

moitly lighter, and employed in working after it, There
is a great variety of thefe forts of implements defcribed in
works on agriculture, The following have been found te
perform the work well in aiual pradtice, It is noticed, that a
tool of this fort, invented in Norfolk, has been found highly
ufefal in that diltri&. Lt is deferibed iw the Agricultural
Survey of the above county as beity formed from a double-
brealted foot-plough, by taking off the breafts, and having
a thare larger and flatter than the original one made. ‘T'o
the end of the beam of the plough, a crofs-beam of wood,
three feet long, four inches broad, and four inches thick, is
faltened; and at the diflance of twelve inches and a half
each way from the centre of this crofs-beam, are inferted
two coulters, each twelve inches long, three inches. broad,
and a quarter of an inch thick on the back, but reduced to
three-eighths im the front ; and into thefe coulters, at the
bottom, are rivetted two thares, of nearly the fame fize as
the firft fhare, which was nine inches broad, but thefe two
ouly eight inches. The crofs-beam is {trengthened by two
iron reins fixed to the crofs-beam, and alfo to the beam of
the plough, in the beft manner for the purpofe,

It may alfo be noticed, that the coulters which are fixed
to the crofs-beam do not ftand perpendicularly ; but in
clining, as the coulter at the head of the plough: thus
they are fixed into a crols-beam by means of a {crew and a
nut, fo asto keep them quite falt and fleady.

The advantage of this fcuffler above any that the im
ventor has feen 1s, that it is ufed with feo horfes only. Ie
does the work of more than two ploughs, as the three shares
cut nearly the width of thirty inches, whereas two ploughs
would cut only twenty-four inches. It is uled on farms
which confift of heavy land, as well as land of a mixed foil,
But a fouffle recommended by Mr. Amos is occafionally
much in ufe ; which has wheels on which it is carried from
one field to another, and by which the depth of working is
i acre Thefe wheels turn round upon their axles, and

© upon the under end of the upright thank, in imitation of
bed-caltors. The middle beams are the parts to which the
horfes are fixed; but there are likewife fide-beams; and
the thanks of the fhares are fixed in the beams by nuts and
fcrews, They are fifteen inches long below the beams,
and made of iron, one inch and a half by half an inch
fquare: they are rivetted on their thanks. The handles for
managing the machine are about four feet three inches long.

This implement is {aid to be of great utility in cleanin
bean and pea ftubbles, in order to their being fown with
wheat. And it is very advantageous in deftroying weeds
upon fallows, where ploughing might be injurious, either
on account of the land being too moitt or very light in its
quality. It is likewife admirably adapted to the cleaning
of land that has been fown with the garden pea, in order
to its being ploughed, harrowed, rolled, and drilled with
turnips or rape-feed in the latter end of {ummer, at the
beginning of Augutt.

And with this tool it is aflerted that one man and two
horfes are capable of feuffling fix or eight acres day.
It is advifed, that after the land is feuffled over, it thould be
harrowed twice or three times in a place, and the weeds
collected and deftroyed. But it has been made an objec-
tion to thefe forts of tools with fome, thatethey cannot be
made to operate in a beneficial manner, except where the
land has been previoufly brought into a fine condition, and
rendered clear from weeds. Thefe, as well as {carifying
implements, are likewife liable to objection from their bei
fubjeét to clog much when the lands are wet. A
of this fort has however been employed in the midland
diftriéts, which is faid to be in a great meafure free o>

2

sScU

the lalt objeGtion. It has been recommended by Mr. Bower.
In this tool, by the teeth being only twelve inches from
each other, and their interfeCting, that diftance is reduced
to fix inches, where the breadth of the thares, from being
full three inches, afford another reduction, which brings
them fo near together, that the land is almolt wholly
broken and reduced, and the intention of a ploughing as
well as a harrowing accomplifhed at once, without cutting
the roots of the couch-grafs in two, which is a great fupe-
riority that it poffeffes over the plough. And from the
teeth bending forward, and having that kind of pofition,
the roots are brought to the top more perfectly, which is
another fuperiority over the plough. It has alfo much
fuperiority in the difpatch of work, four;horfes and a man
being able te finifh fix acres or more of land of a fandy
quality in the courfe of a day. And the following are the
dimenfions of this tool. The length of the firft bull is four
feet and a half; and the length of the fecond bull three
feet nine inches. The teeth are two feet in length, and
bent near the bottom, in order that they may lie flat on
the earth. The length of the beam is fix feet. And the
length of the iron axle-tree, for the {mall wheels, is one
foot anda half. The length of the iron that fhifts through
the beam, and faftens with a {crew, is two feet.

Many other light tools of the fame defcription have been
lately provided by different implement-makers in different
parts of the country, which are well fitted for particular
ufes in the cultivation of land, and which, by their con-
venience and modes of working, fave much labour and
expence. They are fome of them made with two rows of
fhares, five and four in each, about fix inches in breadth ;
the front ones cutting the inter{paces of the hinder ones,
by which means the work is done in an excellent manner.
The depth of working is regulated by {mall wheels that
let up and down. They prepare bean and other {tubbles
admirably for wheat or any other crops. They are a fort of
tool which is faft getting into general ufe by the farmer.

SCUFFLING in Crops, the practice of putting them
into the foil or ground by mezas of the tool called the
f{cuffe. It is a praétice which has lately been much had
recourfe to in fome heavy, moitt, land diltrifts with great
utility and advantage, and it may probably be employed in
almoft every fort with confiderable benefit, as much time
and labour, in the bufy period of the f{pring, may thereby
be faved; as the ploughing being performed in the leifure
feafon of the autumn, the feed can readily be put into the
ground by the operation of f{cuffling in the early {pring
months. In all cafes where the ftate of the weather, ‘and
the lands that have been ploughed for a barley fallow, or
other purpofe, will not let that grain be put into the
grounds early in the fpring, this may be a good method of
proceeding, as further ploughing, in fuch circumttances,
would be highly dangerous and improper. Such fallows,
or other ploughings, having had the full effeét of the froits,
and the influence of the atmofphere during the whole of the
winter feafon, cannot but be well fitted for the operation of
feuffing at this period, and by that means being made fit
for putting in the feed. The fame will frequently be the
eafe with all other lands which have been ploughed before
the commencement of the winter feafon ; fuch as thofe of
the tare, bean, and pea ftubble kinds, as well as thofe turnip-
lands which have been cleared and ploughed at an early
period, and this method of preparing them for, and putting
in, the feed, may be had recourfe to with great fafety and
advantage. There is no danger in this way of deitroying
the fine furface pulverization and tilth which is fo eflen-
tially neceflary for the reception of the feed, as is often

SCU
done by the ufe of the plough under fuch wet and ua-
favourable circumttances of tillage lands, See Scaripyine,
and TILLAGE.

The working of the furface foil in this manner, and the
relingutfhing of the ufe of the plough in fome meature, is a
great modern improvement in the tillage fyttem, which is
moft fully practifed in Suffolk ; but it is fatl coming into
ufe in other diflri€ts. in Effex fome farmers find it a more
effeétual and cheaper method of cleaning fallows than that
of trutting wholly to the plough. It is alfo found ufeful in
cleaning land for turnips, as well as in lightening the
ground in fly-eaten crops of that fort.

SCULCOATS, in Geography. See Hurt.

SCULION, in Ichthyology, a name given by Ariftotle,
and many others of the ancient writers, to the fith called
by later authors cau/us, and catulus major, and in England
the ounce. :

SCULK, among Hunters, denotes a company; as, a
fenlk of foxes.

SCULL. See Sxutz.

ScuLt- Cap, in Gardening, the common name of a curious
garden plant. See ScureLLarra.

SCULPONE, among the Romans, a kind of thoes
worn by flaves of both fexes. “Chefe fhoes were only
blocks of wood made hollow, like the French /adots.

v SCULPTURE, Lngli/b, is from the Laun, /culptura s
and the verb /culpo, I carve or engrave, which is the fame
as the Greek Tauv@w: therefore baflo-relievo was called
anaglyphic in that language ; which word was alfo under-
{tood for carved reprefentations in general. The Greeks
had other words by which they fignified particular works
of fculpture ; as Eixwyes, images ; and tumos, types, or repre-
Jentations in relief. i

Sculpture is the art of imitating vifible form by means
of folid fubftances, either modelled, as clay or wax, or carved,
as marble. The principles of fculpture and of painting are
both the fame; till painting divides itfelf into a dilting&
branch by the imitation of colour; while {culpture is ex-
prefled by form alone.

Of Hebrew Sculpture—As the bible is the moft ancient
hittory we poflets, thofe initances of the arts of defign
which are mentioned in that facred volume ought to be
noticed, and particularly of {culpture.

The firft mention of images is in Genefis; where Rachel
ftole her father’s gods, which are called Teraphim, or
images. Mention is made alfo in Genefis of Judah’s fignet.

In Exodus, Mofes receives commands and inftructions con-
cerning the tabernacle ; that he fhould caufe it to be made
according to the pattern which was fhewed him on the
Mount. And in order to this, Bezaleel and Aholiab are
infpired with the fpirit of God “to devife cunning works in
gold, and in filver, and in brafs, and in cutting of ftones, and
In carving of timber to work all manner of workmanfhip.’’

The importance of the arts of defign is here particularly
demonttrated by the manner in which Bezaleel and Aholiab
are called, even in the fervice of religion; and filled with
the divine fpirit for their employment in the Tabernacle
and the Ark of the Covenant, as deferibed in the following
patlage by Mofes.

«¢ And Mofes faid unto the children of Ifrael, fee, the Lord
hath called by name Bezaleel, the fon of Uri, the fon of
Hur, of the tribe of Judah. And he hath filled him with
the fpirit of God in wifdom, in underftanding, and in know-
ledge, and in all manner of workmanfhip. And to devife
curious works in gold, and in filver, and in brafs. And in
the cutting of ftones, to fet them, and in carving of wood,
to make any manner of cunning work. And he hath put
: 1t

SCULPTURE,

wt on his heart, that he may teach, both he and Aholiab,
the fon of Ahifamach, of the tribe of Dan. ‘Them hath
he filled with wifdom of heart, to work all manner of work
of the engraver, and of the cunning workman, and of the
embroiderer in blue, and in purple, and in fearlet, and in
fine linen; and of the weaver, even of them that do any
work, and of thofe thar@evife cunning work.”

Such infpired works being ordained, and Mofes coming
down from the Mount to caufe all to be performed accord-
fing to the divine will ; he finds that the people have made

4 calf, crying out, “ ae thy gods, O Ifrael,

thee out of the land gypt.
calf is evidently the Egyptian Orus or Apis.
‘The manner of making the golden calf is thus defcribed
: “I faid unto them, whofoever hath any gold
break it off; fo they gave it me; then I catt it

The golden

Eq
i

into the fire, and out came this calf.’”’ It is alfo faid, « He

received the earrings and gold at their hand, and fathioned

it a aber tool after he had made a molten calf.”
This attempt to annihilate infpired art at its

a grievous judgment, but no more grievous
we tartonsrey for this deliverance from
deliverance of man, both as to his bodily
faculties, from flavery.
the tables of ftone are renewed, that they may
in the ark, Mofes, Bezaleel, and Aholia diner
ut °
ee rae eae ie ired wor
- ‘The tabernacle its curtains ia "hiketed the
it the ark and mercy-feat and their
the table of fhow-bread and the golden candle-
burnt-offerings, and the altar of incenfe ;
the the of Aaron, and his breaft-plate
Gubteicen sad holy crown, axd the garments of the fons of

Whether the cherubims which were woven in the curtains
are to be od fimply as mentioned in
Exodus ; or, ing to the more expanded and poetical
repens Exc accompanied by their dreadful
containing Orion and Pleiades, Mazzaroth and his
ons, Arcturus and the chambers of the fouth, as men-
tioned in Job, Ifaiah, and Amos; like the reprefentations
celeftial 3 the difference wil! be only in their
lefs fplendid defign and ces But the
, more pofitive concerning thofe fculptured
which covered the ark of the teftimony.
And he made the mercy-feat of pure
a half was the lengt theveoh, an

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Mighvvand covered with their wings over the mercy-feat;
their faces one to another; even to the mercy-feat-
the faces of the cherubims.””
as alfo the candleftick and table, and all
ure contained in the tabernacle ; to-
with Aaron’s breaft-plate, a cam each way, four-
. precious ftones, each engraved
ee oT Senet, with the names of the chil-
dren of Ifrael; mut have been worthy of their divine

_ And the neceffity pee infpired feulptures and other

explained fufficiently in the deliver-
ance of Ifracl from the idolatry of Egypt; where no one
; 1

dared vo praGife any art or feience, but that of his fathers y
who, like him, were kept from every todication of individual
charatter, And the Hebrew being born a lave, continued
fo while under the Egyptian yoke; let his infpiration be
what it would, he was compelled to work in making bricks,
and in iron-furnaces. Such then was the deliverance of
art and fcience from deftru@ion, and the earth from returs-
ing to its primeval chaos,

All idolatrous fubttitutes for fine art, wood and flone de-
formitics, God, by the mouth of Mofes, repeatedly com-
mands the children of Ifrael to deftroy, in thefe and the
like words. And deftroy all their pidtures aud deftroy all
their molten images.’’

After the eltablithment of [{rael in Canaan, there are
continual indications of fine art. So early as the fong of
Deborah, we hear of thofe who delineate with the pen or

il of the writer. Gideon deitroys the altar of Baal, but
afterwards himfelf makes an idol. Micah’s mother dedicates
gold and filver to the Lord, to make a graven image and a
molten image; but Micah makes them a houfe of gods,
which he worfhips and caufes others to worfhip, not ufing
them as works of art, but as idols.

We next hear of the image of Dagon, when the ark of
God is taken by the Philitlines ; and of the golden emerods
and golden mice, which were put into a coffer by the fide of
the ark, for a trefpafs-offering.

The image which Michal placed in David’s bed, to de-
ceive Saul’s meflengers, fome fuppofe to have been a flatue
of David; it is called a teraphim.

But the moft magnificent produ¢tion of Hebrew art was
the temple of Solomon. It contained the fame cherubim
that Mofes had feen on the Mount ; and they adorned and
covered the whole temple within and without. ‘Two in par-
ticular were placed in the holy of holies, of coloffal dimen-
fions: they covered the place of the ark with their wings ;
the height of each was ten cubits, and the breadth each
{pread his wings was ten cubits. A figure five yards high
is capable of the greateft efforts at perfeétion in art, and
this no doubt they had, being done by divine command, for
purpofes whofe importance reaches to the end of time.

The brazen fea of Solomon’s temple, and its twelve oxen ;
the two pillars, Jachin and Boaz; the candlefticks of pure
gold, twelve in number; the ten lavers, and their bafes and
wheels, and ornaments of lions and oxen, and cherubim,
works infpired by God and wrought by his holy Spirit, with
the other fublime ornaments of Solomon’s temple, as alfo
Solomon’s throne and its twelve lions. The excellence of
the work mutt be confidered as equal to the purpofe of con-
taining the covenant between God and man, and other dif-
penfations relating thereto.

Thus, the art of f{culpture was not only allowed, but en-
couraged and employed in the fervice of religion, in the re-

refentation of divine attributes or the fymbols of divine
Bi tidesce; and the abufe only of this art was forbidden
when perverted to idolatrous and impious purpofes.

But Sclomen became an idolater : and it is faid, ** then did
Solomon build a high place for Chemoth, the abomination of
Moab, in the hill that is before Jerufalem;.and for Moloch,
the abomination of the children of Ammon.” From this time
fine art and in{piration were fucceflively removed.

It has been thought neceflary to be particular im giving

uotations from the bible concerning the fculpture of the
ebrews, as it is the earlielt of which we have any autheatic
account.

There are found in Syria, in the prefeot time, ruins of
monuments called the fepulchres of the prophets. Thefe re-
mains have nothing like the Egyptian or the Perfian ityle of

conftruGion,

SCULPTURE.

eonftruction, but are of Roman or Grecian origin, and mutt
have been ereéted in an age greatly polterior to the prophets.
This feems to be allowed in the words of our Saviour to the
Pharifees: « Your fathers killed the prophets aud ye build
their fepulchres.”’ -It fhould feem that the Pharifees added
Roman ornaments to the fimple forms of ancient Hebrew
veneration, as is fignified in thefe words. ‘* Ye build the
tombs of the prophets and garnifh the fepulchres of -the
righteous.”

There are engravings of thefe fepulchral monuments, pub-
lifhed by Mr. Cafafs in Paris.

Of Babylonian and Perfian Sculpture, alfo of Afiatic Sculpture
in general.—It may be proper to take only fome general no-
tice of the moft ancient fculpture of other nations of the
Eat, of which our accounts are very imperfeét, previous to
the defcription of Egyptian feulpture, for two reafons ;
it, that the feulptures of thefe uations will have confiderable
light thrown upon them by the Egyptian remains; and,
2dly, becaufe, as the hiftory and examples of Egyptian fculp-
ture are abundant and fucceflive ; they lead us more natu-
rally and accurately to the great obje¢t of our prefent en-
quiry, Grecian {culpture.

In the very ruined ftate of fome, and the utter devaftation
of moft of thofe countries in Afia which were once the
feats of art and fcience, the traveller in vain feeks for me-
morials of Noah, or of Abraham, or of Mofes, or even of
Solomon: all hiftorical record of thefe early times is with-
out corroborative evidence from remaining monuments.

The firft method of tranfmitting ideas to pofterity 1s fup-
pofed to have been by hieroglyphics or ideal writings, whe-
ther painted or fculptured. Such allo was ufed in Mexico
when firft difcovered. All the moft ancient writings ap-
proach to the figurative or ideal writing, every word being
as much as poflible a picture or image. Some of the learned
have thought that the firlt chapters of Genefis were origin-
ally tranfmitted in this way.

How fuch figurative words could have occurred, previous
to the art of ideal writing, cannot be eafily conceived. The
author of a figurative expreffion mutt have a figurative idea
in his mind, and that is a hieroglyphic, which might as well
be painted or fculptured as written, and with infinitely
greater effect on the reader.

The defcriptions of the creation and fall of man, of the
flood of Noah, of the building of Babel, and of the de-

arture of Abraham from Chaldea, are each of them a fub-
ime feries of ideal writing.

After the flood, when men began again to multiply upon
the earth, Nimrod’s followers are faid to have “ builded a city
and a tower, whofe top fhould reach unto heaven.”” ‘The
facred writings do not mention any thing of fculpture in
this building. But Berofus fays, that reprefentations of the
terrific forms that inhabited chaos previous to the creation,
were to be feen on the walls of the temple of Belus in Baby-
lon; and that thefe confifted of human figures with wings,
of human figures with two heads, of others with legs of
goats and with horns ; and that they were executed both in
painting and fculpture.

There are no works of fculptare difcovered in any coun-
try at all to be compared with Greek art. All the great
empires, previous to the age of Pericles, are vamifhed; not
any thing of Nebuchadnezzar, nor of Semiramis, nor of Be-
lus; their names remain in hiftory but not in {culpture, and
it cannot be certified whether the golden image of Nebu-
chadnezzar was merely a coloffus or a work of fine art.

Much lefs can we fpeak of Belus, from any thing that
yemains. Herodotus, in defcribing the temple of Jupiter
Belus in Babylon, fays it is a * {quare building, two ftades

in length on every fide, having gates of brafs, as may be
feen in our time. In the midft of this temple ftands a
{olid tower of one fade in height, and in length and breadth
the fame meafure. On this tower another is built, and a
third upon that, till they make up the number of eight,
The afcent to thefe is by a way carried round the outfide of
the building to the higheit part. In the midit of the afcent
is a place, where thofe who go up may reft themfelves.
Within the uppermolt tower a fpacious dome is built, in
which a table of gold flands, at the fide of a magnificent
bed. No image is deen in this place, but in a chapel which
ttands below within the temple, a large image of gold, re-
prefenting Jupiter fitting, is placed on a throne of gold, by
a table of the fame metal, all together weighing eight hun-
dred talents, as the Chaldeans affirm. Without this chapel
is an altar of goid, and another of a greater fize, which is
ufed when cattle of full age are facrificed ; for on the golden
altar no other than fucking viétims may be offered. On the
great altar the Chaldeans confume yearly a thoufand talents
in incenfe, when they celebrate the feftival of this god.
Befides thele things, a {tatue of folid gold, twelve cubits
high, itood formerly in this temple, which, becaufe J did not
fee, I fhall only relate what I heard from the Chaldeans.
Darius, the fon of Hyttafpes, had defigned to take away
this, but had not courage for this purpofe; but Xerxes, the
fon of Darius, not only took away the itatue, but killed the
prieft who had forbidden him to remove it. In this manner
the temple of Jupiter Belus is built and adorned, not to
mention divers other donations confecrated there by private
perfons.”?

Diodorus Siculus has given a defcription of the works of
queen Semiramis in Babylon. ‘¢ She built two palaces, at the
end of the bridge upon the banks of the Euphrates. That
on the welt had a high and ftately wall, built circular, upon
which were pourtrayed in the bricks, before they were burnt,
the forms of all forts of living creatures, laid with great art
in curious colours. ‘This wall was in circuit forty furlongs,
in height a hundred yards, upon which were turrets a hun-
dred and forty yards high. ‘The third and moft inward wall
immediately {urrounded the palace, thirty furlongs in com-
pats, and tar {urmounted the middle wall both in height and
thicknefs ; and on this wall andthe towers were repretented
the fhapes of all jorts of living creatures, artificially ex-
preffed in the moit lively colours: efpecialty was reprefented
a general hiltory of all forts of wild beatts, each four cubits
high and upwards. Among thele was to be feen Semiramis
on horleback, {triking a leopard through with a dart ; and
next to her, her hufband Ninus, in cloie fight with a lion,
piercing him with a lance. This palace far excelled that on
the other fide of the river, both in greatnefs and adornments,
for the outermo{t wall of that made of well burnt brick,
was but thirty furlongs in circumference. Inttead of the
curious portraiture of bealts, there were the brazen {tatues
of Ninus and Semiramis, the great officers, and of Jupiter,
whom the Babylonians call Belus, and likewife of armies
drawn up in battalia; and diverfe forts of hunting were
there reprefented, to the great diverfion and pleature of
the beholders. In the middle of the city the built a
temple to Jupiter, whom the Babylonians call Belus. Upon
the top fhe placed three ftatues of besten gold, of Jupiter,
Juno, and Rhea. That of Jupiter ftood upright, in the
pofture as if he were walking. He was forty feet in
height, and weighed a thoufand Babylonifh talents. The
ftatue of Rhea was of the fame weight, fitting on a golden
throne, having two lions at her knees, ftanding one on
either fide, and near to them two exceeding great ferpents
of filver; weighing thirty talents a piece. Here praia

the

i

SCULPTURE.

i of Juno flood upright, and weighed eight hun-
Ged ts, grafpin aioe by the bead in her mght
hand, and ga freer, adorned with precious ftones, in
her left,”

But Babylon is now a ruin, nor are the caverns of the
earth found to yield any fra ts of her ancient foulptures.

Among the ruins of the Perfian monarchy, which dilplay
themfelves in melancholy flate amidit the defarts, is Perfe-
polis. The fragments of fculpture that here remain are
very rude, and give an idea of the mere infancy of art,
of gigantic dimenfions. Such are thofe fepulchral
monuments carved on high in the rock mentioned by Ifaiah
in thefe words, “ He that heweth himfelf out a + a
on that graveth an habitation for himfelf in a
ci

The ruins of Perfepolis prefent examples of Perfian {culp-
ture on the wall, and in the portals of its ruined palace,
and alfo on the tombs of its kings. Their apg may be
about the time when Ahafuerus removed the feat o

lis, the
cities of the Perfian empire, and burnt down the palace
which the ruins now remain. are

This palace of Perfepolis has its walls remaining on
three of its fides. The extent of the front comprehends fix
hundred paces, from north to fouth ; it is three hundred and

to
ninety from weft to eaft. On the weft front are two mag-
nificent ftair-cafes, irene! each of two flights of fteps.

ro
s fomewhat like {phynxes,
fore to a : —
; ve t yota
eee
a i i ad human 5,
mnet like a turret. The
als eaftward has two fomewhat fimi-
have wings on their fhoulders, their
ei Ned the fame with the former. And at
a hundred and feyenty feet from this portal are
ike the f "The walls which Len to
ftair-cafes are fix fect feven inches high, of which the
i they were adorned with

relief. The upper

of the flight is embel-
ge, and ae entation of a lion rendin
larger than life, and likewife in low relief.
i feventeen feet in length, three inches high,
and fourteen inches and a half in breadth.

What remain of this palace are chiefly pillars and porticoes,
the pillars being fluted, having bafes and capitals of uncouth
ornament, of fometimes an animal’s head and neck, and
fometimes ornaments like Gothic arches. All the upper part

i
He
it
gFE
F
z

.
i

rere eter iii
Ee ree
al dau 1
He
el pit

of the building is entirely deftroyed, and what remain of

conne@tion with Some of the columns are 70
feet high, and been as numerous as 76 in a range,
a oy few remain, and thofe terribly

other ruined portals are ornamented with figures
in the infides of oot sar of rude grandeur: on one

alion; on another; a man fight-

eh see nerenney Which ‘havo fale
= 5

Tegra gon erred ony aon ath gu ikea

king, with two figures behind him, one with a parafol, the
other with a fea-horfe’s tail, which being fet in s gold
handle, is ufed in Perfia at the prefent time to drive away
flies. Over his head, in the air, is a little figure on eagle's
wings, perhaps a god or a genius. Another portal has «
great many figures in different compartments, one above the
other: in the top compartment is a igure fitting on a throne:
on another ruined pilatter, which was once the fide of a door-
way, isa figure fitting on a throne, and behind him an at-
tendant ; beneath, in three compartments, are many little
figures much defaced. Other pilaflers have had other orna-
ments, and unknown charatters of letters fhaped, like the
heads of arrows, difpofed in different direGions and in dif-
ferent combinations. The windows of thefe ruins, fome of
which remain, were ornamented alfo with feulptures in the
fame manner as the doors. One that remains has a mao
holding an animal by the horn, which is fingle and very long,
and bending backwards; before them cae a figure of a
man with fomething in his hand, like a facrificing inttrument ;
other windews have alfo the fame unknown charaGters of
letters engraved on their fides.

The ftair-cafes are half buried in the earth, and toward
the top very much broken ; they have each two flights of
fteps with landing places between, the walls of which, and
of the flair-cafes, have been ornamented with {culpture, in
two ranges, one above theother. The firfl fix figures at the
entrance are {maller than the reft, and have large veflments
with plaited fleeves, and a round bonnet rifing in plaits, and
i in the upper than in the lower part ; they have hair
and long beards ; each holds a lance, and a quiver of arrows
is faftened at their back with a {trap carried over the fhoulder.

The fi which is next in order, precedes a train of others ;
he holds the next by the left hand, and grafps a fork with the
right. It feems to reprefent an ecclefialtic at the head of a

proceffion of others ; he is likewife arrayed in a large robe,
with a girdle hanging down very low. The three figures by
which thefe are fucceeded have fhorter robes and fleeves,
with upper and under vets, and pointed bonnets formed into
five plaits: thefe are properly the tiaras, called alfo re-
flexa, floped into a curve backwards, contrary to the tiara
Phrygia, which are bent forwards. Two of thefe figures
hold a bafin in each hand; a figure following them has two
hoops or circles in his hauds. This is followed by two
horfes drawing a chariot, and by two other figures that
place their left hands, one on the back, the other on the neck
of the horfes. ‘They are all reprefented with hair and beards ;
the two lait bare-headed, the other has a bandage or diadem.
Between each compartment of fix or feven figures, is a
kind of vafe, and the two firft figures always hold each other
bythehand. A horfe,led by the bridle, follows the two firit
figures in the fecond compartment ; three figures following
this, one of which bears fomething that refembles a veitment.
In the third compartment are five figures with little bafins
or buckets, and two others with balls or globes, Thofe in
the fourth compartment are not habited fo well as the others,
having only a very ftraight veft, with a cin€ture, and long
drawers, which are ftraight and plaited: three of thele
figures have alfo bafius or little buckets in their hands, and
are followed by a camel, having two hunches on his back,
with a little bell hung round his neck, after the manner of
eaftern caravans, that the found may be heard at a dif-
tance, efpecially when they pafs through narrow defiles; to
give notice alfo to the juhabitants of the caravan’s arrival;
itisa fi likewife to thofe who have loft their way, and
enables t to join their companions. The laft compart-
ment is diftinguifhed by a figure bearing a pole, with a pot
fufpended at each extremity ; and in each of thefe “a

SCULPTURE.

feen little water veffels in an upright pofition: the habit of
this figure is but indifferent. A mule, or an afs, is repre-
fented next, with two men armed with poles, followed by
another figure bearing two mallets. Several other characters
appear next, and laft of all a great lion encountering a bull,
or fome other animal, from whofe forehead a fingle horn is
extended.

There are forty-eight figures of men and beafts in this
range, and as many in that above it, which confilts of the
following figures. The firlt fix of thefe are meanly habited ;
each of them has fome veltment in his‘hand. Thofe that
follow carry the fame, but are better arrayed. Mott of them
are greatly impaired by time. Thefe are followed by an ox
led with a halter. The only difference between this and the
third compartment is, that in the latter, twe rams are led,
and each has a large crooked defle&ted horn. After thefe
appears a figure armed with a buckler, and another leading
a horfe by the bridle, followed by a third with two hoops:
the other three are habited like the preceding figures. Next
comes a led ox, followed by a man armed with a lance and
fhield, behind whom appears two other figures, each with
three lances, and their fleeves longer than their veits. The
laft figures that follow have very fhort vefts, with drawers
that are long and {traight, which come down to their feet ;
they are armed with long bucklers hanging at the girdles of
their waifts ; two of them have hoops in their hands, and a
third a fork ; they are followed by a horfe led by the bridle.

Such are the figures on this ftair-cafe. ‘Toward the weft
fide, and toward the eaft fide, are as follow. T'wenty-eight
figures, each grafping a lance with both hands ; their vefts
are long and wide, and they are reprefented with hair and
beards, and feem to be bare-headed, unlefs we may fuppofe
them to wear a plaited bandage, or kind of diadem. Thefe
are fucceeded by a number of other figures, armed with long
bucklers, which are pointed and bent at one end, with a
fhort broad dagger hung at their girdles: their vefts are of
unequal lengths; hey are like the laft figures in the drefs of
their heads; they have alfo fome ornament in one hand, and
the other is placed upon their beard. This range confifted of
fixty figures, the laft of which are defaced. All thefe figures
feem to reprefent fome triumph, or proceffion of people
bearing prefents to the king, which was cuftomary under the
ancient monarchs of Perfia, and is practifed at this day.

A traveller counted 1300 figures of men and animals re-
Maining in this great ruin.

There is another immenfe ruin in the defarts of the an-
cient empire, called Palmyra or Tadmor, faid, in the Book
of Kings, to be built by Solomon. The prefent ruins of
this great city are very different from thofe of Perfepolis,
and indicate a much more modern conftruction ; and that if
Solomon originally built this city, the Roman emperors, and
particularly Adrian, fo far re-edified it as to leave no traces
‘of greater antiquity.

As the remains of Palmyra, though vaft and ftately, are
more properly archite€tural than fculptural, we fhall refer
the reader, to fatisfy further curiofity concerning them, to
the admirable work of Wood and Dawkins ; for whatever
remarks might be requifite on the fculptures of Palmyra,
would more properly belong to obfervations on that fubjeé
in the feGtion of Roman fculpture. See Pazmyra.

Balbec, near the {cite of the ancient Damafcus, is another
ruin of the fame defcription. (See Batsrc.) As for thofe
Many great cities mentioned by the Hebrew prophets as
flourifhing in their time in magnificence and riches, the places
of fome of them cannot be found, fuch as Teman, the capital
of Edom, and the cities of Moab and Ammon, of Afhur
and Aram ; fome are dwindled into little villages, and moft

have left no traces in the defart where they might be found.
With regard to Hefhbon and Rabbath, and Bozra and Ha-
math, all the mighty cities defcribed by Ifaiah and Ezekiel,
as filled with multitudes in power, riches, and magnificence ;
the cormorant and the bittern poflefs them, the wolf howls
there, and the wild beafts inhabit thofe forfaken places,
where ancient kings and their counfellors, and warriors,
thought they had built an everlafting habitation ; even Ni-
neveh and Damafcus are now indeed no more ; they are, ag
the prophets faid, ** gone down into the nether parts of the
earth,” nor does hiftory deign to tell their tale.

And of the ancient Tyre, and its Hercules of ancient
Tyrian art, there are no remains. Herodotus fays, «I failed
to Tyre, in Pheenicia, becaufe I heard there was a temple
dedicated to Hercules, That temple I faw, enriched with
many magnificent donations, and, among others, with two
pillars, one of fine gold, the other made of a fmaragdus,
which fhines by night in a furprifing manner.’

The Tyrian Hercules, or god of eres is thus defcribed
by the prophet Ezekiel. « Every precious ftone was thy
covering, the fardius, the topaz, and diamond, the beryl,
onyx, and jafper, the fapphire, the emerald, the carbuncle,
and gold. The workmanfhip of thy tabrets and pipes was
prepared in thee in the day that thou waft created. Thou
art the anointed cherub that covereft, and I have fet thee fo;
thou waft upon the holy mountain of God, and thou haft
walked up and down among the ftones of fire.”

It looks as if there was fome omiffien in the account He-
rodotus gives of this temple of Hercules, in Tyre. Hero-
dotus, indeed, faw this temple after the ruin of Tyre by Ne-
buchadnezzar, confequently not in its glory, as Ezekiel had
feen it ; he has defcribed the pillars as itones of fire, but he
has not faid any thing of the god; perhaps, in his time, the
ftatue of Hercules had been taken away by mercenary
cupidity, as the {ftatue of gold in Babylon had been removed
by Xerxes. Such isthe melancholy picture of ancient times,
the fulfilment of the denunciations againft thefe ancient
empires ; ‘¢they utter a faint murmur out of the duit.”

As there isa general refemblance in the early attempts at
fine art in different nations; fo there may be a likenefs
traced between the produétions of Hindeo {culpture and the
early produétions of art in Egypt, Greece, and Etruria;
however, we muft always remember that the accurate ob-
fervations made by the Greeks on beautiful nature, affifted
by the regular progrefs in fcience, foon gave their produ€tions
a decided fuperiority over thofe of every ether people.

The caverns of Elephantis and Ellora are vaft halls exca-
vated in the rocks, equal in dimenfions to the large temples
of other nations.

That of Ellora is archite€turally divided, by rows of
columns, into aifles; the friezes, and pannels in the walls,
are filled with fculpture, detached, or in feries, of the my-
thological perfonages, and a¢ts of the Brahmin religion.

The fculpture of Elephantis is of the fame kind, with
the addition, at one end of the temple, of a coloffal buft of
the triple-faced Bramah.

The columns of thefe temples offer a continual variety of
ornaments in their capitals, fhafts, and bafes; redundant and

‘extraordinary for the application of the lotus, canes, and

other vegetable and animal produétions of the country, in
which the human figure is occafionally introduced.

On the banks of the Ganges are continually feen fuch
ancient works of fculpture in the living rock, of inferior
dimenfions, but of the fame facred chara¢ter, obelifks mag-
nificently adorned, the figures of oxen, horfes, tygers, ele-
phants, &c.

The neceflity of haftening to the great object of our

10 prefent

me

SCULPTURE,

t enquiry, Grecian feulpture, makes it impaflible to

more than refer to examples for Hindoo foulprure, as
they are fo tly difplayed by Mr. Daniel among thofe
fupendous ings of the Eaft, which, in his exa¢t repre-
fentations, have not only honoured our own country, but

have gratified every lover of art throughout Europe.
of ian Art.—Egypt, the land of {cience, was vilited
by the moit diftinguithed of the Greeks in arts and letters,
whom we find more efpecially the names of Orpheus,
Linus, Homer, "Thales, Pythagoras, Plato, and
others of diftinguifhed wifdom ; all went to Egypt, as to
the wifeft nation of antiquity, for inftruction, ‘The earlieft

hiftorian, Herodotus, went alfo, and has given an account

of this inary country. He fays, that in the time
of their king Amalis, Egypt contained 20,000 populous
cities, The remains, at this prefent time, as defcribed by

the lateft travellers, are more ftupendous than thofe of any
country, 2s five vaft palaces and thirty-four temples,
with their attendant feulptures and pe ey. though de-
vaitated by the tempeit een deluge after deluge, (tll the
colofial power of Egypt has a remnant left to teltify what
was.
Herodotus fays, on the autherity of the Egyptian pricits
SrA tie piiligrmts Alcerioen regres thos bended
w t un
i ys Soa Aad thefe was a woman, named Nito-
i actions of thefe kings, he was told, no record
remained, except of Nitocris, and of Merris, the laft of thefe
He fays, I thall, therefore, pafs them by, to relate
memorable actions of a { ng king, whofe name
is. That he uered all nations, and caufed
in the countries that he
His fi is five palms
a bow in one hand, an arrow in the
tian and Ethiopian manner
one fhoulder to the other, thefe
words are engraved in the facred letters of Egypt: “ I ob-

tained this regi ony ay age renal
After Sefoltris reigned fix ings. Statues made in the

Se eens feeeithe yes cf she world ayeo. When
Herodotus faw them, the hands had dropt off through age,
and were lying on the floor of the temple. Afterwards
fucceffion four kings, who were fucceeded by
kings, all reigm one time over Egypt, who

ig at
built the i inth which Herodotus defcribes.
Thefe nt oo by four more kings in fucceflion ; but

by a ki Ss.
f Amafis, as defcribed by Herodotus, are
thofe whofe ruins remain to this day. Hero-
that Amatis was a great lever of the Grecians,
them to eftablifh themfelves in Egypt, and
the gods. o took a

Feeq|iitr.
i
:

AEE 48

He
tt confecrated donations to Greece,
a upided ftatue of Minerva to the city of Cyrene,

Greeks, with his own refemblance taken
To Lindus he gave two ittatues of ftone,

i co yaa Tally gr elgg we $
pax pyr St workmanship. “i

e fent two ftatues of

j

i
5
gh

author fays, this day they are feen ftanding in the t

xy 7 of Juno, behind the gates. age No gg
is works in t Herodotus thus deferibes. “ He

‘caufed a coloffus, i

with a face upwards, 74 feet in
belore the temple of Vulcan at Mem-
fame bafis erected two ftatues, of 20 feet

each, wrought out of the fame flone, and landing on each
fide of the great coloffus, Like this, another is feen in Sais,
lying in the fame pofture, cut in flone, of equal dimerfions,
He likewife built the great temple of Ifis, in the city of
Memphis, which well Dees to be admired.

“ He built the sdmirable portico, which flands before the
temple of Minerva in Sais; far furpafling all others in cir-
cumference and elevation, as well as in the dimenfious of the
flones ; and adorned the building with coloffal fatues, and
the monftrous figures of androfphynxes. One part of the
ftenes employed in this work were cut in the quarries of
Memphis; but thofe of the greatefl magnitude were con-
veyed by water from the city of Elephantis, diftant from
Sais as oe as a veflel can make in twenty days. But that
which I beheld with the greateft admiratyon was a houfe he
brought from Elephantis, made of one flone. Two thou.
fand men, all pilots, were employed during three whole
years in the tranfportation of this houfe, which is in front
twenty-one cubits, in depth fourteen, and eight in height.
This 1s the dimenfion of the outfide.”’

Such works are afcribed to Amafis, who was conquered
by Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus the Perfian, about the year
of the world 3400, a hundred years before Herodotus; fo
that 500 years will remain to be occupied in Egyptian hif-
tory, from Sefoftris to Amafis ; and within this time, thofe
Egyytes buildings and’ works of fculpture, which the
priefts reprefented to Herodotus as fo very ancient, might
eafily have been produced.

Thus a divifion is made between the fabulous and the hif-
toric ages, both in Egypt and Greece; and a decided era

roduced, which will not infringe on the truth of facred

cripture, nor on the credibility eh Secs Gentile hiftory ;
and by a comparifon of the remaining monuments, it may
give fome date to the early works of Egypt and Greece.

The moderns have been no lefs zealous to examine the re-
maining ruins of Egypt, than the ancients were to con-
template its ancient glories.

Of thefe wrecks, thefe ruins of ancient knowledge, the
late publications of Egyptian antiquities give majeitic and
awful ideas. Some of the drawings made by the French
Inftitute in Egypt have been publithed, and they difplay
what Egypt once was.

The ruins of Egypt are contained in a compafs of about
550 miles alon banks of the Nile, among pyramids,
and pillars, and porticoes, and fubterranean palaces hewa
out for the dead.

The firft obje&ts of Egyptian f{culpture that feize hold
on the imagination are the coloffal ftatues: among thefe are
the fphynx, and the ftatues called Memnon er Olymandue.
The a ae is fituated fo near the pyramids of Giza, as to
make it apparent that thofe mafles of folid bulk were ac-
peste by other mafles of ornamental fculpture; aod
being divefted of their gigantic accompaniments of intel-
le€tual labour, the p ids are left alone, inexplicable
monuments of loft wifdom as well as departed power.

The fphynx is thus defcribed by Ripaud: the length of
the rock, to which the form of this chimerical animal has
been given, is about g5 feet; its height from the knees to
the top of the head is 38 feet. The ancients very generally
believed that there was a paflage in the body of the {phynx,
which led by fubterranevus channels to the interior of the
pyramid. It is ftill conjeétured that, beneath thefe enofe
mous mafles, caverns have been dug, which fome fuppor-
to have been employed in the myfteries of imitiation. On
the head of the {phynx there is a hole five feet in depth; and
it may even extend further. There are alfo appearances of
another opening of the fame mand on the back of the figure

2

SCULPTURE.

The head of the {phynx bears the lineaments of a Negro.
It is deprived of the nofe.

Of this monument Denon fays: although the proportions
of the {phynx are coloffal, the contours are free and pure ;
the expreflion of the head is {weet, graceful, and tranquil.
It is the charaéter of an African; the mouth and lips thick,
with a foftnefs in its movements, and a finefle in its execu-
tion, truly admirable: it is the flefh and the life. At
whatever time this was produced, art was without doubt in
a high degree of perfection. If there is wanting in this
head that which we call ftyle, that is to fay, thofe forms,
juft and exalted, which the Greeks have given to their
divinities ; it is but juftice to acknowledge, that there is no
great and {weet charaéter of nature which we cannot admire
in this figure: if we are furprifed at the dimenfions of this
monument, no lefs are we aftonifhed at its execution.

The temples of Karnac and Luxor, on the right bank of
the Nile, together with thofe of Medinet Abou and the
Memnonium on the left bank, are fuppofed to occupy the
fituation of the ancient city of Thebes. The ruins of thefe
temples are of vait extent. The palace of Karnac was in
front 240 feet, and its depth near three-quarters of a mile.
It confitted of four great courts of nearly equal dimenfions,
comprehended within a long f{quare: the firlt court was oc-
cupied by four rows of columns; the fecond court had
130 columns, the largeft 11 feet in diameter, the {malleit
7 feet; the third court-was adorned with obelifks go feet
high, and coloffal ftatues, furrounded by various royal
apartments. On each fide of the entrance to the fourth
court was a faloon of granite: the reft of the {pace was
occupied by porticoes, colonnades, and numerous chambers
for officers and attendants. ‘This palace, with four de-
pendant {tru€tures of fimilar Py ae but inferior pro-
portions, was approached by four paved roads, bordered
on each fide with figures of animals, each 15 feet long. In
one avenue were go lions; in another avenue, {phynxes; in
another, rams; and in the fourth, lions with hawks’ heads.
From the ruined ftate of thefe avenues, we have no com-
putation of the number of animals by which they were bor-
dered ; though it is almoft certain that they were not fewer
than 300, and it is poflible they might be many more. In
this palace 22 coloffal {tatues flill remain, and a great many
ftatues of granite, and fragments of the fize of nature; be-
fides which, the walls were nearly covered within and with-
out with baffo relievos and pi€tures. The lefler ftructures
in this group of buildings were adorned in the fame manner,
and communicated with the other palaces of Luxor and
Medinet Abou, as well as the Memnonium, which was the
magnificent tomb of Ofymandue or Memnon.

The Memnonium looks to the eait: it is a palace of the
moft ancient con{truétion, and its dimenfions alfo coloffal.
In one of its courts are feen the remains of the celebrated
ftatue of red granite, which may be confidered as that of
Memnon. Its height was 64 feet, and its remains are {cat-
tered 40 feet around it. One of its feet fubfifts almoft en-
tire, whofe breadth is 44 feet ; and one of its ears meafured
39 inches in length. ‘The excavations are ftill viible, where
the wedges were placed which divided the monument, when
it was thrown down by Cambyfes.

Between the Memnonium and Medinet Abou, and dif-
tant about half a league from each of them, are the remains
of a great number of coloffal ftatues and traces of buildings,
which indicate that thefe two places communicated with
each other by ftru€tures which filled up the whole {pace
between them. This mefs of edifices appears to have com-
pofed, according to Diodorus Siculus, the tomb of Memnon
or Ofymandue, We are confirmed in this conjecture, by the

conformity which exifts between the monuments in thei:
prefent ftate, and the extenfive as well as precife defcrip-
tions which that writer has left of pi€tures which are found
in both palaces, They reprefent the fieges of fortified
towns, hoftile invafions, and viétories: obtained by the
Egyptians.

The Memnonium has not been finifhed, as well as the
greater part of Egyptian works, where, by the fide of ob-
jeé&ts but roughly hewn, are feen examples of exquifite
finifhing. Between the Memnonium and the palace of
Medinet Abou are the largeft coloffal ftatues which now
remain in Egypt: thefe are the figures now called Memnon.
They are both fitting, with their heads looking ftraight
forwards; both their hands lying equally on their knees ;
their feet ftraight forward, and their legs in an upright
pofition, and both alike. One of thefe, according to the
defcriptions in Diodorus and Strabo, and thofe who copy
their writings, was the famous ftatue of Ofymandue, the
largeft of all the coloffes. The height of them is about
58 feet. Three {maller female figures accompany each of
the coloffal ftatues, which are ftanding one on each fide of
the chair, and one between the legs of the principal figure :.
thefe are in baflo relievo ; and that on the pedeital or chair
of the fouthern figure wants no charm of delicacy in the
execution. It is on the leg of that figure, towards the
north, on which the infcriptions are written of thofe illuf-
trious ancient travellers who vifited the ftatue of Memnon:
there are innumerable infcriptions of names of all dates, and
in all languages.

But Denon gives it as his opinion, which is alfo that of
Ripaud, that the two ftatues now itanding are the mother
and fon of Ofymandue; the figure of Ofymandue itfelf
now lying in ruins, as was before defcribed.

The great temples of Hermopolis; the great city of
Mercury ; of Tentyris, or Dendera; of Latopolis; of
Karnac ; of Apollinopolis, or Edfu ; of the iflands of Philae,
and of Elephantine ; are all now in ruins, covered with re-
maining examples of Egyptian fculpture, both in ftatues
and in hieroglyphical. reprefentation, on the walls, and.on
the pillars and porticoes, within and without ; many of
which are works of great labour and care, as well as intelli-
gence in art.

M. Ripaud fays, the execution of the figures engraved
on the exterior and interior walls at Dendera, is an example
of the higheft point of perfe€tion to which the Egyptians
attained. All the minutiz of their drefs are finifhed with a
purity and delicacy moft admirable, confidering the imprac-
ticability of the ftone. The elevation of this temple is 72
paces in breadth, and 145 in length ; the portico is 60 paces
in length, and 30 in breadth. Its moft remarkable decora-
tion is the great zodiac, divided into two bands ; it enriches
the cieling of the two laft intercolumniations to the right and
left. The faloon fucceeds to the portico, and is fupported
by fix columns, whofe capitals difplay four figures of Iifis,
with the ears of a cat. The compartments of the walls are
decorated with pi€tures, an which is a great number of
female figures.

On the terrace of the great temple is a {mail one, the
columns of which are like thofe of the portico: this temple
forms a {quare of nine feet, and is the portico of a chapel,
of which there are no traces. In the inner part of the
temple is an apartment, which is adorned with a zodiac ;
it is circular, and occupies one-half of the cieling. The
apartment appears to be confecrated to aftronomy. It is
feparated from another aftronomical {culpture by a female
figure in bas relief, of a large fize, occupying the whole
diameter of the cieling ; it prefents a contour eafy, and of

beautiful

EE ———

ruined.
Efne

The
inferior to any in Egypt; they are likewife

SCULPTURE.

beautiful proportions ; its feet, well preferred, are in a beau-
tiful ftyle; it does not prefent any attribute, except a col-
lar, which is often feen on figures of Ifis; the hair is curled,
and falls on each fide of the face ; and on each fide of this
figure are hicrogly phical esgh ern

At Luxor, which is part of ancient Thebes, are the re-
mains of a palace, having in its front two obelifks of granite ;
their height is feventy feet above the earth, Near thefe are
two coloflal figures \

ate;
they are covered with feulptures reprefenting chariots drawn
by two horfes, each having only one conductor.
It is remarkable, that neither the coloffal figures, nor the
monuments, are on a line with each other, nor with the gate ;
alfo, they are fo clofe together, that the diftance between
the moles and the obelifks, comprehending the coloffal fta-
tues between them, is but eleven paces; each of which ob-
jeéts in an infulated pofition, would altonith the bebolder
with its fize.

The temple ee sretts wnt gosfearsict a7 Bhs, wtih
delivery from hon is feulptured on the walls in baffo
relievo ; it is i Lamerlied elegant ftruéture, but dreadfully

» the ancient Latopolis, has a temple, the portico of
which is in good prefervation ; it was dedicated to Jupiter
Ammon, as appears from a medallion over the gate in the
inner part of the ruin. The hieroglyphics aad pitures re-
prefent a number of facrifices Hered to this deity, and
to rams, h’s emblems: the molt curious of thefe reprefent
the offerings made to crocodiles, and the worfhip of the

Egyptian architecture difplays itfelf with fupreme magnifi-
cence. It was dedicated to Horus, the Apollo of the Greeks.
Here it is that the huge materials have been employed with
the greateft care, though — of oo gra have not been
placed perpendicu on their capi and feveral of the
oo ig pee lp ening The drawing of the
figures is corre€t, and there is fome appearance even of
perfpeétive in the ftatues of Ifis, that decorate the frieze of

feulpture is particularly beautiful in the capitals of
columns that decorate this temple, every one different,
but every one beautiful; they are rye ek a in the
com

pofition of their ornaments, and perhaps equally ex-
cellent with the admired Corinthian, or Lonic. -
temples at Elephantine and Philae are by no means

fculptures and paintings of the moft perfeG Egyptian work-
manthip.

But the abodes of the dead were particular! diftinguithed
by the care of the ancient Egyptians, All the Lybian
mountain, which is half a leayue to the welt of the Mem.
nonium, and ends oppofite to Medinet Abou, is pierced from
its bafe to three-fourths of its elevation, with a great number
of fepulchral grottoes. ‘Thote which are neareit the furface
of the sete are moft {pacious, as well as the molt de-
corated ; thofe which are in the molt elevated part of the
mountain, are much more rudely contrived vo quieter
while fuch as hold the middle place bear an adjutted pro-
portion of {pace and ornament. Thhofe which belong to the
lee are the moit interefting, becaufe they alwaye contain
ome reprefentation of the arts which flourithed, and the
trades which were practifed at that epocha. The plan of
thefe grottoes is in a great meafure the fame. A door open-
ing towards the ealt difplays a gallery of about tweuty feet
ia lena; fometimes formed in a ttraight line; at other times
it runs off from the entrance in an angle : it is indifferently
fupported by columns or pilaiters. At the extremity of the
gallery is a well that leads to the catacombs, where the
mummies are depofited, The depth of thefe wells varies
from forty to fixty feet; and they are conneéted by lon
{ubterraneous paflages rudely fhaped in the rock, whi
terminate in a chamber of about thirty feet {quare, whofe
fides are fupported by pilafters, and contain large remains of
the mummies. There are evident traces of numerous other
fubterraneous communications, which probably lead to other
chambers that are at prefent concealed.

In the upper gallery are fculptured in baffo relievo, or
ainted in frefco, a great number of fubje¢ts relating to
uneral ceremonies. The mott interelting pictures which are

feen there, prefent a detail of circumitances conneéted with
the ancient inhabitants of the country. There are repre-
fented their firit occupations, fuch as the chafe and the
fifhery. Thence we may trace the progrefs of civilization
in the employments of the fadler, the cartwright, the potter,
the money-lender, the hufbandman, and in the duties and
the punifhments cf the military life. Each grotto is adorned
with a cieling painted with fubjeéts of fancy.

The tombs of the kings are about fix thoufand four hun-
dred paces from the river. They have been formed in a
narrow valley in the centre of the Lybian mountain. The
ancient way thither is not known, and the {pot is now gained
by an artificial paflage. Thefe fepulchres occupy a large
ravine, which is fanked by the bed of a torrent. The plan
of one of thefe tombs will be fufficient to explain the general
difpofition of the reft.

Every grot communicates with the valley by a large gate,
which opens to a gallery hollowed in the rock ; its breadth
and height are generally about twelve feet, and its length is
twenty paces to a fecond gate, which opens to another
gall of the fame breadth, and twenty-four feet in length.

“o the right and left of this gallery are chambers of five feet
in breadth, and ten feet long. There are found paintings of
arms of coats of mail, tygers’ fkins, bows, arrows, {werds,
lances, and quivers. In other fepulchral chambers are found
houfehold utenfils, couches, chairs, ftools, cabinets of ex-
quifite forms; and if the artift has copied what exifted,
it is certain that the ancient Egyptians employed the wood of
India carved and gilded ; there are alfo other utenfils 7
elegant, as cups and veffels m all variety. Other fu
chambers are confecrated to agriculture; others to the
utenfils of the ploughman ; others to inftruments of mufic

elegantly executed. The detail of preparing food is alfo
there reprefented.

It

SCULPTURE.

It is in one of thefe chambers where are feen the two
harps which were copied by Bruce. A third gallery fuc-
ceeds, of the fame dimentions as the former, and leads to a
chamber above the level of the other apartments, which is
eighteen feet {quare ; from this chamber is the entrance to a
gallery of thirty-four paces in length. There is alfo an in-
clining gallery, whofe length is twenty-eight paces. At its
extremity is a corridor of fixteen paces, leading to a cham-
ber of eleven paces, which is connected with another of the
fame fize, by a gallery of fix paces: a {quare faloon then
fucceeds, fupported by eight pillars; its length is twenty
paces, and its breadth twenty: here is the farcophagus
which contained the mummy of the ning. The Romans
made fome attempts to carry away this farcophagus’ from
the grotto where it is depofited ; they had even tried to level
the ground in order to facilitate its removal, but they very
foon renounced the impratticable enterprize.

To the faloon of the farcophagus another apartment fuc-
ceeds, of twenty-five paces in breadth, and forty in length;
the height of the tomb is feven feet, its length eight, and
its breadth fix ; the total length of the gallery is two hun-
dred and twenty-five paces. The tombs of the kings,

throughout their whole extent, are covered with pictures,

and hieroglyphics, but the greater part are painted in frefco,
and reprefent the moft phantaitic fubje&ts. The refearches
into Herculaneum have difcovered a great number of paint-
ings executed in a fimilar taite.

One of the molt interefting of thefe grottoes contains a
farcophagns that is {till entire, and in its place; its length
is fixteen feet, and height twelve, and its breadth fix;
it {till preferves the lid adorned with the figure of the king,
which is a fingle block of granite. How this was tranf-
ported acrofs the mountain, and afterwards introduced
through a fubterraneous paflage two hundred paces in
length, we can have no conception.

“From the time of Strabo there were reckoned feventeen
tombs of kings; and we fhall {till find the fame number, if
we may comprehend in this enumeration a fuperb grotto,
whofe plan is equally large and beautiful with that of the
fepulchres of the Theban fovereigns.

This grotto is half a league to the north of the Mem-
nonium, and is fcooped out at the bottom of a mountain,
whofe enclofure contains many other tombs: the entrance
of feveral of them is clofed, but the greater part of them have
been violated. It appears that thofe of the ancient Egyptians,
who had remained faithful to their worfhip, endeavoured to
conceal the knowledge of the fepulchres of their kings from
their conquerors, or from the profeffors of other religions.

Two of thefe-grottoes remain unfinifhed, and a third is
altogether without fculpture ; and fome others offer to view
feveral decorative objeéts in a very unfinifhed ftate.

The quarries of Silfilis, in Upper Egypt, prefent a {pecies
of fagade cut into door-ways of immenfe fize, and por-
ticoes, in which are other door-ways leading into tombs, in
the chambers and paflages of which are figures as large as
life, cut in the native rock, often only rough hewn, and
the walls are both fculptured and painted. On the borders
of the Nile we find thefe porticoes, entablatures, and cor-
niches covered with hieroglyphics cutintherock. Beneath
thefe are a great number of tombs, all cut in the rock.
They are formed into galleries, at the end of which are
funeral chambers of feven feet byten and eight feet by twelve:
thefe chambers, and the paflages leading to them, are orna-
mented with hieroglyphics traced upon the rock, and finifhed
with coloured ftucco, reprefenting offerings; the cielings
are alfo ftuccoed with ornaments and fcrolls; often they
are arched with an elegant elliptical arch, and painted and

fculptured in an exquifite ftyle, difplaying an agreeable
affortment of colours, and an effe& rich and graceful,

Mott of the tombs are entered by a fingle door and gals
lery, and have only a fingle chamber, in which are one, twos
three, or four figures as large as life, cut out of the rock,
perhaps two brothers and their wives: the men fit in the
middle and the women on the outfide, with their hands pafled
under the arms of their hufbands, who fit each with their
arms acrofs upon their bofoms. Some tombs have but one
figure, perhaps of one who led a fingle life; another has
three figures, a manand two women; the man in the centre
and the women on each fide, with their hands pafled under
the arms of the man, who has his arms crofled upon his
bofom. The figures of men have little {quare beards, with
head-dreffes hanging down behind the fhoulders; thofe of
women have the fame head-drefles, but hanging before their
naked breafts. In fome chambers the floor is cut into many
tombs, of dimenfion and form to receive the mummies, and
in the fame number as the feulptured figures. Sometimes
the principal figure holds the flower of the lotus, an emblem
of death. And on the fide of the door-way, at the entrance,
we often fee the figure of a woman in fome attitude of
lamentation. Sometimes there are two galleries or entrancse
into a fingle tomb; and one tomb in thefe quarries of Sil-
filis, the largeft and beft preferved of any, is 55 feet long
in front and 15 high, with an entablature having five doors :
the middle door is ornamented with an architrave covered
with hieroglyphics: within the door is a gallery or paflage
50 feet long and ro wide, in the midft of which is an-
other door-way leading to a chamber, at the further end
of which are feven figures ftanding ; and on the infide of
the interior door are two niches, in each of which is a
figure alfo ftanding: other figures are alfo in the paflage or
gallery, all cut in the rock. In the fagade withoutfide are
{even niches, three large with figures, the others fmaller;
thofe with the figures are all cut in the rock, the reft of
the rock remaining in its primitive form.

Such are the ruins of a nation fo celebrated, that it was
the place where the wife men of that truly wife people,
the Grecians, reforted as to the f{chool of fcience.

The univerfal and profufe employment of fculpture by
the Egyptians, both in coloffal and minute dimenfion, for
public and domettic purpofes, for the fervice of the living
and the dead, all induce us to enquire into the principles
and quality of their produétions.

We have not only the written evidence of ancient authors,
but the demonftrative evidence of remaining works, that
almoft the whole of Egyptian feulpture was facred, that
is, reprefenting divine qualities, attributes, and perfonifica-
tions, if we except the hittorical feries on their tombs and
palaces. ;

The Egyptian ftatues ftand equally poifed upon the two
legs, having one foot advanced, and the arms either hanging
ftraight down each fide; or if one arm is raifed, it is at a
right angle acrofs the body. Some ftatues fit on feats,
fome on the ground, and fome are kneeling ; but the pofi-
tions of their hands feldom vary from the above defcription.
Their attitudes are of courfe fimply reétilinear, and with-
out lateral movement ; their faces are flattifh ; the eyebrows,
eyelids, and mouths formed of fimple curves, flightly but
fharply marked, and with little expreflion. The general pro-
portions are fomething more than feven heads high; the
form of the body and limbs rather round and effeminate,
with only the moft evident projeétions and hollows: their
tunics or other draperies are without folds in many in-
ftances. Winckelman has cemarked, that the Egyptians ex-
ecuted quadrupeds better than human figures, for which

he

he gives the two following reafons: firl, that as profellions
Eiaumnnen ary, genius mult be wanting to
t the human figure in jon; and, y>

that fuperititious reverence for the works of their anceltors
improvement. This is an amufing but needlefs
for there are flatues in the Capitoline mufeum
great a breadth and choice of grand parts proper
human form, as ever they reprefented in their lions
inferior animals, In tion to the other obferv-
on Egyptian ftarues, we may remark, that the form
i and feet are grofs; they have no anatomical
yy totally wanting in the grace of mo-
in all robability, was not the con-

of a fuperititious determination to perfift in the
ancellors: it is better-accounted for in an-
after he had ftudied feveral years
100 oxen for joy of ere renee
of the longeit fide of a right-angled triangle
is equal to the two fquares of the lefler fides of the fame
it follows, the knowledge of the
have been at in geometry at
naturall my jently account for

that want of motion in their flatues and relievos, which can
be obtained from obfervation of nature afliited by

of ian {eience in the time of ras
bing voted, lsat to ante coterain rpg
the of their architeéture and fculpture. Moft of their
great mentioned by the ancients as done in the
reign of Sefoftris, and afterwards. Sefottris lived in the
time of king of Lfrael, about the time of the
years before the Chriftian era, which
Egypt and Greece were in a ve

ESSE Se
.

i

’

tl

qs ew =

i

a
H

ic times ; from the Greeks being long
in the city of Naucratis, and other parts of iver
their communication in arts was
concerns, which feems the more
» a8 there is a confiderable refemblance in the features

and contour of the early Greek and Egyptian ftatues.
The ian baffo relievos are ( but not always)
funk into the back-ground, being left with the highelt

of the relief; for which i
Bane; firft, that as many of thefe baffo relievos were cut in

confumed to clear away the ground about
as had been employed to cut the figure itfelf ; but
the economy of time, when fome hundreds or thou-
fands of
likk, or

e 50, 60 feet or
the ground, bein perpendicular to
circuit of its outline, gave it a greater
and diftinGnefs to the {peGtator. Thefe
comprehend in term

or facred gravings, reprefent different fubj
purpofe for which they were

tom reprefent the pro-
funerals of tye Sa 3 in alee
triumphs, proceflions, trophies, with
employment of kings. In

the fymbolical regifters of theology and
_ obelifks, they exprefs hymns to the
of their kings. Ammianus Marcellinus
Seadlecio ns by Hermapion, the

SCULPTURE,

Egyptian, of the hierogly, on the obclifk which for-
a flood in the centre bared Circus Maximus; and at
ip om before the church of St. John de Lateran in Rome.
t imports, that the fun, the lord of the univerfe, gives to
Rametis the kingdom of Egypt, and dominion of all the
earth in the city of Heliopolis. ‘This tranflation {coms
fufficiently juttified in the upper lines of the hicroglyphics,
where a divinity is fitting, im the aft of bellowing on
man, who kneels before him, ftretching his hands to receive,
ln the following line the fame man is feen again taking
poffeflion of an altar, on the fide of which is the ox
Apis, and on the top the mitred hawk, fymbol of Ofiris.
Thus of the facred emblems of Egypt.

The enormous works of Egypt = flruck every foreign
vilitor with wonder and awe, from Herodotus to the mem-
bers of the French Inititute. Herodotus fays, one of
their buildings is equal to many of the molt confiderable

eGreek buildings taken together, and M. Ripaud obferves,

thofe works are fo prodigious, they make every thing we
do look little ; and Cteodt if we confider the execution of
a ftatue 65 feet high, in fo hard a material as granite,
the boldeit heart would be appalled at the incalculable
labour and difficulties of the sc ig

In the Egyptian {culpture we thall find fome excellent
firft principles of the art. Their belt ftatues are divided
into feven heads and one-third, or feven heads and one-half:
the whole height of the figure is divided into two equal
parts at the os pubis; the reit of the proportions are natural,
and not difagreeable. The principal forms of the body and
limbs, as the breatts, belly, fhoulders, biceps of the arm,
knees, fhin-bones, and feet, are exprefled with a fiefhy
ro efs, although without anatomical knowledge of de-
tail; and in the female figures thefe parts often poflefs con-
fiderable elegance and beauty. The forms of the female
face have much the fame outline and progreflion towards
beauty in the features as we fee in fome of the early Greek
{tatues, and, like them, without variety of character; for
little difference can be traced in the faces of Ifis, in her dif-
ferent reprefentations of Diana, Venus, or Terra, or indeed
in the face of Ofiris, although fometimes underftood to be
Jupiter himfelf, excepting that in fome inftances he has a
very {mall beard, in fhape refembling a peg. The hands
and feet, like the refit of the figure, have general forms
only, without particular detail; the fingers and toes are
flat, of equal thicknefs, little feparated, and without dif-
tinction of the knuckles: yet altogether their fimplicity of
idea, breadth of parts, and occafional beauty of form,
ftrike the {kilful beholder, and have been highly praifed by
the beft judges, ancient and modern.

In their baffo relievos and paintings, which require variety
of aétion and fituation, are demonitrated their want of ana-
tomical, mechanical, and geometrical {cience, relating to
the arts of painting and fculpture. The king, or hero, is
three times eanece than the other figures. Whatever is the
action,—a fiege, a battle, taking a town by ftorm, there
is not the fmallelt idea of per{pettive in the place, or mag-
nitude of figures or buildings. Figures in violent ation
are equally ; reales of joints, and other anatomical form,
as they are of the balance and {pring of motion, the force
of a blow, or the juft variety of line in the turning igen
In a word, their hiitorical art was informing the beholder,
in the beft manner they could, arcuting to the rude cha-
racters they were able to make. From fuch a defcription,
it is eafy to underftand how much their attempts at hiftorical
reprefentation were inferior to their fingle {tatues.

What has been hitherto faid of Egyptian iculpture de-
{cribes the ancient native fculpture of that people. aod

SCULPTURE.

the Ptolemies, fucceffors of Alexander the Great, were
kings of Egypt, their {culpture was enlivened by Grecian
animaticn, and refined by the ftandard of Grecian beauty.
In proportions, attitude, character, and drefs, Ofiris, Ifis,
and Orus, their three great divinities, put on the Mace-
donian coftume ; and new divinities appeared among them,
in Grecian forms, whofe characteriftics were compounded
from materials of Egyptian, Eaftern, and Grecian theology
and philofophy. f

In the reign of the Roman emperor Adrian, a number
of ftatues, in imitation of the ancient Egyptian, were made
to decorate the Canopus in his magnificent villa of Tivoli ;
feveral of which have been dug up, and placed in the Capi-
toline Mufeum. But Winckelman has remarked of thefe,
that they may be known from the ancient Egyptian fculp-
ture, having no hieroglyphics on them. But, befides this
diftinG@tion, they are entirely unlike the genuine Egyptian ;
as the drawing and charaéter are Roman, in Egyptian atti-
tudes and dreffes.

The ancient authors, who. give the moft fatisfactory ac-
count of Egyptian antiquities, are Herodotus, Diodorus
Siculus, Jofephus, Strabo, Clemens of Alexandria, Jam-
blichus, and Orus A’pollo.

The beft modern books on this fubje&t are Pocccke’s
Voyages, Savary’s Travels in Egypt, Norden’s Egypt,
Denon’s Egypt ; to which may be added, the moft magni-
ficent work of Ancient and Modern Egypt, now publifhing
in Paris, which will occupy twelve folio volumes, contain-
ing 840 plates, from the obfervations, refearches, accounts,
and drawings, of the learned men and artifts of the French
nation, who formed the French Inftitute.

Of Grecian Sculpture. — After Egyptian fculpture, the
courfe of our fubjeét naturally leads us to confider the fame
art in Greece, which is thought by fome to have received
its firft principle from Egypt, and certainly preferved the
charaGter of Egyptian f{culpture in many of its works,
down to a late date; as Pliny obferves upon the works of
Egina.

In early times, the greater divinities were worfhipped
under the form of rude ftones; and afterwards the lifelefs
reprefentation of the human figure was attempted. with the
eyes a little opened, the arms clofe to the fides, and the legs
united in one common pillar for the fupport of the mafs,

But about 1390 years before the Chriitian era, a fculptor
appeared, whofe works exacted the praife of poets, the
fpeculations of philofophers, the record of hiftorians, and
continued to be preferved with zeal, and fpoken of with
re{pect, centuries after fculpture had rifen to its zenith.
This was Daedalus, the countryman and contemporary of
Thefeus, not inferior perhaps in fame and variety of adven-
tures to that hero. Born of a royal race, the occafional
friend and adverfary of kings, admired for his works when
living, and honoured with a chapel by the Egyptians after
death! to him are attributed various mechanical inventions,
fabulous and real: a fine portico to the temple of Vulcan
at Memphis; the Cretan labyrinth, which was the copy of
a hundredth part of the Egyptian labyrinth. Diodorus
Siculus {peaks of his works in Sicily. Paufanias mentions
thofe remaining in Greece in his time, nine in number, of
which three may be particularly noticed: one a naked Her-
cules of wood. The works of Dedalus are indeed rude,
fays Paufanias, and uncomely in afpe&; but yet they have
fomething as of divinity in their appearance.

Paufanias, befides the high chara¢ter given of this ftatue,
mentions it twice in his Grecian Tour ; from which we mutt
underitand that it was held in confiderable efteem and vene-
ration. ‘This would naturally lead us to hope we are not

9

without fome copy of it in gems, coins, or fmall bronzes,
by which all the moft famous works of antiquity were mule
tiplied. In the Britifh Mufeum, as well as in the other
collections of Europe, are feveral {mall bronzes of a naked
Hercules advancing, whofe right arm, holding a club, is
raifed to {trike ; whilft his left arm is extended bearing the
lion’s fkin as a fhield. From the {tyle of extreme antiquity
which charaéterizes thefe ftatues, the rude attempt at bold
action, the peculiarity of Dedalus, the general adoption of
this action in the early ages, the traits of favage nature in
the face and figure exprefled with little knowledge but
{trong feeling, by the narrow loins, turgid mufcles of the
breaft, thighs, and calves of the legs, we fhall find reafon
to believe they are copied from the above-mentioned ftatue.

The fame author fays, the Gnoffians had a chorus im
white ftone, made by Dedalus for Ariadne, which is men-
tioned in the r8th book of the Iliad, as youths and damfels
dancing hand in hand. The moft early Greek baffo re-
lievos and paintings reprefent chorufes of the Graces and
Hours in this manner.

Endzus, the difciple of Daedalus, made a ftatue of
Minerva, which Paufanias faw in the Acropolis of Athens.
The learned author of the IntroduGion to the volume of
Sculpture, publithed by the Dillettanti Society, fuppofes
the heads of Minerva, on the early coins of Athens, were
copied from this ttatue, which feems very reafonable, when
we compare the ftyle and coftume with other works of the
higheft antiquity. And here we muft obferve, that in the
early times of which we are now {peaking, the rude efforts
were intended to reprefent divinities and heroes only.
Jupiter, Neptune, and feveral heroic charaéters, have the
felf-fame face, figure, and aétion, as the Hercules of Dz-
dalus deferibed above; the fame narrow eyes, thin lips,
with the corners of the mouth turned upwards, and pointed
chin; the fame narrow loins; turgid mufcular forms of
brealt, thighs, and legs; the fame advancing pofition of
the lower limbs; the right hand raifed befide the head, and
the left hand extended: and their only diftinétions were,
that Jupiter held the thunderbolt, Neptune the trident,
and Hercules his palm branch or bow; as may be feen in
ancient {mall bronzes and coins of Athens and Peftum, and
on the moft ancient painted vafes. The female divinities
were clothed in draperies, divided in few and perpendicular
folds; their attitudes advancing like thofe of the male
figures. The hair of both male and female ftatues or paint-
ings of this period is drefled with great pains, colle&ted in a
club behind, and fometimes entirely curled, in the fame
manner as practifed by the native Americans, and the in-
habitants of the South fea iflands. Dedalus and Endeus
firft formed their ftatues of wood. Metal was alfo ufed for
various purpofes of {culpture in the moft ancient times, as
we learn from Homer, Hefiod, and Plutarch.

Dipenus and Scyllis, the Cretans, were celebrated for
their ftatues in marble, about 776 years before Chrift; {till
retaining much of the ancient manner in the advancing pofi-
tion of the legs, the drawing of the figure, and the perpen-
dicular folds of drapery, difpofed in zigzag edges. Soon
after elaborate finifhing was carried to excefs, undulating
locks and fpiral knobs of hair, like cockle-fhells, as well as
the drapery, were wrought with the mott elaborate care and
rigid exaétnefs, whilft the taftelefs and barbarous character
of the face and limbs remained much the fame as in former
times. This paflion for high finifhing in {culpture, will re-
concile to our reafon a paflage in Pliny (b. xxxv. c. 8.), which
has frequently been thought to difagree with the general hif-
tory of ancient painting: he fays, ‘‘ that the picture of the
battle of Magnete, painted by Bularchus, was paid for,

with

SCULPTURE.

with ite weight in by Candaules, king of Lydia, who
was cocval with Romulus, and lived in the 2zoth Olym-
iad, or about 750 years before Chrift: thus,’’ continues
Pi y» “ proving the = and perfeétion of the art.’’ Now,
ing to the fame author’s account, the ancient painting
— at its greateft perfection until after the time
of Phidias, or two hundred and fifty years later; and there-
fore it is likely that Bularchus’s pidture was chiefly valued
for the fame high finithing we fee in the earlielt marble fta-
tues, of which the following are examples :—coloflal bulls of
Hercules and Apollo, in the Britifh Mufeum, mott likely
thofe done by Dipeanus and Scyllis for the Sicyonians:—very
ancient flatues inerva, and a priett of Bacchus, lately
in the Villa Albani, publithed by Winckelman in his Monu-
menta Inedita, and Storia dell Arte. To thefe might be
added examples of extreme finifhing in early Greek pateras
and other bronzes. This obfervation on Bularchus’s pic-
ture, and the foulpture of the fame time, will naturally lead
to another of more general compreheniion, that the im-
vements in feulpture we have reafon to believe followed
fe in painting according to the dates, as far as we are
able to afcertain inzemaining works. Soon after this
time may be reckoned the Amyclean Apollo, defcribed by
jas as very ancient. The throne, with the image fit-
ting upon it, Paufanias conjectured at not lefs than thirty
cubits; he enumerates the fubjects {culptured upon it ; they
comprehend hiftory of the fabulous ages underneath.
The bafe is the fepulchre of Hyacinthus, which is entered
by a brazea door. In the fepulchre are many works of {culp-
ture. The figure of Apollo, Paufanias re as of very
eude art. Paufanias alto mentions a brazen Hercules of
ten cubits, as the work of a difciple of Dedalus.

Philocles the Egyptian, or Cleanthes the Corinthian, is

id firft to have introduced outlines among the Greeks, in

ice of which they were followed by Ardices the

inthian, and Telephanes the Sicyonian, who ufed other
lines within the outline, to exprefs the marking of the body
and limbs, alfo writing the names of thofe they painted,
which agree with the earlieit paintings on Greek vales, as
their attitudes and peculiarities agree with early fculpture.
Cimen Cleonius invented catagraphy, or the oblique repre-
fentation of images, to give different views of the face, look-
ing ld looking down, and looking backwards: he repre-
fented the veins, and the folds and plaits or wrinkles in gar-
ments. This Cimon is mentioned as living before the time
of Phidias, which affords an additional argument for believ-
ing improvements in painting to have preceded thofe in
feulpture ; becaufe oblique views of objects, and the veins
ef the limbs and body, feem not to have been attempted in
{culpture before the time of Phidias.

Fortunately for us, the compendious hiftory of painting
and iculpture, left by Pliny, was feleéted from the writings
of the belt Grecian artifts, and arranged, with attention to
the feveral improvements, in chronological order, with fuch
perfpicuity and comprehenfion, that whenever, from the bre-
vity of the work, we do not find all we with for, yet by
attending to the information before and after; we fhall be
eafily enabled to fupply the defects from other writings or
monuments of antiquity. In this manner we fhall fatisfy

ourfelves concerning Noh ae of fculpture, in the two
Senden RE bi which elapfed between the age of
Dipeenus and Scyllis and that of Phidias. The better draw-

ing of the figure, with a more careful attention to its parts,

and variety of attitude, a lefs elaborate curl-

the hair, the forms of the figure better fhewn through

the draperies, are all certain figns of a nearer approach to

the age of Phidias. If we add to thefe oblervations the
Vou. XXXII.

more
ing

different ages of writing on works of feulpture, what let-
ters are wanting, and whether the infeription is in the Bouf-
trophedon or ploughing manner, we rer gan err much from
the date of the work,

From the few hiftorical obfervations now offered, it is
evident that feulpture was eight hundred years from the age
of Daedalus, to the time immediately preceding Phidias,
attaining a tolerable reprefentation of the human form,
which proves the flow growth of art perfeéted by manual
labour in the infant {tate of {cience ; whilft the means of
fubfiftence are precarious, the rights of individuals unde-
fined, and the general attention of fociety employed on felf-

refervation and defence, rather than on the increafe of com-
or civilization of manners. Poetry and oratory, the
more independent efforts of mind, appear in the earlieft
ftates of fociety, diltinguifh man as aa intelleGual and ra-
tional creature, fcatter the firit feeds of knowledge, lay
down theories for the government of future generations, ex-
pand the mind, and direét the powers towards whatever is
moft ufeful and moft defirable in the more perfe& ftates of
humanity.

The chief occurrences in the early hiftory of Greece are,
the Argonautic expedition; the war of ‘Thebes; and the tak-
ing of Troy; in which particular heroifm, or the united
achievements of petty ftates, are interwoven with poetic fio
tion. Their confequences produced no confiderable change
in the manners of the people or the charaéter of the coun-
try; but the battles of Marathon and Salamis, which
deftroyed the Perfian asmy, whofe myriads, like locults,
{warmed over the country, itruck the firft deadly blow to
the Perfian power, and gave a beginning to the Grecian or
third great monarchy of the world. An event of fo much
importance, by changing fortune and transferring power in
fo large a portion of the civilized part of mankind, raifed
the charaéter of Greece, in proportion to the abafement
of Perfia. The Greeks, particularly the Athenians, the
champions of the war, whofe heroic ardour was increafed by
fuccels, fought additional diltin@tion by every great and
praife-worthy exertion of body and mind in arts and arms.
The accumulated wifdom of ages, and difceveries in {cience,
were taught by their philofophers ; their temples and public
buildings were raifed with 2 magnificence unknown before,
and decorated with all the powers of art. /£Ychylus,
Euripides, and Sophocles, ennobled the minds of the
people by their dramatic poetry. ‘The five exercifes which
formed the body to exertion and beauty, and the mind to
fortitude and patriotifm, were univer{fally praétifed, culti-
vated, and honoured. In this general {pint of enterprize
and improvement, {culpture appeared in the {choal of Phi-
- with a beauty and perfection which eclipfed all former
efforts.

About 490 years before the Chriftian era, Phidias flou-
rifhed at the fame time with the philofophers Socrates, Plato,
and Anaxagoras; the {tatefmen and commanders Pericles,
Miltiades, Themiftocles, Cimon, and Xenophon, with the
tragic poets above-mentioned. This period was as favour-
able in its moral and political circumftances, as in the emula-
tion of rare talents, to produce the difplay and encourage

the growth of ius.

The city and citadel of Athens had been burnt by the
army of Xerxes; but the Greeks, being conquerors, rai
more itately buildings in the room of thofe deftroyed.
Phidias was engaged by Pericles in the fuperintendance and
decorations of the temple of Minerva, and other publie
works.

Superior genius, in addition to his knowledge of paint-
ing, which he pra@tifed before fculpture, gave a grandeur

K

te

SCULPTURE.

to his compofitions, a grace to his groups, a foftnefs to
flefh, and a flow to draperies, unknown to his predeceffors,
the charaGters of whofe figures were {tiff rather than dig-
nified ; their forms either meagre or turgid; the folds of dra-
pery parallel, poor, and reprefenting geometrical lines, rather
than the fimple but ever varying appearances of nature.

The difcourfes of contemporary philofophers on mental
and perfonal perfeCtion, affifted him in feleéting and com-
bining ideas, which ftamped his works with the fublime and
beautiful of Homer’s verfe.

How this fculptor was efteemed by the ancients will be
underftood by the following fhort quotations. Pliny fays,
« Phidias was moft famous through all nations.’”? And when
enumerating the moft celebrated {culptors of antiquity, he
fays, ‘¢ but before all, Phidias the Athenian ;” and Quintilian
fays, that “his Athenian Minerva and Olympian Jupiter, at
Elis, pofleffed beauty which feemed to have added fome-
thing to religion, the majefty of the work was fo worthy of
the divinity.”

After fuch pofitive and magnificent teftimony, there will
be {till room for our furprize, in the defcriptions, fragments,
and other authentic memorials, of fome works only which
he conduéted and performed; fuch as the temple of Mi-
nerva, and the Acropolis of Athens, erected by I¢tinus
and Callicrates, under the direétion of Phidias; and to
him it is we likewife owe the compoftions, ftyle, and
charaéter of the fculpture, in addition to much affiftance
in the drawing, modelling, and choice of naked figures
and draperies, as well as occafional execution of parts in the
marble.

Pliny fays, the emulators of Phidias were Alcamenes,
Critias, Neftocles, Hegias; and twenty years afterwards,
Agelades, Callon, Polycletus, Phradmon, Gorgias, Lacon,
Myron, Pythagoras, Scopas, Parelius. In this lilt we cer-
tainly have the names of the fculptors employed on the
temples of Minerva and Thefeus; and as the ftyles of dif-
ferent hands are fufficiently evident in the alto and baflo re-
lievos, fo there might perhaps be no great difficulty in
tracing fome of the artifts by refemblance to others of their
known works..

The two pediments of the temple of Minerva were each
eighty-eight feet long, filled with compofitions of entire
groups, and ftatues from eight to nine feet high. The {tory
of the weltern pediment related to the birth of Minerva, or
rather perhaps reprefented her introduction among the gods.
The eaftern pediment was occupied by the contention of
Neptune and Minerva for the patronage of Athens. Forty-
three metops were charged with combats of the Lapithe and
Centaurs, and a frieze of three hundred and eighty feet
round the wall of the temple, under the portico, was deco-
rated with the proceffion of the Grecian ftates, in honour of
Minerva, in chariots, on horfeback, leading animals for fa-
crifice, bearing offerings, and prefenting the facred veil, in
prefence of the gods, fitting on thrones to witnefs the folemn
ceremony.

The marquis Nanteuil had a drawing made of the weftern
pediment of this temple, when the ftatues were all, excepting
one, in their places ; and notwithflanding fome mutilations of
parts, the whole was fufficiently entire for the compofition
to be perfectly underftood from the marquis Nanteuil’s
fketch, carefully compared with the original fragments in
the earl of Elgin’smufeum. Inthe centre, Jupiter fits hold-
ing his fceptre in his right hand, the thunder in his left ; on
the right of Jupiter, in an advancing pofition, Minerva takes
pofleffion of her car, while the reins are governed by Themis
and Mars; from behind Themis, a genius leads Vidtory for-
ward to attend the patronefs of Athens; on the left of

Jupiter, Vulcan ftands by his mother Juno; Amphitrite
fits next, whofe foot refts on a dolphin; Latona fucceeds,
with her infants Apollo and Diana, beautifully implying that
the maturity of divine wifdom was older than the fun and
moon. The laft group is Venus fitting on the lap of Ocean ;
the figures at each end of the pediment are not fhewn, be-
caufe they are mere contingents, {pectators only ; not par-
taking in the aétion.

The idea of this compofition feems to have been fuggetted
by Homer’s hymn to Minerva, a fhort poem, but one of the
author’s higheft flights ; in which he defcribes Pallas in full
ftature, and completely armed, ifluing from the head of Jove ;
Olympus, the whole earth, and furrounding fea, trembling
at the vibration of her {pear ; the fun ftaying his courfers in
their race, and partaking in the fame amazement with the
other immortals.

The ftatue of Minerva, in the Parthenon at Athens, one
of the matter-pieces of Phidias, is thus defcribed by Pliny,
Paufanias, and other ancient authors. It is in height
twenty-fix cubits, formed of ivory and gold, ftanding up-
right, her tunic reaching to her feet, holding a victory fix
feet high in her right hand, and .a fpear in her left; the
drapery is of gold; the uncovered parts of the ftatue are of
ivory; the head of Medufa on the breaft-plate of the goddefs
is of ivory; at her feet is her fhield; in the convex part of her
fhield the Amazonian war; in the concave part is the war of
the gods and giants; in the bafe Pandora’s hiftory : the gods
are here prefent thirty in number; the Lapithe and Cen-
taurs are {culptured on her fandals; a ferpent at her feet ad-
mirably executed ; a {phynx on the top, and a griffon on
each fide of her helmet. The quantity of gold in this ftatue
was forty talents. Plato fays the eyes were of precious
ftones.

There was alfo, in the citadel of Athens, another ftatue of
Minerva by Phidias, thus defcribed by Paufanias. Of the
fpoils taken at Marathon from the Perfians, Phidias made
Minerva’s ftatue of brafs, in whofe fhield the battle of the
Lapithe and Centaurs was engraved by Mys, and painted
by Parrhafius, the fon of Evenor. The top of the fpear, and
creft of the helmet, might be feen by thofe who fail by Su-
nium.

But the great work of this great mafter, the aftonifhment
and praife of after ages, was the Jupiter at Elis; thus
defcribed by Paufanias. The god is feated upon his throne,
made of gold and ivory, a crown of olive branch on his head ;
in his right hand bearing a Victory, alfo of ivory and gold ;
fhe bears a fillet, and is crowned; the left hand of the god
holds a fceptre of various coloured metals, an eagle of gold
fitting upon the fceptre; his garment is of gold, and on his
garment are wrought animals and flowers, particularly the
lily ; his fandals alfo are of gold; the throne 1s varioufly
ornamented with gold and gems, and alfo with ivory and
ebony: on it animals are painted in their proper colours,
and fculptured with great labour. Four victories, as in the
dance, are on the hinder feet of the throne, two on each fide ;
and on the front the children of the Thebans taken away by
the {phynx; and beneath the fphynxes, Niobe and her
children flain by Apollo and Diana; on the frames that join
the feet of the throne ornaments are carved ; on that in front
Hercules warring with the Amazons. Paufanias numbered
upon them all together twenty-nine figures. Among Her-
cules’ companions was alfo Thefeus. ‘here were alfo pillars
which adjoined to the feet fupporting the throne, equal
in fize to the feet. There is not an entrance underneath the
throne, as under that of Apollo at Amyclis. It is hollow,
but the fpeétator cannot enter, becaufe a wall includes the
throne. Of this wall, that part which fronts the door is

6 painted

SCULPTURE.

inted blue; the fides have the pi@ures of Panzaus.
mony thefe is Atlas fullaining Heaven and Earth, Her-
cules Rands near him lifting off his burden. Here are alfo
feean Thefeus and Perithous. Grecia and Salamis, two
fivures; the lait of which carries a roftram in her hand,
Hercules’ ftrife with the Nemean lion, Ajax under the re-
proach of Caflandra. Hyppodamia, daughter of Ocnomaus,
with her mother. Prometheus bound in chains, Hercules
coming to his help; Hercules alfo, having flain the eagle,
which was the punifhment of Prometheus on Caucafus, de-
liveriag him from his chains, On the hinder part is painted
Penthefilea dying, Achilles fupporting her. The two
Hefperides bearing the apples of which they had the com
ing. Panenus, the ae of Phidias, who did thefe,
painted alfo, in the Parcile of Athens, the battle of Mara-
thop. Upon the throne, above the head of the god, Phi-
dias carved the Graces and the Hours. Three of them
large ; thefe are called aeeehiors of Jove. Upon the
feat, lions of gold, and Thefeus warring with the Ama-
tons. U bafe of the throne, which great mafs was
wrought in gold, are other ornaments relating to the god.
The Sun in his chariot, and Jupiter and Juno, and by
them the ; thefe lead Hermes, and Hermes, Vetta.
Cupid alfo from the fea receiving Venus, who was crowned
vafion. Apollo was with Diana, and Minerva with
- Hercules; and on the loweft part of all was Neptune, and
the Moon in her chariot urging on her horfes.

The temple at Elis alfo, which contained this aftonifhing
ftatue, was itfelf a noble work of Doric archite€ture ; the
archite& was Libon, an Elean. The fculptures on the
outfide of the temple have a relation to t at work
within. A gilded ViGtory crowns the whole. In the front
pediment is the conteit of the chariot race between Pelops
and Oenomaus, and in the back pediment the Lapithe and
Centaurs, with the nuptials of Perithous ; and in i eM
and over the doors, the labours of Hercules in very many
compofitions, which are the work of Alcamenes. The
temple has brazen doors and an interior portico, which opens
an entrance to the ftatue of Jupiter: under the flatue is in-
{eribed “ Phidias, the fon of Charmides the Athenian, made
me.”’

It be to take notice in this place, of another

ip dadicnted 0 Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, by the
Adrian, and in it a coloffal ftatue of ivory and
defcribed as not inferior to the coloflufes of Rhodes

and of Rome.

Paufanias defcribes alfo a temple and ftatue of AZ{culapius
at Corinth, in the following manner. The ftatue of AEfcu-
lapius is almoft half the hs of the Olympian Jupiter at
Athens. It is of
medes, the fon of Arignotus, aman of Paros. He is feated

holding a great ftafl, and with his other hand

t; a dog lies at his feet; in his

lerophon killing Chimzra. yer olde Bett. head
illi i eus a’s

the temple are places where thofe who

come to. to the repofe.

other ftatues of great excellence, both in marble
and bronze, are mentioned among the works of Phidias,
ert ne agers placed by the Romans in the forum of

Two Minervas, one furnamed Callimorphos,
from the beauty of its form; and it is likely that the fine
ftatue of this “.enange 2tencaga tir ne =a
in marble its refemblance to the

of Phidias’s bronze,
an Athenian filver coin, in attitude, drapery, and
Another ftatue by Phidias was an Amazon, called
Eucnemon, from her beautiful leg ; of which there is a print
in the Mufeum Pium Clementinum.

H

and ivory, and is the work of ‘Thrafy-_

Alcamenes was celebrated for his Venus Aphrodite, to
which Phidias is faid to have given the laft touches,

Praxiteles excelled in the higheft graces of youth and
beauty: Pliny fays he sot only excelled other feulptors by
his marble flatues in the Ceramicus at Athens ; but hu Venus
was preferable to theirs, and all other flatues in the world, to
fee which many failed to Gnidos. This {culptor having
made two Venules, one with drapery, the other without ;
the Coans preferred the clothed figure, on account of its
fevere modefly. ‘The fame price being fet upon each, the
citizens of Guidos took the rejeéted itarue, and afterwards
refuled it to king Nicomedes, who would have forgiven
them an immenfe debt in return; being refolved, fays our
author, and with realon, to fufler any thing, fo long as the
ftatue of Praxiteles ennobled Gaidos. ‘The temple was en-
tirely open in which it was placed ; becaufe every view was
spat admirable. The figure is known by the deferiptions
of Lucian and Cedrenus; and it is reprefented on a medal
of Caracalla and Plautilla, in the cabinet of France. This
Venus exited in Gnidos during the reign of the emperor
Arcadius, or about 400 years after Chrif.

This itatue feems to offer the firft idea for the Venus de
Medicis; which is likely to be the repetition of another
Venus, alfo the work of this artift, mentioned by Pliny.

On the reverfe of the emprefs Lucilla’s medals, is a
clothed Venus, with an apple in her right hand; which, from
the of its attitude, and its refemblance to feveral antique
marble ftatues, is likely to be the clothed Venus chofen by
the Coans.

Among the known works of Praxiteles, are his fatyr,
capil Apollo, the lizard-killer, and Bacchus leaning on a
awn.

The celebrated Venus of Gnidos was found, about
eighteen years fince, in the neighbourhood of Rome, which
was afterwards the property of duke Brafchi, nephew of
the late pope Pius VI.

Polycletus of Sicyon, the {cholar of Agelades, was parti-
cularly celebrated on account of his Doryphorus, or ari
bearer ; and Diadumenus, or youth binding a Gillet round
his head. This ftatue was valued at an hundred talents. The
Doryphorus was called the Rule by artilis, from which
they ftudied.

The Difcobolus of Myron is afcertained by an antique
gem, and the defcription of Quintilian, who apologizes for
its forced attitude. An ancient example of this figure is
in the Britith Mufeum.

The Difcobolus of Naucydas is uniformly admired for its
forms and momentary balance,

The wounded man, in which might be feen how much of
life remained in him, was the famous work of Ctefilaus, and
perhaps is the fame as the ftatue commonly called the Dying
Gladiator, but more properly a dying herald, or hero, ac-
cording to Winckelman.

Ctefilaus, or Defilaus, is known by his wounded Amazon.

Pliny mentions the nine mufes by Philifcus of Rhodes ;
and the mufes alfo, brought by Fulvius Nobilior to Rome.
pa one of thefe feries “re be the mn mena of thofe

ormerly in the s mufeum, now in the gallery rance,
of we a is remarkable for grace, and the
Lae 0 for grandeur.

T Herenphrodite of Polycles is one of the moit delicate
and roduGtions of antiquity.

T ‘Apollo Philefius, or in love, by Canachus, is wit-
— by many fine repetitions in the different galleries of

uro}

Sindenmedes borne in the eagle’s talons, is exa@ly
defcribed by Pliny. An example of this work exifts ia
the pope’s mufeum.

K 2 The

SCULPTURE.

The Apollo Belvidere is believed, by the learned Vifconti,
to be Apollo Alexicacos, the deliverer from evil, the
work of Calamis ; mentioned both by Pliny and Paufanias ;
and the hiftory of its removal is given in the Mufeum Pium
Clementinum. Only one {mall antique repetition of this
ftatue is to be found; and indeed admirable and fublime in
its beauty as it is, there is a reafon which might render
it lefs popular among the ancients than the moderns.
Maximus Tyrius defcribes a ftatue by Phidias very fimilar
to this, but in greater motion, either difcharging an arrow,
or preparing to do fo. (Togon.) There are traces of this
ftatue in fome ancient baflo-relievos ; and it is poffible the
ftronger expreflion of Phidias’s work, together with the
authority of his name, might have diminifhed the public
attention to Calamis in a comparative production.

The Venus de Medicis was fo popular a favourite among
the Greeks and Romans, that a hundred ancient repetitions
of this ftatue have been noticed by travellers. ‘The indi-
vidual figure is faid to have been found in the forum of
O@avia. The ftyle of fculpture feems to be later than
Alexander the Great: and the idea of this ftatue feems to
have its origin from the Venus of Gnidos.

We may now notice fome ftatues of great excellence,
which Pliny has not mentioned. And no wonder they are
omitted, when of more than 11,000 reckoned in his hiftory,
he profeffes to give a catalogue of about 500 only.

The coloffal ftatues on Monte Cavallo in Rome we may
fairly prefume to be the works of Phidias and Praxiteles,
as infcribed on their pedeftals ; becaufe the animated cha-
raGter and ftyle of {culpture feem peculiar to the age in
which thofe artifts lived ; and becaufe, in the frieze of the
Parthenon there is a young hero governing a horfe, which
bears fo ftrong a refemblance to thofe groups, that it would
be difficult to believe it was not a firit idea for them by
one of thofe artifts.

The heroic ftatue by Agafias the Ephefian, commonly
called the Fighting Gladiator, is fhewn by the ingenious
and learned Abbate Fea, to be Ajax, the fon of Oileus,
as his figure is fo reprefented on the coins of Locris, his
country.

The Hercules Farnefe was evidently one of the firft
favourites of antiquity, from its frequent repetitions in
bronze and marble, gems and coins. Its hiftory, according
to thefe, feems to be this. The city of Perinthus was twice
befieged by Philip of Macedon ; the citizens, however, by
the itrength of their fituation, their own valour, and the
intervention of friends, preferved their liberty. As their
city was dedicated to Hercules, they reprefented him on
their coins refting from his labours. The ftanding figure
is the Hercules Farnefe, which, on the coin, was copied, as
ufual, from an honoured ftatue in the city ; moft probably
from the work of Glycon the Athenian, whofe country
once delivered them from the oppreffion of Philip. The
ftyle is later than the time of Alexander.

We fhall now proceed to thole precious monuments of
art, the ancient groups; in which we fee the fentiment,
heroifm, beauty, and fublimity of Greece, exifting before us.

The group of Laocoon, animated with the hopelefs
agony of the father and fons, is the work of Apollodorus,
Athenodorus, and Agefander of Rhodes. The {tyle of this
work, as well as the manner in which Pliny introduces it
into his hiftory, give us reafon to believe it was not ancient
in his time.

Zethue and Amphion, tying Dirce to the bull’s horns,
an example of filial vengeance for a perfecuted mother, is
as heroic in conception as vaft in execution. The reftora-
tions of this group are fo bad, that they only become ftole-

rable by fomething like an affimilation of f{pirit in theiy
union with the ancient and venerable fragment. It is the
work of Apollonius and Taurifcus of Rhodes.

The group of Hercules and Antzus, in the Palace Pitti
at’ Florence, may be a marble, from the bronze of which
the copyiit inferibed the name of the original artift.

The groups of Atreus, bearing a dead fon of 'Vhyettes 5
Oreftes and Ele&tra ; Ajax fupporting Patroclus ; are all
examples of fine form, heroic charatter, and fentiment.
There feems only to be one reafon for their being
omitted by Pliny, that they were too recent at that time
to have obtained an equal rank in public eftimation with
the fine works of Phidias and Praxiteles, and theirimmediate
defcendants.

The group of Niobe and her youngeft daughter, by
Scopas, is an example of heroic beauty in mature age.
The fentiment is maternal affeCtion: fhe expofes her own
life to fhield her child from the threatened deftru€tion.

The feparate ftatues of the children all partake of the
fame heroic beauty, mixed with the paflions of apprehenfion,
difmay, or death.

To this feries belongs that fine example of anatomical
ftudy, in difficult but harmonious compofition, the group of
The Boxers.

The beautiful and interefting group of Cupid and Pfyche
is not mentioned by Pliny, perhaps for the fame reafon that
feveral other fine works are not noticed, becaufe it was after
the times of thofe great maiters who were looked on as the
ftandard of excellence in his days. It is moft likely to have
been produced after the reign of Auguftus, when the Py-
thagorean philofophy was revived, from which its fubject is
taken.

From what has been faid, it will appear fculpture did
not arrive at its maturity until the age of Phidias, 490
years before the Chriftan era; and Pliny’s catalogue of the
moft celebrated Greek artilts continues 160 years later, or
to 330 years before Chrift. After which time, however,
the Laocoon, and feveral of the fineft groups and {tatues,
feem to have been executed: nor can we believe, from the
admirable butts and ftatues of the imperial families {till
remaining, that feulpture began to lofe its graces until the
reign of the Antonines: and, indeed, fo ftrong were the ftamina
of Grecian genius in the art of defign, that after the time
of the Iconoclattes in the fifth and fixth centuries, when the
nobleft works were deftroyed, when great works of fculpture
were not required, even then, and until Conttantinople was
taken by the Turks in the r5th century, the Greeks exe-
cuted {mall works of great elegance, as may be feen in the
diptychs, or ivory covers to confular records, or facred
volumes ufed in church fervice.

The works of fculpture, here enumerated, will alfo thew,
that almott all the greateft and moft valued productions were
of marble, and not bronze, as fome have been inclined to
believe. And although feveral of the ftatues mentioned by
Pliny were bronze, from which we have marble copies, yet
all the groups, with two or three exceptions only, are marble ;
and fome of the moft celebrated ftatues, as the Venufes,
and the Cupid by Praxiteles, with many others.

The principal fchools of fculpture were Athens and
Rhodes. The fculptors of the Laocoon, and the Toro

‘Farnefe, and the Colofius, were Rhodians; and it is almoft

incredible, that from this little ifland, only forty miles long,
and thirteen broad, the Roman conquerors brought away
3ooo ftatues. But we fhall more readily believe this when we
recolleé& that the force andenterprife of thefe iflanders were
fufficient to conquer the navy of Antiochus, commanded by

Hannibal.
Sicyon had long been the work-fhop of metals of all
countries.

SCULPTORE.

eountries. Egina was alfo famous for bronze feulpture,
and continued the Egyptian thyle.

Etrufcan feulpture mult be confidered entirely the work
of Greek colonifts and their difciples.

The Sicilian fculpture is alfo Grecian.
fineft medals in particular are of the Coriathian {chool.

As the enterprife and talte of the prefent age have refcued
two noble examples of Grecian {culpture, the pediments of
the temple of Jupiter Panellenius, in the ifland ef Egina,
and the frieze which furrounded the interior of the temple
of Apollo Epicuros at Phyyaleia, it may be preper to give
defeription of them in this place.
fi ich were decorations of the eaft and weit
the temple of Jupiter Panellenius, were found
ruins, nearly under the feite in which they had
originally placed: their number was nine in the weit
it; that inthe centre was the figure of Minerva; the

to be combatants, as well in this pediment as

in the eaft pediment. On each fide of an

ornament, in the centre of the welt t, were two fe-
male figures; and at each corner of the pediment the re-
iffon. The ftatues were in fize {mall nature ;
g to Pliny’s defcription, partaking of the

Pleated of nae

P ,
me oo of Apollo Epicuros at
in 8, were Neotel, in many pieces,
the Ease whic odorbed
reprefented

i

?
4
3

a

I

Fz
J

which adorned the interior of the temple. They

the battle of the Athenians with the Amazons,

and the Lapithe with the Centaurs. The compofitions are
—_ and ic; the actions are natural, original, and
ic; the lines of the bodies and limbs are beautifully

’ by the — as flowing from the motion of

the or flourifhed in the air by impulfe of wind;
the beauty of the figures and countenances is heroic ; and
ftyle and chara&ter of the work refemble the alto-

i

t in the temple of Thefeus. The figures are about
two feet high ; the whole extent of the different baflo
relievos, taken » about ninety feet.

Roman S .—The earlieit inhabitants of Italy,
i doubt, praétifed the fame kind of barbarous art, which
is common in 4 3 early ftages of fociety ; but the accounts
given by Herodetus, Diodorus Siculus, and other Greek
writers of indifputable authority, concerning the emigrations
of Greeks into Italy, who fettled in that part which has
been called Grecia, comprehending nearly the whole
weftern coaft of that country, to with the evidence
of nearly every work of art which has been difcevered
within thofe limits, prove fatisfaGterily, that all the early
painting and feulpture, worthy to be called fo, are properly
colonial Greek, either the produétion of Greek artiits them-
felves, or of natives who were their {cholars.

an ox, lead to a ftrong fufpicion that were imitations of
fimilar weights alluded to by Homer, which had relation to the
value of anox. Their cait coins or weights are alfo marked

with the head of Janus, with two faces on one fide, and the

double-faced Janus, when bearded, is wig foe mpm
of the Greek heads of Jupiter, or the eaftern —
that
which is paft and that which is to come. head
Janus is without a beard, it fometimes feems to be a copy

onage,

petafus or hat upon his head, as
fingle head ; befides which, all
4

is reprefented
well in the double as in

the divinities reprefented on tuch coims or call weights, are
but copies from well-known heads ef Grecian divinities, as
Jupiter, Hercules, Mercury, Ceres, &c.; and by far the
greater number of them from Grecian heads of thofe divi-
nities not earlier than the time of Phidias,

Concerning their painting, though it may be difflcult to
wake the fame aflertion fo politively and fo extenfively ae that
concerning their coins ; yet we mult aflert that the fubjeGe
of their painting, whether on walls or earthen vafes, reprefent
Greek philofophy, Homeric ons and flories; f{cenes
from the Greek tragedians or Grecian facred rites ; and that
the fuperferiptions to thofe paintings are written in Greek,
exprefling Greek names of the artilts who painted, or the
perfons reprefented.

The feulpture alfo which has been called Etrufcan has the
fame Grecian charaéteriltics with the paintings ; to which
we may add, in many inttaoces, that it iets Grecian
arms and drefles.

The accounts given by Pliny of the figures of the
Roman kings, and other illuftrious perfons of early times in
the ae together with the Terra Cotta ayer of Jupiter

Capitolinus ; were from the Grecian {chools of art efta-
bli in Etruria; and fuch were all the works of painting,
feulpture, and architecture, executed for the early Romans,

who do not appear to have pollefled any works of magni-
ficence or diftinguifhed merit, before the Scipios intreduced
them te an acquaintance with Grecian arts and letters.

After the enormous ravages and barbarities of Mummius
at Corinth, and Sylla at Athens, the Romans ingrafted
tafte on rapine, and exhibited an inordinate cupidity and
oftentation for works of fine art, which paffed in fome in-
ftances for patronage. They filled their palaces, villas,
theatres, and publie places with the {poils of Greece.

Although fome general heads of Greek art have been
already delivered in wie differtation, yet as Pliny the Elder’s
writings contain fuch fatisfaGtory accounts of Etrufcan,
Italian, and Grecian feulpture, it will be highly proper to
give the Englith reader thefe accounts in his own words,
which were colle¢ted from the writings and treatifes of the
ableft and moft learned artifts among the ancients. Pliny’s
Natural Hiftory, 1. xxxiv. c. 7.

The itatuary art was familiar is Italy in ancient times, as
is fhewn by a Hercules confecrated by Evander, as it is faid,
in Foro Boario ; which is called the Triumphal, by his havin
on the triumphal habit: befides the double Janus dedicased
by king Numa, which exprefies peace and war, and by its
fingers fignifies the number of days in the year, the god himfelf
indicating the times aud feafons of the year. There are
alfo Tufcan ftatues difperfed very widely, which there
is no doubt were made in Etruria; fuch were alfo believed
to be their gods, except by Metrodorus Scepfius, which
furname was given to him through the hatred of the Romans ;
for two thoufand ftatues, when the Volfcians were con-
quered, were difperfed abroad. We have wondered to fee

the original ftatues of ancient Italy, of wood or mo-
delledin clay, the images of gods dedicated in temples until
the maatoch of Afia, from whence came luxury.

It will be proper to {peak of the firft origin of expreffin
likeneffes in that kind which the Greeks modelling, an
that it was prior to ilatuary. This would extend to inf-
nity in a work of many volumes, if any perfen fhould follow
up the fubje&t ; every one does what he is able.

When Scaurus was edile, three thoufand flatues made
the feene of a oo meet theatre. Mummius, when he con-

quered Achaia, the city ; but dying, left his daughter
without a dowry, which was tam te) Lucullus
chee enw rom Rhodes there are as many as three
thousand flatues.

7

Mutianus,

SCULPTURE.

Mutianus, thrice conful, brought not fewer from Athens :
from Olympia and Delphis, it is believed, a greater
number.

What mortal can recount thofe which are moft diftin-
guifhed or noted for fome reafon or other; indeed, to
have named the diltinguifhed artifts would be a_plea-
furable taf. Their number alfo is infinite, when Lyfippus
alone produced to the number of 610 works, which were
all famous; their number appeared at his death, when
his heirs opened his treafures; he was ufed, on receiving
his payment, to depofit a golden denarius for every work.
The art, in the fuccefs of its darings, is elevated above
human faith. One example of this fuccefs we fhall offer:
the fimilitude exprefled is not of God nor of man. Our
age faw in the Capitol, before it was confumed in the fire
of Vitellius’s times, in the chapel of Juno, a dog of brafs,
licking his own wound, whole moit wonderful and un-
equalled verifimilitude fuggefted the reafon why it was dedi-
cated: the life of its keepers was pledged for its fafety.
Tnnumerable are fuch daring examples of art: mafles have
been devifed equal to towers. Statues which are called
Coloflufes, {uch is Apollo in the Capitol, brought by M.
Lucullus from Apollonia, a city of Pontus, of 30 cubits:
its expence was 500 talents. Such, in the Campus Martius,
is the Jupiter dedicated by Claudius Cefar, which is
ealled the Pompeian, from its vicinity to Pompey’s theatre.
Such is that at Tarentum, made by Lyfippus, of 40 cubits ;
admirable in this, the hand being ftretched out and in danger
of being broken by the ftormy wind; the artift therefore
provided, it is faid, within a little interval, an oppofing
column, to prevent a great wind from breaking his work.
Confequently, becaufe of its magnitude, and. the labour re-
quired, Fabius Verrucofus did not meddle with it at the time
he brought from hence the Hercules which 1s in the Capitol.
But above all, as objects of admiration, was the Coloffus of the
fun of Rhodes, by Chares the Lindian, the difciple of Ly-
fippus before mentioned, 70 cubits in height. This ftatue,
after 56 years, was thrown down by an earthquake, but lyin
proftrate it was {till a wonderful fpeétacle ; few could clafp
round its thumb; its fingers were larger than whole ftatues.
The vaft caverns of its broken members were difplayed
within great mafles of ftone, whofe weight kept it fleadfaft.
Twelve years it was in making, at the expence of 300
talents, which were fupplied by king Demetrius, being in-
terrupted by the tedioufnefs of delay. There are other lefs
Coloffufes in this city, 100 in number, each of which would
ennoble the place wherefoever it was fixed. Befides thefe
were thofe of the five gods made by Bryaxis, who made
many Coloflufes in Italy, in particular an Apollo, which is
feen in the Tufcan library of Auguftus, 50 feet high, of
fine brafs, and exquifite workmanfhip. Sp. Carvilius made
a Jupiter, which is in the Capitol, from the breaft-plates,
helmets, and greaves taken from the Samnites, of an ampli-
tude to be feen from the temple of Jupiter Latiaris. The
reft of the figures which are before the feet of the ftatue, are
alfo from his file. ‘Two heads alfo are admired in the fame
Capitol, which P. Lentulus, the conful, dedicated, one made
by Chares above {poken of, the other by Decius, overcome in
the comparifon to that degree, as feemed by no means pro-
bable, according to the works of the artift. But in ftatues
of that kind, Zenodorus in our age has excelled. He made
a Mercury in the city of Gallia Arvernis, the labour of
ten years, which was afterwards fo approved, that he was
called to Rome by Nero, where he was defired to make the
coloflal ftatue of that prince 110 feet high, which fhould be
dedicated to the fun, by way of reverence, and which is
among the atrocities of this prince. It is wonderful that in
his workfhop there does not remain any clay model of this

work of a large fize, but there are many firft fetches in {mall,
like firit attempts. This ftatue indicates that the art of
founding in brafs is perifhed.

Nero had prepared liberally both gold and filver, and
Zenodorus in modelling and carving is not confidered as infe-
rior to any of the ancients. When he had finifhed the ftatue
for the Arvernians, Vibius Avitus, being the prefident of that
province, two cups were {culptured by the hand of Calamis,
which Germanicus Czfar highly valuing, gave to his pre-
ceptor, Caffius Syllanus, his uncle. As much as the excel-
lence of Zenodorus was greater, fo much may be found the
decay in works of brafs.

The ftatues which are called Corinthian are for the moft
part fuch as may be carried from place to place. Such was
that of the Sphynx, which Hortenfius, the orator, received
as a prefent from Verres, and occafioned a reply from
Cicero. When Hortenfius faid, in altercation with him, «I
do not underftand your enigma’? Cicero replied, “ You
ought, for you have the Sphynx at home.’’ Nero, the em-
peror, it is faid, took about with him a ftatue of an Ama-
zon. And.a little before our time, C. Celtius, the conful,
always carried an image with him in the field of battle.
Alexander the Great had a tent fuftained by four fingle
{tatues, of which two are now dedicated before the temple
of Mars the Avenger, and the other two before the palace.
The art is ennobled by almoft innumerable leffer ftatues. Be-
fore all, Phidias the Athenian made a Jupiter of ivory and
gold. He alfo made ftatues in brafs. He flourifhed in the
84th Olympiad, about 300 years from the building of Rome.
In the fame period his emulaters were Alcamenes, Critias,
Neftocles, and Hegias. Afterwards, in the 87th Olympiad,
Agelades, Callon, Polycletus, Phradmon, Gorgias, Lacon,
Myron, Pythagoras, Scopas, and Parelius. Among thefe,
Polycletus had for his difciples Argius, A fopodorus, Alexis,
Ariftides, Phrynon, Dinon, Athenodorus, Dameas, and My-
ron. In the 95th Olympiad flourifhed Naucydes, Dinomenes,
Canachus, and Patrocles. In the 102d, Polycles, Cephiffodo-
rus, Leochares, and Hypatodorus. In the ro4th, Praxiteles
and Euphranor. Inthe 107th, Echion and Therimachus. In
the 114th was Lyfippus, in the time of Alexander the Great ;
and at the fame time Lyfiltratus and his brother Sthenis, Eu-
phronides, Softratus, Ion, Silanion, who was admirable,
none being more learned. He had for difciples Zeuxis and
Jades. In the 120th Olympiad, Eutychides, Euthycrates,
Dahippus, Cephiflodorus, Timarchus, and Pyromachus.
The art then ceafed. And again, in the 125th, revived,
though allowed to be inferior, yet approved; Antzus, Cal-
liftratus, Polycles, Athenzus, Callixenus, Pythocles, Pythias,
and Timocles. We fhall pafs haftily over the moft diftin-
guifhed of the celebrated artifts in their diftinét ages. A
Venus was made with a kind of emulative contention, as for-
merly they made an Amazon, which was dedicated in the
temple of Diana, at Ephefus: that work was approved
which every artilt judged to be next in merit to his own.
This was the work of Polycletus; the next was Phidias,
the third Ctefilaus, the fourth Cydon, the fifth Phrad-
mon. Phidias, befides the Jupiter Olympius, which no
one attempted to rival, made alfo, from gold and ivory,
Minerva at Athens, which ftands in the Parthenon. ye
brafs, alfo, before that Amazon juft mentioned, he made a

_Minerva of fupreme beauty, from which it received the

name of Callimorphos, He made alfo Cliduchus, or the
key-bearer, and another Minerva, which /Emilius Paulus
dedicated at Rome in the temple of Fortune. Alfo two
ftatues clothed in the pallium, which Catullus dedicated in
the fame temple, and another which was coloffal, naked.
He firft difcovered the art of alto relievo, and demonitrated
its merit. Polycletus ef Sicyon was the difciple of Age-

lades ;

SCULPTURE.

lades ; he made a flatue of tender youth, called Diadumenus,
from his binding on a garland, saloal at one hundred talents,
Alfo one called Doryphorus, from his carrying a fpear, a
youth in the vigour f his age. He made alto what by ar-
tills was c the Rule, feeking the lines of art from it as
from a certain law. He was the only man who made art its
own judge. He alfo made a ftrigililt, and one throwing a
die; alfo two boys at the dice, which are called Altra-

izontes; they are in the emperor Titus’s court. No work

judged to be more perfe@ than this, Alfo a Mercury,
which belonged to Lyfimachus, and Hercules futtaining
Anteus from the earth, which is at Rome; alfo Artemon,
an effeminate voluptuary, who was called Periphoretos,
from his being borne about in hiscouch. He was judged to

have
relievo, which had been firft difcovered by
what was

and a fatyr roy 2 the pipes ; a Minerva; a Pen-
ve exercifes ; a pancratiaft or

boxer; a Hercules alfo, which is at the Circus Maximus
of Pompey the Great. He made alfo the monument of a
and locutts, to which Erinna refers in her verfes.

alfo Apollo, which the trumvir Antony took

away, but it was reftored to Ephefus by Auguftus, admo-
nifhed for this purpofe in adream, No artiit, for multitude
i Polycletus, or was more accurate in fym-

, f ft
metry ; but ugh he was fo curious in the reprefentation

?

a Syracufan, alfo lame, the fufferings of whofe
the beholder; alfo Apollo the harper, the
with his arrows, which is called Diceus, and
taken from Thebes by Alexander. He firit ex-
nerves and veins, and the hair alfo with accuracy.

was another Pythagoras of Samos, at firft
i Rate af the br 4

PEER AE
ny

By
rir

hy

ven goddeffes naked, and an
are very much praifed. This artift was faid to
indifcriminate in the likenefs of the face. The
f Rheginus is faid to have been his fifter’s fon,
_Softratus. Whereas Tully affirms, that Lyfippus
his difciple, which Duris denies. He firft became a
worker in brafs, from hearing the anfwer of Eupompus
the € eae who being queftioned who fhould be followed
of before his time, anfwered, fhewing a multitude of
men, that nature fhould be imitated, not the artift. It is faid

Fe
t

H

his art ; among which is a man ufing the ftrigil, which Mar-
ae before his baths. This was very much

: Tiberius, who, not fatisfied with it
where it was, had it brought into his chamber, and another
ftatue put in its place, at which the people of Rome were
moved to refentment, and demanded it to be reftored, which
Lyfippus made a drunken piper, a hunting

cheriot and four horfes, with the fun of a
f the Great in many works, be-
ee (ak ftatue of whom the
emperor Nero very m ighted, commanded it to
be covered with 3 but afterwards, when the art was dif-

covered to be deflroyed by it, it was taken off ; and it was
elteemed more precious with the cuts and {cars remaining i
the work to which the gold adhered. He made “ite Ele.
phettion, Alexander the Great's friend, which hes been
afcribed to Polycletus, who was 100 years before him,
Alfo Alexander hunting, which is confecrated at Delphos,
and at Athens a crowd of fatyrs ; of Alexander's friends he
made the flrongeft refemblances. Metellus, when he con-
quered Macedonia, brought them to Rome. He made alfo
chariots with four horfes, of many kinds. He added much
to the art of ftatuary, exprefled the hair, made the head lefs
than the ancients, the body more flender and dry than the
ancients made theirs, by which the magnitude of the ilatues
appeared enlarged. The Latins havenot the word fymmetry,
which he moft accurately obferved, by a new and untried ru
in changing the {quared ftatues of the ancients ; he {aid
they made men as they are, he made them as they appear to be,
He left fons and difciples very much admired artills, fuch as
Dahippus and Bedas; but above all, Euthyerates, although
he emulated rather the con{tancy of his father than his ele-
gance, and was pleafed with the auftere rather than the
agreeable, Therefore he beit exprefled the Delphian Her-
cules, and Alexander, Thefpis the hunter, and Thefpiades, a
battle of horfemen before Trophonius’s oracle, chariots and
four horfes, many ftatues of Medea, horfemen, and hunti
dogs. His difciple was Tificrates the Sicyonian, the scam
er hvaesee of all his followers, fo that their ftatues are
fearcely diftinguifhable ; a Theban old man, king Demetrius,
Peucettes, Alexander the Great’s preferver, worthy of fo much
lory. Arrtificers, who have brought thefe things together
in the volumes they have compofed, celebrate Telephanes
the Phocean, unknown on other accounts, becaufe in Thef-
faly, where he dwelt, his works are concealed ; otherwife by
the fuffrages of others he is equal with Polycletus, Myron,
and Pythagoras. His Larifia is praifed, and his Wreitler
with the thorns, and his Apollo. Some think he had no
other demerit, but that he gave his workfhops to Xerxes
and Darius. Praxiteles was alfo particularly happy, and
alfo celebrated in his works of marble. He made alfo in
brafs beautiful works ; the rape of Proferpine, the Sybil or
rophetefs, and the drunken woman, Bacchus, and a moft
amous fatyr, which the Greeks call Periboetou : ftatues
alfo which were before the temple of Felicity, and a Venus
which was confumed in the fire of Claudius’s palace; his
marble, famous through the earth, was equalled by himfelf
only. Alfo ftatues called Sthephufa, Spilumene, Oceno-
phorus, Harmodius and Anitogiton, the Tyrannicides ;
which were taken by Xerxes, the Perfian king, and were
fent back to Athens by Alexander. He made alfo a youth,
ftealing upon a lizard, which he approaches to ftrike with an
arrow : it is called Sauro€tonon. e made two itatues, ex-
prefling oppofite effeéts, a mourning matron, and a re-
joicing harlot: they think this to be Phryne, difcovering in
er the love of the artift, and the reward of the woman:
this ftatue poflefles much grace. Calamis made a charioteer
with four horfes: in his horfes are never found any defect,
though he is thought to be defe¢tive in his men. The fame
Calamis made other chariots, beth with four and with two
horfes, in which the men are not inferior. Nothing is nobler
than his Alcmene. The difciple of Phidias, Alcamenes,
worked in marble ; alfo in brafs he made a Pentathlon, who is
called Encrinomenos. But Ariftides, the difciple of Polycle-
tus, made chariots both withtwo and four horfes. And Laena,
by Iphicrates, is praifed. This is the harlot who in the lyre
and ion was the familiar of Harmodius and Ariftogiton,
and partook of their counfel in the Tyrannicide. She was
tortured to death, and did not betray them to the tyxant ;
wherefore the Athenians willingly hold her in hovour, a
<

SCULPTURE.

that they celebrate her as an harlot, but they have made an
animal of her name; and that the caufe of the honour might
be underftood, they forbade the artift to add the tongue.
Bryaxis made AE{culapius and Seleucus ; Bedas made Battus
adoring Apollo, and a Juno, which are at Rome, in the
temple of Concord. Ctefilaus made a wounded man fainting :
in which might be underftood how much life remained ; and
an Olympian Pericles, worthy of the epithet. He was ad-
mirable in his art, and noble men he made more noble. Ce-
phiflodorus made in the Athenian port an admirable
Minerva, and an altar to the temple of Jupiter the faviour,
in the fame port, with which fewcan be compared. Canachus
made an Apollo naked ; it is called Philefius in Didymeus:
it is of the A®ginetic mixture of brafs. Alfo, a deer
fufpended in his fteps, that a line might be drawn under his
feet, retained only in the alternate bite of his hoofs and
heel, fo that turning about his teeth to both parts, he ftarts
from the repulfe of his a€tion by turns. He made alfo Cele-
tizontes, or boys holding hatchets. Chareas made Alexander
the Great and Philip his father. Ctefilaus, or Defilaus,
made a Doryphoron and a wounded Amazon. Demetrius
made a Lyfimachus, who was prieft of Minerva fixty-four
years. He likewife’ made a Minerva, which is called the
Mutfical ; becaufe the ferpents in her Gorgon refound to the
ftroke of the harp. He alfo made Simenes, the horfeman,
who firft wrote on horfemanfhip. Dzdalus made, among
his famous works, two boys ufing the ftrigil. Dinomenes
made Protefilaus and Pythodemus the wreitler. Euphra-
nor’s work is Alexander Paris, in which is praifed what is
intelligible at once; the judge of goddefles, the lover of
Helen, and alfo the flayer of Achilles. His is the Minerva
at Rome; which is called Catuliana, being dedicated in the
Capitol by Quintus Lutatius Catulus; alfo the ftatue of
Good Fortune ; in his right hand holding a patera, and in
his left a {pike of corn and a poppy. Alfo Latona, the
child-bearer, in the temple of Concord, fuftaining in her
arms Apollo and Diana. He made alfo achariot with four, and
another with two horfes: alfo Cliduchon, or the key-bearer,
of the moft perfect form; alfo a Virtue, and Grecia, both
of them coloffal ; alfo a woman, admiring and adoring ; and
Alexander and Philip, in a chariot and four horfes. Euty-
chides made Eurotas, in which many faw that art was more
liquid than the river itfelf. Hegias made Minerva, and king
Pyrrhus, highly praifed ; and Celetizontes, boys ; and Caf-
tor and Pollux, before the temple of Jupiter the Thunderer.
Tn the Parian colony is the Hercules of Ifidorus. Eleuthe-
reus, the Lycian, was Myron’s difciple, who made (worthy
of his preceptor) a boy, blowing the languid fire ; and the
Argonauts. Leochares made an eagle, who underftood what
he took away in Ganymede, and what he bore, fcarcely
touching the veft with his talons ; alfo the boy Autolycus,
vitor in the Pancratium, on whofe account Xenophon
wrote his Sympofion; Jupiter alfo, thundering in the Ca-
pitol, praifed above all; alfo Apollo with a diadem. Ly-
cifcus made the boy Lagon, cunning, falfe, and impudent.
Lycus made a boy offering incenfe. Menechmus made one,
with his neck bended, and his face prefling his knee: this Me-
nechmus wrote of his art. _Naucydes made Mercury, and a
Difcobolus ; and, as it is thought, a perfon facrificing a ram.
Naucerus made a wreftler, drawing his breath. Niceratus
made /Efculapius and Hygeia, which are in the temple of
Concord at Rome. Pyromachus made a chariot with four
horfes, governed by Alcibiades. Polycles made a Her-
maphrodite, a noble work ; Pyrrhus, Hygeia and Minerva;
Pheenix, the difciple of Lyfippus, Epitherfes; Stipax, the
Cyprian, one celebrated 4tatue, an augur; here was the
flave of the Olympian Pericles burning the entrails of a
facrifice, with a full mouth blowing the fire. Silanion made

Apollodorus the moft accurate among all in the art, and his
own inimical judge, breaking the {carcely perfe& ftatue,
becaufe he was unable to fatisfy his own wifhes in the art,
and he was therefore furnamed the Madman: in this he
expreffed not the man made of brafs, but rage itfelf;
a noble Achilles he alfo made, and Epiftate exercifing
the athleta. Strongylion made an Amazon, which, frona
the beauty of her leg, was named Eucnemon: the
emperor Nero always carried it with him; he alfo made
a boy, whom the love of Brutus of Philippi rendered
illuftrious with his name. Theodorus, who made the laby-
rinth at Samos, caft his own likenefs in brals: befides the
admirable refemblance, it is celebrated for the delicacy
of its execution; the right hand holds a file and the left a
{quare ; it was taken to Prenelte. He alfo compofed a car
and driver, fo fmall, that they might be covered with the wing
of a fly. Xenocrates, difciple of Tificrates, or, as others
fay, of Euthycrates, excelled, both in the number of his
ftatues, and compofed volumes on his art. Many artifts
made Attalus and Eumenes fighting againft the Galatians.
Ifigonus, Pyromachus, Stratonicus, andAntigonus, compofed
volumes on the art. Boethius, although more excellent in
working filver, madea moft beautiful infant ftrangling a goofe.
But of all the works I have mentioned (fays Pliny), the
principal were dedicated by the emperor Vefpafian in the
temple of Peace, and his other buildings, being brought
together by the rapine of Nero into the city, and difpofed
in fituations in his golden houfe. Befides, there are other
artifts equal in their merits, but none of their works are pre-
eminent; Arifton, who was ufed to workin filver; Calliades,
Ctefias, Cantharas of Sicyon, Dionyfodorus, difciple of Cri-
tias, Deliades, Euphorion, Eunicus, and Hecateus. Among
the fculptors in filver were Lefbocles, Prodorus, Pythodicus,
Polygnotus; thefe were neble painters; alfo among the
{culptors in filver ; Stratonicus and Scymnus, who was the
difciple of Critias. Pliny then enumerates thofe who made
works of this kind, as Apollodorus, Androbulus, Afclepio-
dorus and Alevas, who made philofophers; Avpellas made
adoring females; Antigonus and Peryxiomenon made the
Tyrannicides above fpoken of; Antimachus and Atheno-
dorus made noble women ; Ariftodemus made wreftlers, and
a chariot with two horfes, with their charioteer ; philofo-
phers ; an old woman, and king Seleucus ; his Doryphorus
alfo is a graceful work. There were two of the name of
Cephiflodorus ; the firlt made Mercury feeding the infant
Bacchus ; he made alfo an orator, with his hand raifed up,
but the perfon is uncertain; the other reprefented philofo-
phers. Colotes, who worked with Phidias on his Olympian

. Jupiter, reprefented philofophers; alfo Cleon and Cen-

chramis, and Challicles, and Cephis. Chalcofthenes made a
comedian, and an athleta; Dahippus made a ftrigilift ; Dai-
phron, Democritus, and Demon, the philofophers. Epigonus
excelled almoft all the reft already recorded, in his imitation
of a trumpeter, and a mother piteoufly embracing her flain
infant ; and Eubolis counting by his fingers. Mycon made
a beautful Athleta; Menogenes a chariot and four horfes.
Nor was Niceratus inferior to them all, reprefenting Al-
cibiades in his attack; and Demaratus facrificing ; his mother
lighting alamp. Tificrates made a chariot and two horfes ;
Pithe placed a woman upon it; alfo he made Mars and
Mercury, which are in the temple of Concord at Rome.
Perillus, whom no one prifes, more cruel than Phalaris the
tyrant, made a bull, in which he promifed that a man,
by the power of fire, might be compelled to bellow, but he
himfelf, by a more juft act of cruelty, was made to experience
it. Thus a moft humane art was called away from the fimi-
litudes of gods and men. Was it for this that fo many la-
boured to rear an art that it might become a torment?

Therefore

pein

SCULPTURE.

Therefore one caufe of petavite, his work was that, who-
foever thould fee it might hate the hand that produced it.
Sthenis made Ceres, Jupiter, and Minerva, which are at
Rome, in the temple of Concord; alfo matrons weeping,
and adoring, and facrificing. Simon made a dog and an
archer. Scopas worked in all kinds; athletes, and foldiers,
and facrificers. Batton, Euchires, Glaucides, Heliodorus,
Hicanus, Lophon, Lyfon, Leon, Menodorus, Myiagrus,
Polycrates, Polydorus, Pythocritus, and Protogenes, who
were famous in painting. Patrocles, Polis, Pofidonius, who
alfo carved excellently in filver; they were Ephetians.
Periclymenus, Philon, Simenus, Timotheus, Theomnettus,
Timarchides, Timon, Tifias, Thrafon ; among all thefe the
known and remarked is Callimachus, always his own
eam nor did he fet any limit to his accuracy ; hence
was called Cacizotechnos: he exhibited memorable ex-
amples of his exceffive attention. His are the dancing Lace-
demonian females, an over-laboured work, in which all
was taken away by the accuracy; he alfo, as
it . id, was a painter. One ner bape of or
in pee to Cyprus, did not fell: not gratified wit
Givtede with fear ; but becaufe it raaias ortrait
of a philofopher; this we obferve by the way, shhough
it may turn out an ufelefs example. One ftatue we mutt
mention and not pafs over, though the author is uncer-
2; near the at Rome, a Hercules, clothed in a
ic of the Elean habit, with a frowning face, as fuffer-
the higheft degree from the tunic. On this are three
\ L. Lucullus, imperator, from his fpoils ; the
the fon of Lucullus, a minor, from fenatus conful-
the third is, T. Septimus Sabinus, a curule edile,
i reftored to the public. This
of fuch a diftinGtion. Pliny,

a Sicyonian potter, firft found the art of
making likenefles of clay, in Corinth, by the help of his
daughter, Se gpee. with a youth who was going

a j > lines round the fhadow of his face
a lamphght

5

E-

qk
tt
z

xxxiv. c. 19, &c.

till Mummius overturned Corinth,

are thofe who fay that Rhoecus and
found out modelling in Samos, before the
Battiades were driven from Corinth. Demaratus fled from
, and in Etruria was the father of Tarquin, the firft
the Romans ; he was accom

ere Co i
of red clay, was Girl pra@ifed by Dibutades 3 he is the firft

face itfelf in plaiter; and
form as poured into the plafter.
L the brother of Lyfippus the Sicyonian, improved
this invention ; he firit determined the reprefentation of por-
him, they endeavoured to make them as
a he etgeaherhertert ches
improvements were made no ftatue was produced wi
out a model. Ritiakicile Waccchiee: thal the vex. ‘wee ssoke
ancient than cafting in hilus and Gorgafus
_ were very eminent modellers ; they were alfo painters, who
exercifed both arts: in the temple of Ceres at Rome, and in
the Circus Maximus, there are verfes infcribed in Greek,
eg ee ee mad was that oe

mophilus, and on the left that of Gorgafus; before this all the
work in this temple was Tufcan, as M. Varro fays. From
this temple, when it was reilored, the furface of the walls
being cut ~y the ures were included im frames; the
ftatues from the roofs alfo were difperfed. Chalcotthenes
made unburnt models at Athens, in 3 place which was called
Ceramicus, from his workfhop. M. Varro fays that bx
knew a man named Pofis, who made at Reme bunches of
grapes and apples, which could not be difeerned from real
ones. He alfo extols Arcefilaus, the intimate friend of Lucius
Lucullus, whofe calls often fold for more than the other
works of his art ; by him was made a Venus Genitrix, in the
forum of Cwfar; it was placed before it was finithed, from
the halte of the dedication. Afterwards by the fame hand,
a ftatue of Felicity was to have been fet up, but both defigns
were fruftrated by death. A cup was made for O¢tavius, a
Roman knight, the model of which in plafter coft a talent.
Pafiteles is praifed, who fays modelling is the mother of
flatuary, fculpture, and engraving. Pais art was very
much ufed in Italy, and chiefly im Etruria. ‘Turianus,
being called from Fregillum by Tarquin the elder, made the
ftatue of Jupiter, to be dedicated in the Capitol ; it was a clay
model, and, as ufual, coloured red; his was alfo the model
on the top of the temple of a chariot and four horfes, which
has often been fpoken of. In this way he made a Her-
cules, which at this day in the city retains the name of its
material. Pliny, |. xxxv. c. 43, 45.

The firft of all who were famous for marble {culpture, were
Dipeenus and Scyllis, born in the ifland of Crete. When it
was under the dominion of the Medes, before Cyrus began to
reign in Perfia, that is, about the soth Olympiad, they betook
themfelves to Sicyon, which was a long time the workfhop
for the metals of all countries. The images of certain
er they publicly placed at Sicyon, but before they had

ifhed them, the artifts, complaining of fome injury, fled to
Etolia. Forthwith famine and barrennefs invaded Sicyon,
and direful afflictions. A remedy being afked from Apollo
Pythias, he immediately anfwered, “‘ Let Dipcenus and Scyllis
perfeé& the ftatues of the gods.” ete were intreated to
do this with great rewards and liberal offers. Thefe images
were Apollo, Diana, Hercules, and Minerva, which after-
wards were touched with lightning from heaven.

In their time there was, 1n the ifland of Chios, Malas, a
{culptor ; then his fon Micciades ; and then his grandfon Ane
thermus, a Chian, whofe fons, Bupalus and Anthermus,
were famous in this fcience in the age of Hipponax, the
poet, who, it is certain, lived in the 6oth Olympiad. If
this family had traced back their progenitors, they would
have found art to have originated with the commencement of
the Olympiads. Hipponax had a fingularly ugly counte-
nance ; wherefore his likenefs, produced in a vulgar joke, was
held up to public ridicule: at which Hipponax, indignant,
bore fo hard upon them with the bitternefs of his wn ry as
compelled them to hang themfelves. But this is an error,
for they made a t many ftatues afterwards in the
iflands. In Delos, where the fong was compofed, they
could not efcape the cenfure; but at Chios are the works
of Anthermus, the fon; and there is fhewn at Jafius a
Diana, made by their hands; and in Chios it is faid there
is a Diana of their work, whofe face is much above the
f{peGtator’s eye, and fo contrived, that to thofe entering the
temple the appears fevere, but to thofe going out fhe a
pears exhilarating. At Rome their ftatues are on the Pal.
tine Hill, on the top of Apollo’s temple. In their country
of Delos alfo are their works, and in the ifland of Lefbos
Dipeenus has certain works at Ambracia, Argos, and
Cleone. Al thefe artiits 57 ied

SCULPTURE.

from the ifland of Paros; which {tone took the appellation
of lychnites, becaufe it was cut in the quarries by the light
of the lamp, as Varro writes. Afterwards a much whiter
kind was found; lately alfo in the quarries of Lunenfium.
But of the Parian a wonder is told: the ftony glebe, di-
vided by the wedge, fell apart, and an image of Silenus
appeared within. It mutt not be omitted, that thefe arts,
both of painting and ftatuary, fo anciently produced, were
taken up by Phidias in the 83d Olympiad, 332 years after-
wards: for Phidias brought forward the art of fculpture in
marble. His Venus at: Rome, which is in the forum of
O@avia, is a work of the moft beautiful perfection. He
taught Alcamenes the Athenian, who, it is certain, is diftin-
guilhed among the firft of the Athenians; whofe works are at
Athens, in many facred temples. Famed above the rett is
his Venus without the wells, which is called Aphrodite in
the Garden. It is faid that Phidias put the finifhing hand
to this ftatue. His difciple was Agoracritus of Paros,
fo agreeable to that age; therefore many works are given
about in his name. There was a trial of fkill between the
maiter and the difciple, in making a Venus. Alcamenes
conquered not by his work, but by the fuffrages of his
city, which favoured him againit a {tranger. Under the
condition that it fhonld not be at Athens, Agoracritus
fold his ftatue. It is furnamed Nemefis. M. Varro pre-
ferred it to all ftatues. There are in the temple of Magna
Mater, in the fame city, works of Agoracritus. Phidias
is undoubtedly famous through all nations, which have
underitood the fame of his Olympian Jupiter. That
thofe may know how defervedly to praife his works, who
haye not feen them; we fhall offer fome arguments relating
merely te his ingenuity ; without comprehending the beauty of
the Olympian Jupiter, and referring merely to the ftruéture of
the Athenian Minerva. It is 26 cubits, compofed of ivory
and gold: in her fhield the Amazonian war is engraved; in
the {welling part of the buckler, and in the concave part,
the war of the gods and giants; in her fandals the Lapithz
and Centaurs, every minute particular put together with the
greateft art. In the bafe is engraved the birth of Pandora.
Here are gods produced, twenty in number: Vitory is
chiefly admirable. The fkilful have admired the ferpent,
and, under the creft of her helmet, the fphynx of brafs.
Thefe are tranfient obfervations: the art can never be fuffi-
ciently admired, whilft it is known that he was no lefs diftin-
guifhed by fuch magnificence, than by the {malleft things. We
have fpoken of Praxiteles, among the ftatuaries of his age, as
having excelled in the glories of marble, others, and alfo
himfelf. His works are at Athens, inthe Ceramicus. But
before all, not only of Praxiteles, but on the whole globe
of the earth, is Venus, which is viewed by multitudes who
fail to Gnidos. He made and alfo fold two ftatues, one
clothed, by means of which it was intended that there might
bea preference. The Coans took one at the fame price, con-
fidering that as the more feyere and modeft. That which
was rejected was bought by the Gnidians. Immenfe the
difference in their fame! Afterwards king Nicomedes
would have purchafed that of the Gnidians, promifing to
pay the whole debt of the city, which was immenfe. But
they rather bore ail, nor without caufe, as long as the ftatue
of Praxiteles ennobled Gnidos. Her little temple was wholly
opéa, that the ftatue of the goddefs might be viewed from
all points; the goddefs favouring them, as it was believed.
No part was feen with lefs admiration than another. It is
faid, a certain perfon was enamoured with the ftatue, and hid
himfelf in the temple all night. There are in Gnidos other
ftatues of marble, by illuitrious artifts: Bacchus, by Bry-
axis; and another, by Scopas; and a Minerva. Neither is

5

there any other {fpecimen of the work of Praxiteles more ex-
cellent than the Venus, that fhould be recorded among thefe
by itfelf, Of the fame artift there is one a Cupid, objecied
by Cicero againtt Verres: it is that for which Thefpia was
vifited. It is now in the OGavian Gallery. His is alfo
another Venus, ina Parian’ colony of Propontis, like the
Venus of Gnidos in noblenefs and alfo in injury. At Rome
are works of Praxiteles: Flora, Triptolemus, Ceres in the
Servilian gardens, Good Fortune, and another ftatue of
Good Fortune in the Capitol; alfo the Mznades, and thofe
called Thyades and Caryatides; and Silenus in Afinius
Pollio’s monument, alfo Apollo and Neptune. Cephiffo-
dorus was the fon of Praxiteles, and the heir of his art as well
as of his eflate ; whofe work of children embracing is at Per-
gamos, a very much admired and a noble performance of art :
the fingers feem to imprets the body rather than the marble.
At Rome his works are, Latona in a chapel of the palace,
Venus in Afinius Pollio’s monument, and in the temple of
Juno, which is in O&avia’s portico, /fculapius, and Diana.
The fame of Scopas contends with his: he made Venus,
and Pothon, and Phaethon, which are worfhipped in the
facred ceremonies of Samothracia ; alfo the Palatine A pollo.
The fitting Vefta is very much praifed in the Servilian gar-
dens ; two chameteras or companions around her fitting on
the ground. ‘Two like them are in Afinius’s monument,
where is a canephorus, or man bearing a bafket, by the fame
artift. But the greateft honour in Cn. Domitius’s temple, in
the Circus Flaminius, belongs to his Neptune and Thetis, and
alfo Achilles; Nereides fitting upon dolphins, fea-montters,
and hippocampi; alfo tritons, and a chorus of phorci and
priftes, which are different kinds of fea-montters, and many
other marine fubjects, all by his hand. ‘This was a molt
famous performance, if it had been the whole work of his life.
Now, befides what has. been faid above, we fhall fpeak
of things of which we are not certain. A Mars of his
work, coloffal, a fitting figure: it is in the temple of
Brutus Callaicus, in the Circus. Befides a Venus, in
the fame place, furpafling the Gnidian, taking a pre-
ference to that of Praxiteles: it would have ennobled
any other place. Rome, from its greatnefs, has. caufed
that work to be forgotten; and the crowd of bufinefs and
offices draw away from obfervation, becaufe admiration
of fuch things is fitted to great filence and more leifure.
Equal doubt is in the temple of Apollo Sofianus, whether
Niobe and her children were made by Scopas or Praxiteles.
Alfo Janus the father, which Auguftus brought from
Egypt, and dedicated in his temple, but of whofe hand it is
fame does not tell us. Likewife in Curia Oftavia, there is
queftion concerning a Cupid holding the lightning ; though
at length it is affirmed to be the likenefs of Alcibiades at
that age. Many other things are in the fame gallery, which
pleafe, whofe authors are unknown: four Satyrs, with
Bacchus, one of whom holds a flying garment over his
fhoulder ; another fimilar Bacchus; a third quieting a cry-
ing infant; a fourth with a cup, fatisfying the thirlt of
another with drink; two winds with flying veits.. Nor is
there lefs queftion who made Olympus, and Pan, and
Chiron, with Achilles, in the Septis; particularly when
their reputation has rendered them worthy of the pledge of
their keepers’ lives. Scopas had emulators in the fame age,
Bryaxis, Timotheus, and. Leochares, who are always
fpoken of together, becaufe they wrought together on the
Maufoleum. This was the fepulchre of Maufclus, king of
Caria, which his wife Artemifia made for him, who died in the
fecond year of the 106th Olympiad. It is a work reckoned
among the feven wonders of the world, whichthele great artifts
made. It is from fouth to north 63 feet, but fhorter in front: its

whole

OOS se See aa

SCULPTURE.

whole circuit is 411 feet, raifed ia height 25 cubits, fur-

rounded with 36 columns, To the eait it was feulptured

By Seems to the north by Bryaxis, to the fouth by Ti-

to the well by Leochares, But before the work

was finithed, queen Artemulia, to whofe hufband’s memory,

aad by whole command, this work was built, herlelf died

alfo. ‘They did not, therefore, reoede from the work,

, ing this monument neceflary to the glory of their art.

ined to them was a fifth artift, who, eta the pedi-

ment, added a pyramid on 24 eps, contracting like a conc

toward the fugunit. On the top of all isa chanot and four

horfes, of marble, which was the, work of Pythis, This

: added, the height of the whole is 140 fect. The

in the palace at Rome is by the hand of Timotheus.

To great admiration is a Hercules, by Meneitratus; aod a

in the Ephefian temple of Diana, behind the build-

i in the contemplation of which, the keeper of the

ping ling admonifhes you to {pare your eyes, iuch is the

Not lefs eftiumable are the Graces,

s, which Socrates made. The

of brafs, made a drunken

in Smyraa. Pollio Afinius being a

withed to Ne it in the

Among thefe are centaurs

_Archefitas ; piades, by Cleo-
upiter, b

y

Entochus; Hippiades, by
ing to T. ‘Jupiter Hofpi-
i ee Zethus a

-

‘aurifeus, not the celebrated

tues
© Polycles aa Dionyfius, fons of Ti-

ter, which is in the adjoining temple ;
wreftling ; and i fame place Helio-

ups in the world ;

s, in a little building adorned with co-
four horfes running, and Apollo
Tn the Servilian gardens are found,

much Apollo, by Peed rae eats Pytheas,
by Dattyhides ; or, as other copies of Pliny have it, the py
or pugiles by Dercylis; Callifthenes, the somes of laf

» and the wonderful conneétion of
by the conjoined coupfels of thofe greateft

n s, and Athenodarus, the
In the like manner, in the Paletine palace of

€xfar, abounding with approved ftatues of Craterus with

,

Pythodorut, Polydeétes with Hermolaus, another Pytho-
dorus with Artemon; a fingle flatue, by Aphrodifius
Trallianus alove. Diogenes, the Athenian, decorated the
Pantheon of Agrippa; and the Caryatides, on the columos
of the temple, are approved among a few of his works, fuch
as being placed at the top of the temple, becaufe of the alti-
tude of their place, are lefs celebrated. Usbonoured »
one, not in the temple, a Hercules, to which the Car-
thaginians a great many years offered in facrifice human
vidtims. It flands on the ground, before the entrance of
the portico that leads to the ttatues of the Nations. ‘There
are handing the tlatues of the Thefpiades before the temple
of Felicity, of which one was loved by a Roman keiske,
Junius Pifciculus, as Varro relates; aioe alfo by Pafi
teles, who wrote five volumes on the noble works in the
whole world, He was born on the Italian Greek fhore.
Rich both in the city of Rome and its towns, he made a
Jupiter of ivory, in Metellus’s temple, which looks toward
the fields. It befell him, that in a fp, in which were African
wild beafls, ftandipg at a den and carefully obferving a lion,
which he meant to carve, a panther broke loofe from another
den, not of flight peril to the diligent artift. He made many
works, as it is {aid ; but of thofe which he made, the names are
not reported. Arcefilaus alfo is very much praifed by Varro,
who himfelf had a marble lionefs, as he fays, and winged
cupids {porting with her; of whom fome hold her bound,
others force her to drink from horns, others kick her with
their thoes: all of one ftone. He made alfo, for Copenius,
fourteen nations, which are in Pompey’s Circus. 1 find Ca-
nachus, (fays Pliny) very much praifed among ftatuaries for
works he made of marble. Nor muft Sauron and Batrachus
be forgotten, who made the temple of OGavia, included in
the portico. They were Lacedzmonians. They are faid to
have been very rich, and they built this temple at their own
expence ; very earneltly hoping to have an infcription, but
it was denied them, T pothieatioee they took another
place and method to obtain it. There are, at this time, in
the volutes of the columns, the fignification of their names
carved: a frog anda lizard. In Jupiter’s temple is to be
feen a picture, containing articles of drefs, and all other
things relating to women ; for when the temple of Juno was
completed, and they carried in the itatue, they are reported
to have changed the moveables; and that being ee by
religion, even as the feat partitioned among the gods them-
felves : “in the temple of Juno is confecrated that which
ought to be Jupiter’s. Pliny, 1. xxxvi. c. 4.

Such is Pliny’s account of ancient fculpture.

It is wel! known, from the teftimonies of later authors
who have written on the fubje@, as well as from the names
of Greek artifts found on their works, that all the nobler
produétions of {culpture executed at Rome after the times
we are {peaking of, were the productions of Greek artifts.

The bults of the twelve Cefars, from Julius to Domitian
inclufive, are the fineft produ@tions of portrait feulpture.
The whole imperial feries, both in bufts and ftatues, down

* to the emperors Balbinus and Pupienus, poflefs the higheft

merit, and {carcely in that period fhew the decline of art ;
but from the time of thefe emperors to that when Conflan-
tine fixed his capital at Byzantium, the decline was fo
evident, that the life and beauty of former times were nearly
extinguifhed in their produGtions.

Before we quit ancient Rome, we muft notice in 2
general obfervation fome of the great works of at fill
remaining in that capital, which could uot be properly in-
troduced in the foregoing feries.

The Trajan column is one of the moft beautiful monu-
ments of ancient Rome, = the molt fuperb Pas

SCULPTURE.

the world. It was raifed about fhe commencement of the
fecond century, by the fenate and people of Rome; in
honour of the emperor Trajan, after the victory that he had
obtained over the Dacians. This column is admirable for
its eign ; and more ftill for the beauty of the bas reliefs
with which it is ornamented; which reprefent the firft and
the fecond expeditions, and the victory obtained over king
Decebalus. Thefe bas reliefs are correctly defigned, and
mott beautifully executed. There are numbered more than
2500 figures, all in different attitudes, without counting
thofe of horfes, elephants, arms, machines of war, and an
infinity of others; altogether forming a variety of ob-
jets, which no one can fee without admiration. Upon
the capital of this column is a pedeftal, on which was
anciently a coloffal ftatue of Trajan in gilt bronze. In
the place of this ftatue, pope Sixtus V. caufed to be

laced, in the year 1588, that of St. Peter the apoftle in

ronze, which was modelled by Thomao Porta. The fame
pope caufed alfo to be cleared away the earth which en-
cumbered the pedettal.

At the bottom of the pedeftal, or bafe of the column, in
one of the fides is a door, by which we mount to the top
of the column. The ftair-cafe contains 185 fteps, cut in
the fame blocks as the column: and to them are made 44
windows, which light the ftair-cafe; and there is on the
top a baluftrade, by which we may walk around and enjoy
the profpe& of the whole city of Rome. The height of
this column is 118 feet, comprifing the pedeftal of the
column and the ftatue onthe top. The column alone, with
its bafe and capital, is g2 feet ; the pedeftal of the column
is 17, that of the ftatueg; the lower diameter of the
column is 11 feet 3 inches, the diameter of the upper part
is 10 feet. This column is formed of 22 blocks of white
marble, fixed with lead one upon another. The fhaft of
the pillar is in 23 pieces; the pedeftal in 8; the capital 1;
and the pedeftal of the ftatue another.

The magnificence of this column anfwers to that of the
ancient forum of Trajan, of which it occupied the centre.
The Forum or Square of Trajan was furrounded by grand
porticoes, and the edifices were built with the greateft mag-
nificence after defigns by the celebrated Apollodorus.
Thefe confifted of a temple or palace, where the confuls fat
in judgment ; the temple of Trajan, where was the Ulpian
library, ornamented with ftatues of the learned; a fuperb
triumphal arch with four equal faces, that the fenate caufed
to be built to the honour of the prince after his death; and
a beautiful equeftrian ftatue of Trajan, in gilt bronze : the
flatues, the cornices, the architraves, and the friezes which
ornamented thefe edifices, were alfo in bronze. It would
be difficult to defcribe all the magnificence of this fuperb
{quare. Trajan caufed a valley to be filled up, and levelled
one part of Mount Quirinal, to make a level for this beau-
tiful fituation.

The Antonine column has given its name to the place of
which it is the principal ornament. It was raifed by the
Roman fenate, and by the emperor Marcus Aurelius An-
toninus, in honour of Antoninus Pius, his father-in-law,
whom he fucceeded in the empire. His afhes were enclofed
in a golden urn, and placed on the top, with his ftatue in
bronze gilt ; and becaufe he had not obtained any one great
victory in war, they caufed to be fculptured around the
column the viétory over the Marcomanni. ‘Time and vari-
ous revolutions, and above all the fires, which had been an-
ciently very frequent in Rome, have much damaged this
column. Pope Sixtus V.-caufed it to be repaired in the
year 1589, and the ftatue of the apoftle Paul, in bronze
gilt, to be placed upon its fummit. This column is of

white marble, furrounded by bas reliefs from the bafe to
the capital. The artift appears to have taken for his model
the Trajan column; it is of the fame ftyle, though of in-
ferior execution. The whole is compofed of 28 blocks of
marble: it is 15 feet in diameter, and 116 in height, with-
out including the ftatue, which is 13; and the pedettal, on
which it is placed, which isg. ‘The column contains a
beautiful winding ftair-cafe of 190 fteps, which condué&
commodioufly to the top ; it is lighted by 41 windows.

The arch of Titus was raifed by the fenate and people
of Rome to the honour of Titus Vefpafian, for his con-
queft of Judea and the taking of Jerufalem. It is of the
moft excellent. workmanfhip, but has very much fuffered’
from the injuries of time. It is ornamented with beautiful
bas reliefs, and two fluted columns of the Compofite order.
Under the arch is feen the triumph of the emperor, drawn
in a chariot by four horfes, accompanied by his litors ; and
in the triumph the famous candlettick of feven branches, the
tables of the law, and other {poils of the temple of Jerufalein.

The arch of Septimius Severus was raifed by the fenate
and people of Rome, at the beginning of the third cen-
tury, to the honour of that emperor, for having fubjugated
the Parthians and other barbarous nations. It is all of
white marble, with three arches and eight fluted columns
of the Compofite order, ornamented with bas reliefs, of
middling fculpture. It has fuffered very much, and becaufe
it is partly buried in the earth, we cannot fo well judge of its
beauty ; formerly there was an afcent to the top of the arch, by
a ftair-cafe in the interior ; and there was placed upon its roof
the emperor Severus in a triumphal chariot drawn by fix horfes.

After the famous vi€tory obtained over Maxentius by
Conftantine the Great, the fenate and people of Rome
caufed a triumphal arch to be raifed to his honour:
it is of the Corinthian order, having three arches; the
two grand fronts are ornamented by eight fluted co-
lumns of yellow marble, and many bas reliefs of very dif-
ferent merit. Thofe that were made in the time of Con-
ftantine make us perceive the barbarity into which the
fine arts were beginning to fall; the others, on the con-
trary, which were taken away from the arch of Trajan,
prefent fuch beauties, as indicate an age when fculpture was
in high perfeGtion. Thefe are twenty in number, of which
ten are of a {quare form, and are in the upper part; eight
are round, above the fide arches, and two others more large
under the grand arch. All thefe bas reliefs, and the eight
figures of Dacians placed upon the columns, prove theme
felves to belong to the expeditions and victories of Trajan.

The arch of Marcus Aurelius formerly itood in the
Flaminian way, now called the Corfo, or principal ftreet in
Rome; it was taken down by Alexander VII. ; two fine
remaining bas reliefs from which are at prefent in the Capi-
tol; one of thefe is an apotheofis of the emprefs Fauitina,
the other is an addrefs of the emperor to the people of
Rome. The figures are larger than life.

In general obfervations on the fculpture of the arches
and columns here enumerated, we fhall remark, that the
earlieft of them, the arch of Titus, muft have been executed
about the year 70 of the Chriftian era, confequently when
feulpture had loft much of its primitive ideal beauty; we
fhall of courfe find in thefe works lefs of fublimity and
more of coarfenefs in the forms, confifting of fubjeé&s
which were confined to battles, oftentations, triumphs, and
aéts immediately confined to them. ‘The Roman generals
and foldiery, as well as the barbarians whom they fought
with and conquered, are reprefented with an individual
vulgarity of face and perfon, very different from the choice
feleGtion of beauty in the works of Greece. The drefs and

armour

eer.

to Byzantium,

SCULPTURE.

armour are more complicated and divided than thofe of the
ancient Greeks, added to the inferiority and confufion of
parts, {till augmented by the introduction of thips, bridges,
piles of wood, battering rams, catapults and other military
engines, &c., wholly amitted in the works ef the beit ages.

contetls are of = coarfeft means, and of the moft
brutal force, unalleviated by avy interference of fupreme
beings, and unexalted by the beauty of the ancients. With
fuch a charaéter in the whole, the fculpture on the arch
jan, mow the arch of Conftantine, is fuperior to
the of thefe works. Upon the whole, although the
bas relief of the apotheofis of Fauttina, formerly on the
arch of Marcus Aurelius, is a more fublime an Aap
the foulpture of the Trajan column has a great variety o
natural attitudes, ab to the Pty which the
perfons are and the relievo has that general breadth,
which is {uited to thew the outline of the column in all
views. The figures and groups on the Antonine column
carved < ctlimn by relief; but fuch as deforms the

iy

&,

by its irregular hollows, producin
fomething of the appearance of rock-work to the whole
The feulpture on the arch of Severus is fill
1 in its ftyle and condu@ ; and fuch of the
reliefs on the arch of Conitantine as were executed in
ign of that prince, have fuch a Gothicifm and barba-
i execution, as would utterly exclude it from that
dah of , which has moderate pretenfions to {cience,

pretenfion whatever to fentiment.

mutt not omit to mention fome coloffal ftatues, {till
entire or in parts in the city of Rome: rit, two
f marble on Monte Cavallo, ftanding be-
lace, each nineteen feet and a bal gh

are in the prime of youthful manly beauty ; t
the highett clafs of Grecian beauty ; the figures
move; their pofition 18 advancing ;
each holds his charger. They have been
and Pollux, Achilles and Patroclus, Alex-
Hepheftion, alfo Achilles, at the moment when
declares the will of Jupiter; on the authority of
I GE Mike ad Asicies tock, w: Corinth, essing

3 i
oe of thefe ftatues
her ftatue feems to be this original, reverfed
other artift, to ftand as its companion in fome con-

tuation.

he Capitol are remains in marble of the
ftatue of Domitian, which ap to have been,
i about forty feet high ; and neck to

g
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3

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i

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7:
a5

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435
:

FLEE
inl
in
a

ging on the left arm ; and is s the fame co-
of Domitian as that defcribed by Philo Byzantius,
his teftimonies from different Latin authors.

in the fame cortile, a head in bronze, believed

a

Fg

to be that of the emperor Commodus, which from other re-
maining was a coloffal ftatue alfo.
The ian ftatue of Marcus Aurelius, confiderably

at
:

fize of nature, in the centre of the Capitol, of
ip, is fufficiently known to lovers of art
the prints of Perrier and other artifts.
When Conitantine removed the feat of empire from Rome
he and his fucceffors are faid to have taken
ee errr weet, ss maiy of the fino
art

i
é
I
?
;

artiits were employed in their own country to decorate the

new capital, with the fame magnificence indeed as in former

times, and like their predeceflors were employed in the caufe

of religion, not in emulation ef Phidias’s Jupiter or Praxi-

teles’s Venus, but in the caufe of that facred perfon who

difclofed, and of his followers who propagated A 8. pew dif.

penfation of mercy. The archite¢ts were employed in build.

ing Sancta Sophia and other great facred buildings in the ©
city ; and the painters and fculptors in the illuttration of the

Old and New Teftament.

The controveriies of religion and philofophy had been
agitated with fo much violence by the philofophers of Alex-
andria againft the Chriftian divines, as induced the fucceflors
of Conflantine to abolifh the {chools both of Athens and
Alexandria; they alfo iflued orders for the removal and de-
ftru€tion of the vom idols; and in the fourth and fifth
centuries it is believed that the Olympian Jupiter at Elis by
Phidias, and the Venus at Gnidos by Praxiteles, with others
of the moft diftinguifhed works of Pagan {culpture, were
deftroyed, either by imperial orders or the ravages of bar-
barians. The Iconoclaites, and the irruptions of the fol-
lowers of Mahomet and other barbarous people, very nearly
deftroyed all the remains of the fineit Greek {culpture in the
Eaft as well as in weftern Europe. This deitrutive fury
againft the arts and artifts, continued with interruptions for
two hundred years ; ftill, however, the Chriftian Greek com-
pofitions from the Old and New Teftament, from the time of
Conftantine down to the thirteenth century, were followed
as examples of charaGter and compofition by the revivers
of art in weftern Europe, down to the times of Michael
Angelo and Raphael.

fter the facking of Conftantinople by the Venetians,
the only efforts of that feeble ftate were a few faint ftrug-
gles for exiftence, previous to its deftruétion by the Maho-
metans.

To give fome idea of the magnificent {culpture which
adorned Conftantinople, we fhall infert the defeription given
by Coniatus, of thofe fine works which decorated this city,
before it was taken by the Venetians.

The Roman conquerors, who were of an avaricious tem-
per even to a proverb, practifed a new method of rapine and
plunder, unknown to thofe who had taken the city before
them: for breaking open by night the royal fepulchres in
the great grove of Heroum, they facrilegioufly rifled the
corpfes of thofe blefied difciples of Jefus Chritt, and car-
ried off whatever was valuable in gold, rings, and jewels,
which they found in thefe repofitories of the dead. They
{pared neither the houfe of God nor his minifters, but

ipped the great church of Sanéta Sophia of all its fine
ornaments and hangings, made of the richeft brocades of in-
eftimable value; but they no fooner catt their eyes on the
brazen itatues than they ordered them to be melted down.
The fine ftatue of Juno in brafs, which ftood in the forum
of Conftantine, they chopped to pieces and threw into the
forge. The head of this itatue was fo large, that four yoke
of oxen could fearcely drag it. On the bafe of it was
cut, in baffo relievo, the figure of Paris prefenting Veous
with the apple of difcord. The noble quadrilateral

ilar, fupported by feveral ranges of pillars, and which

y its height overlooked the whole city, and was both the
wonder and delight of the curious {peétator, fhared the fame
fate. This lofty column was adorned with rural reprefenta-
tions of all kinds of birds, folds of cattle, and of theep
bleating and lambs frifking and playing, &c. There was
alfo engraved upon it a view of the fea and fea-gods, fome
of whom were catching fifh with their hands, others order-
ing their nets, then diving to the bottom, while fome in a

9

wanton

SCULPTURE.

wanton manner were throwing balls to one another. This
pillar fupported a pyramid on the top of it, on which was
placed the ftatue of a woman, which turned about with the
wind, and was therefore called Anemode. This excellent
piece was alfo melted down for coimage, as was alfo an
equeitrian ftatue,.fixed upon a quadrilateral pedeftal in the
Tauris. This was a bold figure, of an heroic countenance,
and furprifing ftature. He was faid by fome to be one of
the fpies who were fent by Jofhua, the fon of Nun. With
one hand he pointed eaftward, with the other to the weit.
But this ftatue was generally reported to be Bellerophon
fitting upon Pegafus; for the horfe was without a bridle,
as Pegafus is moitly figured, fcouring the plain, defpifing a
rider, flying and driving about in a headftrong manner. This
horfe and his rider were alfo melted down; the barbarous
foldiers exprefling their utmoft fury againft the fineft {tatues
and moft curious pieces of workmanfhip in the Hippocum.
The great ftatue of the Hefperian Hercules, which was fixed
upon a magnificent pedettal, and clothed in a lion’s fkin,
which feemed to live and _affright the fpeCtators with his
tremendous voice, felt the effets of military power. He
was not armed with his quiver, his bow or his club; but
ftretching out lus right les and arm, he kneeled upon bis
left knee, and leaning upon his left elbow with his hand
open, fupported his head in a thoughtful manner, feeming
to lament his misfortunes. This figure was broad-chetted,
the fhoulders were large, the hair long, curled, and reach-
ing to the waift; the arms were brawny, atid as long as thofe
made by Lyfimachus, which was the original of this, and
was the firit’and laft mafterpiece of his fill. In fhort, of
fuch a ftupendous fize was this ftatue, that his wrilt was a3
thick as a man’s body, and his leg equal in height to any
ordinary perfon. This noble ftatue did not efcape the
rage of thefe mighty pretenders to virtue and honour.
Befides this they alfo carried away the image of the afs and
his driver, which figures were fet up originally by Augultus
Cefar at AGium, of whom the ftory reports, that when he
went out privately in the night time, to take a view of An-
tony’s camp, he met a man driving an afs, and afking him
who he was and where he was going ? the man anfwered,
““my name is Nicon and my afs’s name Nicander, and I am
going to Cefar’s army.” The ftatues of the hyzna, and of
the wolf which fuckled Romulus and Remus, underwent
the fame fate, and were coined into little brazen ftaters. The
feveral ftatues alfo; of a man fighting with a lien; of the
horfe Neilous covered with feales behind; of an elephant
with a moving probofcis; of the f{phynxes, beautiful as
women and terrible as beafts, which can occafionally walk
or fly in the air; there was alfo the ftatue of a wild horfe,
pricking up his ears, curvetting and prancing :—this and
old Sylla were ferved in the fame manner. She was figured
like a woman to the wailt, witha grim frightful look, jut
as fhe appeared when fhe fent her dogs to deftroy Ulyfles.
There was alfo placed in the Hippocum a brazen eagle,
which was the invention of Apollonius Tyaneus, and a cele-
brated monument of /his forcery. This impoftor being: re-
quefted by the Byzantines to heal them of the bitings of
ferpents, which were then common among them, ufing charms
and diabolical ceremomies placed this eagle upon ‘a pillar.
It was a pleafant fight enough, and deferved’to be more’ nar-
rowly infpe&ted, for it made an agreeable harmony, and lefs
dangerous than the Syrens. Its wings were itretched ont as
ready for flight, and it was trampling upon a ferpent, which
wreathed itfelf about the eagle. ‘The ferpent feemed to
make the utmott effort to bite the eagle; the eagle looked
brifle and lively, and feemed to have obtained the victory,
and to be ready to bear him through the air in triumph, de-

noting that the ferpents that tormented the Byzantines would”
hurt them no more, but fuffer themfelves to be handled and
{troked by them. But thefe were not the only curiofities to
be cbferved in this aquiline ftatue; for the twelve hours
were engraven under his wings, under each wing fix, which
fhewed the hour of the day, by the fun darting through a
hole in each wing made for that purpofe. There was alfo a
fine ftatue of Helen, whofe charms laid Troy in ruin3; her
fine proportions, in breathing brafs, captivated all beholders ;
her habit fat loofe upon her, which difcovered too great an
inclination to gallantry ; her long and delicate hair feemed
to wave in the wind ; it was braided with gold and jewels;
her robe was girt about her and falling down to the knee ;
her lips feemed like opening rofes, you would fancy they
moved ; and fuch an agreeable {mile brightened her coun-
tenance, as entertained the fpeCtator’s eye with pleafure.
There was alfo placed upon ‘a pillar a more modern ftatue of
awoman. Her hair hung down behind, combed clofe down
from the forehead backwards, not braided up but bending,
as if to the hand of the fpetator. Upon the right hand of
this {tatue {tood the equeftrian flatue of a man; the horfe
{tood upon one leg, the other bore a cup with liquor. The
rider was of a large fize; his body completely armed ; his
legs and feet covered with greaves ; his air was manly, rough,
and warlike. His horfe was mettlefome and high couraged,
pricking up his ears as if he heard the trumpet ; his neck
was high, his look fierce, as eager for the battle, rearing
up his fore-feet and prancing as a war horfe. Near this fta-
tue, hard by the eaftern goal called Rufius, were a range of
ftatues Of: charioteers, dextrous in driving the chariot and
turning the goal. They were very bufy in managing their
bridles and f{macking their whips, and direéting their horfes,
with their eyes fixed fteadily upon the goal. There feemed
to be defcribed in thefe figures all the tumult and fury of a
chariot race, with the’ mott vigorous {truggle for victory.
But what excited the greatelt admiration was a large pedettal,
having on it an animal cait in brafs as large as an ox, with
a fhort tail and a moderate dew lap, fomething like the
Egyptian cattle; it had no hoofs; it held in its teeth, ready
to ftrangle, another animal, clothed all over with {cales that
feemed impenetrable. This appeared to be a bafilifc; it had a
mouth fomewhat like a ferpent’s. Thefe figures feemed to
reprefent an odd kind of fight, each of them furionfly ftriv-
ing for viétory. The creature which feemed to be the bafi-
lifk was in colour like a frog, and was all over bloated from
head to foot ; he was cafting out -his venom upon his an-
tagonift, to deftroy him, while he was’ reprefented as bear-
ing upon one knee and in a languifhing itate. There was
alfo a figure of another animal, in whofe jaws was repre-
fented a {maller creature whofe mouth was open, as almoft
choaked by the teeth which held him, ftruggling to get
loofe but to no purpofe. His tail, which was very fhort,
feemed to tremble ; his fhoulders, his fore-feet, and a part
of his bedy, were hid in the mouth of his enemy and mafhed
by his jaws. This is the cafe with nations and kingdoms,
which thus mutually deftroy one another. :

For further fatisfaGtion concerning the ftate of fculpture
in the fourth and fifth centuries, a fhort defcription of the
column of Theodofius, ere€ted at Conftantjnople, will be
added. ‘ :

‘Vhis column was, in its general fhape and fize, an imita-
tion of that of Trajan in Rome ; although, by the defcrip-
tion of fuch travellers as faw it ftanding, it appears to have
been larger, and formed of the fame material, ftatuary mar-
ble, decorated like that column; with a {piral bas relief,
from the bottom to the top of the fhaft, furmounted by a
ftatue of the emperor. The pedeftal was covered ge mi~

tary

ce * ee

SCULPTURE.

litary bas reliefs, on one fide of which was the emperor,
fitting, crowned by two victories, with a glory, inegluding
the crofs, The thaft of the column was drawn by Gentile
Bellini ; the fubjets are, the triumphal entry of Theo-
dofius, Arcadius, and Honorius, as it is believed, with the
ce Goths and Lefler Tartars; their idols, kings, gene-
s, horfes, dromedaries, elephants, and oxen ;
‘captive multitude, with emblematical figures, nepre-
ing thecity of Conilantinople; and the various figures of
i complimentary to the emperors, icularly re-
their oo A hoewer defires to be
particularly informed of the remains of ancient {culp-
ure which decorated Conftantinople, may confult Gyllius
and Du Frefne, oow the Byzantine writers
, pture.—From the fourth century the art
Be oly decline, by the inroads, firit of the 7 een and
and of the Saracens; and this decline
i in fragments and ruins of the ages as they fuceced

ch other.
ganeenesie of the Goths, eftablithed the feat of

‘ venna; his reign was long, and as he

to build fever.

after a barbarous way; which were rather
eocareters.. y Plone may
church of St. Stephen at Rimini, of St. Mar-

volutes are without an the whole matfies are
craton without effe&t : the fculpture of baffo relievo
on the farcophi of this king and his family at Rimini,

hich reprefen our Saviour and his Apoitles, is without
and of the rudeit workmanthip.

urch of St. Vitalis was built’ at Ravenna in 547.
lucen Theodolinda caufed the church of St. John the Bap-
Hit to be built at Monza, where was painted the hiltory of
the Lombards ; her daughter, queen Gundiperga, cauled a
church to be built at Pavia. They are all of the ancient

.

leaves and

the ancient Gothic is Lere meant a grofs imitation of
Rove an buildings and Roman {culpture, without har-
mony, ortion of parts, or defign, as nearly as thefe
un barbarians could imitate the ruins of Ro-
man buildings, without any {cience, and with clumfy initru-

__ If the Gothic kings who embraced the Chriitian religion
their pai Babs Septem PC ArclainEae, they had alfo, to
coasters thefe, wars to fupport againit the barba-
who ftill remained averfe to art and {cience ; all Europe

as in in fuch confufion, that little fatisfaction can be
wm the hiftories, and {till lefs from the few barba-

5 is, king of the Franks, was con-
fianity ; he built the church of St. Peter and
ich is now called St. Genevieve. The
is in the chyrch of St. Germain,
of this king, Although thefe two

FRE
z

"
ae

el

debert,
of an

F tiquity have been deftroyed in the
ey revol yet fpecimens of the f{culpture are pre-
ferved among the Fi monuments at the church of the

z
~
‘

Little Auguflins; fome of which, faid to be of this age,
appear to be much later, as the flatues of the kings a
pare of St. Germain de Prez, which gppear rather to
ave been done in the cleventh century. The capitals
in this colleétien of the age of Charlemagne, brought
from St. Dens, exhibit foulpture, if foulpture it may be
called, in its lowelt fhate of abafement ; it is wanting in
every principle of art, both of defign ‘and execution, and it
is, not without attention that you can difcover that its efforts
were intended for the reprefentation of human figures.

What we have faid of the Hate of feulpture in France
will anfwer equally. well for every thing that was done in
England, Italy,,Germany, and (i a the continent,
at this time,

In the year 805, Charlemagne built the church of the
Apottles in Florence, which * always been efleemed by
architects of fingular beauty, fo that Brunilefehi took it as
a model fo long afterwards as the year 1400.

In the eleventh century, when the terrors of the Norman
invafions, in addition to thofe of former barbarians, had
pafled away, the governments began to be more regular and
eltablifhed ; agriculture and commerce began to revive ; and
the crufades had diffuled a ray of light among the northern
natipns, derived from the arts and hterature of the Eaft, fo
that then the arts of defign began that regular courfe of
improvement which has been denominated their revival.

In 1016, the Pifans founded their great church, called
the Dome of Pifa. The commerce they had by fea, and par-
ticularly into Greece, was a favourable means for the re-
eftablifhment of architeCture and {culpture. They brought
from thence feveral columns and fragments of ancient archi-
tecture, of marble, which they made ufe of in this church.

They brought together by thefe means feveral Grecian
{culptors into fealy, and alfo Grecian painters, who worked
after their own old methods, for ufing in their painting only
fimple lines, which they coloured all over equally, without
any fhadowing : their works were not very artificial, not-
withitanding thefe remainders of art taught the Italians
the praétice of painting in water colours, or and
mofaic.

But among all the artifts of that time was Bufchetto, a
Grecian of Dulichium. ‘The cathedral of Pifa was buile
under his direétion ; for befides the magnificence and fine
plan exhibited in this church, he ufed with great dexterity «
thofe ancient pieces of Grecian architeCture, to compound
together with his: thefe were fragments brought from
Greece.

This great building excited in all Italy, and particularly in
Tufcany, thofe who had any genius for defigning.

Thus the arts of defigning began to be revived in Tufcany
before they were known in other countries; and very great
fabrics were reared in feveral cities of Italy. At Ravenna,
in the year 1152, Il Buomio, a fculptor and archite&, built a
great many palaces and churches : he alfo founded at Naples
the cattle of Capoano, now called the Vicarage, and Cattel
Delluovo ; alfo at Venice he built the fteeple of St. Mark.

In the year 1063, the {poils which the Pifans brought from
Sicily enabled them to add to the magnificence of their cathe-
dral. The capitals and fragments of pillars they had brought
from Greece and Sicily, were employed in the cathedral
church and in the Bell tower; in which latter building
every capital almoit is of fine aucient Greek workmanthip.
The farcophagi, ftill preferved in the Campo Santa, formed
the {chool in which Nicolo Pifano and his fucceffor improved
their feulpture. The confequences of thefe improvements
are {cen in the works of Nicolo Pifano, which are the pulpit
of Sienna, the pulpit of the baptiitery of Pifa, the bas me

SCULPTORE.

of St. Martin’s at Lucca, the bas relief in the cathedral at
Orvietto, and in other parts of Italy, in which his conftant
attention to the ancient bas reliefs is every where obfervable.

~ At this time the crufades had diffufed fuch a fpirit of piety,
that magnificent churches were built all over Italy, in the
defigning of which, as well as the decoration with {culp-
ture, Nicolo Pifano and his fcholars were univerfally em-
ployed.

On the bafement in the weft front of the cathedral of
Orvietto, there is aferies of baflo relievos, the work of Ni-
colo Pifano and his fchool, containing the moft important
fubje&ts of the Old and New Teftament, from the Creation
tothe Lalt Judgment, with feparate figures of the prophets.
The different fubjects are contained in a running foliage,
making the moft rich and beautiful decoration to the four
bafements formed by the three doors in that part of the
ehurch. The figures are each about twenty-two inches
high, very highly finifhed in ftatuary marble. There is in
many of them a beautiful fimplicity of fentiment, and in
thofe of the Laft Judgment, and the other bas reliefs that
immediately relate to it, there are various ftriking inftances
of paffion andterror. ‘The pulpits alfo in the cathedral of
Sienna, and in the baptiftery of Pifa, which were before
mentioned, are magnificent architeCtural defigns, richly
adorned with fcriptural baflo relievos by this artiit.

At Pifa, in 1174, William Oltramontano and Bonnano,
a fculptor, founded the fteeple of the dome. The royal
gate of brafs in this church was made by Bonnano.

John Cimabue was born at Florence in the year 12115 he
very much improved the art of defigning; his difciple
Ghiotto was both a painter and fculptor. Cimabue learned
his art of Greek painters, who were employed in Florence.
At the fame time with Cimabue, flourifhed Andrea Tafh, a
Florentine painter in mofaic ; he went to Venice to perfec
himfelf in his art ; having learned that there were Grecian
painters who worked in that way in Venice, he engaged
Apollonius, one of them, to come and work with him in
Florence, where they made feveral pieces. T'affi learned of
this Grecian the art of making enamels and platters that
would laft along time : he died in the year 1294.

About the year 1216 appeared Marchione, architec and
f{culptor of Arezzo, who worked much at Rome for the
popes Innocent III. and Honorius III.: he made the fine
chapel of marble at St. Mary Maggiore, with the fepulchre
of that pope, which is of the beft {culpture of thofe times.
But one of the firft architeéts who began to reform in Italy,
was a German named James, who built of ftone the great
convent of St. Francis; he dwelt at Florence, where he
made the chief fabrics; he had a fon, named Jacopo Amalfo
Lapo, who learned archite€ture of his father, and defigning
of Cimabue. He founded the church of St. Crofs, at Flo-
rence, and feveral other buildings, the moft confiderable of
which is the magnificent church of St. Mary del Fiore.

John Pifano was the fon of Nicholas, and was alfo a
fculptor and archite&t. In 1283 he was at Naples, and
built there, for king Charles, the new cattle, and feveral
churches, and being returned into Tufcany, he made feveral
pieces of fculpture at Arezzo, and alfo of architef@ture in
that province, and died in the year 1320.

John Pifano deviated from his father’s rigid imitation of
antiquity, in giving a more waving line to his figures, and
broader and lefs determined folds to his draperies, like the
paintings and defigns of Ghiotto. There is a general grace
and delicacy in the charaéter of his figures; of which the
-bronze ftatues of a madonna and angels in the cathedrals of
Orvietto and Florence are examples: and there is fo ftron
a refemblance between the ftyles of thefe ftatues and thofe

of queen Eleanor at Northampton, Geddington, and
Waltham, on her croffes; as affords reafon to believe the
were produced by one of the ableft of John Pifano’s f{cholars,
if not from fome ftatue or model by himfelf: nor is it here
that the refemblance ceafes, for this {tyle is to be traced in
mott of the fculptures of Europe from this time to the reign
of Henry VII. This {culptor had for pupils, Agoftino
and Agnolo Sanefi; they were, in the opinion of Ghiotto,
the belt {culptors of the time, which procured them the
chief bufinefs of Tufcany. They worked alfo at Bologna
and Mantua, and bred up feveral ingenious pupils, and
particularly carvers in filver, as Paul Aretino, a gold{mith,
Maettro Cione, and Jacomo Lanfranco, a Venetian, and
Peter Paul, of the fame city.

Ghiotto made defigns for the brazen doors in the bap-
tiftery of Florence, which were engraven by Andrew Pifano,
who alfo made feveral figures of marble in the church of
St. Mary del Fiore. Andrew was as famous for {culpture
as Ghiotto was for painting. The bas reliefs on the doors
of the baptiftery reprefent the life of St. John the Baptift,
and poflefs great fimplicity and grandeur for the age in
which they were produced.

Stephen Florentin, Taddeo Gaddi, and Peter Cavallini,
were {cholars of Ghiotto, and in 1350 they formed at Flo-
rence an academy of defigning, which was the firft that had
been formed fince the revival of the arts. Taddeo Gaddi
began to colleé ancient fculpture for his {tudies, and there
is a fine Greek body of a faun which belonged to him, which
is kept in the ducal gallery, and is known by the name of
Gaddi’s Torfo. :

This ingenious fociety was afterwards encouraged and
affifted by the princes of Medicis, which perfected at Flo-
rence the eftablifhment of the arts of defign, for there came
out of that fchool a great number of painters, fculptors,
and archite&ts, who embellifhed that famous city, and all
Italy, like another Sicyon, where, in the time of the firft
ancients, the firft academy of defign had been eftablifhed ;
this quickly fhewed at Florence thofe great geniufes Lo-
renzo Ghiberti, Donatello, and Brunilefchi, and many other
ingenious contemporaries. .

Bartoloccio Cione was a {culptor in bronze, gold, and
filver, and father of Lorenzo Ghiberti, who, befides fol-
lowing his father’s profeffion, added to it the ftudy of
painting and architeéture. He made the two fine brazen
gates in the baptiftery of St. John, one of which reprefents
the hiftory of the Old Teftament, which Michael Angelo
faid was worthy to be a gate of Paradife; the other gate is
adorned with the principal aéts of our Saviour’s life. Be-
fides the beauty of the hiftorical fubje&ts in the pannels, the
architraves and friezes of thofe gates are of exquifite defign,
containing flowers, fruits, plants, and animals, fo perfe&t that
they feem to have been caft from nature. He executed a
figure of St. Matthew, in bronze, of a coloflal fize, in the
church of San Michele, but this figure is inferior to his
{maller works, from an attempt at exceflive grace ; the folds
of drapery alfo are too minute, curvilinear, and not well ac-
counted for. He executed fome baffo relievos in bronze, ot
the life of St. John the Baptilt, on the baptifmal font in the
cathedral of Sienna; he alfo executed fome painting in the
fame church when he was young. Ghiberti made alfo feveral
curious fhrines, and a triple crown for pope Eugenius ; it
was of gold and jewels, valued at thirty thoufand ducats of

old. Afterwards he became fupreme magiftrate of Flo-
rence, but ftill praétifed architecture, managing for fome
time the building of the church of St, Mary del Fiore.

Donatello very much excelled the fculptors who had
gone before him, in his copious compofitions, and the paflion

and

and life of his defigns, and in the charaler of nature in his
flatues, which are to be feen in Florence; he was born in
1403, and lived to be above Bo years old. His ftatue of
Sc isa youthful pedeitrian figure, flanding with his
legs y apart, his two hands before him leaning on
his hield. Machacl Angelo admured the head of this fyure
fo much, that he copied 1 in the monumental Mlatue of Julian,
Namurs. Donatello defi fome fine bas reliefs
oy —_ ———— ua, which were executed

one ep and te the principal altar of the
cathedral of Padua. He compofed a pe the greater
me of thole noble bas reliefs from the life of our Saviour,

bronze, round the two pulpits of St. Lorenzo, io Flo-
rence; the fentiment, , and eompolition of which, in
it feems im to excel, e executed different

of St. John, and crucifixes in wood, the characters
» and confequently very inferior
was faid of this artift, upon the
idea of tran{migration, that either Michael

ow "s foul energized in_

body, or his in Michael
There is a bronze fi in the market of Flo-

of Judith with the bead of Holofernes, which, though
nothing ftrikiog in the attitude; and its
But there 1s another flatue of a youth
or fourteen years old, in the ducal
to be ranked with the fine ftatues

b

the friend of Donatello, was an excellent
architeét, and revived the true and
indefatigable care. The remains of his
few ; there is an admirable crucifix, carved
in the church of St. y Novella at

the year 1450 appeared Andrea Verrochio and
Ghirlandaio, {culptors and painters in Florence.
Verrochio was an excelleat

the firit rank of feulptors, and

4 to Donatello and te Ghiberti, in making St. Thomas feel-
i of brafs for the

: . He was the maiter of Pietro Pe-

, os ehpeer ceemmaeyr age Vinci, and other excellent pupils.

tholomeo Cogleone » which is at Venice, in the
ort Nhe = aor 7 naa
TBieninic Ghislendalo wes the sasher of Michael Angelo 5

i
i
F

4
|

i
E

!

gy

zs
g,

he worked more in painting than in fculpture, part y
‘in mofaic for Sixtus IV. in the Vatican. He was
Gattienlicly-qualidedl on nninfirettor to that. great man, from
the delicacy of lis genius as well as his original and copious
invention.
But the of art was greatly accelerated by the
_- progreflive of thofe miraculous productions of an-
cient Greek art, which had been buried fo many ages, and

eae Sa eens — harp pn pa
fecretary to Eugeni + in year 1
fartcally enumersied ail the romans of anit mas

Hy

eee y seen Sopering the body of Patroclus,
; ig TT Laocoon was found in the year 1506

famous figure on horfeback of Bar-.

; SCULPTURE.

In the year 1474 was born at Florence Michael Angelo
Buonarotti; he was wen Be up to learning, but bufying
himfelf always in private about defigaing, which his father
obferving, put him to Dominie Ghirlandaio, In « little
time Michael Angelo ray ae himfelf above his other
difciples by the furprifing facility with which he defigoed.
This great genius was very fortunately favoured by prince
Lorenzo de Medicis, who, with great love to art, and defire
to afi men filled and learned therein, eftablithed in the
gallery of his gardens an academy, which he filled with fine
pictures and picces of fculpture, both ancient and modern,
and fought out at Florence thofe young defigners who pro-
mifed moft, to whom he allowed Pa to promote their
ftudics, Thofe of the {chool of Ghirlandaio were chofep the
firft, and particularly Michael Angelo, who, having one
day taken up a piece of marble, fet about making a head,
though he had never before handled a chiffel, which fo
much furprifed prince Lorenzo, and he conceived fo great
an afleétion for Michael Angelo, that befides allowing
him the penfion, he made him a companion at his table,
and gave him a lodging at his palace. After the death
of this prince, his fucceffor, Pietro de Medicis, continued
Michael Angelo the fame affection he had enjoyed from his
father.

At Rome he made a marble ftatue of Bacchus, with
feveral other marble itatues. At his returu to Florence, he
applied himfelf with the fame diligence, and made a David
of marble, which was fet up before the palace. Peter
Soderini, the Gonfaloniere, and the citizens in general, were
fo charmed with the ftatue, that they required of him other
works in bronze and in painting. The Gonfaloniere then
ordered him to paint one half of the council-hall, and Lio-
nardo da Vinci the other.

Michael Angelo in this work gave proofs of the excellence
of his defigning, both with refpe& to the compofition of
the fubject, which was the war of Pifa, and in the corre@-
nefs of his naked figures; and to have an opportunity to
fhew it the better, he chofe the time when the foldiers were
bathing in the river Arno, to introduce the figures naked.
Raphael, and the artifts his contemporaries, improved the
grandeur of their me, from that cartoon.

Julius L1. being raifed to the papal chair, fent for Michael
Angelo to Rome, refolving to engage him in a maufoleum
in St. Peter’s, which was inten to flard under the
centre of the dome, to be the moft magnificent of the kind
ever raifed, and the principal obje& in the church. This
work, however, was delayed till the pope died, and then
one of its faces only, and upon an inferior fcale, was ereGed
by his nephew in the church of St. Peter in Vincole.
The figures which decorate the architeGture of this tomb
are thote of the pope, Mofes, and allegorical virtues. Two
ftatues of marble, which were to be part of this fepulchre,
are now in the caftle of Richelieu in France.

The execution of this monument was interrupted by Mi-
chael Angelo being at the fame time ip oa by the
pope to paint in frefco the arched cieling of the chapel of
Sixtus IV., which fo much raifed his reputation, that be-
fides the general applaufe that he received at Rome, the
pope rewarded him alfo with feveral prefents. Julius II.
being dead, Leo &., his fucceffor, honoured Michael An-
gelo nio lefs than he had done, employing him on the archi-
Lorenzo at Florence. '

of Clement VII., he defi

» in the fame church, for a
maufoleum for the houfe of icis, and adorned the eait
nea Ren mA Me fepulchacs of Julian, duke of Namurs,

and

SCULPTURE.

and the duke of Urbino, oppofite to each other ; with three
{tatues on the north fide, the Virgin and Child, St. Peter,
and another faint. Both architeture and fculpture are
itill admired among the fineft produétions of this artift.

The fortification of the city of Florence was committed
to him: he fortified mount St. Miniati; but when the
wars of Italy in 1525 obliged the artilts to leave Rome and
Florence, Michael Angelo was one of the number, and
went to Venice; where the doge Gritti employed him,
and he made the defign for the bridge of Rialto, which is
one of the matter-pieces of architecture. He painted in
that city fome pictures, and among others that of Leda,
which he gaye to the duke of Ferrara, who fent it to
Francis I.

The wars of Italy being ended, Michael returned to Rome,
and there finifhed the fepulchre of Julius II., after which
he painted, by order of Paul ITI., the great front of the
altar, whereon he reprefented the Lait Judgment, it being
this only which was not finifhed of all the paintings in the
chapel.

The Laft Judgment, and the cieling of the Siftine chapel,
may be confidered, together, as the nobleft production of
modern painting exilting in the world; and it is to be
doubted whether any work of antiquity could be compared
with it for grandeur of conception and power of execution.
He painted alfo, in the Pauline chapel, the Converfion of
St. Paul, in which the Saviour defcends in the midit of his
heavenly minifters, as he addreffes the fallen convert, who is
furrounded by flying horfemen, and thofe on foot in dif-
ferent directions and inexpreffible terror. The Crucifixion
of St. Peter, on the oppofite fide of the chapel, exhibits the
horror of the aétion, the patience of the faint, the grief of
attending friends, and the dolorous folemnity of the fur-
rounding multitude.

Michael Angelo, in his old age, applied himfelf more to
architeCture than to fculpture and painting. After the
death of Anthony San Gallo, the pope appointed him chief
archite&t of St. Peter’s, and of the apottolic chamber, al-
though he would have excufed himfelf from it; but having
accepted the charge, he went to St. Peter’s to examine
San Gallo’s model, which not approving, on account of its
being a compolition of parts, without fufficient reference to
a whole, he caufed another model to be made, which not
only produced a much grander and more magnificent fabric,
but at one-eighth of the expence. And this great church
was finifhed according to the defign of Michael Angelo,
excepting the front, which is not his. While he carried on
this building he made alfo feveral others, which conftituted
part of the beauty of Rome; fuch as the palace of Farnefe
and the Capitol.

After he had arrived at the age of 80, and had withdrawn
himfelf from moft works of importance, except the building
of St. Peter’s, he gratified the piety of his own mind, and
amufed his leifure hours in working on one large block of
marble a group of four figures, reprefenting the dead body
of our Saviour fupported by Jofeph of Arimathea, attended
by two of the Maries; a pathetic and noble compofition,
which he did not live to finifh. It is now to be feen on the
back of the high altar in the cathedral of Florence.

Michael Angelo died at Rome in 1564. He was almoft
go years of age. This great man, befides the affeétion of
feven popes, whom he ferved, is faid to have gained very
great reputation among the following princes; Solyman,
emperor of the Turks; Francis ]., king of France; the
emperor Charles V. ; the princes of the republic of Venice ;
and all the princes of Italy, particularly with the great

5

duke of ‘Tufcany, who reigned when he died; for when hig
body was in the church of the holy apoftles, and the pope
was about to fet up a fine fepulchre for him, this great duke
caufed his body to be privately fetched away to be buried
in his capital city, and performed his funeral obfequies with
all imaginable pomp and fplendour. ‘This pomp was cele-
brated in the church of St. Crofs, at Florence, attended by alk
the academy of defign, who on that occafion gave fufficient
teftimony of the efteem they had for their matter by the
magnificent reprefentation which the Italians call Catafalco,
and adorning the whole church with painting, and fculpture,
and lights. A panegyric was there pronounced over him
by Meffer Benedetto Varchi.

Michael Angelo’s chara¢ter, as a man and an artift, was
equally honourable to painting, fculpture, and architecture :
his integrity is unimpeached ; his generofity and gratitude
were princely ; his piety and temperance were exemplary ;
his itudies were indefatigable; his genius was fublime
and original ; and his execution equally powerful, beyond

all thofe who went before him and all his fubfequent —

imitators.

John of Bologna was a fculptor of great merit, both in
bronze and marble, who lived rather later than Michael
Angelo: his groups are remarkable for the good compofition
and fine undulation of his lines, of which the Rape of the
Sabines, in the market-place of Florence, is an inftance.
His ttatue of Mercury rifing from the point of his toe into
the air is alfo juftly admired. Many fmaller works by this
artilt partake in the fame grace and beauty, and may be
{tudied with advantage.

Benvenuto Cellini, who was a: gold{inith and fculptor in
metals, executed a fine coloflal group, of Perfeus holding
the head of Medufa in his left hand, with the fword in his
right, and ftanding on the body from which the head has
been feparated: the pedeftal is moft whimfically adorned
with bas relief and chimerical figures relating to the fubjeét.

After thefe artilts, the Florentine fchool of feulpture
lingered into a ltate of inanity.

Bernini was employed in Rome by pope Urban VIiI.,
and built the noble femi-circular porticoes of St. Peter’s
church. His beft work of {culpture is the group of Apollo
and Daphne : he defigned and modelled innumerable figures
for the colonnade of St. Peter’s and the bridge of St. An-
gelo ; he executed the monuments of Alexander VII. and
Urban VIII. in St. Peter’s ; the coloffal ftatue of St. Lon-
ginus ; and four do€tors, which fupport the chair of St.
Peter.

This fculptor, whofe works were fo numerous, as he was
firft a painter, and formed in the Lombard {chool, endea-
voured to embody Coreggio’s ftyle of painting in fculpture,
forgetting the impoffibility of reprefenting flying draperies
and the extremities of hair in marble, which is fo eafily done
on canvas ; and which, when univerfally attempted, remains
an equal teltimony of the fculptor’s want of judgment, and
the impoflibility of the attempt. Although there are fine
ideas in the general conception of both the papal monu-
ments above-mentioned, by this artift; yet his allegorical
figures are affected in their attitudes, {mirking and con-
ceited in their countenances ; their forms are flabby and in-
correct, and their draperies confufed: yet this ftyle, de-
praved and flimfy as it was, in fpite of the beauties of
Nature, which continually appear before our eyes, and the
Grecian examples of rigid perfe@tion which adorn the city
of Rome; notwithftanding thefe, it produced a train of
followers, Rufconi, Algardi, Moco, &c. &c. who continued
to be employed, till within thefe fifty years, in Italy,

, where

ee r.

SCULPTURE.

gehere the flimfy materials upon which they formed them-
felves were entirely worn out ; and the human intelligence
returning to the eflence of art, which is the imitation of
Sotaitingns the work anew, tludied the principles of the
ancients, and applied themfelves with diligence to a repre-
fentation of the human form divine.

This fame mode of ftudy has produced a new and a better
{chool, which promifes fomething like a jult emulation of
the bef days of Greece, in the works of that diftinguithed
feulptor Mr. Canova, and fome other feulptors, both na-
tives and foreigners, in Italy.

The French nation, from its vicinity and intercourfe with
Italy, as well as from the friendfhip which the early kings
of aha cultivated with the emperors of CouRentincd lo,
always preferved a tafte for fine art in that country, and
fupplied the means of its improvement, both in painting
and feulpture. The large collections of fine Greek manu-
feripts, with their numerous beautiful illuminations, were
imitated by the French painters, and the nearnefs of the
countries to each other, enabled the French artifts to ftudy
feulpture and architecture in Italy, as well as the kings of
that ceuntry to fupply their great public works with
architeéts and {culptors from Italy alfo. In the reign of
Francis I. ame da Vinci, eee Cellini, and
Primaticcio, laid the foundation of a {chool of fine art,
fimilar to that in Italy, as improved from the lately dif-
covered Grecian works. The natives, who diftinguifhed
themfelves moft immediately after this period in fculpture,
were Pilon, Coufin, and John Goujon, whofe bas reliefs on
the fountain of the Innocents deferve admiration and praife.
In them is an union of the elegance of Raphael’s {chool,

rity and delicacy. ‘The genius and
abilities of the people, added to national munificence, have
kept up a refpettable {chool of fculpture in France till
the time.

has been done in painting and f{culpture in
Spain, was alfo derived from Italy, ‘The native powers and
virtues of the Germans, which have contributed fo largely to
modera im t in arts and letters, have not been de-
ficient in the art of fculpture. Our prefent limits and object
will not allow us to produce many examples ; therefore we thall
jnitance one which would be honourable to any nation, in any

period. The monument of the emperor Maximilian, father of

Charles V., itands in the church of St. Anthony at In-
{pruck : it isin bronze, and was made by Alexander Collins
of Mechilin, the feulptor. The idea of this monument is as
extraordinary as the effect is pathetic. Maximilian lies in
his ae robes upon his tomb, elevated about five feet
from the ground. There are, at the diftance of two feet
from the tomb, marble fteps about two feet high. On one
—~ cpt nee are flatues of his eho relations 5
ont ofite asmany more facing them. T
reprefent difteeguithed royal perfons from ie time of Ged.
_ frey of Boulogne, of whom he was one. The {pe@ator is awed
by this filent and impofing aflembly, who itand in ftriking
attitudes and folemn grief by their relation. The a@ions
Michell a the rege _ rich and elegant in the
i 3 but it may be objeéted that the ladies have
fomething of mufcular em in their charaers,

There are feveral other fine ftatues in bronze, of inferior
dimenfions, reprefenting German princes, in the fame church.
There is alfo a mott noble monument by this artift in bronze,
reprefenting St. George, with one foot on the dragon, which
he has juit flain. o
ne pe like the other nations of Europe, chiefly de-
rived her arts and letters from her Roman conquerors. Alfo

the is not without her obligations to Chrillian Greece as well
as ancient Greece, for the arts and learning of the different
ages. ‘Thofe which were called Saxon archite¢ture and feulp-
ture, were in fa@ only barbarous imitations of the provincial
Roman arts. The Norman architecture and {culpture of
this country were likewife an imitation of Roman art;
but through the more diftant medium of the Norman
French, fubfequent improvements in the revival of arts
were derived more or lets remotely from Greek or Ltalian
alliance; though, in jullice to the genius of the Englith,
it mult be acknowledged that their progrefs in the art of
{culpture, down to the Reformation, Lent a refpeA@able

ace with their neighbours on the continent, as may be ftill
cen by the {culpture on the weft front of the cathedral of
Wells, completed in the reign of Henry II1.: in Exeter,
Litchfield, and Salifbury cathedrals, but more efpecially in
the {culpture in Henry V1 1th’s chapel in Wettminiter Abbey:
in alto relievos-of {cripture {ubje¢ts, monumental {culpture,
and fingle flatues, to be feen in different ecclefiaftical {truc-
tures throughout the kingdom. From the time of the re-
formation, when painting and {culpture were exiled from the
churches, the native genius of the country was left entirely
without employment ; and wherever painting was required
for the decoration of palaces, or fepulchral {culpture for the
churches, foreign artilts were Sete and, with little ex.
ception, fupplied the country with a degeneracy of French,
Italian, or Flemifh art. The beit of the foreign {culptors
who have been employed fince that time were Cibber, who
executed the ftatues of raving and melancholy madnefs on
Bedlam gates, the bas relief on the pedeftal of the London
column, the greater part of the kings in the Royal Exchange,
and a multitude of other ftatues for different buildings in
various parts of the kingdom: Roubilliac, who executed
feveral monuments for Weltminfter Abbey, with much
labour and attention to common nature, the compofitions
of which, however, are either conceits or epigrams, and
the parts are too often mean and vulgar. Scheemacher exe-
cuted fome of the ftatues on St. Paul’s, and the bas relief
in the pediment ; but he is not diftinguifhed by pre-eminence
and ability.

Since the eftablifhment of the Royal Academy, and the
frequent employment of the fculptor’s talents in public
monuments, the art has been pra¢tifed by natives, whofe
own indultry, ftudies in Rome and foreign countries, and
the zealous exercife of their profeflion, have raifed works

ually creditable to the country and their own talents.

r. Bacon’s works have been much admi Mr. Banks has
left itatues and baflo relievos which might be ranked with
fome of the belt works of antiquity ; and fome of the public
monuments by Englifh {culptors of the pers day, might
be compared with advantage with the ableft produGtions of
the fame kind on the continent.

In the general treatife on an art, we cannot pafs ever in
perfeG filence the productions of a great empire which has
pretended to the higheft antiquity in its cultivation; the
ingenuity and beauty of whofe finer manufaétures and more
idicete works have claimed univerfal attention, and have been
admired and colle&ted by moft of the curious. The Chinefe
{culpture muft be noticed ; though, from the productions we
have feen in Europe, and from the beft authenticated in-
quiries, we have ort reafon to believe that fuch of their
paintings and {culptures as can lay any juft claim to thofe
titles, have received moit of their charms from European
communication. There is great reafon to believe that their
{maller models and bronzes were improved from a very barba-
rous ftate. Among other branches of knowledge by Catholic

M 2 miffionaries

SCULPTURE.

miffionaries who went over in the fourteenth century, their
arts received a further improvement from the learned and in-
genious Jefuits who vifited them in the beginning of the feven-
teenth century; and again in the beginning of Louis XVIth’s
reign, fixteen Chinefe in the city of Faris were inftructed
in the European arts of defigning, light, and fhadow; optics,
colour, and perfpective; fince which the painting and feulpture
of China have become more nearly allied to the European
praétice of thofe arts than ever. Thefe fas are attelted
by the known attainments of the feveral miffionaries who
have vifited China ; by the tettimonies of the belt writers who
have written on that country; by the reprefentation of Eu-
ropean head-dreffes and fafhions in their works ; and by
Chinefe fubje@s drawn and engraved by Jefuits who were
refident in that country, and whofe {tyle of defigning fhew
that the Chinefe artiits, of the fame ages, formed their
fchool of art upon the works of thefe men.

Motives for the Employment of Sculpture in Greece, and the
Encouragement given to the Art-—The firft motive for the
encouragement of feulpture in Greece was religion, which
induced the feveral ftates and opulent individuals to vie with
each other in employing the choicett talents of their country-
men for the produétion of the moft beautiful and approved
works, to adorn their temples and public places in honour
of the different divinities, which they believed to be their
more immediate patrons and protectors in that ttate of poly-
theifm. This fpecies of piety became more popular; and
its effets became more general from another motive, the
relation which moft of the powerful families of Greece
claimed with the feveral divinities and heroes, by deducing
their own genealogies from fome one or more of them.

In a {tate of fociety where the families of all lived nearly
in the fame habits of fimplicity, becaufe the luxury and
magnificence of private life created a jealoufy among fellow
citizens, likely to terminate in moft tragical confequences ;
in this ftate of fociety the more wealthy employed’ their
ftores in building and equipping fhips, railing troops of
horfe or foot, increafing the temples, placing in them magni-
ficent tripods, beautifal ftatues, or other coftly gifts; in
ftrengthening the walls of their cities, and all fuch public
works as provided for the fafety, or increafed the fame of
their country.

Patriotifm, in addition to religion, was another motive, not
much lefs powerful than the former, forthe encouragement
of fculpture in Greece. The Olympic games, inftituted at
an early period in that country, encouraged thefe trials of
{kill to the utmoft extent, which educated the human frame
in the greateft habits of ftrength, activity, and promptnels
of exertion, for all the moft ufeful employments of peace
and war. They alfo publicly exhibited the fineft forms and
examples of perfonal beauty to the aflemblies of Greece at
the Olympian exercifes, and by that means enabled the
philofopher to analyfe, the phyfician to enquire and deduce,
the artift to form principles from nature for the perfeétion
of his works, and the generality of {peétators to judge of
the phenoniena of health, ftrength, a¢tivity, proportion,
and pleafing parts of the human form, among thofe who
were engaged in the exercifes, and rendered themfelves, by
their prowefs, ability, and fortitude, the objeéts of univerfal
admiration and applaufe.

The immediate honours beftowed on the vitor was an
herbal crown, rendered equal in value to the richeft diadem,
by the approbation and congratulations of the whole itate.
The victor was likewife honoured with a brazen ftatue on
the very ground where he had fhewn himfelf properly quali-
fied to be a defender of his country in war ; and for prndence,

adtivity, and fortitude, a valuable citizen in time of peace g
and if any one obtained the crown three times in thefe ex«
ercifes, he was not only honoured with a bronze ftatue on
the fpot, but that ftatue was made an exaét portrait of him,
not only in the face, but every part of his body and limbs.
Thetfe general remarks on the religion and public inftitutions
of Greece, will fufficiently account for the immenfe fums
expended in works of {culpture, and the prodigious multi-
tude of thefe works produced in that country,

The ttat ue of the Olympian Jove, made of ivory and gold
by Phidias at Elis, was paid for by all the f{poils taken from
the Pifans. If we might calculate a fmall part of this
{tatue, only by the price of ivory at prefent, the covering
of ivory only, which mutt have been perhaps the leaft article
of expence in it, without the workmanfhip, could not have
colt lefs than zo00/. There were 8000/. fterling of gold in
the ftatue of Minerva made for the Acropolis, befides the
ivory, workmanfhip, and all other expences.

We are befides told of another ftatue of the fize of nature,
valued at 19,200/. ; and of another, the Venus of Gnidos,
which was refufed to be given up for the payment of the
debts of a whole city ; and thus we cannot wonder that
works produced from the noble{t motives, and rewarded by
the higheit giftsthat man can bettow on man, were of a fu«
preme excellence, which have commanded the admiration and
intereft of all fucceeding ages.

Concerning general Beauty in the ancient Works of Sculpture.
—A\fter a general view of the motives and circum{tances
waich produced thefe works in public, we fhall next enquire
into the more private motives, attainments, and qualities
which enabled the artilts to produce fuech works, and here
we muft-remember the obfervation of Socrates, that the
difpofitions of the mind may be exprefled by the forms of
the body; and as Socrates himfelf was a fculptor of no
mean excellence, and a philofopher of the higheit chara@er
alfo, what he fays upon this fubjeé& cannot be too carefully
attended to ; and indeed it applies to the progreffive improve-
ment in this art from the molt rude reprefentation of the
human form to the moft perfe&t ; and to the feparate confi-
deration of the mind and its qualities, by which the human
form is animated.

As it has been obferved in a former part of this article,
the earlieft attempts to reprefent the human form in all na-
tions are almoft equally barbarous and imperfect ; we fhall,
therefore, begin our defeription of Grecian imitation, when,
by a more general comprehenfion of fcience, her imitation
of its archetype was fuperior to fuch barbarous primeval at-
tempts in general.

Thefe attempts and their improvement have always fuc-
ceeded beft in thofe parts of the human figure which are
neareft to our view, or prefent themfelves to us as moit
ftriking and important. In fuch reprefentations, the fea-
tures of the face are more accurately reprefented than any
other part of the figure. The body, the arms, and legs at-
tract the moft general and lefs diftinét notice ; therefore the
firft improvements in the earhieft ftatues of Greece remain-
ing, approach only to fomething like a more tolerable propor-
tion, exprefs the arms in general meagre long forms, with
the fhoulders fomewhat more round and prominent, and the
fingers feparated by nearly parallel channels. The body is
diftinguifhed by the paps of the breaft, the line of the ribs,
and the navel. The legs and thighs have little more
of variety in their forms than a {mall knee-pan, and
fome projection of the calf of the leg, with feet and
toes formed with as little attention to nature as the
hands. — In this {tate of improvement little variety of aétion

will

SCULPTURE,

will confequently be expefted. Sitting, lying, running, or
firiking, will aie masa rat the whole extent of the
artill’s variety in a fingle flatue or bas relief, In this tlate
of im tit isin vain for us to expeét any difcrimina-
on the charatters of gods and men; they were
all reprefented by the fame forms; and Jupiter, Hercules,
Mereury, and Neptune, were only known from each other
by the thunderbolt, the bow, the caduceus, or the trident.
~ According to the general improvement of {cience, as the
oblervation of the courle of the heavenly bodies, the divi-
of land, and marking out the plans for building on the
had introduced practical application of geo-
lines and figures, which mutt precede obfervations on
balance and motion of bodies ; and as fomething more
like anatomical knowledge was obtained from the facrifice

human fkeleton cafually found: as thefe affilt-
light on the ftraéture and movements of man ;
fo the artiit, applying pri sme as he became matter of
them, his with more accuracy, and repre-

_ feuted the parts more in detail.
"The next ttate of improvement we thall obferve is a nearer

; aan ordinary nature, in which the hair, however, is

eye-lids gently marked, the bottom
of the oath ‘eerved upwards at
corners, giving a kind of fiile to the face ; the breatt
litle more prominent ; fome indication of the mufcles
the abdomen by crofs parallel lines ; the hollow in the
behind, and the form of the blade-bones, more

ifti between the breadth of the upper
the thigh; the forms of the
aceurate according to their angles and
mufcle marked in the arm, and

Speci of thefe different of i ve-
Seba ehd Greek painted te particalmly
black figures on them. There are alfo many
mzes, which are demonttrations of the fame pro-

— In the age when geometry had made confi-
derable tn. wr as we find by earl of Plato, when
anatomical refearches had been profecuted with {uccefs by
Hippocrates, in addition to the advantages of fecing the

in more ce from the eitablifhment of
more regular fupplies of agricul-
other a serge in civilization moft
human fi :—with thefe

Wa pon St eg
i .
Ai
i

f
[f

i

&

figure was rep with the dif-
ty and t proportion, as well as
agtiey whi indicates a rather {pare

of which the ftatue called Thefeus in
jon is an example.

of countenance and
about the time the

ate beauty in Grecian
enquiry concernin
works. A people lon soled with the asked hum

vain a an

form, and thetutfions' of the human figure, would praéti-

learn, that a parti make was favourable to a parti-

’ exertion, as long legs were favourable to walking and

Ladies +:

running; broad fhoulders and a full chelt were scoompanied
by ttrength. ‘The oblervations of phyfictans would affifl in
alcertaining the more convenient form of all other parts of
the body and limbs for ttrength and exertion ; then enquiries
into the animal economy of the body would affill their de-
terminations relating to health or ficknefs, in the whole or
the parts, according to outward appearances, All this
would affift the artitt in the determination of what he thould
choofe and what he thould rejeét in his imitations, The
bloom of youth, the prime of manhood, and the parts beft
formed for all the hs and exertions of the body, would
become his flandard example for the moft fortunate attempts
of his art; and having proceeded thus far, he would be
able the more readily to diflinguifh the various characters of
tender infancy, the venerable folemnity of advanced ege, and
the graceful forms of female elegance.

But other diflinétions and other charaéteritties fill remain
for the artift to become acquainted with, to qualify him for
the extenfive reprefentation of gods, demigods, and heroes,
human creatures and infernal beings ; and this could not be
done by the fimple reprefentation of common forms and
commonexpreffions, fuch as continually prefented themfelves,
but by a fcleétion from nature of whatever was molt excel-
lent in form, accommodated to the higheft qualities of mind,
to reprefent the higher orders of beings, and their oppofites
in thofe which are below humanity, and partaking of soxious
and infernal nature.

Mere form, however harmonious in its proportions, or
beautiful m the {moothnefs and perfection off its finifhed fur-
face, without the expreflion of fentiment and action, is but
dead, and no other than a corpfe which has been quitted by
its immortal f{pirit ; therefore the artift’s great and moft im-
portant intereit, after he had obtained the geometrical forms
of body, was to watch the ftrongeit molt decided emotions
of mind, in order to give animation to his works, It was
his concern to inveftigate and reprefent decidedly the
ftrongeit affections, conjugal, parental, focial, and filial ;
the fentiments of piety and religion; the incitements of paf-
fion in their different degrees, whether of love or hatred ; for
by thefe means only his works faftened on the kindred affec-
tions of the {fpe&tator, and obtained his etteem.

The Saazicesiitte who gave thefe firit mental improve-
ments to their works, fought for nobility of fentiment and
diftin€&t charaGters of gods and heroes from the writings of
Homer ; illuitrated by the fpeculations of Pythagoras and
Plato upon the effential qualities of divinity, in their omni-
potence and extent, and the limited powers of humanity,
derived and finite.

From thefe they learned that all bodily perfe@tions and
beauty were derived from mental beauty and iON ;
that as forms which exprefled healthful bodies and their parts
were the moft perfec, as far as form and animal power ex-
tend ; fo the expreffions of the moft perfe& mental qualities
added the moft perfe& animation of beauty to thofe forms,
and gave the molt perfect charaGters of magnanimity, juf-
ei betvolence: and dignity to the faces and figures of their
divinities, and in an inferior degree to their heroes: and
whatever perfection of face or perfon they would exprefs,
they found could only be done by the fentiment of that vir-
tue and beauty of men by which it was immediately caufed.

Jupiter, the chief of their gods, was reprefented im the
mott perfeét human form ; powerful in his make, benign in
his countenance, and of that mature age when wifdom is
united to the full developement of the bodily powers. His
full beard and abundant flowing hair are confiftent with the
greatelt dignity the human tied is capable of ;znd the lion-

3

like

SCULPTU RE.

like hair and forehead decide the magnanimity of the cha-
raéter. The broad cheft, the ftrength and proportion of
the limbs, the whole folemnity of the perfon, at the flighteft
view, announces, according to the Homeric expreffion, the
father of gods and men.

The next divinity in dignity to Jupiter is Apollo, whom
we can readily believe to be the exact reprefentation of
his father, in the dignity of youth; his features are his
father’s in youthful bloom and beauty; the form of his
body and limbs partake of his father’s itrength in youthful
lightnefs and agility ; his countenance is adorned by his
flowing locks, according to his age, more light and varied
than his father’s; his fentiment and employment are alfo
{fuited to his age and more limited offices. Jupiter, feated
on his throne, has little a€tion or corporeal employ-
ment ; his mental energy regulates the univerfe by his nod ;
and his fingle exertion is the difcharge of his irrefiftible
thunder. Apollo is feen in love, in meditation of immortal
poetry to accompany his lyre, deftroying Python, medi-
tating the cure of difeafes, or infliGing death by his arrows.

Bacchus refembles his brother Apollo fo exa&ly, that
they cannot always be diftinguifhed one from the other ;
yet he frequently partakes of a more feminine nature, ac-
cording to the Orphic defcription of his double fex.

Mercury, with the fame beauty as his brother, and the
fame youthful refemblance to his father, has a more athletic
form, approaching to heroic, as being the patron of gym-
naitic exercifes, and meflenger of the gods. His hair is fhort ;
he wears a {mall round hat or petafus, which is winged ; he
has alfo wings to his ankles.

Mars differs little from Mercury in form or countenance,
excepting that he is fometimes bearded, and frequently
wears a helmet upon his head, or is drefled in complete
armour.

Neptune refembles his brother Jupiter, but his hair is
more difturbed, and he is in general entirely naked.

Pluto alfo refembles Jupiter and Neptune, but his eyes
are more ftaring and fpettre-like ; his abundant hair falls
more over his forehead, and gives a greater gloom to his
countenance: he is clothed in a tunic and pallium, holds a
fceptre in his left hand, and is attended by the triple-headed
dog Cerberus.

The goddeffes are lefs diftinguifhed from each other than
the gods. The height of female beauty, in dignified figure,
with noble mien, is common to them all.

Juno is reprefented with a regal diadem and fceptre, ge-
nerally clothed in the tunic and peplus, or large veil: her
countenance is lofty ; her eyes and lips are full; her hair is
turned up, and tied in a knot behind in fimple majefty ; her
veil is fometimes over her head.

Minerva is diftinguifhed by the ferene aulterity of her
countenance, and the wifdom of her character. She is
armed with a helmet and zgis, and bears a {pear in her hand,
but in other refpedis is drefled like Juno.

Venus is diftinguifhed by her tender foftnefs and graceful
aGtion ; fhe is reprefented as parting her hair and rifing from
the fea, modeitly covering her perfon as returning from the
bath; or dreffed in a light and thin tunic or veil, and en-
gaged in thofe concerns of the toilette to heighten or pre-
ferve beauty. She is frequently attended by Love, who is
reprefented as an infant divinity.

Vetta and Ceres have much the appearance of Juno; the
firft diagwned by her lions and myitic drum; the other
by ears of corn.

Diana has her hair colleGted on the top of her head ; like
her brother Apollo her tunic is fuccin&, not reaching lower

than her knees, its length being fhortened by the tying of
her zone ; fhe wears bufkins, and is generally renning, or in
an attitude which relates to the chace.

Hercules, the firit of their heroes, and who in early times
was one of their greateft gods, was not reprefented with
that irrefittible ftrength and mufcular force in the time of
the firft Greek fculptors, in which he was reprefented after-
wards, and he changed his arms as well as his figure, forbe-
fore the time of Ai{chylus his arms were a bow and fheaf
of arrows ; but as his labours became fuch as required more
natural force, according to later mythologitts his bodily
powers were increafed, and his arms changed from the bow
to the club. His itrength is proverbial, and his powerful
form known to every one, by his numerous reprefentations in
{culpture and painting. It is well remarked by Winckel-
man, that in the likenefs found in the antique ftatues be-
tween the faces of Hercules and Jupiter, there is a charaéter
of the bull given to the head of Hercules, by the fhort hair
and the bull forehead. As a proof that this mixture of the
bull inthe head of Hercules is not fanciful, there are bufts
reprefenting a mythological modification of the Herculean
charaéter, with the bull’s ears, horns, and dewlap.

We hall defcribe the fawns as one clafs, companions and
miniiters of Bacchus ; in this clafs we fhall mention the
Sileni, the fofter-fathers or nurfes of Bacchus, one of which
is a dwarfifh figure, with a round belly, fat limbs, a So-
cratic merry face, a bald head, a long beard, undulated and
divided ; his body is more or lefs covered with hair. This
Silenus is alfo occafionally called Ampelus. The other Sile-
nus is a well-proportioned elderly man, rather a fpare figure,
with a philofophical countenance, with a head and beard
bearing fome diftant refemblance to Jupiter. Both thefe
Sileni are crowned with ivy, and have pricked ears.

The fawns have round faces, fhort nofes, and a grinning
expreffion ; their hair is fhort, ftiff, and like that of a goat.
Their bodies are ftrong, their mufcles tendinous, like thofe
of wild animals, and fuited to the elafticity of their ations ;
they have fhort goats’ tails.

The fatyrs have goats’ legs, their bodily conformation like
the fawns, they have pricked ears, fometimes long goatifh
beards, and frequently faces refembling rams or goats.

The Titans and giants are Herculean figures to the waitft :
fome of them have the lower limbs human, and correfpond-
ing to the upper part of their figures; others from the mid-
dle end in ferpentine folds inftead of human legs. Their
heads have an Herculean charaGer, fullenand terrific ; there
are ferpents in their hands, perhaps relating to their infernal
punifhments.

Ocean and the divinities of feas are all Herculean figures,
in countenance refembling the Saturnian family in youth or
age ; they are generally naked, though fome are veiled
downwards ; and Ocean himfelf has a veiled head. The in-
ferior divinities of the fea, as the family of the Tritons, and
their various diftinGtions, have hair, faces, bodies, and arms
like the fawns, but with finny hair and gills, their lower
halves ending in the tails of fithes, horfes, bulls, &c.

The geniufes of mountains are robutt figures, with folemn
countenances, flowing hair and beards, crowned with pine,
oak, &c. }

The nymphs of Earthand Ocean are beautiful entire female
forms, with hair fometimes flowing, fometimes tied in play-
ful attitudes. The marine nymphs are frequently colle&ted
in affe€tionate groups, and employed in ftretching out their
flying veils tothe wind.

The Three Graces are the beautiful female companions
and attendants of Venus; they are reprefented as three

beautiful

SCULPTURE.

beautiful virgins, in the flower of youth, embracing cach

her. :

The nymphs ef Diana are habited like their patronefs.

The Furnes are handfome, but with a terrific expreffion
of countenance ; their hair dithevelled, winged, and with
two fimall ferpents rifing from the tops of their heads. Their
drefs is a fuccingt tunic, like Diana's, and they have fnakes
and terches in their hands, to torment the wicked.

What has been faid is fuflicient to convey a general idea of
deified perfonification in Grecian mythology ; but thofe who
have occafion for a more intimate knowledge of their fyflem

| of » and its different relations, as well as its innu-
q merable ical forms and moniters, mult be referred to
their ical and mythological writers, and the various
; a of ancient painting and feulpture, with their
Cineraig eB y P he Hi
iw arts in ti uman Figure, its
Balance (ob mer 2. lita have obferved Shee the
human is inferibed within the fquare and the circle ;
trig when the feet are clofe together, the pofture

» and the arms extended in a parallel line ; when
gth from the extenfion of the oppofite finger is equal
whole height, from the crown of the to the fole
foot ; which om aaa leads to the determi-

i per aves int — of the body and limbs, but
of the figure, b metrical lines. The
being ewe hstack, the arms and legs, ex-
awheel, may be infcribed in a cir-
which tee the
ight, equally poifed upon » the
ieee i from 1

he two ankles. ;
figure refts on one foot, the centre of gravity

S285
ZEEE

a]
A
F

2
¥
:

ay
fier

falls from the _— perpendicularly on the bottom of the
anes s on a it re :

is in equipoife, the centre o vity falls
from the at a. a

In advancing from that point before the leg, and in {wift

s pam: ate every interchange of ftep far before the
foot which isnext to be placed on the ground.

‘The figure, in bending fideways to balance itfelf, muft till

retain an equality of weight round the centre of gravity,

to preferve its by itretching out the oppofite leg or

arm. ;

{ For further fatisfaétion concerning the motion of the
human figure, confult Borellius de Motu Animalium ; Cow.
per on the Mufcles ; and Lionardo da Vinci on Painting.

To obtain a more pofitive idea of the form of the

» a8 well as its balance, together with the

of its parts, a reference to a geometrical fi is
. } y ufeful. For inftance, view it in Seeley aad
we fhall fee that its column or general mafs is not perpen.
dicular, but smn of ae through the middle of
which we may fuppofe the centre o! vity pafled perpen-
dicularly downwards. The head is cite sean ivcans
breaft, to ferve as a counterbalance with
againit the projeétion of the fhoulders; and the
mur —_ Sob gE NY of the abdo-
ne beginning from its uppermott

immediately” fupports he full, after tie a
ar nearly flraight for the firit

a bold curve outwards be-
next twelve joints downward to
fame hollow with the ribs, to

contain the organs of the thorax.
_ The projection of the thighs in front is oppofed lower
down oppofite fide by the projeétion of the calves

age
at
a

it
i

"1
FRE
HH
o3é
F

of the legs; not only for a counterbalance, but alfo for
countera¢tion ; aud for the fame reafon the beeding forward
of the body from the head downward is countcratied by
the length of the foot, and its refitlance for {upport.

The general form of the head, viewed from the top, 1s
circular, being larger at the back of the head and narrower
at the forehead. he general view of the bead in front is
tele The fimpleft character of the profile is that
of the nofe, little differing in fhraightnefs from the lise of
the forehead; the lips snd chin making {mall projeétions,
each about a quarter of a circle. This is the molt gene-
ral and fimple idea of the human face, and that principle
- ae which molt ofthe ancieat ideal heads are formed.

orce and paflion are deviations from this principle by the
= ieee of curves in the outline more or lefs bold, and
the face of infancy is defcribed by one portion of a circle
forming the forehead, and another the aks, with a {mall
nofle between.

In the ancient feulpture, the moit perfe& necks for youth,
beauty, and ftrength, are nearly circular, like the portion of
acolumn. The breafts are elevated and broad; the line of
the ribs is ntarly a portion of a circle gently expreffed,
a little below the nearly ftraight line, which terminstes the
breafts above. The abdomen has a gentle channel from the
pit of the ftomach to the navel. The lower mufcles of the ab-
domen to the os pubis are a little {welled and nearly plain,
The fides of the ribs under the arms are marked with gentle
divifions diagonally, tending downwards in front, which in-
dicate the ribs and mufcles which immediately cover them.
The back of the trunk between the neck and the loins is a
curve outwards, as has been already defcribed ; and the {pine,
or back-bone, which is the pillar of fupport to the upper
part of the body, the arms, and the head, fhews behind as
an indenture between the two rounded portions of the back,
on which the blade-bones and their mufcles form a geutle
and rounded flattened {well immediately below the neck.
The commencement of the arms, as they are affixed to the
budy, has a bold and rounded form, in the upper part of which
is united the head of the upper arm-bone, to the end of the
collar-bone before, and the blade-bone behind ; the arm, be-
ginning at the feparation from the trunk and continued to the
writ, is a diminithing cylinder. The upper arm finifhing at
the elbow is broader, and fideways flatter than the lower
arm. ‘The lower arm is flattened the contrary way, and
lefs than the upper part of the limb. The wrilt is arounded
flattened form in youthful bodies full of flefh. The hand
is hollowed withinfide, and a little rounded without; the
thumb extends to the firlt joint of the firft finger; the mid-
dle finger is the largeft ; the next finger outwardly is next
in length ; the finger between the thumb and the middle
finger next in hanes and the little finger fhorteft of all;
they are lefs in bulk as they are fhorter, and diminifhed down-
wards cylindrically. The male hand and finger has more
of breadth and flatnefs; the knuckles are more fquare and
decided even in youth. The female hand is more rounded
and fiefhy ; the fingers are more perfe&ly cylindrical and
tapered, the knuckles lefs decided, having little more aif.
tinétion than gentle hollows in the more coni{trained pofi-
tions of thofe knuckles, which unite the fingers to the
hand. The nails in men are more {quared, in women more
rounded, long, and delicate.

The loins of the body are in the fide view confiderably
curved in from the ribs, and projeé& again in a gradual ob-
liquity from the bottom of the ribs to the bottom of the
nates. Inthe front of the figure, the trunk terminates at the
os ilium or bafon bone, which is marked immediately be-
fore the projecting mufcles, which terminate the line of
the

SCULPTURE.

the trunk, and immediately above the fetting on of the
thigh, and is marked with a ftrong line obliquely defcending
toa point at the greatett projection of the os ilium in front,
aud forming from thence a nearly inverted femicircle to the
top of the os pubis.

The thighs are fulleft and roundeft immediately at their
feparation about half way downwards: they gradually di-
minifh toward the knee.

In the upright figure the knee-pan above, with the {kin
and fat immediately below it, form what is altogether gene-
rally called the knee-pan, of an oval figure, and is the great
diftin@tion of the knee in front, between the thigh and
the leg. The inner line of the principal bone of the leg,
or tibia, is a little curved outwards in a hollow of about
go degrees. The inner ankle is higher than the outward.
The calf of the leg is mott projeGting, near one-third of
the way from the joint to the bottom of the heel, and
behind in a flattifh forked divifion, fends a ftrong mufcle
united with the tendon of the heel, making together the
backward profile of the leg. The outfide of the leg has
its principal curvature rather lower than the infide. The toes
are fhorter than the fingers ; the longelt toe is next to the
great toe; the great toe is the broadeft ; and in thofe not
ufed to wear fhoes, divided from the fecond toe by a con-
fiderable feparation. The three toes on the outfide of the
foot are fhortened in a diagonal line. The charaéteriftics of
the male and female in this extremity are nearly the fame as
in the hand.

In ftronger figures the joints are marked with more
ftrength and complication, the mufcles are more decided,
more of the tendons are feen, and occafionally the veins,
particularly towards the lower parts of the extremities.
The flefhy projeCting parts of the figure in old age are
more flattened, which indicates the diminution of elatticity
as well as mufcular ftrength.

The female figure is generally about one-tenth fhorter
than the male; its bones are more ttraight, and lefs rugged
towards the joints, as the attachment of its mufcles are
flighter; the forms of the body and the hmbs are more
rounded: the differences of the male and female bofoms are
well known. The fhoulders of the female are narrower in
proportion than thofe of the male; the loins are narrower
and the hips are broader.

In infancy, although the proportions are very different
from the adult male or female, yet the roundnets of the
limbs and body, little diftinguifhed by the marking of bone
at the joints or projeGting mufcle between the joints, ap-

roaches nearer to the f{mooth and generally rounded furface
of the female figure.

Vitruvius informs us, from the writings of the moft emi-
nent Greek painters and fculptors, that they made their
figures eight heads or ten faces high, and he initances dif-
ferent parts of the figure meafured according to that rule.
The great M. Angelo adopted this rule, as we fee by a
print from a drawing of his. We fhall adopt this. method
in giving the moft general proportions of nature and the
Greek itatues,

Proportions.—Divifions of the human figure in length.
From the os pubis to the top of the head, one-half of the
figure s from the fame point to the fole of the foot, the
other half,

There are three equal divifions from the acromion of the
fcapula to the bottom of the inner ankle. ft, From the
acromion ¢o the point in the {pine of the ilium, from which
che re€tus and fartorius mufclesbegin, zdly. From thence
to the top of the patella, 3dly. From the top of the
patella to the bottom of the inner ankle.

From the bottom of the os pubis to the bottom of the
patella, is the fame length as from the bottom of the
patella to the fole of the foot, two heads each; but we
mult obferve, that the ancients generally allowed half a
nofe more to the length of the lower limbs, exceeding the
length of the body and head.

The arm, from the top of the humerus to the bend, one
head anda half; and from the bend of the arm to the firft
knuckles, the fame.

Breadth of the upper arm, one nofe and a half; fide
view, two nofes; lower arm, thickeft part, one nofe and a
half; writt, one nofe.

Breadth of the fhoulders, two heads; of the loins, one
head and one nofe ; acrofs the hips or trochanteres, one head
and two nofes. Depth of the cheft, one head and one-third
of a nofe; of the loins, three nofes and one-third; of the
glutzi, one head. Breadth of the thigh, three nofes; of
the calf of the leg, two nofes ; of the ankle, one nofe. The
foot is one head and one nofe in length.

The female figure fhould not be fo tall as the male.
The fhoulders and loins fhould be narrower, and the hips
broader.

The proportion of the Hercules Farnefe and the Torfo
Belvidere are nearly one-fifth more in breadth than other
ftatues.

But the ancients varied the proportion according to the
charaéter and age of the perfon. There are examples of
the Silenus, and Hercules alfo, when he partook of the fame
charaéter, exceedingly dwarfifh, not exceeding four or five
heads in height; and there are examples on fome of the
Greek vafes of figures nine or ten heads.

Drapery.—To introduce our obfervations on the draperies
of the antique ftatues, we will firft enumerate a few of thofe
garments in which they are moft generally clothed; and
we will begin with the largeft and coarfeft woollen garment,
called the pallium, which was a large piece of {quare, or
fquarifh cloth, perhaps about feven feet long, but not fo
wide; this was generally worn by being folded over, per-
haps one-third of the breadth; one end applied to the left
fide of the body, carried under the right arm, and thrown
over the left fhoulder in front ; it formed broad and fimple
mafles before and behind, with a few bold and diftinét folds,
which left the body and limbs well accounted for be-
neath. It was, according to the convenience of the wearer,
thrown in a variety of different manners: fometimes one
arm was wrapped in it, fometimes the other, and fometimes
nearly both; all the {latues of philofophers, excepting the
Cynics, are clothed in this manner.

There were other garments nearly of this kind, which are
very commonly feen ; particularly the manly peplus. The
figures of Jupiter and Efculapius are fometimes feen wrapped
in the peplus, which appears to have no other diftinétion from
the pallium, than that it is made of a finer texture, confe-
quently produces fewer and more numerous folds, and its
corners are fometimes ornamented with taflels, or knots.

The chlzna feems to have been a finer and lighter wool-
len garment than the peplus, much lefs, but, like that, of a
long fquare; this garment is particularly appropriate to

outhful heroes, and is feen on the colofial ftatues of Monte
Cavallo, the Meleager, and many youthful heroic figures
on Greek vafes, and the young heroes in the frieze of
Horfemen in the Parthenon at Athens.

The tunic, or kiton, was an under garment, alfo worn by
men in early times; this had no fleeves, and hung over the
left fhoulder, leaving the right fhoulder entirely bare, not to
impede aétion ; in after times it had fhort fleeves, was full in
the body, and when not girded, hung down below the mid-

leg s

SCULPTURE.

leg; but when collected by the girdle, did pet reach lower
than the knees. ‘This feems to have been made in general of
the fame material with the chlena, ‘The chlamys ts a mi-
itary and hunting cloak, fattened with a button on the right
thoulde, as that worn by the Apollo Belvidere.

Female Drapery-—The kiton, or tunic, was worn by the
Greek women in very carly times, but was generally made to
pafs over cach thoulder, excepting Amazons, or female war.
riors, who fometimes had the right thoulder left bare ; but

female kitow, or tunic, reached to the feet, and was lower
the ankles, even when girded by the zone. This was
of a finer material than that worn by men; it is called
: , and appears to lave been produced from a thread
, by wafps, or infedts of that kind, and to have formed
a deheate fine texture, capable of producing long and
folds, without leflening the diftinet appearance of
underneath,
- The us, or long veil, is defcribed as a dignified gar-
ment by Homer ; it was worn nearly in the fame manner by
women as by men, and isa charatteriltic of dignity, as Juno,

Minerva, Vetta, and Ceres are feldom or never feen without it

in a placid flate. ;

Befides the kiton, the dignified female Greeks had another

oo which anfwered the fame purpofe, called the peplo-

jton, which appears to have been one piece of cloth doubled

ower at the top, folded round the left fide, the left arm

having pafled t the top; open dn the right fide,

_ whieh prefented two cafeades of folds: thefe are continu-

feen on the Greek vafes,

y other garments were worn by women, which fre-

ver occur in ftatues, baffo relievos, and painted vafes,

1 hich anfwer to fhifts, petticoats, Gandkerchiols, and

_ boddices, and are eafily dittinguithed in the works of ancient

| peating and fculpture ; but as a more intimate acquaintance

thofe concerns the antiquary rather than the artilt, we

hall refer thofe who are curious on the fubjeé to lexicons and
_ feholiafts for further information

] The Roman toga ap "to have been originall
Italian, and was fo Gedy syroriinced to the soormel
«that are thence called gens to Colle&ted in its

: > have gure, Hee
> ~shopaagn Agd ee ee arm, and half t

body on the right fide pailed, the garment reiting on the
Jefe fhoulder, bei fepperted by the leit ant, a be
low the middle of the right leg, and prefenting almoit in-

i

before and behind from the left fhoulder downwards.
of this t was brought from behind over the left
into the be in front under the
breatt, fold was cin€tus Gabinus, and
was (aid to bea fahhion brought from the city of Gabia. It
was worn by emperors, noblemen, and Roman citi-
zens: in general it was made of a fine woollen cloth, as moft
of the Roman garments were. d
of on the of drapery, we muit always
- to the ty of the figure which it covers ;
and as garments are worn for a defence again{t the weather,
or from motives of modefty, they fhould never be fuch an in-
cumbrance as to impede ation or overload the figure, either
sigma ey ea bint er ctripte e Br
ferved, the : form and aétion will always be
intelligible 1 ith ; and thus, however the figure may be
covered, er parts of the garment will give a breadth
of light and thadow to the mafs, and its folds a beautiful
et ROS ees bermcey with, or in oppofition to,
lhe tabeade, or fold of a long full garment hang-
- Ver. XXXII. : ‘

ing from the thoulder towards the feet, by the irregular
reomectrical efledts of its light and thadow, fhades the unde-
ation of living forms on the oppofite fide of the figure, whe-
ther covered with drapery or not, with an advantegeous
variety.

The fine and web-like draperics, fuch as that of the Flora
Farvefe, thew all the forms of the body and limbs with
nearly the fame dittinétuels as if they had remained uncovered,
at the fame time that the gentle radiated curvilinear folds,
upon a near examination, contraft the beautiful forms of
the body by « variation of lines tenderly aflimilated with the
fleth, in fuch a manner as. induces the {peCtator to believe
that the leaft motion of the body will uce a different,
and equally pleafing new arrangement in the folds of the
drapery.

What has been faid concerning drapery comprehends the
set oa of the fubje&t ; for it was the intention on the fae

atues of antiquity to produce « noble breadth by their
draperies, eanabeat with the dignity of their moft iluftrous
charaéters. In their more delicate charaéters they con-
trafted the beautiful form beneath by the graceful difplay
of lines in the drapery ; and in all their clothed flatues, they
adorned the forms of the naked figure by perpendicular, cur-
vilinear, pendant, or zigzag folds, contrafting the forms,
and adding quantity, but leaving the figure and its pofition
perfectly intelligible.

In the figure of Bacchants in violent aétion, the flying
drapery becomes peculiarly ornamental ; verging from the
figure in undulating rays, which at its edges and extremities
play upon the air in bolder forms, like the extremities of the
poppy-leaf.

The Pradiice of Sculpture.—The firft operation of fculp-
ture, like that of pamting, is defign. The feulptor firit
makes his idea evident by a fketch or drawing; he then
makes a {mall model, generally in clay, to try’ the effeé of
his lines, forms, and light and fhadow, as well as the fenti-
ment of his ftatueyor compofition : but if the work requires
the utmoft accuracy and perfeétion he is able to give, he
makes a model of the fize in which the wood, marble, or
bronze is to be executed. :

He models his figure firft naked in its juft aétion, and
accurate in its forms ; he then lays on his drapery, either
from ftudies made after the living figure, or drapery laid
for the purpofe on a lay figure, or mannikin.

The clay model, if large, muit be fupported by a frame-
work of iron ; and the mafles of clay may be kept together
by a number of {mall wooden croffes attached to the iron
frame-work, by wires of different lengths difperfed in different
parts of the clay. ‘This method is ufed by Mr. Canova, the
celebrated Venetian {culptor.

The tools ufed by the modeller are made of wood, or
ivory, with ends pointed, rounded, {quare, or diagonal, with
which he forms his models ; marks out the hollows and dark
parts ; and does whatever he finds impraticable to perform
with his fingers only.

When the clay model is finifhed it muft be moulded and cait
in platter; which caft mutt alfo be well fupported and fecured
by bars of iron well cemented, to prevent the ruft of the
metal from penetrating through the cait.

To copy the model in marble is performed in the fol-
lowing manner.. A number of little Black points muit be
marked upon the model, in every principal projection and
hollow, to give the diftances, heights, and breadths, fuffi-
cient to copy the marble with the ge exactnefs from the
model, “The ancients performed this, by confidering every
three points on the figure as a triangle, which they made in
the marble, to correfpond with the fame three points in the

N mode!

SCULPTURE.

model, by trying it with a perpendicular line, or fome other
fixed point, both in the marble and the model.

The moderns perform this eperation in another manner.
After, by taking rough meafures, they have found that the
block of marble is fufficient to make the f{tatue equal in fize
with the model, they then fix it on a bafement of {tone, or
a ftrong wooden bench, called a banker; in the front of
which is a long {trip of marble, divided into feet and inches.
A itrip of marble, divided exactly in the fame manner, is
placed in front below the model; anda wooden perpendicular
rule, the height of the whole work, which is capable of
being moved from the {trip of marble or fcale under the
model, to the {trip of marble or fcale under the marble, at
the workman’s pleafure. This inftrument being firlt placed
upon the fcale of the model, and the exat diftance being
taken, from its perpendicular, we will fay, to the point at
the end of the nofe of the model, and the perpendicular rule
being transferred to that fcale on which the marble is
placed; the workman cuts away the marble from the per-
pendicular rule at the fame height, till he has arrived at
nearly the fame depth that the point of the model’s nofe
was from the rule; and by this means, he finds the point
of the nofe exatly where it fhould be in the marble. He
proceeds in the fame manner with all the other parts of the
figure; for example, the top of the head, the chin, the
fhoulder, and every other part of the body and limbs;
until, by cutting down the marble at the fame height and
depth from the perpendicular line of the rule that he defires
to transfer from the model to the marble, he finds a cor-
re{ponding point to that he has taken from the model ; and
fo goes on until he has obtained the general proportions of
the whole work.

When this is done, the fculptor proceeds to work over
his itatue with a flat-ended fteel tool, called a chiffel, whofe
{quare end is about five-eighths of an inch broad. In the
naked parts of the ftatue, and wherever there is a flat fur-
face, he proceeds in this manner: for inftance, we will fay,
upon the breait of the figure, he cuts away the rough furface
from a given point ina ftraight line, to another given point
at fome diftance; he then cuts away the furface from one
given point to another, exaétly parallel to the courfe his
chiffel went before ; he then cuts the marble in a line at right
angles with the former dire¢tion of his chiflel. He continues
to work over the furface in the fame manner, continuing to
cut it away in lines parallel to each other, leaving the {pace
of about one-eighth of an inch between each courfe of his
chiffel: he afterwards cuts away the remaining rough fur-
face of one-eighth of an inch between each two courfes of
his chiffel; thus obtaining a beautiful flat furface to his
work, which can be done by no other means, and may be
afterwards varied with the curvatures and indentures of
leffer parts at his pleafure.

This method of cutting the ftone is followed, as much as
poffible, in all parts of the work; that is, as much as all
the varieties of outline and hollows will permit.

When hollows are fo deep or intricate, that they cannot
be cut out with {mall chiffels ftruck by the hammer, drills
of different kinds are ufed to produce the rough hollows,
which are afterwards finifhed with the hammer and chiffel,
or by long tools fixed in wooden handles, ufed by the hand
only, without the hammer.

A particular dexterity is requifite in produeing the dif-
ferent characters of the hair with the chiflel, to make it look
light and foft, whether curled, crifped, or plain; and this
may be done by the hand of the praétifed feulptor, with
nearly the fame effe& as it can be by the painter, in laying
on his colours with the pencil.

The finifhing of flefh in imitation of the fulnefs of mufcle,
the apparent pliability of the fofter parts, the greater or
lefler durability of tendon and bone, may alfo be reprefented
on marble nearly to deception; but then the fculptor muft
be well acquainted with the ftruéture and appearance of the
parts he reprefents, and accurate in copying the object of
his imitation. To inform the mafs with life and fentiment,
whether it be of marble, bronze, wood, ivory, clay, or
wax, is the very end and purpofe of imitative art.

The laft finith of marble, in the modern praétice of {culp-
ture, is performed by the ufe of rafps, and afterwards of files.
The belt rafps for fculpture are thofe made in Italy: the teeth
of thefe rafps being cut more fharply than thofe made in
England, at the fame time that the ends of thefe rafps and
files are capable of being bent in any form, according to the
ufe for which they are to be employed.

When a piece of fculpture is required to have an ex-
ceeding fmooth furface, the pumice-ftone is ufed after the
file; and fometimes the whole furface is rubbed or ground.
carefully over with {mall pieces of grit-ftone, accommodated
to the various forms of the furface, as to frat {paces, rounds,
and hollows of different depths. But the hair, in’ all cafes,
muft be finifhed with the tool; and for this purpofe, the
edge of the tool muft be fharpened with great accuracy and
acutenefs: and if it is required that the work fhould be
very highly finifhed, the lait edge of the tool muft be given
by an oiled Turkey-ftone.

Chiffels may be fharpened, for the different kinds of work,
either on one fide, or on both fides, horizontally, diagonally,
circular, or pointed.

The fculptor ufes large {quare four-footed ftrong {tools,
with tops which turn round upon little balls of brafs or
iron, on which he places the marble ftatue he works on.
His tools are fteel chiflels of different fizes and lengths;
their ends being from an inch broad, and diminifhing in fuc-
ceffion, till they become perfe&tly pointed. Thefe are
worked with an iron-headed hammer, weighing from two to
four pounds, according to the heavinefs or lightnefs of his
work. The firtt tools ufed in wafting away his marble are:
{trong fteel tools, fharpened nearly to a point ; which, being
ftruck with a heavy hammer obliquely, knock off the wafte
marble in much larger pieces than a broader pointed tool
would do.

The praétice of the fculptor alfo requires the frequent
ufe ek the fquare and compafles, as his own ingenuity may:
direé&t,

There are fome few fragments of marble flatues, which
have been found in different parts of Greece, efpecially
where the works of fculpture have chiefly flourifhed, as
Athens, Aigina, and Corinth, which appear to be the re-
mains of yery early attempts in this art; perhaps in an age
when making the proper tools was either not known, or
during the infancy of their invention. From thefe fpeci-
mens, the edges of the tools, and the manner of ufing them,
appear to have been equally imperfe&t: the courfe of the
tool is infirm, indire€t, and ragged; the furface it pafled
over, irregular. In the naked figure, the mufcles are little
determined, and the forms confufed by the unpraétufed
manner of working. In the draperies, the edges are unde-
termined, and the hollows are few and fhallow; a natural
confequence of the workman’s want, of power over his ma-
terial ; and therefore, of his defire to produce his idea in
the grofs, becaufe he knew his incapacity to render a dif.
tin and perfect detail.

High finifhing in marble feems to have been a confe-
quence of working in bronze, for two reafons: firlt, the
working of metals requires a confiderable knowledge in the

10 tempering

SCULPTURE.

hardnefs of execution refemblin
: iry forms of hair on
draperies. Whether this manver of finithing marbles was
firtt introduced by Dipenus and Seyllis, according to our
former fuppofition, or whether it was practifed nearer the
mott diftinguithed epoch of art, it is certain that the work-
of with the greateit poffible dexterity, {uch as
alg {mall folds from one another, by cutting the
to a great depth between them, was practiled con-

fiderably before the ume of Phidias.

fn the time of Phidias, it is certain the feulptor ufed
chiffels of all the different forms defcribed above, of the moit
convenient forms poflible for their works, and moft perfeétly
oad of which we are aflured, by tracing the forms of

inftruments in their execution, which is as free
and charaéteriftic of the parts imitated as could have been
produced by the pencil of the painter.

The Sesboon, the Apollo Belvidere, and the Venus de
Medicis, appear to have been executed + Dee chiffel only,
without the afliftance of the rafp or file, though there is, in

body and limbs of the Apollo, fome a of a
{moother turface having been obtained by rubbing with
or wet grit-ftone. Many ape of the finett
uity, ftatues, groups, and buits, appear to
i APire the naitel cae: and the ufe of
does not feem to have been very common in t
of feulpture, till after the time of the twelve Cefars.

tion of foulpture feems to have defcended from

in the fame fleps by which it rofe to it. In the
Adrian and the Antonines, extreme high finifhing
eftimation ; the furfaces were finifhed with a
which almoft became a polifh; the

— the extremities of his hair fly before

is purpofe laboured his marble with a
ing, and a complication of drilling, that is
; and there are examples of hait, fo la-
executed in that that the fpe€tator is left in
concerning the poffibility of paying the {culptor for

ime neceflary to bre wir 5 the undertaking,
inftruments requifite to produce his effed
are many examples of this kind in the portraits of
urelius and ns particula a two coloffal
emperors exilting in the Villa Borghefe.
the extreme caibelidies a polithed furface, and ex-
treme perfection of inferior purfuits, having withdrawn the
artift’s mind from nobler ions and fublime fentiment,
he foon defcended from the Saljeed to the ftone-cutter, and
ifti i adoptin
y of workmanfhi ss sons fasted toe bafed pur-
its; and the of Conftantine exhibits the {culptor
as incapable of Sliowin g the noble conceptions of earlier
times, as of fhewing any {kill in the mechanifm of his art
fuperior to the unmeaning and unfuccefsful attempts of a
barbarous age.
ing the ages of the Roman em when beautiful
and expenfive marbles were ufed to their palaces and
ublic ftrudtures, when the magnificence of effet was con-
without relation to expence, Sa hyry alfo was
an

i
H

a
ry
F
z

prefer ec iaegeatge
nt it nt
gape

manufactured for columns, pannels, architectural
: it was alfo occafionally employed in {culpture,
in of the extreme difficulty and expence of the

the infide of which could not be above thirteen or fourteen
and eight or nine inches in diameter ; he was

ten months st work upon this, attending his labour rege.
larly nine hours every day. Such a work in Fogtand, as

ons are paid at this time, would coft fixty-five pounds ;
the payment of the journeyman fculptor thould be reckoned
at twice that fum.

There are fragments of drapery-figures executed in this
material of fine tatte and beautiful feulpture, the labour of
which muft be exceflive; but the two greatelt works re-
maining of this marble are in the pope's mufeum ; one is the
eke of Conttantia, daughter of Conflantine; the
other of Helena, his mother; which laft is of enermous
dimenfions, and covered with alto reliewo of foldiers os
horfeback, and the heads of the emperor and his mother,
angels fitting, with feitoons on the top, &c. Many parts of
the alto rehevo on this farcopha were broken when it
was removed into the pope’s mufeum, which were repaired
by the following procefs. The pieces of porphyry intended
for the reftoration were firft rudely thaped with a picking
hammer, that is, one end of the hammer being pointed, the
workman knocked the flone with repeated blows of this
point, until he beat off little pieces, when it was reduced to
the general form required: in this manner another inflrument
was ufed, called a matting hammer, one end of the hammer
being divided into four points, and being worked over with
this inftrument, the whole of the former very rough furface
was made fomewhat more regular; after this, pointed tools
were ufed, {truck by a hammer, to take off as much as
poffible the ftill remaining roughnefs of the furface, and
to make particular hollows more exa@ly, the workmas
wearing {petacles all the while to prevent the {plinters of
the {tone from flying in his eyes, which otherwife would
blind him in the courfe of a few minutes labour. The tools
for this work are tempered to the hardnefs of a razor, and
feldom bear more than four or five blows with the hammer
before the points are broken. The laft procefs is to grind
the furface down with grit-ftone and emery, till a {mooth face
is obtained ; the whole being a procefs of immenfe labour
and expence. The Egyptian obelifks, which are of red
granite, with the mig Lae upon them, mutt have beem
wrought by a procefs fomewhat fimilar to the manner of
werking porphyry.

Of Wax- Modelling. —W ax-modelling is properly a branck
of feulpture, inafmuch as it affords patterns and examples
for very numerous articles of fine art in metals: althou
from the nature of the material, no wax model of the Greek
or Roman times has come down to us, they muft have been
almoft innumerable during the beft ages of Greece and
Rome, judging only from their {mall figures of divinities im
bronze, of which, perhaps, upon an average, every perfon,
rich and poor, might have half a dozen, fo that the amount
of thefe {mall images, from patterns of wax, would be nearly
fix times in number of the population of the civilized world
at any one period.

Wax-modelling befides is required for the patterns of all
gold{miths’ and chafers’ ornamental work upon a {mall fale.
All the fine medals of the popes were copied from {mall
models in wax of the moft diftinguifhed {culptors.

To make the beft modelling wax, take two cakes of
Virgin’s wax, break them in pieces, put them into a cleam
pipkin, and add the ered of the {malleit hazel-nut of
Venice turpentine, about double the quantity of flake
white reduced to the fineft powder; place the pipkin over
a flow fire till the wax is melted, ftir the compofition to-

» and it is the beit wax which can be ufed for model-

Models of different coloured wax may be made by putting
pounded red, blue, yellow, &c. inftead of flake white, ac-
cording to the colour required.

Nz Wax-

Sc U

Wax-modelling is performed, like the fame art in clay, by
pointed inttruments of wood and ivory. f

Sculpture in bronze and filver is pratifed in the fame
manner by the model as Pliny deferibes it to have been done
by the ancients, and is of three kinds. The fubject is either
caft from a model, or carved from the folid metal, or chafed
from a model upon a flat piece of metal, which is beat hollow
on the one fide, to produce the relief, out of which the chafer
works the intended figure or figures on the other fide. The
inftruments ufed in chafing are, for {mall works, a {mall
hammer with a long elaitic handle, which gives the blow
a quick and artificial force; alfo chiflels and points, fome-
what like thofe ufed in the {culpture of marble on a fmaller
{cale.

The tools for carving in wood are fo univerfally known to
carpenters, upholtterers, and the different orders of wood
carvers, that the defcription of them would be ufelefs.

For further illuftration of this article, the reader. is re-
ferred to the engravings which are diltinguifhed by the word
Sculpture. Thefe confilt of felect {pecimens. of the fculpture
of different ages and nations; particularly the fineft ex-
amples of Greek and Roman fculpture.

SCULTENA, or Scurena, the Panaro, in Ancient
Geography, a river which commenced on the fouth of the
Apennine, and purfuing a northerly courle, difcharged itfelf
into the Padus or Po.

SCULTETUS, or Scuutrz, Joun, in Biography, a
diftinguifhed furgeon, was born in the year 1595 at Ulm,
where his father was a water-man. ‘The latter was enabled
to afford his fon a good education, and fent him to Padua,
where he ftudied medicine under Spigelius, and took the
degree of do€tor in philofophy, furgery, and phyfic, in the
year 1621. On his return to. his native city, he was ad-
mitted into the college of phyficians in March 1625; and
for twenty years he praétifed his profeflion with great re-
putation. Being fent for to Stutgard, to adminifter pro-
feflionally to a fick gentleman of that city, Scultetus was
there attacked with a fit of apoplexy, which terminated his
life on the firlt of December 1645. He appears to have
practifed furgery extenfively, and to have been very bold in
his operations, efpecially in thofe of bronchotomy, of the
trephine, and for empyema. His principal work 1s entitled
«© Armamentarium Chirurgicum, 43 Tabulis. ere incifis
Ornatum ;”? and was publifhed after his death, at Ulm, in
1653. It fubfequently pafled through many editions, and
was tranflated into moft of the European languages. Eloy
Di&. Hilt. de la Médécine.

SCUM, or Spumr, Spuma, a light excrement arifing
from liquors, when brifkly ftirred; called alfo foam or
froth.

Scum is alfo ufed for the impurities which a liquor, by
boiling, calts up to the furface; and alfo for thofe taken
from off metals, when in fufion; thefe are alfo called fcoria.

Scom of Lead, is a kind of recrement, of various colours,
procured from melted lead.

Scum of Nitre. See Nitre.

Scum of Salt. See Saur.

Scum of Silver, is what we commonly call litharge of
filver.

Scum of Sugar, in Agriculture, a fubftance fometimes
ufed asa manure. See SuGaR Scum.

Scum, Sugar of the. See SuGAR.

SCUMA, a word ufed by fome of the chemitts for
Jquama, the {cales of any metal, and particularly applied to
the flakes flying off from hot iron under the hammer.

SCUOE, Skuog, or- Sfuve, in Cursnalhys one of the
Faroer or Feroe iflands; 5 miles S. of Sandoe. See
FrRoe.

suey
SCUPI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper Meefia,

in Dardania, according to Ptolemy.

SCUPPERS, ina Ship, are certain channels cut through
the water-ways and fides of a fhip, at proper diltances, and
lined with plated lead, in order to carry the water off from
the deck into the fea. The feuppers of the lower deck of
a fhip of war are ufually furnifhed with a leathern pipe,
called the aunpechele which hangs downward from the
mouth or opening of the fcupper. ‘The intent of this is to
prevent the water from entering, when the fhip inclines
under a weight of fail. Falconer.

Scuprrer Nails. See Naixs.

SCUR, in Agriculture, a precipice faced with rock.

SCURCOLLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Ultra; 18 miles S. of Aquila. —

SCURELLUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges, between the Pfeudoftome
and the river Baris. Ptolemy.

SCURF, in Medicine, Furfur, {mall branny or powdery
exfoliations of the cuticle, which occur after flight inflam-
mations of the fkin, a new cuticle being formed underneath
during the exfoliation.

Scurf may be formed upon any part of the furface of the
body ; for wherever the fkin is inflamed, the cuticle never
fails to be feparated and fall off.. This exfoliation, when
the inflammation is confiderable, as in fcarlatina, takes
place in the form of large mafles, or of {maller fcales ; but in
the minor degrees of inflammation, fuch as of the formation
of pimples, or in flight erythematous affeCtions, a mere {curfi-
nefs enfues. In fome cafes of fcurf, indeed, as inthe dan-
driff of infants, and in other forms ef pityriafis, little or no
inflammation is perceptible; but in other cafes, as in the
fcurfy porrigo, affecting the heads of adults, the inflamma-
tion 1s often confiderable, and accompanied by fevere itching.
The fcurf itfelf, indeed, if it be permitted to accumulate,
becomes the fource of excitement to the inflammation, as
well as to the itching fenfations.

The firft ftep in the treatment of fcurfy affeétions is,
therefore, the careful removal of the feurf, as it is formed :
but this muft be effeéted by gentle means, and by wafhes
which do not augment the inflammatory aétion, where that
is confiderable. Hence ablution with fimple water, or
fome flight farinaceous decoétion, as of bran, is to be pre-
ferred to foaps and other irritants. This clearance of the
furface having been effected, fome gently reftringent lotion,
fuch as lime-water, with or without a little of the liquor
ammonie acetatis, or a weak folution of the falts of zinc,
may be employed with advantage; or if the irritability of
the parts be confiderable, the faturnine fubftances may be
preferable. See Piryrtrasis.

SCURFF, in Jchihyology, an Englifh name for a {pecies
of falmon, called alfo in fome places the bul/-trout. It never
grows to any great fize, and differs plainly from the falmon
of the common kind in this, that its tail is even, and not
forked; its head is fhort and thick, and its flefh is lefs red
than that of moft of the falmon kind. See Trurra under
the article SALMo.

SCURGULO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata; 7 miles S.S.W. of Dragonera.

SCURGUM, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the moft northerly climate of Germany. Ptolemy.

SCURRA, in Ornithology, a name by which the ancients
have called the monedula, or common jackdaw. See Corvus.

SCURRIZANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata; 5 miles N.E. of Afcoli, _

SCURVOGEL, in Ornithology, the name of an Ame-
rican bird, called by fome the nhender-apoa, and by the
Brafilians jabiruguacae See MycTERIA. ah

SCURVY,

SCURVY.

SCURVY, in Alediciar, Scorbutus, 3 formilable and
fatal difeafe, arifing from imperfect wutritian, and
and charaéterifed priucipally by catreme de-

of the vital with {ponginels of the
Sr acien lalmieaie blotches, “ue kin, and
us hemorr From its frequent occurrence

it is dometimes called emphatically the /ra-
but it is by no means peculiar to feamen, and
as an endemic of the land by the earlitt

*

ving fated this brief character of the difeafe, it
be a aren By the —- feurvy is
erroneoully and a in popular language ;
sepliedpia lett, t0 all difefn-of the fin, of'a)fow
ic nature, however various in their —— cha-
pollefling nothing in common with true
“The fkin, in fcurw windeed, is not the feat of the
but is only like other organs of the body,
eet the malady; and that derangement is
L from the inflammatory, pimply, puftular,
conditions of the tkin, which occur in leprofy, tet-
other cutaneous diforders, ufually mifcalled /or-

tie
B=

This miftake correction, not merely as a
matter of nomenclature, but becaufe a great ical error
refults from it; namely, the adminiftration of anti/corbutic
remedies in thefe cutaneous diforders, which be
cured, and are often 5 ted, by them, The late Dr.
Willan conferred a benefit on the profeflion, by his definite
@iferimination of thefe latt-mentioned diforders. See Cu-

?
:

fo called, was firlt accurately de-

enya gh name, in modern times; and it is
as in the cafe of fome other difeales,
to the ancient phyficians, or is a ma-
igin. The firft {pecific accounts of

the difeafe in the early part of the fixteenth cen-
a the name of the malady ieems to have been fa-
: but the fymptoms were noticed
in the preceding century; for con-
the crew, who accompanied Vafco
round the Cape of Good Hope, in
1 deitroyed by this difeafe. Olaus
in his hi of the northern nations, publifhed in
defcribed the difeafe at confiderable length, and
it was known to the inhabitants of Saxony by the
ee fearbuc ; veoreh _ term /cor-
feurvy. term lore-

and was probably applied to the Tike in eye
of the fpongy ulcerations of ms, with hemor-

i

E
i
ai

|

Ei
A

F

i

A
E
3

F

3
27

EUELATHS

Sit
lai
irs
i
ik

ik
it
Pe
li
EF

Lobe defcribed the fymptoms of

ub

icalons of great dearth were not uncommen in thofe times,
and gave rife at lealt to the igais /acer, which apipears to have
been ocarly allied to fourvy 5 and the following obfervations
relate to vo other known dileale,

Hippocrates, when deferibing the difeales of the {pleen,
mentions lomefymptoms which accompany the enlargement
of that “ The colour of the body,’’ he fays, * us
changed, and becomes black and pallid, like the mod of a
9 rauate; the breath is fetid, and the gums alfo cont a

mell, and fall away from the teeth; ulcerations break
out in the legs, ar ba cre epinydlides ; the lentbs are ema-
ciated, and the bowels do not difeharge their contents,’
(Lib. de internis Affect.) Andagain, in his fecond book
of prognottics, Hippocrates obferves, “ In thofe who have
tumid {pleens, the gums are difeafed, and the mouth emits
a fetid odour; but thofe whofe {pleens are enlarged, with-
out any confequent hemorrhages, fueh perfons are attacked
with ill-conditioned ulcers in the legs, and black fears."
Here we have an additional fymptom of feurvy mentioned,
viz. the hemorrhages, which were omitted in the former
defcription. Thofe, however, who expeé to find only the
utmoft accuracy in the works of Hippocrates, will perhaps
be furprifed to find that he has again defcribed, {till more
diftinétly, the fymptoms of fcurvy, under another appella-
tion. For in the fame book rat sree internal difeafes)
in which he has noticed the enlarged {pleens, he mentions
the fymptoms of the ileus Aematites (ido; aluatirns), oF
bloody iliac difeafe, in nearly the fame terms. This difeafe
begins in the autumn, and exhibits the following fymptoms.
The mouth and teeth emit a fetid {mell, and the gums fepa-
rate from the latter, and blood flows from the nofe; fome-
times alfo ulcers break out in the legs, and while fome of
thefe heal, others break out afrefh ; and the fkin about them is
of a black colour, thin, and tender.” This may be deemed a
good brief defcription of {curvy ; and if the commentators are
right in their correction, the concluding fymptom is equall
characteriitic : «the patient is indifpofed to walk, or to ar
any exertion.”” The paflage, as it itands is Hip
however, aflerts the c-Si that the patient 1s difpofed
to exertion ; acircumftance fo inconfiftent with ulcerations
of the legs, hemorrhages, and the other fymptoms, that the
commentators agree that the negative particle » muft have
been omitted. Wan Swieten remarks, that the epithet of
thin or tender-/kinned (Aerrodieuc:), which Hippocrates ap-
plies to thofe patients, is particularly chara¢teriftic of the
{corbutic ftate ; fince ‘we obferve in the {curvy, that the
flighteit injuries break into the fkin, and leave ftubborn
ulcerations in it; and this more remarkably happens in the
» where only feratching them with the finger-nails will
often raife an excoriation, that is followed by an ulcer of
long continuance.”? (Comment. in Boerh, Aph. 1148.)
Celfus, when treating of the affections of the {pleen, men-
tions this indifpofition of ulcers to heal: « Uleera aut om-
nino non fanefcunt, aut certe cicatricem vix recipiunt.’”? And
we may add, that the opinions of the commentators, refpe-
ing the fentence above mentioned, is confirmed by the itate-
ment of Celfus, who diftin@ly aifferts, that exertion is
painful and difficult. (De Medicina, lib. iv. cap.g.) Paul
of gina (lib. iti. cap. 49.), and Avicenna (lib. in. fen. 15.
tract. 2.), as well as other Greek and Arabian phyficians,
defcribe the fame fcorbutic fymptoms as connected with
tumid fpleen. Modern obfervation has occafionally de-
teéted enlargement of the fpleen in feorbutical cafes, as in
an inftance related by Dr. Mead (Monita e! Precox. Med.) :
but fuch an enlargement is not always prefent, and it is
probable that Hippocrates and the ancients, who faw the
een a:
mut

SCURVY.

limited experience, when they pronounced thefe fymptoms
as exclufively connected with enlarged {pleen.

A difeafe is alfo mentioned by Strabo and Pliny, as oc-
curring in the Roman armies in particular fituations, which
can only be referred to fcurvy. In this difeafe, which Pliny
afcribed to drinking the water of a certain well, when it oc-
curred in the army of Germanicus while encamped near the
Rhine, an affection of the gums, witha falling out of the
teeth, is faid to have been combined with a lofs of mufcular
power in the lower extremities; the former affetion being
called fomacace, (quali crowatis xwxie, oris vitium,) and the
latter /celetyrbe. (Plin. Nat. Hift. lib. xxv. cap. 3.) Similar
affeGions, to which the «fame appellations are given by
Strabo, are faid to have prevailed in the army of /lius
Gallus, when in Arabia. (Geograph. lib. xvi.) Some authors,
however, have denied that this /celetyrbe could be a {corbutic
fymptom ; becaufe Galen has ftated /celetyrbe to be a kind
of paralyfis, in which the patient is unable to walk ftraight :
but fuch a term might be fufficiently appropriate to that
rigidity of the joints, which often occurs in fcurvy.

On the whole, therefore, we are difpofed to believe, with
the early writers upon this fubje&t, that the /curvy was
known to the Greek, Roman, and Arabian phyficians ;
although, from its comparative rarity in fouthern climates,
it did not occur fo often, or fo extenfively, as to claim their
attention very ftrongly. That it may occur in any climate
where there is a dearth of frefh foed, is very obvious; for it
is found equally at fea and on the land, in Greenland or in
the great South fea, in befieged towns, in frozen countries,
and in fhips, when frefh food is not to be obtained. Poupart
has very correétly remarked, that the malignant fcurvy of
Paris bore a confiderable refemblance to the pettilential ignis
facer, defcribed by Lucretius (lib. vi.) ; an opinion which
Dr. Lind, confounding this ignis facer with the plague of
Athens, defcribed by Thucydides, confiders as deferving
no ferious confutation. But the égnis facer was extremely dif-
ferent from the ¢rue plague, as well as from the peftilence
defcribed by Thucydides (fee PLacur) ; it feems to have
been, like fcurvy, the refult of dearth, the Aosuos preter Aspuovy
of which we hear fo much in ancient hiftory ; it had feveral
fymptoms in common with fcurvy, but was a febrile difeafe ;
and has been afcribed in modern times to difeafes of corn,
inftead of the fearcity and deficiency of that nutriment.
See Ercot; Ienis Sacer; Krizper KraNnKHEIT; &c.
For the obfervations of Poupart, fee Memoires de I’ Acad.
des Sciences, an. 1699.

Symptoms of Scurvy.—The firft indication of the approach
of {curvy is an averfion to any fort of mufcular exertion ; a
lazinefs, or ftrong inclination to fit ftill or liein bed ; which
is accompanied with a fpontaneous laffitude, or a fenfe of
heayinefs and pain throughout the body, and efpecially in
the mufcles of the limbs and loins, like that which arifes
from great fatigue, which foon becomes aétual feeblenefs, fo
that the leaft exercife, efpecially in afcending or defcending
a declivity, induces fatigue and fhortnefs of breath. With
this averfion to motion and diminifhed power of exertion,
there is alfo very early achange of the complexion, which
becomes pale and bloated, or fallow, efpecially about the lips
and corners of the eyes, where there is a greenifh tinge.
Thefe two fymptoms, indeed, the difinclination to exertion,
and the fallow countenance, often portend the apptoach
of {curvy, while the patient eats and drinks heartily, and
feems otherwife in good health; and the fpeedy laffitude
and difficulty of breathing upon motion, are among the
moft conftant concomitants of the diftemper throughout its
courfe. , :

As the difeafe advances, other fymptoms appear. Among

thefe the fomacace, or morbid condition of the mouth, is one
of the firft that prefents itfelf. ‘The gums become hot and
painful, and foon f{well, growing foft and {pongy, and of a
livid hue, and Beeaearn extremely putrid and fungous,
conftituting one of the moft diftinguifhing features of the
difeafe. This occafions great fetor of the breath, and the
loofening of the teeth, which become moveable in their
fockets, and may be taken out without force or pain, and
even fall out {pontaneoufly. Hzmorrhages alfo take place
from the flighteft preffure on the gums, or even with-
out any apparent caufe, as well as from the nofe; and
ultimately from other parts of the body, where the cuticle
is delicate, or the furface broken, in confequence of the
apparent lofs of cohefion in the folids, and efpecially in the
vafcular fyftem.

From this caufe the /kin alfo exhibits fome of the moft
ftriking charaéteriftics of feurvy. It becomes dry, and
{potted over with difcolourations of a red, blueifh, purple,
and black hue, of various fizes, from the petechie, or {pots
like flea-bites, to the moft extenfive ecchymo/es, of the fize
of a hand-breadth, or larger, fuch as are produced by the
fevereft bruifes. Thefe appear chiefly on the legs and
thighs ; but often alfo on the arms, breaft, and trunk of the
body ; and fometimes, though more rarely, on the head and
face. They confift, in fa&, of effufions of blood under the
cuticle, from the rupture of the {mall veffels. As the dif-
eafe advances, this laxity and lofs of cohefion in all the folids
becomes ftill more manifeft, by the frequent and profufe
bleedings which are liable to occur from different parts of
the body ; efpecially from the nofe, gums, ftomach, bowels,
lungs, kidnies, and bladder, and from the ulcers and fungous
excrefcences which arife on the furface. In fome patients,
the hemorrhages from the bowels are accompanied by fevere
pains and diarrhoea ; while others, without either a purging
or gripes, difcharge great quantities of pure ‘blood by the
anus. Other marks of laxity appear in the vedematous {well-
ing which takes place in the legs, beginning firft about the
feet and ankles ; which, however, is more painful than com-
mon anafarce, and retain longer the impreflion of the finger.
They appear remarkably alfo, in the great facility with
which the flighteft bruifes and wounds degenerate into foul
fungous ulcers, as well as in the fpontaneous appearance of
fuch ulcers, and the breaking out of long-healed fores, and
even the difunion of old fra€tures in bones. ‘* Whatever
former complaints,’? Dr. Lind obferves, ‘* the patient has
had, efpecially bruifes, wounds, &c.; or whatever prefent
diforders he labours under, upon being afflicted with the
{curvy, his old complaints are renewed, and his prefent ren-
dered worfe.’? Indeed the fcurvy often firft thews itfelf by
the changes in difeafed parts. ‘¢ Thus, when a perfon has
had a preceding fever, or a tedious ficknefs, by whieh he
has been much exhaufted, the gums for the moft part are
firft affected, and. a laffitude conftantly attends; whereas,
when one has been confined from exercife by having a frac.
tured bone, or from a bruife or hurt, thefe weak and de-
bilitated parts become almoit always firft fcorbutic. Ags
for example, if a patient labours under a ftrain of the ankle,
the leg, by becoming {welled and painful, and foon after
covered with livid {pots, gives the firft indication of the dif-
eafe. And as old ulcers on the legs are very frequent
among feamen, in this: cafe likewife-the legs are always firtt
affected, and thefe ulcers put on a fcorbutic appearance,
although the patient feems otherwife perfe&tly healthy, and
preferves a frefh good colour in his face.”? (Lind.) The
effe&t of the difeafe upon former maladies is ftrongly de-
pied by the elegant writer of lord Anfon’s voyage. “ But
a moft extraordinary cireumftance,’”? fays Gini sie

“5 an

occafien, are faid to have

j

——— ——
-

SCURVY.

& and what would be fcareely credible upon any fingle evi-

dence, is, that the fears of wounds which had been for man
years healed, were foreed open again by this virulent dif-
temper, Of this there was a remarkable inflance in one of
the savalids on board the Centurion, who had been wounded
above fifty years before at the battle of the Boyne ; for
though he was cured foon after, and had continued well for a
.. of years pail, yet on his being attacked by the
» his wounds, in the progrefs of his difeafe, broke out
afreth, and appeared as if they had never been healed. Nay,
what is {till more aftonithing, the callus of a brokea bone,
ely formed for # long time, was
, Proves as if

with rotten bones, and fuch a luxuriancy of fungous fieth,
ares to no remedy,’’ The edges of thefe {corbutic
are of a livid colour, and puffed up with the fungous

are not cede ceeliod by the
bullock’ s liver, fince tothis {ubitance, when boiled, Dr. Lind
, they bear a near refemblance, both in confiltence and
. They often arife in the courfe of a night to a mon-
ftrous fize, and although deitroyed by cauttics, or the knife,
lait cafe, a copious ing commonly enfues,)

at the next drefling . D

affeGtions of the lower extremities,
are not exclufively confined, ) in the
the , “ the patients moft commonly
lofe the ufe of their limbs, having a contraction of the ten-
in the ham, with a {welling and pain in the joint of

he knee. Indeed, a ftiffnefs in thefe tendons, and a weaknefs
the knees, appear pretty early in this difeafe, generally
in a contracted and {welled joint.”’ (Lind, loc.

t.) We have given this defcription in the words of Dr.
in erder to thew how diftin@ly it anfwers to the ac-

of the occurring in the Roman armies, i
eerie g . es, in

_of the the patients common!
i —acapinagh Gh ing from part mA

>

ner ° em
c " a gener in in their bones,
violent in the limbs and loins, and efpecially
and legs; and a pain, with tightnefs and op-
breait, is very common. The head is feldom
unlefs the patient is feverifh, which is un-
as Dr. Lind well obferves, the difeafe is alto-
of a chronic nature, and fever may be juitly reckoned
its adventitious fymptoms. It is remarkable, indeed,
the worft ftages of the » with all the fevere
ce now wipa agion {preading ulcers of
furface, with contra ) morrha, f ss
putrid, ttinkin over-run with Panny feth, a
often deeply : with inability to make the leaft muf-
cular exertion, without fainting or perhaps dying ; yet the
ibe Soe bas = od mers wi

. Fi y
fpirited, when in bed, they make no complaint of pain

Bckecls, sod spueen to be ia tolerable health i
characteriftic of the difeafe is well depified by the

g,

if

.

EB.
A
g
E

ia |
Be

q

ile

H

their tion, or from containin

reverend author before quoted. “ Indeed, the efleés of thie
difeafe,"’ he fays, * were in almoft every inflance wonder.
ful; for many of our people, though confined to their ham-
mocks, appeared to have no inconfiderable thare of health 5
for they eat and drank heartily, were cheerful, and talked
with much feeming vigour, and with a loud troag tone of
voice; and yet on their being the leaft moved, though it
was only from one part of the thip to the other, and that ta
their hammocks, they have immediately expired ; and others,
who have confided in their feeming ftrength, and have re-
folved to get out of their hammocks, have dicd before they
could reach the deck. And it was no uncommon thing
for thofe who were able to walk the deck, and to do fome
kind of duty, to drop down dead in an inflant, on any en-
deavours to a@ with their utmoft vigour; many of our peo-
ple having perithed in this manner during the courfe of this

voyage.”” Lord Anfon’s Voyage, loc. cit.
For of the authors, who have defcribed the difeafe, have
been very induftrious in the examination of the bodies of

thofe who have died. The moft ample account of the dif-
feGtions of {corbutic patients has been given by M. Poupart,
in his account of the difeafe, as obferved at the hofpital of
St. Louis at Paris.. The principal phenomena deferibed b
him were the refults of the general extravafation of b

and of the diffolution and feparation of parts naturally
united. Thus the bodies of the mufcles were often found
{welled and hard, from the blood fixed among their fibres,
fo that the limbs remained bent or contraéted ; and the epi-
phyfes of the bones were found feparated, the cartilages of
the fternum were loofened from their union with the bony
part of the ribs, and the ligaments of the joints were
corroded and loofe. He adds, that the mefenteric glands
were generally obftru¢ted and enlarged, and the {pleen three
times bigger than natural, and fell to pieces as if it confifted
of coagulated blood.

Caufes of Scurvy.—The predifpofing caufes of fcurvy,
or thofe circumftances which produce a predifpofition to the
complaint, are various. Preceding difeafes, whether of the
acute or chronic kind, render perfons more liable to the
fcurvy, where the exciting cauies vexifl: and inaétivity and
indolence greatly facilitate the attack of the malady. Thofe
who are recovering from fevers, or who have been weakened
by long attacks or relapfes, molt readily fall into {curvy ;
and the marines on fhip-board, who have lefs work, com-
monly fuffer in a much larger proportion than the failors.
On the other hand, however, exceflive fatigue and over-
exertion, which exhauft the itrength, as well as want of
fleep, contribute to accelerate the attack of fourvy. An
attention to this point was ene of the moft effectual means
employed by captain Cook for the prevention of, {curv
among his crews, as well as the avoiding of cold and moif-
ture, from which much predifpofition to the difeafe arifes.
A ftate of defpondency and gloominefs of mind contributes
alfo materially to invite and aggravate the feurvy : it at-
tacks the difcontented and repining, while perfons of more
cheerful difpofitions efcape. Hence perhaps pewly-impreffed
feamen are found to be particularly liable to it; and the in-
habitants ef befieged towns are obferved to be very fufcep-
tible of its impreffians.

The principal exciting eaufe of {curvy appears to be the
ufe ef a certain kind of diet ; and it is probable that nal
fpecies of diet, which, either from being difficult of dige:
but little nutriment, fails to nourifa
the body, is capable of producing the difeafe under certain
circumftances: we fay, it is probable ; for we fhall have
occafion to fhew hereafter, that this notion is not entirely
confiftent with all the faGts, aud is fomewhat inconfiitent

efpecially

SCURVY.

efpecially with the nature of the remedies. As the difeafe
is moit frequently occafioned in modern times by a fa diet,
it has been aferibed’to the ufe of /aled meats; but this
opinion is altogether erroneous, and has been amply refuted
by Drs. Lind, Milman, and others. It has occurred, indeed,
to a great extent, where falted meats were not ufed; but it
has been equally prevalent where the diet confifted princi-
pally of farinaceous or other unfermented vegetable matters,
fuch as hard bifcuits, peas, and beans, or of fmoke-dried
fith or flefh, cheefe, &c. In fome experiments, made by
Dr. Stark in his own perfon, relative to the effeéts. of par-
ticular articles of diet, fymptoms of fcurvy were induced
by living a fhort time exclufively upon fugar. (See Stark’s
whole works, 4to. Lond. 1788.) And in the Ruffian armies,
at the fieze of Afoph, in 1736, and fubfequently in their
march to Oczakow, the feurvy prevailed to a great extent,
although their diet did not confift of falt-provilions. The
had little fuel to enable them to drefs their vi€tuals, and the
fat indigeftible fifh of the river Don, being half-cooked, and
their bread ill-baked, produced frequent ficknefles, and ul-
timately the fcurvy. (See Dr. Nitzfch’s account of this dif-
eafe in the Ruffian armies, quoted by Dr. Lind.) The fame
calamity occurred in the imperial army in Hungary, about
the fame period, although the army had frefh beef in plenty;
but their other food coniifted of a grofs and vifcid bread, or
other farinaceous matters, and efpecially of a fort of glu-
tinous pudding, called rollat/chen, which was principally eaten
by the Bohemians, who were indeed almoft the only people
who fuffered from the feurvy. (See Geo. Hen. Kramer.
Diff. epiftolica de Scorbuto ; which contains the cafe of the
imperial troops, addrefled to the college of phyficians at
Vienna.) There is no doubt, therefore, if we examine the
hiftory of the malady, that perfons predifpofed to it, if they
live upon any fpecies of indigeftible food, whether it be of
an animal or vegetable nature,—whether preferved with falt,
or not at all impregnated with it,—will be equally attacked
with feurvy ; and thofe perfons are obferved to fuffer the
moft, who make the freeft ufe of thefe indigeftible fub-
ftances. In all thefe initances, however, fre/h vegetable fub-
ftances did not probably conftitute any confiderable portion
of the diet.

Other exciting caufes, however, mutt co-operate with
this diet to produce the feurvy, efpecially in its fevere de-
grees. And hence whatever contributes to impair the health,
and deprefs the mind, during the ufe of fuch food, mate-
rially accelerates the occurrence of {curvy ; and we have al-
ready ftated the effects of indolence, over-fatigue, and the
deprefling paflions, in predifpofing the conftitution to take
on this difeafe. Indolence and inaétivity conduce to excite
the fcurvy, becaufe the hard and indigeftible diet juft alluded
to requires a certain degree of exercife to fubdue it in the
ftomach. The influence of exertion was curioufly exempli-
fied in the cafes of thofe perfons who have wintered in high
northern latitudes. The {curvy was the fource of fatality
which they had to dread: and it is fingular, that thofe who
went prepared ta {pend the winter in thefe frozen climates,
and fupplied with provifions, clothing, fuel, &c. have uni-
formly died of the feurvy; while thofe who have been ac-
cidentally left, without any provifion, have efcaped that dif-
eafe and enjoyed good health. In 1633 two trials were
made by the Dutch of eftablifhing wintering-places at Spitz-
bergen and on the coaft of Greenland, in latitude about 77°
or 78°. Seven failors were left at each, amply furnifhed with
every article of clothing, provifion, and utenfils, thought
neceflary or ufeful in fice a fituation. The journals of both
companies are preferved~ The men at Greenland began to
make a conitant fire to fit by in OGtober, ferved out their

2

allowance of brandy, and now and then killed a bear: but
in March they were all very ill of the feurvy ; aid on April
fixteenth the firft man died, and all the reft were entirely dif
abled, except one perfon. This poor wretch continues the
journal to the laft day of April, when they were praying for
a {peedy releafe from their miferies. They were all found
dead. The men left at Spitzbergen killed but one fox the
whole time. The fcurvy appeared among them fo early as
November twenty-fourth, and the firft man died January
fourteenth: the journal ends February twenty-fixth; and
thefe too were all found déad. Accident, however, foon
afterwards gave rife to an experiment which had a very dif-
ferent refult. “For on the fame fide of Spitzbergen, and in
nearly the fame latitude, a boat’s crew, confifting of eight
Englifhmen, who had been fent afhore to kill deer, were by
fome miftake left behind, and reduced to the deplorable ne-
ceflity of wintering in that dreadful country, totally unpro-
vided with any of the neceflaries. ‘Taking advantage of a
large fubftantial wooden building, ereéted for the wfe of the
coopers belonging to the fifhery, they rendered it warm and
comfortable by building a fmaller one within it, and by deer-
fin beds, &c. “They were tolerably fupplied with fuel from
old cafks and boats, which they broke up, and, before the
cold weather fet in, they laid in a confiderable {tock of veni-
fon, having killed a good number of deer, the greater part
of which they roafted, and ftowed in barrels, referving fome
raw, which became frozen. This venifon, with a few fea-
horfes and bears which they killed from time to time, contti-
tuted their whole winter’s provifion, except a very unfavour

article, which they were obliged to make out with, at firlt
two and afterwards four days in the week, which was whale’s
fritters, or the fcraps of fat after the oil has been prefled
out. Their only drink. during the whole time was running
water, procured from beneath the ice on the beach, till
January ; and afterwards fnow-water melted by hot irons.
The melancholy of their fituation was aggravated by the
abfence of the fun from the horizon, from Oober four-
teenth to February third, of which period twenty days were
paffed in total darknefs. They contrived, however, to keep
their fire and lamps continually burning during this period.
At the approach of fpring, they had the good fortune to
kill feveral white bears which proved excellent food; and
thefe, together with wild fowl and foxes which they caught,
enabled them to difpenfe with their fafting days on the
mouldy fritters, and foon improved their vigour. Upon
this fimple fare, without {pirits or fermented hquors, they
were able to pafs this rigorous winter, unaffected by feurvy
or any other difeafe: at the return of the fhips on May
twenty-fifth, they all appear to have been in health; and all
returned in fafety to their native country. (See Mem. of the
Liter. and Philof. Society of Manchefter, vol. i. p. 89, et
feq.) Another ftill more ftriking illuftration is related by
Dr. Aikin, in the paper juit referred to, in the cafe of four
Ruffians, who were left at Spitzbergen, and alfo found a
hut in which they refided above fix years, living on the bears,
deer, and foxes, which they caught, and drinking the run-
ning water in fummer, and melted ice in winter. Three of
them remained entirely free from the {curvy during the whole
of their abode; but the fourth died of it, after lingering to
the fixth year. This perfon, it is remarked, was of an in-
dolent difpofition, and could not conquer his averfion to
drinking the rein-deer’s blood. ‘The continual exercife, re-
quired by the hunting of thefe animals, appears to have been
the great fource of health, and to have kept at a diftance the
f{eurvy, which is endemic in Lapland, Norway, Sweden,
Ruffia, and in latitudes much lefs northerly than Green-

land.
Other

SCURVY.

fourvy, Thus it was obferved to a
in Holland, while others, where

diet was remained entirely free from it.
a very able and accurate writer on the fubjedt,
it was much more frequent in his time at
Alomaer, than at Goude and Rotterdam ;
ever to be feen. He obferyed,
ged, that univerially fa all parts of the country, where
y and damp, it raged with the greatett
the had great influence upon it,
long continued, multiplying the difeafe,
paerieg & wite epidemic and malignant.
ta te in the condition of the

of living, fince the wealth of Hol-
red the difeafe much lefs

: Lg ry aga mee sarelr to the
9 inhabit w damp parts o provinces,
di 1 and coarfe bread,

c

7
|

5 Neti Aaty's fo\ that dtloned as ilalecaty of
contemptible preferva-

by which the malady is
as tend to elucidate.

=e oe ang Das is done, there-

a

to the exciting caufes; and efpecially

id and moifture, by means of proper cloth-
&c.; and by avosding indolence and in-

the one hand, and oyer-fatigue, watching, &c. on

sr. The effects of the former are exemplified in the

ative: cien f petty in a fhip

7 + the crew fuffer feverely. “ The Channel

‘Aeet,”” fays Dr « has often buried a hundred men
m a cruize, thoufaad more afflicted with

Meurvy, and yet among thefe there has not been a
— How dos the condition of the ptt alice ie

from that of the common failor? The one as well as the
other is obliged to live’ on the thip’s provifions. ‘The only
difference is, that the petty officers deep in clofe births, as
are called, with canvas hung round, by which they
are fheltered from the inclemencies of the weather. Befides
the advantage of warm cabins, they are more warmly clad,
and having a greater plenty of clothes to thift, they ar
lefs liable to continue wet, or to be fo unclean as the com-
mon men,”’ (Milman on Scurvy, p- 31.) But the feeu-
rity from feurvy, obtained by atteution to thefe points of
general health, was moft flrikingly manifefled in the judi-
cious management of captain Cook, by which he was en-
abled to repeat the voyage, in which the fourvy had proved
fo fatal to lord Anfon’s crew, without lofing any men by
that difeafe. The great navigator fludied and caforced the
rules of general health with great afliduity, and his fuccels
was complete. He was efpecially careful to guard againli
the too great fatigue of a men, and to fecure them as
much as poffible from the effects of cold and moilture. Ia
the firft place, he divided them into three watches initead
of two, (except upon fome extraordinary occafions,) by
which means the eight hours reit for four of duty,
and did not get the broken fleep, which men in their fitua-
tions have generally obtained. They had thus time to re-
cruit their ftrength before they were fummoned to return
to their labour, and they were likewife thus lefs expofed
to the weather, than if they had been at watch and watch.
If the men got wet, they had generally dry clothes pro-
vided to fhift themfelves. Proper methods were taken to
keep the thips clean, and dry between decks. ‘The ham-
mocks and bedding, every day that was fair, were not onl
ordered upon deck, but each bundle was unlafhed, and fo
{pread out, that every part might be expofed to the air.
des the ordinary methods > wathing and {eraping the
decks, captain Cook had fome wood put into a proper
ftove, kindled, and carried {ucceflively to every part below
deck ; which not only contributed to dry the fhip, but by
heating the impure air below, and rendering it {pecificall
lighter than the common air, to make it rife and A
through the hatchways into the atmofphere. In the tor-
rid zone, he fhaded his ‘people from the fcorching fun, by
an awning over his deck; while in his courfe under the
antarétic circle, he had a coat provided of a fubétantial
woollen ftuff, with the addition of a hood to cover their
heads. ‘The Ruffian boor, Dr. Milman remarks, feems to
be greatly indebted to fimilar means for his prefervation

i-. from the feurvy: for, though he lives in an extremely cold

climate, eats a good deal of falted meats, has no frefh vege-
tables for fix months of the year, and breathes during that
time the foul air of an unventilated apartment ; P ai cloth-
ing himfelf in warm flannels, coverin himfelf at night
with warm fheep-fkins, providing for his cleanlinefs with
the yegular ufe of the warm bath, he is feldom afflitted
with this calamity,

Captain Cook alfo attended to the nutriment of his men.
Hard and falted meats require afliftance in their folution
and digeition in the ftomach, and a plentiful fupply of
water was always carefully provided by him. _Salt-water,
indeed, my be rendered {weet by diitillation, which de-
prives it of its faline parts, and may be made more palat-
able by impregnation with carbonic acid gas, or with robs
and acid juices. This method, however, was not known
to captain Cook. In attending to the diet of his men, he
would not fuffer the fat, which is boiled out of falt beef
and pork, to be given to his men, as is cultomary. It did
net efcape that fagacious officer’s notice, that fuch grofs
indigeftible Paibaen De. a great tendency to excite “a r.

Us,

SCURVY.

Thus, then, by an attention to cleanlinefs and ventilation,
by guarding againft fatigue, cold, heat, wet, &c. and by
providing at all times plenty of frefh water, captain Cook’s
feamen lived with impunity on their “lt provifions. And
a fimilar inftance is mentioned by Dr. Trotter, in the cafe
of the Intrepid, a fhip of fixty-four guns, with a comple-
ment of five hundred men, in lord Rodney’s fleet, which
did not lofe a man, except from wounds, for the fpace of
two years and a half. « This fhip was in a very fickly
ftate when captain Molloy took the command of her;
but by the complete mode of difcipline, and attention to
the cleanlinefs of the crew and fhip, which he eftablifhed,
health was preferved in a climate reputed to be unwhole-
fome; and that too, when expofed to the hardfhips which
follow a ftate of frequent or conftant preparation for ac-
tion.” (Trotter on the Scurvy.) Even where the ex-
citing caufes exilt, therefore, the {eurvy may be prevented
by extraordinary and continued difcipline in the care of the
general health.

Something ftill further, however, has been attempted, in
the way of prevention, by diminifhing the extent of the
chief exciting caufe; although it may be queftioned, whe-
ther much has been effected in this way. The Dutch were
fuppofed to have preferved their feamen from fcurvy by
the ufe of four krout with their falt provifions, and this
article was recommended to the Britifh navy by Dr. Lind:
but it is prepared by a fort of fermentation, which pro-
duces the acidity ; and this fort of acetous acid, the pro-
du& of fermentation, does not appear to be a fubftitute for
the acid of frefh vegetables. Dr. Trotter, however, is of
opinion, that the virtues of this fubftance as an antifcorbutic
are very trifling, and that it has coft the government in its pre-
paration more than it is worth. Another fubftance has alfo
been employed in the Britifh fleet, as a fubititute for frefh
vegetables in preventing fcurvy, on the recommendation of
Dr. M‘Bride, viz. the effence or extrad of malt. lt was
recommended upon the hypothetical notion, that it con-
tained much of the cementing principle, as he called it, or
that principle which, when prefent in animal and vegetable
fubitances, prevents the procefs of putrefaétion; and that
by reftoring this principle to the blood, the difeafes, which
atte, like feurvy, from a putrid diathefis, (thus heaping
hypothefis upon hypothefis,) would be prevented and cured.
The truth, however, is, that there is little or no carbonic
acid in this fubftance ; and the favourable accounts received
at the admiralty of its beneficial effects, which induced
them to eftablifh the ufe of eflence of wort as a part of
naval victualling, are to be afcribed rather to its being a
wholefome, nutritious, and digeftible fubftance, confifting
principally of vegetable mucilage with fome fugar, than to
any {pecific antifcorbutic properties. This appears to be
the opinion of Dr. Trctter, and Dr. Lind fpeaks of it
only as *¢a very nouri/bing liquor, well adapted for fcorbutic
patients.”” It does not appear, however, that thefe articles
are fufficient fubititutes for frefh vegetable produdtions ;
and they certainly do not poflefs the fame powers, with the
latter, of curing the fcurvy, when it already exifts. With
the proper acids, which have been generally adopted fince
the time of captain Cook, they contribute to the fupport
of the general health, and therefore to the prevention of
feurvy.

There is another fpecies of vegetable matter, however,
which appears in fome meafure to fupply the particular
fubftance, which frefh vegetables afford, and which is ufed
both as a preventive and a cure forthe fcurvy, namely,
the acid of limes, Jemons, and other fimilar fruits, which
the art of chemiftry has for fome time fupplied in a concrete

ftate. Thefe fubftances, we believe, are now confidered
as among the neceflaries for a long voyage, and are pro-
bably much more efficient than the four krout, effence of
malt, &c.

Cure of Scurvy.—When the preventive meafures have
been neglected, or ineffeétually employed, and the difeafe has
already appeared, it is very difficult to remove it, while the
circumitances of diet, &c. remain unchanged. Where thefe
circumftances, however, admit of a change, experience has
fhewn that the cure is very fimple, and often very expedi-
tious. A pure, dry, warm air, with the ufe of fre/h wvege~
tables, almoft of any fort, commonly proves effeétual. The
initinétive feelings of the fick, indeed, direét them ftrongly to
the ufe of the chief remedy ; for there is perhaps no defire fo
intenfe as that which the {corbutic patient feels for the ufe of
green regetap less fruits, and acids; infomuch that the failors of
lord Antfon’s fhips greedily devoured the gra/s, which was the
firft vegetable matter obtained. The vegetables and fruits
which contain the greateft proportion of acid, are the moft
effectual remedies for the fymptoms of fea-fcurvy ; whence
forrel and fuch like plants, but above all limes, lemons,
oranges, apples, currants, &c. aét ina manner as Jpecifics in
relieving the difeafe. All fucculent vegetables, and thofe
efpecially which are of an aromatic nature, are ufeful, parti-
cularly when combined with the acid ones ; whence feurvy-
grafs, horfe-radifh, crefles, purflain, and the tetradynamiz,
are ranked among the antifcorbutics, and numerous plants
have been fpecified by different writers as poflefled of fpecial
virtues. On the whole, however, the acid juices appear to
be moft fpeedy and effe€tual remedies for feurvy, efpecially
thofe which approach to the nature of the citric acid.

The teftimonies in favour of the /pecific curative powers
of thefe acids in {curvy are fo numerous as to leave no doubt
of the fa&. Even Dr. Lind, with whofe hypothefis re-
{pecting the nature of the difeafe the fa was not quite
compatible, admits, in his poftfeript, their ftriking efficacy.
“To what has been already faid,’’ he obferves, ‘of the
virtues of oranges and lemons in this difeafe, I have now to
add, that in feemingly the moft defperate cafes, the moft
quick and fenfible valiee was obtained from lemon-juice ; by
which I have relieved many hundred patients, labouring
under almoft intolerable pain and affli€tion from this difeafe,
when no other remedy feemed to avail.”? As the acidis apt
to operate violently upon the ftomach and bowels of thofe
who are much weakened, Dr. Lind recommends the addition
of wine and fugar, as conftituting the beft antifcorbutic,
and was in the praétice of ordering about four ounces and a
half of lime or lemon-juice, and two ounces of fugar, to be
put into a pint of Malaga wine, which was fufficient for any
weak patient to take in twenty-four hours.

Dr. Trotter teftifies the extraordinary cure of thefe fcor-
butic fymptoms by the ufe of thefe acids, even though at
the fame time they produce a very lax or purging ftate of
the bowels, and fome degree of emaciation; while, on the
other hand, the ufe of frefh animal food, {trong broths, and
wine, produces comparatively very little benefit upon {cor-
butic perfons, although debility is the moft marked fymptom
of the difeafe. This diet and the Peruvian bark will often ,
produce no favourable change upon fcorbutic ulcers, and
the moft powerful ftimuiant applications will not alter the
condition of thefe fores: yet in le{s than twenty-four hours
after the ufe of lemon-juice, the livid complexion of the
fores, with the black clot of blood on their furface, will
often difappear, and they will put on a florid and healthy
charaGter. The farther effeéts of the lemon acid are thus
defcribed by Dr. Trotter. ‘ The patient in the inveterate
flage of the difeafe feems to gather ftrength even a oe

: ng he

SCURVY.

oe the fruit ; the {pirite are exhilarated by the tale
iticlf ; and the juice is {wallowed with emotions of the moft
voluptuous luxury. ‘The gums are gradually hardened, and

the teeth fixed in their fockets. The dull eye and bloated
in a few days put on the clear healthy complexion,
alfo extends to the whole furface of the body. The
ion of the effufed blood in different parts yes on
and by marking the {pots, you may calculate the
and the cure of the difeafe.

of the abl
ton befpale nd ree of ftimulus communicated
ic fyftem as well as the fanguiferous, as foon
received a fuflicient quantity of the vivify-
From the effects of the juice upon the bile,
the flools is changed, and a lax flate of the
confequence. But it is to be obferved, that
inteftines may be moderated by giving the
ities ; afpeedy cure, however, demands
be given fibitum, and the greater the

fils

cPeye
ht
7
!

[
if
r
;
Hs
<
g
a

§

guy-cfieGinal relief, And been
found a valuable remedy in fome low fevers, gives but a
momentary flimulus; but it does not retard the difeafe, nor

afford i It was clearly proved,
too, ia lard Anton's | Anfon’s fleet and elfewhere, that abundance of
freth provifions of animal fubftances and fith, even with
ay Pathe see: did not tend to arreft the progrefs of
ule of mercury appears to be injurious

OTe fecukinnel the pee Boe cantes ot ha
} of feurvy, we have
ie "i in paflions in inducing

ve now to mention,

moft
i inft the fcurvy, faid to be of great price, but
of fill greater eficacy : many more were yet to be fet.
‘The of this deceit were truly aftonifhing ! Three
{mall phials of medicine were given to each phyiician, not
the recovery of two patients. It was publicly

were fufficient to impart
uor. We now difplayed
or were even the com-
l f the cheat put upon the foldiers.
They in crowds about us, every one foliciting that

ight be for their ufe. Cheerfulnefs again ap-
_ -pears on evéry countenance ;
inthe ; oftheremedy. The herbs now began
F the ground ; we of thefe made deco¢tions,
wormwood

i
r

and camphor were added, that b
fii prevalost”Wavomr the medicines might Se ae
mean + The ftiff contraéted limbs were anointed

Late in or linfeed oil. The invention
: et emeied sine Lechod nol nnd « dnc) ot

and aa univerfal faith prevails both

every neceflary and ufeful medicine, a flrange medley of

drugs was compounded, The effect, however, of the de-
lufion was really allonithing; for many were quickly and
ly recovered. Such as had not moved their limbs for

a month before, were feen walking the ftreets found, upright,
and in perfect health, ‘They boatled of their cure by the

rince’s remedy; the motion of their joints being reflored
ny a finple friction with oil, nature now of itfelf weil per-
forming its office, or at leaft with a {mall affiflance from me-
dicine. Many who declared that they had been rendered
worfe by all former remedies which had been adminiftered,
recovered in a few days, to their inexpreflible joey, and the
no lefs general furprife, by the taking (almott by their
having brought to them) what we affirmed to be their

racious prince’s cure.’’ This account of the curative in-

uence of the paffions is fully fanétioned by the @atement
in lord Anfon’s voyage, already quoted, by 2 fact men-
tioned by Mr. Ives, in his journal. On the aa. of January,
1744, there were nearly | atte perfons ill of {curvy in the

editerranean fleet ; yet the joy of approaching the enemy’s
ficet, and the hope of beating them, i fuch aa effeét, that
on the 11th ef February Ellcmten, when the engagement
happened, there were not above five men not at their fight-

ing quarters.
dered remedies have been mentioned by different writers,

who have treated of fcurvy, and many local applications
and methods ef curing particular urgent fymptoms, fuch as
hemorrhages, {pongy gums, ulcerations, diarrhoa, ftiffuefs
of the tendons, &c. have been detailed; but it is unnecef-
fary to repeat them; fince the only effectual mode of
alleviating particular {ymptoms is the radical cure of the
conflitutional difeafe. | ‘ Fomentations, the warm-baths,
&c.”? Dr. Trotter obferves, “ have been often tried for °
the rigid tendons, apd hardnefs of the mufcles, but with-
out effect: ftimulant applications have been equally un-
fuccefsful. For the cult breathing and tightnefs about
the breaft, blifters and the whole train of expectorants are
infufficient to relieve them. Opium itfelf, our laft and only
refuge in other cafes of acute pain, affords no refrefhin
fleep or eafe to the feorbutic fufferer. We have hear
much of fudorifics opening the pores of the fkin and foften-
ing the furface ; but this 1s trifling with the complaint. _ It
is only the produce of frefh vegetation, that can adminifter
to him the reviving cordial ; and a few lemons will do more
2 afluage his anguifh than the whole art of pharmacy.’
- 231.

On the Nature of Scurvy.—Various hypothefes have been
framed at different times, according to the prevalent patho-
logical do&rines, to account for the phenomena of this
fingular and formidable difeafe ; and like moft other medical
hypothefes, they have hinged chiefly upon two pape iples,
by one of which they are referred to certain morbid condi-
tions of the blood or circulating fluids, and by the other
to morbid changes in the property of the living folids. If
we take into confideration, however, the whole phenomena
of the difeafe, its caufes, and remedies, we fhall find
confiderable difficulty in admitting either of thefe hypo-
thefes exclufively, and not a little in giving any fatisfatory
view of the fubjeét, even by allowing the partial truth of

All the older writers, being of the humoral {chool, main-
tained the doétrine of a morbid ftate of the fluids, as the
proximate caufe of fcurvy. Boerhaave and his adherents
referred the difeafe to an acrimony of the fluids, which they
Sappoled would be of a different quality, according to the

ifferent caufes which produced it; thus it would be an
alkaline acrimony from oa oi putrid provifions and foul

2

watcr,

SCURVY.

water, and an acid acrimony from bad forts of bread or
vegetable gluten, combined with a fedentary life. (See
Boerhaave, Aph. 1153-) Dr. Cullen, too, though he re-
liaquifhed much of the humoral pathology, was of opinion
that feurvy was the effe& of ‘ a preternaturally faline, and
confequently diflolved {tate of the blood,’’ which was oc-
cafioned by a greater advance towards putrefaction, from
the abfence of the corrective of vegetable matters. (See
Firft Lines, par. 1812—13.) And fir John Pringle main-
tained a fimilar dotrine, that {curvy was the refult of “a
gradually accumulating putrefaGtion’’ in the blood, from
the putrefcency of falted food, which he deemed the chief
caufe of the difeafe. (See his Obf. on Dif. of the Army,
Appendix, p. xci.) In faét, the general opinion, for a
long period, deemed {curvy the moit characteriftic example
of a putrid difeafe. And this putridity of the fluids was
inferred from the fetor of the breath, and of the ulcers;
from the black colour and loofe confiltence of the blood ;
from the extenfive hemorrhages ; from the purple blotches
on the fkin, &c.
inference: for we have no lefs authority than that “of Dr.
Lind, who made numerous experiments on the fubje€t, for
afferting that blood, drawn from f{corbutic patients, even in
a dying ftate, difcovers no fenfible teft of either acrimony
or putridity, by the tafte or the fmell; that the ferum of
fuch blood is as taftelefs as the white of an egg, and without
odour ; that it corrupts in the air no fooner than the blood
of healthy perfons’; and that thin flices of mutton, immerfed
in this ferum, continued {weet and free from taint, as long
asin the ferum’ of perfons in health. We know, indeed,
from actual experiments, that if the fmalleft quantity of
putrid matter be injected into the blood-veffels, it is fol-
lowed by fpeedy death. (See a Diff. by Dr. Scybert, on
the Putrefaétion of the Blood, Philadelphia, 1793.) The
ordinary {ecretions from the blood are not putrefcent, as has
beer aflerted. Dr. Lind affirms, “ the urine in this difeafe
was not found to be more offenfive to the {meil, nor to
corrupt fooner, than that of a perfon in health; and their
{weat is not fetid, or more difagreeable than when they are
in health: the fame may be faid of their {tools.”? (Poit-
feript, p. 515.) The fame experienced phyfician juftly ob-
ferves, ‘* the offenfive fmell from the mouth of fcorbutic
perfons, when alive, feems to me to proceed folely from the
corrupt ftate of the gums. For in their dead bodies I
never perceived any unufual marks of putrefaction; they
were neither more offenfive, nor liable to corrupt fooner,
than any other corpfe.”’ In a word, the notion of a putri-
dity of the circulating blood is not only unfupported by
actual evidence, but is refuted by all fober faét and obfer-
vation ; and thefe experiments of Dr. Lind prove that there
is not even a pronenefs to putridity exilting in either folids
or fluids.

Can we account, then, for the phenomena of fcurvy upon
the other bypothefis, which afcribes the malady to certain
morbid conditions of the living folid? This view of the
fubjeét was ably advocated by doétor, now fir Francis
Milman, in one of the moft elegant medical eflays in the
Englifh language, publifhed in the year 1782, (Enquiry
into the Source of the Symptoms of Scurvy and Putrid
Fevers, &c.) ; and, in fa&, it affords the moft rational expla-
nation of moft of the fymptoms of the difeafe, according to
the phyfiological and pathological doGtrines which modern
inquiries have eftablifhed. It is not at prefent, therefore,
neceflary for us to enter into any minute detail of the
fymptoms, with the view of explaining them upon the
principle of a weakened and impaired condition of the ner-
vous fyltem, and of the mufcular irritability. This has been

But this is a gratuitous and erroneous,

accomptifhed at great length by Dr. Milman, taking this
ample enumeration of Boerhaave, in his 1151{t aphorifm, as
the text, to which we refer the reader.

This view of the fubjeét appears alfo to accord better, on
the whole, with our knowledge of the pre-difpofing and
exciting caufes of the difeafe above detailed. The various
kinds of diet, under which feuryy occafionally originates,
is ill calculated to. produce any particular acrimony of the
fluids; and the dry pulfe and glutinous pudding of the
Bohemians on fhore could not have the fame tendency to
putrefaétion as the falted animal diet of feamen. Yet all
thefe fubltances might equally fail, from their indigeftibility,
or from the defeé& of nutritious matter which they contained,
to fupport the {trength and vigour of the moving fibre, and
would equally contribute, therefore, to produce that lan-
guor of the vital powers, which is fo confpicuous in the
progrefs of feurvy. The analogy of {curvy with the ignis
facer, admirably deferibed by Lucretius, which appears to
have been commonly the refult of famine, and often called
peftilence, (whence M. Poupart was correét in comparing
the epidemic feurvy of Paris with fome of the ancient
plagues) feems to fupport the fame do&rine. (See IGnis
Jacer.) And all the pre-difpofing caufes, on the one hand,
which are principally debilitating caufes, fatigue, indolence,
want of fufficient fleep, cold and moifture, and the means of
prevention, on the other, which are fuch as fupport the
general vigour of the conftitution, moderate exercife, fuffi-
cient fleep, frefh air, warmth, &c. concur in evincing the
{tate of the moving fibre to be the fource of the morbid
fymptoms. ‘Phe fame opinion is alfo farther fupported by
the extraordinary influence of mental imprefhons in pro-
ducing and in preventing or curing the difeafe. Thefe im-
preffions cannot fuddenly change the chemical condition of
the fluids; but their influence upon the living folid, through
the medium of the nervous fyitem, is munifeft both in
health and difeafe, to a degree that unlearned perfons will
{carcely credit. (See ImacinaTion, Influence of, and Imr-
TATION.) The difcharges of blood from the relaxed and
enfeebled orifices of the veffels, the gangrenous and confe-
quently putrefcent tendency of the gums, and other delicate
parts, the fainting and even dying on the flighte{t exertion,
the dropfical fwellings, the labouring breath, the oppreflion
about the heart, &c. &c. appear to be the refult of dimi-
nifhed ftrength in all the mufcles, and of enfeebled action
in all the veflels, the confequences of a general failure of
the vital or nervous power. .

Such, then, appears to be the advantage, in point of
argument and analogy, which the doétrine of difeafed folids
polleffes over that of acrimony and putrefaétion in the fluids.
Neverthelefs this theory is by no means fatisfactory : it is
in fome meafure, indeed, incompatible with the moft {triking
and well afcertained fat, that the feurvy is not curable by
thofe means which appear to contribute in general to the
ftrength and aétivity of the folids, fuch as frefh animal
food, wine, bark, foups, &c.; while it 1s {peedily and cer-
tainly removed by the ufe of vegetable acids, which con-
tain no nutritive quality, and are fo far deftitute of corro-
borating power, that they even induce emaciation, while they
cure the difeafe. In truth, we can give no {atisfaétory
theory of this difeafe : but our pofleflion of a certain remedy,
and our knowledge of the means of prevention, may fairly
fuperfede all hypothefes upon the fubje&t. In this, and in
all other difeafes, experience and obfervation are the only
guides which the judicious phyfician will follow. The in-
{tintive demands of the fick point out the fource of relief,
as hunger and thirft lead us to food and drink ; and it is
enough to have obferved, that, by gratifying thefe a

the

| scU "
the difeafe is cured, and to have inferred, that i

ing them it is prevented from occurring. T"
j Ges Kamat all our knowledge, medical or phyfical ; and

our refpeéting the obfeure agencies of nature,
which are i wre Sy as the wighies of old wifely
are at leaft fuperfluous; for they are not the
eaufe, but the refult of our practical information. “ Re-
deinde medicine remediis, homines de rationibus
, differere cxpiffe ; nee poft rationem medicinam efle
fed pott inventam medicinam, rationem effe que-

Celfus, Proefat.
we conclude, however, we may be allowed to
one theory, to which modern chemiflry has given
but which appears to us to be as imperfectly deve-
sed as thofe to which we have already alluded. Dr.
) has advanced this doétrine; and we believe the
Dr. Beddoes has maintained a fimilar opinion. As the
i which exifts, but is rather loofely
in the acids and green vegetables (the
modern nomenclature), appears to be wanting, not
other animal

of

in the falted and fubftances, but alfo
oan rife ave it has been arabawn
gi ife to , that this
‘may be the remedy for feurryy and ite abfence
the folids and fluids of the body, the proximate caufe
difeafe. This Dr. Trotter confiders as

gt Aim to a florid hue, which the fun-
within a few hours after the acids
i For it 1s well » that fuch
contact of oxygen with

sone in the lungs,
the veins being con-
that procefs. . There i

cogitationes ad medicinam pertinere,
i diverfa de his fenferint, ad
perduxerint.” Celfus,

f

difeafe,

ys, fuch as land-feurvy, petechie
petechialis, purpura, &c. Pour-

in Botany. See Cocniearia.
portfmen Wal of hak rob
Ji, among yi a or it.
_SCUTAGE, Scuracium, in Ancient Cufloms. See

» in 2 town of Euro Turk
Spelt caccady ie hance of the

a?
a

52 miles S.E. of Ragufa. N. lat. 42° 27/.
~Alfo, a town of ic > int
, on the Bofphorus, oppofite to Con-
ancients * ”” as bein
where the Perfians

the tributes of lateral ones flat, rather acute, lying under the mi

SCU

their acquired dominions; this town, after having expe-
rienced many viciflitudes of profperity and adverfity, is sow
full of houfes and mofques. It is a fathiou for the Turks
at Couttantinople to be interred at Seutari.

SCUTARIENSE Promonronium, in Aacicat Geogra-
py, a promontory of Afia Minor, inthe Thracian Bofpho-
rus, N.E. of Byzantium.

SCUTARIUS, among the Romans, befides its ordi-
nary fignification of a thield-maker, was ufed to denote one
of the emperor's life-cuards, beeaule their whole body was
covered with armour.

SCUTCHEON. See Escurcngon.

Scurcnvon-Grafling. See ExGnarrine.

SCUTE, a French gold coin of gs. 44. in the reign of
king Henry V. And Bsiarnes ween of England, had
an allurance made her of fundry caftles, manors, se &e.
valued at the fum of forty thoufand /eutes, every two of which
were worth a noble.

SCUTELLA, in Botany, a little dith, or faucer, is
ufed by Dillenius, Linnzus, and their followers, for the pe-
cular tacle of the feeds in molt {pecies of Licwen, fee
that article ; and which is nearly all that we know of their
fruétification. This receptacle confilts of « {mooth difk,
almoft always of a different colour from the reft of the

lant, as well as from its own border. Its internal fubftance
is of a denfe fpongy, corky, or waxy texture, filled with
innumerable parallel vertical cells, each of which contains a
row of feeds, ufually eight in number, one above another.
The difk itfelf is either fiat, flightly concave, or fomewhat
convex, bordered by a rim, formed out of the leafy or
crultaceous frond, and fometimes by an elevation of its own
fubftance. The latter is the cafe with thofe Lichenes deno-
minated fuberculati, whofe difk often becomes fo much ele-
vated as to overtop, or obliterate, this kind of border.
The rim formed out of the frond is termed by Acharius
marge accefforius ; that which is of the fubftance of the ditk
is his margo oe

Some confufiom has arifen in the Englifh denomination of
the part in queftion, which is now univerfally called a /hield,
in preference to Dillenius’s word /aucer ; nor will any one,
furely, difapprove of the change. The fource of the Latin
Seutella is feutum, a thield, and Linnzus, in his Philo/ophia
Botanica, appears to have intended ufing /cutel/um, a little
fhield, inftead of fcutella, a little dith. If he had kept to
the former, our Englifh word would indeed have been more
ftriGly correét, but it is itill fufficiently fo to preclude any
neceffity of altering what is now generally adopted.

SCUTELLARIA, derived from /cutella, a {mall dith
or faucer, apparently in allufion to the httle* concave ap-

dage which crowns the calyx. Some have thou
it to be more direétly derived from /cutellum, a little thie
to which they have compared the appendage. Others have
sain the name Caffida, comparing the calyx of the
it to a helmet.—Linn. Gen. 301. Schreb. 397. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 426. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl
it. 45. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 424. Ait.
ew. v. 3- 426. Juffl. 317. Michaux Boreal-
: Lamarck Illuétr.
Tournef. t. 84.)—Clafs and order,
namia Gymno i Nat. Ord. Voerticillate, Linn.
jate, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very thort,
tubular ; rim almoft entire, after flowering clofed with a lid,

nent. Cor. of one petal, ringent. Tube fhort,

t backwards; throat long, comprefled. Upper lip con-
cave, trifid; the middle hire: concave, inate ;

one.
Lower

SCUTELLARIA.

Lower lip broader, emarginate. Stam. Filaments four,
concealed under the upper lip, two of them mes ; anthers
fmall. Pif?.. Germen fuperior, four-cleft ; ityle thread-
fhaped, refembling the itamens in fituation and length ;
{tigma fimple, incurved, pointed. Peric. none, except the
clofed calyx, which is fhaped like a helmet, triangular,
burfting at the lower margin. Seeds four, roundifh.

Obf. This genus is eafily and fufliciently diftinguifhable
from all others by the fruit alone, for the clofed calyx, con-
taining the feeds, with its creft and lid, fomewhat refembles
a helmet.

Eff. Ch. Rim of the calyx nearly entire, clofed, and
covered with a lid after flowering.

1. S. orientalis. Yellow-flowered Skull-cap. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 834. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 580, unpublifhed.
(Caflida orientalis, chamzdryos folio, flore luteo ; Tourn.
It. v. 2. 129, with a plate.)—Leaves with deep parallel
teeth ; downy beneath. Spikes cylindrical, flightly quad-
rangular.—Native of Barbary and the Levant, flowering
from May toJuly. Stems nearly a foot high, branched from
the bottom, f{preading on the ground, taking root at the
lower joints. Leaves ftalked, almoft peétinate, more or lefs
downy ; green above, but white underneath. Spikes rather
fhort, compofed of bright-yellow very handfome flowers,
with ovate brownifh draéeas. "The whole herb is bitter.
In the Sy/ema Vegetabilium the corolla is {aid to be purple
with a white lip ; confounding it perhaps with the next
{pecies.

2. S. grandiflora. Large-flowered Skull-cap. Ait. n. 2.
Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 635.—Leaves heart-thaped, deeply
crenate, downy on both fides, fhorter than their ftalks.
Spikes very fhort, quadrangular. Corolla hairy, four times
longer than the bra¢teas. — Native of Siberia, and intro-
duced by Mr. Loddiges in 1804. It flowers in July. A
hardy perennial, like the laft, of which indeed it may
poffibly be only a variety. The /pikes are fhorter, and the
corolla is larger in proportion to the fize of the braéeas, lilac-
coloured, witha yellow palate. Leaves rounder, lefs downy
beneath, but foft on both fides. Dr. Sims fays ‘it ap-
proaches very nearly to the variety of S. orientalis found in
Georgia by Tournefort, and defcribed in his travels.”’

3. S. alpina. Alpine Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. Pl. 834.
Allion. Pedem. t. 26. f. 3. “* Waldft. et Kitaib. Hung.
Nee 2em TA Osten 37
jagged. Spikes imbricated, roundifh or flightly four-
fided. Braé¢teas twice as fhort as the flower.—Native of
Switzerland and Hungary. It flowers from June to OGtober.
Stem procumbent at firft, then ere€t, very much branched,
from fix to twelve inches in height. Leaves on fhort ttalks,
obtufe, downy. Flowers pale violet-coloured, with a white
upper lip. Linnzus in Sp. Pl. compares this to /upina,
meaning the following, to which it 1s indeed very like.

4. S. lupulina. Tartarian Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI.
$35. “Schmidel. Ic. 272. t. 73.”’—lLeaves heart-fhaped,
ferrated or jagged, acute, fmooth. Spikes imbricated,
roundifh or flightly four-fided. Bra¢teas the length of the
flowers.—Native of Siberia and Tartary, flowering from
June to September. Stems fhrubby and trailing. Leaves
jagged at their edges, fmooth on both fides. Flowers white,
or blue, fometimes yellowifh-white, very large. In habit
greatly refembling the laft, but different in colour, and
having much longer bradeas.

is 5. lateriflora. Virginian Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. Pl,
$35. (S. paluftris repens virginiana major, flore minore ;
Morif. Hift. v. 3. 416. n. 7.)—Leaves fmooth, rough at
- the keel. Clufters lateral, leafy. Bracteas fetaceous.—
Found on the fides of ditches and ponds between Canada

.? — Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated or |

and Carolina, flowering from July to September. Purfb.
The frems of this fpecies refemble thofe of the following in
height and habit, but are fomewhat larger. Leaves ftalked,
ovate, ferrated. F/owers in lateral -clutters, {mall, blue,
each partial {talk bearing two fetaceous bradeas.

6. S. nervofa. Ribbed Skull-cap. Purfh n. 2.—Stem
nearly fimple, fmooth. Leaves {feffile, ovate, toothed,
ribbed. Clufter terminal, lax, leafy. —On the banks of
rivulets in Virginia, flowering in July and Auguit. This
perennial herb has blue flowers, which are larger than thofe
of the foregoing fpecies. Pur/h.

7. S. galericulata. Common Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. Pl.
835. Fl. Brit. n. x. Engl. Bot. t. 523. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 3..t. 36. Fl. Dan. t. 637.—Leaves heart-lanceolate,
crenate, rugged. Flowers axillary. Common on the banks
of rivers, and wet ditches, as well in Britain as in other
parts of Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. Root
perennial, creeping. Stem erect, one or two feet high,
branched in the middle, leafy, fharply quadrangular, rough-
ifh. Leaves on very fhort ftalks, {preading, unequally
notched, rugofe, veined, downy, paler beneath. /Jowers
axillary, folitary, nearly feffile, in pairs inclined the fame
way, drooping, blue, or purplifh, and white.

8. S. haflifolia. THaftate-leaved Skull-cap. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 835. (Scutellaria folio non ferrato; Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t. 77.)— Leaves quite entire; lower ones hattate ;
upper arrow-fhaped.—Found on the fhores of frefh waters,
in Sweden and Auftria, but not very common. It flowers
in June and July. Root creeping. Stem generally fimple.
Leaves blunter than in the preceding, not at all notched,
eared at the bafe. F/owers axillary, folitary, in pairs, blue,
larger than in the laft {pecies, to which it is very clofely
allied, and of which both Linnzus and Scopoli hint that it
may be only a variety.

g. S. minor. Leffler Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. Pl. 835.
Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 524. Curt. Lond. fafe. 4.
t. 43.— Leaves heart-ovate, uearly entire. Flowers axillary.
—Rather a f{earce native of Britain, and the fouth of Eu-
rope, in a moift gravelly foil; flowering about Augutt.
Root perennial, creeping. Whole habit much refembling
S. galericulata, but the plant is about four times as fmall.
Stem branched at the bafe. Leaves broader, rugofe, moftly
entire, fometimes toothed at the bafe, and as it were flightly
haftate. F/owers of a delicate pink colour, rarely blueith ;
their lip white, {potted with red.

10. S. humilis. Dwarf Skull-cap. Brown Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. 1. 507.—Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, coarfely
crenate ; dotted and rather downy beneath. Flowers axil-
lary. Calyx fmoothifh, half as long as the corolla.—
Found. by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon, as well as in the
fouth parts of New Holland. We received {pecimens, in
1793, from Dr. White.
in habit, with the laft, but the /eaves are fmaller, more
rounded, deeply notched, with curved briftly hairs about
their ribs and margins. F/owers folitary, oppofite, {fpread-
ing different ways.

11. S. mollis. Soft Skull-cap. Brown ibid.—‘* Downy,
with capitate hairs. Leaves heart-fhaped, oblong-ovate,
deeply crenate. Flowers axillary ; their ftalks as long as
the footftalks.’’—-Gathered by Mr. Brown near Port Jack-
fon.

12. S. angu/tifolia. Narrow-leaved Skullcap. Purfh
n. 4.— “ Unbranched, finely downy. Leaves linear.
Flowers axillary, oppofite. Stamens rather prominent.’
—Found by governor Lewis, on the banks of the river
Koofkoofky. Perennial, flowering in June. Pur/b.

13. S. parvula. Minute Skull-cap. Michaux Boreali-

Amer.

—

This agrees in fize, and fomewhat .

~

SCUTELLARIA.

Amer. v. a. 11. Purhh o. 5.—“ Denfely downy, un-
branched Leaves feflile, ovate, entire, all uniform.
Flowers axillary, folitary.""—Found by Michaux in Canada
and the country of the Hinois; by Purfh on the banks of
rivers in Virginia. Biennial, flowering in June and July.
Not above two inches high. Fiewers {mall, pale blue.

14- S. caroliniana, Carolina Skull-eap. Lamarck Did.
7. Hlluttr. t. srg. fg. Purth n, 6.—* Branched,
very h. Leaves ttalked, linear-lanceolate, acute, en-
tire. Claiters lax, leafy. Calyx obtufe.”"—Gathered in
‘Carolina by Mr. Frafer. Poiret. Root perennial. Leaves
about two inches long; the upper ones much diminifhed, ac-
ing the fowers, which are the fize of S. galericu-

with-white, {potted at the apex with blue.
: 8. tewcriifoli. Germ
integrifolia; Linn. S

Pi.
Gronovius. 5S. i
teu folio, minor 5 Pluk.

15.

ftalks.—Native

feffile,
and margin, which are clothed with curved briftly hairs.

BS =e

paper, he did not perceive to be merely a {moothith
variety of his own i and which led Lins to quote

ius’s Flera inica improperly in this place, as well
as to choofe the name of integrifolia. This appellation, how-
caufed much confufion
laid afide, and we have

too long, and the floral leaves too {mall. Mr.
urth feems not to have recognized this plant. At leat we
can refer it to none of his {peci

16. S. byffopifolia. Hylfo -leaved Skull-cap. Linn. Sp.
PL 836. Mant. 414. Willd. n. 12. (5. integrifolia ;
Ait. n. 10. Purth n.7. Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 2. 12.
S. virginiana, hyflopi angultis foliis, flore ceruleo; Pluk.

Almag. 338. t. 441. f. 6. S. foliis integerrimis ; Gron.
ed. 1. 67,5 excluding the references to Plukenet and

Virg.
~~ Deg sectie linear-lanceolate, obtufe, entire, fomewhat
finely downy ; copioufly dotted beneath. Cluiters
und, rather lax, . downy. On dry hills, in a
rich foil, from New York to Carolina, flowering from July
to September. Perennial, very variable in the fize and
of the saves, fimple or branched flems. Flowers
handfome, blue. Purfb. We fee no reafon to
the name of integrifola to this, which has already
rey preferable. The whole herb, as well as the
corolla, are finely downy and fomewhat hoary.
17. S. ferrata. Great Serrated Skull-cap. Andr. Repof.
‘eh Purfh n. 8.— Leaves ovate, pointed, ferrated,
: nearly fmooth. Cutters compound, rather lax,
Sigh er Braéteas lanceolate.—In fields and meadows,
to Carolina, flowering from July to September.
he is three feet high. Leaves two or three
long, and above one broad, tapering at the bafe.

Z

Flowers copious, large and handfome, of a fine dee blue.
This is a very ornamental perennial herb, worthy pes
. 9

vation in gardens. We reccived it from the fine colle¢uos
of | Paine efq. at Konghiforidge, Mr. Purth remarks
that * authors take this for the iafegri/ofia,"’ meaning per-
haps Mr. Donn in his Hert, Cantah, Mr. Aiton has it not;
except under its true name, 10 the Addenda vo bis Epitome.

18. S. pilefa. Wood Skull-cap Michaux Bopesll
Amer. v.2. 11. Purth n.g, excluding the reference to
Plukevet.— Leaves remote, rhomboid-ovate, obtufe, roundly
crenate, tapering at the bale, downy. Clulters lax, moftly
compound. Bratteas lanceolate, nearly entire.—In thady
woods, from Virginia to Carolina ; perennial, flowering in
July and Augull..—Refembles the laft, but is a f{maller
plant, with only a few leaves. Pug. Poflibly this author
may be right in his citation of Plukenet’s figure, which we
have referred, like Linneus, to our fifteenth {pecies. It is
impoflible, with fuch bad materials, to decide, but the words
of Plukenet anfwer belt to that {pecies.

19. S. avanenfis. Havannah Skull-cap. Jacq. Amer.
172. Obf. fafe. 2. 5.t- 29. Willd. n. 10. Ait. a. 11.—-
Stem decumbent. aves ovate, fomewhat heart-thaped,
crenate. Flowers folitary, axillary. Each lip of the corolla
three-cleft.—Gathered by Jacquin, on rocks near the fea at
the Havannab, flowering in December. A delicate, pro-
cumbent little branching herb, with nearly {mooth leaves,
much fhorter than the large, blue, axillary, ftalked flowers.
It is faid to have been brought to Kew, in 1793, by Capt.
Bligh, and is marked by Mr. Aiton as a perennial ftove
plant, flowering in May and June.

20. S. purpurafcens. Purple-leaved Welt-Indian Skull-
cap. Swartz. Ind. Oce. v. 2. 1013. Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 66.
Willd. n. a1. — Stem proitrate. Leaves ovate, fomewhat
heart-fhaped, toothed, {mooth. Clufters terminal, naked.
Each lip of the corolla three-cleft.—Native of the Caribean
iflands. Stem herbaceous, branched, diffufe, like the pre-
ceding, with afcending {mooth branches, five or fix inches
long. Leaves ftalked, obtufe, diitantly toothed, rather
hairy, of a purplith-blue after the flowers are paft ; their
footfialks very long and lax. Clufters eve&, folitary, many-
flowered, lax, an inch or two long. Flowers blue.

a1. S. indica. Ealt Indian Skull-cap. Lina. Sp. Pl.
836. Willd. n.15. (S. finica, betonica foliis, floribus
albis; Pluk. Amalth. 190. t. 441. f. 1.)——Stem decumbent.
Leaves roundifh-ovate, crenate, finely downy. Clufters
terminal. Braéteas blunt, ftalked, fhorter than the calyx.
—Native of China and the Eaft Indies. A hoary, branched,
decumbent herb, about afoot long. Leaves ftalked, rounder
and larger than in the two latt. Flowers forming rather
clofe cluflers, two or three inches in length. The Serratule
amara, Rumph. Ambion. v. 6. 459. t 170: f. 1. not 2,
can have nothing to do with this, being a fmooth plant,
with twin axillary flowers, and a cap/ule, containing nume-
rous minute /eeds. It feems that Linnzus did not always
advert to every particular in the defcriptious to which he re-
ferred ; for there is here no miltake as to what he intended,
the plate of the Herbarium Amboinenfe being marked with
his own hand.

22. S. hirta. Cretan Skull-cap. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. 1417. Fl. Grae. t. 583, unpublithed. (Caffida cre-
tica minor, catarix folio, flore fubcxruleo ; Tourn. Cor. 11.
Scordote fecondo di Plinio ; Pon. Bald. gt. t. 93-)—Leaves
heart-fhaped, ferrated, hairy as well as the item. Spikes
denfe, unilateral. Braéteas ftalked, half the length of the
flowers.—Native of fhady fituations on the mountains of
Crete. The root is perennial, fibrous, fomewhat “woody.
Stems feveral, {preading, afcending, about a {pao high, lay,
rough with {preading hairs. Leaves rather pale, coarfely
ferrated, hoary with long white hairs. Footfalks put

0

SCU

almoft as long asthe leaves. Spikes fomewhat aggregate,
erect, denfe, many-flowered, hairy, two or three inches
long. Bra&eas ovate, entire, longer than the calyx.
Flowers all turned one way. Ca/yw covered with very long
denfe hairs, fpreading in all directions. Corolla downy ;
its upper lip pale lilac ; lower, as wellas the tube, greenifh-
white.

23. S. peregrina. Dark-red Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. Pl.
836. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n.12. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
t. 582, unpublifhed —Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated, minutely
downy as well as the ftem. Spikes elongated, unilateral:
Bracteas two-ranked, ovate, ftalked, about the length of the
flowers. Corolla hairy, its lower lip notched.—Native of
Italy, Hungary, andthe Levant. A-more flender and up-
right plant than the laft, about-a foot and half high.
Stem purplifh, downy, not hairy. Leaves oblong-heart-
fhaped, neatly crenate, clothed {paringly with fhort hairs,
fometimes almo{t fmooth. Spikes fix or eight inches long,
with large dradeas. Calyx covered with fhort hairs. Corolla
of a dark blood-red, with a pale yellow palate; its tube
elongated, clothed with long fpreading hairs.

24. S. albida. Pale Hairy-cupped Skull-cap. Linn.
Mant. 248. Willd.:n. 2. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Grac.
Sibth. t. 581, unpublifhed. (S. teucrii facie; Bauh. Hitt.
vy. 3. 291-)—Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated, downy as well
as the item. Spikes elongated, unilateral. Bracteas two-
ranked, ovate, ttalked, nearly equal to the flowers. Corolla
downy, its lower lip entire.—Native of the Levant ; found
by Dr. Sibthorp on Mount Olympus. Very nearly akin
to the laft, and not in the leat relembling orientalis, to which
Linneus, in his Sy/fema Vegetabilium, by {ome unaccount-
able error, compares this f{pecies. It is, if poflible, more
itrange that he fhould at-one time have confounded albida
with alpina, as appears by his herbarium. 8. albida differs
from peregrina in having broader, more coarfely ferrated
leaves, more crowded and numerous flowers, whole corolla 1s
cream-coloured, downy, not clothed with long hairs ;_ the
edge of its lower lip even and entire, not lobed, undulated,
or notched. ‘The ca/yx, onthe contrary, bears much longer
hairs than that of peregrina.

25. S. altifima. Tall Skull-cap. Linn. Sp. PI. 836.
Willd. n.16. Ait. n. 13. (S.Columne; Allion. Pedem.
v. 1. 40. t. 84. f. 2. Willd. n. 14. Caffida; Column. Ecphr.
v. 1. 187. t. 189. C. orientalis altiflima, urtice folio; Tourn.
Cor. 11.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated, acute, nearly
fmooth. Spikes elongated, unilateral. Braéteas ovate,
acute, ftalked, fhorter than the calyx.—Native of Italy,
Mount Caucafus, and the Levant. Miller cultivated it in
1731, and one of his own {pecimens, compared with thofe
of Allioni, have enabled us to verify the above fynonyms,
and to reduce two reputed {pecies, of this difficult and con-
fufed genus, into one. The prefent differs from both the two
laft, in having /eaves twice their fize, befprinkled with only
a few minute feattered hairs, fo as to feel nearly {mooth.
But its moft eflencial charaGter confifts in the fmallnefs of
the ZraGeas, whofe points do not extend beyond the calyx.
The /pikes therefore appear almoft naked, confitting of nu-
merous purple downy flowers, whofe calyx, like the flower-
fialks and bradeas, is rough with glandular vifcid hairs.

The laft fpecies in. Linneus, Willdenow, and Aiton, S.
cretica, require to be expunged, being the very fame plant
as Teucrium Arduini, Linn. Mant. 81, and announced as
fuch in Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 392. Its calyx
and habit accord with Teucrium, not with Scutellaria.

ScuTELLARIA, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
are ; the entire-leaved fkull-cap (S. integrifolia) ; the Flo=

6

scU

rentine fkull-cap (S. peregrina) ) ; and the tall fkull-cap (S.
altiffima). ;

Method of Culture. —Thefe are all raifed from feed, which
fhould be fown in autumn or fpring, but the former is the
better feafon, in the places where they are to remain, or in
a border to be removed afterwards. When the plants are
up they fhould be properly thinned out and kept free from
weeds.

They afford variety in the borders, clumps, and other
parts of pleafure-grounds, when properly planted in them.

SCUTELLUM, in Botany, a little fhield, fometimes
ufed for the fruGifiecation of Lichens, inflead of Scu-
TELLA, fee that article.

ScutTetitum, or L/feutcheon, in the Hiflory of Infeés, is
the pofterior part of the thorax ; itis frequently triangular,
and appears to be feparated from the thurax by its inter-
vening future, as in moft of the coleoptera.

SCUTHINON, in Botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a yellow wood, called alfo thapfum, chryfoxylon,
and Scythicum lignum. It was of a beautiful colour, and
was ufed in dyeing and in colouring the hair yellow, which
was the favourite colour of that time.

The fame authors have fometimes alfo called it cythinon
or cuthinon: this is only the former word with the initial /
taken away, as it was common with them to do in regard to
many words; thus they called the {milax mil/ax, the {maragdus
maragdis, and fo of many more: :

SCUTIFORME Os, in Anatomy, the chief bone of the
knee, called alfo patella, mola, &c.

SCUTIVFORMIS, Cartinaco, one of the pieces com-
pofing the larynx. See Larynx.

SCUTTLE, in Agriculture, the name of a fhallow bafket,
or fort of wicker-bowl, much ufed in the barn and for other

-purpofes. The large ones have handles, but the {mall ones

are without them,
purpofes.

Scurrres, in Ship-Building, are {quare openings cut
through the decks, much lefs than the hatchways, for the
purpofe of handing fmall things up from deck to deck.
There are alfo fcuttles cut through the fhip’s fide, fome for
the admiffion of air and light into the’cabins, &c. between
decks, and fome between the ports of {malier veffels, through
which the /zeeps are ufed, to row the veflel along in
calms.

ScurrLe-Hatch, in a Ship, the little hatch that covers
the fcuttle. !

SCUTTLING, in Sea Language, the a& of cutting
large holes through the bottom or fides of a fhip either
when fhe is {tranded or overfet, and continues to float on the
furface. It 1s commonly defigned for taking out the whole
or part of the cargo, provifions, ftores, &c. with all poffible
expedition.

The decks are {cuttled fometimes to put pumps down
to affift the chain-pumps on emergency or failure. |

SCUTTOCK Hitts, in Geography, hills of the United
States of America, in the diftri¢t of Maine; 8 miles N. of
New Briftol.

Scurrock Point, a cape on the coat: of Maine. N. lat.

4° 18!.- W. long. 67° 58!.

SCUTULA, in Botany, fo named by Loureiro, from
the fhape of its berry, which refembles a little fhield.—Lon-
reir. Cochinch. 235.—Clafs and order, O@andria Monogynia.
INates@rdieyeminee F

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, truncated, fpread-
ing, fhield-like, flefhy, coloured, fmooth on the outfide.
Cor. Petals five, roundifh, pointed, converging, fituated on
the margin of the calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, awl-thaped,

: inflexed,

They are often alfo employed for ftable

sCY

inflexed, inferted below the petals, and about equal to them
in length; anthers oblong, curved. Pi. Germen imbedded
in the calyx; ftyle thread-thaped, as long as the ftamens ;

igma fimple. } ic. Berry formed of the calyx, thickened,

ight cells. Seeds folitary, fomewhat comprefled.
EI ch. Calyx aber Caeninn pulpy. Petals five.

Berry of eight cells.
. S. fewtellats, Loureir.—* Stalks many-flowered.
Berries comprefled.’’ — Native of Cochinchina. A {mall

tree, about eight feet high, with {preading branches. Leaves

. te, lanceolate, entire, fmooth, thickett at the margin.

lateral, many on a ftalk, all over violet-coloured.

2. S. wmdellata. Loureir.—* Flowers in umbels. Berries

roundith.”"—Native of buthy places in Cochinchina, A

— four feet high, much branched. Leaves oppofite,

| ovate, lanceolate, entire, thick. Flowers {mall,

terminal, variegated with white and blue, in umbels, or large
-eymes

The berries of this genus are faid to be of an aftringent,

firengthening quality, vying with thofe of the myrtle.
Seutula eh entirely upon Loureiro’s authority. Some

of his —— we have omitted, as upintelligible.
aber y be referrible to Memecylon.

4 M Sorresx:, Sobie/ki’ s Shield, in Afironomy, a
conftellation formed by Hevelius ; the ftars of which in his
catalogue are feven: four of thefe are enumerated in the

in the Britannic catalogue. See ConsTeLLarion.

um, in Natural Hifory, the name of a genus of the
echini marini ; net — that it is a thell
an irregular gure, which on t wer part reprefents,
fome meafure, a thield ; om the faperficies 4 has a

bafe, and the aperture for the anus at the edge.
ped areal the echini there are two kinds, the angu-

; lar and | oval.

ached ehatie Spaciong tht G8 8 Liver Marti Lind, aod
, two ry a lower flattifh kind, and
the fecond a more elevated one. *

Of the feeond, or the oval feuta, there are three known
_ Species. Klein’s Echinod. p. 28.

’ Scurum, in P. » a name given to a folid ftomachic

form of a & with medicinal in-
t

and digeftion, and prevent vomiting.
the Siiieegeliyibelds Goantilowes called by anato-

:

; caveadra, in Medicine, an appellation given

_ tothe excrement of the bowels, when it is hard, dry, and

_ formed into {mall maffes, or little balls, refembling the ex-
crement of fheep. This form is always given to the {tools
by their remora or in the inteftines, and is fometimes

the difeafe muft be aggravated ; for the enemy is thus
locked up in the bowels ; sail Ceatidloteedcorieettlas
~muft admired by de ~oqmaad to expel ~ accumulated
a in th

Yor <7 ppearance of /cybala in the

r

vcates the removal of the caufe of the dileale.

sc Y

fhools, in thefe cafes, is the moft favourable fign, as it indi-
See Dysun-
reny, aod Trenesmvus.

SCYBELITES, a term ufed by the ancieats to exprefs
a fort of mutt, or juice of the grapes, which diflilled from

them { ncoufly, without prefling

SCYDRUS, 2, Ancient Ge raphy, a river of Italy, in
that part of Magna Grecia called Brutium.

SCYLACE, Srxi, a finall town of Afia Minor, in Bi-
thynia, at the entrance and to the weft of a {mall gulf
called “ Cianus Sinus.” It was founded, according to He-
rodotus, by a colony of Pelafgi.

SCYLACION, a word by which the gncients a
the fleth of puppies, which they recommended as of great
fervice in many chronic cafes,

SCYLAX, in Biography, an ancient mathematician and
geographer, was a native of Caryanda, in Caria. He is
noticed by Herodotus in the following paflage. “ A great
part of Afia was difeovered by Darius, fon of Hyttal
who withing to afcertain the place where the river Indus alls,
into the fea, difpatched various perfons in whom he could
confide, and among them Scylax of Caryanda. Proceeding
from the city of Cafpatyrus, and the Pactyzan territory,
they failed down the river in an eafterly dire@tion to the fea ;
and then continuing their voyage on the fea towards the
welt, in the thirtieth month they arrived at the place
from which the Egyptian king difpatched the Phoenicians
to circumnavigate A via: ‘Alter their voyage, Darius fub-
dued the Toten, and the navigation of the fea.’
Suidas gives a very brief account of Scylax, in which he
has evidently confounded different perfons of the fame name.
Scylax of, Caryanda, a mathematician and mufician, wrote
a periplus of the coafts beyond the pillars of Hercules, «
book refpeéting the Heraclides, a defcription of the cir-
cuit of the earth, and an anfwer to Polybius’s hiftory.”’
The Periplus which ftill remains, bearing the name of Scy-
lax, is a brief furvey of the countries along the fhores of
the Mediterranean and Euxine feas, together with part of
the weftera coaft of Africa fuveyed by Hanno. It com-
mences with the {traits of Gibraltar, and proceeding along
the coalts of Spain and Gaul, round the Mediterranean, re-
turns to the fame point, and then briefly defcribes the coafts
of Africa, along the Atlantic, as far as the ifland of Cerne.
This, after all, 1s in general little more than an cpumeration
of nations, towns, and diftances, though intermixed: with
fome occafional notices of natural produétions, and in a few
inftances detailing the common fables of the It con-
cludes with an account of the paflages acrofs the fea from
Greece into Afia, and an enumeration ef twenty important
iflands, in the order of their magnitudes. A quettion has
been raifed whether the Periplus remaining be the work of
the ancient Scylax, or of fome later writer, and critics of
high rank in literature have taken oppofite fides. The fub-
jeé is difcuffed in the fourth volume of the Athenzum, 1808,
to which we refer our readers for the arguments on
fides of the quettion. _ It is almott certain that the ancients
poffefled the extant Periplus, and that they attributed it to
the Scylax mentioned by Herodotus. It has come dows
to us in a corrupted ftate: it was firft publifhed from a pa-
latine MS. by Hoefchelius and others in the year 1600. It
was afterwards edited by Ifaac Voflius in 1639; by Gro-
novius in 1697; by Hudfon in 1698. Athenzum, vol. iv.

Pp: 32-

} in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia, in Pon-
tus, which ran into the Ins, after this latter river had pur-
fued an eafterly courfe, and watered the town of Amafia,
according to Strabo,

y SCYLD-

S- OY
SCYLDWIT, in our Old Writers, a mul& or fine for

any fault.

It comes from the Saxon feilde, i. e. delicum, and wite,
i. e. pana.

SCYLITZA, Joun, Curopalates, in Biography, a Greek
hiflorian, known for his abridgment of hiftory. from the
death of Nicephorus Logothetes, in 811, to the -depo-
fition of Nicephorus Botoniates, in ro8r. This hittory,
from the year 1067, is the fame as that of Cedrenus, which
has caufed a difcuffion among the learned, which of the two
was the plagiary. Scylitzais thought to have been a native
of Leffler Afia, and a prefect of the guards before he at-
tained the dignity of curopalates. A Latin tranflation of
his hiftory entire, was publifhed at Venicein 1570; and the
part concerning which there is no difpute was printed in
Greek and Latin, at Paris, in 1647. Moreri:

SCYLLA, in Ancient and Modern Geography, a rock at
the entrance of the Straits of Meflina, about 200 feet in
height, now cape Seciglio; which fee. Scylla was famous
in antiquity for the danger which it prefented to naviga-
tors who approached it. The rock, perfonified by Homer
in his Odyflee, and reprefented as a devouring moniter, has
been deftroyed by a late earthquake. Concerning its fitua-
tion with regard to Charybdis, and other particulars, we refer
to CHARYBDISs.

Seyiya, or Scylleum, a town of Italy, in Brutium.—
Alfo, a defert ifland in the vicinity of the Thracian Cher-
fonefus.

SCYLLEA, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the Vermes
Mollufca clafs and order, whofe generic character is, body
comprefled, and grooved along the back ; the mouth confitts
of a terminal toothlefs aperture ; the tentacula or arms three
on each fide, and placed beneath. There are only two

Species.

*PrLacica. The body of this {pecies is fixed; the four
extreme arms are alike ; the middle ones papillous. It inha-
bits the ocean, and is generally found among floating fea-
weed. Independently of its {pecific charaGter, it is defcribed
as having a roundifh oblong body ; broader behind, and ob-
tufe ; the mouth is placed at the end of the fmaller extre-
mity ; the back is grooved with a crenulate hollow, by
which it affixes itfelf to fea-weed; the exireme arms are
{maller and rounded ; the middle pair is oblong, foliaceous,
bending over and fprinkled within with papilla.

GompnHopensis. The body is detached; the firft pair
of arms is naked and ‘hollow at the tip; the others have
branched fibres within. The body is about an inch long,
pellucid, yellowith, with rufty brown dots; the back is flat,
dotted with brown at the margins, with a row of blue dots
down the middle; the tail is compreffled, with an elevated
rounded back, and furnifhed on each fide with {mall branched
fibres ; the abdomen is dotted with blue, and rough, with a
row of five whitifh papillae down the middle of each fide ;
the firft pair of arms is the leffer, the reft are contiguous,
with a denticulate margin.

SCYLLEUM Promonrorium, in Ancient Geography,
the promontory of Scylla, or of Skilleo, that part of the
Argolide which advances towards the fouth-eatt.

SCYMNIT, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, between
the Sapothrene and the Amazons, according to Ptolemy.

SCYMNUS, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by lian, Ap-
pian, and many other of the old Greek writers, for the
fifh called /culion by Ariftotle. This is a {pecies of the
{qualus, called by Artedi and others the fqualus with the
pinna ani placed in the midft, between the anus and tail ;
the catulus vulgaris and catulus major of authors.

SCY

SCYPHOPHORUS, in Botany, from cxudos, a large
hind of drinking cup, and Qcpoc, bearing, alluding to the di-
lated cup-fhaped {talks, refembling wine-glatles, borne by the
leaves, on whofe margins the fruétifying tubercles are feated.
‘This is the denomination of the ar{t tribe, or fe€tion, of the
Licueness, fee that article, in the Prodromus of Acharius,
which are well known to the vulgar, as well as the learned
botani{t, by the name of Cup-mols, or Lichenes pywidati.
The above name is however funk in that of Baomyces, in the
Methodus of that author ; though Michaux ules it generic.
ally in his Flora Boreali--Americana, v. 2. 328.

SCYPHUS, among the Romans, a very large kind of
drinking cup. The fcyphus was called the cup of Her-
cules, as that of Bacchus, /iberi patris, was named cantharus.

“SCYPPIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Tonia, onthe confines of the country of the Co-
lophonians, according to Paufanias.

SCYRA, in our O/d Writers, a fine impofed on fuch as
neglected to attend the /cyregemot court, which all tenants
were bound to do.

SCYRAS, in Ancient Geography, a river or ftream of
Laconia, which difcharged itfelf into the gulf of Laconia.
Near it was a temple of Apollo, and. an altar of Jupiter.
Paufanias, lib. iii. Lacon. c. 25.

SCYREGEMOT, or Scyremot, in Ancient Cuftoms,
a county-court held twice every year by the bifhop of the
diocefe, and the ealdorman, or fheriff; in which both the
ecclefiaftical and temporal laws were given in charge to the
county. ;

In the time of Canutus the fcyregemot was held thrice
every year. Edward the Confeflor appointed it to be held
twelve times in the year. 5

SCYRI, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, in the
vicinity of Ariana.

SCYRIUM Marmor, a name given by the ancients
fometimes to a white, and fometimes to a yellowifh marble,
both ufed inthe public buildings of the Romans, but feldom
in ftatuary, not being capable of a high polifh.

SCYROS, in Ancient Geography, an land im the Archi-
pelago, fituated to the E. of the ifle of Eubcea, and very
near it. The ancients pretend that Achilles {pent the firit
years of his life here, difguifed like a,female, in the court
of Lycomedes. It was in alliance with Troy, as appears
from Agamemnon’s having made a conquelt of it. See
Scrro.

SCYTALA, anifland of the Arabic gulf.

ScyraLa, in Mechanics, a term which fome writers
ufe for a kind of radius, or {poke, ftanding out from the
axis of a machine, asa handle or lever, to turn it round, and
work it by.

ScyraLa Laconica, in Antiquity, a ftratagem, or device,
of the Lacedemonians, for the fecret writings of letters to
their corre{pondents; fo that if they fhould chance to be
intercepted, nobody might be able to read them.

To this end they had two wooden rollers, or cylinders,
perfeGly alike, and equal; one of which was kept in the
city, the other by the perfon to whom the letter was directed.
For the letter, a fkin of very thin parchment was wrapped
round the roller, and on this the matter was written; which
done, it was taken off, and fent away to the party, who,
upon putting it in the fame manner upon his roller, found the
lines and words, which were before its application to the
roller confufedly disjoined, and altogether unintelligible, in
the very fame difpofition as when they were firlt written.
Plut. in Vit. Lyfand.

This expedient they fet a very high value on; though, in

truth,

Se

_ as poflible, to follow Willden

scy

truth, artlefs and — enough: the moderns have improved
vaitly on this method of writing. SeeCiruen, ©
It thould feem, that befides this fcytala, ufed for po-
litical and military purpofes, private perfons made ule of a
contrivance fomewhat fimilar, to prevent deceits in con-
traéts; but thefe were exactly like our tallies.
SCYTALE, in cine eer name given by the ancients
to a fpecies of ferpent, which was very long and thin, and
big all along the body, fo that the tail was not eafily

Linneus mentions two animals under this title ; one, a

of anguis or fhake, and the other a {pecies of the
sopgetty

SCYTALIA, in Botany, elegantly fo named by Gert-
ner, from exvJer, a /tin, or bide, and exviads, a thong, in allu-
fion to the lea! fubftance and colour of the tkin of the
dried fruit, as alfo to the little thield-like tubercles, with
its outfide is befet, refembling a coat of mail.
Schreber has followed this author: but the fame genus was
co reschied years afterwards by Loureiro, under the name

zieosertn indicating its double or twin fruit, which
Willdenow unawares retained, though in every refpec
lefs eligible. Hence the latter appellation is alfo adopted in
the Hortus Kewenfis, the plan of this book being, as much
ow. Had we been aware that it
would have done fo in the prefent inftance, we might perhaps

better judgment to convenience, and have
the genus under the head of Dimocarpus ;
the cafe, we thall exhibit it here, acknow-
for Scytalia.—Gertn. Sem. v. 1. 197.
. 262. (Dimocarpus; Loureir.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 346. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ia; Juff. 247. Lamarck Iluftr. sia
7 ihilate

n
ue

if
:
g

a
af

Clafs order, a Monogynia. Nat. Ord. T:
. Ch Gar, Pevianth inferior, of one leaf, very {mall,
with five minute teeth. Cor. Petals five, {mall, reflexed,
hairy on the inner furface, fometimes wanting. Stam. Fila-
ments eight, fometimes but fix, awl-fba hairy, longer
than the petals, dilated at the bafe ; anthers heart-fhaped, in-
cumbent. Pif. Germen eh two-lobed, fomewhat
ftalked; ftyle fhorter than the ; ftigmas two, {pread-
ing. eric. Berries two, ovate or globofe, with a coria-
cous warty coat, pulpy ee age of fg cell. Seed
> large, tical, po! obliquely cut away at
Jed Meet tb inferted into the dightly elevated hoe
° A
— Obf. Gertner has deferibed asa flefhy tunic of the feed,
what is really only the dried pulp of the berry.
‘E®f. Ch. Calys inferior, with five fhallow teeth. Petals

e- Berries two, coriaceous, warty.

p
i
i

> polifhed.
“a: GS. Liecbi. , or Apetalous Scytalia. (Di-
arpu ov ge Hort. Kew. v, 2. 354. Loureir.
DI. inenfis; Sonnerat Ind. Or. v. 2. 230. t. 129.

edulis; Ait. ed. 1. v. 2. 36.)—Flowers with fix

‘Sapindus
bean and no Fruit with prominent warts. —Na-

The younger Li however, ap-
ace ogg a eeckoes af tin Wie, Gem the
collection > marquis of Rockingham at Wimbleton,
vhs oy in the {pring of 1782. The
4 1s onnerat as a tree, with a foft
white wood, g in pith.
abruptly

The are alternate,
pinnate, confilting of three or four pair

SCY

of oppofite, flalked, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed, entire,
equal /eaflets, quite {mooth on both fides, evergreen, each
furnifhed with a midrib, and numerous {mall ene

1

veins, the latter fearcely vifible but ina dried ftare. Eac

leaflet is three or four inches long. Panicles terminal, com-
pound, repeatedly branched. Flowers {mall, greenith,
with a very downy calyx, but no petals, In fome we find

eight famens, but in the fame panicle others have only fix.
The berry, ufvally folitary when ripe, is pearly globular,
concave at the bale, an inch or more in diameter, reddith,
covered with very numerous, clofe, prominent tubercles, It
is of an agreeable flavour, and faid to be one of the beit
fruits of the countries where it grows. The Chinefe dry it
in ovens for exportation} Some which we have tafted, in
England, contained a firm very acid pulp, not unlike the
talte of tamarinds,

2. S. Longan. Longan, or Many-petalled Scytalia.
(Dimocarpus aes Hort. Kew. v. 2. 354. Lov-
reir. n. 2.)—Flowers with eight ftamens and five petals.
Fruit nearly {mooth.—Native of Chios. Cultivated in that
country, Cochinchina, the Eatt Indies, the Mauritius, &c.
This is alfo a large tree, with a {weet and grateful fruit, not
half the fize of the laft, more precifely globular, and either
quite {mooth, or flightly {caly, not warty. The leaflets are
rather more numerous than in the former, fhorter, blunter,
and more elliptical; at Jeaft in our Eaft Indian {pecimens.
In one from the ife de Bourbon, marked Longan, the
leaflets are oblique, or unequal, at the bafe, alternate, and
taper-pointed. The fruit is quite {mooth. We fufpett this

to be rather fome Sapindus, confounded with true
Longan.
Loureiro mentions two more fpecies unknown to us, one

of which, his Dimocarpus informis, feems to be the wild
ftate of the Litchi, in the woods of Cochinchina. He
{peaks of the wood of all the four as of an excellent qua-
lity, heavy and hard, of a brownifh-red. The fame author
relates, that the Litchi, being impatient of cold, as well as
of great heat, is moft cultivated in the fouthern provinces of
China, and the northern ones of Cochiachina. As the fruit
will not ripen at Pekin in the ordinary way of cultivation,
trees in flower are fent thither by water, fo as to yield ripe
fruit, for the emperor’s ufe, on their arrival. This is at-

tended with great labour and expence.

SCYTHA, 2x.4x:, among the Athenians, a defignation
fometimes given to the officers, more ufually called /esi-

archi.

They had the name Scythx, becaufe they were often
natives of Scythia who were chofen Lexiarchi, as being
brawny and fturdy fellows.

SCYTHARION, in Botany, a name given by the an-
cient Greek writers to a tree, whofe wood was of a fine
yellow colour, and was ufed in thofe early times to dye
things yellow: it was called alfo Scythicum a from its
country, and chryfon Jon, or ator wood, from its fine
eat colour. It been fuppofed that this was the

with the cofinus coriaria of ie Romans; but this is an
erroneous conjeCture, fince the wood of this tree dyed a
yellow colour, and that a brownifh-red, or a clear and pure
red, according as the infufion was made more or lefs ae a
This {ec ion, therefore, could not be the fame with
cofinus, but it certainly is the fame with the shap/um of the

Greeks.
SCYTHE, in Agriculture, the implement ufed in mow-

ing, being a crooked blade joined at right angles to a long
or It is fometimes written fithe, or fythe.
Mowrxe.

fcythes are of feveral differeat conftrudtions and
i kinds,

Suey ¥

kinds, in different counties. In moft of thofe more towards
the northern extremity of the ifland, they are of a much
greater length than thofe which are employed in the fouthern
diftri@s of the kingdom. Both the extremes are, however,
probably difadvantageou in fome refpects. Thofe which
are neither too long nor too fhort are unqueftionably the beft
fitted for general ufe, and capable of being employed with
the greateit eafe and convenience by the labourer. The
tool is commonly furnifhed and fitted up differently for dif-
ferent purpofes, as has been noticed under the heads to
which they belong. See Mowine, Reapine, &c.

The {tiff Flemifh fcythe is in ufe in fome places for cut-
ting bean, and other {trong crops of the corn kind. It has
the name of bean gecé in fome parts of Effex ; and though
it is thought by fome to beat out the feed too much, in the
hands of workmen who underftand the ufe of it, very good
clean work can be made with it, without any fuch milchief
taking place, and they rid work in this way much falter
than by the common tool and method.

In Chefhire, they make ufe of a ftrong tool of this fort,
called the hodding-/cythe, the blade of which is about twenty
inches in length, but curved in a different way to the com-
mon {cythe, the edge being nearly in one way of it, in a
ftraight direGtion from the heel to the point; but the flat
part of the blade forms a curvature, which varies about four
inches from a ftraight line. The handle or fneath, to which
the blade is fixed, is about three feet fix inches long, and
has one {cythe-like handle placed about eighteen inches from
the top. When the work is performed, one hand is placed
upon the top of the fhaft or fneyd, and with the handle in
the other, the crown of the rufh root is {cooped out by the
concave part of the blade, in confequence of a {mart ftroke
being given by the tool. The early fpring is confidered as
the moft proper feafon for effeGting this fort of bufinefs ;
and it is advifeable to carry off the ruth roots, and form a
compoft with them; the hod-holes, or cavities made by the
tool, being filled level with the furface of the ground with
fome earthy material, and fown with hay or grafs-feeds.
This tool is yet but little known, except in the above dif-
tri€t, where it has been ufed to confiderable extent in many
parts, with the moft beneficial effeéts in clearing the lands
from rufhes; many fcores of acres of low meadow and
marfhy lands having been in this way freed from them, and
with the aid of gutters, rendered of more than double their
former value.

Short {trong ftiff {cythes are made ufe of in moft places,
for clearing away and removing all forts of fhrubby plants
from grounds, fuch as thofe of the broom, briar, furze,
and feveral other fimilar kinds.

SCYTHIA, in Ancient Geography, is a vait territory,
which has been confounded by fome geographers with Ta-
tary or Tartary, of which it is only a part (fee TarraRy),
extended from the Ilter, or Danube, that is, from about
the 25th to almoft the 116th degree of E. longitude. It
was divided into Scythia in Europe, and Scythia in Afia;
including, however, the two Sarmatias, or Sauromatias,
now the Circaffian Tartary, which lay between and fepa-
rated the two Scythias from eachother. Sarmatia was alfo
diftinguifhed into European and Afiatic, divided from the
European Scythia by the river Don or Tanais, which falls
into the Palus Meotis, and from the Afiatic by the Rha,
now Volga, which empties itfelf into the Cafpian fea. (See
SarMatia.) Accordingly the two Scythias were only
parted by the boundaries of Europe and Afia, that is, by
the river T'anais, defcending, as it is fuppofed, from the
Riphzan mountains into the Palus Mzotis. For, beyond
thofe mountains northward, the Scythians did not advance

SCY

into any of thofe remote regions; fo that thefe were the
proper confines of the Afiatic Scythia on the weft. The
northern boundaries reached to the Hyperborean or Frozen
fea, called alfo by the ancients the Scythian fea, the Cro-
nian, Amalchian or Almachian, the Dead fea, and by fome
other names equally expreflive of extreme cold and ice. On
the ealt, they are fuppofed to have extended to the pro-«
montory of Tabis, and to have been bounded by the Caffian
mountains, which parted Scythia from the kingdom of
Seres, now Katai, Cathay, or Northern China; and even
this laft was by fome of the ancients taken for part of
Eaftern Scythia; fo that, on that fide, it had no other
boundaries, according to Ptolemy, than the unknown tracts
beyond it: and on the fouth it was bounded by the Indian
fea, by mount Caucafus, and the Cafpian. As to the more
northern parts of Scythia, it is, on account of its extreme
cold, uninhabitable, except by wolves and other wild beafts ;
and hence they feem to have been unknown to the ancients
beyond the soth degree north. The territory beyond that
degree was denominated Terra incognita. But the fouthern
regions, better known to them, were divided into three
parts, viz. Scythia within, and Scythia without, or be-
yond Imaus, and Sarmatia, which, as we have already faid,
lay between the former and the European Scythia, and
which had been fo blended with it, that the only difference
between them was the name. Accordingly, Ptolemy
bounds the Scythia on this fide of Imaus on the weft by
Afiatic Sarmatia, by mount Imaus on the eaft, by the
Terra incognita on the north, and on the fouth and fouth-
eaft by the Sace, Sogdiani, and Margiani. ‘The principal
mountains in this part Ptolemy reckons to be the Alani to
the eaft; the Rhymnici, from which flowed the Rhymnus
into the Rha; the Norofus, from which fprung the Daix,
the Afpifii, the Sapuri, the Syebi, and the Anaici. The
rivers were the Rhymnus, the Daix, the Jaxartes, the
Jaftus, the Polytimetus, and the Oxus. The inhabitants
of this part, according to the fame geographer, were, to-
wards the north, the Alani, Sufobeni, and Agathyrfi; and
next to thefe, the Sztiani, the Maffzi, and the Syebi; near
the Imaus were the Thaces; near the eaftern fources of the
Rha, the Rhobafci, Azani, and Jordii; to the fouth, and
near the river, was the country called Conadipfas regio ;
and near this, Corafphi, Orgazi, Jotz, and Aonfi; next
to thefe, the Jaxarte, a confiderable nation, on the river of
the fame name; to the fouth of the Sztiani were the Molo-
geni, and next to them the Samnite; and below the Meflzi
and the Alani mountains were the Zaretz and the Sazones ;
to the eaft of the Rhymnic mountains were the Tybiace ;
and below them the Zaretz, Tabeini, Jafte, and Machae
geni, near mount Noroflus; above them were the Orofbes
and Noroffi; and more to the fouth, the Cachafle Scythe ;
to the welt of the Afpifii, the Afpifii Scythe ; and eaft of
them, the Gala@tophagi Scythe; and eaft of the Syebi,
the Tapurei, and the Afcatance Scythe. The Anaci lay
to the fouth of the Agathyrfi, and to the eaft of the Ta-
purei, The Afcatance extended to mount Imaus; and near
the Jaxartes, between the mouths of the two rivers, were
the Ariacz, the Sagarauce, and the Rhibii, near the Oxus.
The Scythia beyond Imaus, according to the fame geo-
grapher, was bounded on the north by the mountains, on
the eaft by Serica, on the fouth by part of India on this
fide of the Ganges, and on the welt by the interior of
Scythia and the Sace. The mountains of this part are the
Auxacii, Caffii, and Emodi. The inhabitants were, towards
the northern part, the Abii; to the fouth, the Hippophagi
Scythe, thofe of the Regio Auxactis, and the Regio Cafia,
the Chate-Scythe; and near the Emodi, the Charauni-

10 Scythz,

le

——— -S—“‘( Dm.

EE

cy

Scythe. The towns were Auzacia, Ifledon Scythica,
Charauna, and Seta. Pomponius Mela afligns to the
much the fame extent aod boundaries, The
Scythia Pontica was called by the Greeks Mecfia,
Afiatic Scythia, therefore, comprehended tn 1
Great Tartary, aod Ruflia in Atia; and, in particular, the
Scythia beyond or without Imaus contained the regions of
or Oltiacoi, and Tunguri, The Scythia within
or on this fide of Imaus comprehended Turkeflan, and
Ulbeck or Zagatai, Kalmuck and Nogaian
befides Siberia, the land of the Samoiedes, and
Nova Zembla. The three laft mentioned countries, not
fo foon inhabited as the former, were wholly unknown
ancients; and the former were peopled by the Bac-
Sogdians, Gandari, Sace, and Maflagetr. Sar-
contained Albania, Iberia, and Colchis, which now
the Circaffian Tartary aod the province of
See Cincassia and Gronoia.) The feas of

the Frozen and Indian ocean, were the

F
i
=
a
F
a")
&
=
3
¢-
4
a
3.
3

all of which are in Great ': to which we
may add the Jaxartes and the Oxus, which difch them-
felves into the Cafpian fea; in which fea were iflands called
. The moft noted mountains were the
Taurus, Imaus, and Caucafus.
Scythia, whofe confines weltward have been
i ar towards the fouth-welt to the
by which it was divided from the Celtes,
and by the Rhine northward. On the
bounded i the Ifter or Danube, and the
Enuxine fea; which boundaries were continually changing,
on account of the mutual encroachments of the Celtes and
Scythians; and as to its northern limits, which have not
been precifely afcertained, they have been fuppofed to
ftretch to the {pring-heads of the Boryfthenes or Dnieper,
, and fo to pao te -Ser : he
is country into Scythia Arimalpea, lying
eaftward, and joining to Scythia, and European Sar-
matia on the weit; which were contiguous to each other,
and ftretching for fome interval from north to fouth, with-
out an

d
zs

perceptible line of tion. In Scythia, pro-

called, were the Anmafpzi on the north; the

or Dacians, along the,Danube, on the fouth; and
—— Neuri between two. It therefore Gag or mk
Ruffia, and the lefler Crim Tartary, ;

and onthe weft, Lithuania, Poland, part of Hipaga q
Tranfylvania, Walachia, Bulgaria, and Moldavia. This
Scythia had no other the Sarmatian, or Mare

fea
: the Baltic, with the gulfs of Bothnia
aud the White fea joining to the Northern

f

ocean, all unknown to the ancients, if we except the Euxine
and Palus is, which bounded it on the fouth. Its
lakes were thofe of Ladoga and O in Finland, un-
known to the ancient Sarmatians. Their chief rivers on the
fouth were the Donetz or little Tanais, Boryithenes or
Dnieper, He ty or Dneifter, and the Ifter or Da-
ube, all i themfelves into the Euxine ;
and on the north-eaft the Great and Little Dwina, which
run, the into the White fea, and the other into the gulf
of and therefore unknown to the ancients; and on
the we Viftula, which flowed into the Scythian fea,

3f

id divided Sarmatia from Germany.

whole extent, therefore, of both Scythias, including
two Sarmatias, reached in longitude from the 20th to
85th degree, or even beyond, and from the Alps to

SCY

the promontory of Tsbis, and firaits of Anian; and in Lati-
tude, from Caucafus to the Arétic circle, abowe 28 de-
. Herodotus indeed lays, that the Hy perboreans were

not of Scythian race, but another kind of people, fome of
whom were Androphagt, or men-caters, fierce and cruel ;
and others, wx. the Bald-heads, or Argrippeans, a wile
and peaceable people, efteemed facred by aif their neigh.
bours: but he {peaks of them merely by report, and with
diffidence ; fo that thefe regions were probably then un-
known, if not uninhabited. The five cities of Scythia,
which we have mentioned, were probably built after the
time of Herodotus, who takes no notice of any metropolis ;
though he mentions a confiderable branch of Sersioun
called Royal Scythians, whom he places along the banks
of the ‘T'anais; this river, as he fays, dividing them from
the Afiatic Sarmatians. ‘The original Scythians of Hero-
dotus (1. iv.) were confined, by the Dan and the Palus
Metis, within a fquare of ftadia (400 Roman miles).
Diodorus Siculus (vol. cli p- 155. ed. Wefllel.) has
marked the gradual progrefs of the name and nation. From
the mouth of the Danube to the fea of Japan (fays Gibbon,
vol. iv.), the whole longitude of Scythia is about 110 de-
which, in that parallel, are equal to more than

5000 miles. The latitude of thefe extenfive deferts cannot
be fo eafily or fo accurately afcertained ; but from the 40th
degree, which touches the wall of China, we may fecurely
advance above 1000 miles to the northward, tll our pro-

{s is flopped by the exceflive cold of Siberia. In that
| oe climate, initead of the animated piGture of a Tartar
camp, the {moke which iffues from earth, or rather
from the fnow, betrays the fubterraneous dwellings of the
Tongoufes and the Samoyedes. ‘The want of horfes and
oxen is imperfectly {upplied by the ufe of rein-deer, and of
large dogs ; and the conquerors of the earth infenfibly de-
generate into a race of deformed and diminutive favages,
who tremble at the found of arms. Anc. Un. Hilt. vol. iv.
See Scyruians and TARTARs.

SCYTHIAN, a word ufed very often in the old Greek
writers on the materia medica, to diitinguifh the peculiar
fort of gum, or other drug, brought from the Scythians.

The Scythian and Indian drugs have been by many fup-
pofed different kinds of the fame medicine; but this is an
error; for it appears very obvious, on comparing the writ-
ings of Galen, Aétius, /Egineta, and other of the later
writers among the Greeks, with thofe of Diofcorides,
Theophraftus, and the other old ones, that the words
Scythian and Indian mean the fame thing, and that what
agg writers have called Indian, thefe have called Scy-

‘The meaning of this is, that thofe things were called
Scythian, which were brought from the country of Indo-
{eythia, or that part of Scythia which lay at the oftia of
the river Indus ; but it is to be obferved, that though the
later Greek writers mean this by their term Scythian, yet
the word is ufed in a very different fenfe by the Arabians,
Avicenna, Serapion, and others; and that wherever they
mention a drug under the name of Scythian, they mean that
it comes from the northern parts of Scythia, on the con-
fines of Europe. Thefe suthons having underftood of this
Scythia what the Greek writers have faid of the other,
have made no {mall errors in regard to the hiftory of drugs,
having given bdellium, and many other s, the produce of
only the Scythia of the Greck at bey writers, to the
frezen Scychia, before mentioned.

SCYTHIANS, in Ancient Geography, the inhabitants
of Scythia, confidered by fome geographical authors as the
fame people with the Tatars, or, as they are more com-

monly,

SCYTHIANS.

monly, though erroneoufly, called, Tartars. (See Tar-
TARS.) With regard to the etymology of the name of
Scythians we have many different conjectures. Pliny feems
to intimate, that this appellation is derived from Sacai, a
people known by a fimilar name to the Greeks and Per-
fians. Bryant deduces it from Cuthia. Colonel Vallancey
traces its origin to words denoting navigation: others de-
rive it from the Greek word cxvficde:, which exprefles the
fiercenefs of their countenance and natural temper; and
others again deduce it from the Teutonic word /cheten or
Jbuten, to /boot, in which art this nation is faid by Hero-
dotus, Lucian, and others, to be fo expert, that the name
is given them on that account, the word Scythian properly
fignifying a great /hooter or archer. As the Tartars and
Mufcoyites called themfelves Mogli, fuppofed to be an ab-
breviation of Magogli, the fons of Magog; that of Scy-
thian might be either given to them by other nations, or
perhaps by the Celtes, whofe language did not originally
much differ from the Scythian or Teutonic. Sir William
Jones obferves, that neither Scythian nor Tartar is a name
by which the people now under our confideration have ever
diftincuifhed themfelves.

The Scythians have been confidered by fome writers,
with regard to their antiquity and origin, as the fame
people with the Gomerians, and as being the defcendants of
Gomer, the eldeft fon of Japhet. To this purpofe Hero-
dotus, Ptolemy, and Juftin have called the Scythians, who
emigrated into Afia, by fome names, and attributed fome
actions and places to them, which, upon clofer examina-
tion, are found to have belonged to the Celtes or Gome-
rians, whom they had driven out of their European terri-
tories. Strabo informs us, that the old Greek hiftorians
gave the name of Scythians and Celto-Scythians to all the
inhabitants of the northern regions, though it is plain that
many of them were properly Celtes or Gomerians. And
he alfo adds, that fome of thofe people who inhabited
beyond the Cafpian fea, which fhould be the Scythians,
were, by the fame Greek hiftorians, called Sace, and
others Maflagete, though the former of thefe names, at
leaft, belonged only to the Celtes. Hence many learned
men have chofen to reckon them as one people, branched
out into that variety of names and charaéters, under which
they are diftinguifhed in hiftory. See Certs.

Jofephus, who affirms the Scythians to be defcended
from Magog, the next brother of Gomer, has been fol-
lowed by many of the fathers, and by many moderns, be-
caufe they could find no better authority. In the migra-
tion of thefe ancient tribes into Europe, if Gomer’s de-
{cendants turned towards the N.W., thofe of Magog may
be reafonably fuppofed to have f{pread themfelves towards
the N.E. into both Scythias, where we find the ancient
Mufcovites or Tartarians ; diftinguifhed by the name of
Mogli, corrupted or abbreviated poflibly from Magogli,
the fons of Magog. To thefe conjeétures it may be
added, that there is fearcely a nation under heaven, that
fo fully anfwers the fierce and dreadful character which
the Scriptures give us of Gog and Magog, as that of
the barbarous Scythians; though in fa& this charaéter
was too applicable to their neighbours in thofe early
ages.

ae Ifaac Newton is of opinion, that both the Celtes
and Scythians had fpread themfelves over Lefler Afia and
Europe, before the year of the flood 1220, that is, about
the latter period of the Tfraelitifh judges. How foon the
Scythians began to eftablifh a regular government, and
what kind of government it was, it is impoflible even to
conjeéture. It appears, however, from the teftimony of

Herodotus, that one or two tribes at leaft, that is, the royal
and free Scythians, were under a kind of monarchy, and
that thefe two diltinguifhed themfelves more than all the
others. Herodotus informs us, that in procefs of time,
when the Scythians were likely to be invaded by Darius,
their king, dreading the invader, invited all the Scythian
princes, viz. thofe of the Taurians, Agathyrfians, Neu-
rians, Androphagi, Melanchlenians, Budians, and Sarma-
tians, to unite in giving him affiftance. All thefe tribes
feem to have been branches of the fame flock, but diflering
much in their manners and cuftoms. In confequence of
this application, the three laft named nations joined with
the king of Scythia, but the others refufed to fuccour him,
alleging that he was the firflt aggreffor. Hence we may
conclude, that they had emancipated themfelves from the
yoke of the royal Scythians fome time before. As to what
the laws of the royal and free Scythians were, we may form
fome judgment from the excellent character that is given of
them by ancient hiftorians. Juftin (lib. ii. cap. 2.) gives
the following account of them. The Scythians were a
nation, which, though inured to labour, fierce in war, and
of prodigious ftrength, could neverthelefs. fo controul their
paflions, that they made no other ufe of victories than to
increafe their fame. ‘Theft among them was reckoned fo
great a crime, and was fo feverely punifhed, that they could
let their numerous flocks wander from place to place without
danger of lofing them. Thefe they efteemed their greateft
wealth, living upon their milk, and clothing themfelves
with their fkins. Inftead of houfes, they ufed to convey
their wives and children about in covered waggons, drawn
either by horfes or oxen, and made capacious enough to
carry all their other furniture. Gold, filver, diamonds,
pearls, and other coftly ftones, were as much defpifed by
them, as they were efteemed by other nations, fo that the
could not covet that which was of no ufe. What is {till more
wonderful, thofe virtues, which the Greeks in vain endea-
voured to attain by learning and philofophy, were natural
to them, and they reaped thofe advantages from their igno-
rance of vice, which the others could not derive from their
knowledge of virtue. A nation of this character and way
of life could therefore want but few laws to fecure their
property ; fome others they had with relation to religion,
cuftoms, and polity, which forbade, under pain of death,
any alteration in either ; which excluded their women from
the benefit of marriage, and every man from aflifting at
their royal feaft, till he had killed an enemy. Some other
of their laws we fhall have occafion to mention in the fequel.
Upon the whole, what appears of them feems wholly cal-
culated to prevent luxury, fraud, and covetoufnefs, and to
cherifh that martial {pirit, for which they are fo juftly famed
in hiftory. Hn
Some of the Scythian tribes, indeed, bear a quite dif-
ferent charaGter, being reprefented of fuch fierce and cruel
difpofition, as even to eat the flefh of their enemies. Thofe,
if under the fame government, were at fuch great diftance
from the centre of it, as to be out of the reach of its laws.
As the inclemency of the air in thefe remote regions might
probably incline them to cruelty ; fo the diftance and bar-
rennefs of their country ace make them lefs heeded, and
probably more incapable of being reftrained by the com-
mon regulations of fociety. However, it muft be owned,
with refpe&t to the warlike temper even of the true Scy-
thians, that it was not without a mixture of cruelty, if
they have not been wilfully mifreprefented by the Greek ~
hiftorians. ;
If we may reafon from fome fucceflions we find men-
tioned in hiftory, it feems their crown was hereditary, and
9 yet

SCYTHIANS.

yet their kings not fo defpotic as not to be depofed, or even
put to death, for the violation of their laws.

When any one of their monarchs fell fick, & was their
eonitant culloum to fend imunediately for three of ther mott
famous prophets, who commonly told him that ome Sey-
thian, hedithes named, had perjured himfell by {wearing
Dy the royal throne, which it fooms was their moll folema

acculed perfon was thereupon feized, and
before the king. If he denied the fact, more
were fent for; if they confirmed the evidence,
man was immediately beheaded, and bis goods were
among the three firil accufers. But if they ac-
bun, a new fupply of them was to be fent for;
majority of them abfolved him, then the firit ac-
tied hands and feet, and fet in a cart loaded
and drawn by oxen: after they had flopt
prophet’s mouth, as he was then ityled, they
the wood, which confumed the cart and man,
ing the oxen to death. Our author
male children of thofe whom the king con-

efcaped the fame fate.
initance of their great refpe&t to their monarchs
a folemnity of their funerals, which was per-
Cian diiehand tel chenisl cto bellyy oe korg
wax, Yo ving
filed iewith beoiled cyprels incenle, parfley, and anileeds,
4 —— and placed the corpfe in a chariot,
conveyed it from one tribe to another through all the
Every province, where they
» was obli to imitate the
ir mournful ceremonies, which con-
of the ear, fhaving the head,
an arrow; in this guile,
the next province, tll it
hich was the remoteit in
of the Boryithenes,
the corpfe was de-
in the earth, upon a
{pears, which they covered
canopy over the whole monu-
In the vacant places of it they depofited one of his
ieeidiaitvai bedi a-tronpled. ark x ences’ ot
and a number o
others fome golden cups.
it, fo as to raife a high

5

ee
H
Ful

the Gerrians,

a loofe rein fattened
P Ce
plurality of gods and
reckoned their principal >=
Tabiti. The two next in

kings fent when he came to fubdue them
ire ; befides thefe they worfhipped Apollo, the

‘enus, and Ne under the names of Octo-
Guippela, and Teaneinae, But their favourite

deity feems to have been the god of war, to whom alone
they dedicated temples, altars, aud images. How he tem-
ples were built, Herodotus doth not tell us; neither is it
ealy for us to guefs, Tt doth not even appear from an
ancient authors, or other monuments, that ever they bul
aay properly {> called. Groves indeed they were famous
for ereéting to Uns deity, In thefe they afleéted to have
one or more oaks of a mighty fize, which were acenupted
fo facred, that to lop fo much as a branch or {prig, or
even to wound the bark, was accounted facrilege, and
unifhed with death, Thefe oaks they never failed to
prinkle plentiiully with the blood of their victims, info-
much, that the rind of fome of the oldeft of them was
covered or even encrufted with it, We are therefore in-
clined to believe, that Herodotus, who learned thefe o-
by report, might, for waut of a good interpreter, milla
them for temples, and fuppofe them to be built like thofe
of other nations.

Befides the deities above named, we are told that fome
of them worfhipped fire as the principle of all things, and
gave it the name of Vulcan; they ufed to {wear by the
wind, and the fword, the one as the author of life, and
the other of death.. They likewife looked upon Zamolxis
as a deity, to whom they committed the fouls of the dead,
and offered facrifices on their behalf. The royal Scy-
thians are affirmed by Herodotus to have acknowled
all the deities above named, and to have offered facrifices
to Neptune in particular ; for all thefe various deities they
had not, indeed, temples, but altars and groves, and a fet
of priefts appropriated to each.

How {pacious thofe groves muft have been, may be feen
in the lait quoted antiquarian, or be guefled at by the vaft
extent of the altars, which Herodotus tells us they erected
in them to Mars, their favourite deity, one of which at
leaft they were obliged to have in every diftri@. It was
made of {mall wood tied up into bundles, and covered three
ftadia of land in length and breadth, though it was not
proportionable in its height. The top of it, which was
quadrangular, had three fides perpendicular ; and the fourth
had a gradual declivity, to render the top of it eafy of
acceis. One hundred and fifty loads of faggots were to
be brought yearly to each altar, to fupply thofe which had
been decayed by the inclemency of the winter. On the
top of each of thofe heaps was erected an old iron {cimitar,
which ilood there as the image, or rather emblem of the
deity. To him, befides all otber cattle, in common with
their other gods, and in much greater number, they facri-
ficed hories ; and what was more fhocking, every hundredth
man they took prifoner from their enemies. The prieft
having poured a libation of wine upon the captive’s head,
cut his throat, and received his blood into a bowl, with”

‘which afcending to the top of the altar, he wafhed the

deity’s fword. As to the victim, they only cut off his
right arm clofe to the fhoulder, and throwing it up into
the air, left it expofed in the place where it fell, and the
reft of the body in that where it was killed.

OF the victims which they facrificed to Mars or to any
other deity, the horfe was efteemed the nobleit, and the
moft acceptable. As for {wine they detefted them, and
would not fuffer any to remain among them. They alfo
offered to their gods the firit fruits of the earth, the frit
lings of their cattle, and a part of the {poil they took in
war; fending a confiderable part of the Aster to the Del-
phic Apollo, by a number of their honourable virgins,
under a fufficient efcort.

Their alliances and contraéts were ratified with the fol-
lowing ceremonies: they poured fome wine into an one

veffel,

SCY THIANS.

veflel, into which the contraCting parties were to mingle
fome of their own blood, which they drew by a flight in-
cifion made in the finger, hand, or fome other part of the
body. They then dipped into the mixture the point of
fome warlike weapon, fuch as a fcimitar, arrow, dart,
javelin, or battle-ax. The parties then uttered fome dire
imprecations on the firft breaker of the covenant, and,
having each of them taken a draught of the liquor, they
defired fome of the moit confiderable among the by-
ftanders to pledge them, and to be witnefles of the con-
tra&, which was reckoned fo facred, that they thought
no punifhment fevere enough, either in this life or in the
next, for thofe by whom it fhould be violated.

Their warlike temper and exploits were fufficiently
known to the ancients; fcarcely is there any nation to be
met with in hiltory, fo famous for conquering wherever
they carried their arms, even as auxiliaries, and themfelves
remaining {till unconquered. Their frugal and fimple man-
ner of life, may indeed be fuppofed to have been a great
prefervative again{ft fuch invafions, as other more opulent
and luxurious nations were expofed to. But it is plain,
this was not always the cafe, fince we find they were once
invaded by the king of Perfia at the head of a mot puiflant
army, from the power of which nothing but their valour
and policy could have delivered them. Upon the whole,
fuch were their itrength and courage, whenever they entered
into an offenfive or defenfive war, that, as Thucydides him-
felf tells us, no nation, either in Europe or Afia, could equal
them either for ftrength, valour, or conduct; nor could
any thing refift their power, when they were unanimous
among them{elves. -

Such care they took to cultivate this martial genius,
that even their women were inured to it betimes, infomuch
that no woman could be admitted into matrimony till fhe
had killed at leaft one enemy with her own hands. As
for their youth, they were not without confiderable en-
couragements to infpire them with martial valour, or rather
ferocity, if we may rely upon the information of Hero-
dotus, who tells us that they were wont to drink the blood
of the firft prifoner they took, and to prefent the heads of
all the men they killed in fight to their monarch; thefe
were either returned or regiftered, and the warrior enjoyed
privileges in proportion to the numbers he had flain. They
ufed to take the fkins of the flain, to ftretch, dry, and tan
them, and then hang them at their horfes’ bridles, where
they ferved both for trophies and napkins to the owner ;
he being always moft efteemed, who had the greateft num-
ber to difplay. Their pride, or rather barbarity, went fo
far, that they took off and drefled the whole fkin of the
flain, and covered both their quivers and horfes, and fome-
times decked their own bodies with them; and ufed their
fkulls for drinking cups.

Had they only exercifed this kind of favage pride againit
‘thofe who came to invade them, it might indeed admit of
fome excufe ; but it doth not appear that'they gave much
better quarter to thofe whofe territories they invaded.

In confequence of their living free from ambition and
care, and cating plentifully of animal food, they acquired
ruddy complexions, and became fo plump and fanguine,
that, to prevent their growing too unwieldy, they not only
uled a great deal of exercife, but even cauterized their
arms, fhoulders, backs, and breaits, with a view to draw
off fuperfluous moilture. They were remarkable for their
fidelity and friendfhip, which they efteemed and gloried in
above all things. They commonly confirmed their friend-
fhip by fome fuch religious ceremony or oath, as we have
lately mentioned, but a Scythian feldom diffufed nis attach-

ments to more than two or three individuals, efteeming it
very difficult, if not impoffible, to keep it inviolate with a
greater number. And when fuch « friendfhip was once
contracted, there was no danger or death which they would
not expofe themfelves to for one another.

They were not more difpofed to friendfhip, than addiéted
to refentment and revenge. If a man had received an in-
jury, which he was not in a capacity to retaliate, the cuftom
was for him to facrifice a bullock, and to roaft the flefh of
it in fmall pieces. Then he {pread the hide upon the
ground, and fat upon it, holding his hands down behind
him as if they had been tied; upon which fignal all that
beheld him, whether friends, relations, or ftrangers, came
to inform themfelves about the injury and injurer, and if
they favoured his caufe, took up a piece of the meat, fet-
ting their feet upon the hide at the fame time, promifing
affittance accordingly ; one perhaps fent him five men and
horfes, another ten, more or lefs, according to their cir-
cumf{tances, or the nature of the injury.

How populous the Scythians were, we have not been
able to difcover. If it be allowed that they made frequent
and bloody inroads one upon another, we cannot but fup-
pofe that it muft have leffened their numbers exceedingly.
On the other hand, if we confider their plain and laborious
way of living, their climate, conftant exercife, and other
advantageous circumftances, which rendered them hardy
and {trong, prolific and long lived, we can hardly conceive
they could be other than a populous nation: for we are
told, that. very few died of ficknefs, but that in general
they lived to a goodold age, infomuch, that many of them
being weary of the world, before death took them out of _
it, it was ufual with fuch to haften their exit by throwing
themfelves from an eminence into the fea, or into fome river.
Herodotus, however, who feems in doubt whether they
were fo populous as fome, or fo thin as others reprefent
them, gives us an authentic inftance and monument in
favour of the former, which is as follows: they had, it
feems, a cuftom, not uncommon to other nations, at their
firft taking of the field to mutter their fighting men, and
to make every man ca{t an arrow into a proper receptacle,
which at their return from the expedition was again taken
up. By this expedient they could eafily compute not only
the number of their men, but alfo that of their flain, or
of thofe who either deferted, or abfented themfelves from
the war. It was at fome fuch mutter as this, that one of
their kings, whom Herodotus names Ariantes, being pre-
fent, and obferving thefe heads of arrows to amount to an
immenfe bulk and weight, as he had indeed a prodigious
army under him, ordered them to be melted and caft, and
made a large capacious veflel, which our author tells us
was {till extant in his time; and, though full fix inches
thick, was large enough to hold fix hundred amphoras,
that is about fifty hogfheads, and remained a monument of
this prodigious army. What feems to be a ftronger argu-
ment of their being populous, is, the fucceflion of colonies
which they fent out, chiefly towards the fouthern parts of
the world.

The Scythians cultivated no arts or fciences, except
that of war, nor did they pay much attention to tradé or
commerce, or any fpecies of agriculture except pafturage.
Their mode of living was altogéther incompatible with
commerce. They do not feem to have known any thing of
writing, until they brought it with them from A fia, after
their twenty-eight years’ invafion of that country,

Their language is very much unknown to us; but the
extent of their territories and their intercourfe, and inter-
mixing with various other nations, muft occafion a great

number

SCYTHIANS.

i

of diale&ts, from which moft probably have {prung
Mufecovitith, Sclavonic, Polith, Danish, Swedith, Saxon,
many others; between which one can but barely dif-
Maity enough to evince their origin from the fame
» A number of words and phrafes that are
not ouly in thofe northern languages, but alfo in the
in, Greek, Arabic, and Perfic, thew them to have
diale&ts of the old Celtic. If thofe few relics
jan, which we have left in the names of their
and diftri€s, do not fo plainly appear to be
extradtion, we mult remember they have patt
fo many different hands, and have fo often changed
efpecially among the Greeks, that they may
y he pr to have quite loft their ancient form.
that fome of > coed are eétly Greek, or
tranflated from the Scythian into that language. Of this
| ae tng the Ocenes, a Scythian tribe, fo called
Herodotus, from their living upon the eggs of wild-
fowl, and derived from the Greek sw». The Nomades were
fo called from sou», . Of the fame extradion were
the Hyppodes, i, and fome others.
Their chief manufa@tures feem to have confifted moftly in
i Pe a ether egy and » which being
ith the fkins of beats, thews that they muft have
notion of tanning and drefling leather. We may
likewife reafonably fap, tha they fabricated their own
weapons, which were {cimitars, javelins, axes, but efpecially
and arrows, at which they are faid to be fo expert,
i children were trained to fhoot ata mark,

ate

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PRE

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47
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king of Media, is reported to have fent his fon
be up under them, to learn the ufe of the bow.
fo expert in horfemanfhip, as to have acquired

the epithet of irxclsfelas by Herodotus and Lucian. TPheie
women are affirmed to have been fo well trained to riding

ve
and ing, that did not fall fhort of the men in
rer apres Ny = wart obferve, that they had nei-

, at leaft with re{pe& to the latter;
but the true reafon feems to be, that the horfes, which they
bred in great numbers, could anfwer all the purpofes of
the other two {pecies, and at the fame time be more {wift
— ‘ok ic it doth that they had
ure, it doth not a t any.
Herodotus indeed tells us of one seria ae. inhabit.
. called themfelves Olbiopolitans, and the Greeks Bo-
_ ryfthenians, as they lived on the north fide of that river ;
he likewife called hufbandmen, becaufe the

fowed grain, not for food, but for fale. But the re
of the i ee | negleéted it, chufing rather to
re <1 Soa the beit pafture for their cattle,
g

elves with the {pontaneous produdts of

earth, without being at the trouble of manuring it.
_ And this is in all likelihood the caufe why we read of fo
foretts, large uninhabited tracts of land
between tribe and tribe, in the writings of ancient hiltorians
How difpofed of the wool of their
not, but, by their clothing themfelves
fkins of wild or tame beafls, we may conclude
manufacture it into cloth; and as thofe fkins

Sa 18

Py
i

Z

if
iL
as
FE

their arms, waggons, and other neceflary tools.
Ass to their arrows, darts, and javelins, if their heads were

made of copper, they were probably caft in moulds. They
ufed flandards of a particular make, which, when blown
open by the wind, exhibited the figures of ferpents and
dragons of feveral thapes, and thefe were commonly borne
by men on horfeback.

Their chief riches and food confifling in their numerous
herds, they entrafted the care of them to thepherds, who
were a lower rank of Scythians, below the martial men,
though they too had flaves and captives in their fervice,
They ufed to move from pafture to palture, with the ‘ven
fous and families which were unfit to go to the wars. ‘Thefe
chiefly lived upon honey, cheefe, and milk, more efpecially
that of their mares, De which creature, if Herodotus
was rightly informed, they had a ftrange way of forcing
plenty of it, by blowing wind into the privities; but their
chief and choiceft food was the venifon killed. What
sbi wr the warlike Scythians made, when they were ab-
ent from their flocks, we cannot guefs; it is probable
when they came into an enemy’s country, they feized upon
all the cattle they could meet with ; and when that failed,
they had recourfe to a compofition they carried about them,
of which we fhall {peak prefently.

From an inflance or two recorded of their kings, we
conclude, they allowed of polygamy, and were not over-
ftri& in their marriages. Plato feems even to intimate that
they had their women in common, though, if any fuch cuf-
tom prevailed among them, it muft have been only among
the more favage fort, for the royal and free men had wives ;
and fome of their kings we read of, who took them from
other nations, and of one of them who married his own
father’s widow ; but whether the fame liberty was allowed
to private men we cannot affirm. The reafon the Scy-
thians gave for abhorring the Bacchanalian feafls of the
Greeks, namely, that it was abfurd to fuppofe, that a god
fhould drive men to all the violent etefrers of madnefs,
feems to fhew that drunkennefs was not common amon
them. And indeed we do not find that they were mer
addiéed to feafting. Plutarch, in his Banquet of the
Seven Wife Men, fays, “ that they neither had vines, nor
players on inftruments, nor public games.”” One wine-fealt
they kept however once a-year in every diftri@t, for thofe
who had fignalized Picesichocs by killing one or more of
their enemies. Another we read of, which was ufed at
funerals. Some others they might have upon other occa-
fions not worth enquiring after; but in general, they were
remarkably abftemious, except in their affeGtions for their
favourite women. They talked little, but concifely and
nervoufly, efpecially about their warlike affairs. They
commonly travelled on horfeback, or in their domeltic vehi-
cles. hen they had any rivers to crofs, they laid their
horfe’s faddle and weapons upon a fkin filled with cork,
and fo well fewn, that not 2 drop of water could get into
it; they then laid themfelves down on it, and taking hold
of their horfe by the tail, made him {wim to the other fide.
They carried with them a certain compofition, in {mall
pieces like pills, one of which, upon occafion, would yet
afford fufficient nourifhment for feveral days. Pliny adds,
that they ufed the like expedient with their horfes, by means
of what he calls the Scythian weed, upon the ftrength of
which they could travel ten or twelve days without eating
or b
When af perfon died, his neareft relations caufed his
embalmed body to be carried in a chariot from houfe to
houfe among his friends and acquaintance, who received
and feaited them in their turns, fetting part of the ban-
uet before the deceafed. This ceremony was continued
orty days, after which the perfon was buried, and his at-

0 tendants

SCYTHIANS.

tendants purified themfelves, not by any ablution, but by
the {moke of fome hemp-{feed peculiar to the country,
which being thrown upon burning {tones, emitted a much
more agreeable perfume than the frankincenfe ufed in
Greece, and intoxicated the company, who concluded the
ceremony with. hideous fhrieks. This ferved inftead of
wafhing, which the Scythians never practifed; not even
the women, who ufed initead of it to anoint their bodies
and face with a pate, made of cyprefs, cedar, and frankin-
cenfe, ground upon a rough ftone, and foaked in water,
which paite being taken off next day, rendered their {kins
clean, fhining, and fweet.

Hitherto we have confined our chief attention to the
royal Scythians ; but there were other tribes or petty king-
doms that demand {ome tranfient notice.

The Samaritans are affirmed by Herodotus to have been
the offspring of the Scythians and Amazons. Thefe war-
like women, or as their Scythian name, Aior Patta, im-
ports, man-/layers, in their flight from the Grecians, haying
landed near the precipices of the Palus Mzotis belonging
to the free Scythians, and having been perfuaded to be
married to them, did in their turn prevail upon them to
leave that part of Scythia, where they pretended they could
not conveniently live with them, and to pafs into the pro-
vince of Sarmatia on the other fide of the Tanais. Hence,
our author fays, the Samaritan women retained {till the
Amazonian temper and way of life, being more warlike
than the reft of the Scythian females, and the language of
the country became a corrupt Scythian, becaufe the Ama-
zons never could perfeétly learn that language, but taught
it their offspring, corrupt as themfelves {poke it. Here it
chiefly was, that a virgin was unqualified for matrimony,
till fhe had difpatched an enemy in the field.

The Taurians had this inhuman cuftom, that they facri-
ficed to a virgin all that were fhipwrecked, and all the
Grecians whom they caught upon their coafts. This
bloody offering was performed by knocking the perfon on
the head with a club, after many dire imprecations, and
flinging his carcafe down the hill on which their temple
was built, or as others told our author, by burying the
body, and referving only the head to be ftuck ona pole.
Thefe Taurians pretended, that the virgin demon whom they
thus worfhipped,; was Iphigenia, Agamemnon’s daughter.
They lived chiefly by war‘and rapine, and were very cruel
to thofe that fell into their hands. The Agathyrfians are
faid to have had their women in common, in order to link
the men more itri€ly together, and to prevent jealouties,
and other ill effe&ts of matrimony. The Neurian province
being infefted with dangerous ferpents, they were at length
forced to leave it for that of the Budians. They obferved
the cuftoms of Scythia in moit particulars, only pretended
to greater {kill in magic than they, and were reported to
be transformed into wolves for fome part of the year, after
which metamorphofis, they refumed their own-fhape ; an
allegory which is fuppofed to mean no more than their
wearing of fkins with the fur outward during the cold
weather, The Neurians are mentioned alfo by Pliny, Mela,
and Steph. of Byzantium.

The worft of all were the Androphagi, or men-eaters,
who obferved neither laws nor juftice, and had nothing in
common with the reft, but their drefs and occupation of
breeding cattle. The Melanchceneans were fo called for
affe&ting to go always in black; they followed the Scy-
thian cuftoms, except that they fed upon human flefh,
which the free Scythians did not ; nor indeed did any other
tribes ufe it, at leaf as common food, but only on fome
particular occafions. The Budians were a populous nation,

il

famed for blue eyes, and red hair: in this province, above
all the reft, did they build them a city, and called it Ge-
lonus, whofe houfes and high walls were of timber, and’
each fide of the walls was three hundred ftadia in length ;
it had temples and chapels dedicated to the Grecian gods 5
and here they celebrated the Bacchanalia triennially. The
people of the province differed from thofe in the city, in
that the former applied themfelves to the keeping of cattle,
and thefe to tillage and planting gardens, living upon the
produéts of them, and of their corn fields; in a word, thefe
Gelonians were fo much more civilized in their manners
than the Budians, that they feemed quite another people.
They are fuppofed to have been of Greek extraét, and to
have been in time quite blended with the Budians, who
were of Sarmatian origin, and contiguous to them; and
Herodotus obferves, that each preferved their own native lan-
guage. The Gelonians learned, among other things, the
cultom of painting their bodies from the Sarmatians, whence
that verfe in Virgil’s Georgics, xii. v. 115.

«« EKofque domos Arabum pictofque Gelonos.’’

This province abounded with otters and beavers, which
afforded fkins for wearing, and caftor for medicine.

The lait two nations or tribes of the Scythians worth
our notice, were the Nomades, inhabiting the country on
the north-welt of the Cafpian fea, and the Maflagetes on
the welt. For an account of the Amazons, we refer to
that article. ‘The Nomades differed fo little from the royal
Scythians, except in this appellative, that it is needlefs to fay
more concerning them, than that they led 4 wandering life,
living no longer in one place than they found plenty of
patture for their cattle ; which being confumed, they re-
moved to frefh grounds; and, when called to the wars,
left their families and flocks, with their fhepherds, till
their return. Pliny places them on the left fide of the
Cafpian fea, and fays the river Panticapes parted them
from the Georgii.. Strabo adds, that they lived in waggons
inftead of houfes. (See Nomanpgs.) For an account ot the
Maflagete, fee MAssacurEs. :

The following table exhibits the names and fucceffion of
Scythian kings: _

1. Scythes. 12. Panaxagoras.
2. Napis. 13. Tanais.

3. Phithra. 14. Saulius.

4. Sagillus, or Protothyas. 15. Spargapifes.
5. Madyes. 16. Aripithes.
6. Thomyris. 17. Scyles. ;
7. Jancirus. 18. Odtamafades.
8. Indathyrfus. 1g. Ariantes.

g. Targitaus. 20. Atheas.

to. Calaxais. 21. Lambinus.
11. Scholypethes, or perhaps

rather Scythopetes.

Madyes was a warlike prince, and it was under his con-
du@t that the Scythians, having driven the Cimmerians, or
northern Celtes, out of Europe, and purfued them into Afia,
invaded the country of the Medes, and held the greater part
of Upper Aria in fubjection for twenty-eight years. As
Scythia did not afford a fufficient fupply of food for its nu-
merous inhabitants, they difchargéd the fuperfluous multi-
tudes towards the more fertile fouth; and having rapidly
pafled into Afia, their victorious army was led into Egypt.
Here they made fome incurfions into the land of the Phi-
liftines ; and in this expedition they are faid to have taken
the city of Bethfhean from the tribe of Manaffeh, on this
fide of Jordan, and to have called it, after their own name,

Scythopolis,

sc Y

is, or the city of the Seythians., In their return
fome of them plu he temple of Venus at
, and for their facrilege were punifhed with a kind of
blood, common to the female fex, which defoended
polterity as a mark of infamy. Thomyris, or Ta-
was that heroine whom, we are told by Herodotus,
the Great demanded in marriage. Iodathyrfus was
magnanimous prince who, having received from Darius,
Perfian king, the proud challenge implied in the de-

of carth and water asa token of fubjection, feat hin
remarkable reply; that as he acknowledged no lord
his progenitor Jupiter, and Veila, queen of the Sey-
he would y fend him a more fuitable prefent,

as might, perhaps, make him repent of his arrogance.
contig of a bird, a tr a frog, and five
difpatched to him, without any ap-

Gobrias explained to Darius the meaning of this
' which the king had underitood to be a token of
i intimating the Perfians muft not hope to
Scythian valour, unlefs they could either
under water like frogs, or bury them-
mice. The Perfian monarch invaded
but the refult of the expedition was
to retire with the lofs of the greateit

numerous army, and to efcape with his own
the ex of ~ ry. Boulius was the
Fy feng . Seehisarticle. The
according to ings was ne
particulars relating to Scythian s, we r
to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus,
Univ. Hitt. vol. iv.; Gibbon’s Hitt
. vols. 1. iv. v. vi. ; W. Jones’s Fifth
Works, vol. iii. or Af. Refearches, vol. ii.
vs, Gere, Gorus, Huns, SARMATIANS,
Scanprvavia, and VaxpaLs.
_SCYTHICUM Licxvum, in Botany, a name given by
ancients to a tree called /cytharion by the later writers

it

aE

iF

i

FF

g

tH

i

i

i
:

i

a —

i

obtained different trivial
that it is found in New
by the way, it is imes feen in {mall

olland Channel-bird ;
. aACeol Hornbill. By Dr. Shaw, it is {pe-
‘fers the lead-coloured channel-bill, with the
a hers barred with black and white. It is about the
of a crow, and meafures in total length about feventeen

SEA
proportions of the bird fomewhat refemble thofe of the

cuckoo, but with a longer and more cuseated tail. The
colour of the upper parts of the body, wings, and tail, is
deep blucith ath-brown, the tips of the feathers fomewhat
more intenfe than the reft; the head, neck, and under parts
of the bird, are of a pale gy" or dove-colour; the two
middle tail-feathers have a bi bar near the tip, which is
white ; all the remaining tail-feathers are ath-brow nexternally,
but on the inoer webs are white, crofled by numerous black
bars, and marked, like the middle ones, by brosder black
bar near the end, the tips being white ; the eyes and noftrils
are feated in a reddith naked fin s the bill and legs are of a

ale yellow, the former are marked on the upper mandible
by a longitudinal dufky flreak or two, and on the lower by
three whe dufky bars near the bafe. Dr. Shaw has given
a figure of this bird, but it may be doubted whether, with
refpect to magnitude, it is calculated to convey jult ideas of
the bird itfelf,

SCZEBRZESZIN, in Geography, a town of Aufirian
Poland, in Galicia; 5 miles W. of Zamofcie.

SCZEZEDROHORST, a town of Lithuania; 60
miles S.E. of Brzefe.

SCZUCZYN, a town of Poland ; 35 miles S.W. of San-
domirz.

SDUR, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas;
20 miles S.S.E. of Suez.

SE, or Tse, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Ho-
nan. N, lat. 36° 25'. E. long. 114° 14.

Se, Felo de. See Fexo.

Se, Per. See Per /.

SEA, Mare, in Geography, is frequently ufed for that vaft
tra@t of water encompafling the whole earth, more properly
called Occan; which fee.

For the caufe of the faltnefs of the fea, fee SarTwess.

SEA is more properly ufed for a particular part or divifion
of the ocean, denominated from the countries it or
from other circumttances.

Thus we fay the /rifh fea, the Mediterranean fea, the Baltic
fea, the Red fea, &c. which fee refpeétively.

Till the time of the emperor Jukinian, the fea was com-
mon and open to all men ; whence it is that the Roman laws

tan a¢tion againft a perfon who fhall prevent or moleft
another in the free navigation or fifhing therein.

Theemperor Leo, in his fifty-fixth novel, firft allowed
fuch as were in poffeffion of the lands, the fole privilege of
fifhing before their refpective territories, exclufive of all
others ; he even gave a particular commiffion to certain per-
fons to divide the Thracian Bofphorus among them.

From that time, the fovereign princes have been endea-
vouring to appropriate the fea, and to withdraw it from
the public ufe. The republic of Venice pretends to be fo
far miftrefs in her gulf, that there is a formal marriage every
year between that fignory and the Adnatic.

To confirm this right, thofe who contend for it have al-
leged the example of Uladiflaus, king of Naples, and the em-
peror Frederic III. and of fome of the kings of Hungary,
who requefted the Venetians to permit them to pafs aie
that fea with their veffels. That the empire ngs to
pn to a certain diftance from the coait, in the places

which it can keep pofleflion, and which it is of importance
to hold in ~ re to its own fafety, appears, fays Vattel, to
be inconteftible ; but he very much doubts, whether any

is at prefent difpofed to acknowledge her fovereignty

power
“over the whole Adriatic fea.

In thefe laft ages, the Englith have particularly claimed the
empire of the fea in the Channel, and even that of all the feas
encompaffing the three kingdoms of Eagland, Scotland, aad

Q 2 Ireland,

SEA.

Ireland, and that as far as the fhores of the neighbouring
ftates. In confequence of which pretenfion it is, that chil-
dren born in thefe feas are declared natural Englifhmen, as
muchas if bornon Englifh ground. The juttice of this pre-
tenfion is ftrenuoufly argued between Grotius and Selden, in
the Mare liberum, and Mare claufum.

The ufe of the open fea confilts in navigation and fifhing ;
along its coa{ts it is likewife of ufe for the procuring of fe-
veral things found near the fhore, fuch as thell-fifh, amber,
pearls, &c. for making of falt, and, in fhort, for the eftablifh-
ment of places of retreat and fecurity for veflels. ‘The open
fea is in its own nature not to be exclufively poffefled, as no
one is able to fettle there fo as to hinder others from pafling.
But a nation powerful at fea may forbid others to navigate
it and to fifh init, declaring that it appropriates its dominions
to itfelf, and that it will deftroy the veffels that fhall dare to
appear in it, without its permiflion. Vattel, a highly ap-
proved writer on this fubje&, inveftigates its right to do
this. It is evident, in the firft place, that nobody has a right
to appropriate to himfelf the ufe of the open fea: for he
who navigates or fifhes in it does no injury to any one, and
the fea, in both thefe refpets, is fufficient for all mankind.
Nor does Nature give to any man a right of appropriating
to himfelf things that may be innocently ufed, and that are
inexhauttible, and fufficient for all; fince, every one being
able to find in their ftate of communion what was fufficient
to fupply their wants, to undertake to render themfelves
fole mafters of them, and to exclude all others, would be
to deprive them, without reafon, of the benefits of nature.
Although the law of nature approves the rights of dominion
and property, which put an end to the primitive manner of
living in common, this reafon could not take place with
regard to things in themfelves inexhauftible, which cannot
therefore be juitly appropriated.

If the free and common ufe of a thing of this nature was
prejudicial or dangerous to a nation, the care of its own
fafety authorized it to fubmit, if poffible, that thing to its
dominion in order to permit the ufe of it, with fuch precau-
tions as prudence fhould dire&. But this is not the cafe
with the open fea, in which people may fail and fifh without
the leaft prejudice to any perfon, and without putting any
other people in danger. No nation then has aright to lay
claim to the open fea, or to attribute the ufe of it to itfelf
to the exclufion of others. The kings of Portugal have
formerly arrogated to themfelves the empire of the feas of
Guinea and the Eaft Indies ; but the other maritime powers
gave themfelves little trouble about fuch a pretenfion. The
right of navigating and fifhing in the open fea being then a
right common to all men, the nation which attempts to ex-
clude another from that advantage does it an injury, and
gives a fufficient caufe for war: nature authorifing a nation
to repel an injury ; that is, to make ufe of force againft any
one who would deprive it of its rights. Befides, a nation
which, without a title, would arrogate to itfelf an exclufive
right to the fea, and fupport it by force, does an injury to
all nations whofe common right it violates ; and all are at
liberty to unite againit it, in order to reprefs {uch an attempt.
However, as each has the liberty of renouncing its rights, a
nation may acquire exclufive rights of navigation and fifhing
by treaties, in which other nations renounced, in its favour,
the right they derive from nature. Thefe are obliged to
obferve their treaties, and the nation they have favoured has
a right to maintain by force the poffeffion of its advantages.
Thus, the Houfe of Auftria has renounced, in favour of
England and Holland, the right of fending veffels from the
Netherlands to the Eaft Indies. Many examples of like
treaties may be found in Grotius, “‘ De Jure Belli et Pacis,”

lib. ii. cap. iii, § 15, The rights of navigation, fifhing, and
others that may be exercifed on the fea, are imprefcriptible ;
they cannot be loft for want of ufe; confequently, when a
nation finds that itfelf alone has from time immemorial beer
in the pofleffion of a navigation or fifhery in certain feas, it
cannot, on this foundation, attribute to itfelf an exclufive
right to them. But it may happen, that a want of ufe may
be attended with the nature of a confent, or a tacit pact,
and thus become a title in favour of one nation againft ano-
ther. When a nation in the pofleflion of the navigation and
fifhery in certain latitudes, pretends an exclufive right, and
forbids any other interfering in it; if thefe obey that
prohibition with fufficient marks of acquiefcence, they
tacitly renounce their right in favour of the other, and.
e{tablifh a right which the other may afterwards lawfully
maintain again{t them, efpecially when it is confirmed by
long ufe.

Neverthelefs, the fea near the coafts may become pro-
perty ; fo that the nation to which the coatts belong may
appropriate to itfelf an advantage which it is confidered as
having taken poffeffion of, and made a profit of it, in the
fame manner as it may poffefs the domain of the land which
it inbabits. But if, fo far from taking pofleffion of it, it has
once acknowledged the common right of other nations to
come and fifh there, it can no longer exclude them from it ;
it has left that fifhery in its primitive freedom, at leaft, with
refpect to thofe who have been in poffeffion of it. The
Englifh not having taken the advantage from the beginning
of the herring fifhery on their coaft, it is become common to
them with other nations.

A nation may likewife appropriate things, where the free
and common ufe of them would be prejudicial and dangerous.
This is a fecond reafon for which powers extend their do-
mions over the fea along their coaft, as far as they are able
to proteét their right. It concerns their fafety and the
welfare of the ftate, that the whole world be not permitted
to come fo near their poffeffion, efpecially with men of war,
as to hinder the approach of trading nations, and difturb na-
wien, Thefe contiguous parts of the fea, thus fubje& to
a ftate, are comprehended in its territory ; nor can any one
navigate them in fpite of that nation. But it cannot refufe
accefs to veflels not fufpeéted, for innocent ufes, without vio-
lating its duty ; every proprietor being obliged to grant a
paflage to ftrangers, even by land, when it may be done
without damage or danger.

It is not me to determine to what diftance a nation may
extend its rights over the fea by which it is furrounded.
Bodinus pretends that, according to the common right of
all maritime nations, the prince’s dominion extends even
thirty leagues from the coaft. But this exact determination
can only be founded in a general confent of nations, which it
would be difficult to prove; each ftate may, in this refpe&,
ordain what it fhall think beft, in relation to what concerns
the citizens themfelves, or their affairs with the fovereign ;
but between nation and nation, all that can be reafonably
{aid is, that, in general, the dominion of the ftate over the
neighbouring fea extends as far as is neceflary for its fafety,
and it can render it refpeéted ; fince, on the one hand, it can
only appropriate to itfelf a thing that is common, as the fea,.
fo far as it has need of it, for fome lawful end ; and, as tothe
other, it would be a vain and ridiculous pretenfion to claim
a right that it was no ways able to caufe to be refpected.
The fleets of England have given room to its kings to attri-
bute to themfelves the empire of the feas which furround that
ifland, even as far as the oppofite coafts. (See Selden’s
“© Mare Claufum.”?) Selden relates a folemn a, by which
it appears that this empire, in the time of Edward I., was

acknow-

R
:

SEA.

acknowledged by the greateft part of the maritime nations
of Europe; and the republic of the United Provinces ac-

it, in the fame manner, by the treaty of Breda, in
the 1667, at leatt fo far as related to the honours of the
flag. But folidly to eftablith a right of fuch extent, it is
neceflary to thew very clearly the exprefs, or tacit, confent
of all the powers concerned. ‘The French have never agreed
te this pretenfion of England, and in the fame treaty of
Breda jutt mentioned, Louis XIV. would net even fuffer
the Channel to be called the Englifh Channel, or the Bri-
tith fea.

The banks of the fea belong inconteftibly to the nation
that pofleffes the country of ittck it isa part. ‘The ports
and harbours are manifeitly a dependance, and even a part
of the country, and confequently are the property of the
nation. The fame obfervation is applicable to the bays and
firaits. With to itraits in particular, that ferve for
a communication between two feas, the navigation of which
is common to all, or to many nations, he who pofleffes the
ftrait cannot refufe others a p through it, provided that

be innocent, and at with no danger to the
. Nothing but the care of his own fafety can authorize
the matter of i

ftrait to make ufe of certain precautions,
and to require the formalities common! chtablithed
per tacher

by the
nations, He has a right to {mall duties on

the veffels that “on account of the inconvenience they
Stele le him to be on his guard; by the fe-
curity he them in protecting them from their ene-
mies, and of pi at a diftance; and the expence

he incurs b pote light-houfes, fea-marks, and other
things pabaary to the fafety of the mariners. As to the right
fee Wreck. ,

incl within the lands of the Romans; and thefe
people, by rendering themfelves maiters of the ftrait that
joins it to the ocean, might fubjet it to their empire, and
add it to their domain. id not by thefe means injure
the rights of other nations ; a particular fea being anally

by nature for the ufe of the countries and the

ple who furround it. Befides, in defending the entrance of
the Mediterranean from all fufpected veflels, the Romans
fecured at once the immenfe extent of their coaft ; and this
reafon was fufficient to authorife their pofleffion of it. And
as it has an abfolute communication with none but their
ftate, they were at liberty to permit or prohibit the entrance
into it, in the fame manner as into any of their towns and

provinces.

When a nation takes poffeffion of certain parts of the fea,
it enjoys the empire, as well as the domain. Thofe parts of
the fea are within the jurifdiétion of the territory of the na-
tion ; the fovereign commands there, he makes laws, and
may punifh thofe who violate them ; in a word, he has the
fame ri there as at land, and in general all thofe given
him by the law of the tate.

It ought to be obferved, however, that a nation may

poffefs as the domain of a ftate at land or fea with-
out having the foverei 3 it may happen alfo that it may
have the empire of a place where the property of the comain

Engl to ufe belongs — other nation. The
i ve never pretended to have a property in all the
feas over which have claimed the empire. Vattel’s
Law of Nations, b. 1. ch. 23. .

a

The term fea is varioufly applied by failors, to a Gngle
wave, to the agitation produced by a multitude of waves
in a tempelt, or to their particular progrefs or direftion.
Thus they fay, a heavy fea broke over our quarter; or, we
thipped a heavy fea; there is a great fea in the offing; the
fea fets to the 1 hod sen Hence a thip is {aid to head the
fea, when her courfe is oppofed to the fetting or direction
of the furges. A Jong ys implies an uniform and fleady
motion of long and extenfive waves; on the contrary, 3 /hort
fea is when they run irregularly, broken and interrupted,
fo as frequently to burft over a veflel’s fide or quarter,

Sea, General Motion of the. Mr. Daflie of Paris, in 3
work publithed about a century ago, has been at great pains
to prove that the fea has a general motion, independent of
winds and tides, and of more confequence in navigation than
is ufually fuppofed. He affirms cae this motion is from
ealt to welt, inclining toward the north, when the fun bas
pafled the equinoétial northward, and that during the time
the fun is in the northern figns ; but the contrary way, after
the fun has paffed the faid equinoétial fouthward; adding,
that when this general motion is changed, the diurnal flux is
changed alfo ; whence it happens, that in feveral places the
tide comes in during one part of the year, and goes out dur-
ing the other, as on the coa{ts of Norway, in the Indies, at
Goa, Cochinchina, &c. where, while the fun is in the fum-
mer figns, the fea runs to the fhore; when in the winter
figns, from it. On the moft fouthern coafts of Tonquin
and China, for the fix fummer months, the diurnal courfe
runs from the north with the ocean; but the fun having re-
con the line toward the fouth, the courfe declines alfo
outhward. Phil. Tranf. N° 135.

Sra, Bajfon of the, Fundus maris, a term ufed by geo-
graphers, and other writers, to exprefs the bottom of the
fea in general.

Mr. Boyle has publifhed a treatife on this fubje&, in
which he has given an account of its irregularities and va-
rious depths, founded on the obfervations communicated to
him by mariners.

The ingenious count Marfigli has, fince his time, given
us a much fuller account of this part of the globe, moftly
from his own experiments in many places, particularly along
the coafts of Provence and Languedoc. The entire bafon
of the fea is of fuch immenfe extent, and covered in many
places with fuch an unfathomable depth of water, that it is
not to be expected that it can be traced in every part; but
as the whole may be gueffed at, from fome part of it, and
as its general figure is of no confequence in a fearch of this
kind, the obfervations of this curious author are of great
value, in forming a judgment of the whole.

The materials which compofe the = of the fea,
ma rationally be fuppofed, in fome de » to in-
Secs te tafte of Nes ate, ; and Marfigli hen tn many
experiments to prove, that foffile coal, ar other bituminous
fubftances which are found in plenty at the bottom of the
fea, may communicate in great part its bitternefs to it. See
SALTNEss.

We are not, however, to judge haftily, that there are
not fo many beds of thefe at the bottom of the fea, as
would be neceflary for fuch a purpofe, or to judge too
haflily againft the exiftence of any other fubftances there,
becaufe we do not find proofs af then by the plummet,
which in founding brings up other fubftances, and not thefe;
for the true bottom of the fea is very often covered and ob-
{cured from us by another accidental bottom, formed of va-
rious fubttances mingled together, and often covering it to a
confiderable depth.

The entire gulf of Lyons, fituated between Cape Quiez

in

SEA.

in Roufillon, and Cape Croifit in Provence, forms a bank
above the furface of the water at the fhore, of the exact and
perfect figure of an arch; and within this there is formed
another fuch arch, making the bottom of the fea in that
place for a very great way from fhore, which is of different
depths in various places, but ufually between fixty and
feventy fathom. See Sea-SHORE.

It is a general rule among failors, and is found to hold
true in a great many inftances, that the more the fhores of
any place are fteep and high, forming perpendicular cliffs,
the more deep the fea is below; and that, on the contrary,
level fhores denote fhallow feas. Thus the deepeft part of
the Mediterranean is generally allowed to be under .the
height of Malta. The obfervation of the {trata of earth,
and other foflils, on and near the fhores, may ferve to form
a very good judgment as to the materials which are found in
its bottom.

The veins of falt and of bitumen doubtlefs run on the
fame, and in the fame order in which we fee them at land ;
and the itrata of rocks, that ferve to fupport the earth of
hills and elevated places on fhore, ferve alfo, in the fame
continued chain, to fupport the immenfe quantity of water
in the bafon of the fea. It is probable alfo, that the veins
of metals, and of other mineral fubftances, which are found
in the neighbouring earth, are in the fame manner continued
into the depths of the fea. The particles of metals in this
cafe, are probably carried off into deep water, and funk
among the fofter matter of the bottom, but fome of the
lighter minerals feem to have given colour to thofe beautiful
crufts, which are found upon many fea fubftances, and which
lofe their luftre in the drying. The fubterranean rivers,
and currents of water, make great changes in what would
be the natural furface of the bottom of the fea, where they
arife, each having a peculiar bafon of its own. We are in-
formed by numerous inftances of fubterranean currents, and
as we fee them break out in rivers on the furface of the earth
in fome parts, fo in others we may be well affured that they
break up the bottom of the fea, and empty their frefh waters
into the falt mafs.

In this cafe, the rufhing up continually of fuch a body
of water makes a roundifh cavity, and its running fome one
way, lengthens and carries on that cavity, till by degrees it
is loft, as the frefh water by degrees becomes blended with
the falt.. Thus every river that arifes in the bottom of the
fea, alters the form of its furface, and makes a bafon for
itfelf, in which it runs a confiderable way. Many feas near
the fhore, and when the water is tolerably clear, fhew the
traces of thefe currents to the naked eye from the furface,
and the water taken up from them is found more or lefs
frefh.

The coral fifheries have given us occafion to obferve, that
there are many, and thofe very large caverns, or holiows in
the bottom of the fea, efpecially when it is rocky ; and that
the like caverns are fometimes found in the perpendicular
rocks, which form the fteep fides of thofe fifheries. Thefe
caverns are often of great depths, as well as extent, and
have fometimes wide mouths, equal to their largeft diameter
in any part, but fometimes they have only narrow entrances
into large and {pacious hollows. It is the common opinion
of the people about the place, that thefe caverns are pre-
pared by nature for the circulation of the fea-water; but
that operatien, however neceflary, may be performed as
well without, as with thefe caverns, and they feem in reality
to be only accidental.

We daily meet with immenfe hollows and caverns, na-
turally made in rocky mountains; and as this part of the
bettom of the fea is almoft all rock, and its fides of the

fame nature, it is no wonder that the fame accidents fhould
happen, and like hollows be found, though with no parti-
cular intent of Providence in their ufe. Nay, there is this
farther reafon to expeét them in the rocks buried under the
fea than in thofe in hills, that the latter are in a ftate of reft
and quiet, whereas the former are in continual reach of
water, which will infinuate itfelf into every crack or crevice
nature has left in them, and may be eafily {uppofed to have
burrowed its way in a {mall hole made by nature, till it has
formed of it a very large one.

From fuch obfervations he infers, that the bafon of the
fea was at the creation, or at its fecond formation after the
univerfal deluge, covered with or compofed of the fame
fub{tances, as the furface of the reft of the earth is, that is
of rocks, clay, and fand, and other fuch fubftances. Over
thefe there is an artificial bottom formed of muddy tartareous -
incruftations, dead weeds, broken fhells, and other bodies
of the fame kind, cemented together into a firm mafs or
cruft; and in thofe places where this cruft has never been
formed, or where it has been broken, the bottom of the fea
is of the fame nature with the ftrata of the earth.

The bottom of the fea is covered with a variety of mat-
ters, fuch as could not be imagined by any but thofe who
have examined into it, efpecially in deep water, where the
{urface only is difturbed by tides and ftorms, the lower part,
and confequently its bed at the bottom, remaining for ages
perhaps undifturbed, The foundings, when the plummet
firft touches ground on approaching the fhores, give fome
ideas of this. The bottom of the plummet is hollowed, and
in that hollow there is placed a lump of tallow ; this being
the bottom, of the lead, is what firft touches the ground, and
the foft nature of this fat receives into it fome part of thofe
{ub{ftances which it meets with at the bottom; this matter,
thus brought up, is fometimes pure fand, fometimes a fort
of fand made of the fragment of fhells, beat to a fort of
powder ; fometimes it is made of a like powder of the feve-
ral forts of corals; and fometimes it is compofed of frag-
ments of rocks; but befide thefe appearances, which are
natural enough, and are what might very well be expected,
it brings up fubftances which are of the moft beautiful
colours.

Things of as fine a fcarlet, vermilion, purple, &c. as
the fineft paint could make them, and as yellow as a folu-
tion of gamboge, are common; and fometimes, though not
fo frequently, the matter brought up is blue, green, or of
a pure {nowy whitenefs. Thefe coloured matters fometimes
feem to have made up the whole bottom or mafs of the fur-
face, but more ufually they have been formed upon other
things, as upon the mud, or upon larger pieces of thells,
corals, and the like, in the manner of tartareous crufts, and
thofe in fome degree refembling the cruftaceous coats of
fome of the fea plants. The colours of thefe fubftances
are not merely fuperficial and tranfient, but many of them
are fo real and permanent, that they may be received into
white wax melted, and poured upon them, or kept in fufion
about them; and when thus examined, they feem as if a
proper care might make them of great value, as paints of
the finer kinds, where little is to be ufed.

The fame coloured matters that thus coat the fubftances,
found at the bottom of the fea in thefe places, are alfo fome-
times found extended over the furface of marine fubftances
of the harder kind, which are found in deep water. They
are always, in this cafe, in a fort of liquid form, being lodged
within, or embodied among a fort of jelly or glue of a
tranfparent fub{tance, which in thefe cafes perfectly coats
over the whole. In this {tate it gives the naturalift, who is
prefent at the fifhing up of his treafures, a tranfient priest

0

' SEA.

ind, but this vanithes while he admires

piece of coral, or other hard (ubitance, thus goated
appears, as it rifles to the furface of the water, of a
blue, or purple; but when taken above

é found that this fine colour is only in the coat of
y which covers the fubflance ; as foon as this is
the colour is catried away with it, and the coral
own native tinge ; and it is to no purpole to a
g of t, by amy this glue to Ay ne the

for the colour flies away by degrees, as the moifture
the coral, &c. whatever it be, is only fo
beautiful, than it naturally would have been,
with a dry yellowith dicey looking horny
are beauties in the fub-marine productions,
can be only feen by thofe who venture out

Hi

Hf

5

ye

nF

.F
a]

t colours, which we
bodies, as we
water, may give a rational idea of what we
were we able to examine the bottom of the fea
and recefles. It is eafy to con-
in thefe we fhould find great quantities of
ftances. Marfigli, Hiit. Phyf. de la

Donati, in an Italian work, containing an eflay to-
of the Adriatic fea, printed at Ve-
y curious obfervations on this

and which confirm the above account of Marfigli ;
carefully examined the foil and productions of the
countries that furround the Adriatic fea, and com-
them with thofe which he took from the bottom
fea, he found that there is little difference
former and the latter. At the bottom of the
are mountains, plains, vallies, and caverns,
thofe upon land. The foil confifts of different
another, and for the mott part parallel
correfpondent to thofe of the rocks, iflands, sid neg:
i ‘contain {tones of different forts,
various putrified bodies, pumice-ftone and

as the bottom of the
of a whitifh marble, of an
ual hardnefs; and this

earth and fea, is in-

E

Fl

f
Ly

;
;

=

Hy

ELF
i
:
g

i y of foils, he afcribes the
refpeét to the nature «y tegegng of

have conjectured.
hat the bottom of the fea is

ur; and from this rifing of the

of the level of the water naturally re-

this writer recites a great number
f. vol. xlix. p. 585, &c.

feveral experiments on the

to find what particles it

fcrapings of galls in it, it

_panding their fins, or otherwife movin

becomes of a bright purple colour, but that not till it has
food a confiderable time, On adding oil of tartar per deli-

wivm to it, it becomes turbid, and looks as if globules of
fat were fluétuating in it; this unétuous matter, upon its
long ftanding in repofe, comes together in form of a fedi-
ment atthe bottom, On pouring f{pirit of vitriol into it, it
depofits a mulk-white aiedld fediment, which, after Nanding
twelve hours, occupies about one-fifth part of the liquor.
On putting s {mall quantity of faccharum faturni to it, it de-
pofits a {mall quantity of a greyith powder ; being feverally
and feparately mixed with mB tidal, of fublimate, with {pint
of fal ammoniac, and with fugar of violets, it neither fer-
ments nor depofits any fediment, nor changes colour, except
with the fugar of violets, with which it becomes green.

It is highty faturated with falt, fo that it is to common
water in {pecific gravity, as five to four; and it has fo acrid
and ftyptic a talte, that on being held in the mouth, it con-
itringes it in the manner of alum.

It appears, that this water is impregnated with a fort of
an acrid and alkaline nature, and a matter partly of a ful-

hureous, partly of a bituminous nature. Philof. Tranf.
® 462. p. 50. For the obfervations of other writers on
this fubject, fee Aspnantire Jake, and Dean Sra.

Sea, luminoufne/s of the, is a phenomenon that has been
taken notice of by many nautical and philofophical writers.
Mr. Boyle, after reciting “feveral circumftances attending
this appearance, afcribes it to fome cofmical law, or cuftom
of the terreftrial globe, or at leaft of the planetary vortex.

Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies, in 1704,
took particular notice of this Baha and very minutely
deferibes it, without affigning the true caufe.

The abbé Nollet was long of opinion, that the light of the
fea proceeded from eleGtricity, and others have bad recourfe
to the fame hypothefis. M. Bayon, in his ‘* Mémoires pour
fervir a PHittoire de Cayenne, &c.”” Paris, 1778, informs
us, that, having made a great number of experiments, in
different feafons, in ‘order to find out the true caufe of this
phenomenon, he always found, that the luminous points in
the furface of the fea were produced merely by fridtion.

However, there have been two hypothefes, which have
moft generally been received, for the {olution of this pheno-
menon ; one of which afcribes it to the fhining of luminous
infe&ts or animalcules, and the other to the light proceeding
from the putrefaction of animal fubftances. The abbe
Nollet, who at firft confidered the luminoufnefs of the fea as
an electrical phenomenon, having had an opportunity of
afcertaining the circumitances of it, when he was at Venice
in 1749, relinquifhed his former opinion, and concluded that
it was occafioned either by the luminous afpeét, or by fome
liquor or efluvia of an infect which he particularly defcribes ;
but does not altogether exclude other caufes, and efpecially
the {pawn or fry of fifh.

The fame hypothefis had alfo occurred to M. Vianelli,
profeffor of medicine in Chioggia near Venice ; and both he
and M. Grizellini, a phyfician in Venice, have given draw-
ings of infects from which they imagined this light to pro-

A fimilar conje€ture is propofed by a correfpondent of
Dr. Franklin, in a letter read at the Royal Society in 1756;
the writer of which apprehends, that this appearance may be
caufed by a great number of little animals, floating on the
furface of the fea, which, on being difturbed, might, by ex-
themfelves, expofe
{uch a part of their bodies as exhibits a luminous appearance,
constetees in the manner of a glow-worm, or fire-fly ;
thefe animals may be more numerous in fome places than
others, and, therefore, that the appearance above-men-

SEA.

tioned, being fainter and ftronger in different places, might
be owing to this caufe ; and that certain circumitances of
weather, &c. might invite them to the furface, on which, in
acalm, they eh {port themfelves and glow, or in ftorms,
being forced up, make the fame appearance.

Mr. Foiter, in his account of a voyage round the world
with captain Cook, in the years 1772, 1773, 1774, and
1775, deferibing this phenomenon as a kind of blaze of the
fea, and having attentively examined fome of the illumined
water, expreffes his conviction, that the appearance was oc-
cafioned by innumerable minute animals of a round fhape,
moving through the water in all directions. One of thefe
luminous {parks, which ftuck to his finger while he was ftir-
ring his water with his hand, was examined by the common
magnifier of Mr. Ramf{den’s improved microfcope, and was
found to be globular, tranfparent like a gelatinous fubftance,
and fomewhat brownifh ; by means of the greateft magnifier,
the orifice of a little tube was difcovered, which entered the
body of the animal ; within which were four or five inteftinal
bags connected with the tube. He imagines that thefe ani-
malcules may be the young fry of fome fpecies of medufa,
or blubber, and confiders them as pofleffed of the power of
fhining, or of withholding their light at pleafure.

M. Dagelet, a French aftronomer, failing into the bay of
Antongil, in the ifland of Madagafcar, obferved a pro-
digious quantity of fry, which covered the fea above a mile
in length, and which he at firft took for banks of fand, on
account of their colour ; they exhaled a difagreeable odour,
and the fea had appeared with uncommon fplendour fome
days before. On another occafion, having perceived the
fea to be remarkably luminous in the road of the Cape of
Good Hope, during a perfe&t calm, he remarked that the
oars of the canoes produced a whitifh and pearly kind of
luftre ; when he took in his hand the fhining water, he dif-
cerned in it, for fome minutes, globules of light as large as
the heads of pins; upon prefling thefe, they feemed to be a
foft and thin pulp, and fome days after the fea was covered,
near the coafts, with whole banks of thefe little fifh in innu-
merable multitudes.

M. Dagelet, in his return from the Terra Auttralis in
1774, brought with him feveral kinds of worms, which
fhine in water when it is fet in motion; and Mr. Rigaud
affirms, that the luminous furface of the fea, from the port of
Breft to the Antilles, contains an immenfe quantity of fmall,
round, fhining polypufes.

M. le Roi, after giving much attention to this phenomenon,
concludes that it is not occafioned by any fhining infects,
efpecially as, after carefully examining with a microfcope
fome of the luminous points, he found them to have no ap-
pearance of any animal; and he alfo found, that the mixture
of a little {pirit of wine with water juft drawn from the fea,
would give the appearance of a great number of little fparks,
which would continue vifible longer than thofe in the ocean ;
the fame effect was produced by all the acids, and various
other liquors. M. le Roiis far from aflerting that there are
no luminous infeéts in the fea; for he allows that the abbé
Nollet and M. Vianelli had found them; but he is fatisfied
that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other account,
though he does not fo much as offer a conjecture with refpe&t
to the true caufe.

Other writers, equally diflatisfied with the hypothefis of
luminous infeéts, for explaining the phenomenon, which is
the fubjeét of this article, have afcribed it to fome fubftance
of the phofphoric kind, arifing from putrefaCtion.

The obfervations of F. Bourzes, above referred to, render
it very probable, that the luminoufnefs of the fea arifes from
flimy and other putrefcent matter with which it abounds,

though he does not mention the tendency to putrefaion, ag
a circumitance of any confequence to the appearance,

The correfpondent of Dr. Franklin, part of whofe letter
has been already recited, obferves, that feveral gentlemen
have been of opinion, that the feparated particles of putrid,
animal, and other bodies, floating on the furface of the fea,
might caufe this appearance, for putrid fifh, &c. will caufe
it ; and the fea animals which have died, and other bodies
putrefied in it fince the creation, might afford a fufficient
quantity of thefe particles to cover a confiderable portion
of the furface of the fea; which particles being differently
difperfed, might account for the different degrees of light
in this appearance ; but he adds, this account feems liable
to an obvious objection, viz. that as putrid fifh, &c. make
a luminous appearance without being moved or difturbed,
it might be expeéted that the fuppofed putrid particles on
the furface of the fea fhould always appear luminous, when
there is not a greater light; and, confequently, that the
whole furface of the fea covered with thofe particles fhould
always, in dark nights, appear luminous, without being
difturbed, which, he fays, is contrary to fa&. Franklin’s
Experiments and Obfervations, p. 274, &c.

This difficulty is, in a great meafure, removed by the
experiments of Mr. Canton, recited in the Philofophical
TranfaGions, vol. lix. p. 446, &c. which have the advantage
of being cafily made, and leave no room for doubt, that the
luminoufnefs of the fea is principally owing to putrefaétion.
Having put a frefh whiting into a gallon of fea-water,
neither the whiting, nor the water when agitated, gave any
light ; Fahrenheit’s thermometer, placed in the cellar where
the pan was placed, ftanding at 54°: the following evening,
that part of the fifh which was even with the furface of the
water was luminous, but the water itfelf was dark; how-
ever, on drawing through it the end of a ftick, the water
appeared luminous behind the ftick all the way, but gave
light only where it was difturbed: when all the water was
ftirred, the whole became luminous, and appeared like milk,
yielding a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
pan, which it continued to do for fome time after it was at
reft,. The water was moft luminous when the fifh had
been in it about twenty-eight hours, but would give no
light by being ftirred after it had been in it three days. He
then put a eeu of frefh water into one pan, and an equal
quantity of fea-water into another, and into each pan he

ut a frefh herring, of about three ounces; the next night
the whole furface of the fea-water was luminous without
being ftirred, but much more fo when put in motion, and
the upper part of the herring, which was confiderably below
the furface of the water, was alfo very bright; while at
the fame time, the frefh water, and the fifh that was in it,
were quite dark, There were feveral very bright luminous
{pots on different parts of the furface of the fea-water, and
the whole, when viewed by the light of a candle, feemed
covered with a greafy fcum. ‘The third night the light of
the fea-water, while at reft, was very little, if at all, lefs
than before ; but when ftirred, its light was fo great as to
difcover the time by a watch, and the fifh in it appeared
as a dark fubftance. After this its light was evidently
decreafing, but was not quite gone before the feventh
night ; the frefh water, and the fifh in it, were perfectly
dark during the whole time. The thermometer was gene-
rally above 60°. Having made artificial fea-water, deter-
mined by an hydrometer to be of the fame {pecific gravity
with the fea-water, by adding four ounces avoirdupois of
falt to feven pints of water, wine meafure, he put into a
gallon of this water a fmall herring ; and another into a
gallon of water, in which two pounds of falt had been dif-

folved

EE —————————————

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SEA ‘

The next evening, the whole furface of the arti-
fea-water was luminous without being ftirred, but
much more light when it was dilturbed, and exhi-
the fame appearances with the real fea-water in the
ing experiment ; while the other water, which was
falt as it could be made, never gave any light.
g which was taken out of it the feventh night, and
from its falt, was found firm and {weet ; ee the
herring was very foft and putrid, much more fo than
which had been kept as long in freth water. If a

» in warm weather, be put into ten gallons of arti-
et Eecarncer, inftead of one, the water, Mr. Canton fays,
ill fill become luminous, but its light will not be fo

Ef

ne

TEL?
UF

Dp

experiments confirm an obfervation of fir John
that the quantity of falt contained in fea-water
putrefaction ; but koce that precife quantity of falt
promotes putrefaction the moft, is lefs than that
in fea-water, it is probable, Mr. Canton
if the fea were lefs falt, it would be more
Pourarrraction.
r. Canton obferved, as Mr. Ant. Martin Swed. Ab-
vol. xxxiii. p. 225. had done, that feveral kinds of
be made to give light, in the fame cir-
cumflances in which any fea-fith became luminous. He
that a piece of carp made the water very
the outfide, or fealy part of it, did
not at See this fubject farther difcufled under
the article Exhibition of Licur from Living Animals.
— Sea, Perils of the, in Marine Infurance, denote, ina large
fenfe, the accidents or misfortunes to which perfons
engaged in maritime adventures are expofed; but it has
convenient to diitinguifh the lofles to which
at fea are liable, by the “« immediate caufes””
ay be afcribed. Accordingly the perils of
mean only fuch accidents or misfortunes as proceed
mere that is, fuch as arife from ftrefs of
winds, waves, from lightning and tempetts,
rocks and fands, &c. A lofs by the perils of the
therefore happen, 1ft, by the thip’s oundering at
which cafe it mult generally be total; or, 2dly, by
which is either accidental, in confequence of the
being driven on fhore by the winds and waves, or
fhe is run afhore either to prevent a worfe
for fome fraudulent purpofe : this itranding may be
ae Ned —— which occafions a total lofs, and if
i off in a condition to profecute her voyage,
Rice che lectemerecincnesed. will, mor
partial lofs of the nature of a general average ; or,
thip’s itriking againft a funken rock, or fome-
under water, may occafion the f{pringin
or abfolute fhipwreck. If a fhip be not h
a reafonable time, fhe thall be prefumed to have
at fea. In fome countries there is a limitation
for this ption; thus in Spain, if a fhip has
for fix from ce departure on a
he Indies, fhe is deemed loit; but in
year from the thip’s failing, in common
years in diflant voyages, the infured may
payment, without other proof of lofs.
i ee tath Inalbeticm of time. When an
be reafonable by thofe who are con-
has elapfed, a liberal under-
his lofs ; and if there be any ground for
either demand fecurity from the infured to
the fhip fhould afterwards arrive
remedy by action, for recovering

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7

SEA

it back. If a thip be driven by firefs of weather on as
enemy's coat, and be there captured, this us a lols by
capture and not by perils of the fea, for which the infured
may recover upon a policy againft capture only ; and yet
it has been holden, that capture is a lofs by the perils of
the fea, as much as if it were occafioned by hhipwreck or
tempeft. If flaves be thrown overboard, on account of a
fearcity of water, occafioned by the captain's mattakin g his
courfe; this is not a lofs by the perils of the fea. The
cafe is the fame, if the flaves dic for want of food, occafioned
by the extraordinary length of the voyage. And if a thi
be deftroyed by worms, the lofs is not attributable to erib
of the fea. As to the cafe of throwing flaves overboard in
order to lighten a thip and preferve it in a ftorm, the prac-
tice has been juftly reprobated by ferjeant Marfhall. Every
thing on board, however precious, as he humanely and
rationally obferves, fhould be thrown into the fea fooner
than the meaneft flave. Puffendorff alfo maintains, that
whoever, under pretence of faving the fhip, thall throw men
into the fea, whether they be freemen or | ros and whether
it be done by or without lot, is guilty of homicide; for no
man, in order to fave his own life, has a right to take awa
the life of any other human being, who does not

him.

If, by fome extraordinary accident, as the violence of the
winds or waves, it becomes neceflary to flip a cable, or a
cable be broke, and an anchor loft, or a fail or yard be
carried away, this is a lofs by the perils of the fea within
the policy. Alfo, if animals be infured, their death, oc-
cafioned . tempelts, by the fhot of an enemy, by jettifon
in a ftorm, or by any other extraordinary accident, 1s a lofs
within the policy; but it is otherwife if their death be
owing to difeale. The injury occafioned by one fhip’s run-
ning foul of another at fea, is a lofs within the policy, unlefs
it be imputable to the mifconduét of the matter or mariners
of the fhip infured. In fuch cafe, however, this mifeondu@
would, as ferjeant Marfhall conceives, amount to 2
and the infurer would be liable for the lofs ; but an aétion
would lie againft the mafter of either thip, to whom the
mifconduét is imputable, for the lofs which he has occafioned.
A lofs occafioned by an accidental fire, not imputable te
the fault of the matter or mariners, is a lofs within the
policy ; and in many places the infurer is held to be liable,
even when the fire happens by the fault of the mafter or
mariners ; but in France the infurer is not held anfwerable
in fuch cafe, unlefs, by the policy, he be liable for barratry.
For every lofs occafioned by capture, whether lawful or un-
lawful, and whether by friends or enemies, the infurer is
liable. Marfhall on Infurance, vol. i. See Recaprurg,
Rusk, and SALvAGe.

Sra-Adder, in Ichthyology, an Englith name for a fea-fith
‘of the acus kind, called by Willughby the acus /umbriciformiz.
See Acus and SynGratuus.

It is a {mall fith of a cylindric hhape, without fcales, and
of a greenifh-brown colour, with fome admixture of a
reddifh-yellow.

Their fnout is long and hollow, and the mouth opens
upwards at its end; the eyes are imall, and their nis red ;
the gills are four on each fide, but are covered by a mem-
brane, and the whole body divided into rings like the
common earth-worm : it is ufually about three or four inches
long, and of the thicknefs of a goofe-quill ; it has but one
fin, which is fituated on the back. The anus is much nearer
the head than the tail, and under the {nout there is always
a Refhy tubercle.

The fifh is common on the coatt of Cornwall. Willughby.

Sea-Army. See Naval Anny.

R Sra-

SEA

Sea-Afrolabe. See AsTROLABE.

Sra-Banks. (See Bank.) Malicioufly deftroying fea-
banks, by which lands may be overflowed, is made felony
without benefit of clergy by 6 Geo. II. c. 25, and
to Geo. II. c. 32.

Sea-Bat, in Ichthyology. See Cumronon Vefpertilio.

Sra-Bear, in Zoology, the Phoca urfina of Linnzus, called
alfo by fome writers the /ea-cat, and by Pennant the ur/ine
feal, inhabits together with the fea-lion and manati, from
June to September, the ifles that are fcattered in the feas

etween Kamt{chatka and America, in order to copulate, and
bring forth their young in full fecurity. In September
they quit their {tation in a very emaciated {tate ; fome return-
ing to the Afiatic, and others to the American fhores, but,
like the féa-otters, they are confined to thofe feas between
latitude 50° and 56°. Thefe animals are alfo common about
New Zealand, Staten-ifland, New Georgia, and the Falk-
land Iflands.

The urfine feals lead, during the three months of fummer,
a very indolent life ; they are confined for feveral weeks to
the fame fpot, fleep the greateft part of their time, eat
nothing, and are totally inaétive, the employment of the
females in fuckling their young excepted. ‘They live in
families, each male having from eight to fifty females, which
he guards with jealoufy ; and though they he by thoufands
on the fhore, each family, confifting fometimes of one hundred
and twenty, keeps itfelf feparate from the ret.

The old animals, which are deferted by the females, live
apart, and are exceedingly {plenetic and quarrelfome, very
fierce, and fo attached to their old haunts, that they would
die fooner than quit them; in defending thefe, difcord is
fometimes fpread through the whole fhore. The other
males are alfo very irafcible, and the caufes of their difputes
are generally fuch as thefe; an attempt to feduce any of
their females, the intrufion of one upon the {tation of
another, and interference in their mutual quarrels. Their
battles are fevere and bloody, and when they terminate,
the combatants throw themfelves into the fea, to wath away
the blood.

The males are very fond of their young, of which the
female generally brings but one at a time, and never more
than two: but they are very tyrannical towards the fe-
males, which, on the other hand, are very fawning and
fubmiffive.

' The fea-bears {wim very fwiftly, at the rate of feven miles
an hour ; when wounded will feize on the boat, bear it away
with impetuofity, and fometimes fink it. They can continue
a long time under water. When they want to climb the
rocks, they fatten with the fore-paws, and draw themfelves
up. They are very tenacious of life, and will live for a
fortnight after receiving fuch wounds as would immediately
deftroy any other animal.

The males of this fpecies are much larger than the females ;
their bodies are of a conical form, thick before, and taper-
in& to.the tail; the length of a large one is eight feet, the
greateft circumference five feet, and near the tail twenty
inches ; the weight 8oolbs. ; the nofe projects like that of a
pug dog, but the head rifes fuddenly ; the noftrils are oval,
divided by a feptum ; the lips thick, and in the infide red
and ferrated ; the whifkers long and white ; the teeth, which
are thirty-fix in number, lock into each other when the
mouth is clofed ; the tongue bifid; the eyes are large and
prominent, and capable of being covered at pleafure with a
flefhy membrane ; the ears are fmall and fharp-pointed ; the
length of the fore-legs is twenty-four inches; the feet are
formed with toes, but covered with a naked ficin, fo as en-
tirely to appear a fhapelefs mafs; tne bind-legs are twenty-

SEA

two inches long, and fixed to the body behind, but capa-
ble of being brought forward, and the feet are divided into
five toes; the tail is only two inches long; the hair is long
and rough, under which is a foft down of a bay colour ;
the general colour of thefe animals is black, but the hairsof ~
the old ones are tipt with grey. The females are cinereous.
The {kins of the young, cut out of the bellies of their dams,
are ufeful for clothing.

The fat and flefh of the old males are very nanfeous, but
the flefh of the females refembles lamb, and the young ones
roatted are as good as fucking-pigs. Pennant’s Hift. Quad.
vol. i. p. 526, &c. See Puoca Urfina.

Sra-Bifket. See Biskur.

Sea-Boat, in Naval Language, a veflel that bears the fea
firmly, without labouring heavily, or {training her mafts or
rigging.

Sva-Breaches, a term ufed by the farmers to exprefs the
overflowing of their low lands near the fea by the fea-
water.

Sea-falt, moderately ufed, is a great improvement to all
lands, but too much of it kills all forts of vegetables,
except fuch as nature has intended to live among it. See
SALT.

The fea breaking in upon lands thus, injures them greatly.
The owner is to {top the breach by which it entered with all
poffible diligence, and then trenches and drains mutt be cut
through all parts of the land to carry the falt-water into
fome one low place, from which it may be emptied by means
of an engine; or if it be {mall in quantity, it may be laded
out by hand over the bank; orif yet lefs, the fun and winds
may dry it away ; but in either cafe, the place where it was
fuflered to reft muit be covered with a large quantity of freth
earth, to take off from the too great faltnefs of the other ;
and the whole land fhould be ploughed for three or four years,
to let in the rains and air to frefhen it.

SEea-Bream, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name for the fifh
called by the generality of authors the pagrus and phagrus.
According to the new fyftem of Artedi, it is a {pecies of
the /pari, and is diftinguifhed by the name of the red /parus,
with the fkin carried into a finus at the roots of the back
fins, and the pinnaani. See SPARUS.

Sra-Buckthorn, in Botany. See HrpropHar.

Sra-Brief, in Marine Infurance. See Sea-Letter.

Sra-Cabbage, in Gardening, the common name of an ufe-
ful garden plant. See Brassica and Cramer. See alfo
Sea-Kale. :

SEa-Calf, Phoca vitulina in the Linnean fy{tem of
Zoology, is the common feal, with large black eyes, large
whifkers, oblong noftrils, flat head and nofe, tongue forked
at the end, two canine teeth in each jaw, fix cutting teeth
in the upper jaw, four in the lower, no external ears, body
covered with thick fhort hair, fhort tail, and toes furnifhed
with ftrong fharp claws; its ufual length is from five to fix
feet ; the colour various; dufky, brindled, or {potted with
white or yellow. This {pecies inhabits moft quarters of the
globe, but is found in greateft number towards the north and
fouth; they {warm near the Arétic circle, and the lower parts
of South America, in both oceans near the fouthern end of
Terra del Fuego, and among the floating ice as low as lat.
60° 21! S.

They are alfo found in the Cafpian fea, in the lake Aral,
and lakes Baikal and Orav, which are frefh waters, but
thefe are lefs, and more fat than thofe of the falt-water.
Seals bring forth two young at a time in autumn, which
are for a fhort time white and woolly, and fuckle them till
they are fix or feven weeks old in rocks or caverns, when
they take to fea; as they cannot remain long under water,

j : they

SEA

they frequently rife to take breath, and often float on the
waves.
1a fummer they feep on rocks or fand banks ; if furprifed,
ae plunge into the fea, and when at adittance fling up the
with their hind feet, and make a piteous moaning, as
wren along; and if they are overtaken, vigoroufly
themfelves with their feet and teeth: they are foon
killed by a fight blow on the nofe, otherwife they will fur-

vive many wounds.

Thefe animals {wim with great ftrength and {peed, and in
their own clement {port without fear sbout thips and boats,
\. fays Mr. Pennant, may have given rife to the fable of

which,

fea-nymphs and fyrens. They are gentle and docile ; they

feed on all forts of th; = wd rp good food, and

eat by voyagers: they are killed for the fake of the oil made
from their fat, of which a young {eal will yield eight gallons ;

their dkins are ufeful in making waiftcoats, covers for trunks,

and other conveniencies ; an

ohniton, Rondeletius, and Gefner, have made
of this creature, fo as to con-

no jutt ddea of it.
gy es ing one of thefe animals, the ftomach, intef-
tines, bladder,

z
2

lobes, each hanging as lon
very fmmall pall-bladder, he bealt was

the

unds weight of flinty
angular, as if the animal chofe them
or a the food. The uterus was of

le
h
A
2

f
E
a

the cornua is a great hole.
oer snnrrabeedeeeotanar brags ercane
, ° us,
eacae me

_ This animal is viviparous, and fuckles its young by the wood

mamille, like > on ; and its flefh is carnous and muf-
cu by Dr. Parfons was feven feet and an
young, having fearcely any teeth,
placed about the navel,
adefeription of other {peci i auivathcdewes Cron
a ce) ce) |, wi r.
in Phil. Tranft vol. xlvii P- 109; esis Pen-
vol. ii. p. 518, Sc.
See Cuarr.

am fort of clayey matter

and often of vaiPeoes .
° a iff tenacious qua-
mixing with earthy fella. ‘Ie mottly lies rc.
matters that are colle&ted in fuch fitu-

In Lancathire they make ufe of a fat fort of fea-clay, which
is dug out elofeto the fhore on the lefs itiff forts of land, when
in the ftate of fallow for wheat, in the proportion of about
horfe cart-loads to the acre, and believe it to an-

fea-fand, or even faady mud.

Hey pote be os my ate

SEA

Sua-Compafi. See Compass

Sea-Cow, in Zoology the Euglith name of the manadl, a
{pecies of fith fo different from all the other cetaceous tribe,
to which it properly belongs, that Artedi, in his new fyttem
of ichthyology, allorsit a peculiar penerical name, which is
trieheeus: in the Linowan fyitem it is the Tascnncus masartes,
which fee. ‘This {pecies has thick lips, very {mall eyes,
two fimall orifices in the place of ears; neck fhort, and
thicker than the head; the greateft thicknefs of the body
is about the thoulders, from which it grows gradually {maller
to the tail, which lies horizontally, being broad, and thick.
eft in the middle, and growing thinner to the edges, and
quite round, ‘The feet are placed at the fhoulders ; beneath
the fkins are bones for five complete toes, and externally
are three or four nails flat and rounded; near the bale of
each foot in the female is a teat; the ftkin is very thick
and hard, having a few hairs {cattered over it, whence the
name frichecus, det of Saiz, hair, and sx be Nh. ‘Thofe
animals of this fpecies, that were meafured by Dampier in
the Welt Indies, were ten or twelve feet long; their tall
twenty inches in length, fourteen in breadth, and four or five
thick in the middle, and two at the edges; and the
of them weighed twelve hundred pounds ; but fome have
been mentioned, the length of which has been fixteen feet
and a half, and even twenty feet.

According to Dampier, thofe which inhabit freth waters
are much lefs than the others: they inhabit the rivers of
Africa, from that of Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope,
and abound in certain parts of the eaftern coatts and rivers
of South America, about the bay of Honduras, fome of
the greater Antilles, the rivers of Oronoque and of the
Amazons.

They fometimes live in the fea, and often near the mouth
of fome river, into which they come once or twice in twenty-
four hours, for the fake of feeding on the marine plants, and
they are fonder of brackifh or {weet water than of the falt ;
and delight in fhallow water near low land, and in places
fecure from furges, and where the tides run gently. They
are faid to frolic and leap fometimes out of tha water to
a great height. Their flefh and fat are white, fweet, and
falubrious ; and the tail of a young female is much efteemed,
and a fuckling roafted highly delicious. The thicker part
of the fkin, cut firft into lengths of two or three
ferves for whips, &c. and becomes tough, when dried, as

Thefe animals are taken by a harpoon ftuck in the end
of a ftaff, which the Indians ufe with great dexterity. If
a female with a young one is itruck, fhe ‘takes it under its
fing or feet, and fhews, in extremity, the greateit affe¢tion
for its offspring ; and the young one never forfakes its cap-
tured parent, But becomes a fure prey to the harpooner.
This animal is called by Herrera taurus marinus, or the
fea-bull, and by others the tachas and /a donna. ‘The French
call it Jamantin, or namentin; and the Portuguefe pexse mouller,
Tt may feem ftrange, that fo ill-fhaped a creature as this
fhould have given rife to the itories of the fyrens and mer-
maids, the fea-men and fea-women, yet there is great reafon
to believe, that all the fabulous accounts of thefe monfters,

Ruffians diftinguifh by the name of the mor/taia korowa, or

fea-cow. ‘This animal, whofe feet are merely peétoral fins,

and ferve only for fwimming, brings forth in the water, and,
like the whale, fuckles its young m that element; like the
R 2 whale,

SEA

whale, it has no voice, and, like that animal, has an hori-
zontal broad tail, without even the rudiments of hind feet.
It inhabits the feas about Bering’s, and the other Aleutian
lands, between Kamtfchatka and America.

In calm weather thefe animals fwim in great droves near
the mouths of rivers; when hurt, they {wim out to the fea,
but foon return again. They live in families near one
another, each confifting of a male, female, a half-grown young
one, and a very {mall one; the females oblige the young to
{wim before them, while the other old ones furround, and,
as it were, guard them on all fides. The affection between
the male and female is very great, for if fhe is attacked, he
will defend her to the utmoft, and if fhe is killed, will follow
her carcafeto the very fhore, and {wim for fome days near the
place where it was landed.

They copulate in the {pring, in the fame manner as the
human kind, efpecially in calm weather, towards the even-
ing ; the female {wims gently about, the male purfues, till
tired with wantoning, fhe flings herfelf on her back, and
admits his embraces ; the leonine and urfine feais copulate
after the fame manner on fhore. Steller fays, they go with
young above a year, and bring forth one at a time, which
they fuckle by two teats, placed between the breafts. They

are very voracious and gluttonous, and feed not only on the.

fuci that grow in the fea, but fuch as are flung on the edges
ef the fhore; and when they are filled, they fall afleep on
their backs. Their back and fides are generally above water,
and.as their fin is infefted with a {pecies of loufe peculiar to
themfelves, numbers of gulls are continually perching on
their backs to pick out the infects.

They continue in the Kamtf{chatkan and American feas
the whole fummer, but in winter are very lean. They are
taken by harpoons fa{tened to a {trong cord, but after they
are ftruck, it requires the united force of thirty men to draw
them on fhore. When one is ftruck, its companions repair
to its help, fome will endeavour to overturn the boat, by
getting under it ; others will prefs down the rope, in order
to break it, and others {trike at the harpoons with their tails,
with a view of getting it out, in which artifice they fome-
times fucceed. Their noife is like the fnorting of a horfe,
which is occafioned by hard breathing. They are of an
enormous fize, fome being twenty-eight feet long, and eight
thoufand pounds in weight; the head is {mall, oblong, and
almott {quare ; the noftrils filled with fhort briftles, the lips
double, and the mouth, near the junétion of the jaws, full of
white tubular briftles, which ferve to prevent the food from
running out with the water; the lips are alfo furnifhed with
briftles, which ferve inftead of teeth to cut the roots of the
fea plants; in the mouth there are no teeth, only two flat
white bones, one above and another below in each jaw, with
undulated furfaces, which anfwer the purpofe of. grinders.
The eyes are {mall ; inftead of ears there are two {mall ori-
fices; the tongue is pointed and {mall, the neck is thick, and
the head always hangs down. Near the fhoulders the circum-
ference of the body is twelve feet, about the belly twenty,
near the tail four feet eight inches; the head is thirty-one
inches, and the neck nearly feven feet ; which dimenfions render
the animal extremely deformed. Near the fhoulders are two
feet or fins, two feet two inches long, without fingers or
nails; the tail is thick, ftrong, and horizontal, ending in a
ftiff black fin, flightly forked. The fkin is thick and black,
and full of inequalities, and fo hard as fcarcely to be cut with
an ax, without hair; beneath the fkin is a thick blubber,
which taftes like oil of almonds. The flefh is coarfer than
beef, and will not foon putrefy. The young ones tafte like
veal ; the fkin is ufed for fhoes, and for covering the fides of
boats. Pennant’s Hilt. Quad. vol. ii. p. 536. &c.

SEA

The fea-cow of the gulf of St. Lawrence weighs from
fifteen hundred to two thoufand pounds, and produces from
one to two barrels of oil, which is boiled out of a fat fub-
{tance that lies between the {lin and the flefl; it carries its
young about nine months, and feldom brings forth more
than one at atime. The {kin is cut into flices of two or
three inches wide, and exported to America for carriage-
traces, and to England for glue. The teeth afford an in-
ferior fort of ivory, which very foon turns yellow. Philof.
Tranf. vol. lxy. part 2. p. 249, &c.

Srea-Crow, in Ornithology, a name given by the common
people of many counties of England to the peqwit; which
ee.

Sra-Crow is alfo a name given by Edwards to the cit-
water of Catefby and Pennant, and to the black fkimmer
of Latham. See Ryncuops Nigra.

Sra-Cypre/s, in the Vermes Zoophyta, a name given by
Ellis to the SerruLaria Cypreffina ; which fee.

Sra-Daffodil, in Botany. See PancraTium.

Sgea-Devil, in Ichthyology, an Englifh name for the rana

pifcatrix, or lophius pifcatorius of Linneus; a very remark-

able fpecies of fifh, of a middle nature between the cartila-
ginous and bony fifhes. See Lopnius Pi/catorius.

The bronchial holes are three on each fide, which are
fituated deep in the mouth, and open into marfupia or fac-
culi on the fide of the head, the fides of which are the bran-
chioltegz, having feveral long flender cartilaginous bones,
running longitudinally for their fupport, analogous to the
branchioftegal bones of other fifhes; and thefe facks, Dr.
Parfons conjeétures, may anfwer two ends, firft, to form
the membrane branchiottege ;. and, fecondly, to make a
convenient receptacle for the young till they are able to fhift
forthemfelves. If this end, he fays, was not to be anfwered,
the branchie might have been terminated near their origin
in the mouth, as in other fifhes. If this fifh does not bring
forth its young perfeé&t, Dr. Parfons thinks there can be no
ufe afligned for thefe facks; but if they are viviparous, then
the young may probably be harboured in them, being capable
of crawling into them, as we may fee by the pectoral webs
on the under fide ; befides, as thefe fifhes crawl on the bot-
toms of fhoal places, watching and alluring their prey, the
young muit be protected by the parent, till they are able to
provide for themfelves, which may probably be when they
grow too large to enter into thefe marfupiz.

This fifh has either no noftrils, or elfe they are hid within
the head, and has a fort of mémbranous rim running all
round the commiflures of its fides and belly. Its flefh,
when boiled, taftes like that of the frog. Willughby’s Hitt.
Pifc. p. 85, Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi. p. 126, &c.

Sra-Dragon, or Draco marinus, a fpecies of Trachinus ;
which fee.

Sea-Drags, among Mariners, ave fuch things as hang
over the fhip in the fea, as fhirts, coats, and even the boat,
&c. when towed.

Sea-Eagle, Aquila marina, in Ichthyology, a {pecies of the
raia, with a {mooth body and a long ferrated {pine on a finny
tail. See Rata Aquila.

Sra-£el. See Eetand Murena.

Sra-Egg, or Sea-apple, the name of the roundifh centronia,
with crooked or fefciculated fpines. See Cenrxonia and
Ecuinus. :

Sea-Fans and Sea-feathers. See GORGONIA and SPONGIA.

Sra-Faring, denotes the condition of a mariner.

Sra-Fight. See ENGAGEMENT and SIGNAL.

Sra-Fir, a {peciesof Sertularia ; which fee.

Sea-Fox,.in Ichthyology, an Englih name for a fith of the
{qualus kind, called alfo the /ea-ape; both names being

5 given

SEA
«on ovcafion of the length of its tail in proportion to the

"The old Greek writers have called it alopecia, and the

later marina, and Amia marina, whence the names /ea-
fe See Sea-Fox and Squatus Vulpes.
Sea- . See Acrrrupe and Gace.

Sxua-Gate, at Sea. When two thips are aboard one another,
means of a wave or billow, the feamen fay, they lie aboard
ue another in a /ra-gatr.

Sua-Goof, in Ornithology, the Anas leucoptera, See

in Botany. See Coecorona.
» in Jebihyolegy, an Englith name given to
the fith called by the generality of writers gotius mer, and

marinus.

i, who has made a genus of the gobii, excludes the
con, or gohio fwviatilis, from it, but he admits
this fith as a genuine {pecies of it.

Athenzus tells us of three kinds of gudgeons, the black,
the yellow, and the white. This feems to have been very
the black gudgeon of that author. Salvian, in his

fith, has given three fins on the back, but it

Sra-Hair, a {pecies of Sertularia ; which fee.
Sua-Hare, in the rey" Injeds, the name of the
eee of the and alfo of the Tethys;

Sea-Hen, in Ornithology, a name given by fome to the
ia, a web-footed bird, karwat-g on coafts, and
called the guillemot, or tiddow. See CorymBus Troile.
Sea-Holly, in Botany. See Eryxcium.
Sra-Horfe, in Ichthyology, the Enghth name of the hippo-
a ee a fpecies of the acus, according to the older writers,
one of the jof Artedi. SynGnatnus.
The many tales reported of this valt amphibious
creature, fuch as his method of bleeding himfelf when dif-
his vomiting fire when enraged, and the like, have
oe hee all defirous of feeing the animal.
were fond of exhibiting it in their fhows of
wild beats, and the defcription Pliny gave of it from thence,
was all the world knew of the creature for many ages. That
author’s account, however, of its feeding ba gals on the
banks of the Nile, no way agrees with the we find its
mouth furnifhed with.

i

ways puzzled the wits of the naturaliits there, who had in
pared them with thofe of oxen, horfes, &c. but at
one of the heads of thefe animals being fent over to
r ihe for se ras a eer aoe Geo jaws of
wei -five poun were two feet long, a foot
anda ist sod wide. .
eafy to conceive from this, that the accounts we have
fize of the animal are not fabulous, thefe bones cor-
ing very well with them. Mem. Acad. Par. 1724.
is alfo a name fometimes, but improperly, given
to the river-horfe, or hippopotamus.
Sca-horie is alfo a name given to that {pecies of feal called

Sea Kale, in Gardening, the common name of a highl
nutritious and vegetable, It is —

nutritious ome culinary
efculent 2 cara of which are ufed fomewhat

ens

“

&
¥

i and may, it is faid, be grown,
tivation which is given hereafter, tu a ize

SEA
and of a delicacy of flavour greatly fuperior to that which
is commonly brought to the table. See Crampe. :

In addition to what has been offered under that term, it
may be noticed that the plant grows naturally the beft in a
fea fandy foil, or one which is of a loamy gravelly nature
near the fhores of the fea, In the cultivation of it in the
garden, the improved method which has lately been advited,
is that of preparing the ground for it by trenching it two
feet and a half deep, about the clofle of the year or in the
beginning of it: when not that depth naturally, and of a
light quality, it isto be made fo by artificial means, foch
as the applying of a fuitable preportion of fine white fand,
and very rotten vegetable mould: if the ground be wet in
the winter feafon, it fhould be completely drained, that no
water may flagnate in it near the bottom of the cultivated
mould, as the ftrength of the plants depends upon the dry-
nefs and richnefs of the bottom foil. After which the
ground is to be divided into beds, four feet in width, with
alleys of eighteen inches between them; then, at the dif-
tance of every two feet each way, five or fix feeds are to be
fown, in,a circle ef about four inches diameter, to the depth
of two inches. This bufinefs fhould be performed in a
firiétly regular and exact manner, as the plants are after-
wards to be covered by means of pots for blanching them,
and the health and beauty of the crops equally depend upon
their {tanding at regular diltances. If the feeds wluch were
fown were found and perfeét, they will come up and thew
themfelves in the laft {pring or beginning fummer months;
which as foon as they have made three or four leaves, all
but three of the ftrongelt and beit plants fhould be taken
away from each circle ; planting out thofe which are pulled
up, which, when done by a careful hand, may be performed
fo as for them to have the whole of their tap-root in a {pare
bed for extra forcing, or the repairs of accidents. The tur-
nip fly and wire worm are to be fully guarded againit,
the latter by picking them by the kand from out of the
ground, and the former by the ufe of lime laid round the
young plants in a circle, When the fummer months prove
dry the beds fhould be plentifully watered. Ass foon as the
leaves decay in the autumn they fhould be cleared away,
and the beds be covered with light frefh earth and fand to
the thicknefs of an inch; the compoit thus ufed having laid
fome time in a heap, and been turned feveral times, fo as to
be free from weeds, and the ova of infects as well as grubs.
Upon the fandy loam drefling, about fix inches in depth of
light ftable litter is to be applied, which completes the work
of the firft year.

In the {pring of the fecond, when the plants are begin-
ning to push, the {table litter is to be raked off, a little of
the moft rotten being dug into the alleys, and another inch
depth of loam and fand applied. Cutting this year is to
be refrained from, notwithitanding fome of the plants may
rife ftrong, and the beds managed exaétly as before during
this winter feafon.

In the third feafon, a little before the plants begin to ftir,
the covering laid on for the winter is to be raked off, and an
inch in depth of pure dry fand or fine gravel now laid on.
Then each circle of plants is to be covered with one of the
blanching-pots oe alluded to, prefling it firmly into the
ground, fo as to exclude all ight and air, as the colour and

vour of the fhoots are greatly injured by expofure to
either of them. When the beds are twenty-fix feet iong,
aud four wide, they will hold twenty-four blauching-pots,
with three plants uuder cach, making feveuty-two plants in
a bed. are to be examined trom time to time, the
young ftems being cut, when about three inches above the
ground, care being taken not to injure any of the remain-

mg

SEA

ing buds below, fome of which will immediately begin to
fwell. In this way a fucceffion of gatherings may be con-
tinued for the fpace of fix weeks, after which period the
plants are to be uncovered, and their leaves {uffered to grow,
that they may acquire and return nutriment to the root for
the next year’s buds. When feeds are not wanted, the
flowers fhould be pinched off by the finger and thumb, as
long as they appear. Where the expence of blanching-pots is
objected to, the beds muft be covered with a large portion
of loofe gravel and mats ; but the faving is trifling, when the
time and trouble of removing and replacing the gravel, for
the cutting of the crop and fecuring the plant, are confidered.
By this mode of management, fea-kale is faid to have been
cut which meafured ten, eleven, and even twelve inches in
circumference, and that each blanching-pot on the average
afforded a difh of it twice in the feafon.

The blanching-pots for this ufe are fomewhat of the fame
fhape and fize as the large bell-glafles commonly employed
in market gardens for raifing tender vegetable crops, but
made of the fame materials as the common earthenware,
having a handle at the top. They may be about a foot and
a half in diameter at the rim where they apply to the ground.

Forcing Sea-Kale.—It is fuppofed that no vegetable can
be fo eafily and cheaply forced as this, or require fo little
trouble ; as the dung is in the fineft ftate poflible for {pring
hot-beds, after the common crop has been cut and gathered.
The principal circumftance neceflary in this bufinefs, is that
of being very attentive and particular in guarding againtt
too great a heat. The temperature under the blanching-
pots fhould conftantly be kept as near fifty-five degrees of
Fahrenheit’s fcale as poffible, and on no account higher
than fixty at any time. In this intention, in either of the
two concluding months of the year, as the fea-kale may be
wanted more early or late, a fuitable quantity of frefh ftable
dung fhould be colleéted and prepared, to cover both the
beds and the alleys from two to three feet in height ; as
in the quantity to be laid on, a great deal muft always be
left to the judgment of the gardener, as well as to the {tate
of the feafon as to mildnefs or feverity.

It thould invariably be well prefled down between the
blanching-pots, heat-fticks being placed at proper intervals,
by the occafional examination of which the heat below will
be readily fhewn. When the dung has remained in this
fituation four or five days, the pots fhould be examined to
fee the ftate of the fhoots. It not unfrequently happens
that worms {pring above the furface, and fpoil the delicacy
of flavour in the young fhoots. Inorder to prevent this, it
is beft to cover it with dry fea-coal afhes, which have been
fifted neither very fmall nor very large. Salt has alfo the
power of deftroying them in an effectual manner, without
injuring the fea-kale.

The crop, it is faid, will be ready to cut and gather in
three weeks or a month from the firft application of the
heat ; but as much danger and mifchief are the confequence
when this is violent, it is advifed to begin foon enough, and
to force flowly, rather than in teo quick a manner. It is
likewife neceflary to cut the leaves off a fortnight or three
weeks before they decay, in thofe plants which are intended
to be forced at a very early period.

It is alfo fuggefted that the blanching-pots ufed in
forcing fhould be made in two pieces, the uppermoft of
which fhould fit like a cap upon the lower; as the crop
might then be examined at all times without difturbing the
hot dung. See Tranfaétions of the Horticultural Society
of London, vol. i. p. 13. - ;

Sea-Lark, in Ornithology. See Cuaraprius Hiaticula,
and Empsriza Mu/ftelina.

4

SEA

Sra-Laurel, in Botany. See PuyLLANTHUS, and XyLo-
PHYLLA-

Sra-Laws. See Laws of Otrnon, Usxs and Customs
of the Sea, and Marine INSURANCE.

Sra-Leech. See Hrruprera Marina.

Sea-Letter, or Sea-brief, in Marine Infurance, one of the
documents expeCted to be found on board of every neutral
fhip. This fpecifies the nature and quantity of the cargo,
the place from which it comes, and its deftination. This
paper, however, is not fo neceflary as the paflport, which
is the permiffion from the neutral ftate to the captain or
matter of the fhip to proceed on the voyage propofed, and
ufually contains his name and refidence, the name, defcrip-
tion, and deftination of the fhip, with fuch other matters
as the practice of the place requires. This document is in-
difpenfibly neceflary for the fafety of every neutral fhip.
Hubner fays that this is the only paper that is rigoroufly in-
fitted upon by the Barbary corfairs, by the produétion of
which alone their friends are proteéted from infult. The
paffport in moft cafes fupplies the place of the fea-letter.

Sra-Lion, Phoca leonina of Linnzus, in Zoology, is a
fpecies of feal, which inhabits the feas about New Zealand,
the ifland of Juan Fernandez, the Falkland Iflands, and that
of New Georgia. The animals of this {pecies are feen in
great numbers in June and July, the breeding feafon,-on the
ifland of Juan Fernandez, whither they refort in order to
fuckle their young on fhore, and where they continue till
September: they bring forth two at a time; and during
this feafon, the female is very fierce. ‘They arrive on the
breeding iflands very fat and full of blood, and their blub-
ber has been found a foot thick; one of them has been
known to yield a butt of oil, and the blood has filled two
hogfheads.

Lord Anfon’s people eat the flefh, calling it beef by way
of diftinGtion from that of the common feal, which they
called lamb. The old animals, except at the breeding fea-
fon, are very timid; and to prevent furprife, each herd
places a fentinel, who gives certain fignals at the appear-
ance of danger; they aflociate in families, like the fea-bears,
and are equally jealous of their miftrefles. They are of a
lethargic nature, and fond of wallowing upon one another
in miry places; they grunt like hogs, and fnort like horfes.

During the breeding feafon they abitain from food, and
become very lean; at other times they feed on fifh and the
fmaller feals. The male has a projecting fnout, hanging
five or fix inches below the lower jaw; the upper part con-
fifts of a loofe wrinkled fikin, which the animal when angry
has the power of blowing up, fo as to give the nofe an
arched appearance; the feet are fhort and dufky, having
five toes on each, furnifhed with nails; the hind-feet appear
like laciniated fins ; the eyes and the whifkers are large ; the
hair on the body is fhort and of a dun colour; that on the
neck a little longer, and the fkin very thick. The length
of an old male is twenty feet, and the greateft circumference
fifteen. The nofe of the female is blunt and tuberous at
the top; the noftrils wide; the mouth breaking very little
into the jaws; two fmall cutting teeth below; two {mall
and two large above; two canine teeth, remote from the
preceding, five grinders in each jaw, and all the teeth conic s
the eyes oblique and fmall; no auricles; the fore-legs
twenty inches long; the toes furnifhed with oblong flat
nails ; the hind parts, inftead of legs, divided into two great
bifurcated fins; no tail; and the whole covered with fhort
ruft-coloured hair. The length from the nofe to the end of
the fins is four yards, and the greatett circumference two
and a half. Pennant’s Hilt. of Quad. vol. ti, p. 531. See

Puoca Lonina.
SEAs

SEA
Sea-L mariaus, & vame given to the Mo-
whol pediculas |
Se » in the Hifory of Jnfects, the Englith name of
a {pecies of medula.
cite. We have many accounts, even from authors
of

¢ fyrens, which we have accounts of even in Bartho-
cova the fea-man, or Somo marinus, as it was called, feen
deferibed by Barchewitz, give the greateft credit to the
5 but writers are fo fond of telling marvellous things,
’ are to be made in the reading.
"The general defeription of the fea-man is, that from the
downwards the whole is only a thapelefs lump of fleth,
any leaft mark, either of limbs, fins, or tail.
the there ftand two pectoral fins, which are each
of five bones or rays, refembling the human hand,
by a membrane like the toes of a
water-fowl’s foot.
what have the appearance of or
about the bofom of a white-belli
hands with fhort arms, and the refem-
a head is er hyacu Thefe fins are not pecu-

; but the manati or fea-cow, the

°

a

ik
i

a diftance, and extending e
pettoral fins, which are what it {wims with, has given rife
of a human figure.

of a thapelefs lump of fiefh making
of the animal, it feems too contrary to
in all other fea-animals, to have any
and probably was only the invention
deferiber, to make out what he did not fee above

that Barchewitz takes pains to prove
home marinus, deferibes, was a
different creature from the fea-cow ; but his defcrip-
it carries too little the air of any thing in nature, to
eafy credit.
fo judicious a writer as Artedi
faith to the exiitence of fo ftrange a filh as
he mentions i with a great air of diftruit, and
perfect

zi

re

H
g

it
if

g,
Fe

ie

i

-1
if

iL

The eee eee cheats, who thew
s ocaghamy, pened of tex iduey oF ee
: Fy we j ity of t
creatures, Shee Beera ty she lick aero, among us, they
Ge ure ara ue,
to a merma' on ca 5
and fect ine’ it fo well in London, as to afford
i ble fubfiftence ten months

a point and confpicuous place diftinguifhed
Beacon, and Buoy.

_ See Conacuine and Conrerva.
, in the Hiflory of Infos, the Englith name of

depofition

place on the thores and coaits of the
GENS Rares toanitaoed pore of she rk

SEA

foil of the lands in fuch neighbourhoods, In fome inflances
it is of a rich improving quality, but ia the other cafes it
partakes of a clayey unproductive nature, efpecially that
which is of a black, tough, crude defeription. In fome
places where this material 1s found of ufe as a manure, they
diftioguith it into two kinds, or that which is taken from the
furface, and called green-fed mud, or fludge, and that which
is raifed or taken before it is covered with o fward,
denominated /lob mud. The former is by much the richett
and ftrongelt as manure, therefore the beit calculated for
application in this way, where it can be procured,
t is fometimes employed in preference to marle, though
that fubftance may be more ready at hand, in the proportion
f about three roods to the tlatute acre, being laid on the
S ground in autumn, that is to be broken up in the follow.
ing {pring months. It is moitly got by digging it up only
one {pit depth from the furface. After being {pread out,
and well broken down and reduced, it is turned down into
the foil by the plough. It is ufeful for oat, barley, po-
tatoe, and wheat crops, producing a large return. It is
alfo very durable as a fubilance of this nature, latting
lon even than marle, and being never liable to injure
grals-lands. This fort of rich fea-mud is moftly met with
on the banks or fhores near the mouths of large rivers
which empty themfelves into the fea, but in other cafes
its fertilizing properties are often lefs to be depended upon.
The muddy matter which is combined with fandy mate-
rials on the fea-coalts in fome diltricts, is alfo found of great
utility as a manure.
Sea-Neth. See Nertre.
Sea-Oak. See Wreck, and Fucus.
Sza-0, See Orricer.
_Sea-Onion, in Botany. See Sciiva. -
ao See Orrer. Te aan
EA-Ou/e, in Agriculture, a rich fort of mud or fition
raifed a the fea-fhores in different parts of i gdm,
and which has been found in many cafes of much asa
manure. It might probably be found foods and in large
quantities, in many fituations on the fea-coafts, where it
has not yet been thought of by the farmer. As there can,
however, be no doubt of its poflefling a highly enriching
property, it fhould be diligently provided in all places
where it can be had. It is ftated, in the Norfolk Agri-
cultural Survey, that Mr.’Palgrave, at Colterfhal, ufes much
fea-oufy mud icraped up by the dear from the bottom of
Yarmouth Haven. He lays on forty loads per acre, and
has thus manured feventy acres; the improvement is very
great. It was found on trial that it is a calcareous oufy-mud ;
and that en fcalds or burning-places, and fand or gravel, it
forms a cold bottom, and is an effeétual cure. Filty loads
acre of fea-oufe have been ufed on the upland loams of
arham with very great fuccefs; {uperior crops the con-
fequence. And another fubftance may be confidered under
this head, though im the above Agricultural Survey it has
been defcribed under that of fea-weed, which it does not
feem fo properly to belong to. It is found on the coalt at
Thornham, ick marked in Mr. Faden’s map of the coun-
try for what is termed crabs, fealps, and eak-roots. It is
ftated by the writer on examining it, to be obvioufly the
ruins of a foreft of large trees, the ftu roots remaining,
but in fuch a ftate of decay, that with a fpade he dug into
the centre of many, and might have done of all, with as
much facility as into a mafs of butter. Where the ftumps
are not found on digging, a black mafs of vegetable fibres,
apparently. confitti of decayed branches, leaves, ruthes,
&c. is t up: to what depth this vegetable
itratum extends, kas not been afcertained, but at fome

creck»

SEA

creeks on the very edge of the fea at low water, there is a
very fine foapy fea-oufe at two or three feet depth: the
extent of this once fylvan region, which every common
tide now covers, can fearcely be lefs, in one place only,
than from five to fix hundred acres. There is not an ap-
pearance of any tree lying at prefent from the ftump, as
if blown down or left after falling, but rather that of
a foreft cut down in hafte, the ftems cleared and hurried
away, leaving the branches to rot ; but this is mere con-
jecture. It is remarkable that there is not, as he is in-
formed, any mention of tkis ruined foreft in the old
hiltorians of the county ; nor does tradition offer the leait
conjecture or report on the fubjec&t. Trees, roots, and
{tumps, are very common in bogs, wherever found; but
here is not the trace of any thing like a bog, the earth is
folid, and all a fine oufe, or fea-clayey mud. It is added
that Mr. Rifhton viewed thefe relics with the eye of a
farmer; for experiment, he fent his carts down for fome,
and {pread ten loads per acre of it, for turnips : it anfwered
perfectly, and on comparifon equalled his yard-dung, and
alfo rape-cake. In another experiment, he manured two
acres for wheat, with a compoft, confilting of nine loads of
this weed, (or oufe,) and three chaldrons of lime mixed ;
one acre with yard-muck ; one acre with tallow-chandlers’
graves, fixteen bufhels, and the reft of the piece with rape-
cake ; the graves were, in effet, far beyond all the reft ;
between which the difference was not very perceptible.
The expence only 1s. ger load; but if a barge was floated
to the f{pot, and anchored when the tide was in, for loading
at low water, it might be procured at a much cheaper rate.
And it is fuggefted, that this ingenious cultivator has
opened a real mine to fuch farmers as fhall have the faga-
city to dig in it: it appears aftonifhing, he thinks, that
none of them fhould long ago have made the fame experi-
ment, and confequently have profited by fo beneficial a
vicinity.

Without doubt, by proper examination, other fituations
might be fonnd to afford fubftances that might prove ufeful
as manures. ;

Sea-Owl, in Ichthyology, a name given by many to that
fifh which we more ufually call the /ump-fi/h, the lumpus of
Willughby, &c. and the cyclopterus of Artedi. See Cy-
CLOPTERUS lumpus.

SEA-Pea, in Botany. See Pisum.

Sea-Fearch, in Ichthyology. See Perca.

Sra-Pen. See Sea-PEn.

Sra-Pheafant, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of the
duck kind, but differing from all the other fpecies in the
fhape of its tail, which has two long feathers ftanding out
beyond the reft; and terminating in a point. It is called
more generally the cracker. See Duck.

Sea-Pie. See Pica marina, and Hmmatorus oftralegus.

Sra-Pigeon-Pea, in Botany. See SopHORA.

Sea-Pike, in Ichthyology. See Esox be/lone.

Sea-Pink, in Botany. See Crerastium.

Sea-Plants, a denomination comprehending thofe marine
productions which are formed by infeéts, and which properly
belong to the animal kingdom: however, they fo much
refemble vegetables in their form, that they have been long
taken for plants called by this name, and clafled under the
vegetable kingdom.

Count Marfigli, who was at indefatigable pains to collec
the various fea-plants of feveral places, divides all thefe pro-
duétions, which he referred to the rank of vegetables, into
three claffes. The firft clafs contains the foft or herbaceous
ones; fuch are the alga, called /ea-wrecks, the fucufes or
Sea-oaks, the fea-moffes or conferve, and the different {pecies

SEA

of /punges: the fecond clafs comprehends thofe that are
ligneous, or of a woody hardnefs, which were called Jitho-
phyta by the ancients, as if their hardnefs approached to
that of {tones ; thefe, Marfigh fays, confift of two fub-
{tances, a cortical and an internal; the cortical part, while
in the fea, is foft, but in drying becomes as ‘hard as chalk,
and eafily crumbles between the fingers; the internal fub-
{tance feems more of the nature of horn than of wood ;
when burnt it throws out a {pume, or froth, like that which
horns or feathers of animals yield in the fire, and their {mell
in burning is of the fame kind; the branches of thefe are
very pliable, bending in the manner of whalebone, and giving
the fame refiftance to a knife in cutting. The third clafs
comprehends thoie plants which are of the hardnefs of ftone,
and which fhould properly be called the /ithophyta: thefe
are the feveral {pecies of coral, madrepora, and the like.

Marligli endeavours to explain the differences of thefe
feveral fubftances, and to account for the manner of their
receiving nourifhment, agreeably to the fy{tem which pre-
vailed in his time, and which appropriated them to the clafs
of vegetables. Marfigl, Hilt. Phyf. de la Mer. Mem.
de l’Acad. Par. 1710.

By later experiments and obfervations, it has been fuffi-
ciently demonttrated by M. Peyffonnel, Bernard de Juffieu,
Donati, &c. that thofe marine fubftances which Marfigli
thought to be plants, are the work and habitation of animals.
See on this fubjeét the articles Corax, and Coraxxines.

Dr. Lifter apprehends, that thofe fubftances, which in
his time were thought to be fea-plants, ferve to render a
great deal of the fea-water frefh, and give it in mifts to the
clouds, whence it again falls on the earth: this is eafily
proved by experiment, thus; if a quantity of fea-water
be put into a long glafs body, and into it there be put a
large and vigorous fea-plant, fuch as the common fea-
wreck, and the head placed on the glafs, and a receiver
fitted for it without cutting the joints, there will daily diftil
into the receiver, without giving any fire below, a clear and
{weet water, frefh and potable, and without any difagree-
able or unwholefome quality. The quantity is but {mall
that is obtained in this way, but it is evident, that in the
fame manner a very immenfe quantity of the fea-water is
every hour made frefh, and raifed up into the air from the
infinite number of plants that grow init. Dr. Lifter even
thinks that the tropic winds, which blow conftantly one way,
may be owing to this fort of caufe. Philof. Tranf. N° 156,
See Tropic winds.

Sra-Purflane, in Botany. See ATRIPLEX.

Sva-Quadrant. See Bacx-flaf, and QuapRAntT.

Sra-Room, denotes a fufficient diftance from the coaft, as
well as from any rock and fhallows, by which a {hip may
drive or fcud without danger of fhipwreck.

Sea-Salt. See Sarr.

Sra-Sand. See Sanp, and Common SAut.

Srea-Sand, in Agriculture, that fort of fand which is
thrown up in the creeks and other places on the coatts of the
fea, and which is often very ufeful as manure. The fea-
fand, which is thrown up in creeks and other places, is very
rich and proper for this purpofe. In the weftern parts of
England, which lie upon the fea-coafts, very great advan-
tage is made of it. The fragments of fea-fhells, which are
always in great abundance in this fand, add to its virtues ;
it being always the more efteemed by farmers, the more of
thefe fragments there are among it. The fand of this fort,
which is ufed as a manure in different parts of the kingdom,
is of three kinds: that about Plymouth, and fome other
of the fouthern coafts, is of a blue-grey colour, like afhes,
which is probably owing to the fhells of mufcles, and en

SEA

fith of that or the like A ae bite ethon “7 wit cn
it in great . eftward, near t and’s- t
fea-fand Seti and about the ifles of Scilly it is
very with fmall particles of tale. On the coatts
the North fea the fand is yellowith, brown, or reddifh,
contains fo great a quantity of fragments of cockle-thells,
feems to be'chicfly compofed of them, That fort
is accounted belt, which is of a reddifh colour :
in value to this is the blueifh, and the white is the
This kind of fand is the beft when taken up from
the water, or from fand-banks, which are covered by
tide. And it is remarked, that the {mall-grained
is the moft fudden in its operation, and it is therefore
the tenant who is only to take three or four crops ;
‘that the coarfe, or large-grained fand, is much better
the landlord, as the good it docs lafts many years.
fand is out of the fea, it is ufually much
‘than where it is taken from fand-banks.
Te the northern parts of Lancafhire, and in Cornwall, the
forts of land in the vicinity of the fea-thores, are
cafes much improved by the application of fea-fand
em. ‘The practice is to lay it on in a pretty thick
» in Order that it Bay te well incorporated with the
by the different ploughings before the wheat is fown.
this crops are often afforded, and the effects
the ernah Tt is likewife found
y over the furface of grafs-lands
more fine and fweet. It is a fub-
that a many fituations be much more exten-
of than has hitherto been the cafe. See

is confidered as a vaft treafure by the
of the county of Cornwall, as has

efpecially where the fea-coaft is
fed to be a fubftance that feeds the
well, and which is

- ‘=

, are near to or remote from it.

from great diflamces in fome cafes.

ids, however, upon the quantity

: matter which it contains, in addition

, ype A. grit igh ys dee kinds

flimy, 5 vegetable, and anima! matter,

FA combined, in whi it is denominated lig or lizgan,

F for potatoe crops. The large-

the moft lafting in its e “

phn 5 and fhelly forts are extenfively ufed
ied alone, either on tilla

ee eeadin but it is ame

earth ra Rate the way of

all the proportions of from

of fixteen s each, to the

diftri&. Its nds much

being more cial on the
forts of foil than on the deep loamy
more

than 54,000 cart-loads of it are
Fro harbour of Padftow alone, and that the ex-
of land-carriage for this article only, for the whole
'0,000/. a-year.

of the county of Lancatter,

much had recourfe to on ti an

en feen above, but it has lately been lefs

pply it from 80 to 300 or 400 fingle

ten or tweive
fea-fand was

SEA

formerly made ufe of, but very feldem at prefent, as the
muddy, or that dug from fome depth, and intermixed with
mud, is now found much better. It is of a blackith ap-
oy gen and faid to laft longer in the foil, and produce
tter crops than the common fand. In one tris!, the
muddy fort had vaftly the advantage, both in the immediate
and future crops. It is fometimes, likewife, laid dpon the
rafs, it is faid, with good and latting effedis. In three
mall trials made with it by the Rev. Mr. Stainbank, it
feemed however to be of little utility. He applied it
two ridges, on common palture, on meadow and on
ploughed land, in the quantity of 200 fingle horfe cart-loads
to the cuftomary acre of cach, and found not the leatt alter-
ation or improvement in the crops of any of them. It is,
however, remarked, in the Agricultural Survey of the
North Riding of York, that in many cafes. in the vicinity of
the fea, ufe has been made of fea-fand as a nfanure with con-
ftant fuccefs, and that for the diftriAs of Cleaveland, and
the coaft where the wet adhefive clays want draining and
breaking, and in moft parts of which it might be eafily pro-
cured, it would be equally It is fuppofed to be
there difreparded in confequence of its great plenty, and
Him! capable of being provided without expence. See
AND.

Sea-Scorpion. See Scorpio.

Sea-Serpent. See Sea-Snaxx.

Sea-Shells, in Agriculture, {uch as are formed and dug
from the creeks and bays on the fea-coaft. They are con-
ftantly very beneficial in improving land in all fituations
where they are met with in fufficient quantity. But the
great ufe of marine fhells is more fhewn in the following
palfage in the flatiftical account of the parifh of Kirkma-

reck, in Galloway. The principal manure ufed there
for improving land is fea-fhells, of which there is an almott
inexhauftible quantity, not only within the high-water mark
on this fide of Wigton bay, but alfo in the dry land, feveral
hundred yards from the fhore. Thefe thells are fold at five-
pence per ton, twenty-five of which are fufficient for an acre ;
and prove a cheap and excellent manure, preferable to either
lime or marle. Many thoufand tons of thefe thells are an-
nually carried (by veffels conftantly employed in the bufinefe)
all round the coaft, and fometimes even to the Ifle of Man.
Thefe hells have been ufed with great advantage for the im-
provement of barren heathy land, infomuch, that many hun-
dreds of acres in this parifh, originally not worth more than
2s. per acre, have been made worth from tos. to Baas acre.
Yet this, like every other advantage that is eafily attained,
is not duly prized; for upwards of one thoufand acres in
this parifh, though ear of cultivation, lie in a ftate of
Nature, covered with heath, and almoft good for nothing.
A little calculation might ferve to fhew landlords, that on
nothing could they lay out their money to fo much advantage.
As fora tenant, where he has only a leafe for nineteen years,
and perhaps his encouragement not great othérwife, it cannot
be expeGed he fhould do much in the cultivation of barren
land. The tenant, however, might well lay thefe fea-thells
on land already cultivated. This hint thould be duly at-
tended to by the cultivators of fuch lands, in fituations where
fuch manures can be readily provided. It is obferved, that
in Loch Tarbet there is an immenfe number of oytter-thells,
almoft unmixed with any fand, when the thin itratum above
them is removed : the extent of this altonifhing mafs of fhells
is unknown, but it is probable it can never be exhaufted.
A yaft tra&t of improveable moorifh land in the neighbour-
hood, may, fome time or other, fhew that Providence did not
place this fund of manure in vain fo pear it. For fuch
moorifh heathy ground, thefe fea-fhells are the fittelt ma-
Ss nure,

SEA

uure, but their ufe ought not to be confined to it. In order
to make the carriage lighter, and the effet the quicker,
perhaps it would be worth while to burn them firft, as is
{ometimes done to marle. The kiln might be made with
one or two eyes, running into it about half way at the bot-
tom, with fome flags or {tones rudely arched over them, the
kiln then filled with fhells, and fed with fire for a day or two,
as might be found neceflary. Lime is burned in this way
in the {pace of two or three days, and fhells already in a
mouldering {tate, would take much lefs both of time and
fuel. The operation would not be hindered by the tides, as
thefe fhells are found alfo under the furface beyond the fea-
mark. Stratums of thefe oylter-fhells are alfo to be found
at the head of Loch Caoles port ; but there (fo flow is the
progrefs of the improvement !) they have not yet begun to
ufe them as manure: probably the time is not diftant when
thefe fea-fhells will become an article of commerce, and be
carried at lea{t along all the fhores of Kintyre.

And it is ftated by the author of the Agricultural Report
of Norfolk, that in Eaft Winch and Wett Bilney, and {cat-
tered for ten miles to Wallington, there isa remarkable bed
of eytter-fhells in fea-mud; the farmers ufe them at the rate
of ten loads an acre for turnips, which are a very good
drefling ; they are of particular efficacy on land worn out
by corn. Mr. Forfter feveral years ago laid twenty loads
an acre on fome worn-out land, and they had an amazing
effle@.in producing grafs, when laid down in feeds, giving a
deep luxuriant hue like good dung: the benefit very great
at the prefent time. They are found within two feet of the
furface, andas deep as they have dug, water having {topped
them at iixteen or eighteen feet deep. They are ufed again
and again on the fame land, and with the fame effe&. At
Eaft Winch, Mr. Crowe has acres together of this moft va-
luable manure. They fall to powder on being ftirred. All fea
materials of this nature fhould conftantly be well attended
to, and colleGed when wanted to be.employed as manure by
the farmer. Where they are in a folid itate, they only re-
quire to be in fome meafure broken down into a fort of coarfe
powder. See Sanp and SHELLS.

It may be noticed, that in the firft mentioned diltri€, the
price of the fhells is now higher than it was formerly.

Sea-Sicknefs is faid to be prevented by drinking fea-water
mixed with wine.

Sua-Side-Grape, in Botany. See CoccoLopa.

Sra-Spleenwort, or Polypody, a name given by Ellis to
the Sertularia lichenaftrum.

Sea-Sun-Crown, American. See AMERICAN, &c.

Sea-Swallow, in Ornithology, the name of the fterna hi-
rundo, common on our coafts. See STERNA.

Sza-Tamarifk, a name given by Ellis to the Sertularia ta-
mari/ka.

Sea-Tangle,in Agriculture. This is another name by which
the fea-weed which is ufually made ufe of as a manure is known
in fome diltriéts, efpecially thofe of the north, where it is
fometimes colleéted, and applied, either in its fimple ftate, or
when made up into compoft with fome fort of earthy fub-
ftance. See Sra-/Veed.

Sea-Turtle Dove. See Sea-Turile Dove.

Sea-Wall, in Rural Economy, that fort of wall or defence
which is thrown up and provided againft the fea on the dif-
ferent coafts of the kingdom, It is formed of various
kinds of materials, according to the nature of the fituation
and circumftances, fuch as thofe of earth, ftones, fhells,
{trong gravel, and many other matters, fo as to conftitute a
fort of embankment. See EMBANKMENT and EMBANKING.

Walls or banks of this nature fhould conttantly have a
good degree of flope backwards, whatever the nature of the

9

SEA

materials may be which are employed in their conftru€tion,
as this form always affords great fafety and protetion to
them. The bafes or foundations of them fhould hkewife be
fecurely laid, and well guarded and proteéted by every poffi-
ble convenient means which their fituations and circumftances
will admit of ; and the internal parts have a fufficient weight
of earthy or other matter thrown up and laid againft them,
in order to counteract the weight of the water during the
time of thetides. In Effex, Mr. B. Dudley is faid to have
endeavoured to give a new direétion to a fhifting bank of
fhells, asa guard to a fea-wall, which had been newly re-
paired and was much expofed, and by that means to convert
It into this fort of defence and fecurity, which he accom-
plifhed in the following manner; a faggot-hedge was made
in the ouze, in order to retain the fhell-fand, which bein
found to have taken effe€t, a fecond was formed. 'The
fhelly bank, it is faid, fhifted, though flowly, according to
his intention, and that he had the rational expeétation of
fully availing himfelf of it to ftrengthen his wall, at little
more expence than that of thinking. It is fuggefted, that
opportunities of this nature frequently prefent themfelves,
but are wholly negleéted and turned to no account.

It might not be an object unworthy of attention, it is fup-
pofed, to have a general commiffion of fewers, &c. for the
repairs and prefervation of fea-walls along the coat, which
protect lands the mot capable of improvement from the de-
{tructive inundations of the fea-water, which leave fuch fatal
well-known efleéts behind, that the ground is not worth the
tillage for fome years after being overflown, and, befides, the
expence and trouble that may have been laid out upon it are
moltly for ever loft. As the matter now ftands, it is com-
mon for the owners of the land to manage their own walls
according to their own difcretion, by which means the negle&
er inattention of an individual may caufe, not only ruin to
himfelf, but many of his more careful neighbours, and {pread
a general diltrefs around him. This is the ftate of the cafe
in the above county, and in others it is probably much the
fame, where they border on the fea.

SEA-Ware, in Agriculture, a term frequently applied to the
weed thrown up by the fea in many fituations, and which is
colleéted and made ufe of as a manure, and for other pur-
pofes. It is the quercus marina, and has often the names of
fea-wreck, fea-tangle, &c. See Sra-Weed..

Sea-Waiter, that briny bitterifh fluid which conftitutes the
fea. See WATER.

Sea-Water, in Agriculture, that which is brought by the |

fea, and much impregnated by faline matters. It is fug-
geftedin the Argylefhire Agricultural Survey, that as it is
known that falt 1s beneficial as a manure, fea-water, which
is found to contain it inthe proportion of about a bufhel to
aton, may alfo be recommended: in the fame view. And
that, from its promoting putrefaétion, it may be applied to
peat-earth, dung-heaps, and compofts, with much advantage
in many fituations. This fort of water, where it ftagnates
for any length of time on land, is, however, found to be
very injurious, See SALtT-Water.

Sra-Weeds, in Botany, the Submerfed Algxz of fome
fcientifie writers, are fuch cryptogamic plants as grow under
water, in the fea, fixed by their bale, originally, to fome
rock, ftone, or fhell, but often found floating without any
attachment. Their feeds are, in many inftances, known,
but the economy of their fruétification has not yet been fa-
tisfaGtorily explained, notwithitanding the labours of Reau-
mur, Gmelin, Gertner, Correa de Serra, Velley, Turner,
and others. See Conrerva, Fucus, Utva, &c.

Sra-Weed, in Agriculture, the wreck or weed thrown up
by the water on the fea-coafts, and fometimes cut from their

fides.

}

SEA

Tt is the plant known by the name of quercus marina.
it is a material much ufed as a manure in fome diftriéts,
as thofe of Kent, and the northern counties, as well as in
the iflands of Jerfey and Guernfey. It as found to become
tender and eafily reduced by remaining fome time in heaps,
and taking on the procels of fermentation. It is ttrongly

with faline matters, and of courfe proves a be-

a jon for land.
Its Sco have been found, in the praétice of Mr. Rudd

from the alum-works, and lime, the whole being mixed
with earth. But in many places it is made ufe of in its
ftate, after having undergone a degree of fermenta-
or after being incorporated with yard-dung. In the
Survey of Argylethire it 1s ftated, that along

coals it is much ufed as a manure, though not always
asmuch as it ought. Its effeés are not fo lafling as
that of dung, nor isit fo great when laid on in winter asin
May, when it is riper, and more impregnated with

comes afhore during fummer the ground
the more careful farmers gather into heaps, or
In either way it turns to little ac-
heaps melt away, and much of what
ies and fhrivels to nothing. If mixed with
weeds, &c. in a compoft, it would pro-
fermentation, and all its juices would

is the way to make the moft of this great
i and the farmer and cottager both fhould
ir flore of manure wherever it can be

i iced, that in the above iflands, where this
» itis cut twice in the year, the
or being applied as a manure
purfery lands, and thofe fown with
It is ufed in the proportion of two cart-loads,

pounds each, with fix carts of {table
tooo feet fquare. The fecond cutting, which is
in July, is laidto dry on the fea-fhore, and after-
of as fuel ; the afhes of which are found an
efpecially on {iff land. It is {pread over
land in the winter feafon, or early in the
proportion of about half a bufhel to the perch.
i ames, CC fom giving a full ear to the grain,

r§
But it has not yet been afcertained upon what forts of
in its fimple ftate has the moft effet. It is
ee ee eet vt ur of growth to plants in all kinds.

iH

tf

SR vers

_
|

b
i

i:

“f ch
fs
1 7

int
ares
au

$
ra

ah

5
¥

of as manure on the fea-coatts of this country and Ireland,
retin = icy : oma Siffowal pes eee Haier

as in um
found by diferent in the common ion,
ich is commonly the moit abundant of any on our fea-
coaits, inone mode one-eighth of gelatinous fubftance fimilar
~* and in treating it another way, nearly four-fifths
~~ of its weight of water, but no ammonia ; the afhes contained
carbonate of foda, ae carbonaceous a ap The
chiefly carbonic acid, gafeous

of carbon, and a little hydro-carbonate.

bi manure is faid to be tranfient in its effets on land,
eepreetiensiagic crop, which may be readily ac-
proportion of water, or the ele-

to anfwer well in compotition with kelp, athes, .

SEA

ments of water, which it contains, It decays, on expofure
to the atmofphere, without any heat being produced, foeming
to melt down as it were, and diffolve away. A large heap
has been known to be wholly reduced to a little black Hbrous
matter in leis than two years. “The firmett part of a fucus
being let remain in a jar with atmofpheric airlora fortnight,
became much fhrivelled, and the fides of the jar covered with
dew, the air being found to have lolt oxygen, and to con-
tain carbonic acid gas.

The fuffering this fort of weed to ferment before it is
ufed, is thought wholly unneceflary, as there is no Gbrous
matter rendered foluble in the procefs, and a portion of the
manure is loft. The praétice of the beft farmers in the
weftern parts of this country, is faid to be that of ufing it
as freth as it can be had, and that the refults of this method
are exadtly in conformity to the theory of its operation.
* The carbonic acid formed by its incipient fermentation mutt
be partly diffolved by the water fet free in the fame procefs ;
and thus become capable of abforption by the roots of plants.”
That the effects of this weed as a manure mult chiefly depend
upon this carbonic acid, and the foluble mucilage it contains ;
and it has been found that * fome fucus which had fermented
fo as to have loft about half its weight, afforded lefs than
one-twelfth of mucilaginous inatter, from which it may be
fairly concluded that fome of this {ubitance is deftroyed in
fermentation.”’

There is unqueftionably a great lofs fultained in this and
perhaps other ways, where earthy matters are not ufed
with it.

Sea-Willow, a name given by Ellis to the Gergonia
anceps.

EA-Worms. See Worms.

Sea-Worthy, in Marine Infurance, a term applied to a
fhip, denoting that the is “tight, ftaunch, and ftrong, pro-
perly manned, and provided with all ftores,’”’ fo as to be in
all refpeéts fit for the intended voyage. In every infurance,
either on fhip or goods, there is an implied warranty that
fuch is the ftate of the fhip, fo that the infurer may gain
the premium for indemnifying the infured againft certain
contingencies ; for if the fhip 1s incapable of performing the
voyage, there is no poffibility that the infurer fhould gain
the premium; and in that cafe, the contract, on his part,
would be without confideration, and confequently void.
The infurer undertakes to indemnify the infured agaioft
“ the extraordinary and unforefeen perils” of the fea; and
it would be abfurd to fuppofe that any man would infure
againft thofe perils, but in the confidence that the fhip is in
a condition to encounter the “ ordinary perils,’ to which
every fhip mutt be expofed in the ufual courfe of the voy
propofed. In France every fhip is furveyed, before pe
commencement of her voyage, by officers appointed for that
pret who make their report ; but the report upon fuch
urvey was not fufficient proof of fea-worthinefs, and it fill
refted with the infurers to thew the contrary. A thip
fhould be prefumed not to have been fea-worthy, unlefs it
be made to appear that her difability arofe from dere a
or other misfortune. It is a wioktieoes rule, all circum-
ftances confidered, fays ferjeant Marfhall, that the infured
fhall be held to pretty {trict and cogent proof of the fhip’s
being fea-worthy, fit for performing the voyage infured,

ith the propofed cargo on board, and in ail refpets fit
for the trade in which fhe is intended to be employed. It
is alfo a wholefome rule, that this proof fhall not only be
cogent and ftrong to fhew the thip’s fufficiency at the time
wheo fhe failed, but alfo that the iniured fhall bring forward
all the evidence which he has upon this fubjeét ;_ particular!
what relates to the ftate fhe was in when the lo acon |

$2 or

SEA

or when fhe was condemned as unfit to proceed on the
voyage. If any thing fhould be withheld, which the in-
fured might have produced, it will always throw great fuf-
picion on his cafe. If, on the other hand, it appears from
the taéts of the cafe, that the lofs may be fairly attributed
to fea-damage, or any other unforefeen misfortune, but yet
the infurers mean to allege that the fhip at her departure was
not fea-worthy, the onus probandi will lie on them. This
feems to be the fimpleft rule; and the fimpleft rules are
always the beft, particularly in matters of commerce.
be clearly afcertained that the fhip, at the time of her de-
parture, was not in a condition to perform the voyage in-
fured, neither the innocence nor ignorance of the infured,
nor any precautions he may have taken to make her fea-
worthy, will avail him againft the breach of his implied
warranty. If the thip be not fea-worthy, the policy will
be void, though both the infured and the captain believed
her to be fea-worthy; and though the infurers knew the
ftate fhe was in as well as the owners. Where the goods
infured have fuftained a damage in the voyage, from the in-
fufficiency of the fhip, the queftion, whether the owner or
matter of the fhip be liable to make good the lofs, depends
on the queftion whether the fhip was in a condition to per-
form her voyage at the time of her departure, or became
defective from ftrefs of weather and the perils of the fea.
But it is fufficient if the fhip be fea-worthy at the time of
her failing. She may ceafe to be fo in twenty-four hours
after her departure, and yet the underwriters will con-
tinue liable. The queftion, however, in fuch cafes, will
always be, whether her difability arofe from any defect
exifting before her departure, or from a caufe which occa-
fioned it afterwards. But if a fhip, within a day or two
after her departure, become leaky and founder at fea, or be
obliged to put back, without any vifible or adequate caufe
to produce fuch an effeét, the natural prefumption is, that
fhe was not fea-worthy when fhe failed; and it will then
be incumbent on the infured to fhew the ftate fhe was in at
that time.

It is unneceflary to make any repre/entation of the condi-
tion of the fhip to the infurer, previous to the effecting of
the policy ; for it is a rule that no reprefentation need be
made of matters relating to the rifk which are covered by a
warranty.

But a fhip, to be fea-worthy, muft not only be tight,
ftaunch, and ftrong, and provided with all neceflary ftores
for the voyage propofed ; it is, as has been already obferved,
a condition or warranty, implied in the contraét, that the
fhip fhall be properly manned, by perfons of competent {kill
and ability to navigate her. And therefore, if fhe be fuf-
fered to fail in a river, or other place of difficult navigation,
without a pilot properly qualified, the underwriters will be
difcharged; for this is a breach of the above condition.
Marfhall’s Treatife on Infurance, vol. ii. See Sure and
WARRANTY.

Sra-Wrack, the name by which the fea-weed, colle&ed
and prepared for manure, is known in fome places. See
SEA-Weed and WREcK. !

It is faid to be fed upon by fheep and black cattle, in
fome places; eating it from the rocks on which it grows,
in its falteft ftate, during the ebbing of the tides. As a
manure, it is often ufed frefh with earth and fand in a fort
of compoft, without any lofs.

Sra-Yoke. See Yoxwe.

« Sea, Head. Sea Heap Sea.

Sea, High. See Hicu.

Seay Lie under the. See Lyne.

Sra, Pacific. See Paciric.

If it,

SEA

Spa, Reflux of the. See Reriux.

SEA, Trough of the. See TRoucu.

Sea, Under the. See UnprEr.

SEA, in Geography. See Cra.

Sea of Kubbeer, Deria Kubbeer, a falt lake, or rather
marfh, of the Perfian empire, in the province of Irak 5
which runs from eatt to weft about 150 miles, being in
fome places upwards of 35 miles in breadth. The roads
through this. morafs are not eafily diftingnifhed ; and the
unfortunate wanderer runs the rifk of either perifhing in the
{wamps, or dying of thirft and heat.

SEABANKORI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Natolia; 8 miles S.W. of Kiangari.

SEABASTICOCK, a river of the province of Maine,
which runs into the Kennebeck, N. lat. 44° 36'. W. long,
69° 45!. ‘

SEABROOK... See Saysroox.

SEABROOK, a townfhip of New Hamphhire, in Rocking-
ham county ; 6 miles N. of Newbury Port ; incorporated
in 1768, and containing 776 inhabitants.

SEADEE, a town of Hindoottan, in Bahar; 15 miles
S.W. of Arrah.

SEAFORD, a borough and market-town in the hun-
dred of Flexborongh, rape of Pevenfey, and county of
Suffex, is fituated at the diftance of 46 miles E. by S. from
Chichefter, and 59 miles S.S.E. from London. It was
formerly a large town, and had four churches and chapels ;
but is now only a fmall fifhing place, defended by a weak
fort, ‘ ereéted rather for political than military purpofes.’?
Seaford fent members to parliament as a borough from the
reign of Edward I. to that of Edward IV., when it ceafed
to exercife that privilege, till reftored and made a member
of the town and port of Haitings by Charles I. The cor-
poration confifts of a bailiff, twelve jurats, and an indefinite
number of freemen. The bailiff is the returning officer at
eleGtions, fome of which have been contefted with great
virulence, and have been the fubjeéts of parliamentary invefti-
gation. By the laft decifion (19th March 1792), the right
of eleGtion was declared to be “ in the inhabitants honfe-
keepers of the faid town and port, paying fcot and lot, and
in them only.””? The market-day here is Saturday, and
there are two_annual fairs on the 13th March and the 25th
July. According to the population cenfus of 1811, Sea-
ford contained 162 houfes, and root inhabitants. Hiftory
of the Boroughs of Great Britain, 3 vols: 8vo. 1793..
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. by N. Shoberb,
1813.

SEAFORTHIA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. Brown,
in honour of Francis lord Seaforth, F.R.S., F.L.S., and
F.R.S. Ed., late governor of Barbadoes, a liberal and very
intelligent cultivator and patron of botany, who has en-
riched the gardens of Britain with numerous Weft Indian
rarities, and whofe recent death is juftly deplored by all
who have a due re{pe& for talents or virtue.—Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. v. 1. 267.—Clafs and order, Polygamia Mono-
ecia. Nat. Ord.. Palme pennatifoliz.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply three-cleft. Corolla deeply three-
cleft. Stamens numerous. Germen with one feed. Stig-
mas three. Berry oval. Seed ftriated. Albumen finuous.
Embryo at the bafe.

Some flowers have an abortive piftil; other intermediate ©
folitary*ones are entirely female.

1. S. elegans. Elegant Seaforthia.x—Obferved by Mr.
Brown in the tropical part of New Holland. A Jarge and
handfome palm, with pinnate leaves; the leaflets plaited and
folded, jagged at the extremity. The genus is allied to
Caryora (fee that ‘article), but effentially different in

6 the

SEA
the flruéture of the germen, and fituation of the em-

list Asa ABs vtorathos actomratel Peslins in tho geo-
vince of Irak ; 30 miles .E. of Hirabad.
SEAGRIM, the common name fometimes given to a

te 10 9 - weed. - See Raceepes : :

» in » a meafure of capacity con-
fix cabs. lane Measures. nen.

. -HORSE Iscanp, in Geegraphy, an ifland in Hud-
foa’s bay. N. lat. 62°. W. long. 92° 50’.

Point, a cape on afl of a peninfula in
"sbay. N. lat. 64°, W. long. 82° 10'.
KONNET Rocks, rocks on the coatt of Rhode
in the entrance of Naraganfett bay.

Sicititum, a mer oe or piece of metal, or
patter, ufually either round or me 8 on which are en-
native arms, device, &e. _ age gy se

» OF private on, often with a le
jon; the impreffion of which inoue iemento
inflruments, &c. authentic.

is in the hands of the lord high

denominated /ord 4

or lord keeper, whofe
18. is declared to be exaétly the

is day created by the mere delivery

into his without writ or

isa

feal ufually firit fet to grants
feal. See Parents.
ancient, an initance of which

li, 10, &e.

ancient feals were all engraven on the

i and as the original ule of
y to be in readinefs for the feal-

. feals thould feem to be as

annuli fignatorii, fizillares, ciro-
7 Soligtedine onc. were firft
: nians, who, not content to fhut
rchefts, armories, &e. with keys, added feals to them ;
tothisend, at firft they made ufe of worm-eaten wood,
preflions of which they took on wax, or foft earth ;

they at length found the art of ving figures, or
Ao, carole ple in the fame man-
oy ape mutt be granted, that even in Mofes’s
art ving, not only on metals, but alfo on

that the ring had any other
Rolle hottibionn 11tois at

primitive Jews
in ts, contracts, di

ich we have in the firft book of

iii. 10. Xenophon, Hellen. lib. i.

xliii. ¢ap. iii. where we learn,
's feal was become a particular
Alexander gave his feal to Per-

/ ing him his fucceflor.

obferves, that in his time there were no feals ufed

SEA

any where but in the Roman empire. At Rome, he tells
us, they were become of abfolute neceffity, infomuch that
a teitament was pull without the teflator’s feal, and the feals
of feven witnetles ; but it does pot appear that the Romans
had any fuch things as public feals; nor that their ediets
and contradts were fealed, vot even in the times of the em.
perors.

In France the cuflom ancieatly was, initesd of figning
their inftruments, &c. only to feal them; aseppears from
an infinity of ancient charters, which are not figned at all;
the reafon of which was, that in thofe days very few people
were able to write; fearcely any body, indeed, could read
and write but clerks; and Hs cuflom continued when learn-
ing made its way among them, though the reafon for doing
it had ceafed.

In England, the firft fealed charter we find extant is that
of Edward the Confeffor, upon his founding of Weitmintter
ane yet we read of feals in the MS. hiltory of king

a.

And fir Edward Coke relies on an inftance of king Ed-
wyn’s making ufe of a feal about an hundred years before
the Conqueft ; though fome have doubted the authenticity
of this charter, becaufe it is certain that fealing was not
then in common ufe.

Before the time of William the Conqueror, the Englith
did not feal with wax, but only made a golden crofs on the
parchment, and fometimes an impreffion on a piece of lead,
which hung to the grant with a filken ftring, and was deemed
an abundant authorizing of the grant itfelf, without either
figning or witneffes.

This praétice of affixing the fign of the crofs proceeded
from their inability to write ; which is honeitly avowed by
Caedwalla, a Saxon king, at the end of one of his charters :
“propria manu pro igrorantia literarum fignum fanétx
cru¢is expreffi et fubfermpfi.””

The fame circumitance is related concerning the emperor
Jultin in the Eaft, and Theodoric, king of the Goths, in
Italy.

he colour of the wax with which William’s grants were
fealed, was ufually green, to fignify that the Se eckitiaved
for ever frefh, and of force. The ufual impreffion on all
laymen’s feals, till the year 1218, was a man on horfeback,
with a fword in his hand ; afterwards, they began to engrave
their coats of arms on their feals; only the archbifhops
and bifhops, by a decree of cardinal Otto, who was legate
here in 1237, were to bear in their feals their title, office,
dignity, and even their proper names.

u Chefne obferves, that none below the dignity of a
knight had any right to a pendant feal, called authen-
ticum.

The emperors long fealed all their ats of importance
with a golden feal; and the golden bull of Charles IV. for
the election of an emperor, takes its name from the gold feal
hanging to it, which is called Ju//.

The pope has two kinds of feals, the firft ufed in apotto-
lical briefs, and private letters, &c. called the fj 's ring:
This is avery large ring, on which is reprefented St. Peter
drawing his net full of fifhes.

The other is ufed in bulls, reprefenting St. Peter’s head
on the right, that of St. Paul on the left, with a crofs be-
tween the two; on the reverfe are fometimes the pope’s name
and arms.

The im ions of the firft feal are taken in red wax ; but
thofe of the fecond, always in lead.

Theod. Hopink, a German lawyer, has furnifhed the
world with a ena and curious work on the on iy of
feals, printed in 1642, at Nuremberg, in quarto, u the

ttle,

SEA

title, “de Sigillorum prifco & novo Jure, Tractatus Prac-
ticus,’’ &c. We have another work of the like kind by
Heineccius, in folio, printed at Frankfort and Leipfic in
1709, under the title, ‘de Veteribus Germanorum alia-
rumque Nationum Sigillis, eorumque Ulu & Preitantia,
Syntagma Hiftoricum.”

SEAL is alfo ufed for the wax or lead, and the impreffion
thereon, fixed tothe thing fealed.

The manufaturers’ feal, frequently applied to their ftuffs,
&e. isto be of lead. That of knights, by the French law,
is to be of hard wax ; that of agents, of foft wax.

Some feals are {tamped on the paper or parchment itfelf,
others hung by filken ftrings.

The French feal their edicts with green wax ; arrets with
yellow wax ; expedients for Dauphiné with red wax. And
the letters of the French academy are fealed with blue wax.
See Wax.

Sear, Hermetical. See HERMETICAL.

SEAL, Lady’s, in Botany, a fpecies of Bryony.

Sea, Solomon’s, or lily of the valley. See ConvaLia-
RIA. .

SEAL, in Zoology. See Poca, and alfo Sra-Bear, and
Sra-Calf.

Seat, Hair of the, in Agriculture, is a fubftance made ufe
of as a manure, in the way of top-drefling, in combination
with rabbits’ dung and lime, but which can feldom be pro-
vided in any fufficiently large quantity, nor is it found very
beneficial for the purpofe. See Manure.

Sea, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the coaft of
Donegal, Ireland, called in Arrowfmith’s map Glafhedi ;
it isnear the entrance of Strabagy bay, and about four miles
fouth of Malin Head.

SEAL J/land, an ifland near the S. W. coaft of Nova Scotia.
N. lat. 43°25’. W. long. 66°.—Alfo, an ifland in the-At-
Jantic, near the coaft of Maine. N. lat. 43° 50’. W. long.
68° 40’. — Alfo, a {mall ifland W. of King George the
Third’s Sound, on the S. coaft of New Holland; 3 miles
N.W. of Baldhead.

Seat Jflunds, a clufter of {mall iflands in the Atlantic,
near the coaft of Maine. N. lat. 44°45’. W. long. 67°
46'.—Alfo, a clutter of {mall iflands near the eaft coaft of
Labrador. N. lat. 53°15’. W. long. 55° 10!.

Sesu Key, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh Main, near the
Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 12° 54’. W. long. 82° 40!—See
alfo Lozos.

SEAL River, a river of North America, which runs into
Hudfon’s bay.

SEALCOTE, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Lahore; 50 miles N.N.E. of Lahore. N. lat. 31° 44/.
E. long. 73° 50!.

SEALER, an officer in chancery, appointed by the lord
chancellor, or keeper of the great feal, to feal the writs and
inftruments there made in his prefence.

SEALING, in Architedure, the fixing of a piece of wood
or iron in a wall, with platter, mortar, cement, lead, or
other folid binding.

For ftaples, hinges, and joints, plafter is very proper.

Seavinc-Waz. See Wax.

SEAM, or Same, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
tallow, greafe, hog’s lard, before it is rendered and formed
into lard, &c. in fome places.

Sram, a term applied to a horfe-load of three hundred
weight. Jn Cornwall, a feam of fand weighs two hundred
weight. The feam alfo differs very much in the weight of
different articles of other kinds. It likewife varies in different
diftriéts of the kingdom.

SEA

Sram of Corn, in Agriculture, the meafure of a quarter,
or eight bufhels.

Sram of Gia/s, is the quantity of one hundred and twenty
pounds, or twenty-four {tone, each five pounds weight.

Seam of Wood, in Rural Economy, ahorfe-load of wood,
or as much as can be carried by a Itrong animal of that kind.
It differs, however, in different diftricts.

SEAMS, or Sryms, in Hor/fes, certain clefts in their
quarters, occafioned by the drynefs of the foot, or by riding
upon hard ground.

Seams, 1 Ship-Building, the openings or joints between
the edges of the planks when wrought.

Seams, in Sail-Making. Sails have a double flat feam,
that 1s, the edges or felvages of the canvas are lapped one
over the other an inch or more, and both edges firmly fewed
down.

Seams of a Sail are of two forts, monk’s-feam, and round-
Seam.

Seam, Monk’s. See Monr.

Seam, Round, of a fail, is fo called, becaufe round like
the common feam.

SEAMEN. See Mariners and Navy.

SEAMER, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of York, which runs into the Ure.

SeAMeER’s Lake, a lake in America, in the ltate of Ver-
mont. N. lat. 44° 52'. W. long. 71° 55/.

SEAMLEE, a town of Hindooflan, in the circar of
Schaurunpour; 36 miles S. of Schaurunpour.

SEA-OTTER Sounp, a bay onthe W. coaft of North
America. N. lat. 55° go’. W. long. 133° 45/.

SEA-PYES’ Keys, a clutter of {mall iflands in the gulf
of Mexico. N. lat. 29° 56/. W. long. 89° 5!.

SEAR, in Rural Economy, a term applied to dry or
rotten wood, in oppofition to that which is green.

SEARA, in Geography, a town of Brazil, in the govern-
ment of Maranhao. 5. lat. 3° 30’. W. long. 39° 30/.—
Alfo, a river of Brazil, which runs into the Atlantic, S.
lat. 3° 30'. W.long. 39° 30’.

SEARCE. See Steve.

SEARCH-Warrant, in Law, a kind of general war-
rant iflued by jultices of peace, for fearching all fufpected
places for ftolen goods; and there is a precedent in Dal-
ton, requiring the conftable to fearch all {uch fufpected
places, as he and the party complaining fhall think conve-
ment ; but fuch practice 1s condemned by lord Hale, Mr.
Hawkins, and the belt authorities. However, in cafe of
a complaint, and oath made of goods ftolen, and that the
party fufpeéts that the goods are in fuch houfe, and fhews
the caufe of fuch fufpicion, the juftice may grant a warrant
to fearch in thofe fufpected places mentioned in his warrant,
and to attack the goods, and the party in whofe cuftody they
are found, and bring them before him or fome other juftice,
to give an account how he came by them, and to abide fuch
order as to law fhall appertain; which warrant fhould be
direéted to the conftable, or other public officer, who may
enter a fufpeéted houfe and make fearch.

SEARCHER, an officer in the cuftoms, whofe bufinefs
it is to fearch and examine fhips outward bound, if they
have any prohibited or uncuftomed goods on board, &c.
12 Car. If. There are alfo fearchers of leather, &c. See
ALNAGER.

SEARCHER, in 4rtillery, is an iron focket with branches,
from four to eight in number, a little bent outwards with
{mall points at their ends; 10 this focket is fixed a wooden
handle, from eight to twelve feet long, of abost an inch
and a quarter diameter. This fearcher 1s introduced into the
gun after it has been fired and turned round, in order to dif-

cover

SEA

gover the cavities within ; and after their diflances are marked
on the outfide with chalk, they make ufe of another fcarcher
that has ouly ove point, about which a mixture of wax
tallow is put, to take the impreflion of the holes; and
there are any a quarter of an inch deep, or of any

eonfiderable length, the gun is pees as unferviceable to
«the goverumests The gun is thus proved and fearched
"Seancurn, in Reral » an implement ufed for

; in R

er Ay fearchin Sce Bonen.
RCHING, the operation of boring or finking
the bowels of the earth, for the difeovery of the
materials which it may contain. For the deteétion
‘marles, coals, or other Grnilar fubftances, the ule of the
may be fufficient. But where difficulties arife in per-
it in this way, from the obitrudtion of ftones, &c.
narrow fhaft, fuch as a well, may, Mr. Marthall thinks,
ried down, without much expence, to the depths at
it can be wrought with advantage. See Bonen and

Neutral Ships, in Political Economy, a prac-
y the law of nations, in order to prevent the
traband or fuch ities as are
ly ufed in war, and the importation of which to an

is prohibited. Accordingly Vattel, and other writers
defcription, maintain that there is aright of fearch-
nations have indeed at differeat times
L to fubmit to this. But at prefent a neutral thip re-
to be fearched, GAT frcun thet. pioseedieg slone be

i But to avoid inconveniencies,
ity, the manner of the

he treaties of navigation and commerce.
lB pad cigs credit is to be given in
of lading, produced by the maiter of

i

a

:

fraud appear in them, or there be very
ing their validity.
Stone, called alfo » denotes, in

initru-

& any calculus which may be agai and
t

y of learning that the bi con-
ms of complaint refemble
ive us (fee
1 but when we both hear and feel the collifion
inftrument againft the calculus, we obtain that kind
4 info eres ct init of oor. eee
“The vantageous ure for fou is that, in
; ch - pda reclines back upon a fofa, a pte, A
ir of large fize, with a back that can be made to fall
ckwards to a convenient diftance, is fometimes ufed, and
' We tect gnc Pera aS tse jxt of Ue
e {tone is tu at lowe oft
~ bladder, the eal oa (end ufually not Aya? on
that of a catheter, in order that it may more eafily touch any
fituated n heary hs behind ny ite ode of the
, : oo a particular kind of probe, and
as its chief ufe is to Goaney tefixtastion through he medium
of the 1 of touch, its handle fhould be {mooth and

~
-

SEA

of the inflrument towards the abdomen. When the lef
method is preferred, as foon as the point has arrived in the
perinwum, it is to be kept flationary, while the handle is
made to deferibe a femicireular movement downward, fo a6
to turn the concavity of the inflrument towards the pubes,
previous to its paflage through the membranous and prot-
tatic portion of the urethra. This is the plan which the
French furgeons bave called * le tour de maitre.”

When the extremity of the found is in the bladder, it is
to be pufhed downward for the purpofe of afcertaining
whether the ftone lies beneath its convexity, as is molt com-
monly the cafe where one is prefent, If the extraneous
body thould not be felt in this manner, the beak of the in.
itrument may be turned firlt to one fide of the cavity of the
bladder, then to the other. Should the calculus not be
touched by thefe movements of the found, the inflrament
may be drawn forward, for the purpofe of learning whether
the ftone is more anteriorly fituated. Frequently the
ftone cannot be felt till the whole of the urine has been
expelled, and the bladder has become contraéted. Some-
times, the found may be made to hit the flone, by intro-
ducing the finger into the rectum, and thus bringing the
extraneous y upward. In this way, the calculus may
often be plainly felt by the finger.

We bhall conclude this fhort article, with earneftly cau-
tioning furgeons never to perform lithotomy, unlele they
can difkinétly feel the ftone with the found, or ftafl, imme-
diately before the operation.

SEAR-CLOTH, or Cere-crorn. The word far-
cloth is fuppofed to be a corruption of cere-cloth, and to be
derived originally from the Greek xxpS-, wax.

In Surgery, it denotes a form of external remedy, fome-
what harder than an unguent, yet fofter than an emplafter,
though it is frequently ufed both for the one and the other.
The fear-cloth is always {uppofed to have wax in its com-

pofition, which diftinguifhes, and even denominates it. In
effe&, when a liniment or unguent has enough wax in it, it
does not differ from a fear-cloth.

Sear-cloths are a kind of fubflitutes to fri€tion, and are
fometimes ufed for other purpofes ; the beft are compounded
of refolvent drugs, as faffron, myrrh, and aloes, incorporated
with wax and gums, as galbanum, gum ammoniac, and faga-

um ; the whole tempered with wine.

SEARSBURG, in Geography, a townthip of America,
in Bennington county, Vermont; 12 miles E. of Benning-
ton,

SEASE, Szasin, or Scafing, ina Ship. See Seize.

SEASONING, in Ship-Building, a term applied to a
fhip kept ftanding a certain time after fhe is completely tim-
bered and dubbed out for planking, which fhould never be
lefs than fix months.

Seafoned timber or plank is fuch as has been cut down
and converted, or fawn out one feafon at leait, particularly
when thoroughly dry, and not liable to fhrink.

SeasoninG of Timber. See Timper.

SEASONINGS, in the Weft Indies, a kind of aguith
diftemper, which foreigners are much fubje¢t to at their firit
coming.

SEASONS, in Cofmography, certain portions or quarters
of the year, diftinguifhed by the figns which the {un then
enters, or by the meridian altitudes of the fun; confequent
on which, are different temperatures of the air, different
werks in tillage, &c.

The word is formed from the French /ai/on, which Menage
derives from the Latin flatio, whence the Italians have formed

Slagione ; Nicod derives it from fatio, tempus fationis, Jowing
sime.

Th

SEA

The year is divided into four feafons, {pring, fummer,
autumn, and winter; the beginnings and endings of each
of which, fee under its proper article.

It is to be obferved, the feafons anciently began differently
from what they now do ; witnefs the old verfes :

«¢ Dat Clemens hyemem; dat Petrus ver cathedratus ;
/Eftuat Urbanus ; autumnat Bartholomeus.’’

SEAT, in dfronomy. See ScuEar.

SEAT, in the Manege, is the pofture or fituation of a
horfeman upon the faddle.

To feat a horfe upon his branches or hip, fee Pur.

Seat, in Ship-Building, the {carf or part trimmed out for
a chock, &c. to fay to.

Seat-Tran/om, that tranfom which is fayed and bolted to
the ftern-timbers, next above the deck-tranfom, at the height
of the port-fills.

SEATING, that part ofa floor which fays on the dead-
qood; and of a tranfom which fays againft the pot.

SEATNESS, in Geography, a cape on the S.W. coaft
of Shetland. N. lat. 59°46’. W. long. 1° 36’.

SEATON, a {mall fea-port town in the hundred of Co-
lyton, county of Devon, England, is fituated at the diftance
of three miles S. from Colyton, and 156 S.W. from London.
This place is called Suetetone in Domefday book, and was
undoubtedly the Moridunum of the Iter of Antoninus.
Rifdon fays it is ** memorable for the Danifh princes land-
ing there in the year 937, as alfo for the attempt of the in-
habitants of Colyton to make a haven there, which they had
folemnly named Collyton haven, and procured a colleGtion
under the great feal of England for the levying of money to
effe& the fame, of which work there remaineth no monu-
ment, only aremembrance of fuch a place among ftrangers
that know not where it ftands.’? At prefent Seaton is
chiefly noted as a well frequented fea-bathing village. The
church is an ancient building of free-itone, dedicated to St.
Gregory, and contains a very elegant monument in memory
of W. Walroud, efq. and his lady. According to the
parliamentary returns of 1811, the parifh of Seaton com-
prifed 323 houfes, and 1524 inhabitants. The Hiftory of
Devonfhire, by the Rev. Richard Polwhele, three vols.
folio, 1797. The Chorographical Defcription or Survey
of the County of Devon, by Triftam Rifdon, 8vo. 1714,
2d edit. with additions, 8vo. 1811.

SEATON, or Port Seaton, a {mall fea-port of Scotland,
in the county of Haddington, in the Frith of Forth; 5 miles
W.N.W. of Haddington. N. lat. 55° 58/. W. long. 3°
59!
serene Nook, a cape of England, on the E. coaft of
the county of Durham, at the mouth of the Tees; 5 miles
§.S.E. of Hartlepool.

SEATON Sluice, a fluice which opens into the German fea,
on the coaft of the county of Northumberland.—Alfo, a
town of England, called <«* Seaton Delaval,”? in Northum-
berland, deriving its name from an artificial harbour con-
ttruéted by fir Ralph Delaval, in the 17th century; 10 miles
N.E. of Newcaftle. N. lat. 55° 6!.

SEATON, ariver of England, which rifes near Lefkeard,
and runs into the Englifh Channel, three miles E. of Looe,
in Cornwall.

SEAVES, in. Rural Economy, a term ufed to fignify
rufhes, efpecially the foft ruth.

SEAVY Grounp, fuch ground as is covered or over-
run with rufhes.

SEAUM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in La-
hore; 18 miles W. of Rahoon.

SEA-WOLVES Istanp, an ifland in the gulf of St.

SEA

Laurence, near the W. coaft of Cape Breton. N. lat. 460
21’. W. long. 61°. ;

SEBA, Apert, in Biography, a native of Eaft Frize-
land, was by profeffion a druggift at Amfterdam, and a
member of the Academy Nature Curioforum. He pub-
lithed a defcriptive catalogue, in Latin and French, of the
vaft colle€tion of objeéts in natural hiftory which he had
brought together, in four vols. folio, illuftrated with a great
number of engravings. He likewife communicated feveral
papers to the Ephem. Nat. Curiof.

SEBACA, in Geography. See Maniour.

SEBACEOUS Granps, in Anatomy, {mall glandular
bodies in the fin, {ecreting the un&uous matter which covers
the furface of the body. They are particularly manifett
about the ale of the nofe, and in the folds of the external
ear. See InTEGUMENTS, Ear, and Nosr.

SEBACIC Acn, in Chemifiry, is an acid produced from
the decompofition of animal fat, particularly hog’s-lard.
The acrid fumes which are evolved during the burning of
fat at a heat fhort of inflammation, was formerly confidered
as a peculiar acid, which was called the acid of fat, and after-
wards the febacic acid. From the experiments of Thenard
it has fince been proved not to be a peculiar acid, but the
acetic acid difguifed with fome other produ&t of the decom-
pofition. During thefe refearches, however, he found that
by the diftillation of tallow, he obtained an acid having pe-
culiar properties, which he ftill called the febacic acid. The
following is the procefs he recommends. Dittil hog’s-lard
from a retort, by a heat which will decompofe the fat ; car-
bonic acid and carburetted hydrogen firft come over, and a
yellowifh fluid containing acetic acid, but ftill no febacic
acid. ‘This receiver muft now be removed, and a new one
adapted: the heat being continued, an oily matter comes
over of the confiftence of butter. It is in this fub{tance
that the febacic acid is found. It is feparated by firft boil-
ing it in water, and evaporating the liquid till the febacic
acid falls down in cryftals. This depofition is increafed as
the liquid cools.

He alfo recommends, inftead of getting the cryftals by
evaporation, to add acetate of lead to the water in which the
oily matter has been boiled; a flaky precipitate is formed,
which is the febat of lead, and which is to be well wafhed
and dried. When to this fubftance fulphuric acid is added,
and heat applied, a fatty liquid floats on the top, which is
to be colleéted; this being diffolved in hot water, forms
cryftals of pure febacic acid, which are depofited on cool-
ing.

"The lard affords but a very {mall proportion of the acid.
Rofe informs us that it requires a pound of lard to produce
forty grains of acid.

Sebacic acid, thus obtained, is in the form of a cryftalline
mafs, of a white colour. It has no {mell, but its tafte is
agreeably four, and flightly bitter; like moft other acids it
changes fome vegetable blues to a red colour.

When heated, it melts like fat into a tranfparent fluid,«
but on cooling it re-aflumes its whitenefs and its cryftalline
form. It is Bid to be volatile by heat, ftill retaining its
properties, but a flrong heat decompofes it.

It is fparingly foluble in cold water, and boiling water
diffolves about one-fourth its weight ; it affords cryftals on
cooling, which are in the form of prifms. Alcohol diffolves
it in confiderable quantity. It isalfo foluble in oils. From
the lait, and fome other properties, it bears a ftrong refem-
blance to the benzoic acid. ‘This laft analogy has been
pointed out by Berzelius. He found alfo that the falts
formed by this acid have a {trong refemblance to the Lenzoats.
Thefe faéts go far to fhew fo ftrong an analogy between the

two

SEB
two acids, as almoft to eflablith their identity. See Bew-

sore Acid,

SEBACOOK, or Sesaoo, in Geagraphy, a pond or
lake of America, in the flate of Maine, equal in extent to
two large townthips, and connected with Long Pond on
the N., W. by Sungo or Songo river; thefe waters reach
nearly 30 miles from N.W. to S.E.; 18 miles N.W. of
Portland

SEBAA, in Botany, a name adopted by Mr. Brown,
from Dr. Solander’s manuferipts, in memory of Albert
Seba, an apothecary of Amiterdam, who prepared a {plendid
efeription, with plates, of his owa mufeum, in four large
folio volumes, which came out between the years 1734 and

. The author indeed died in 1736, fo that his three
latter volumes were pofthumous publications. Many Cape
plants are here engraved, and among(t them one of the prefent
{ Yet Seba does not deferve to rank as a {cientilic

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
Givided into four ovate, acute, kecled, Qightly {preading,

in four deep, elliptical, fpreading fegments. . Fila-
fhaped, infected’ into the tube, projecting
tong, “borking Rigeemeay heaiety pecareed” and
i itudi » fubfequently recu and
at the tip. il. Gecwie fapibe, "gia filling
tube; ttyle thread-fhaped, » the len of the
; ftigmas two, oblong. Peric. Capfule roundith,
ith a furrow at each fide, comprefled, of two cells and two
length of the calyx ; partitions from the inflexed
valves, inferted into the edges of the large
from which they finally feparate. Seeds
flowers in fome {pecies are five-cleft.
Calyx deeply four-cleft, keeled. Corolla falver-
with an i tube. Anthers burfting longitu-
recurved and callous at the point.

site

|

.

;

|

z
?

i

i

divided calyx ; anthers without a callous tip,
a pore, or fhort flit, and continuing Araight
be ap grt ate A an undivided ftigma ;
and receptacle of the connetted with a partition origi-
from the middle of each valve.
_ 1. 8. albens. Whitith Sebea. (Exacum albens; Linn.
Sp. Pl. v. ea but not FE. pedun-
Sp. Pl. 163. Centaurium 1 Weta folis, flo-
comofis; Burm. Afr. 207. t. 74, f. 4; meg.”
to Plukenet.)—Flowers in the upper forks o:
ftem {effile—Gathered by Thunberg, Sparrmann, and
— Vou. XXXII.

SEB
others at the Cape of Good rn The reef is anoual,

fibrous, Sem erect, four or five inches high, much branched,
repeatedly forked, leafy, {mooth, with four tharp anglee,
level.topped, many-flowered. Leawes feflile, fcarcely at all
decurresit, ovate, entire, fmooth, flethy, fomewhat glau-
cots, Flowers four-cleft, though Burmann deferibes them
otherwife ; the loweft more or lefs flalked, as well as thofe
which crown the ultimate lateral branches ; but thofe firuated
in the upper forks of the flem are quite feflile. Segments
of the calyx Dightly keeled, their points a little recurved.
Corolla apparently whitith, or pale pink. Thunberg’s {pe-

cimen agrees beit with Burmann’s figure; that of Sparr-

“mann has broader leaves and larger flowers; yet we cannot

trace out a fatisfa¢tory diltinétion, One of them may pol
fibly be the unpublifthed Cape fpecics, announced by Mr.
Brown, without any definition or defcription, but we can-
not guefs which, and, all things confidered, we do not feel
authorized in feparating them.

2. S. aurea. Yellow Sebra. (Exacum aureum; Linn.
Suppl. 123. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.635.» Centaurium minus
aureum, flofculis numerofis, ethiopicum; Pluk. Almag. 94.
t. 275. f. 3.) —All the flowers ftalked.—Gathered by Sparr-
mann, at the Cape of Good Hope. About half the fize
of the lait in every part. Flowers yellow, four-cleft, each
on a flender quadrangular ftalk, even from the uppermolt, as
well as the lower, forks of the item. Linnzus jufily com-
mends Plukenet’s figure, though he had originally, in Sp.
Pl. cited that fynonym doubtfully under his Exacum feffile,
a widely different plant. It is remarkable that he defcribes
the calyx in the Supplement as of five leaves, whereas it has
only four, a3 it ought, the corolla being five-cleft.

3- S. cordata. Heart-fhaped Sebea. (Exacum cor-
datum; Linn. Suppl. 124. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 636.
But not £. efile, Sp. Pl. 163. Gentianaexacoides; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 332. Centaurium perfoliatum, florum calyce mem-
branaceum ventricofum; Burm. Afr. 208. t. 74. f 5.
C. perfoliatum zxthiopicum, flofculis exiguis flavefcentibus,
ex calyculis magnis quadripinnatis erumpentibus; Pluk.
Almag. 94. t. 275. f. 4. “C. capenfe minus, capfula

uatuor alis donata; Seb. Muf. v. 1. t. 22. f. 7." )—
lowers five-cleft. Segments of the calyx with a dilated,
half-heart-fhaped, veiny keel. Leaves heart-fhaped.—Na-
tive of the oe of Good Hope. The = and habit ——
with the firft ies, but the flowers are T, apparent
yellow, with a tube, and oie Bok Calyx dii-
tinguifhed by the dilated veiny keels of its fegments, which
are five, not (as Plukenet and Seba fay,) four only. All
the flowers have partial fa/és, though fhorter in the upper
ones than the lower. The whole hiftory of thefe three
{pecies, in the Supplement, was written by Linnzus him-
felf, not by his fon, who only deferibed the fourth, Exacum
pun@atum.
S. ovata. Ovate Sebra. Brown n. 1. (Exacum
ovatum ; Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 38. t. 52.) — Flowers
five-cleft. Segments of the calyx fimply keeled. Leaves
ovate.—Gathered by M. Labillardiere at Cape Van Diemen,
and by Mr. Brown at Port Jackfon, New South Wales.
Taller and more flender than the foregoing, being about a
fpan high. Such of the upper 4, as grow from the
‘orks of the flem, are nearly fellile, like thofe of S. albens.
ts of the calyx lanceolate, with a fimple, not dilated,
keel. Corolla with a {mall, fhort, five-cleft limb; nothing
is recorded of its colour.

SEBAGENA, in Ancient fe = town of Cappa-
docia, in the prefecture of Cilicia. my.

SEBAIA, = Capennly, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas; 33 S. of Medina.

x SEBAKET

SEB
SEBAKET Banropot, i.e. the lake of king Baldwin,

a narrow lake of Egypt, near the Mediterranean, about
fifteen miles long ; 2 miles E. of Catieh.

SEBALA, atown of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
jas; 27 miles S. of Medina.

SEBAMA, or Sasama, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Paleftine, on the other fide of the Jordan, in the tribe of
Reuben, according to the book of Jofhua.

SEBANZARRO, in Geography, a town of Abyflinia ;
Somiles E.N.E. of Axum.

SEBAR, or Cesar, in the Materia Medica, a name by
which the Arabians call the Jignum aloes, or aloe-wood, a per-
fumed aromatic drug.

SEBARIMA, in Geography, one of the mouths of the
river Oroonoko.

SEBASTACOOK, a river of America, in the ftate of
Maine, which rifes in lakes nearly N. from its mouth, and
after receiving, in the windings, many tributary ftreams, joins
the Kennebeck at Taconnet Fall, where Fort Halifax was
erected, in 1754.5 the fallis 18,miles from Fort Weiltern,
which was conitruéted in 1752. Its numerous ftreams
abound with {mall fifh.

SEBASTE, a miferable deferted village of Syria, the de-
populated remains of Samaria, which acquired its new name
in honour of Auguitus Cefar; 34 miles N.N.E. of Jeru-
falem. See SAMARIA.

SEBastE, in Ancient Geography, an ifland and town of
Cilicia Propria, on the other fide of the promontory of Cory-
cus. Strabo fays that this town was called Elenfa, and that
Archelaus made it the place of his refidence, when Auguftus
gave him Cilicia Trachea.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in
Phrygia.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Galatia.

SEBASTIAN, in Biography, king of Portugal, was the
poithumous fon of the mfant John, by Joanna, daughter of
the emperor Charles V.* He fucceeded to the crown at three
years of age, on the death of his grandfather, John III., in
the year 1557. By his education he acquired an extravagant
admiration for valourous exploits, and an enthufiaftic zeal
againtt all the foes of the Chriftian religion. Under the
influence of this paffion, he, at the age of twenty, undertook
a fudden expedition to Africa, in which, however, he per-
formed nothing of any importance; but availing himfelf of
the application for aid of Muley Hamet, king of Fez and
Morocco, who had beer difpofleffed of his crown by his uncle
Muley Moloch, he refolved to renew the attempt againft
the Moorifh monarch with all the force he could bring
together.

In vain was he diffuaded from the enterprize: he was in-
acceffible to all admonitions. Having {tripped his country
of its military ftrength, and the flower of the nobility, he
fet fail in the f{ummer of 1578, and proceeded to Arzilla.
There he was met by a much more numerous army; with
Muley Moloch in perfon, who was fo debilitated by ficknefs
that he was carried in a litter. In the battle that enfued,
the onfet of the Portuguefe army was fo furious that nothing
could withftand them, and Muley, in rallying his men, was
fo much exhaulted that he died in the attempt. Sebatftian,
who was not lefs dexterous in the ufe of arms than brave,
fought till two horfes were killed under him, and mott of his
attendants were flain by his fide. At length, however, he
difappeared, nor was it ever known, with any degree of cer-
tainty, what became of him, though a body, fuppofed to be
his, was received as fuch from the Moors, and interred at
Belem. But in a flaughter fo dreadful, that not more than
fifty of the Portuguefe army are faid to have efcaped, it is
no wonder that a fingle body, and probably ftripped, fhould
not be recognized. Such, however, was the attachment of

SEB

the nation to a prince, whofe romantic valour had revived
in their minds the heroic times of Portugal, that they
refufed to give credit to his death, and long entertained the
full expectation of feeing him return from his fuppofed con-
cealment. Of this opinion many impoftors availed them-
felves, who affumed his charaGter, and obtained a portion of
refpect due to their favourite fovereign: for more than a
century it was believed that he would be again feated on his
throne.

SEBASTIAN, S¢,, in Geography, a town of Spain, and the
mott important of the diftri& of Guipufcoa, fituated on the
coatt of ancient Cantabria, now Bafque, between two arms of
the fea, which form a peninfula of it, and at the mouth of the
little river Urumea, or Gurumera, which was the Menafcum of
theancients. On the fea-fide there is an eminence which ferves
asa dike. This town, flanked with baftions and half-moons,
appears defended by a caitle or citadel of little importance,
placed upon an almott circular and tolerably high mountain,
which is bare, without trees, almoft fmooth, and afcended by
a f{piral road. St. Sebaftian has a {mall harbour inclofed by
two moles, that leave a very confined {pace for the paflage of
fhips, which are afterwards protected from the winds, on
arriving at the bottom of an eminence of rocks which covers
this harbour, where there is a large {quare tower; it holds
at moft five and twenty or thirty veflels. The town is very
airy ; it contains twenty ftreets, feveral of which are ftraight,
long, and broad, and all paved with large {mooth ftones.
There are from fix hundred and fifty to feven hundred houfes
in it, and many of them are pleafant enough. It is the refi-
dence of the governor of the province, who had the title of
captain-general until the beginning of the prefent century.
It has a governor, a king’s lieutenant, a major, an aide-major,
a fmall garrifon, and a naval academy ; two parifhes, and a
third in the fuburbs, which are very populous; two con-
vents of monks, three convents of nuns, aud an hofpital.
There are in this town and its fuburbs five manufactories of
hides and leather, fome tanning-yards eftablifhed in the
faubourg St. Martin, a manufactory of anchors for the royal
navy in the faubourg of Sta..Catalina, and rope-walks,
where cables are made.

Saint Sebattian has always carried on a confiderable trade,
In 1728, the Philippine company was formed by Philip V.,
with which that of the Caraccas was afterwards united. This
company was very ferviceable, as it procured for Spain
a lucrative branch of trade, which was in the hands of the
Dutch. In confequence, however, of mal-adminiltration,
and the lofs of 1,500,000 pialtres, which it fuitained at the
commencement of the war between England and America,
this company funk and was fupprefled. However, a trade
with the province of Caraccas was continued by private mer-
chants from this port, and the cocoa, tobacco, anc leather
which are from thence imported, form no inconfiderable
branch of trade with the interior and the other parts of
Spain, and a {till more important one with foreign countries.
Hence its harbour is very much frequented by Englifh,
Dutch, French, and other fhips. It receives the produce of
foreign induftry, and returns, in exchange, iron anchors,
cables,. leather, wool, and fometimes cotton. This trade
attra¢ts a confiderable population to the town, which is e(fti-
mated at 13,000 inhabitants. j

The port of St. Sebaftian, though free, is not what is
called abilitado. This word means a privilege to fend mer-
chandize dire@tly to America.

The environs of St. Sebattian are pleafant, though the
foil is fandy ; we enjoy at the fame time a view of the fea
and of the Pyrenees. ‘Thofe who love the country, take
pleafure in vifiting the pleafant valley of Layola. We go

to

SEB

to itt the gate of France, following a kind of pro-
menade, which mA toa wooden bridge, where perfons who
are fond of it amufe themfelves io fithing for Pinon. ina
river which bathes the fortifications of the town ; this fd is
found there in fuch abuodance, that it is fold for three a
things apound. As we proceed, we pereeive on the left a
convent Sy rencifcane, ine whole appearance of whiclin-
veneration, feeming defirous of concealing it{elf under

lage, racers hs groups of trees. On that fide,

a have begun to form a public promenade pa-
ithe road which leads to Paflage Port. We
a loofe foil, whieh is covered by the high tides ;
afterwards afcend and defcend, proceeding along a fleep
is thaded by a high wood, and embellifhed
jeflamines ; after crofling another wooden
the valley of Layola. Bounded on one of
covered with trees, it here has a gloomy
the oy tae fide we behold the richeft pro-
ing a fcene of various colours, highly em-
rays of the fetting-fun. A river bounds
a femicircular form, and waters a great number

LILY
Fe :

z

Ht
z

i

F
#
zi

Fase
fy
E ze:

of fruit-trees planted on its banks.

Saggy toe ep eecaerer-e a ferene, but it is often
cloudy ; the air is y damp, and fometimes loaded with
fogs. The provi thaa in moft of the other

are cheaper
; and here are two tolerably good inns. In
made themfelves matters of this town ; and
Auguit 34, it was invelted by the republican troops
» and capitulated the next morning ; the garrifon,
nfifting of 2000 men, furrendering themfelves prifoners of
} ‘more than 180 pieces of brafs cannon were taken,
confiderable and ftores. On Auguit the

E

aes
S
es

ing to the Dutch.

; fp Sty OF St. jae, a town of the ifland of
‘Tercera, fituated between mountains, about half a mile dif-
i tear See Rio de Janei

- io ancira.
‘Sesastian del Oro. See La Piatra.
— SEBAS Si., de Sain, a town of Portugal, in Al-
; 6 miles N.W. of Loule.

1an, Sf., a town of Mexico, in the province of

“t on ; 45 miles N.N.W. of
n. N. lat. 25" 35" W. long. 106° Pian,

2 {mall ifland in the Atlantic ocean, near the coaft of Brazil.
Tat. 23° 45’.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the

nce of St. Martha; 10 miles W. of Los Reyes.— a

bay of the Indian fea, on the coalt of Africa. §. lat. 32° 22'.
-Alfo, an ifland of Mexico, in Nicaragua lake, with a town

Cape St., the eaftern point of the gulf of
coat of the Spanifh Main, 10 leagues from
pint of uron. The city which for-
abandoned, on account of its
tion.—Alfo, a cape on the coait of Cali-
rm | W. . 126°.—Alfo, a cape on
xe N agafcar. S. lat. 11° 20'. E. long. 54° 44'.
Page ee ent of Africa. S.latease. E.

° 20'.—Alfo, 2 cape of Spain, on the E. coait of

ia. N. lat. 51° 52’. E. long. 3° o’.

SEB

Senasrran’s Bay, Si, a bay on the S, coat of Africa.
S. lat. 34° 40". E. long. 21°. Tt is alfo called St. Catha-
rine’s bay,

Senastian River, St., or Spanifhb Admirals ercek, a river
on the EF. coalt of Eaft Florida, which communicates with
fodian river, ‘The admiral of the Plate fleet perifhed in 1715,
oppofite to this river, and the reft of the Ge, fourteen ia
number, were loft between this and the Beach yard,

Sepasrian’s Sound, Si, an inlet in the flraite of Ma.

lian, on the eoaft of ‘Terra del Fuego; 48 miles 5. of

weepllakes foreland,

Srpastian de Buenavifla, St., a town of South America,
in the province of Carthagena, at the entrance of the gulf of
Darien; 140 miles 5.S.W, of Carthagena. N. lat. 8° 19".
W. long. 76° 40’.

Sepastian de los Reyes, St., a town of South America,
in the goverament of Caraccas ; 60 miles 5, of Leon de Ca-
raccas. NN. lat. 9°35’. W. long. 66° 56’.

SEBASTIAO, Sr. See Sr. Sebafliag.

SEBASTIEN, Sr. See Sr. Seduflien.

SEBASTOCRATOR, in Antiquity, a title of honour
gre to fome diftinguifhed perfon of the imperial family,

t was introduced by Alexius Comnenus, in order to reward
the La of his brother Ifaac, without giving himfelf an
equal. The happy flexibility of the Greek tougue allowed
him to compound the names of Auguftus and emperor (Se-
baftos and Autocrator), and the union produced the fo-
norous title of Sebaftocrator. He was exalted above the
Cefar on the firft ftep of the throne; the public acclama-
tions repeated his name ; and he was only diltinguifhed from
the fovereign by fome peculiar ornaments of the head and
feet. "The emperor alone could aflume the purple or red
bufkins, and the clofe diadem, or tiara, which imitated the
fafhion of the Perfian kings; inftead of red, the butkins of
the Sebattocrator and Caxfar were green, and on their open
coronets or crowns the precious gems were more {paringly
diftributed. The five titles of Defpot, Sebaltocrator, Cz-
far, Panhyperfchaitos, and Protofebatios, were ufually con-
fined to the princes of the emperor’s blood ; they were the
emanations of his majefty ; but as they exercifed no regular
funétions, their fi nl was ufelefs, and their authority

precarious.
SEBASTOPOLIS, or Dioscurtas, in Ancient Geo-
» the name of one of the principal towns of that part
of the Colchide which was to the right of the Phafis.—Alfo,
atown of Afia Minor, in the Cappadocian Pontus, on the
road from Tavia to Sebailia.
Sgpastopo.is, in Geography. See SevasTorou.
SEBAT, in Chronology, the fifth month of the civil year
of the Hebrews, and the eleventh of the ecclefiaftical year,
anfwering to part of our January and part of February.
SEBATS. in Chemifry, a genus of falts, formed by the
union of the febacic acid with the different faline bafes.
For an account of thefe, fee the different bafes: for inftance,
for febat of lime, fee Lime ; and fo on for any other.
SEBBA Rous, or Seven Capes, in Geography, a cape or
headland on the coaft of Algiers, the vicinity of which is
occupied by perfons of a brutal and ferocious defcription,
who live in caves {cooped out of the rocks. Thefe people,
called “ Kabyles,”’ rufh in crowds to the coaft when any
veffel in diftrefs, or in the courfe of failing, approaches it, and
vociferate their horrid wifhes, that God would deliver it into
their hands; and probably the name of ‘“ Boujarone,’’ or
“ Catamites,’”’ was firlt given by the Italian geographers to
thefe capes, on account of the favage difpefition of their
inhabitants. N. lat. 37° 8'. E. long. 6° 32’.
SEBBAH, a town of Africa, in the country of Fezzan.
T2 60 miles

SEB

6o miles N. of Mourzouk. Here the large remains of an
ancient caftle, built upona hill, and of other venerable ruins,
that, in point of extent, are compared to thofe of Lebida,
imprefs on the mind of the traveller the melancholy idea of
departed greatnefs ; while, on the other hand, the humble
dwellings of the modern inhabitants, and the rich vegetation
of their neighbouring fields, prefent to his eye an ample
ftore of allthat is requilite for the fuftenance of man. Dates,
barley, Indian corn, pumpions, cucumbers, fig-trees, pome-
granates, and apricots, and for meaner purpofes, the white
thorn and Spanifh bean, are deferibed as but a part of the
numerous vegetables that reward the induftry of the people.
The animals in which they moft abound are the common
fowl, and the brown long-haired and broad-tailed {heep. At
the diftance of two days’ journey from Sebbah is «* God-
doua,” a town of fimilar produce ; and in two days more
the traveller arrives et Mourzouk.

SEBEDA, in Ancient Geography, a port of Lycia, ac-
cording to the Periplus of Arrian.

SEBEL, an Arabian name for the diforder of the eye
ufually called a pannus. j

SEBEN, in Geography, a town of the bifhopric of
Brixen, on the {cite of an ancient town named ‘“ Sabiona,”’
deftroyed by Attila ; eight miles S.W. of Brixen.

SEBENDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, the country of the Caftellani.
Ptolemy.

SEBENICO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Dalma-
tia, fituated on the Kerka, near the Adriatic; one of the
ftrongeft towns on the ceaft, with a large harbour, defended
by four citadels; ereéted into a bifhopric in 1298. It is
faid to have been founded by a number of banditti, who
lived on the rock which is the prefent {cite of the caftle, and
who plundered any veflels that approached the coaft. In
proceis of time they built fome colleges, and inclofed them
with a kind of palifades called « fibue,”? whence was formed
Sebenico. The city was enlarged by an increafe of robbers ;
and afterwards, when the ancient city of Scardona was de-
ftroyed, its inhabitants reforted to Sebenico. The inha-
bitants, opprefled by the king of Hungary, who was then
fovereign of Dalmatia, furrendered themfelves in 14.12 to the
republic of Venice. Thiscity, whatever may have been its
origin, is the moft pleafantly fituated of any m Dalmatia,
and alfo the beft built, containing the greateft number of
noble families, next to Zara. On one fide it is defended by
a caitle on ahill; and towards the fea, upon a narrow chan-
nel at the mouth of the harbour by another fort, a noble
work of Sammicheli, whofe gate refembles that of Verona, by
the fame celebrated architect. Among the buildings of Se-
benico, the dome or cathedral deferves particular notice, on
account of its general fabric, and more efpecially of its
roof, which is compofed of large pieces of marble, con-
neéted together. In the fixteenth century the arts and
{ciences flourifhed here more than in any other city of Dal-
matia. It has feveral buildings in good ftyle of architecture,
and it has produced many eminent men; 25 miles N.W. of
Spalatro. N. lat. 44° 30!. E. long. 16° 15/.

SEBENNYTES Nomus, in Ancient Geography, a nome
of Egypt, between the branches of the Nile, called the
Pharnuthiac’and Athribitic, and near their mouth. Ptolemy
divides this nome into the Upper and Lower.

SEBENNYTICUM Osrium, the name of one of the
feven mouths of the Nile, E. of that called the Bolbitic.
Ptolemy.

SEBENNYTUS, a town of Egypt, in the Delta, and
eapital of the Sebennytic nome.

SEB

SEBENSTAIN, in Geography, a town of Auftria, 19
miles S. of Ebenfurth.

SEBER, Wotrrane, in Biography, a German philofo-
pher and divine, was born at Sula, in the diltriét of Henne-
burgh, in 1573. He loft his father in early life, and had
to ftruggle with all the difficulties incident to poverty. He
completed his ftudies at Leipfic, and became rector of the
{chool of Schleufingen, afterwards fuperintendant and paf-
tor at» Wafungen, and finally infpector of the gymnafium,
and affeffor of the confiftory at the former place. In old
age he was afflicted with blindnefs, and died in January
1634. He bequeathed his library to the gymnafium of the
place of which he had been the reétor, and left a fund for
the yearly maintenance of fix ftudents in theology. His
« Index omnium in Homero Verborum,” has frequently
been reprinted. An edition of it was publifhed at Oxford
in 1780. He edited feveral learned works, and was author
of various poems, epiftles, and orations.

SEBERE, in Geography, a river of Naples, which rifes
about fix miles from Mount Vefuvius, and runs into the fea
near Naples, {upplying the fountains and aqueducts of that
city.

SEBESE, or Pulo Bicie, a {mall ifland in the {traits of
Sunda. N. Jat. 5° 50!. E.long. 105° 27!.

SEBESTEN, Sersrstena, Myxa, in Pharmacy, &c.
the fruit of a fpecies of cordia, refembling a little plum or
prune, which, when ripe, is of a deep red colour, bordering
on black ; very fweet, and the flefh, or pulp, glutinous or
flicky.

The Syrians make a kind of glue, or birdlime, of the
febettens, called Jdirdlime of Alexandria. The fruit has
been efteemed pectoral, cooling, and emollient ; though it
is now difcarded by the colleges both of London and
Edinburgh. 5

The ftone within it is triangular: it brought its name
on Arabia, whence Pliny obferves it came in his time into
Italy.

SEBESTENA, in Botany, a flight alteration of its
Arabic name Sebeflen, is retained by Gzertner, inftead of the
Linnzan appellation of the genus, Cordia; which latter,
preferving the memory of one, if not two, highly merito-
rious botanifts, furely ought not to be fet alide. See Cor-
DIA, {p. I.

SEBESVAR, in Geography, a town of Tranfilvania ;
22 miles W.S.W. of Colofvar.

SEBETUS, or Seperuis, in Ancient Geography, a river
of ae in Campania, which watered the town of Nea-

olis.

SEBIEZ, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Polotfk; 40 miles N. of Polotfk. N. lat.
56° 10!. E.long. 28° 14.

SEBIFERA, in Botany, agenus of Loureiro’s, named
from febum, tallow, becaufe it’ produces a fimilar fubftance,
ufed for making candles.x—Loureir. Cochinch. 637.—Clafs
and order, Dioecia Polyadelphia. Wat. Ord. Tiliacce, Jul. ?

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of four roundifh, concave,
hairy, {preading leaves. Cor.none. Stam. Filaments about
one hundred, capillary, longer than the calyx, diftributed
into ten fets ; anthers ovate, of two cells.

Female on a feparate plant. Cal. asin the male. Cor.
none. Piff. Germens about ten, fuperior, ftalked, roundifh ;
ftyle fearcely any; ftigmas folitary, obtufe, undivided.
Peric. Berries about ten, globofe, of one cell. Seeds foli-
tary, globofe.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of four leaves.
Stamens an hundred, in ten fets.

Corolla none.

Female,

SEB

Female, Calyx of four leaves. Corolla none. Piftils
ten, fhalked, te eats, Seeds folitary.
1. S. glutinefe, Bay loi abies of the inhabitants of Co-
: Cien him xi of the Chinefe. Native of the
woods of China and Cochinchina. A lange tree, with
ing dranchu. Leaves alternate, flalked, ovate-oblong,
he Male as well as female fleewers lateral, or
fomewhat terminal ; their Aalds two or three together,
Berries (mall, {mooth, blackith.

The wood is light, pale, calily wrought, ufed for polls
inhoules, The branches aod leaves exude a glu-
; and being bruifed and macerated in water, they
a fort of gum, ufled for mixing with platter or ftuceo,
to reader it more tenacious and durable, A great
y of thick, white, fatty oil is extracted from the
of which the vulgar make candles, refembling thofe
or wax, but of a difagreeable {mell,
cannot fatisfactorily refer this account to any plant
in botanical works; and yet the tree fhould feem

fealty

miles S. of Weillenberg.

SEBIZIUS, or Suniscat, in Biography, the name of a
family which was diltinguifhed at Strafbu Yo celebrity
; the phyficians whom it produced, and who fuccellively

_ adoraed the chair in that city for the {pace of
134 years, interruption, in the perfons of four indi-
viduals . The firtt, » and fourth of thefe pro-

were named Melchior ; the third, John Albert ; and
with the exception of the firft, fucceeded their fathers
re firft Melchior Sebizius, was the fon of
a doétor of laws, and counfellor of the

Melchior was born in 1539, at Falken-

Silefia, and was at firft intended for the profeflion
law; in 1563 he changed his plans, and began
of medicine. Sror this purpofe, as was the cuf-

to different univer-

times, he began his trave.
he was at M jer in 1566, and three years after-
he went to Italy ; and fubfequently vifited France,
he took the degree of dogtor at <P ie in Dau-
Auguit 1571. On his return to Germany, he
frt at H u: but having gone
4, he ined to fettle there. His
im to the rank of profeflor, and he prac-
ith great celebrity until his death, which took place
in June 1625, inthe eighty-fixth year of his age.

— Sepizius, Mevon:

el
:

af

¥
g,
at

Hi

:

ie
;

on, the fon of the preceding, was

Strafburg in 1578. Fata pa his education under
» and is faid to have ftudied in twenty-feven univer-
which he chofe that of Bafle as the place of
in 1610. So early as the year 1612, his re-
raifed him to the profefforial chair, which his father
rather, ps, he became his father’s colleague
His increafing reputation obtained him the fa-
Fenda II., who Lge him a

ut no dignities co se as?

oF tie profeffion, or the duties of his
the fpace of

a flight

which there is more learning than originality
Seema him “ eruditus

SEB

vir, parum ufus propriis experimentis."’ Eloy occupies a
Pag: in the detail of the titles of his works,

semizius, Joun Appear, focceeded the former, pis fa-
ther, in the profefforial chair, He was born at Stratburg
4 161 , aud graduated in 1629, alter having ftudied mm the
univerfities of Bafle, Montpelier, and Pars. lo 1652 he
was appointed to the profeflorfinp of anatomy. He fuc-
ceeded his father as phyfician to the city, and was elected
above twenty times dean of the faculty. He died in Fe-
bruary 1685, in the feventieth year of his age. He was
the author of fome academical eflay s, and of « volume of
“ Exercitationes pathologica,’’ relating to the difeafes of the
head and cheit.

Sesizius, Merconion, the fon of Joho Albert, was
born in 1664. After fludying medicine at Paris, he returned
to Strafburg, and took the degree of doétur in 1688;
and in 1701 was elected profeflor of medicine. He beld
this office, however, but three years, and died in 1704, being
at that time rector of the univerfity. See Eloy Diét. Hill.
de la Médécine. Y

SEBNITZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
marggraviate of Meiflen; 20 miles E.S.E. of Drefden.
N. Ee 50° sg’. E. long. 14° 25'.—Alfo, 2 river of
Saxony, which runs into he Pollenitz ; two miles N. of
Schandau.

SEBOIM, in Ancient Geography, the name of one of the
four towns of the Pentapolis, which were confumed by fire
from heaven, with Sodom, Gomorrha, and Adama. Eu-
febius and Jerome {peak of a town of this name which
fubfifted in their time, and which was fituated on the weltern
coalt of the Dead fea. The town mult therefore have been
rebuilt. ;

SEBOLA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira; 21 miles N.N.W. of Caltel Branco.

SEBOO, or Susu, a river of Africa, which pafles by
the city of Fez, and runs into the Atlantic a little below
Marmora. °

SEBORZ, a town of Bohemia, inthe circle of Boleflau ;
3miles S.E. of Melnik.

SEBOU, a {mall ifland near the N.E. coaft of Cape
Breton.

SEBRAJEPOUR, .a town of Bengal; 13 miles
W.N W. of Doefa.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 13 miles
S.E. of Koonda.

SEBRIAPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
African Sarmatia, on the banks of the river Vardanus.
Prolemy.

SEBRITHITES, a nome of Egypt, from which king
Vaphres fent to Solomon 1oco men for building the tem-
ple, according to Eufebius.

SEBRUD, in gen Sh a river of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Khorafan, which runs into the Thus, 6 miles $.E.
of Zaweh.

SEBU. See Srev.

SEBU AI, a fe& among the ancient Samaritans, whom
St. Epiphanius aceufes of changing the time exprefled in
the law, for the celebration of the great annual feafts of
the Jews. A

Serrarius conje€tures, that they were thus called from

‘their celebrating the feaft of the pafover on the feveuth

month, called by the Hebrews /eba, feventh. Drufius rather
‘takes them to have been denominated from Sréaia, the leader
of a fe&t amoug the Samaritans. Scaliger derives the name
from the Hebrew, /ebua, week, becaufe of their celebration
every fecond day of the feven weeks between Eafter av
Whitfuntide.

SEBUE,

SEC

SEBUE, in Geography, a town of Abyflinia; 90 miles
S. of Mina.

SEBUNTA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the interior of Arabia Petra. Ptolemy.

SEBURAIT, Srsur1, a name which the Jews give to
fuch of their rabbins or doétors, as lived and taught fome
time after the finifhing of the Talmud.

The word is derived from 90, /aber, I think: whence
NAD, /abura, opinion, fentiment: and thence 84D,
feburi, or feburai, opinionative.

The reafon of this appellation, fay the rabbins, is, that
the Talmud being finifhed, publifhed and received in all
the {chools and fynagogues, thefe doétors had nothing to
do but to difpute for, and againft, the Talmud, and its de-
cifions. Others fay, it was becaufe their fentiments were
not received as laws or decifions, as thofe of the Mifchnic
and Gemaric doctors were ; but were held as mere opinions.
Others, as the author of Schalfcheleth Hakkabala, or chain
of tradition, tell us, that the perfecution the Jews under-
went in thofe times, not allowing them to teach quietly in
their academies, they only propofed their opinion in the com-
pofition of the Mifchna. The firft and chief of the Seburai
was R. Jofi, who began to teach in the year 787 of the era of
contracts ; which, according to R. David Gautz, falls on
the year of the world 4236, and who, according to R.
Abraham, was thirty-eight years prefident of the Jewith
academy. j

The era of contra¢ts is the fame with that of the Se/eu-
cide, the 787th year of which falls on the year of Chriit 476,
which, of confequence, is the era of the origin of the
Seburai, whofe reigns did not hold long: Buxtorf fays,
not above fixty years; R. Abraham, and others, fay not
fifty.. The laft of them was R. Simona. They were fuc-
ceeded by the Gaons or Geonim.

SEBURG, in Geography; a town of France, in the de-
partment of the North; 5 miles E. of Valenciennes.

SEBZ. See Kesu.

SEBZVAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
rafan ; it was taken, in 1381, by Timur Bec, but upon its
revolting and being again reduced, he caufed 2000 of the in-
habitants to be piled ina heap, with mortar and bricks, and
thus buried alive ; 180 miles N.W. of Herat. N. lat. 36°
ti’. E. long. 56° 12!.

SECA, La, a town of Spain, in the province of Leon;
24 miles S.W. of Valladolid.

SECACUL, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a
name given by Avicenna, Serapion, and others, to a root
which was like ginger, and was brought from the Eaft In-
dies, and ufed as a provocative to venery.

The interpreters of their works have rendered this word
iringo, and hence fome have fuppofed that our eryngium, or
eryngo, was the root meant by it: but this does not appear
to be the cafe on a ftri& enquiry, and there is fome reafon
to believe that the famous root, at this time called gin/feng,
was what they meant.

SECALE, in Botany, a name in Pliny, which fome ety-
mologifts, anong whom is De Theis, derive from the Celtic
fegal. This, he fays, comes from /éga, a fickle in the fame
language, and thence /eges, the Latin appellation of all grain
that is cut with a fimilar implement. Thofe who have looked
no further for an etymology than the Latin /eco, to cut or
have come to the fame conclufion. Rye.—Linn.

mow,
Gen. 39. Schreb. 53. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1. 471. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v.1. 178. Juff. 32.

Lamarck Tiluftr. t. 49. _Gertn. t. 81.—Clafs and order,
Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Common receptacle toothed, elongated

4

SEC

into a fpike. Glume containing two flowers, and confifting
of two oppofite, diftant, erect, oblong, pointed valves,
{maller than the corolla. F/orets feflile. Cor. of two valves 5
the outermoft hardeft, tumid, pointed, comprefled, fringed
at the keel, and ending in a long awn; the inner flat, lan-
ceolate. Nettary of two lanceolate, fharpith, fringed {cales,
tumid on one fide at the bafe. Stam. Filaments three,
capillary, hanging out of the flower ; anthers oblong, forked.
Pifi. Germen fuperior, turbinate ; ftyles two, reflexed ; ftig-
mas cylindrical, feathery. eric. none, except the perma-
nent corolla, which finally opens, and lets the feed efcape.
Seed folitary, oblong, fomewhat cylindrical, naked, pointed.

Obf. There is fometimes a third floret, fcarcely perfect,
ftalked, between the other two. It is very difficult to dif-
tinguifh this genus from Triticum.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, folitary, two-flowered,
on a toothed elongated receptacle.

1. S. cereale. Cultivated Rye. Linn. Sp. Pl. 124.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. Purfh v. 1. go.’ Hoft Grant.
Auftr. v. 2. 35. t. 48. (Secale; Matth. Valgr. v. 1. 364.
Camer. Epit. 190. Ger. Em. 68.)—Glumes of the calyx
bordered with minute parallel teeth.—The native country of
this, fo generally cultivated, grain, is hardly to be guetied.
Mr. Purfh fays it frequently occurs, apparently wild, in
North America, flowering in June. For its agricultural
hiftory, and mode of cultivation, fee Ryz. The roof is
fibrous. and annual. Herbage fomewhat glaucous. Stem
jointed, flightly branched at the bottom, fmooth. Leaves
linear, rough towards the point. Spike terminal, folitary,
ere&t, three or four inches long. wns ereét, ftraight,
rough, four or five times the length of the glumes.

2. S. villofum. Tufted Rye. Linn. Sp. Pl. 124. Willd.
n.2. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 77. t.97. (Gramen {pi-
catum fecalinum, glumis villofis in ariltas longiflimas definen-
tibus; Tourn. Inft. 513. G. fecalinum maximum; Park.
Theatr. 1144. G. creticum {picatum fecalinum, glumis_
ciliaribus ; Lourn. Cor. 39. Buxb. Cent. 5. 21. t. 41.)—
Glumes of the calyx wedge-fhaped, abrupt, fringed with
tufts of hairs.—Native of the fouth of Europe, and the
Levant. Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in the fields of Crete
and Zante. The root is fibrous and annual. Stems numercus,
erect, twelve or eighteen inches high, leafy, fmooth ; their
lower joints bent. Leaves f{preading, flat, hairy on both
fides, with tumid {mooth fheaths. Stipula very fhort, blunt,
crenate. Spike about as long as the former, but twice as
thick. Calyx bordered with remarkable tufts of fine hairs.
This fhould feem to be cultivated in the aboye-mentioned
iflands, but we know nothing of its agricultural merits.

3. S. orientale. Dwarf Oriental Rye. Linn. Sp. Pl. 124.
Willd. n. 3, (Gramen orientale fecalmum, {pica brevi et
lata ; Tourn. Cor. #9. )—Glumes of the calyx ovato-lanceo-
late, ftrongly ribbed, taper-pointed, hairy all over.—Native
of the Archipelago, in a fandy foil. Root annual, with
white downy fibres. Stems about fix inches high, flender,
{mooth, often zigzag. Leaves linear, narrow; the upper
one fhort, with a long, fmooth, inflated fheath. Spike
hardly an inch long, thick and broad, compofed of clofely
imbricated, two-ranked /pikelets, whofe glumes are rigid,
deeply furrowed, uniformly hairy, each tapering into a fhort,
ftraight, rough point or awn, not fo long as the glume
itfelf. P

4. S. ereticum. Tall Cretan Rye. Linn. Sp. Pl. 125. °
Willd. n. 4; excluding the fynonym of Tournefort, which
belongs to Hordeum bulbofum. (See Honprum.)—“ Glumes
of the calyx externally fringed.””—Native of Crete. We
have never feen a fpecimen. Desfontaines afferts that this °

is diftin@ from Hordeum bulbofum of Linneus, his /fricum,
: which

SEC

which is Gramen creticum f{picatum fecalinum altiflimum,
tuberofa radice ; Tourn, Cor, 39; and that he himfelf was
og te imens of both. Both were allo colle¢ted
the Levant by Tournefort. Desf. Atlant, v. 1. 113.
SECA MONE, an Egyptian name, apparently corrupted
by the modern inhabitants of Egypt from the Greek
pens; for Profper Alpinus els ws the plant which bears
_ this name, 158 sag Secamene of Linnwus, is elteemed, by
that ew a fort of Scammony, and its yellow burning
Juice is, when dry, reckoned by them a powerful purge, for
; thin humours. Yet he adds that he knew nothing
their ery of the plant in medicine, Such being
» chk 1 name, we are obli to proteit againit it,
as —Brown Tranf. of the Wernerian Society,
“¥. 1. 55. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 464. Ait. Hot. Kew.
¥. 2. 75-—Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord,
Linn. Apecinee, Jull. Afclepiadee, Brown.
Ef. Ch. Corolla wheel-fhaped. Crown of the ttameps
of five leaves. Filaments combined, with external append-
Matffes of pollen ereét, attached in four rows to the
unfurrowed fummut of the ftigma. Follicles with comofe

Paar

_A genus of upright or twining, nearly {mooth thrubs.
i A peel) al uk hereon the footftalks.
Flowers minute.—Mr. Brown declares this genus to be per-
feétly natural and diitinét, though, from the extreme minute-
nefs of the parts, very difficult to determine. It is the con-
i and his Pers .
the learned author of

Secamone. “sc n. 1. (Seca-
1 t. 134. Periploca Secamone ;
1 ae Sp. Pi. vy. 1. 1249. Thunb.
7-)—Stem twining. Leaves elliptic-oblong, {mooth.
«—Native of Egypt, and the Cape of Good
flowering in July. pe {pecimen

is in the Taetieen herbarium. is
with {mooth, round, leafy branches. Leaves
a half long, on fhortifh ftalks, bluntith,
with one rib and many parallel
» and fomewhat glaucous, beneath.
leaves, repeatedly forked, many-
; their ftalks clothed with filky

» OBL. fale. 2. 14. sereaaee wg a Te Galt. Fs
: PL. v. 1. 1250.)—Stem di rs
oth. Corolla fmooth.—Native of the Eaft I

D

d to be ufed inftead of I This is a {preading,

cely twining, » of a more flender habit than
narrower eaves. ys i , imall,

“@ quarter fo as the leaves, of few flowers, with

rulty ftalks. Our {pecimen is in too early a {tate to

the corolla, but Retzius and Willdenow fay it is

_.3- S. camefeens. Hoary Secamone.—Stem twining, with

eee bpcraes Leaves ovato-lanceolate ; down evaaeale

the back.—Sent from the Eaft Indies, by

he late Dr. in 1789. We prefume this is what
- Brown mentions as his third

wn fpecies. Our plant has
twining, round, pale-green branches, finely downy and

SEC
or three inches long, rounded at the bafe, tapering gradu-
ally to a bluntihh point. Flewers numerous, fomewhat
umbellate; their common flalks shout equal to the fow-
falls.

4-5. elliptica, Elliptical Upright Secamone. Br. Prodr,
n. Iow—* Stem erect. Leaves elliptical, pointed, {mooth,
General and partial fower-tlalks downy, Corolla naked.’
—Gathered by Mr, Brown, in the tropical part of New
Holland,

5. S, evata, Ovate Spreading Secamone. Br. Prodr.
n. 2.—* Stem divaricated. Leaves ovate, acute, {mooth.
General and partial flower-flalks nearly {mooth. Corolla
naked.”"——Found by Mr. Brown, in the fame country as
the latt.

SECANT, in Geometry, « line that cuts another, or di-
vides it into two parts. See Line, &e.

Thus the line AM ( Plate XI1L. Geometry, fig. 4-) is a
fecant of the circle AED, &c, as it cuts the circle m B.
It is demonitrated by geometers; 1. That if feveral fecants,
MA, MN, ME, &c. be drawn from the fame point M,
that pafling through the centré, M A, is the greatelt; and
the reft are all fo much the lefs, as they are more remote
from the centre. On the contrary, the portions of them
without the circle M D, M O, MB, are fo much the

ater, as they are farther from the centre. The leaf is
that of M A, which pafles through the centre.

2. That if two fecants, M A and M E, be drawn from
the fame point M, the fecant M A will be to M E as MD
toMB: or ME x MD = MA x MB & the {quare
of a tangent to the circle drawn from the point of con-
currence M. \¢

Secant, in Trigonometry, denotes a right line drawn from
the centre of a circle, which, cutting the circumference,

roceeds till it meets with the tangent to the fame circle.

hus the line F C ( Plate Trigonometry, if . 4.) drawn from
the centre C, till it meets the tangent *. is called a fe-
cant; and particularly, the /ecant of the are A E, to which
E F is tangent.

‘The fecant of the are A H, which is the complement of

the I pial arc to a quadrant, is called the co-/ecant, or /ecant
com) . -

oe fine of an arc, A D, being given, to find the fecant

of at, FC, the rule is, as the co-fine DC is to the whole

fine, fo 1s the whole fine, or radius,~A C, to the fecant C F:

or the fecant is a third proportional to the co-fine and radius.

See Sine.

To find the logarithm of the fecant of any arc, the fine
of the complement of the arc being given, multiply the lo-
garithm of the whole fine by two, and from the product fub-
traét the logarithm of the fine complement ; the remainder
is the logarithm of the fecant. The reafon of which opera-

tion is obvious; becaufe

=e = to CF; and, therefore,
from the nature of logarithms, twice the log. of EC —
the log. of D C = the log. of C F.

Secants, Line of. See Secror.

SECAS, in Geography, a cluiter of {mall iflands in the
Pacific ocean, near the coait of Veragua. N. lat. 8° 20.
W. long. 83° 167.

SECATABBAS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the

vince of Diarbekir ; 75 miles S.W. of Moful.

SECCA, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Iitnia. N. lat.

© 52'. E.long. 14° 5'.

SECCHE, a {mall iffand near the coaft of Iftria. N.
lat. 14!. E. long. 13° 40%.

8 CCHIA, a river of Italy, which runs into the Po,
3 miles N. of Quiitello, in the duchy of Mantua.
SECEDERS,

SEC

SECEDERS, formed from the Latin word /ecedo, to
feparate or withdraw, in Ecclefiaflical Hiftory, an appella-
tion comprehending thofe who are diflenters from the elta-
blifhed church of Scotland. This kind of feceffion took
place in the year 1727, when John Glas, difapproving
every eltablifhment of a national church, maintained that all
churches ought to be congregational; or, in other words,
that no general church {hould be formed for a nation, but
that each religious fociety in a kingdom or ftate fhould be
felf-conitituted, and controuled only by itfelf. For this
and fome other opinions he was fufpended from his mini-
{terial functions; and, for continued contumacy, depofed
from the rank of minifter, firft by a provincial fynod, and
afterwards, viz. in 1730, by the general aflembly of the
Scots church. Perfitting, however, in the propagation of
his fentiments, both by preaching and writing, he formed
feveral congregations, of which the moft numerous was that
of Dundee. The feceffion of Mr. Glas and of his imme-
diate difciples was followed by that of feveral other divines,
who, on different grounds, determined upon withdrawing
from the eltablithment. The two brothers, Ralph and
Ebenezer Erfkine, enlifted, about the year 1730, in this
number, and contributed very much to give reputation and
influence to their caufe. The feceding miniftry alleged va-
rious infringements in the conftitution of the kirk ; but as
they defpaired of redrefs, they refolved to eftablifh new con-
gregations. They complained of the laws of patronage,
and wifhed for a popular eleétion of minifters ; they pleaded
that the right of proteft againft the proceedings of the af-
fembly had been invaded, and that the rulers of the kirk not
only a¢ted arbitrarily, but fuffered its doctrines to be cor-
rupted. For the freedom of their animadverfions on thefe
points, four minifters were fufpended from their parochial
funétions in 1733; and though they were reinftated by the
affembly in the following year, the ground of complaint re-
mained, and they refufed to rejoin the eftablifhment. From
the clergy and laity they gained an acceffion of ftrength,
more particularly after they had publifhed a fecond “ Tefti-
mony of the Reafons of their Seceffion.”? Upon a citation
to appear before the affembly, the jurifdiétion of which
they refufed to acknowledge, they were debarred, in 1740,
_ from the exercife of all clerical funGions in the church, and
excluded from all its emoluments. The Seceders are rigid
Calviniits, {trict and fevere in their difcipline, and fomewhat
auitere in their manners.

When the feceffion had formed three prefbyteries, a divi-
fion took place among them, in 1747, in confequence of an
oath, which fome of them deemed inconfiftent with the fen-
timents avowed in their “ Teftimony.’? This was the ordi-
nary oath of a burgefs, in fupport of the ¢rue religion
eftablifhed by law. We cannot, faid one party, called
«¢ Antiburghers,’’ confcientioufly honour with that appella~
tion the eftablifhment from which we have feceded; while
the other members of the fynod, denominated “ Burghers,”’
contended that the oath might fafely be taken, as the re-
ligion of the ftate was ftill the true faith, though many of
its oftenfible votaries had departed from its principles, or
Joofely profefled it, The Antiburghers prevailed in the
conteft, and obtained a vote, that the oath was incompatible
with the teftimony ; and they even excommunicated the
members by whom it was vindicated. This difpute long
continued to maintain the feparation of the Seceders in dif-
tin fynods. Of thefe two clafles, the Antiburghers are
faid to be the moft confined in their fentiments, and leaft
difpofed to affociate with any other body of Chriftians,

Under this article we may mention another party in Scot-
jand, who gquitted the eftablifhment, and aflumed the title

SEE

of the “ Reformed Prefbytery.”’ Lamenting the defeétiom
of the national rulers, and the majority of the people, from
the true principles of the reformation, a party of religious
malecontents renounced all conne&tion with the « revolution
kirk,’ and under the guidance of Mac-Millan and Nairn,
formed a feceding prefbytery. By thefe minifters, others
were felected for the fame funétions; and the {eceflion has
been continued to the prefent time. Befides the congrega-
tions of this complexion in North Britain, there are feveral
in Ireland, and fome in North America. The members
profefs to follow the {eripture as their principal guide, and
the ordinances of the Weftmintter aflembly in the next
place. ‘They difapprove the high authority aflumed by the
ftate over the church of Chrift, as the refult of worldly po-
licy, rather than a claim juftified by the genuine fpirit of
religion. Yet they fubmit peaceably to the higher powers,
and do not indulge in the clamours of fedition, or the mur-
murs of difaffeétion. Their public worfhip is condu@ed
much in the fame manner with that of the diflenters in South

Britain.

Another confiderable feét departed, in the year 1752, from
the Scots eftablifhment. A minifter named Gillefpie, who
oppofed the reception of a new miniiter, whofe appointment
was not agreeable to the majority of the inhabitants of In-
verkeithing, was expelled from the church in which he offi-
ciated ; and he was foon joined by others, who, like him-
felf, wifhed paftors to be eleéted by the people; and they
formed a congregation in Dunfermline. The ‘ Prefbytery
of Relief,’ in allufion to the defired relief from the arbi-
trary rigour of the laws of patronage, was the denomination
aflumed by this body of feceders. More liberal than the
generality of Prefbyterians, they were willing to admit into
their communion all thofe who feemed worthy of being
called Chrittians, however they might differ with regard to
particular points. Their congregations multiplied; and
about the clofe of the laft century, the affociation poffeffed
above fixty places of worfhip. Both clafles of the ‘* Se-
ceders’’ and “ Relief’? include about 300 minifters, who are
ftriét Prefbyterians, though they fecede or diffent from the
eftablifhed church of Scotland. Adams’s Religious World
difplayed, vol. iii. Cooke’s edition of Mofheim’s Ecc«
Hitt. vol. vi.

SECERRA, in Ancient Geography, a townof Spain, in
the Tarragonnenfis, upon the route from the Pyrenees to
Cattulo, between Aquz Voconiz, or Voconiz and Pre-
torium, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SECESPITA, among the Romans, a knife with a round
ivory handle, adorned with gold and filver, which the fla-
mens and priefts ufed at facrifices. ;

SECHELLES, in Geography, a clufter of rocky ifles
in the Indian fea, compofed of a reddifh granite, and gene-_
rally low. On thefe are found fome marine animals and
vegetables, with different fpecies of palm-trees. 5. lat. 4°
toll5 2.

SECHES. See Sscas.

SE CEI, » in Biography, an excellent performer on:
the hautbois, in the fervice of the elector of Bavaria, in 1772;.
who, if we had never heard Fifcher, would have delighted
us much more than the fpirit of parallel would allow.
However, in a duet with Rheiner, a performer of great
merit on the bafloon, we were reminded of the two Bez-
gozzis at Turin; for as their inftruments, fo their genius
and abilities feemed made for each other, there being a like
corref{pondence in both,

SECHIEN, in Geography, atown of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerman, on the north coaft of the Perfian gulf;

143 miles S, of Sirgian.
5 SECHIUM,

eo

* SEC

SECHIUM, ia Botany, a name given by Dr. Patrick
Browne to this genus, and molt ly derived from
eve OF reate, fo fatten, the fruit being ufed in Jamaica to
s, In this cafe, however, fays profeflor Martyn,
it have been called Sreiwm.— Brown. Jam.

355:

=. 664. Willd, Sp. Pl. v, 4. 627. Mart. sal
ve 4g Jul. 391. - k Did. v. 7. 50.—Clafs

gad onde, Afoneccia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Euphorbia,

Male, Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tu-
half way down; tube bell-fhaped, {preading ;
limb lanceolate, flat, isted, widely

of one petal; tube the fize and figure of
adhering to it; limb cloven into five, ovate,
ts, nearly twice as long asthe calyx, and
confifling of ten cavities in the
Stam. Filaments five,

» five-cleft at the top, {pread-
the top of each filament, all the five
a continued, undulating, polliniferous

fame t. Cal. asin the male, but
rk cam Cor. asin the seal, but

rrowed ; fivie cylindrical, erect,

»

furnithed with harmlefs prickles, one-celled above.
ovate, flat or comprefled, flefhy, obtufe

Calys’ Sve-clef. Corolla five-cleft.

inder.
and Corolla as in the male. Style five-

d.n.1. Swartz. Ind.
edulis ; Jacq. Amer. 258. t. 163.)—
Indies, where it flowers and fruits in
nual. Stem herbaceous, climbing or
greatly divaricated, roundith, itriated, {mooth,
alternate, italked, angularly heart-fhaped,
toothed at the margin, rough on the

> fide, fe beneath, often a fpan long. Tendrils
to the leaves, horizontal, very long. Ties mo-
-moccious, axillary, yellow, {centlefs.

Jacquin informs us that the Chocho Vine is ufed by the
elakitants of Cubs in their foups and puddings; and that

3 meats.
ECHURA, in G » a town of ae
rric of Truxillo, jerifdidtion of Piura, fituated
anks of the river Piura, about a from t i
in. The town contains about 200 houfes, con
Of cane, and a handfome brick church. ‘The inhabitants,
who are all Indians, compofe nearly 400 families, and are
employed chiefly either in fithing or dnving of mules. The
efert of Sechura is a walte of Tand, extending Ri leagues,
difficult and dangerous paffage ; 180 miles NW. of

_ SECIUM, among the Romans, a term ufed to fignify
ieetthing the pricks cot with the knife jecepie, as the
ta, &c. ;

» atown of Germany, in the princi-
- of Mengers-

KACH, a river of Germany, which runs into the
-Jaxt, at Meekmuhl.

_ SECKAU, a town of Stiria, the fee of a bihop, fuffra-
» © Vou. XXXII.

SEC

gan of Salzburg; 6 miles N.W. of Koitterfeldt.—Alfo,
a town of the duchy of Stiria; 16 miles S. of Grate:

SECKBACH, a town of Germany, io the county of
Hanau-Munzenberg ; 7 miles W. of Hanau,

SECKENDORF, Tirus Louis pe, in Biegraphy, a
celebrated German writer, was bora at a {mall village acar
Nuremberg, iv the year 1626, His father having attained
to high rank in the army, he was left chiefly to the care of
his mother, who obtained for him excellent mailers; and
by the time that he was ten years old, he had acquired a
confiderable facility in the Latin language. At this period
he began the iludy of the Greek, the French, and Hebrew
languages; and her a thort time, he added to the lilt of his
ftudies that of the mathematics, He was at an carly period
introduced to the court of Erneft, duke of Saxony, where
he remained about a year, and then entered himfelf as a
ftudent at the academy of Gotha. After this he was, by
the affiflance of a friend, enabled to go to Stratburg, which
was at that period celebrated for the Sate of its profetlors ;
and here he made fuch a rapid progrefs, that he furpafled
in knowledge almoit all his contemporaries.

In 1645 he returned to Erfurt, and afterwards went to
Gotha, where he met with a very kind reception from duke
Erneft. At this period he was faid to be completely maf-
ter of eight languages, vis. the Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
French, Tealian, Spanith, Danith, and Swedith. He had,
moreover, acquired a very deep infight into hiltory, ai
graphy, theology, philofophy, and feveral branches of the
mathematical {cieuces. By thefe means, and by an afliduity
rarely furpafled, he became not only a great flatefman, but
one of the brighteft ornaments of the republic of letters,
At the end of two years the prince made him a gentleman
of his bed-chamber, and he was employed in various im-
portant miffions. In 1656 duke Ernelt gave him the ma-
nagement of a part of his revenues ; and in the fame year he
accepted the place of aulic judge in the tribunal - Jena,
which was conferred on him by the duke of Altenburg.
In 1663 he was nominated chancellor, a member of the
council of ftate, and dire¢tor of the confiftory, and of the
chamber of juftice. The labours attached to thefe offices
were more than his ftrength was equal to, and in the fol-
lowing year he refigned the greater part of them. After
this he was appointed by Maurice, duke of Saxe-Zeitz, to
be his chancellor, and prefident of the ecclefialtical fenate.
John George II., elector of Saxony, nominated him, in
1669, to be one of his counfellors; and that he might de-
yote himfelf with more attention to this new office, he re-
figned that which he held at Jena; for he was fo ftridly
confcientious, that he was ever cautious of undertaking
rad thing that he did not believe he fhould be able to per-

orm.
On the death of duke Erneft, he was held in no lefs efti-
mation by his fon Frederic, who gave him an important

office ; and in 1680 the duke of Altenburg entruited him

with the management of a large part of his revenues. He
now found the infirmities of age prefling upon him, refigned
his employments, and in 1682 retired from public life.
After a refidence of feven years on his country eftate, Fre-
deric ITI., eleGtor of Brandenburg, inyted him to be eccle-
fiattical counfellor ; and foon after chancellor of the univer-
fity of Halle, which he had founded. He accepted the
offer, and removed to Halle in November 1692 ; but he did
not long enjoy his new offices, as death in a few months put
an my is labours, having attained to his 66th year.
One moit ftriking features in the character of Secken-

dorf was a rational and fincere piety, which was manifeit
not only in his writings, but in the whole tenor of his life ;
U and

SEC

and to this muft be afcribed his fidelity to his employers,
and the uncommon probity which he difplayed in the ma-
nagement of public affairs. He poflefled great acutenefs
and difcernment, which enabled him to extricate himfelf
from many embarraflments ; and by his indefatigable appli-
cation, he found means to arrange and go through labours,
which would have overwhelmed almott any other perfon.
His works are very numerous, but the moft important and
confiderable is his « Commentary on Lutherani{m,”” which
was undertaken with the view of confuting Maimbourg.
Duke Erneft had folicited him to write the Hiftory of the
Reformation, or at leaft that part of it which related to
Saxony; which, in 1682, he agreed to undertake. So
highly were his talents eltimated, that as foon as his inten-
tion was known, mott of the German.princes opened to him
their libraries and archives, and furnifhed him with fuch
documents as might be ufeful to his project. A part of
the work came out in 1688; but it was not till 1692 that
the whole of it was given to the public, under the following
title, «* Commentarius Hiltoricus et Apologeticus de Lu-
theranifmo, five de Reformatione Religionis ductu D. M.
Lutheri in magna Germanica, aliifque Regionibus et {pe-
ciatim in Saxonia recepta et ftabilita,’’ &c. 2 vols. fol.
This work was received with great applaufe by the learned
of all parties. -Bayle, in ene of it, fays, «¢ Whoever
is defirous of being thoroughly acquainted with the hiftory
of that great man (Luther), needs only to read the extenfive
work of Seckendorf. It is, of its kind, one of the bett
books that have appeared for a long time.”’

Among the other works of Seckendorf, thofe moft de-
ferving of notice are, «‘ The State of the Princes of Ger-
many ;” “ A Defence of the Relation concerning Anto-
nietta de Bourignon, or a Refutation of that female Fanatic ;””
<¢ Hiitorical and Apologetic Diflertations on the Doétrine
of Luther in regard to Mafs, publifhed by Cafpar Sa-
gittarius ;?’ “* The State of the Chriftians, in which Chrif-
tianity is examined in itfelf, and defended againift Atheifts.”’
Gen. Biog. 4

SECKENHEIM, or Sonernuei, in Geography, a town
of the duchy of Baden; 4 miles E. of Manheim.

SECKER, Tuomas, in Biography, a celebrated arch-
bifhop of the church of England, was born in 1693, at
Sibthorp, in Nottinghamfhire. His father was a Protef-
tant diflenter, who lived upon a {mall paternal eftate, and
who was enabled to give his fon anexcellent education. He
was firft placed at a fchool at Chefteriield, whence he was
removed to an academy at Attercliffe, near Sheffield, in-
tended for the education of young men defigned for the
miniftry among diffenters: after this, he was fent to a
fimilar inftitution in the neighbourhood of Tewkfbury.
When he was about the age of 19, he had attained to a
good knowledge of the claflics, the Hebrew language, and
of thofe branches of the mathematical fciences which were
taught young men as preparatory to their {tudies in theology.
From this time, til] he was about 23 years of age, he pur-
fued his theological courfe with great vigour; when, for
fome reafons with which we are unacquainted, he determined
to abandon his plan and ftudy phyfic, and after attending
leGtures two years in London, he went to Paris for farther
improvement, and carried his attention to all the branches
of medicine, including furgery and midwifery. During
this period he kept up a clofe correfpondence with Mr.
{afterwards bifhop) Butler, who had been a fellow-ftudent at
Tewkfbury. His friend had already conformed, and per-
fuaded Secker to follow his example, affuring him of the
patronage of bifhop Talbot. Secker now began to think
ferioufly of thofe profpeéts which were held out to him in

6

SEC

the eftablifhed church. He was already amply provided
with theological knowledge, and he had exprefied a diffa-
tisfattion with the divifions exifting among the diffenters,
and with the authority too frequently aflumed by the
heads of their congregations; he therefore clofed with the
invitation held out to him. It was thought right by his
friends that he fhould have a degree from Oxford, with
this view ; and in order to expedite the procefs, he took the
degree of M.D. at Leyden, in the year 1721, on which
ocealion he did himfelf great credit by a thefis which he
delivered on the occafion, «‘ De Medicina Statica.?? He
then entered himfelf a gentleman-commoner of Exeter
college, Oxford, and in a few months obtained the degree
of B. A. in that univerfity. He was ordained by Dr. Tal-
bot, at that time bifhop of Durham, and preached his firft
fermon in March, 1723. The prelate now took him into
his family as chaplain, in which office he had Dr. Rundle
for an afleciate. In 1724 he was prefented to the valuable
rectory of Houghton-le-Spring, in Durham; and being in
a fituation to maintain a family, he married the filter of
Mr. Benfon, afterwards bifhop of Gloucefter; and Mrs.
Talbot, the widow of the prelate, by whofe advice Secker
had conformed, came to live with Mr. and Mrs. Secker,
from whom fhe received, to the end of life, the moft affiduous
attentions, in return for the fervices he had received from
her late hufband.

Secker now fet himfelf down ferioufly to the duties of
a country rector ; but the place in which he lived did not
agree with the health of Mrs. Secker, and he exchanged
Houghton for a prebend of Durham, with the retory of
Ryton. He continued to refide in the north till 1732,
when, being nominated one of the chaplains of the king, he
came to the metropolis, and in the following year he was
prefented with the rectory of St. James. Upon this oc-
cafion he went to Oxford, to take the degree of doétor of
laws, not being of fufficient ftanding for that of divinity,
when he preached what was denominated an act fermon,
‘¢On the Advantages and Duties of Academical Education,”
which was regarded as a matter-piece ef found reafoning

*and good compofition. It was printed at the defire of the

heads of the houfes, and paffled through feveral editions ;
and the reputation derived from it was thought to be the
principal means of his advancement to the epifcopal bench,
which took place in January, 1734—5, when he was con-
fecrated bifhop of Briftol, Dr. Benfon, his brother-in-law,
being at the fame time confecrated to the fee of Gloucefter.
In his high office as prelate he exhibited the moft ttriking
proofs of a confcientious attention to all parts of his duty.
He now delivered, twice a-week, in his parifh church, a
courfe of leé&tures on the church catechifm, which were
afterwards publifhed, and which were generally regarded as
admirably adapted to give a compendious view of the
principles of the Chriftian religion as -profefled by the
church of England, and as eftablifhed by law.

In 1737, Dr. Secker was tranflated to the fee of Oxford,
which he held more than twenty years, and no one could
perform with greater affiduity and earneftnefs the eflential
duties of his fun€tion ; his exterior deportment likewife was
grave, dignified, and perfeétly adapted to the importance
of the charaéter which he maintained. In 1748, Mrs. Secker
died, leaving no iflue, and the bifhop did not marry again.
In 1750 he exchanged his prebend of Durham and rectory
of St. James for the deanery of St. Paul’s ; and in 1758 he
was raifed to the archbifhopric of Canterbury. His ori-
ginal education among the diflenters did not render him lefs
zealous in the interefts of the church to which he had con-
formed: he even went farther than moft of his contem-

poraries

SEC

poraries in endeavouring to extend the authority of the
church of England, and advocated the meafure of eftablith-
° py ees the American colonies. On this fubjeét he
wes attacked by Dr. Mayhew of Bolton, to whom he re-
ied with much temper. ‘The t in favour of
American bifhops turned upan the incompleteneis of an
epifeopal church without them, and the great inconveniences
experienced by the clergy of that remove country in the
peceflary communication with the mother eitablfiment.
The archbifhop thewed that he was quite fincere in his
withes for the eflablifhment of epifeopacy in America, by

g 1oco/, towards eflecting the purpofe. The

( t feparation of the colonics from the Britith

» however, put an end to this project further
Canada.

m

s

J
concerned

Doring the time that archbifhop Secker held his high pre-

ferment, the Methodilts made very rapid ftrides in the pro-

jon of their principles: fome of the bithops had de-

againft them; but Dr. Secker a¢ted with his ufval

: and recommended to his clergy moderation and

4 s iu their behaviour towards ¢ whom he withed

‘to confider as his future friends, but whom others were

dif to treat as enemies.

bs for many years been a great fufferer
from the latterly brought on fevere local pains.
Thefe were to the thigh, and terminated in
of the thi ; one of the fatal

> @ was a fudden frature of that bone

Befides his
”* he was author of “ Eight Charges delivered
alee! rote gp selena grat pt A

intended

mes

“ Fi P
” een reached on

eftablithed his as one of the mott ufe-
rational ‘among the Englith divines.
is im jw emepeely have no
writing; but t diff
neta li acm ll Ba BA
than }s ufually found in thofe kinds of compofitions.
Pee ce ne te eee ae
oms” remarkable degree. wee 44:
Bad ts Chink poles os Sele which
10 wz adap sprint ger patra
of the rebellion in 1745, he exerted himfelf moft con-
fpicuoufly in fupport of government. He enlifted himfelf
under the banners of no ftate party ; but his chief parlia-
iry connexions were with the duke of Newcaille and
| icke. Life of Secker, prefixed to his Sermons.

N. lat. a7 34": E. long. 8°. ,
SECKVELT, a town of the ftate of Utrecht ; 13 miles
W. of Utrecht.

SECLIA, a name by which fome authors have called
wormwood.

- SECLIN, in a town of France, in the de-
of the Ni and chief place of a canton, in the
of Lille; 4 miles S. of Lille. The place contains

SEC

2500, and the canton 13,679 inhabitants, on a territory of
1024 kiliometres, in 16 communes,

SECO, a town of Africa, in Kaarta; 65 miles E. of
Kemmoo,—Alfo, a river of Peru, which runs into the
Pacific ocean, 5S. lat. hd o.

SECOANI, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Syria, fituated in the mountains, E. of the Mediterranean
fea, and W. of the river Orontes, in the territory of
Apamea.

SECOMLA, in Natural Hiflery, the name of 3 genus of
foflils, of the clafs of the /eptaria; the charatters of which
are, that they are bodits of a dufky hue, divided by fepta,
or partitions of a {parry matter, into feveral more or lefs
regular portions, of a moderately firm texture, pot giving
fire with fteel, but fermenting with acid menftrua, and eafily
calcining.

The feptariz of this genus are, of all others, the mot
common, and are what es. been known by the little ex-
preflive, or miftaken names of the qwaxem vein, oF ludus
Helmontii, We have many {pecies of thefe bodies common
among us, Of the whitifh or brownith kinds we have thir-
as of the yellowith, five ; and of the ferruginous ones,

ur.

SECOND, in Anatomy. See Secunni generis.

Seconn, in Geometry, Aflronomy, (ce. the fixticth part of
a prime, or minute ; either in the divifion of circles, or in
the meafure of ume.

A degree, aud an hour, are each divided into fixty
minutes, marked thus '; a minute is fubdivided into fixty
feconds, marked thus"; a fecond into fixty thirds, marked
thus", &c.

We fometimes fay, a _/econd minute, a third minute, &c.
but more ufually, fimpl » feeond, third, Sc.

A pendulum, three feet three inches and two-tenths of
an ~ oy seem vibrates feconds, accerding to fir Jonas Moor’s
redudtion of Huygens, three feet eight lines and a half of
Paris meafure to Englith meafure. See PenpuLum.

Szconp, in Mufic, denotes one of the mufical intervals ;
being only the dittance between any found, and the next
found, whether higher or lower.

As in the compafs of a tone there are reckoned nine fen-
fibly different founds, which form thofe little intervals
called commas, one might in ftri€tnefs fay there are eight
kinds of founds.

There are three kinds of feconds occurring in practice,
the lefler, the greater, and the fuperfluous fecond ; to which,
if the enharmonic us were reftored, we might add the
diminifhed fecond. The lefler fecond is the femitone major,
and is nearly equal to 5; commas. The greater fecond is
the tone, which being either major or minor, there muit
alfo be two great feconds ; one nearly equal to §4 commas,
and the other to 94 commas: but practitioners ufually con-
found thefe two. The fuperfluous fecond is a tone major,
and femitone major ; the other fuperfluous fecond, artling
from the tone minor, and femitone minor, is not in ufe,
Lattly, the diminifhed fecond is a femitone minor lefs than
the lefler fecond ; that is, equal to the diefis enharmonica.
Thus, between E and F, or between A and B, would be a
diminifhed fecond, as alfo between G tharpand A. This lait
has been praétifed by Mr. Handel, ia the oratorio of Samp-
fon, in the fecond of the fong, “ Return, returu, O
God of Hofts.’”’ INTERVAL.

_ Some authors, as Ozanam, call the femitone minor by
the name of fecond ; but this is contrary to the
in like where dimivifhed is ufually applied to

intervals a femitone minor lefs than a true diatonic wterval.
Uz Thus

S) EEE

Thus'the'diminifhed feventh is a’ {emitone minor lefs than:

the flat feventh, or feventh minor. Ls
SECOND, Diminifbed. See DiMinISHED, Second.

Srconp de /’Oreille, in Anatomy, a name given by Vieuf=
fens and others to a mufcle of the ear, called by Cowper and
others ffapidaceus, and flapedis mufculus ; and by Albinus
ftapedium. Winflow calls it le mufcle de Petrier.

Seconp Captain. See Carratn.

Seconp Cau/fz. See Cause and EFFIicientT.

Sreconn Deliverance, Secunda deliberatione, in Law, a judicial
writ that lies after nonfuit of the plaintiff in replevin, and a re-
turno habendo of the cattle replevied, adjudged to him that
diftrained them ; commanding the fheriff to replevy the fame
cattle again, upon fecurity given by the plaintiff in the re-
plevin for the re-delivery of them, if the diftrefs be juftified.
It is a fecond writ of replevin, &c. F.N. B. 68. _

Sreconp Flank, Notion, Order of Curves, Rate.
fubftantives.

Seconp Sight, an odd qualification, which many of the
inhabitants of the Weftern iflands of Scotland are faid to be
pollefled of. The thing is attefted by many credible authors
(among whom is Mr. Martin, author of the natural hiftory
of thefe iflands, and a member of the Royal Society) ; and,
notwithftanding the ftrangenefs of it, many have ftedfaftly
believed it.

The fecond fight is faid to be a faculty of feeing things to
come, or things done at a great diftance, reprefented to the
imagination as if a€tually vifible and prefent.

Thus, if a man be dying, or about to die, his image, it
is pretended, fhall appear dittinétly in its natural fhape, in a
fhroud, with other funeral apparatus, to a fecond-fighted
perfon, who, perhaps, never faw his face before; imme-
diately after which, the perfon fo feen certainly dies.

The quality of fecond-fightednefs, they fay, is not here-
ditary ; the perfon who has it cannot exert it at pleafure ;
nor can he prevent it, or communicate it to another; but it
comes on him involuntarily, and exercifes itfelf on him arbi-
trarily ; and often, efpecially in the younger fecond feers, to
their great trouble and terror.

There is a great number of circumftances {aid to attend
thefe vifions; by obfervation of which, the particular cir-
cumftances, as to time, place, &c. of the death of the
perfon, &c. are learnt. The method of judging of them,
or interpreting them, grows into a kind of art; which is
very different in different perfons. Second-fightednefs is
held a difcredit in the country ; fo that none, they fay, will
counterfeit it; but that many conceal and diffemble it.
See Johnfon’s Journey to the Wettern Iflands of Scotland,
p- 248, &c.

Srconp Surcharge, Writ of, in Law. See SURCHARGE.

Sreconp Terms, in Algebra, thofe where the unknown
quantity has a degree of power lefs than it has in the term
where it is raifed to the highett.

The art of throwing thefe fecond terms out of an equation ;
that is, of forming a new equation, where they have no
place, is one of the moft ingenious and ufeful inventions in
all algebra.

Srconp Tithe. See Tirue.

SECONDARY, or Secunpary, an officer who ats as
fecond, or next to the chief officer.

Such are the fecondaries of the courts of king’s bench
and common pleas; the fecondaries of the compters, who
are next the fheriffs of London in each of the two compters ;
two fecondaries of the pipe; fecondaries to the remem-
brancers, &c. -

Secondary is more frequently ufed in an adjeétive fenfe,
by way of oppofition to primary, or principal.

See the

SE C.

° SeconpARY Adors. See Actor.
SECONDARY Affections. See AEFECTION. ;
Seconpary Circles of the Ecliptic, are circles of longi«; _

tude of the ftars; or circles which, paffing through the ~

poles of the ecliptic, are at right angles to the ecliptic. See

Circies of Latitude. :
By the help of thefe, all points in the heavens are referred,

to the ecliptic; that is, any ftar, planet, or other pheno-,

menon, is under{ftood to be in that point of the ecliptic,
which is cut by the fecondary femicircle, which pafles ~
through fuch ftar, or phenomenon.

If two ftars be thus referred to the fame point of the
ecliptic, they are faid to be in conjunétion; if in oppofite
points, they are faid to be in oppofition ; if they be referred
to two points at a quadrant’s diltance, they are faid to be in
a quartile afpect ; if the points differ a fixth part of the
ecliptic, they are faid to be in fextile afpect.

In the general, all circles which interfeét one of the fix
greater circles of the {phere at right angles, may be called
{econdary circles. As the azimuth or vertical circles in
ref{peat of the horizon, &c. the meridian in refpe& of the
equator, &c.

SrconDary Collateral Points. See COLLATERAL.

Srconpary Conveyances, in Law. See DERIVATIVE.

Srconpary Dials. See Dia.

Sreconpary Fever is that which arifes after a crifis, or
the difcharge of {ome morbid matter ; as after the declenfion
of the fmall-pox, or meafles. See Fever, Small-Pox, &c.

Seconpary Motion. See Morton.

Srconpaky Place. See PLACE.

SreconDARY Planets, thofe moving round other planets as
the centres of their motion, and along with them round
the fun. See PLANET.

Srconpary Qualities, Rainbow. See the fubftantives.

Seconpary Ue, in Law. See Use.

SECONDIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Two Sevres, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of Parthenay; 6 miles W.S.W. of
Parthenay. ‘The place contains 1405, and the canton 6140
inhabitants, on a territory of 1724 kiliometres, in feven
communes.

SECONDINE. See SrcunDINE.

SECORA, in Geography, one of the branches of the
river Darah, which joins the main ftream at Timefkit.

SECOTAN, a town of Candahar; 150 miles S.E. of
Candahar.

SECOURSSE, Denys-Francots, in Biography, was
born at Paris in 1691. He was one of the earlieft pupils of
the celebrated Rollin, and being brought up to the bar, he
was for fome time a pleader. This profeffion, however, he
quitted in order that he might devote himfelf entirely to
literature, in which the ftudy of French hiftory was his
principal objet. In 1723 he was admitted into the Aca-
demy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres. The office of
cenfor-royal was conferred upon him, and he was appointed,
in 1746, to examine the public documents preferved in the
newly conquered towns of the Low Countries. He died
at Paris in 1754. His publications were, the Collection of
Royal Ordonnances, from the fecond to the ninth volume in-
clufive ; ** Mémoires pour fervir a l’Hittoire de Charles le
Mauvais,”’ two vols. 4to.; an edition of the ‘¢ Mémoires
de Conde,’’ fix vols. 4to., in conjunétion with the abbé
Lenglet ; and feveral diflertations in the ‘ Mémoires de
V’Acad. des Infcriptions.”’ ;

SECOZANO, in Geography, a town of the county of
Tyrol; 13 miles N.N.E. of Trent.

SECRETARIUM, among the Romans, a reclufe sera

where,

.

a

*

SEC

confidered the caufea that had been liti-
, and came to a refolution what fentence
It was moit ufually

where the ju

ted before
they were to pafs from the tribunal,
feparated from the tribunal by a veil.

SECRETARY, an officer, who, by order of his matter,
writes letters, difpatches, and other initruments, which he
renders authentic by his fignature.
eo OF thefe there are feveral kinds, as fecretary of ftate,

ary of war, fecretary of the trealury, fecretary of the
admiralty, fecretary of the lord chancellor, &e.

Sxcreranivs of State, are officers attending the king,
for the receipt and difpatch of letters, grants, petitions,
and many of the moft important affairs of the “aed
both foreign and domettic.

The king’s fecretaries were mr. | called the sing’s
clerks and notaries, regi a commentariis. As for the name fe-

it was at firit applied to fuch as, being always near
the king’s perfon, received his commands, and were called
clerks of the feeret ; whence was afterwards formed the word
we gt a fecretis ; and as the great lords began to give
their clerks alfo the quality of fecretary, thofe who attended
the king were called, by way of diftinétion, /ecretaries of the
commands, regi a is. This continued till the reign of
our Heary VILL. 15593 when, at a treaty of peace between
the French and Spaniards, the former obferved, that the
ety mini who treated for Philip II. called them-
ves of fate; upon which, the French /ecretaires
de commandements, out of emulation, aflumed the utle ;
which thence patled alfo into England.

Till the reign of king Henry VIII. there was only one
fecretary of, 3 but whe bufinefs increafing, that prince

i thor ne foerrte ; both were of equal power
and authority, and both ftyled principal fecretaries of flate.
Before quetn Elizabeth’s A eae did ig 4 at
the council board; but that princefs admitted them to the
place of privy counfellors, which honour they have held
ever fince ; and a council is never, or at leaft very feldom,
held without one of them. On the union of England and
Scotland, queen Anne added a third fecretary, on account
of the great increafe of bufinefs, which, as to Britain, was
equally and diltinély ranaged by all the three, although
the lait was frequently ftyled /cretary . late for North
Britain. We have had alfo a fec of ftate for the Ame-
rican department. But both thefe offices are now abolifhed,

_ and there itill remain three principal fecretaries, viz. one of

Each of the pig abe x

the home department, another of foreign affairs, and the
third of the colony and war department, who have under
their management and direétion the moft confiderable af-
fairs of the nation, and are obliged to a conftant attendance
king ; they receive and difpatch whatever comes to
thir vands, be it for the crown, the church, the army, pri-
never, pardons, difpenfations, &c. as likewife petitions
to fovereign ; which, when read, are returned to the
fecretaries for anfwer ; all which they difpatch according to
the king’s command and dire¢tion.
is under the direétion of the chief fecretary to the
lord.lieutenant, who has under him a refident under fecre-

ecretaries has two under /e-

faries and one or clerks, befides a number of
clerks and officers, wholly depending upon them.

: fecretaries of ftate are allowed power to commit per-

fons for treafon, and other offences againft the ftate, in order

to. to their trial. Some have faid that this power
is incident i ; and others, that they derive it in

and Wales.

ident to
_ virtue of their being named in the commiffions of the peace
for every county in England

SEC

The fecretarics of flate have the cultody of that feal,
perly called the fignet, and the direétion of the fignet ther |
in which there are foug chief clerks and three deputies em-
ployed, who prepare ri things as are to pafs the fignet,
in order to the privy or great feal. All grants, figned by
the king, are returned hither, which, sctaleribod, are carried
to one of the principal fecretaries of flate, and fealed, and
then called fignets; which, being direéted to the lord privy-
feal, are his warrant.

On the fecretaries of flate is likewife dependent another
office, called the paper-office ; in which all public writings,
papers, matters of tlate, &c. are preferved.

All the under fecretaries and clerks are in the choice of
the fecretary of ftate, without referve to an perfon ; the
under fecretaries receive orders and direétions them, for
writing dif patches, foreign or domeltic, which they give to
the eeetey who diftributes them to the under clerks.

The fecretary at war belongs to the war-office, and has
under him a deputy fecretary, with his private fecretary, and
a number of clerks and other officers,

SECRETARY of an Embafy, is a perfon attendin
baffador, for the writing of difpatches relating to the nego-
ciation. °

There is a great difference between the fecretary of the
embafly, and the ambaffador’s fecretary ; the laft is a do-
meftic, or menial of the ambaflador’s; the firft a fervant, or
minifter of the prince.

SECRETION, in Phyfiology, is that vital procefs, in
which fome fubftance, either defigned to anfwer a purpofe
in the animal economy, or to be thrown out of the body as
ufelefs or injurious, is feparated from the blood by an organ
of glandular ftruGture. It agrees with nutrition, with the
exhalations from the {kin, membranes, adipous and lymphatic
cells, in being the feparation of fomething from the blood,
but it is diftinguifhed from thefe procefles by the circum-
{tance of its being performed by glands. The word /ecretion
however is often ufed more loofely by medical writers, in
application to any living procefs, by which matters are fepa-
rated from the blood. The organic ftruétures, in which fe-
cretions are carried on, the material agents of thefe pro-
cefles, and the powers by which they are executed, are con-
fidered under the article GLAND.

SECT, Szcra, a colleétive term, comprehending all
fuch as follow the doétrines, or opinions, of fome famous
divine, philofopher, &c. For the fcriptural meaning of the
term fe&t, fee Heresy.

The feéts of philofophers among the ancients, particularly
in Greece, were numerous: as the Pyrrhonians, Platonifts,
Epicureans, Stoics, Peripatetics, Academics, &c. See
each under its proper article.

In later times, the feéts of philofophy have been chiefly
reducible to three; viz. the Cartefians, Peripatetics, and
Newtonians. See CARTESIAN, &c.

In theology, the feéts are much more numerous ; yet the
ancients had many legions, now extin&; as Machinees,
Gnottics, Montanifts, &c.

The principal now on foot are the Lutherans, Calvinitts,
Anabaptifts, Arians, Socinians, Arminians, and Unitarians.
The rife, progrefs, and fate, with the diftinguifhing charac-
ters and opinions of each, fee under LuTHERAN, CALvI-
NIsT, &c.

Sect, Jonic. See Ionic.

Sect, Jtalic. See Iratic.

Sects of Hindoos. It has been long known that the
Hindoos are divided and fubdivided into a number of feéts,
tribes, or cafts. Under our articles BRacHMANS,* Cast,
and Gen Toos, we have given the {ubitance of what has been

communicated

an am-

SECTS OF

communicated by early and later travellers to eaftern regions
on the fubje& of thefe diftinGtions. In common with thefe
writers, we have alfo ufed the term ca/?, or caffe, though
we are not aware of any claflical authority for the word.
We are difpofed to think it introduced by the Portuguefe ;
and it is now, and has been for many years, as common in the
mouths of natives as of Europeans, efpecially on the coaft
of Coromandel. We do not affirm that the word is not of
Sanferit origin, and in truth it founds very like it: but we
have never met with the word in eaftern writings, nor heard
it ufed by natives beyond the reach of European colloquial
influence.

Tn confidering the divifion and fubdivifion of the numerous
race of Hindoos, we are difpofed to feparate them into
theological, civil, and philofophical clafles or tribes. Theologi-
cally we find two grand divifions, the Saivas, who worfhip
Siva, and the Vaifhnavas, who worfhip Vifhnu: thefe are
numeroufly fubdivided, as we fhall notice prefently, as are
the many {chifmatics who effentially or trivially diflent from
both, and are probably numerically equal to both, under
the generic denomination of Budhas or Baudhifts, and its
various {pecific varieties. The civil grand divifions are four,
viz. Brahman, Kjhetriya, Vaifya, and Sudra. As the two
former theological grand divifions comprife the whole race
of Hindoos (leaving for the prefent the fchifmatics out of
the queftion), fo do likewife thefe four civil tribes or grand
divifions ; either of the four may be theologically a Saiva or
a Vaifhnava, as his parents may have taught, or his feelings
led him. Thefe four civil grand divifions are fubdivided
into almoft innumerable diftinétions and varieties. Here
follows a brief outline of the diftinG@tions of thefe four great
civil tribes. 1. Brahman. This is a {mall tribe in point of
number; but in power paramount. Intelleét is power ;
and, with a few exceptions, the intelle€tual wealth of India
is confined to the Brahmanical treafury. As among the
Jews all priefts were taken from the tribe of Levi, fo with
the Hindoos the tribe of Brahman exclufively furnifhes the
priefthood. All Hindoo priefts are therefore Brahmans,
but all Brahmans are not priefts. Minifters and public
officers of ftate are very commonly Brahmans, even in
Mahommedan governments ; and they are occafionally mer-
chants, and even foldiers. In both the Britifh and native
armies of India, are many Brahmans. ‘The two Mahratia
generals whofe names are beft known in England, Purferam
Bhon and Hurry Punt, were both Brahmans. A Brahman
is pointedly prohibited from becoming a king: royalty ap-
pertains to the fecond tribe. (See Peswa.) In the Gita,
a work profoundly venerated by numerous feéts, the duties
of the four tribes are very concifely and plainly ftated. “* The
natural duty of the Brahman is peace, felf-reftraint, zeal, pu-
rity, patience, reétitude, wifdom, learning, and theology.”
Gita, p. 130. (See Manazarat.) The word Brahman
means a theologilt or divine; derived from Brahm, the divi-
nity. Pandit, corruptly Punt, means a learned Brahman, or
philofopher ; hence panditya, philofophy. Among the Mah-
rattas, where Brahmans are very numerous, the title of
Punt is aflumed by many individuals: feldom, if ever, by
thofe in low ftations. In very low or bafe occupations Brah-
mans are, indeed, never feen. The names of individuals
often indicate their fe@. Purferam Bhon, above-mentioned,
we fhould infer to have been of the grand divifion Vaifhnava,
and of the fe&t of Ramanuj. (See Parasu Rama, which
is the claffical mode of writing and pronouncing his name,
and Ramanugs.) Hurry Punt, is from his name known
to have been a Brahman (Pandit) of the grand divifion
Saiva: Hari (corruptly Hurry) being a name of Siva.
See Siva.

HINDOOS.

2. Kfbetriya, ufually pronounced Ketri, or Kfhetri, is the
fecond civil grand divifion, It is the warrior tribe ; comprif-
ing all foldiers, who alone can lawfully become kings. (See
PrsHwa.) All the other tribes, however, furnith foldiers ;
and, indeed, princes too, if the ambitious individual ean
effe& it. ‘ The natural duties of the Kfhetri are bravery,
glory, fortitude, reétitude, not to flee from the field, genero-
fity, and princely conduét.”? (Gita, ib.) This grand divifion
is very numerous. Some hundreds of different fects might
be enumerated as belonging to it, and many hundreds would.
{till be omitted. The Ayin Akbery ftates, (vol. iii. p. 87.
Calcutta ed.) that of the tribe of Kthetri, there are up-
wards of five hundred fubdivifions, fifty-two of whom are
in efteem, and twelve particularly fo. Of one of thefe
fubdivifions, that of Rajput, the fame authority fays there
are upwards of a thoufand different feéts. The term Rajput,
or rather Rajaputra, means offspring of kinys; a title af-
fumed by various warrior tribes in the norti of Tadia; in-
dividuals of which are pretty numeroufly ipread im the
fouthern and other provinces, wherever good pay invites their
fervices.

3. Vaifya, vulgarly called Vais, or Bhyfe, is the tribe
next in rank to the military. This isa very numerous tribe,
comprifing merchants, traders, and cultivators. Ii this,
that'is, prattifing its avocations, are found many individuals
of the three others. ‘¢ The natural duty of the Vaifya is,”
according to the Gita, ¢ to cultivate the land, tend the cattle,
and buy and fell.” (Ibid.) This tribe is numeroufly fub-
divided like the others. It contains a great proportion of
wealthy individuals. ‘The fubdivifion of Vania, or Banta,
called by the Englifh Banyan, ay to this clafs, and is
{aid to comprehend eighty-four different feéts: it bemg
only itfelf a tribe of this third grand divifion, or of |
Vaifya.

It is underftood, that all the individuals of the three firit
tribes or fe&ts above named, are fufceptible of regeneration,
by a mytterious initiation in the gayatri, and the inveititure
of a holy thread called zennaar. Such individuals are called
twice-born. See our articles O’m and Zennaar for farther
notice of thefe particulars.

4. Sudra. In this is comprifed mechanics, artifans, and
labourers of every defcription. In the profecution of the
Sudras’ avocations, individuals of the fecond and third tribes
or clafles will be found ; and occafionally, though compa-
ratively but rarely, of the firlt, Many mechanics and artifans
are of the third clafs. “ The natural duty of the Sudra‘is
fervitude.”? Gita. ;

This arrangement into cafts or fects, tribes or grand
divifions, is, as before noticed, of very early origin. In
the Inftitutes of Menu, (fee Menu, ) we find it laid down as
of theremoteft antiquity; and, as is ufual with every thing
relating to the Hindoos, traced to a mythological fource.
« That the human race might be multiplied, he (the fu-
preme lord, or Brahma) caufed the Brahman, the Ithetriya,
the Vaifya, and the Sudra, (fo named trom the {cripture,
protection, wealth, and labour, ) to proceed from his mouth,
his arm, his thigh, and his foot.” Ch. 1. y. 31.

In early times it is probable that thefe diftinGions or
feparations were kept up and obferved with contiderable
{tri€nefs, both in refpeét to intermarriages and avocations,
Thofe times were, however, anterior to the Inititutes of .
Menu, who gives names to the {purious offspring of feéta-
rialintermarriage ; wifely endeavouring to correct, what his
authority would prove unequal to prevent, or materially
reftrain. Denunciations, however, againit thefe illicit prac-
tices, fexual and handicraft, abound in the books of law;

and abfolution from the fin thus incurred is doubtlefs ane
an

SECTS OF

and no trifling, fource of the revenue and power of the
notice a few of the chief religious {e¢ts into
race of Hindoos comprifed in the above four
civil claifes are fubdivided. ‘TTo enumerate them all
be fcarcely poflible, even with the affittance of learned
” patives; and to place them 1m their relative rank, altogether
icable: for it is a point involving great differences of

, ; asmay be imagined when the religious feelings and
| pride of many individuals clafh, and where great feope is

afforded for their difplay in a field bounded ‘ no precile

a incipal feéts are recognized who worthip exclu-
- fively a deity. ‘Thefe are 1. The Saivas, who worhhip
f ry j

, who worfhip Vithnu. 3. The
or Suras, w
who

worlhip Surya, or the fun. 4. The
: anefa, 5. The Salsas, who
fhip Parvati. But if we examine clofely the relation
lich they refpectively bear to each other, we hall find the
to be ramifications of the firit, or feé& of
‘Saiva; of which may be traced thefe diltinétions. 1. Saiva

y fu to include both the worthippers of
y, or of hum and Parvaticonjointly. (See Saiva.)
the adorers of Siva under his ic emblem

great fe& of Vaihnava is alfo varioufly di-
fubdivided. Two principal divifions or branches
j, or worlhippers of Vifhnu,
, ; ns of Krifhva (one of whofe
. Rama. Thefe two principal feéts
of Vaithnava are each divifible into three. G

exclufively worfhip Krifhna as Vifhou him-

aod thse exten confidered as the true and
thodox Vai ( etna aad Waban)
Thofe who exclufively worfhip Radha, as the fakti of
» (See Rapua, Saxra, and Saxri.) This fed
times called Radhba-ballabhi. 3- The worthippers of
and Radha conjointly. The three diftin¢tions of
yj are, 1. Thofe who worfhip Rama only. (See
aand Ramanvuy.) 2. Thofe who worthip Sita only.
3- Thofe who worthip both Rama and Sita conjointly.
he fe&t of Ganapatyas we have confidered as a divifion
, of Saiva; and the fect of Saura, worthippers of

-
~

KS ~
Er

—_—

ip; as do alfo many feéts of the Vaifhnavas. See

er ourarticle Saxt: we have obferved that the Hin-
ythology has i the abitraét and attraétive
of the divinity, and afcribed fexes to thefe m
gical perfonag Sakti, or energy of an attribute
God, is female, and is fabled as the confort of that per-
ied attribute. Hence has arifen fuch a feries of fictions,
ding all natural and moral phenomena, obfcured

HINDOOS,

by mythological and fexual allegories, as it is (earcely poff.
to ex Ge (See Laxsuni, Pasvari, aed Sanas-
WATI.) RefpeAing the Sabtas, that is, thofe who worthip
exclufively or chiefly the Sakti or female power, this dittine.
tion has been noticed; fome of them, adopting what is
called a left-handed path, accompany their devotions b
divers obfcene and indecent aéts; others do not. The
of Radha-ballabbi, who are fuppofed to worfhip the female
energy in Lakthmi, under her form of Radha, are eccufed
of thefe indecencies. (See + apa SER the Saktas
of the Saiva tribes there is alfo a left-handed or indecent, as
well as a right-handed or decent mode of worlhip; and
thofe who adopt the former are faid to go the length of ex-
treme profligacy. (See Sawva.) We thould be difpofed
to clafs all the individuals who thus, either in the a or
left-handed path, adore the female power, under the deno-
mination of Yonijas, or worthippers of the Yoni ; the {ym-
bol more efpecially of Parvati: but for this, though a rea-
fonable claflification, we cannot quote any immediate autho-
rity. (Sec Yort-) None of the fe& of Ramanuj are accufed
of the left-handed enormities. In molt parts of India they are,
when known, held in deferved deteltation ; and the decent
Saktas forbear making any oltentatious profeflion of their
tenets, or wearing on their foreheads the mark of their feét,
left they fhould be fufpected of belonging to the other
branch of it.

There is another very numerous fect of Vaithnavas,
called Bhagavatas, of more modern origin than the others.
Their tenets and practices are grounded on the eighteenth
Purana, which is chiefly a hiftory of the life, adventures,
and doGtrines of Krifhna, and is entitled Sri Bhagavata,
which fee. The work is afcribed to Vapadeva, who endea-
voured to reconcile and unite all feéts, by recognizing the
deities of each, but as fubordinate to the Supreme Being,
or as attributes or manifeftations of God. ‘This is, in ae,
the doétrine of the Gita; but that work, as well as the Sn
Bhagavata, while profeffing to uphold a unity in the deity,
claims that pre-eminency for Krithna ; and sithos the feé
of Bhagavata is very numerous, and includes in viduals of
or from many other fects, itilla purity of doétrine is far dif-
tant from all, while a mythological perfonage continues
clothed in the attributes of the Almighty. For all the
other feéts, or at leaft a portion of the moft enlightened and
liberal individuals among them, are fufficiently ready to
profefs a belief in the umty of the deity, if their claim
of that awful defignation for the objet of their own
adoration be conceded. See Krisuna, SARASWATI, and
Siva.

The Bhagavatas, while recognizing the five divinities
worthipped by the other feéts refpeaiecly, and even paying
them in turn their daily adoration, and on particular occa-
fions extending it to other deities, ftill deny the charge of

lytheifm, and repel the imputation of idolatry. It may
8 eafily imagined that but few, we may almoft fay none, of
the numerous followers of this fe& can fully comprehend
the do¢trines they profefs. They incline much to real poly-
theifm, but do at leaft oy the derogatory notions of
deity which the other feéts feem to have adopted. The

tice of adoring images of celetial {pirits, sey. juthfy

y arguments fimilar to thofe which have been elfewhere

employed in defence of image worthip. (See Gewroos and

Ipotarry.) If the doétrines of the Veda, and even thofe
of the Puranas, be clofely examined, the Hindoo theo!
will be found confiftent monotheifm, thougn it contains

feeds of polytheifm and idolatry, See Punana and Vepa.

Modern Hi feem to have mifunder{tood the numerous
texts in their facred books, which declare the unity of the

,’

SECTS OF

wodhead, and the identity of Vifhnu, Siva, the Sun, &c.
Their theologifts have entered into vain difputes on the quef-
tion of which, among the attributes of God, fhall be deemed
charaGteriftic and pre-eminent ?

Sankaracharya (fee the article under his name) the
celebrated commentator on the Veda, contended for the at-
tributes of Siva, and founded or confirmed the fect of Saiva,
who worlhip Siva as the fupreme being, and deny the co-
equal or independent exiltence of Vifhnu and other deities.
Madhava and Vallabha, both alfo furnamed Acharya, de-
noting literary dignity, have in like manner eltablifhed by
their comments the feét of Vaifhnava, who adore Vifhnu as
God.

Under the article Saraswati we have’ noticed, that
there is now no feét, who exclufively or principally worfhip
Brahma: no one hath hitherto been difcovered named after
him, denoting the creative power to be the object of ex-
elufive adoration. Still by fome legends he is defcribed as
the Almighty; leading us to infer, that he was once fec-
tarially addrefled as the other two members of the triad
now are. His fakti, Sarafwati, is defcribed in fome paf-
fages as all-produétive, all-powerful, and all-wife. It may
be reafonably inferred, that there are many more feéts
among the Hindoos than have hitherto been afcertained.
Molt of the fects, however, approach or melt into each
other on clofe infpection ; as may in all fuch cafes be fup-
pofed, when they muit all have originated in one common
fource. This reunion is with the Hindoos marked with
their ufual extravagant fexual mythology. Siva and Par-
vati, they fay, had a conteft on the queltion of the com-
parative potency or eminence of their feveral worfhip: in
other words, the worfhippers of their fymbols, the Linga
and Yoni, contefted the point. ‘To appeafe this phyfio-
logical difference between the god and his confort, Vifhnu
interpofed, and his navel, or rather os tince, came at length
to be confidered as the fame with the Yoni; confounding
the Vaifhnavas with the Yonijas: but we muft refer to our
article Yonr, and the other articles and the works therein
mentioned, for farther particulars on this point.

In the early part of this article, we have adverted to
the numerous fchifmatics, under the generic term of
Baudhas, followers of the doétrines of Budha or Boodh.
(See Boopu.) Thefe, under various defignations, we are
difpofed to clafs as heretical Vaifhnavas, worfhipping Vifhnu
under one of his avataras or incarnations, that of Budha;
as the Gokalaithas and Ramanujas do under others; thofe
of Gokal, or Krifhnaand Rama. <« [n ref{pe& to the num-
bers of followers,”? the author of the Hindoo Pantheon
obferves, “and the extent over which they have f{pread,
the doétrines of Budha have probably obtained greater do-
minion than thofe of any other religious perfuation. Al-
though now comparatively trifling on the continent of
Hither India, his doétrines and followers are ftill found, dif-
fering in externals, and divided into fects, throughout China
and its tributary nations; in the great empires and ftates
of Cochinchina, Cambodia, Siam, Pegu, Ava, Afam,
Tibet, Budtan or Bootan, (fee thofe feveral articles,) many
of the Tartar tribes, and generally all parts ea{t of the
Ganges; including thofe vaft and numerous iflands in the
feas eaftward and fouthward of the farther [Indian promon-
tory, whofe inhabitants have not been converted to: Iflamifm.
In thefe great and diftant parts of the globe the tenets of
Budha, diftinguifhed by various. appellations, may be re-
cognized as forming the religion of the people; an extent
exceeding that either of the Mahomedan or Brahmanical
fuperftition, and outnumbering, perhaps, the followers of
the religion of Jefus Chrift.”? P. 240.

HINDOOS.

Budhifm, like other diftinGions of faith among Hindoos,
is divided into fects. If it be reckoned the grand generic
{chifm, we may deem the fects of Jaina and Mahiman
{pecific varieties ; and there appears no good reafon why
they fhould not all be clafled with the other feéts, who
adore exclufively one of the avataras or incarnations of
Vifhnu, under the comprehenfive denomination of Vaifh-
navas. Of thefe avataras fee under the article Visunu;
and for fome account of the herefy of Budha and its fub-
divifions, fee Boopn, Jaina, SAKyYA, and the other articles
thence referred to.

Mott oriental people feem to have prided themfelves on
diftinguifhing their deities by a great many names. 'Thefe
names are, however, moitly, perhaps all, fignificant and
charatteriftic; of which early enquirers were of courfe
ignorant. The prevalence of this pride will be feen in our
articles Parvati, Siva, and others. - In the inftance of
Budha, another proof might be exhibited of the fame feeling.
He is diftinguifhed by AR nt names in the fame and in dif-
tant parts. Boodh, Budha, Butta, and others of nearly
fimilar found, are mere varieties, in different parts of India,
in orthography and pronunciation; and fo perhaps is the
Bud, or Wud, of the ancient Pagan Arabs. Pout in Siam;
Pott, or Poti, in Tibet; and But in Cochinchina, are the
fame; the Chinefe having, it is faid, no B or D in their
alphabet, and their language being monofyllabic, foftened
his name into Fo, or Fo-e. (See Fo.) They call him-alfo
Xa-ka; a variation, perhaps, of the Sanfcrit Sakya. (See
Saxya.) That the Toth of the Egyptians, and the
Woden of the Scandinavians, and other northern nations,
is the fame name and deity, is upheld by fome; but the
fuppofition is derided by others: fome, indeed, will not re-
cognize him in the Fo of China. A Buddha, whether the

ninth incarnation of Vifhnu or not may be difputed, has

been deemed to anfwer in character with Mercury ; fo has
the Gothic Woden. Tach refpeétively gives his name to
the fame planet, and to the fame day of the week. Budh-
var is, very extenfively in India, whether among Baudhas,
Saivas, Vaifhnavas, or Mahomedans, the fame with Dies
Mercurii, or Woden’s day ; whence fome have derived our
Wednefday. - ;

The common reproach of the Brahmans is that the
Baudhas uphold the dangerous dogma of the eternity of
matter and the perifhability of the foul. But we ought

to receive accounts of the tenets of a hoftile feet with cau- -

tion; and of the Baudhas and Jainas we have yet but little
elfe. Like the Jainas, their worfhip is confined to deified
faints; and the name for the chief of them is, as ftated in
another place, derived from the Sanferit word dudh, to
know 3 hence Budha is philofophy: and hence has been
derived the Saxon and Englifh verbs dodian, to bode, fore-
bode, &c.

The Jaina, or votaries of Jaina, are probably the moft
ancient of Hindoo feétaries. They reject, like the Baudhas
in general, the authority of the Vedas; and are the moft
{erupulous of any fect in their cautions againft the even
accidental extinétion of animal life. (See of this under
our article Jaina.) In the Vedas the flaughter of animals
is not only allowed, but on fome occafions enjoined. (See
Vepa.) The adoration of the Jainas is exclufively offered
to deified mortals, or rather, as they affirm, through them
to the deity: and in the clafs of deified mortals may be in-
cluded many of the gods of the Hindoos, although they
profefs to rejeét the polytheif{m and incarnations of the
latter. The doétrine of tranfmigration is found among the
Jainas ; how extenfively is not afcertained: the belief of a
future {tate of rewards and punifhment, and an extenfive

9 portion

| SECTS OF

Puranic hiftory, is common to them with

orthodox Hindoos. Formerly powerful and widely
diffeminated, this fe& is fuppofed to have fuflered t
diminution from the extenfion of the modern herefy of
And at prefent its more opulent members are
it convenient to refume the orthodox perfuafion,
be done without much difficulty, and mutt
to a diminution of its members and refpec-

Several of the feéts noticed in the articles of this work
mamed after them, are defcribed as diftinguifhed by marks
their foreheads, arms, and brealts. The forehead mark
chief diftin&tion, and when horizontal or lel with
tal it is underftood to defignate a Saiva, while

va is ized by its perpendicularity. One,
or three of ¢ lines, red, white, or yellow, accom-

: by circlets and dots, differing in pofition and colour,
with many other fymbols and hicroglyphics, afford
variety of indications of the fectarial bias of the

fo decorated. convenient, and no efpecial
exifts, it is faid to be held ne that thefe
n Reet erent Sots’ of courte, by ¢ hand of a
, of that tribe cannot perform his daily
ablutions, &c. without the completion or con-
of this diftinétion; and it is held irreverent in
an inferior tribe to approach a holy man, or to afk
without, or in view to, this feCtarial decora-
op age of the Hindoo Pantheon contains
em ious fymbols. To that work,
refer fuch of our readers as defire far-
information on pod se for a curious variety of the
i a full explanation of their fe@arial

*
¢

fe&, who

ip fire, or its perfonification in
i its regent, is noti under the article Sacnrka,
h fee). This i ible to the grand divifion

» Agni being of that line of parentage. See Pa.

i the article PHitosopny fe Hindoos,
of the principal feéts, or fchools ; and re-

a brief explanation of the feveral doétrines to the
this work, under which are refpectively no-
thall not, in this place, offer any thing farther
reon. For fome of the particulars of this article we are
ed to Mr. Colebrooke’s Effay on the Religious Cere-
the Hindoos, in the ninth volume of the A fiatic

theon

admit of eafy expiation. He is {till under
dominion of the fame priefthood, and while he
ordained feafts and fafts, performs pilgri }
conforms to the externals that ferve

for him by the Brahmans,

y» and, under certain limita-
whichever philofophical do@rines
— not, perhaps, be thought decorous in a

HINDOOs.

Brahman, efpecially if he were a pricit, to make an offen-
tatious difplay of the dotirines of 3 free-thinking founder,
whofe tenets border on a denial of the exiflence of the my-
thological beings, reverence to whom is the bafe ou which
refts the {piritual fan@tity of his own tribe, But there are
ftill many individuals among the Brahmans who think deep-
ly; and who, in reafoning on the grofluefs and abfurdity of
their mythological legends, cannot but reject them. See
VEDANTA.

At is in the civil diftinétions that the Hindoo law is fo

arded againft innovation. Here every poflible care has

n taken to keep the tribes apart ; and fexual intercourfe,
the principal apprehended caufe of confufion, is regulated
and legitimated with great precifion. ‘Thefe regulations vary
in minute particulars in different tribes and countries, but
a retty nearly in the main point of degrading the off-
ong of forbidden intercourfe. Pouch Uamshaics does not,
however, neceflarily refult. Rich delinqueats can avert im-
mediate ecclefiattical cenfure ; and the lapfe is foon forgot-
ten, With the poor fuch things are of lefs moment ; ex-
citing perhaps little elf than the pafling feandal of the
neighbourhood; unlefs in cafes where the B i
dignity or purity may be implicated in a manner too ’
etaptetbes to a eeatonkal. Fornication or adult re
tween a male Sudra and a Brahmani would be deemed of this
nature. So would eating or drinking together of individuals
of remote or different tribes. But the latter, if not fre-
quent or wilful, admit of expiation ; expenfive and vexatious
in proportion to the wealth of the offenders, and the degree
of enormity in the offence.

Some writers have told us of the eafe with which the Hin-
doos, and even the Brahmans, feem to change their religion :
“ with as much facility,” fay they, “ as thei ts.”"
The theological change of Ft as above noticed, is not at-
tended with much difficulty: they are ftill Hindoos, and
can find priefts of their new perfuafion, who will afford them
the confolations and benefits of religion, fuch as they are.
But the work of converfion altogether from that religion, and
liberation from the trammels of prieftcraft, have ever been,
and ever will be found, a tafk of much difficulty : to
be accomplifhed only by the potency of continued perfuafion,
fuperadded to the aid of example in the preceptors.

In concluding this article on the feétarial divifions of the
Hindoos, we may obferve that there is ftrong reafon to be-
lieve many ef them to be of modern origin. he Veda, the
{cripture of the Hindoos, affords no authority for fuch ex-
travagancies as worfhipping deified heroes, female powers or
indecent fymbols, or avataras. See VEDA.

We thal here fubjoin a brief account of Saniafly, omitted
in its proper place. Saniafly denotes an order of Hindoo
mendicants, who arrive at this diftinétion by divers aéts of
perfevering penance and fuppofed piety. We are not aware
of an rome Re diftinétion ‘treral acetl defcription of faints,
and thofe called Yogi and Yati by different fe&ts. In the Gita,
as tranflated by Mr. Wilkins, Krifhna declares him to be both
a Yogi and a Saniafly, who performeth that which he hath
to do independent of the fruit thereof. Saniafly, or a for-
faking of the world, is declared to be the fame with Yogi,
or the prattice of devotion. He who can bear up a
the violence produced from luft and anger in this mortal life,
is properly employed, and a happy man. The man who ia
happy io his heart, at reft in his mind, and enlightened with-
in, is a Yogi, or one devoted to God, and of a godly {pirit,
The foul of the placid, conquered fpirit, is the fame in heat
and cold, in pain and pleafure, in honour and difgrace, To
the Yogi, gold, iron, and ftones are the fame. ‘The man is
diitinguifhed whefe refolution, whether amongft his com-
panions and friends, or in the ~ ppg of his enemies ; ae

w

SEC

who love and with thofe who hate ; in the company of faints
or finners, is the fame. The Yogi conftantly exercifeth the
{pirit in private. He is a reclufe of a fubdued mind, free
from hope, and free from perception. _ He planteth his own
feat firmly on a {pot that is undefiled, and fitteth upon the
facred grafs, Au/a, coyered with a {kin anda cloth, (See
Kusa.) There he, whofe bufinefs is the reitraining of his
paflion, fhould fit, with his mind fixed on one objec alone,
in the exercife of his devotion for the purification of his foul,
keeping his head, his neck, and body fteady, without mo-
tion, his eyes fixed on the point of his nofe, looking at no
other place around. To be a Saniafly, or reclufe, without
application, is to obtain pain and trouble.

This divine difcipline 1s not to be attained by him who
eateth more than enough, or lefs than enough; neither by
him who fleepeth too much, nor by him who fleepeth not at
all. A man is called devout, when his mind remaineth thus
regulated within himfelf, and he is exempted from every luft
and inordinate defire. The Yogi of a fubdued mind, thus
employed in the exercife of devotion, is compared to a lamp
ftanding ina place without wind, which waveth not. He
becometh acquainted with that boundlefs pleafure, which
is far more worthy of the underftanding than that which
arifes from the fenfes; depending upon which, the mind
moyeth not from its principles ; which having obtained, he
tefpecteth no other acquifition fo great as it; on which de-
pending, he is not moved by the fevereft pain. Supreme
happinefs attendeth the man whofe mind is thus at peace ;
whofe carnal affections and paflions are thus fubdued ; who
is thus in God, and free from fin. The Yogi is more ex-
alted than the Tapafwi (fee Tapas) ; the zealot who ha-
rafles himfelf in performing penances, he is re{pected above
the learned in fcience, and fuperior to thofe attached to
moral works.

The above paflages from different pages of the Gita, may
ferye as a {pecimen of that extraordinary work ; fuppofed to
have been compofed by Vyafa, many centuries before the
Chriftian era. See Vyasa, Jaina, Yatr, and Yoar, for
fome farther notice of Hindoo penance and devotion ; and
Tapas, for inftances of their aufterity.

Individuals calling themfelves Saniaflys and Yogis, are
ftill feen wandering about India; fometimes ftark-naked;
rubbed over perhaps with afhes, efpecially if of the fe&
of Saiva (which fee); the god Siva being reprefented fo
powdered. Sometimes they have, like him, a tiger’s fkin to
fit on: and at others, carry one of Vifhnu’s emblems, the
chakra, of which fee under VisHNu and Vagra. Inthe
latter cafe, the individuals are probably of the feét of Vai/h-
nava, which fee.

SECTA, in Law. See Suir.

Secta Hundred. See Hunprep Suit.

Srcra ad curiam, a writ which lieth againft him who
refufeth to perform his fuit to the county court, or court
baron.

SEctTAa curia. See Suit of Court.

Secra facienda per illam que habet eniciam partem, a writ
to compel the heir that hath the elder’s part among co-heirs,
to perform fervice for all the coparceners.

Secta falde. See FaLpAGE.

Sucta ad juftitiam faciendam, is a {ervice which a man is
bound to perform by his fee.

Secra molendini, a writ lying where a man by ufage, time
out of mind, &c. has ground his corn at the mill of a cer-
tain perfon, and afterwards goes to another mill with his
corn, thereby withdrawing his fuit to the former. And
this writ lies efpecially for the lord again{t his tenants, who
hold of him to do fuit at his mill. This is now generally
turned into an aétion of the cafe.

SEC

Secra regalis, a fuit by which all perfons were bound
twice in a year to attend the fheriff’s tourn, and was called
regalis, becaufe the fheriff’s tourn was the king’s leet ;
wherein the people were to be obliged by oath to bear true
allegiance to the king, &c.

SecrA unica tantum facienda pro pluribus hereditatibus, a
writ that lies for an heir who is diltrained by the lord to do
more fuits than one, in relfpedt of the land of diyers heirs
defeended to him.

SECTILIA, among the Romans, pavements laid with
{tones cut into various forms. Suetonius diltinguifhes them
from thofe that were teflellated.

SECTINEUS, in Anatomy, a {mall, flat, and pretty long
mufcle, broad at the upper part, and narrow at the lower;
fituated obliquely between the os pubis, and the upper part
of the os femoris. ;

It is commonly a fingle mufcle, but is fometimes found
double. “ It is fixed above by flefhy fibres to all the fharp
ridges, or crifta, of the os pubis, and to a {mall part of the
oblong notch, or depreflion,,on the forefide of the critta, in
which the upper extremity of this mufcle is lodged; and
thence it runs down obliquely towards the little trochanter,
under, and a little behind which it is inferted obliquely by a
flat tendon, between the fuperior infertion of the vaftus in-
ternus, and inferior infertion of the triceps fecundus, with
which it is united. Winflow.

SECTIO Casanea. See Cmsarran Sedition.

SECTION, Secrio, formed from /eco, J cut, a part of a
thing divided; or the divifion itfelf. -

Such, particularly, are the fubdivifions of chapters, by
others called paragraphs, and fometimes articles. The mark
of a fe&tion is §. .

The ancients neglected to divide their books into chapters

and fections: that was a tafk left for future editors and critics. ~

SEcTION, in Geometry, denotes a fide or furface appearing
of a body, or figure, cut by another ; or the place wherein
lines, planes, &c. cut each other. .

The common feétion of two planes is always a right line ;
being the line f{uppofed to be drawn by the one plane in its
cutting or entering the other.

If a {phere be cut in any manner, the plane of the fection
will be a circle, whofe centre is in the diameter of the {phere.

The {eGtions of the cone are five, viz. a circle, triangle,
parabola, hyperbola, and ellipfis. See each under its proper
article. See alfo Conr.

Sections, Conic. See Conic Sedions.

Section, Axis of a Conic. See Axis.

Section, Centre of a Conic. See CENTER,

Section, Diameter of a Conic. See DIAMETER.

Section, Tangent of a Conic. See TANGENT.

Sections, Following, Sectiones Sequentes, in Conics, may
be thus conceived: fuppofe two right lmes, as A B, C D,
(Plate XIII. Analyfis, fig. 5.) mutually interfecting one
another in E, which point E is fuppofed to be the common
centre of the oppofite hyperbolic fections F, G, H, I, and
whofe common afymptotes, the propofed lines A B, CD,
alfo are. In this cafe, the feGtions G; F, and H, J, are
called /eciones fequentes ; becaufe they are placed following
one another in the contiguous angles of two interfecting
right lines.

If the determinate diameter, H G, of one of the Sectiones
JSequentes (which is coincident with the fuppofed indeter-
minate diameter of its oppofite) be equal to the vertical
tangent K L, applied between the afymptotes in the point
G, of the diameter G F; then Apollonius calls fuch fec-
tions, conjugate fections. See Genefis of the Hyperbola, under
Contc Seéions.

Sections, Oppojite.

See OpposiTE.
I ,

SECTIONS,

SEC

Secrions, Similar. See Srnitan.

Srcrion of a Building denotes its profile, or a delinea-
tion of its heights and depths raifed on the plan; as if the
fabric was cut afunder, to difcover the infide.

Seovion, Horizontal. See lonwocnarny.

SECTIS won Faciendis, in Law, a writ myite. rn a
woman, who for her dower, Xe. ought not to perform uit

of court. —

SECTOR, in Afronomy, the name of two different aftro-
Aomical inftruments, for meafuring {mall angular diftances in
the heavenly regions ; one of which has a motion in or pa-
rallel to the equator, and the other is direéted to the zenith.
The conftruétion and ule of each of thefe inftruments may
be feen under the refpeive titles of Equaroniar Seéfor,
and Zenitu Seder.

Sreror, in C » a part of a circle comprehended
between the radii and the arc.

Thus the mixed triangle AC D (Plate XIIT. Geometry,

op Pog between the radii AC and CD, and
. AD, ita fefor of the circle.

is demontftrated by icians, that the feftor of a
as ACD, is to a tri gle whofe bafe is the

are AD, and its altitude the i
If from the common centre of two concentric circles be
drawn two radii to the periphery of the outer, the two arcs
the radii will have the fame ratio to their
; and the two feétors, the fame ratio to the areas

at}

To find the area of a feftor DCE; the radius of the
éircle CD, and the arc DE, being given. ‘To 100,314,
and the radius DC, find a fourth proportional number ;

will be the femiperiphery ; then to 180 degrees, the

are DE, and the femiperiphery juit found, find

fourth proportional ; this will give the are D E in

ere teeta ue eee C is given: laftly,

multiply arc into emiradius, and the ud
is the area of the feGor. es

_ __In order to the area of any fector of a circle, Dr.

_ Hatton, in his “ Menfuration,”’ has given the two fol-

‘

par ¥ i 2 bg radius by half the arc of the fe€tor,

and the produ@& be the area, as in the whole circle.

+ the di tration of this, fee the article Crrcre.

r = the radius of a circle, d= the diameter, A =

area of a feGtor of it, a = the length of the arc of the

= » b= the in $a, s=half the chord of the
arc a,

Fan“ have,

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SEC
feflor might be expreffed in feveral other wa

the tangent, cofine, &e. of its femi-are ;
above given are thofe that are the moft ufeful. :

Rule 11,—As 360 is to the degrees in the are of the feAtor,
fo is the whole area of the circle to the area of the feftor.

Srcron alfo denotes a mathematical inflrument, of grest
ufe in finding the proportion between quantities of the fame
kind ; as between lines and lines, furfaces and furfaces, &e. :
whence the French call it the ae of ion.

The great advantage of the fector sbove the common
feales, &c. is, that it is made fo as to fit all radiufes, and
all feales. By the lines of chords, fines, &c. on the feétor,
we have lines of chords, fines, &c, to any radius betwixt
the length and breadth of the fe¢tor when open.

The {eétor is founded on the fourth propofition of the
fixth hook of Euclid; where it is Senoedrared, that fimilar
triangles have their homologous fides proportional, An
idea of the theory of its conftru€tion may be conceived thus.
Let the lines AB, AC (Plate XII1. Geometry, fig. 6.)
- Se the legs of the feétor; and AD, A E, two equal

ions from the centre: if, now, the points C B and DE
be conneéted, the lines CB and DE will be parallel;
therefore the triangles ADE, ACB, will be fimilar;
aud, confequently, the fides AD, DE, AB, and BC,
proportional; that is, as AD : DE :: AB: BC;
whence, if A D be the half, third, or fourth part of A B,
DE will be a half, third, or fourth part of CB; and the
fame holds of all the rett.

If, therefore, AD be the chord, fine, or tangent, of
any number of degrees to the radius AB; DE wil be the
fame to the radius BC.

Sector, Defeription of the. The inftrament confifts of
two rulers, or legs, of brafs or ivory, or any other matter,
reprefenting the radii, moveable round an axis or joint, the
middle of which exprefles the centre ; whence feveral fcales

; fuch as by
ut the forme

_are drawn on the faces of the rulers. See Plate XIII. Geo-

metry, fz. 7- nT

he {cales generally put on fectors may be diftinguifhed
into fingle and double. The fingle feales are fuch as are
commonly put upon plain feales ; the double fcales are thofe
which proceed from the centre: each feale is laid twice on
the fame face of the inftrument, wiz. once on each leg: from
thefe {cales, dimenfiens or diftances are to be taken, when
the legs of the inftrument are in an angular pofition.

‘The fcales commonly put upon the beft feétors are

1 ( Inches, each inch divided into 8 and 10 parts-
2 Decimals, containing 100 parts.
3 Chords, ) Cho.
4 Sines, Sin.
Tangents, Tang.
i ; aa Sa icvg : Hin
S47! | Latitude, Lat.
& 8 (= } Hours, 3 Hou.
2 | 9} « | Longitude, % 3 Lon.
10 Inchin. Merid. E | In. Mer.
imi the Numbers, Num.
12 Loga- Sines, Sin.
13 rithms °) Verfed fines, V. Sin.
Li4 of Tangents, J UTan.
1) Lines, or of equal parts, Lin.
dy got, Chords, Cho.
= | 3] © | Sines, Z | Sin.
By 4) 2< Tangents to 45%, ~ + Tan.
a sit ts, z Sec.
6 Tangents to above 45°, Tan.
7) Polygons, J J Pol.

x3 The

SECTOR.

‘The manner in which thefe fcales are difpofed of on the
fe&tor, is beft feen in the figure.

The {cales of lines, chords, fines, tangents, rhumbs, la-
titudes, hours, longitude, incl. merid. may be ufed, whether
the inftrument is fhut or open, each of thefe f{cales being
contained on one of the legs only. The fcales of inches,
decimals, log. numbers, log. fines, log. verfed fines, and
log. tangents, are to be ufed with the fe¢tor quite opened,

art of each {cale lying on both legs.

The double feales of lines, chords, fines, and lower tan-
gents, or tangents under 45 degrees, are all of the fame
radius or length: they begin at the centre of the inftrument,
and are terminated near the other extremity of each leg;
viz. the lines at the divifion 1c, the chords at 60, the fines
at go, and the tangents at 45; the remainder of the tan-
gents, or thofe above 45 degrees, are on other fcales be-
ginning at one-fourth of the length of the former, counted
from the centre, where they are marked with 45, and run
to about 76 degrees.

The fecants alfo begin at the fame diftance from the
centre, where they are marked with 10, and are from
thence continued to as many degrees as the length of the
feétor will allow, which is about 75 degrees.

The angles made by the double {cales of lines, of chords,
of fines, and of tangents, to 45 degrees, are always equal.
And the angles made by the fcales of upper tangents, and
of fecants, are alfo equal; and fometimes thefe angles are
made equal to thofe made by the other double feales. The
{cales of polygons are put near the inner edge of the legs,
their beginning is not fo far removed from the centre, as the
60 on the chords is. Where thefe fcales begin, they are
marked with 4, and from thence are figured backwards, or
towards the centre, to 12.

From this difpofition of the double fcales, it is plain,
that thofe angles which were equal to each other, while
the legs of the fector were clofe, will {till continue to be
equal, although the fector be opened to any diftance it will
admit of.

The feale of inches is laid clofe to the edge of the fector,
and fometimes on the edge; and contains as many inches as
the inftrument will receive when opened: each inch being
ufually divided into eight, and alfo into ten equal parts.
The decimal fcale lies next to this: it is of the length of
the {e€tor, when opened, and is divided into ten equal parts,
or primary divifions, and each of thefe into ten other equal
parts; fo that the whole is divided into a hundred equal
parts: and if the fector admits of it, each of the fubdivifions
is divided into. two, four, or five parts; and by this decimal
{cale, all the other fcales, that are taken from tables, may
be laid down. The length of a feétor is ufually underftood
when it is fhut ; and, therefore, a fe€tor of fix inches makes
a ruler of twelve inches when opened; and a foot fector is
two feet long, when quite opened. The fcales of chords,
thumbs, fines, tangents, hours, latitudes, longitudes, and
inclinations of meridians, are fuch as are defcribed under
Plane Scar.

The fcale of logarithmic or artificial numbers, called
Gunter’s {cale, or Gunter’s line, is a fcale exprefling the
logarithms of common numbers, taken in their natural
order.

For the conftru@tion of this feale, and alfo of thofe of
logarithmic fines, logarithmic tangents, and logarithmic
verfed fines, fee Gunter’s Line, and GuNTER’S Scale.

We fhall here obferve, that all thefe feales fhould have
one common termination to one end of each feale, 2. e. the
10 on the numbers, the go on the fines, the o on the verfed
fines, and the 45 on the tangents, fhould be oppofite to

each other: the other end of each of the fcales of fines,
verfed fines, and tangents, will run out beyond the beginning
(marked 1) of the numbers ; nearly oppofite to which will
be the divifions reprefenting 35 minutes on the fines and
tangents, and 1684 degrees on the verfed fines.

The double feales are conftruéted in the following manner.
The line of lines is only a fcale of equal parts, whofe
length is adapted to that of the legs of the fector; thus,
in the fix-inch fe€tor, the length is about 53 inches.
The length of this feale is diyided into primary divifions ;
each of thefe into ten equal fecondary parts; and each
fecondary divifion into four equal parts. The accuracy of
the divifion may be determined by taking between the com-
pafles any number of equal parts from this line, and apply-
ing that diftance to all the parts of the line; and if the
fame number of divifions be contained between the points
of the compafles in every application, the fcale may be re-
ceived as perfeét. The line of fines is conftruéted by making
the whole length of this fcale equal to that of the line of
lines; and from this line, taking off feverally the parts
expreffed by the numbers in the tables of the natural fines,
correfponding to the degrees, or to the degrees and minutes,
intended to be laid upon the fcale ; and then by laying down
thefe feveral diftances on the fcale, beginning from the centre.
In feales of this length, it is cuftomary to lay down divifions,
exprefling every 15 minutes, from o degree to 60 degrees ;
between 60 and 80 degrees, every half degree is exprefled ;
then every degree to 85; and the next is yo degrees.
The length of the fcale of tangents is equal to that of the
line of lines, and the feveral divifions upon it (to 45 degrees)
are laid down from the tables and line of lines, in the fame
manner as the former ; obferving to ufe the natural tangents
in the tables. The fcale of upper tangents is laid down, by
taking 4 of fuch of the natural tabular tangents above 45
degrees, as are intended to be put upon the fcale. The
beginning of this fcale, at 45 degrees, though the pofition
of it on the feétor refpects the centre of the inftrument, is
diftant from the centre of the length or radius of the lower
tangents.

The diftance of the beginning of the {cale of fecants from
the centre, and the manner of laying it down, are the fame
as thofe of the upper tangents: except that in this the
tabular fecants are to be ufed.

For the feale of chords; its length is to be made equal
to that of the fines ; and the divifions, which are twice the

length of the fines of half the degrees and minutes counted

from the centre, exprefs every 15 minutes from o degrees
to 60 degrees, to be laid down as in the feale of fines.

’ The {cale of polygons ufually comprehends the fides of the
polygens from fix to twelve fides inclufive. The divifions
are laid down by taking the lengths of the chords of the
angles at the centre of each polygon, and laying them down
from the centre of the inftrument. When the polygons of
four and five fides are alfo introduced, this line is conftruéted
from a feale of chords, where the length of go degrees is
equal to that of 60 degrees of the double fcale of chords
on the fe&tor. Inftead of fome of the double feales above
defcribed, there are found other fcales on the old feétors,
and alfo on fome of the French ones, fuch as fcales of fuper-
ficies, of folids, of infcribed bodies, of metals, &c.; but
thefe are left out to make room for others of more general
ufe. See Carper.

In defcribing the ufe of the fe€tor, the terms Jateral
diflance, and tranfverfe diftance, often occur. By the for-
mer is meant the diftance taken with the compaffes on one
of the feales only, beginning at the centre of the fector ;
and by the latter, the diftance taken between any two cor-

refponding:

SECTOR.

safoceding dinificns of the feales of the fame name, the legs
of the being in an angular pofition: but in takin
thefe tranfverfe diltances, it is to be obferved, that each o
arallel lines, acrofe which the
divifions of the fcale are marked, and that the points of the
compatles mult be always fet on the infide line, or that line
next the inner of the leg, which is the only line, in
each feale, which runs to the centre.

For the ufe of the logarithmic feale of numbers, fee

ER's Line.

Sueron, Uf of the Line of Limes onthe. 1. To divide a
ren line into any number of equal parts; « g- 9. Make
length of the given line, or fome known part of it, a
werfe diftance to g and g: then will the tranfverfe
of 1 and 1 be the jth part of it; or fuch a fub.
of the yth part, as was taken of the given line:
will be the difference between the given line
verfe diftance of 8 and 8.

2. To make a {cale of a given length, to contain
of equal parts; ¢. g. let the feale to the map
6 inches long, and contain 140 poles, and let
to open the feétor, fo that a pereetpoosing
taken from the sit lines. » va ae tran{-
7 and 7 (or 70 and 70, wis. ‘3° to
=#)3 mee fae pofition of the line al bees wi

the {cale.

a i given line (c. g. 5 inches) into any
ion, as of 4 to f- ake 5 inches, the
ine, a tranfverle dittance to g and g, the
ed parts ; and the tran{verfe diftances of

b num 4nd 5, will be the parts oe
4 To two given lines, viz. 2 and 6, to find a third pro-
portional. Take between the compailes the lateral diftance
fecond term, viz. 6; fet one point on the divifion
SE Dae terms, we. 2 00. 08 » and open the
of the feétor till the other point will fall on the cor-
ing divifion on Sy tek the legs of
Aine eoion. take. the. iconte e diftance of
term, viz. 6, and this diftance is the third term
maeess which diitance, meafured laterally from the centre,
number required: for 2 : 6 :: 6: 18.
diftance 2 laterally, and apply it tranf-
the feétor being properly opened: then

Hit
Hid

if
Be

ie

2,
¥

; |

at

the tranfverfe diftance at 2 and 2, being taken with the
eeeeeete v0 coped lateral from the centre of the
ig ay Sagi ive the third term, when

the jon is decreafing ; for 6: 2::2:4. Ifthele
of the Leétor will not o fo far as to let i tt cee
the fecond term fall etsrecn the divifions exprefling the
term; then take 3, !, 4, or an aliquot part Gf the
within the openin
the ag fuch part the tranfverfe diftance o

5
Pas
a
4
E
£
4
id
g

denominator of the part taken

ut will give the third term.

i 3 7, and 10, to finda fourth
°

84
+
i
rr
3

L
7
ef7
ea
;

a

» be equal to the lateral
to fome part of it ; then
third term, 10, give the
fuch a fubmultiple of it, as
3 for 3: 7 3: 10: 23}.
3 diftance, 7, tranfverfely from
10 to 10, apapae ies Seder scorn ly ; and the tranfverfe

at 3 and 3, applied y, will give 2,5 fer

h a line of four inches, in the proportion of
10

ae
Hl
£4
44

¢
3
3

flat
;

3 Ire

the feGtor, till the tranf- lengt

8 to 7. Open the fettor till the {verle diftance of
8 and 8 be equal to the lateral diffance of 7: mark the
point, where four inches, asa lateral diltance, taken from the
centre, reaches; and the tranfverfe diftance taken at that
pest will be the line wired. If the line thould be too
ong for the legs of the f » take 4, 3. or 4» &c. part of
the given line B the lateral diftance, and the correfpouding
traniverfe diftance, taken twice, thrice, or four times, &c.
will be the line required,

. To open the fe€tor, fo that the two f{cales of lines thall
make a right angle. ‘T'ake the lateral diftance from the
centre to the divilion marked 5, between the points of the
compatfes, and fet one foot in the divifion marked 4, on
one of the feales of lines; and open the legs of the {efor
till the other foot falls on the divifion marked 3, on the
other feale of lines, and then will thofe feales fland at right
angles to one another ; for the lines 3, 4, 5, or any of their
multiples, conftitute a right-angled triangle.

8. To two right lines given, ¢.g. 40 oe to find a mean
proportional. Set the two {cales of lines at right angles; find
the half fum of the given lines, viz. 65, and the half dif-
ference, viz. 25, and take with the compailes the lateral
diftance of the half fum, 65, and apply one foot to the half
difference, 25, the other oe tran{verfely will reach to 60,
the mean proportional required ; for 40 : 60 :: 60 : go.

Sector, Ufe of the Scale of Chords on the. 1. To open
the fe@or fo that the two f{cales of chords may make an
angle of any number of degrees, ¢. g. 40. Take the diftance
from the joint to 40, the number of degrees propofed on
the fceale of aaah open the feéter till the tranfverfe
diftance from 60 to on each leg, be equal to the afore-
faid lateral diftance of 40: then do the {cales of chords
make the angle required.

z. The fector being opened, to find the degrees of its
aperture. Take the extent from 60 to 60, and lay it off
on the f{cale of chords from the centre : the number, where
it terminates, fhews the degrees of its opening. By apply-
ing fights on the fcales of chords, the feCtor may be ufed to
t i as a furveying inftrument.

3. To protraét er lay down an angle of any given number
of degrees. 1. Let the number of degrees be lefs than 60,
viz. 46. At any opening of the fector, take the tranfverfe
diftance of 60 and 60 on the chords ; and with this open-
ing deforibe an arc: take the tranfverfe diitance of the

iven number of degrees, 46, and lay this diltance on
the arc defcribed, marking its extremities: from the
centre of the arc, through thefe extremities, draw two
lines, and they will contain the angle required. 2. When
the degrees given are more than 60, wiz. 148; deferibe
a arc as before ; take the tran{verfe diftance of } or | of
t iven degrees, 148, ¢. g- + = 493 degrees: lay this
diftasce on i jem Se from - mates draw two
lines to the extremities of the arc thus determined, and they
will contain the required angle. N. B. If the radius of
the arc or circle is to be of a given length, then make the
tranfverfe diftance of 60 and 60, equal to that affigned

h.
4- Te find the degrees which a given angle contains.
About the vertex defcribe an arc, i open the feétor till
the diftance from 60 to 60, on each leg, be equal to the
radius of the circle ; then taking the chord of the arc be-
tween the compafles, and carrying it on the legs of the
feGtor, fee what equal number, on each leg, the points of
the compaffes fall on: this is the quantity of degrees the
given angle contains.

5. To take an arc, of any quantity, from off the cir-
cumference of a circle. Open the fi till the et

SECTOR.

from 60 to 60 be equal to the radius of the given circle;
then take the extent of the chord of the number of degrees,
on each leg of the feétor, and lay it off on the circumference
of the given circle. By this ufe, may any regular polygon
be infcribed in a given circle, as well as by the line of poly-
gons: e.g. ina circle whofe diameter is given to defcribe a
regular polygon of 24 fides. Make the given diameter a
tranfverfe diftance from 60 to 60 on the feales of chords;
divide 360 by 24, and take the tranfverfe diftance of 15 and
15, the quotient, and this will be the chord of the twenty-
fourth part of the circumference. In order to prevent errors,
where the diftance is to be repeated feveral times, it will be
beft to proceed thus: with the chord of 60 degrees divide
the circumference into fix equal parts ; in every divifion of 60
degrees lay down, firft, the chord of 15 degrecs, and next
the chord of 30 degrees, and then the chord of 45 degrees,
beginning always at the fame point. Thus the error in
taking diftances will not be multiplied into any of the divi-
fions following the firlt. |

Sector, Ufe of the Line of Polygons on the. 1. Ina given
circle to infcribe a regular polygon, e. g. an o€tagon. Open
the legs of the fe&tor, till the tranfverfe diftance of 6 and 6
be equal to the given diameter, then will the tranfverfe dif-
tance of 8 and 8 be the fide of an oétagon, which may be
infcribed in the given circle. In like manner may any other
polygon, the number of whofe fides does not exceed 12, be
infcribed in a given circle.

2. On a given line to defcribe a regular polygon, e. g. a
pentagon. Make the given line a tranfverfe diftance to 5
and 5: at that opening of the {eétor, take the tranfverfe
diftance of 6 and 6; and with this radius, on the extremi-
ties of the line, as centres, defcribe arcs interfe€ting each
other ; and on the point of interfeGtion, as a centre, with
the fame radius, defcribe a circumference paffing through
the extremities of the given line; and in this circle may the
pentagon, whofe fide is given, be infcribed. By a like pro-
cefs may any other polygon, of not more than 12 fides, be
defcribed on a given line.

3- On a right line, to defcribe an ifofceles triangle, hav-
ing the angles at the bafe double that at the vertex. Open
the feftor till the ends of the given line fall on 10 and ro on
each ley: then take the diitance from 6 to 6; this will be
the length of the two equal fides of the triangle.

Sector, Ufe of the Scales of Sines, Tangents, and Secants
on the. By the feveral lines difpofed on the fector, we have
fcales to feveral radiufes: fo that, 1, having a length, or
radius, given, not exceeding the length of the fector when
opened, we find the chord, fine, &c. thereto: e. g- fuppofe
the chord, fine, or tangent, of ro degrees to a radius of three
inches required. Make three inches the aperture, or tranf-
verfe diftance, between 60 and 60 on the feales of chords
of the two legs; then will the fame extent reach from 45
to 45 on the feale of tangents, and fron go to go on the
fcale of fines on the other fide: fo that to whatever radius
the line of chords is fet, to the fame are all the others fet.
In this difpofition, therefore, if the aperture, or tranfverfe
diftance, between 10 and ro, on the fcales of chords, be
taken with the compaffes, it will give the chord of 10 de-
grees; if the tranfverfe diftance of 10 and Io be in like
manner taken, on the feales of fines, it will be the fine of
io degrees: laitly, if the tranfverfe diftance of 10 and 10
be in hke manner taken on the fcales of tangents, it gives
the tangent of ro degrees to the fame radius.

2. If the chord, or tangent, of 70 degrees were required,
for the chord, the tranfverfe diftance of half the arc, viz.
35, mutt be taken, as before; which diftance, being re-
peated twice, gives the chord of 70 degrees. To find the

tangent of 70 degrees, to the fame radius, the f{cale of
upper tangents muft be ufed, the other only reaching to 45:
making, therefore, three inches the tranfverfe diftance between
45 and 45 at the beginning of that feale ; the extent between
7o and 70 degrees, on the fame, will be the tangent of 70
degrees to three inches radius.

3. To find the fecant of an arc, make the given radius
the tranfverfe diftance between o and o on the line of fe-
cants; then will the tranfverfe diftance of 10 and 10, or 7
and 70, on the faid lines, give the fecant of 1o degrees, or
70 degrees.

The fcales of upper tangents and fecants do not run
quite to 76 degrees ; but thofe of a greater number of de-
grees may be found by the feétor in the following manner.
Thus, the tangent of any number of degrees may be taken
from the feftor at once; if the radius of the circle can be
made a tranfverfe diltance to the complement of thofe de-
grees on the lower tangent. #.g. To find the tangent of 7$
degrees to a radius of twoinches. Make two inches a tranf-
verfe diftance of 12 degrees on the lower tangents ; then the
tran{verfe diftance of 45 degrees will be the tangent of 78 de-
grees. In like manner the fecant of any number of degrees
may be taken from the fines, if the radius of the circle can
be made a tranfverfe diftance to the cofine of thofe degrees.
Thus, making two inches a tranfverfe diflance to the fine of
12 degrees, then the tranfverfe diftance of go and go will be
the fecant of 78 degrees. Hence it will be eafy to find the
degrees anfwering to a given line, exprefling the length of
a tangent or fecant, which is too long to be meafured on
thofe feales, when the feétor is fet to the given radius.
Thus, for a tangent, make the given line a tranfverfe dif-
tance to 45 and 45 on the lower tangents; then take the
given radius, and apply it to the lower tangents: and the
degrees, where it becomes a tranfverfe diftance, give the co- -
tangent of the degrees anfwering to the given line. And for
a fecant, make the given line a tranfverfe diftance to go and
go on the fines: then the degrees anfwering to the given
radius, applied as a tranfverfe diftance on the fines, will
be the cofine of the degrees anfwering to the given fecant
line.

4. If the converfe of any of thefe things were required,
that is, if the radius be required, to which a given line is
the fine, tangent, or fecant ; it is but making the given line,
if a chord, the tranfverfe diftance on the line of chords,
between 10 and 10, and then the fector will i{tand at the
radius required ; that is, the aperture between 60 and 60, on
the faid line, is the radius.

If the given line were a fine, tangent, or fecant, it is but
making it the tranfverfe diftance of the given number of
degrees ; then will the diftance of go and go on the fines, of
45 and 45 on the lower tangents near the end of the fector,
and of 45 and 45 on the upper tangents towards the centre
of the fe€tor, and of o and on the fecants, be the radius.

5. If the radius, and any line reprefenting a fine, tangent,
or fecant, be given, the degrees correfponding to that line
may be found by fetting the fector to the given radius, ac-
cording as a fine, tangent, or fecant, 1s concerned ; taking
the given line between the compafles, applying the two feet
tran{verfely to the fcale concerned, and fliding the feet along
till they both reft on like divifions on both legs; and the
divifions will fhew the degrees and parts correfponding to
the given line. :

For the method of determining the degrees anfwering to
any tangent, or fecant, that cannot be thus meafured, fee
above.

6. To find the length of a verfed fine to a given number
of degrees, and a given radius. Make the tranfverfe dif-

tance

SECTOR.

tance of 90 and go in the fines equal to the given radius;
+ gh ofl a Ben Pra cene CE thee faa pes antag 6

, ity ing if the given de are lefs than go, the dif-

od if Crates teetot the fine pet se, and
radius gives the verfed fine.

| 7: Bo ope the legs of the {ector fo that the correfponding

lines, chords, fines, tangents, may make,
of them, a right angle, On the lines, make the lateral
10, a diftance between 8 on one leg, and 6 on the
; on the fines, make the lateral dittance go a tranf-
from 45 to 45, or from 40 to 50, or from 30
or from the fine of any degrees to their complement ;
the Gives, make the lateral diftance of 45 a tran{verfe

Boh Tiieend Sele. Tih of las”: ‘The ble aad
m > of lhe. 1. (]

of ari cm nn le being given, to find

uppole the bale AC (Plate Trigo-

a and the perpendicular A B 30;

till the two feales of lines make a right angle ;

the bale, t parts on the feale of lines on one

ates take go on the fame feale on

the extent from goon the one to 30 on

in the compafles, will be the length of the

hich line, apphed to the {cale of lines, will

perpendicular AB of a right.angled triangle

CA 37 degrees ;

BC. Take the see fide A B,

i on each fide, on the fine of the given angle

then the diftance of 90 and go or radius,

hypothenufe BC; which will meafure 50 on the

and bafe being given, to find the per-
feétor till the two fcales of lines be

take the hypothenufe in your com-
one foot in the term of the given bafe, let
{cale of lines on the other leg; the dif-
gentre to the point where the cempailes fall

3

ie iven, and the angle ACB;
. the piven hypothenufe a
to go on the
angle ACB

dicular A B giveh, to find the
bafe AC, on both fides the

berpendicu the fe€tor in the terms of
sed the parallel radius wi doce mB An,
_ 6. In any nght-lined tri , two ing given, wit
pire fad to find the third fide. Suppete the fide
20, the fide BC 30, and the included angle
open the feétor till the two {cales of lines
to the cg, salle 110 degrees ;
of the triangle, the centre of the
{cales of lines ; the extent between their

and to it

= Looe CAB; andth
9 fe an, 5 an en
f ACB aif be dee lnc of the
The three angles of a triangle being given ;.to find the
tion Take the aa fines of the

them in the feale of lines; the
give the proportion of the fides.

>

g The three fides being given, to find the angle AC B.
Lay the fides AC, CB, along the {cales of from
the centre, and fet over the fide A B im chew terms; fo is
the feétor opened, in thefe lines, to the quantity of the
angle AC B.

10, The hypotheaufe AC (fy. 7.) of a right-angled
{pherical triangle A BC, given, « g. 43 de » and the
angle CA B 20 degrees; to find the ide CB. The rule
is, as radius is to the fine of the given hypotheoule 43 de-
grees, fo isthe fine of the given angle 20 degrees to the fine
of the perpendicular CB. Take then 20 degrees from the
centre, along the {cale of fines, in your com and fet
the extent fram go to go on the two lees ; and the parallel
fine of 43 degrees, the given hypothenufe, will, when mea-
{ured from the centre on the feale of fines, give 13° 30’, the
fide required.

11. Whe perpendicular BC, and the hypothenufe AC,

iven, to find the bafe AB, As the fine complement of
the perpendicular BC is to radius, fo is the fine comple-
ment of the hypothenufe to the fine complement of the
peal: yar pe make the radius a parallel fine of the
com. nt of the given perpendicular, ¢. gr. 76° 30’; then
the parallel fine of the te of the Lc €. gf
47°, meafured along the feale of fines, will be found 49
25', the complement of the bafe required ; conbeaseataie
bafe itfelf will be 40° 35’.

Sgcror, in Geometry, &c. particular ufes of the. 1. To
make a regular polygon, whofe area fhall be of any gives
magnitude. Let the figure required be a pentagon, whofe
fuperficial area is 125 feet; extract the fquare root of ¢ of
125, it will be found 5. Make a fquare, whofe fide is
5 ; and, by the line of polygons, as already directed,
make the ifofceles triangle CG D (Plate X111. Geometry,
Jig. 8.) fo as that C G being the femi-diameter of a circle,
CD may be the fide of a regular pentagon infcribed in it ;
then let fall the perpendicular GE. Then continuing the
lines E G and EC, make E F equal to the fide of the fquare
before made; and from the point F, draw the night line
FH parallel to GC; then a mean proportional between
GE and EF will be equal to half the fide of the poly
pub, which, doubled, will give the seonshery. The

de of the pentagon thus had, the pen ni may be
defcribed, as ick dire&ted. — ‘

2. Acircle being given, to find a fquare equal to it.
Divide the diameter into fourteen equal parts, by the {cale
of lines, as above directed; then will 12.4 of thofe parts,
found by the fame line, be the fide of the {quare fought.

3. A fquare being given, to find the diameter of a circle
equaltoit. Divide the fide of the {quare into eleven equal
parts, by means of the fcale of lines; and continue that
wey 12.4 parts ; this will be the diameter of the circle re-

wired. >
" 4. To find the fide of a {quare equal to an ellipfis, whofe
tranfverfe and conjugate diameters are given. Find a mean
proportional between the tranfverfe and conjugate diameters;
which being divided into fourteen equal parts, 12,*) of it
will be the fide of the {quare required.

5- To deferibe an ellipfis in any given ratio of its dia-
meter, the area of which fhall be equal to a given {quare.
Suppofe the proportion of the tran{verfe and conjugate dia-
meters be required, as 2 to 1; divide the fide of the given
{quare into eleven equal parts; then, as 21s to 1, fo 1s 13
X 14 = 154 toa fourth number; the fquare root of which
is the conjugate diameter fought. ‘Then, as 1 is to 2, fo is
the conjugate diameter to the tranfverfe. Now,

6. "To defcribe an ellipfis, by having the tranfverfe and
Let the two diameters A B,

conjugate diameters given. a
,

SEC

CD, bifeé& each other at right angles in E (Plate XIIL.
Geometry, fig. 9.) Make A E a tranfverfe diameter to 90
and go on the fines; and take the tranf{verfe diftances of 10°,
20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, 80°, fucceffively, and apply
thofe diftances to A E from E towards A, as at the points
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; and through thofe points draw lines
parallel to EC; make EC a tranfverfe diftance to go and
go on the fines; take the tranfverfe diftances of 80°, 70°,
60°, 50°, 40°, 30°, 20°, 10°, fucceflively, and apply thofe
diftances to the parallel lines from i to 1, 2to 2, 3 to 3,
4to4, 5to 5, 6to 6, 7 to 7, 8 to 8, and fo many points
will be obtained, through which the curve of the ellipfis is to
pafs. The fame work being done in all the four quadrants,
the elliptical curve may be completed. In the conftruétion
of folar eclipfes, inftead of ufing the fines to every ten de-
grees, the fines belonging to the degrees and minutes cor-
re{ponding to the hours and quarter hours, are to be ufed.

7. To defcribe a parabola whofe parameter fhall be equal
to a given line. Draw a line to reprefent the axis, in which
make AB (fig. 10.) equal to half the given parameter ;
divide A B, like a line of fines, into every ten degrees, as at
the points ro, 20, 30, 40, 50, &c. and throuzh thefe points
draw lines at right angles to the axis A B. Make the lines
Aa, 105, 20¢, 30d, 40e, &c. refpectively equal to the
chords of go°, 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°, &c. to the radius A B,
and the points a, 4, c,d, e, &c. will bein the curve of a para-
bola; and a {mooth curve line drawn through thofe points,
and the vertex B, will reprefent the parabolic curve re-
quired. y

N. B. As the chords on the fe€tor run no farther than 60,
thofe of 70, 80, and go, may be found by taking the tranf-
verfe diftance of the fines of 35°, 40°, 45°, to the radius
AB, and applying thofe diftances twice along the lines 20 c,
106, &c.

8. To deferibe an hyperbola, the vertex A, and afymp-
totes BH, BI, being given (fg. 11.) The afymptotes
BH, BI, being drawn, the line BA bifeéting the angle
IBH, and the vertex A taken, draw AI, AC, parallel
to BH, BI. Make AC atranfverfe diftance to 45 and 45,
on the upper tangents, and apply to the afymptotes from B
fo many of the upper tangents taken tran{verfely as may be
thought convenient, as BD 50°, BE 55°, BF 60°, BG
65°, BH 70°, &c. and draw Dd, Ee, &c. parallel to
AC. Make AC a tranfverfe diftance to 45 and 45, on
the lower tangents; take the tranfverfe diftances of the co-
tangents before ufed, and lay them on thofe parallel lines :
thus, make Dd = 40°, Ee = 35°, Ff = 30°, Gg = 25°,
HA = 20°, &c. and through the points A, d,e, f, g, 4, &c.
draw a curve line, which will be the hyperbola required.

SEctor, in Surveying, Ufe of the. The bearings of
three places, as A, B,C (Plate VII. Surveying, fig. 1.)
to each other, 7. e. the angles ABC, BCA, and CAB,
being given; and the diftance of each, froma fourth ftand-
ing among them, as D, i.e. BD, DC, and A D, being
given ; to find the diftances of the feveral places A, B, C,
from each other, i. ¢. to find the lengths of the fides A B,
BC, AC. Having drawn the triangle EFG ( fg. 2.)
fimilar to A BC, divide the fide EG in H, fo that EH
may be to HG, as AD to DC, after the manner already
dire&ted ; and after the like manner muft EF be divided
in I,. fo that EI may be to IF as AD to DB. Then
continuing the fides EG, EF, fay, as EH — HG isto
HG, fois EH+HG toGK;; andas EI — IF is to
IF, fo let EI + IF be to FM; which proportions are
eafily wrought by the fcales of lines on the fe€tor. This
done, bife& H K and IM in the points L, N; and about
the faid points as centres, with the diftances LH and IN,

SEC

defcribe two circles, interfeCting each other in the point O ;
to which, from the angles E, F, G, draw the right lines
EO, FO, and OG, which will have the fame proportion
to each other, as the lines AD, BD, DC. Now, if the
lines EO, FO, and GO, be equal to the given lines
AD, BD, DC, the diftances EF, FG, and EG, will
be the diftances of the places required. But if EO, OF,
OG, be lefs than AD, DB, DC, continue them till
PO, OR, and OQ, be equal to them; then the points
P, Q, R, being joined, the diftances PR, RQ, and PQ,
will be the diftances of the places fought. Latftly, if the
lines EO, OF, OG, be greater than AD, DB, DC,
cut off from them lines equal to AD, BD, DC, and join
the points of feGtion by three right lines; the lengths of
the faid three right lines will be the diftances of the three
places fought.

Note, if EH be equal to HG, or EI to IF, the
centres L and N will be infinitely diftant from H and I;
that is, in the points H and I there muft be perpendiculars
raifed to the fides EF, EG, inftead of circles, till they in-
terfe&t each other; but if EH be lefs than H G, the centre
L will fall on the other fide of the bafe continued ; and the
fame is to be underftood of El, IF. :

The feétor is of efpecial ufe for facilitating the projeétion
of the fphere, both orthographic and ftereographic.

See on the conftru&ion and ufe of the feétor, Bion’s
Conftru@tion, &c. of Mathematical Inftruments, by Stone,
Pp: 54, &c. edit. 1. and Robertfon’s Treatife of Mathe-
matical Inftruments, &c. p. 30, &c. edit. 2.

Srcror of a Sphere, is compofed of a fegment lefs than
a hemifphere, and of a cone having the fame bafe with the
fegment, and its vertex in the centre of the fphere. The °
fector of a fphere, generated by the revolution of the feétor
of a circle CAE (Plate IIl. Geometry, jig. 12.) about ©
the radius A C, is equal to a cone, whofe bafe is equal to
the portion of the {pherical furface generated by the arc
AE, or to the circle deferibed with the radius A E, and
whofe height is equal to C A the radius of the {phere.
Arch. de Spher. et Cyl. Maclaurin’s Fluxions, Introd.
p: 15. See SPHERE.

SECUL, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Moldavia; 5 miles S.W. of Niemecz.

SECULAR, fomething that is temporal; in which fenfe
the word ftands oppofite to ecclefiaftical.

Thus we fay, fecular power, fecular arm, fecular jurif-
dition, &c.

SEcuLAR is more peculiarly ufed for a perfon who lives at
liberty in the world ; not fhut up in a monaftery, nor bound
by vows, nor fubje¢ted to the particular rules of any reli-
gious community.

In which fenfe the word ftands oppofed to regular.

The Romifh clergy is divided into regular and /écular.

The regulars pretend, that their ftate is much more perfe&
than that of the feculars. Secular priefts may hold abbeys
and priories both fimple and conventual, though not re-
gularly, but only i commendam.

It is a maxim, in their canon law, fecularia fecularibus, 2. es
fecular benefices are only to be given to fecular perfons; re-
gular only to regular.

SecuLar Corporation. See CORPORATION.

Secutar Games, Ludi Seculares, in Antiquity, were
folemn games held among the Romans, once in an age; ors
in a period deemed the extent of the longett lite of man, called
by the Greeks csv, and by the Lativs /ecu/um,

The fecular games were alfo called Terentine games, ludé
Terentini, either becaufe Manius Valerius Terentinus gave
occafion to their inftitution ; for having been warned in a

dream,

SEC

dream, to dig in the ground in =

Martius, called Trrentum, he there found an altar inferibed
go Dis, or Pluto and Proferpine ; u which, as had been

foretold him in his dream, three of his children, born blind,
~ obtained their fight ; and he, in gratitude, rformed facri-
fices on the fame altar, for three days and three nights fuc-
eeffively. Or, finally, by reafon here was an altar of Pluto
buried deep under ground, becaufe the water of the Tyber,
ee taco eat into the ground in this place.

near the Campus

fecular games lafted three days, and as many nights ;
which time facrifices were performed, theatrical fhows
J, with combats, {ports, &c. in the Circus.
heir origin and inftitution are delivered at length by
Val. Maximus; the occafion of which, according to this
iter, was to flop the 3 of a plague’ The firit
ho had them Pa Bowel at Rome, was Valerius Publicola,
the firft conful created after the expulfion of the kings, in
the year of Rome 245. The ceremonies to be obferved in
were found prefcribed in one of the books of the
in which was contained a prophecy to this effect ;
that if the Romans at the beginning of every age fhould
d fulemn games in the Campus Martius to the honowr of
10, Proferpine, J Apollo, Diana, Ceres, and the
their city fhould ever flourith, and all nations be

ed to their dominions. Accordingly, they were very
dy to obey the oracle, and in all the ceremonies ufed on
occafion conformed to its direati

direGtions.
pth Rage peau the fecular games, he-
to

; traordinary p'
under the direGtion of the quindecemviri; who diltribu
the nqehe wey and fulphur, and wheat and other
v2 ing. On the firft day after they had
offere above named deities at the Capitol,
they returned to the Campus Martius, where they had

at the hour appointed by the

matrons went to the Capitol to fing ~ id
the third day of the Fatt, twenty-feven
aor girls, fung in the temple of Palatine
verfes in Greek and Latin, to recom-

as to the number of years in
games returned ; partly becaufe the quality of
feculum, among the ancients, is not known; and
other accounts ; fome will have it, that they were
once every hundred ;
_‘wasourcentury. This Varro and Livy feem to exprefs in
very plain terms; yet others will have it, that feculum com-
prehended a hundred and ten years; and that the fecular

ee ets oe innin
mm 3 whic SiG coumamsted nu
e, in hi Poem, ver. 21.

it will, it is certain they fometimes did not ftay
even for the rooth year, for the cele-
The firft were held A. U.C. 245,
05, or 408; the third, A. 518;
5, or 608, or 628. Auguftus held
verge! oo Say Claudius again in the

and that the /eculum, or age, »

SEC

emperor Severus exhibited them the eighth time, that is, 2
hundred and ten years after thofe of Domitian. Zofimus
fays, thefe were the laft; but he is miflaken, for im the
year of Rome 1000, that is, fifty years after thofe of Se-
verus, the emperor Philip had them celebrated with greater
magnificence than had ever been known. ‘Thofe that were
celebrated by permiflion of the emperor Hosorius, after
having received the news of the vidtory of Stilicon over
Alaric, were the laft recorded in hiftory. Zofimus afcribes
the decline of the empire to the negleét of thefe games
among the Romans, We find them reprefented on many
medals.

Securan Poem. See SecuLane carmen.

Secuntarn Year, the fame with jubilee.

SECULARE Cagney, ppd pocm, a poem fung, or
rehearfed, at the fecular games, °

Of this kind we have a very fine piece among the works
of Horace ; it is a fapphic ode, which ufually comes at the
end of his epodes. In fome editions, the tweaty-firlt ode of
the firft book is alfo called “ Carmen Seculare.’’

SECULARIZATION, the ation of fecularizing, or
of converting a regular perfon, place, or benefice, into 4
fecular one.

Almoft all the cathedral churches were anciently regular,
i. e. the canons were to be religious, but they have be fince
fecularized.

For the fecularization of a regular church there is re-
quired the authority of the pope, that of the prince, the
bifhop of the place, the patron, and even the confent of
the people. And in France all this mult be confirmed by
parliament.

Religious that want to be releafed from their vows, obtain
briefs of fecularization from the pope.

SECULUM, in Antiquity. See Ace and Secutar

Games.
SECUNDA Agva, among Chemifs, &c. See Aqua
Sceunda.

SecunnaA fuper oneratione paflure. See SURCHARGE.

SECUNDANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
who inhabited the town of Araufio, Sid ie the interior
of the country.

SECUNDANS, in Mathematics, an infinite feries of
numbers, beginning from nothing, and proceeding as the
f{quares of numbers in arithmetical progreffion, as 0, 1, 4+

» 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, &e.
? SECUNDARAH, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in the fubah of Delhi; 28 miles S.E. of Delhi. N. lat.
28° 22!. E. long. 78°7'.

SECUNDARY, or Seconpary. See Seconpary.

SECUNDERPOUR, in Ge , a town of Hin-
dooiftan, in Benares, on the Dewars 35 miles E.N.E. of
Gazypour.—Alfo, atown of Hindooltan, in the circar of
Jyenagur; 15 miles S.E. of Parafaoli.

SECUNDI Gewnenis, in Anatomy, a diftin&tion among
the laGeal —_— A age are ents Thi of aay we
primary, or thofe of the firft kind, primi generis ; and /--
cundi generis, fecondary, or of the fected kins.

The firft carry the chyle from the inteflines into glands
difj in great numbers throughout the mefentery.
fecond carry it from thefe glands, after its being di-
luted there with lympha, into the common receptacle. See
EALS.

Lacr
Secunpt internodii pollicis extenfor. See ExtEexson.

SECUNDIANS, in Eccle Hiflory, 2 ie& of Va-
lentinians in the fecond century, whofe chick Secundus, one

of the p yah re followers of Valentine, maintained the doc-
trine of two eternal principles, vis. light and darknefs, a
Y whence

SEC

whence arofe the good and the evil that are obfervable in the
univerfe.

SECUNDINES, in Anatomy and Midwifery, the pla-
centa, umbilical cord, and membranes including the feetus,
which, being expelled from the uterus after the foetus, con-
ftitute the after-birth. They are defcribed under the article
Emsryo.

Dr. Grew, in his Anatomy of Plants, applies the term
fecundine to the fourth and laft coat or cover of feeds; be-
caufe this performs nearly the fame office in plants, that the
membranes, invefting the foetus, doin animals. And indeed
Pliny, Columella, Apuleius, &c. have ufed fecundine in the
fame fenfe.

SECUNDO. Propofitio de Secunvo adjacente. See PRro-
POSITION.

SECUNDRA, in Geography, a tewn of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sirhind; 90 miles E. of Sirhind.—Alfo, .a
town of Hindooftan, in Dooab; 15 miles W. of Canoge.

SECUNDUS, Jouanngs, in Biography, is the literary
name of Jchn Everard, a celebrated Latin poet, the fon of
Nicholas Everard, an eminent jurilt, and prefident of the
council of Mecklin under Charles V. He was born at the
Hague in 1511, and at an early age ftudied the law at
Bourges. He, however, fhewed a decided attachment to
polite literature in preference to jurifprudence, and con-
tracted intimacies with fome of the moft diftinguifhed Latin
poets of his time. He travelled into Italy and Spain, and
was made fecretary to cardinal Tavera, archbifhop of To-
ledo. He followed Charles V. in his expedition againft
Tunis, but the delicacy of his con{titution not permitting
him to undergo the fatigues of war, he returned to the Low
Countries, where he died at the early age of twenty-five.
Few modern Latin poets have poffeffed more facility and
{weetnefs than Secundus. A volume of his elegies, epi-
grams, odes, and mifcellaneous pieces, together with a narra-
tive in profe of his different journies, was publifhed. Of all
his poetical works, the «* Bafia’’ have been the moft-popular,
on account of their di€tion, and the delicate voluptuoufnefs
of their painting. They are {till read, and new editions are
frequently printed. Johannes had two brothers, who were
alfo elegant Latin poets, knows by the names of Nicolas
Grudius, and Adrian Marius. They have united in an
affeCtionate commemoration of their deceafed brother, an-
nexed to his poems. Secundus himfelf practifed the art of
engraving, and to his volume is prefixed a portrait of a fe-
male, with the following infcription : Vatis amatoris Julia
{culpta manu.”

SEcuNDus, in Botany, a term not very eafy, in the techni-
cal fenfe of Linnzus, to tranflate. One-ranked may gene-
rally exprefs its meaning. This term is applied to a racemus,
or clufter, whofe flowers are all turned to one fide, as in
Pyrola fecunda, Engl. Bot. t. 517.

SecunDus Mallet, in Anatomy, a name given by Duver-
ney, and fome others, to one of the mufcles of the ear.
It is the internus auris of Cowper and others, and is moft
properly named by Albinus tenfor tympani.

Secunpus Oculum Movens, a name given by Vefalius to
that mufcle of the eye, called by Riolanus and others fu-
perbus, and elevator oculi, and by Albinus the fubductor,
one of his four mufculi reéti of the eye.

Secunpus Peroneus. See PERON#EUS.

Srcunpus Scalenus. See ScALENus.

SECURIDACA, in Botany, fo named by Jacquin from
the fhape of the pod, which greatly refembles a bill-hook,
or hatchet, Securis:—Jacq. Amer. 197. Brown. Jam. 287.
Linn. Gen. 365. Schreb. 482. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 898.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 247. Jufl. 366. Lamarck Did,

SEC

Illuftr. t. 599, and t. 629.—Clafs and order,

Ve Jo 51s
Nat. Ord. Papilionacee, Linn. Le-

Diadelphia Ofandria.
guminofe, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fmall, deciduous, of
three, ovate, coloured leaves, the uppermoft of which is
oppofite to the ftandard, the others accompany the keel.
Cor. papilionaceous, of five petals ; wings much f{preading,
very obtufe; ftandard of two leaves, oblong, ftraight,
united to the keel at the bafe, reflexed at the tip; keel as
long as the wings, nearly cylindrical, its border dilated,
bearing a little, obtufe, plaited appendage. Stam. Fila-
ments eight, combined at the bottom ; anthers oblong, erect.
Pift. Germen fuperior, ovate, terminating in an awl-fhaped
ftyle ; ftigma flat, dilated, toothed at the tip. Peric. Le-
gume ovate, of one cell, ending in a ligulate wing. Seed
folitary, oblong.

Obf. In habit this genus is very nearly allied to Polpgala,
but it. is polypetalous, and the fruit has only a fingle cell,
refembling the capfules of Banifleria. ;

Eff. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Corolla papilionaceous :
the ftandard of two leaves within the wings. Legume ovate,
of one cell and one feed, ending in a tongue-fhaped wing.

1. S. ereda. Upright Shrubby Securidaca. Linn, Sp.
Pl. 992. Willd. n. 1. Swartz Obf. 274. Jacq. Amer.
t. 183. f. 39.—Stem ere&t. Leaves oblong.—Native of
{tony places in Martinico and St, Domingo, flowering in
April.—An upright ¢ree, rifing to the height of twelve feet,
furnifhed with afew, long, flender, ere&t branches. Leaves
oblong. lowers inlong, purple clutters.

2. S. volubilis. Climbing Securidaca. Willd. n. 2.
(S. feandens; Jacq. Amer. t. 183. f. 83. Spartium fcan-
dens, fruétu criftato et alato, flore rubro ; Plum. Ic. t. 247.
f. 1.) —Stem twining. Leaves oblong, acute.—Native of
South America, and the Weft Indies.
by Browne, and at Carthagena by Jacquin.—A twining
Sorub, whole younger, leafy branches are changed into very
{trong tendrils. Leaves alternate, oblong, pointed, fcarcely
ftalked. FYowers in loofe, lateral clufters, red, {centlefs.

3. S. virgata. Wand-like Securidaca. Willd. n. 3,
Swartz Prodr. 104. (Spartium alterum feandens, fru&tu
alato, flore variegato; Plum. Ic. t. 144. f. 1.)—Stem
twining. Leaves roundifh, very obtufe.—Native of Ja-
maica and Hifpaniola. Swartz is of opinion, that Browne’s
firft {pecies in his Hiftory of Jamaica, mutt be this, and
not J. ere@a, as Linneus fuppofed. We know of no fur-
ther defcription of this {pecies than what is quoted above.

For Securidaca of Tournefort, Miller, and Gartner, fee
CoRoNILLA.

SECURINEGA, fo denominated by Commerfon, from
Jecuris, a hatchet, and nego, to deny, or refufe to yield; in
allufion to the extreme hardnefs of the wood, called Bois dur
by the French, in the Ifle de Bourbon. Some alfo call it,
according to Commerfon’s, manufcripts, Bois de Téxe, and
others Quin-quin. The Englith, who met with this tree in
Otaheite, named it, from the appearance of the leaves, Ota-
heite Myrtle.—Juffl. 388. Willd. Sp. Pl.v. 4.761. Poiret
in Lamarck Dict. v. 7. 631. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 383.
—Clafs and order, Divecia Pentandria; (or rather Mfona-
delphia.) Nat. Ord. Euphorbia, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, in five deep
fegments. Cor. Petaisnone. Nettary an annular notched
gland, furrounding the bafe of the flamens. Stam. Fila-
ments five, awl fhaped, fhort, combined at the. bafe ; anthers
oval, lobed, obtufe. Pi/f. imperfe&.

Female, ona different tree, Cu/. Perianth as in the male,
inferior, permanent. Cor. Neary as in the male, perma-
nent.

ftyles

Found in Jamaica‘

Pi. Germen fuperior, nearly globular, three-fided s.

SEC

ftyles three, fhort anent; fligmas obtule, Peric.
Ca file threndobed, Drescdied: Sveds folitary ?
fi, Ch, Male, Calyx in five deep fegments, Petals

none. Nettary a glandular ring on the outfide of the

flamens.
; Female, Calyx and neétary as in the male, permanent.
Capfule fuperior, three-lobed, three-celled,

- 4. &. nitida. Otaheite Myrtle, Willd. no. “ Perf.
vy. 2. 617." Aiton. 1. (S, duriflima; Gmel. Sytt.
¥. 2.1008. Poirectin Lam. Di. v, 7. 632.)—Native

‘of the ifles of Mauritius and Bourbon, as well as of Ota-
heite, where it was obferved by the late Mr. Chriftopher
ith. Living plants were brought to Kew by admiral
in 1793. This is treated as a flove plant, flowerin
ummer. In the Mauritius it is a tall tree, with
, round, minutely warty branches, and very hard
yew wood. Jerws alternate, flalked, ovate, various
fize ~ Beane from one to three inches long, and
about one d, entire, fmooth, with one rib, and many
: joterbranching veins. Flowers numerous, in denfe,
_ feffile, globular, axillary tufts. Commerfon defcribes fix
: A we find only five, according to the general ob-
ion of the authors above quoted,
SECURIS, Jonny, in Bi by, an Englith ere
of confiderable character in his day, was born in Wilthhire,
and ftudied with great oe in New college, Oxford,
in the reign of Edward VI. From thence he went to Paris,

where he diligently purfued the ftudy of aftronomy and me-
dicine, abate wader the celebrated profeffor Silvius. On

_ his return, he fettled at Salifbury, and was much reforted
toon account of his fkill in the pra@tice of phyfic. He
o publifhed annual traéts, which he called “ Prognolticons ;””
d and which appear to have been a kind of almanacs, accom-
nied with altronomical preditions and medical precepts.

. Wood had feen two of them, for the years 1579
and 1580. To the latter was added, “« A Compendium, or
brief Initrustions how to keep a moderate Diet.” Securis
was likewife the author of “ A Detection and Querimony
of the daily Enormities and Abufes committed in Phyfic,
concerning the Three Parts thereof.” Lond. 1566. This
isa little treatife, written with learning and plaufibility, on
the often complaint of the intrufion of i larly
educated perfons tuto the practice of phyfic, and the pre-
fumption of furgeons and apothecaries in taking upon them
9 act the phyfician. A Soar veils, sated 63 the
‘two univerfities, is fubjomed. This work was thought to

The

’s Days.” In this traét
ere is areference to one which Securis had publifhed about
year 1554, with this odd title ; « A great Galley latel

1
ay out of Terra Nova, laden with Phyfi-
Pothecaries.

ies.”” See Aikin’s Biograph.

Med.
RITATE Pacis, in Law, a writ which lies for
: vho is threatened with death or danger, againft the per-
fon who fo threatens him. _ It is taken out of chancery, di-
reCted to the fheriff. See Peace and Surery.

to ftay them from going
parts; the ground whereo
od tee ee

om See Si t fuerit.

a; 0 thall think
_SECURUM, Si te fuerit.

SED

SECUTOR, among the Romans, mofl commonly figni-
fied an attendant upon great men,

SECUTORES, in Antiquity, a kind of glad ators
among the Romans, who fought againfl the retiarii.

The word is formed from the verb Jiqai, to follow ; be-
caufe the fecutores ufed to purfue the retiarii, whea they
failed to caft the net, and fled to put in order.

The fecutores were armed with a (word and a buckler, to
keep off the net, or noofe, of their antayonifts ; and they
wore a calk on their head, Some confounded the fecu-
tores with myrmillones, becaufe both had nearly the fame
weapons,

Securores was alfo the name given to fuch gladiators as
took the place of thofe killed in the combat; or who
fought the conqueror. The poll was ufually taken by lot.
In ancient inferiptions we alfo meet with /eeutor tribuni, fe-
eutor ducis, fecutor Cafaris, &c. who were officers attending
the tribunes and generals; perhaps like our aids-de-camp.

SECZENIAGA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Dobruz Tartary, on the Danube ; 20 miles N.
of Kirfova.

SEDA, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo; 6 miles W.
of Alter do Chao.

SEDAB, in Botany, a name given by the Arabian phy-
ficians to the wild, or mountain rue, a plant comer
Syria, Greece, and other places. Avicenna fuppofes the

m, which he calls gen‘um, or jentum, to be produced from
this plant, but very erroneoufly, that gum being obtained
from the roots of the thapfia, or deadly carrot.

SEDAINE, Micuer Jean, in Biography, a French
dramatic writer, was born at Paris in 1719. is father, an
architeé&t, having left his family entirely deflitute, the fub-
je& of this siecle was obliged to work as a common mafon,
to maintain his mother and two younger brothers. By his
laudable induftry he became a mafter mafon, but his fond-
nefs for the theatre having led him to make fome attempts at
dramatic compolition, which were attended with a confi-
derable portion of fuccefs, he was, in 1754, engaged by
Monet, direGtor of the comic-opera, to devote himfelf to
the fervice of the ftage. His talents were fo well exerted,
that he brought full audiences to that theatre, which had,
before his time, been nearly deferted, and he pafled many
years in this employment, generally beloved and efteemed by
the ger) an geen of the time. He died in the year
1797, in the 78th year of his 7 Sedaine was the author
of a great number of pieces, chiefly of the light kind, and
accompanied by mufic. Some of them were eminently fuc-
cefsful : the ** Le Deferteur” was reprefented one hundred
times. He had a perfeét knowledge of ftage effet: his
dialogue was eafy and natural, though extremely incorrect ;
hence his works were more adapted to the ftage than to the

clofet.

SEDAKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon; 40 miles N.W. of Nambu.

SEDAN, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri&, in the department of the Ardennes, fituated on the
Meufe ; ftrongly fortified, and reckoned one of the keys of
France. It is divided into the north and fouth parts: the
former contains 5984, and its canton 11,471 inhabitants, in
ba Laer ser e latter has 4560, and its canton Irae
i itants, in 22 communes. Both comprehend 320 kili
metres, This town has a manufaGture of cloth : and before
the revocation of the edict of Nantes, it had a flourifhing
Proteftant univerfity ; 134 pofts S.S.W. of Liege. N. lat.
49° 42'. E. long. 5° o!.

Sepan Chair. See Cuarr.

Y:3 SEDANG,

SED

SEDANG, in Geography, a town on the N.W. coalt of
theifland of Borneo. N. lat. 2° 15!. E. long. 110° 48!.

SEDAREE, a town of Perfian Armenia; 30 miles
S.E. of Erivan. :

SEDASHYGUR, a town of Hindoottan, in Canara,
on the coait; 6 miles N.W. of Carwar.

SEDASIER, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Coorga, where a battle was fought in 1799, between the
troops of Tippoo Sultan, and the Britifh under general
Stuart, in which the former were defeated ; 7 miles from
Periapatam.

SEDATIVE, in Medicine, from fedare, to fill, or allay,
a term which was ufed by the older writers, nearly in the
fame acceptation with anodyne ; namely, to denote fuch me-
dicines as were calculated to afluage pain. But among the
moderns it has been employed in another fenfe, and {tands in
eppolition to /imulant. In the modern pathology, all the
actions of the animal frame are afcribed to the agency of the
nervous power ; and whatever increafes or excites that power,
or its a€tions, is thence called a fimu/ant ; and thofe agents,
on the contrary, which diminifh or reftrain that power, or its
ations, are therefore denominated /edatives. Of the former
clafs, wine, alcohol, camphor, ether, aromatic fubftances,
&c. may be enumerated as examples ; of the latter, tobacco,
digitalis, fugar of lead, opium, &c. In the fchool of
Brown, however, where the word ftimulant is in conftant
ufe, the exiftence of a direét fedativé is abfolutely denied ;
for the Brunonian hypothefis maintains, “that life is the re-
fult of the aGion of ftimulants on the principle of excita-
bility, and, confequently, that every thing which aéts muft
be ftimulant.”? (See Excrrapizity.) It farther maintains,
that a fedative ation is not real, but apparent ; or rather,
is not dire€t, but indire&t ; that is, it is the refult of the
previous ftimulation ; and therefore, that an actual fedative
18 anon-entity. But this argument, like many others of the
Brunonian {chool, is an obvious petitio principii in logic: it is
founded upon two unproved propofitions ; firft, that life is
folely the refult of excitement ; and, fecondly, that a pre-
vious excitement occurs, where it is not cognizable, as in
the cafe of digitalis, andthe fuperacetate of lead, and fome
other narcotics, which appear to influence dire@ly the action
of the heart and arteries, and to deprefs the whole nervous
power. The ufe of /edatives for medicinal purpofes, is prin-
cipally confined to the regulation of the arterial fyftem, as
in cafes of hemorrhage, efpecially from the lungs, in dif-
eafes of the heart, &c.

SEDATIVUM Sat. See Sedative SALT.

SEDAU, in Geography. See Szypa.

SEDBERGH, a market-town in the weft divifion
of the wapentake of Staincliffe and Ewcrofs, Weft
Riding and county of York, England, is fituated in
the parifh of Sedbergh, at the diftance of 27 miles N.W.
by N. from Settle, and 27 miles N.W. by N. from London.
This place, which, according to the late population re-
turns, contained 344 houfes and 1805 inhabitants, is chiefly
indebted for its fupport to the manufa@ture of iron articles.
The market is held on Wednefday, weekly; and there
are fairs annually on the zoth of March, and the zgth of
O@Gober. Here is a free fchool, but neither it nor the
church is in any way remarkable. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, 8vo. 1813.

SEDE, a lake of Egypt, feparated from the Mediter-
ranean by a neck of land, which extends from Aboukir to
within a mile or two of Alexandria. It communicates with
the fea by a narrow opening, and wefterly the Britifh army
opened a channel to form a communication with lake

SED

Mareotis: it is alfo called the “lake of Aboukir.”—Alfo,
pee of Egypt, producing natron; 55 miles N.W. of
airo.

SEDEANA, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 10 miles
W.S.W. of Udina.

SEDEFE’, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile; 7 miles S. of Abutigé.

SE DEFENDENDO, in Law, a plea for him who
is charged with the death of another; alleging, that he
was forced to do what he did in his own defence, the
other fo aflaulting him, that had he not done as he did, he
mutt have been in danger of his own life. See Srrr-defence,
Homicipr, and MANSLAUGHTER.

SEDELLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Grenada; 12 miles N. of Velez Malaga.

SEDEM Avrroriens, in Anatomy, a name given by
Vefalius and others to the mufcle, now more generally
known by the name of levator ani.

SEDENTARIUM Os, a name given by fome ana-
tomical writers to the protuberance of the os coxendicis,
on which the whole’weight of the body retts in fitting.

SEDER OLAM, in Philology, a Hebrew term, literally
fignifying, order of the world; being the title of two chro-
nicles in that language.

They are both very fhort, though the one more fo than
the other; for which reafon the one is called /eder olam
rabba, that 1s, the great feder clam; and the other, /eder
olam zuta, 1. e. little feder olam.

SepeR Oxam, the Great, commences at the creation of
the world, and comes down as low as the war of the
pfeudo-mefliah Barchochebas, under Adrian, fifty-two years
after the deftru€tion of the temple of Jerufalem; and of
confequence to the hundred and twenty-fecond year of
Chrift. It is almoft all taken from the Scripture, except-
ing the end. Itisthe work of R. Jofa, fon of Hhelpeta
of Tfippora, who lived in the fecond century, about the
year 130, and was matter of the famous R. Juda Hakka-
dofch, the compiler of the Mifchna.

SEpER OLAm, the Lefer, 1s an abridgment of the former,
brought down as far as Mar Sutra, who lived 450 years
after the deftrution of the temple, or 522 years after Chrift.
F. Morin, continually bent upon diminifhing the antiquity
of the principal books of the Jews, endeavours to prove
this to have been written about the year of Chrift 1124,
as indeed it 1s expreffed in the beginning; but R. Dav.
Gantz has overthrown this opinion in his Tfemahh David,
and fhewn that the date in the beginning is au interpo~
lation.

Thefe two chronicles were firft printed at Mantua in
1514, 4to.; again at Bafil, by Frobenius, in 1580, 8vo.;
at Venice, in 1545, 4to.; and at Paris, with a Latin ver-
fion of Genebrard, in 12mo. ‘They have been fince re-
printed at Amfterdam, in 1711.

SEDERON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Dréme, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri&t of Nyons. The place contains 614, and the
canton 7334 inhabitants, on a territory of 375 kiliometres,
in 18 communes.

SEDFE!, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ;, 3 miles S. of Bata. ;

SEDGE Grasses, in Agriculture, a title given to vari-
ous forts of grafles of the poor hard carnation kind, which
are very hardy in their nature, and prevail much in moft
crude heavy land. They are f{carcely ever touched by live-
{tock, being what may be called the fag end of herbage.
See Carex and WEEDs. a

Q SEDGE-

SED

SEDGEFIELD, in Geography, a market-town in the
north-eait divifion of Stockton ward, county palatine of Dur-
ham, England, is fituated at the diftance a 11 miles S.E.
by E. from Durham, and ag5 N. by W. from London, ‘The
2 jon of this town is one of the fineft that can be ima-
gined, being that of the fummit of a gentle {well, fur-
rounded on all fides by a country in the higheft tlate of
cultivation, On the fouth and fouth-caft is a delightful
of Cleveland, Rofeberry-Topping, and a long
of lofty hills, with the borders of the river Tees,
to the German ocean; on the fouth-weit is a beauti-
“ful country decked with a variety of fine feats; and on
the north and vorth-eaft appear the towns of Bithop Mid-
, and Fithburn a. Trimdon. The celebrated Dr.
called Sedgefield the Afeatpeliocial the north of
England, and very frequently recommended his patients to
it! the benefit of the air. In the centre of the town is a
lpacious market ornamented with a handiome crofs.
‘On one fide of it ftands the church, which confifts of a
tranfept, chancel, and three aifles, with a lofty tower
from the interfeétion of the nave and tranfept. The
of the interior are cluttered, and fupport light
darches. Between the nave and the chancel is a mch
tabernacle work in oak, having three {talls on each
divided by beautiful light columns, and covered with
canopies. The whole chancel is wainfcotted with oak,
ornamented with cherubs. In this church
two chantries, one dedicated to St. Ca-
her to St. Thomas ; alfo a guild, de-
Mary. Here are numerous monuments ;
others two curious brafles, reprefenting fkeleton
winding fheets.
became a market and fair-town in 1312, by
bithop Kellawe. The market-day is Friday,
3 and the fair is held on the eve of St. Edmund.
is an hofpital, founded by the trultees of Thomas
of this place, who died in 1703; alfo a
fituated near the church. Accordin
parliamentary returns of 1811, this town contai
a population of 1307 inhabitants. The
iquities of the County Palatine of Durham,
infon, F.A.S. vol. iii. gto. 1794.
VER, a river of Patagonia, which runs
. Its water is excellent,
are very fine trees, which co
fupply the Britith navy with the beit
world : fome of them being of a yreat height,
re than eight feet in diameter. Among thefe woods
birds of molt beautiful plumage.

Ss
“poi

Loope!

SMOOR, a large tra& of Englith land, in the
of Somerfet, memorable for the defeat of the duke
outh in the year 1685 ; fituated between Somerton

IDGWARA, a town of Hindooltan, in Guzerat ;
20 mi s E. of Surat.

BEDGWICK, 's town of America, in tho ftate of
county of Hancock, on Nafkeag Point, whi
bound Penob(cot on the N.E., extending to the town of

' cot, and diftant 315 miles E. from Bolton. It con-

135
__ SEDHOUT, a of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cuddapa; 6 miles of Cuddapa.

3
Mire

SED

SEDILO, a town of the ifland of Sardinia; 30 miles
N.E. of Orittagni.

SEDIMENT, formed from the Latin /edimentum, which
Matthias Sylvaticus derives a diutruna » the fettlement
or dregs of any thing; or that grofs, heavy part of a
a which, upon refifting, finks to the bottom of the
vellel,

Some phyficians have found means to difeover much of
the nature of the difeafe, from the fediment of the urine.
Dr. Woodward maintains, that, at the deluge, the whole
terreftrial globe was diflolved into one uniform mafs; and
that the new world, arifing thence, was perfectly {pherical,
and without any inequalities, confilling of feveral itrata,
which the earthy fediment gradually produced, as it
drained.

SEDINA, inthe Materia Medica, a word ufed by fome
writers to exprefs dragon's blood.

SEDINI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sar-
dinia; 10 miles S.E. of Caitel Aragonefe,

SEDITION, among Civilians, is uled for an irregular
commotion of the min or an aflembly of a number of
citizens without lawful authority, teading to difturb the
peace and order of fociety. See Reservion.

This offence is of different kinds: fome {editions more
immediately threatening the fupreme power, and the fub-
verfion of the prefent conflitution of the ftate; others
tending only towards the redrefs of private grievances.
Among the Romans, therefore, it was varioufly punithed,
according as its end and tendency threatened greater mif-
chief. (See lib. i, Cod. de Seditiofis, and Matth. de
Crimin. lib. ii. n. 5. de Lefa Majeftate.) In the punith-
ment, the authors and ringleaders were juftly diltinguithed
from thofe, who, with lefs wicked intention, joined and
made part of the multitude.

The fame diftinétion holds in the law of England, and
in that of Scotland. Some kinds of fedition in England
amount to high treafon, and come within the ftat. 25 Ed-
ward [TI. Sih oi war againft the king. And feveral
{editions are mentioned in the’ Scottifh a¢ts of parliament
astreafonable. (Bayne’s Crim. Law of Scotland, p. 33, 34-)
The law of Scotland makes riotous and tumultuous af-
femblies a fpecies of fedition. But the law there, as well
as in England, is now chiefly regulated by the riot a
made 1 Geo. I.; only it is to be obferved, that the proper
officers in Scotland to make the proclamation thereby enaéted,
are heriffs, flewards, and bailies of regalities, or their de-

uties; magiftrates of royal boroughs, and all other in-
ocr judges and magiftrates; high and petty conttables,
or other officers of the peace, in any county, ftewartry,
city, or town. And in that part of the ifland the a ti
ment of the offence is death, and confifcation of moveables :
in England it is felony. See Riot.

SEDLEY, Sir Cuanves, in Biography, a dramatic
writer, born in 1639, was fon of fir John Sedley of Aylef-
ford, in Kent. He was educated at Wadham college,
Oxford, and after leaving the univerfity, he paffed his time
in retirement till the reftoration. On that event he came
to court, and was one of the licentious circle round

» on account of which he was fined soo/.

Charles’s fortune being impaired by this courfe of life, he

into the houfe of commons, and he {at in three par-

ents during that reign, in which he was frequently

{peaker. In following reign he took a patriotic part,

which would have been highly to his credit, if private fo
2

SED

had not been the principal motive of his condu&. It ap-
pears, notwithitanding the laxity of his own morals, that
he was much offended with James II. for taking his
daughter for a miftrefs, in which quality fhe was raifed to
the title of countefs of Dorchetter, an elevation that, as
her father indignantly faid, only rendered her infamy the
more confpicuous. Sir Charles joined the earl of Dorfet
in a fteady oppofition to the defign of keeping up a ttand-
ing army after Monmouth’s rebellion, and he concurred in
all the meafures which produced the revolution. For the
latter he gave the humourous reaton, that as the king had
made his daughter a countefs, he would in return do all in
his power to make his majefty’s daughter a queen.

Sedley long continued to be regarded as a fine gentle-
man, a lively companion, and a judge and patron of poetry,
in which laft capacity he was inftrumental in bringing
Charles Montague, afterwards earl of Halifax, into notice.
He is fuppofed to have lived to beyond his eightieth year.
His works, in two vols. Svo., confift of poems, {peeches in
parliament, and a number of dramatic pieces, none of which
are retained on the ftage. Biog. Brit.

SEDLEZANY, in Geography. See SELTSCHAN.

SEDLITZ, or Great SEpiirz, a town of Saxony,
in the margraviate of Meiflen; 2 miles S.W. of Pirna.—
Alfo, a village of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz, where
Hoffmann, in the year 1724, difcovered a medicinal {pring,
from which is prepared a purgative falt, near Moft.

SEDMA, a word ufed by fome as a name for the /apis
hamatites.

SEDNEVO, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of 'I'chernigov; 24 miles N.E. of Tchernigov.

SEDORP, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 8 miles
N.E. of Segeborg.

SEDOSA, a town of the ifland of Corfica; 12 miles
N.W. of Corte.

SEDOSCHEROI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Pontus, in the vicinity of the river Cohibus, according to
Tacitus.

SEDR, or Sepre, the high prieft of the fect of Ali,
among the Perfians.

The fedr is appointed by the emperor of Perlia, who
ufually confers the dignity on his neareft relation.

The jurifdiGion of the fedr extends over all effects de-
{tined for pious purpofes, over all mofques, hofpitals, col-
leges, fepulchres, and monafteries. He difpofes of all eccle-
fiaftical employments, and nominates all the fuperiors of
religious houfes. His decifions, in matters of religion, are
received as fo many infallible oracles; he judges of all
criminal matters, in his own houfe, without appeal ; and is,
without contradiction, the fecond perfon in the empire.

The fedr, however, has not any indelible charaéter, but
frequently quits his poft for another purely fecular one.
His authority is balanced by that of the mudfitchid, or
firft theologue of the empire.

SEDRE Passace, in Geography, a narrow channel of
the Eaft Indian fea, on the N. coaft of Sumatra, between
Pulo Nancy and King’s Point.

SEDULIUS, Caius C#1trus, or Cxcrtius, in Bio-
graphy, a prielt and poet, who flourifhed about the year
230. He is known only by his writings, of which the
principal is a Latin poem in heroic verfe, entitled « Pafchale
Carmen,” in five books, the firft of which relates to the
hiftories recorded in the Old Teftament, and the laft four
to the life and miracles of Chrift. This work is chiefly
efteemed for its fubjeét, though the ftyle is flowing, and,
for the age in which it was written, is tolerably pure. It
has been printed feveral times, and is contained in Mattaire’s

2

SED

* Corpus Poetarum.’? An edition’ of it was printed in
1704. A profe work of the fame writer is extant, entitled
«« Pafchale Opus.””

SEDUM, in Botany, an ancient generic name ufed by
Pliny, derived from /edere, to fit; on account of its fit-
ting or growing in the clefts, or on the furface of rocks.
The application of the name, however, is fomewhat ob-
{cure.—Linn. Gen. ate Schreb. 309. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 2. 760. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 485.
Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 308. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v.3- 111. Purfh v. 1. 282. Tournef. t. r40. Jul. 307.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 390. Gertn. t. 65.—Clafs and order,
Decandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn. Sem-
pervive, Jul. ,

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, five-cleft, acute, erect,
permanent. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, pointed, flat,
{preading. Ne¢tary compofed of five, very fmall, emar-
ginate fcales, inferted at the bafe of the germens. Stam.
Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, the length of the corolla; an-
thers roundifh. Pi/?. Germens five, fuperior, oblong, each
terminating in a flender ftyle; ttigmas obtufe. Peric. Cap-
fules five, {preading, pointed, comprefled, emarginate to-
wards the bafe, opening inwardly by a longitudinal future.
Seeds numerous, very {mall,

Efl. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Petals five, with five ne€ta-
riferous fcales at the bafe of the germen. Capfules five,
fuperior.

The herbage of this genus is fucculent, and moftly,
though not invariably, {mooth. ‘The flowers are either of
a valle white, or reddifh colour.—Willdenow enumerates
twenty-nine fpecies, which are divided, after Linnzus, into
two feCtions, Planifolia and Teretifolia; the former includ-
ing fuch as have flat Jeaves, the latter fuch as have round,
or cylindrical ones. To thefe however we have feveral to —
add, fome of which are Britifh. As a feleftion from the
whole genus, the following are the moft remarkable.

Seé&t. 1. Planifoita.—Leaves flattith.

S. Telephium. Orpine or Live-long. Linn. Sp. Pl. 616.
Engl. Bot. t. 1319. Curt. Lond. fafe. 3. t. 25.—Leaves
flattifh, ferrated. Corymb leafy. Stem ereét. Found in dry
fields, about hedges, and on bufhy hills in Britain and
moft parts of Europe, on a gravelly or calcareous foil,
flowering in Auguit.—Root perennial, tuberous, flefhy,
white. Stems two feet high, ereét, fimple, leafy, round,
{mooth, purplifh. Leaves fcattered, feffile, ovate, flefhy,
flat, toothed in a ferrate manner, rather glaucous, {mooth.
Flowers purple, occafionally white, forming terminal, many-
flowered, crowded, leafy tufts. This fpecies is found to
vary in the colour of its flowers and the ferrature of its
leaves, as well as in the fize of all its parts.

S. Anacampferos. Evergreen Orpine. Linn. Sp. Pl. 616.
Curt. Mag. t. 118. (Anacampferos minor, rotundiore
folio, fempervirens; Tourn. Inft. 264.)—lTeaves wedge-
fhaped, attenuated at the bafe, nearly feffile. Stems de-
cumbent. Flowers corymbofe.—Native of the fouth of
France, mottly in the crevices of rocks. It flowers in
July and Augult.—Root perennial, fibrous. Stems reddifh,
trailing at their bafe, more upright and glaucous towards
the top. Leaves numerous, alternate, or {cattered, ovate,
flefhy, dotted at the tip, of a blueifh-green colour. Flowers
deep lilac or purple, rarely white, ia compact, leafy, ter-
minal tufts. HAs

S. populifolium. Poplar-leaved Stone-crop. Linn. Suppl.
242. Willd. n. 7. Curt. Mag. t. 211.—Leaves flat,
heart-fhaped, toothed, on ftalks. Corymbs terminal. Stem
ereét, flender.—Difcovered by Pallas in Siberia, whence it
was introduced at Kew, in 1780. It flowers in July and

Augutt.

SEDUM.

Augutt.—Rew fightly fibrous. Stems herbaceous, eredt,
a little wavy, {preading, about a foot in height, frequently
of a bright red colour. Leaves alternate, remote, on

longith ftalks, flightly lobed, turning of a browwth-red

colour,

lo habit and appearance, this plant greatly refembles
retundifoha.

tarry Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. Pl. 617.
« Fl. Greece. t. 446."’— Leaves flattith, angulated, Flowers

falitary, fellile, —Native of France, Italy, and the
“mountains of Crete, flowering in Juve and July. Roos
: al, with fpreading fibres. Stem upright, thick, wavy,
- pink-cc d at Hy bale, brownifh at She “3 ee
wedye-thaped, ae with about feven teeth,

Flowers

ghey Se Po
617, * Gree

Stone-crop. Sm. Prodr.
ne 1048. “ Fi. Gree. t 448.”’—Leaves
, entire, obtufe.—Found by Dr. Sib-
us, and alfo in Sicily.—Root annual,
ite. Stem upright, hairy, branched at the bafe ;
branches rather decumbent. Leaves four together,

flefhy, fringed with hairs.
i fy {pikes, white, itriped with

; n

‘ 8. sricarpum. Hairy-fruitedStone-crop. © Sm. Prodr.

Fi Gree. «“ Fl, Gree. t. .”? —Leaves
oblong, obtufe, Stem cymofe. Calyx fmooth.
‘Germe Found im dry fituations, in Peloponnefus.
stent e wavy, and

, dotted with red, fmooth. Leaves

mh

flowerin ioufly i
Cred sap poy Neti
branched,

tle vifcid, leafy ; flowering branches ereét. Leaves moltly
imbricated, nd spi very fucculent, entire, glau-
s three or four together,

wh ith a purple itreak, forming {mall, {preading pa-

Englifh Stone-crop, Sm. Fl. Brit. 486.
171.—Leaves t i ovate, gibbous, and

on
fe at the bafe, alternate. Cyme of two branches.—Na-
of Great Britain, but not a common plant. It has

een gathered near caftle, on the fandy downs
ry. t 6 octieweaad and mountainous fitua-

tions, flowering in July. Root annual, fibrous. Stems
tufted, decumbent at the bale, {mooth, ruby-coloured,
leafy. Leaves frequently alternate, or inclining to oppolite,
very thick, flefhy, obtule, flightly glaucous, with a pro-
tuberance at their bafe. Flowers at firlt thickly cluttered,
afterwards more remote; the petals white, with a reddith

rib, and generally dotted with red at the tip. Cap/ules
membranous, {mooth.
5S. acre. Biting Stone-crop. Wall Pepper. Linn. Sp.

Pl. 619. Engl. Bot. t. 839. Curt. Lond. fale. 1. t. 32-
Woody. Suppl. t. 231.—Leaves alternate, fomewhat ovate,
fiethy, gibbous, fixed to the flem by their inner fide above
the bafe. Cyme three-cleft, leafy. —* This brilliant little
flower is confpicuous enough about midfummer, and for
fome time afterwards, on walls, roofs, and dry barren or
fandy ground, which it clothes as it were with a cloth of
gold, in defiance of the drought and moft feorching fun.”
—Root perennial, fibrous. Stems tufted, branched, decum-
bent, fmooth, round, leafy. Leaver alternate, imbricated,
ereét-{preading, grals-green coloured, protuberant at the
back. Flowers ereét, golden-coloured, is terminal, foli-
tary, three-cleft, leafy panicles. —“ The whole herb is acrid,
hot and biting to the tafte, whence its common name Wall
Pepper. Dr. Woodville quotes feveral authorities to prove
its ufe in feorbutic and ferophulous diforders.”’

S. fexangulare. Infipid Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. Pl. 620.
_ Bot. t. 1946. Curt, Lond. fafe. 4. t. 33-—Leaves
in fix or feven rows, fomewhat cylindrical, obtufe, flefhy,
{preading, fixed to the ftem by their inner fide above t
bafe. Cyme three-cleft, leafy.—Occafionally to be met
with in dry, fandy places, about walls, flowering in June
and July.—In habit this perennial greatly refembles the
laft fpecies, but it is generally rather larger. “The /eaves
are more cylindrical, not ovate, about three together in
alternate whorls, producing in the whole leafy item or
branch fix or feven angles or rows. Cymes terminal, of two
larger branches, and a {mall one. Flowers palith yellow.
The foliage frequently turns red. ‘The whole herb,
though unpleafantly auftere, is deltirute of all acrid pun-
gency of flavour.

S. faxatile. Mountain Stone-crop. Willd. n.16. Wig-
gers Holfat. 35.“ Fl. Gree. t. 450.”” Fi. Dan. t. 59?
—Leaves feattered, convex on one fide, flat on the other,
obtufe, loofe at the bafe. Stem branched, decumbent.—
Native of rocky mountains in Norway and Switzerland,
alfo in Greece, flowering about June.—Root annual. Stems
woody, fix inches high, branched, diffufe. Leaves flightly
alternate, feflile, bright green, the lower ones fometimes
turning red. Flowers feflile, folitary, ftanding on one fide

_of the branches, yellow.

S. villofum. Hairy Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. Pl. 620.
Engl. Bot. t. 394- Fi. Dan. t. 24.—Stemere@. Leaves
flattifh, Mghtly hairy, as well as the flower-italks —Native
of mountainous damp paitures, and the moilt fiffures of
rocks, flowering in July—Root perennial, fibrous. Stem
ereG@, leafy, downy towards the upper part, branched at
the bafe. Leaves alternate, linear, fiefhy, often pink-
coloured, rough at the back with vifcid hairs. Flowers
cymofe or panicled, on vifcid ftalks; their petals white or
rofe-coloured, with a red rib. Cap/fules pointed, rough,
purplith,

S. allum. White Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. Pl. 619.
Engl. Bot. t. 1578. Curt. Lond. fafe. 1. t. 31. Fi.
Dan. t. 66.—Leaves oblong, cylindrical, obtufe, fpreading,
fmooth. Panicle much branched.—Found on rocks, walls,
and roofs in many parts of England, but not a common
plant. It flowers in July.— Root perennial, fibrous. Stems

a {pan

SEDUM.

a ipan high, round, leafy, branched, fmooth, decumbent
at the bafe. Leaves {cattered, {preading horizontally,
rather glaucous, flefhy, and extremely juicy. Panicle ter-
minal, rather cymofe, many-flowered, {mooth. Flowers
white or reddith.

S. ochroleucum. Pale Stone-crop. Sm. Prodr. FI.
Grec. Sibth. n. 1058. Sm. in Tranf. of Linn. Soc.
vy. 10. 6 (Sempervivum fediforme; Jacq. Hort. Vind.

t. 81.)—Leaves glaucous, feattered, acute; the lower
ones round ; upper elliptical, deprefled. Segments of the
calyx rather acute. —Found on walls, ftones, and banks, as
well as about fhady enclofures, in the fouth of Europe.
It flowers in July. An interefting account of this fpecies
is given by fir J. E. Smith, in the volume of the Linnzan
TranfaGtions above quoted, where it is fhewn to be the
Asstzoy ro usxeov Of Diolcorides, who defcribes it thus:
© Several flender /lems {pring from one root, thickly en-
compafled with little, round, fucculent, fharp-pointed Jeaves.
It throws out, moreover, a /fem towards the middle, about
a {pan high, with an wmbel of flender (greenifh or) pale
yellowith flowers.”

This plant, when pounded, is ufed at Athens as a cool-
ing cataplafm to bruifes or to gouty limbs.

S. reflewum. Yellow Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. Pl. 618.
Engl. Bot. t. 695.—Leaves awl-fhaped, fcattered, loofened
at the bafe; the lowermoft recurved. Flowers fomewhat
cymofe.—Common on walls and thatched roofs, flowering
in July. The roots are perennial, confifting of fimple fibres.
Stems round, leafy, {preading, entangled or pendant. Leaves
feattered, extremely fucculent, fmooth, rather glaucous,
often reddifh, falling off when old. Fiowers in a terminal
cyme, bright yellow, numerous.

S. glaucum. Glaucous Stone-crop. Engl. Bot. t. 2477.
(S. reflesum 8; Sm. Fl. Brit. 490. S. minus hematoides;
Ger. Em. 512.)—Leaves glaucous, awl-fhaped, fcattered,
loofened at the bafe; thofe of the branches thread-fhaped.
Flowers in a cyme. Segments of the calyx lanceolate.
—Native of this country, flowering in July and Auguft.
It differs from the lait (of which it has till lately been con-
fidered but as a variety) in its more glaucous hue, and
more flender leaves, efpecially thofe of the branches.

S. rupefiree Rock Stone-crop. Linn. Sp. Pl. 618.
Engl. Bot. t. 170.—Leaves thick, awl-fhaped, glaucous,
erect, cluitered together in a five-fold order, loofe at the
bafe. Flowers in a cyme.—Found occafionally on rocks
and walls, but is rather a f{carce plant. It flowers in July.
—Root perennial, branched. Stems round, red, and naked
at the lower part, branched, terminating in thick, club-
fhaped, tufts of clofely imbricated, thick, and fucculent
leaves. Flowering flems upright, a foot high, clothed with
more fcattered /eaves, and terminated by a large, handfome
cyme of yellow flowers.

S. Forflerianum. Forfterian Stone-crop. Engl. Bot.
t. 1802.—Leaves thick, awl-fhaped, cluftered together in
many rows, fpreading, loofe at the bafe. Flowers in a
cyme. Segments of the calyx fhort and rounded. Gathered
by E. Forfter, jun. efq. near the Devil’s bridge, Cardigan-

fhire, in 1806. It flowers in July. This fpecies has

hitherto been confounded with rupefre, from which how- '

ever (fays the author of Englifh Botany) it differs < in
having the leaves of the barren branches {preading in a
rofaceous form, not clofe-prefled or ereét, and efpecially
in the want of a glaucous hue in the /eaves, fem, and calyx.
The petals alfo are more elliptical and blunt.”

SepuM, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy
herbaceous fucculent kind, of which the {pecies cultivated
are; the orpine ftone-crop (S. telephium) ; the evergreen

orpine (S. anacampferos) ; the yellow ftone-crop (S. aizo on) 5
the poplar-leaved ftone-crop (S. populifolium) ; the ftarry
ftone-crop (S. ftellatum) ; the purflane-leaved ftone-cr op
(S. cepza) ; the thick-leaved {tone-crop (S. dafyphyllum) ;
the rock {tone-crop (S. rupeltre) ; the Spanifh ftone-crop
(S. hifpanicum) ; the white ftone-crop (S. album); the
biting ftone-crop, or wall pepper (S. acre); the infipid
ftone-crop (S. fexangulare); the Englifh or mild white
{tone-crop (S. anglicum); and the annual ftone-crop (S.
annuum ).

In the firft fort there are feveral varieties, as with purple
flowers, with white flowers, with broad leaves, and the
greater orpine.

In the fixth fort there 1s a variety which has the ftem
more erect, and the lower leaves in threes or fours, the
next oppofite, and the uppermott alternate.

The feventh fort, when introduced into a garden, pro-
pagates itfelf freely upon walls, in wafte places, and about
garden pots; and no plant is better adapted to the pur-
pole of decorating rock-work, as it grows without any
trouble, in any afpeét, multiplying very much by young
fhoots, and always looks beautiful. ‘

The ninth, as well as the preceding fort, are cultivated
in Holland and Germany to mix with lettuces in. fallads.

The eleventh fort is eaten by fome as a pickle.

Method of Culture —Thefe plants are all raifed without
much difficulty, by proper care and attention to have the
foil dry, and of the poor fandy kind.

Culture in the Orpine Sorts.—Thefe may all be readily
increafed by planting cuttings, during the fummer months,
in light mould in a fhady fituation, or in pots placed in
fimilar fituations. The plants in the open ground, as well
as thofe in pots, fhould be kept clean from weeds, and be
watered frequently when the weather is dry. They may ©
likewife be raifed by parting the roots, and planting them
in a fimilar manner in the {pring or autumn. When the
plants are once well eftablifhed, they {pread rapidly, and
require little or no care.

Thefe plants are fometimes cultivated for medicinal ufe.

Culture in the Stone-crop Kind.—Thefe are raifed with-
out much trouble, by planting out their trailing ftalks
in the {pring or fummer feafon, which readily take root.
They thrive moft perfectly on old walls, buildings,
or rock-works. Where cuttings or roots of the peren-
nial kinds are planted in fome foft mud, placed upon
fuch fituations, they quickly take root and fpread into
the different joints and crevices, covering the whole in a
very fhort time.

The feeds of the annual forts alfo, when fown foon after
they become ripe in fuch fituations, foon come up and
fupport themfelves without further trouble.

Moft of the perennial forts are kept in the nurferies in
full plants, fit for fetting out in the borders, pots, &c.
either in the {pring for flowering the fame year, or in the
autumn to flower in the following year. Thefe plants
may be planted out in any dryifh light foil, in borders,
beds, and other places, and in the fides of dry banks, or
in any elevated rubbifhy foil, as well as in pots to move to
different parts occafionally ; or alfo fome of the evergreen
kinds, to introduce in their pots among winter plants under
fhelter, to increafe the variety. “In moft forts, they may
alfo be introduced as rock plants, to embellifh artificial -
rock-works, ruins, and other fimilar places in pleafure-
grounds. The ftone-crops and other low trailing kinds
may alfo be made to occupy the tops of any low walls,
pent-houfes, fheds, or other low buildings.

And further, the twelfth and thirteenth forts may like-

wife

SEE

wife be difpofed in gues towards the fronts of bor-
ders, &c. as they {pread thick. and tufty clofe to the
ground, and flower abundantly ; and being planted in pots,
are to ov the outfide of windows, copings of
low in balconies, and court-yarde, in allemblage
| other low fancy plants; they will clofely overfpread
furface, and flower profulely as far as they extend in
Sxpun ve Wall Well in th
: Mere, lene Crop, or : » in the
Materia Medica, ee hn a ype on
houfes, walls, and gravelly banks, is, in its recent ttate,
extremely acrid, like the hydropiper; and, therefore, if
: in dofes, it ats powerfully on the prime vier,
Pp emetic and cathartic ; and applied to the tin,
cataplafm, it frequent! uces velications and ero-
Boerhaave, re. ’ seas that its internal em-
mutt be unfafe; but experience has difcovered,
a deco&ion of this plant is not only fafe, but of great
efficacy in foorbutic ints: for which purpole, a
of the herb is di by Below, a Swedith phy-
to be boiled in eight pints of beer till they are re-
to four ; nem reeromaceesutest seh tone Cakon
» or every other, ing. i s been found to
er this purpofe better tin beer. Not only ulcers,
feorbutic, but thofe of a fcrophulous and even can-
cured by the ule of this plant,
relates feveral viiion a “anachea
external application in roying
ing a difcharge in gangrenes
tt fice for which this a has
of flopping intermittent fevers.

pe
a

oe
f ;

A
that
See

aoe

SEMPERVIVUM.
Ancient

on Lena; 12 miles N. of Or-

©
SI, +p ewer Aga ¢ a people of Germany,
ought under Arioviftus againit Cefar.

ZISZOW, in » a town of Poland, in
he palatinate of irz; 35 miles S. of Sandomirz.
SEE-AMOL, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
pear the eait coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 5° 27’. E. long.

© SEEASSEE, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
long. 120°

a river of

a
3

E OG, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
‘the eaft coait of Borneo. N. lat. 4°18’. E. long.

E)

RRGIEN,-s tien of Germany, in the duchy of
Silica didifiewbe® oblarvatory, excied bythe

Alfo, a town of Hindooitan, in
bank of the Ganges; 5 miles N. of
gh a town of Bengal; 45 miles N.E. of
urn op i ecg hana 3 40 miles N.N.E. of
attore . lat. 25% I . 89° 32'.
_SEEBO the iaroeft river in Wek Seder it rifes ina

Vor. XXXIJ,

on the

SEE

piece of water fituated in the midit of a forett, sear the foo.
of Atlas, eaftward of the cities of Fez (Fes) and Me.
quinez (Mequinas), and winding through the plains, pallies
within fix es of Fez. Another flresm, proceeding from
the fouth of Fez, pafles through the city, aod Micbereel
itfelf into this river, This ream is fo valuable to the w
habitants of Fez, as it fupplies the town with water, that
it is called * Wed El Juhor,’’ the river of pearls, a term
indicating its value. Some auxiliary flreams, proceedia
from the territory of Tezea, fall into the Secbo in Liah,
or the period between the 2oth of December and goth of
January inclufive. ‘This river is impatfable, except in boats,
or on rafts. At Meheduma, or Mamorsa, where it enters
the ocean, it is alarge, deep, and navigable river ; but the

rt being evacuated, foreign commerce is annihilated, and
ittle thipping has beea admutted fince the Portuguefe quitted
the place. This river abounds more than any other io that
rich and delicate fith called fhebbel. If this country af.
forded any encouragement to induitry, corn might be con-
veyed up the Seebo river to Fez at a very low charge;
whereas it is now tran{ported to that populous city by
camels, the expence of the hire of which often exceeds the
original coft of the grain. Jackfon's Account of the Em-

ire of Morocco.

SEEBPOUR, a town of Bengal; 12 miles N. of

Hoogly.
SEEBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland; 55 miles S. of Konigtberg. N. lat. 53° 31’.
E. long. 20° 40'.—Alfo, a town of Weiftphalia, in the
county of Mansfeld; 5 miles E. of Eifzleben. N. lat.
51° 3u'. E. long. 11° 51’.

SEED, Jeremian, in Biography, a learned divine of
the church of England, was born at Clifton, in Cumber-
land, and educated at Queen’s college, Oxford, where he
took his degrees in the arts, and obtained a fellowship.
He was afterwards prefented to the reGory of Enham, in
Hamphhire, where he died in 1747. His fermons, which
are very highly efteemed, are publifhed in 4 vols. 8vo.

Seep, Semen, in the Animal Economy. See Semen and
GENERATION.

Srep, in Botany, is that moft important organ in the
fructification of vegetables, the perfe€ting of which is in-
deed the fole objeét of all the other parts: to this end they
are fubfervient either in forming, perfecting, or difperfing
it. A feed is compoted of many effential parts. See Em-
sBryO, CoryLepones, ALBUMEN, VirELLUs, TesTA,

Hitum.

Befides thefe, there are various accefli arts, or appen-
dages, to feeds, which come under the following denomi-
nations. See Pexzticuta, Anitius, Parpus, Caupa,
Rostrum. To thefe we muft add Axa, which our pre-
deceffor has neglected to defcribe as a feminal appendage,
in its proper article. (Sce that article.) The Axa, or
wing, 1s a dilated membranous appendage to feeds, ferving
to waft them along in the air; it is commonly folitary, ex-
cept in fome umbelliferous plants. Seeds are oceafionally
furnifhed with {pines, hooks, {cales, crelted appendages,
particularly a little gland-like part fometimes Stre-
phiolum, and fituated near the Hilum.

The various modes by which feeds are difperfed, in order
to accomplifh their germination, cannot fail to ftrike am

ing mind with admiration. Indeed this is 2 moft
amufing branch of the fcience of vegetable economy. Sm.
Introd. to Bot. ed. 3. 219—232.
Seeps, Echinate. See Ecuinare.

Fi

SEED.

Serp-Down. See Parrus.

Srep-Vefel. See Pericarr.

SEED, in Agriculture, the grain or other produ& of a
plant, whereby the fpecies is propagated, upon its being
fown or put into the earth.

It may be obferved, that the choice of the feed intended
to be fown, is an object of greater importance than many
farmers feem to imagine. It is not fufficient that the finelt
grain be chofen for this purpofe, unlefs it be likewife clear
from weeds. In procuring feed, it fhould, therefore, be a
rule with the farmer to purchafe or referve fuch as is the
moft full, plump, found, clean, and healthy, whatever the
fort may be; as it is perhaps only in this way that crops
of really good corn can be enfured. And this practice is
{till more obvious, from the circumftance of its being in
{ome meafure the fame with plants as with animals, that the
produce is in a degree fimilar to that from which it ori-
ginated. It is not, however, merely on this principle that
fuch grain as is {mall, fhrivelled up, and imperfeétly fed,
fhould be rejected as improper for feed, but as containing a
{maller proportion of farinaceous matter, and being thereby
lefs proper for affording that degree of nourifhment which
is neceflary to the young plants, during the period of the
firit ftage of their growth. Where fhrivelled-up and im-
perfeétly ripened feed is fown, in general but a little of it
vegetates ; and that which does, moftly fends forth plants
of a weak and feeble kind, that afford only a lean and fteely
fort of crop. Befides, there are other circumftances which
ought to be taken into the account, in providing of feed
corn; fuch.as that it be new, and recently threfhed from
the ftraw, and that the fkin be clear and thin; for it is
found that grain which is frefh, and only juft threfhed out,
isin a much more proper ftate for quick vegetation, than
fuch as has been long kept, confequently lefs liable to perifh
in bad feafons; and that where the rind or {kin is of a
bright colour, and thin, a much larger proportion of fine
farinaceous or mealy matter is yielded from the fame quan-
tity of grain, which renders it of courfe more valuable to
the cultivator. This is particularly the cafe in wheat, and
the fame thing probably takes place in other forts of corn.

And the writer of the Synopfis of Hufbandry has fhewn,
by fome experiments, that wheat, after being kept fix or
feven years, though there may not be any perceptible dif-
ference in its appearance from fuch as is new, is wholly unfit
for being made ufe of as feed, on account of only a {mall
portion of it being capable of vegetating ; a circumitance
that may probably, in many cafes, be owing to the grain
being more difpofed, under fuch conditions, to take on the
putrefactive fermentation, or become rotten, than to the
abforption of oxygen, which is believed to be effential to the
procefs of vegetation in the early ftage, as ftated by Mr.
Gough in the Manchefter TranfaGtions ; and befides this
effeét, where the moifture and juice of the grain is much
taken away, as is the cafe in keeping it for a great length
of time, the plants that are produced from it may even be
lefs vigorous and luxuriant, as happens in gardening to fome
kinds of feeds, as that of the melon, which is frequently
kept for feveral years, in order to effet this purpofe in a
more perfe&t manner.

On thefe accounts, therefore, it muft be evident that, on
fuch principles, grain, in order to fecure perfe& vegetation,
fhould not be placed too much out of the influence of the
atmofpheric air; and that the bed of mould, or earth, in
which it is depofited, be in as fine a powdery ftate as pof-
fible; as, under fuch circumftances, the air is more uni-
formly admitted, and the feed, from being in a more equal
temperature, and more equally fupplied with moifture, is

expofed in the moft favourable circumftances to the com-
bined effeéts of the caufes that have been found to promote
the fprouting, growth, and profperity of the young corn
plant, as has been fully hewn by Mr. Gough, in his ex-
cellent paper en the vegetation of feeds. And there fhould
likewife be a conftant attention, that no fuch grain as is in
any way difeafed fhould ever be made ufe of as feed corn ;
as the fowing of this fort of feed, though it may have been
advifed by fome cultivators, who have not been fufficiently
cautious, or who have placed too much confidence on the
efficacy of /leeps, can only difappoint the views and hopes
of the farmer, by propagating more widely fuch maladies,
or producing fcanty crops of good grain.

A. great many different methods have been purfued, in the
view of fecuring fuch grain as is healthy and proper for the
purpofe of fowing ; but that which is the moft readily exe-
cuted is probably that of feleGting from among the corn
plants, while they are growing in the fields ; as in this way
an opportunity is afforded of choofing fuch heads or ears of
the plants of different kinds as are the moft perfeét, the
molt forward, and moit vigorous in their growth, and
which contain fuch feeds as are the moft plump, and full,
and the beft ripened. Thefe benefits or advantages may
likewife, in fome meafure, be attained in the moft valuable
forts of grain, by having them picked over by hand, after
being threfhed out; but this is a tedious prattice, and not
fo certain of having the feed from the moft healthy and beft
ripened plants, as the above and fome others: therefore, to
have the moft perfe& forts of feed, and at the fame time the
moft healthy and proper for vegetation, the moft vigorous
plants fhould be feleéted, as well as fuch as are the moft
forward and early in refpe& to the feafon; and that thefe,
while they are growing, be fo preferved, that they may not

be injured by having weaker plants of the fame kinds near.

them; as the art of having good feeds does not, it is con-
tended by an experienced farmer, depend fo much upon
obtaining new feeds from places at a confiderable diftance,
as upon colleGting and referving the beft feeds or roots of
our own produétion. Dr. Prieftley, in a paper in the firft

volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture,

has remarked that this method of pra€tice has been had re-

*courfe to, in confequence of its having been found that

though vegetables of all kinds are extremely liable to
changes, in refpeét to the times of their maturation, or
ripening, and other properties, the beft feeds never fail to
produce the beft plants. It is likewife remarked, in addi-
tion, that in the preferving of feed grain, by colleting it
in the ears from the ftacks or fheaves, there may, however,

be difadvantages in the way of leflening the produce, by —
choofing the largeft ears, which have rarely more than one ©

upon a ftalk, and by taking fuch as become ripe at different
periods.

It is obferved that many different modes have been pro-
pofed for afcertaining the goodnefs of grain or feed-corn; but
the farmer generally depends upon the appearances that it

exhibits, preferring fuch as is full, plump, and well fed, and —
that has a certain brightnefs and clearnefs, without any -

fhrivelling or fhrinking in the huflk or external covering.

But it may perhaps be afcertained with greater accuracy by —

other means, as the weighing of a certain meafure or quan- —

tity: and from its being well known that grain or feeds, on
being immerfed in fluids, leave the more light and imperfect

floating on the furface, while the better and more perfect —

fink to the bottom; folutions well faturated with faline —

fubftances, from their gravity being much increafed, be-
come ufeful in afcertaining the goodnefs of the corns, as
none but fuch as are perfeétly found fink inthem. And

the

SEED.

the author of the Philofophy of Gardening conecives, that
the weight of a given meafure of grain may alfo be a tolera-
bly certain method of difeovering the quantity of hufk or
bran contained in it, compared with a quantity of flour: as
that grain which is cut too early, or which is otherwile not
quite mpe, as happens in wet feafons, fhrinks in che barn or
» and becomes wrinkled, and has thus a greater pro-
of tkin or bran than that which has been more
— pce and weighs lighter in proportion to its
And another method, which he fuppofes may be had
to in order to diftinguith light from heavy grain, is
of winnowing, as the furfaces of light grains, from their
greater in proportion to their folid contents, may be
further by the current of air afforded in the opera-
; of courfe in paling them through a fereen, the heavy
may be li ae run further out on the floor from
being more pro by their greater gravity, without
refiftance of he aie on their feted Doiog increnteds
d be confequently more proper for feed-corn in general.
Cuanor of Seed.
But lately, however, a different notion from the above
ias been entertained by fir Jofeph Banks, though we do not
d it fupported by the teft of experiment in the field.
> refult of a fingle trial, made under the circumttance of
hot-houfe, can never be fatisfactory to the farmer. He
that the feeds of wheat may be rendered b
exhauiting power of a fungus fo lean and thrive
fearcely any flour fit for the manufacture of bread can be
obtained by ing them, thefe very feeds will, except in
the very cafes, anfwer the purpofe of feed-corn as
well as the faireft and plumpeit {ample that can be obtained,
d in fome ref{pects better ; for as a bushel of much blighted
: contain one-third at leaft more grains in number
than a buthel of plump corn, three buthels of fuch cora will
_ go as far in fowing land as four buhels of large grain. And
that the ufe of the flour of corn in furthering the procefs
is to nourifh the minute plant ks the time
of its t till its roots are able to attraét food from
‘manured earth; for this purpofe one-tenth of the con-
tents of a grain of good wheat is more than fufficient. The
nti flour in wheat has been increafed by culture and
ement calculated to improve its qualities for the benefit
of mankind, in the fame proportion as the pulp of apples
‘and pears has been increafed by the fame means above what is
found on the wildings and crabs in the hedges. Further, that
ough it is cuft to fet afide or to purchafe for feed-
cor Hthe boldeft and plumpett {amples that can be obtained,
‘that is, thofe that contain the moit flour, this is unneceffary
waite of human fubfiftence : the {malleft grains, {uch as are
ed out before the wheat is carried to market, and either
jonfumed in the farmer’s family or given to his poultry,
ill be found by experience to anfwer the purpofe of propa-
g the fort from whence they fprung as effectually as
argelt. Every ear of wheat is compofed of a number
cups placed alternately on each fide of the ftraw ; the
er ones contain, according to circumfance, three or four
ns nearly equal in fize ; but towards the top of the ear,
vere the ity of nutriment is diminifhed by the more
of thofe cups that are nearer the root, the

ird or in a cup is frequently defrauded of its
roportion, and become fhrielled ted Cevall "Thele tall
rau are rej by the miller becaufe do not
pat for his purpofe, have {fs an

all the f ion, and
Deets i fap ier Gods ws ce call calc
») of the kind which produced them, as the faireit

and fulleft grain that can be obtained from the bottoms of
the lower cups by the wafieful procefs of beating the heaves,
But, however further and more numerous experiments may
eflablihh this doétrine, the beit prattice of the farmer is
probably, at prefent, to take care to have good well-n
grain, - ie fo all adulteration of feeds of the weed kind ;
without any blacknefs about the extremities of the grains,
being free from that dark-brown colour that indicates its
having been heated too much in the flack ; and that it have
no figns of mouldinefs from being badly fecured, or of
thrinking from being cut in too green a ftate. It has alfo
been lately fuggelted by Mr. Leori, who has been engaged in
many interefling experiments on the fubjeét, not by any
means to procure feed grain from a foil north of that on
which it is to be fown, but from a difltri@ fouth of it; as he
confiders it a general rule, that the produ@ of feed improves
in going from the fouth to the north, but decreafes in virtue
in pafling from the north to the fouth. t

And with refpeét to the proportion of feed that may be
proper to be fown on different foils and fituations, attention
will not ouly be neceflary to their peculiar nature, and to
the periods of fowing or putting the feed into the ground,
but alfo to the nature of feafon, and the mode in which
the fowing is executed in it. For crops in general, the ftrong,
wet, and ftiffer forts of land will demand a larger quantity
of feed than fuch as are more mellow, thin, and li . ; for
coarfe ftrong wet loams, and {tiff retentive clays, mult require
more feed than light mellow loams, and fandy gravelly or
even thin chalky lands. But where lands of the rich loamy
kinds have been well reduced and broken down by the ope-
rations of tillage, it is obferved, that if the feed be not
fown in too great a proportion, an opportunity is afforded
for the plants {preading themfelves from the roots, many
items often iffuing from the fame root, in confequence of
which the crops frequently become, even when thinly
fown, extremely thick upon the ground; and from the
great nutritive power of rich folls, or what is moftl
termed ftrength by the farmers, would be greatly too m
fo, if a large proportion of feed were at firit putin. And
that in the cafe of root crops, whether fuch as are formed
upon or within the foil, where fuch lands are in a fufficiently
mellow and friable ftate for producing them, the feeds or fets
fhould not on the fame account be fown or put in in too
great a quantity, or too thickly, While in the ftrong, fluff,
wet, retentive foils, from the plants feldom aia 2 or
branching off much from the roots, except in particularly fa-
vourable circumftances of feafon, a much greater proportion
of feed will be neceflary, in order to fecure fuch full crops as
lands of this kind are capable of {upporting and bringing to
maturity in moft cafes.

But where the foils are light and thin, a lefs quantity of
feed will be fufficient, according to Mr. Donaldfon and
others; as, if a large proportion be put into fuch kinds of
ground, from their poflefling much lefs ftrength the crops will
rarely, except in particular aed be well formed in the ear,
or have the grain plump and well fed. It is hkewife a prac-
tice in the beft grain diftri€ts, on all forts of land to fow
{maller proportions of feed on lands of the fame quay,
in the early periods of the feed time, than in thofe of
latter. The reafon of this, according to the above writer,
is, that grain fown early in the feafon takes deeper root, and
has more time to branch out additional fhoots, than that
which is later fown, which, when the foil is not free as
well as fertile, generally runs up into one fingle fo
that if a liberal quantity of feed be not allowed, the crep,
however luxuriant in re oe the plants, muft be {canty a

2 t

SEED.

the article of grain or produce. And for this there may
alfo be other reafons, as where the feed is put in at a later
period, efpecially in the fpring, it will not have time fully
to eftablifh itfelf in the foil, before it becomes retarded by the
hot and dry fummer weather, unlefs a large quantity of feed
be employed fo-as to afford prote&tion by the clofenefs of
the growth of the plants. And in the late autumnal fow-
ings, the grain may not become well fixed and rooted in the
foil before the frofts begin to affeé&t them; and. on that
account a larger proportion of feed be required than under
other circumftances would be neceflary. Something may
likewife depend on the ftate of the weather in fowing or
putting feed into the ground; as where the feafon is
very dry, and there is but a {mall proportion of moifture

in the foil, more of the feed may fail in vegetating, than °

where the contrary is the cafe; which alfo fhews the
propriety of iteeping and putting in the feed in fuch
dry feafons, immediately after the plough has performed
its work.

And it mutt likewife vary according to the manner in which
it is depofited in the earth ; as where the grain is {cattered
ever the whole of the land, in fome meafure at random, as
in the common broadcalt method of fowing, a much larger
proportion of feed muft be fown, than where the grains
are depofited with equality and exaétnefs, but only on
certain portions of the land, as in drilling and dibbling.
And as fome difadvantage may attend the firlt method, in
re{pe& to the vegetation of the feed, a larger proportion may
alfo be requifite on that account. It is confequently evident,
that the quantity of feed mutt vary according to different cir-
cumttances, and that it is a matter of much difficulty to fix
upon a proportion that may be fuitable to all the circumftances
and forts of foil. It is, however, commonly fuppofed that
from two and a half, to three and a half bufhels to the acre,
may be the proportion that may be the moft proper both in
the {pring and autumn fowings. Mr. Middleton has fug-
gefted, that for fowing wheat broadcaft about the latter
end of September, two bufhels and a half is the moft
advantageous quantity on foils of medium quality ; but
that for every fortnight later, four quarts of feed fhould
be added to that proportion. But the tabular view given
below of the proportions that have been found to anfwer
well in pratice in an extenfive midland diftri@, on foils
of different qualities, may afford a more fatisfa¢tory no-
tion of the nature of feeding foils of different kinds and
qualities.

It may be neceflary, before inferting this however, to
fhew the quantities in ufe in a great fouthern grain diftri@
with wheat. In Norfolk, in pratice of the beft farmers,
the proportions of feed-wheat ufually made ufe of, accord-
ing to the late Agricultural Survey of that diftrié, are
about Walton, when dibbled, fix or feven pecks, in the
practice of fome; but with others, when fown before
Michaelmas, two bufhels, afterwards two anda half. Alfo
near Dereham, the quantity is four bufhels broadcaft, and
when dibbled, from ten pecks to three bufhels. At Wifsen
ten pecks dibbled, and three bufhels broadcaft ; and at Eaft
Bilney, and the adjoining parifhes, only from two and a half
to three. But in the pra€tice of Mr. Henry Blythe of
Burnham, feven or eight pecks are drilled fer acre ; but the
common quantity broadcaft, from ten to twelve. ‘And in
the clays of Marfhland, from five to fix pecks are fown
broadcaft. And about Wymondham they dibble in from
fix to eight pecks, but in the broadcaft method fow three
bufhels. In fome fituations they however complain of lofs
from too thin a plant in this fort of crop.

I

Taste of Proportions of Seed on different Soils.

Wheat. Barley.
Kinds of Soil.

Seed.

Rath. |
Rich, newly
broken up |
common land. |

bw

Diewlesia

|

po [cel |
de EEE?

| |

ae eee a ele | |

Middling land.

Nh & GW
bie
din
we Bw
wie

pln |es

Newly inclofed
land.

wp
ie Ble

WriWw nw
RIK

ije flaee

Lae
lets

Mapper

3
3
3:

Bat)
is)
NIK

tolls

| am |
ble
Lom | ~ |

Sele |

Marfh land.

[rae | PP ee
[SSeS

| | Siac?
WO Ws
bin
| a coy

NIRA Oley le

Clay and marfh
land.

uw Nn
dies

ae BUSS
feceies
faci outx

bletole

poo
toleroie [te ke Reet

WWWwWWon
WHwpbHpp ie vk |
PRPRHR ANwWAY

Pleo} bleo

NN No
Alenols
Her | lo, Won}

= |
ow
IK
w
plee
>
BIR
loa)

The exa& proportion of feed that may be required, how-

ever, under different ftates and circumftances of lands, in ~

order to afford the mott full and produétive crops, cannot
by any means be afcertained, much conftantly depending on
the judgment of the feedfman, who muft always decide in
re{pe&t to the neceflary proportion for the particular cir-
cumitance, having a due regard to the nature and quality
of his feed, as well as the time and manner in which it is
put into the ground, as well as other circumftances. See
SOWING.

The moft ufual quantities and proportions of feed that are
made ufe of in all the different forts of field-crops, are men-
tioned under the particular heads to which they belong.
See the particular crops.

The writer of the work on ‘ Agricultural Sparel

thinks

SEED.

thinks that, in the feleétton of feeds, it would feem

phat thofe arifing from the moft highly cultivated varieties
of plants, are fuch as give the moft vigorous produce ; bat
that it is neceflary from time to time to change, and, as it
were, to crofs breeds, which may eafily be done by
means. Mr. Knight has found great advantages to

from it in wheat, merely by fowing the different forts

; and flates, that * in the years 1795 and 1796,

almott the whole crop of corn in the ifland was blight.

ed, the varieties obtained by crofling alone efcaped, though

— fown in f forts, aud in very different fituations. By
crofling two varieties of peas, a large fine pea has alfo been
which may probably be cultivated by the farmer
with great benefit.” '
feeds which are the moft perfect and healthy in their
are always found to fprout and grow in the beft
as may be more fully feen under their

heads. See Geawination and Vecerarionx.
I is concluded, from t number of experiments

a

a in the third volume of the Tranfac-
Highland Society, “ On the Influence of Frott,
ripening Corn,”’ that and oats in apt pe-
i to much variety of bad
yed, and that they even con-
uently ex-
y even to
when the laft is dry, they not only fuffer little
often continue to fill ; yet, where moifture pre-
it, they are foon wholly deftroyed. But that
this be the cafe, expofure in this way renders
unfit for feed: as while every feed of good corn
thrive when properly laced in the foil,
a great proportion of thofe which have
above the furface, and the

it,
iihoagh
them very

pened corn
crop which nits s, in a confiderable
is does

on the weight of i

nt expofed to much of
Cpa! weak, and the ge {mall, even ae

be of the common weight. That froft appears ftill
as feed, and in other ways, than
as well as to grafles. it no
oC fed to froit fhould ever be

fed as feed ; but that which is for this purpofe, fhould
alw fouthern fituations, where there
That, on the fcore of economy,
fo expofed fhould never be em-
twice aoe of it will be required ;
as the quality of the produce will

i in is eafil
he corn ; the latter being plump, full, and
peculia: arance, and moftly free from chaff ;

¢ the former is and pinched in, and never entirely

, being bleached and chaffy. Where thefe marks are not
mere vegetation of the feeds is, it is faid, by no
means fufficient, though often depended upon. That, when
ght feed is made ufe of, the crops more readily fuffer with

and other and it would feem that many
bid affections of plants, efpecially fuch as give rife to
: generation of infects, are parti apt to {pread and

mmunicate the jon to others that are weak;
like animals in a itate of debility, do not fo readily
the formation of thofe vermin by which the
to be deftroyed, as thofe plants whie

diftin- kept

are found and in a vigorous flate, That thie therefore
fhould be confidered as a powerful motive for ufing only
the bett corn for feed, a maxim that cannot be too ttronyly
inculcated ; as the opinion which has already beea hinted at
prevails with many, of all feeds that vegetate being nearly

ually fit for the production of crops, they frequently make
ah of the weak light part of their corn for feed, and convert
all the beft of it into flour or meal ; end thus, for s temporary
advantage, continue to perpetuate the produttion of crops
that are both {mall in quantity and of very inferior quality.
That, forthe prevention of thefe hurtful confequences, none
but the beit feeds of every kind thould be fown., ‘That, with
this view, farmers fhould not only procure feed that has been
well ripened, but fuch as has been well kept, and never in-
jured by frofts, fnows, or rains. ‘That it would alfo be
much for their intereit, to wath the whole of their feed-corn
in ftrong brine; not only their wheat but their barley and
oats, as well as their beans, peafe, and tares ; as nothing ren-
ders corn fo fit for feed as this operation, when properly
done ; as it not only carries off all the light feeds, but alfo
the feeds of a great many weeds which cannot in any other
way be fo completely feparated from it.

Phat it is thought, that the preference commonly given to
new corn for feed, is not well founded ; as it was found
that the produce of old corn was equal, both in quantity
and quality, to that of the beft corn newly reaped. This is
the cafe too with all the grafs-feeds that sre commonly
fown. One of the beft crops of hay, which is recolleéted
to have been feen, was produced from a mixture of red,
white, and yelldw clover, rib-grafs, and hay-grafs, which,
by accident, had been neglected, and kept for fix years. An
acre, or thereabouts, was fown with this mixture, while the
reft of the field was fown with the feed of the preceding year,
and the crop was equally good over the whole. That it is
hence advifed, that in dry warm feafons, when all the grafs-
feeds are commonly goed, fuch farmers as have it in their
power fhould provide a large quantity of thofe that they
ufually fow, to make ufe of when they are fearce and bad,
which cdnftantly happens after cold or wet feafons. That
it is on this principle, of the feeds of plants retaining their

ower of vegetating for along time, that we account for the
adden appearance of many of the grafles, and other plants,
where they had not grown for a long period of time before.
‘After the great fire in London in 1666, broom and clover,
it is faid, appeared on the {cite of almoft every houfe in the
{pace of a few months, although the whole had been occu-
ied with ftreets for feveral centuries. We daily perceive,
it is faid, in Scotland and other parts, that white clover ap-
almoft as foon as the heath or other matters are de-
with which lands had been occupied before ; and
it is thought probable, that corn, pulfe, and gra{féfeeds,
where they have been found and eek at firft, and properly
afterwards, will be found quite fit for feed, even when
a good many years old. Sce the Paper.

Seeps, in Gardening, the {mall grains or other differently
formed bodies, which are produced by plants, trees, or
fhrubs of almoft all kinds after flowering, and which con-
tain in them the little embryo, or eflences of the future
arg of each particular fort, which confift of feveral dif-
erent parts, but the principal of which are thefe: the cor-
culum, the little heart, the point of life, or effential point or
part from which the future vegetable is to be produced, and
which is the {mall point or {peck that is Fisked ia the centre
of each feed, between what are called the cotyledons or the
lobes of it, and which is attached thereto, being diftin@ly
pec moft of the bean kind, as well as in almoft every
other fort of leguminous feeds. It confiits of two at

ve

SEED.

the roftellum and the plumula ; the former of which contti-
tuting the radical or defcending part, which {trikes down-
wards into the earth, or foil, and becomes the future root ;
the latter, which becomes the afcending part, or that which
fhoots upwards, and conititutes the item, branches, and
other parts of the future plant. This point, or {pot in the
feed, is likewife fometimes termed pundum vite.

The cotyledons, or fide-lobes, are the perifhable fide-lobes,
or parts of the feed, which involve, contain, and for fome
time nourifh and fupport, the corculum, or embryo plant.
Thefe fide-lobes are for the moft part two in number, which
are very clearly feen in the bean kind of feeds, as well as in
moft others derived from the leguminous tribe of plants, efpe-
cially when they have been previoufly laid a fhort time in
earth or water. When the. feed has been committed to,
and depofited in the ground or foil, the corculum, or point
of life, if the feed be good, is feldom long before it begins
to {prout or germinate and exert itfelf in it, but the exa&t
length of time which is neceflary, ts fomewhat different in
different cafes, circumftances, and kinds of feeds ; the coty-
ledons expand, burfting open the outer coverings, and rife
in a gradual manner out of the earth or foil, in the form of
blades or leaves, which are commonly, in moft forts, termed
the /éed-leaves, in which difplaying the firft, or primary vi-
fible foundation and rudiments of the infant plant ; accom-
panying it for fome length of time after its eruption or firft
breaking from the ground, as until the firlt proper leaves
are formed in the centre of the vegetable, and advanced a
little in their growth, when the lobes or feminal leaves be-
coming ufelefs, they wither, decay, and are deftroyed. See
GERMINATION.

In general, plants are furnifhed with two cotyledons, or
feed-leaves, efpecially almoft the whole of the tribe of fibrous-
rooted herbaceous plants, all trees and fhrubs ; but there
are fome which have only one cotyledon, as is the cafe in
moft of the bulbous plants of the liliaceous tribe, which rife
out of the ground in the manner of a fheath ; and there are
fome feeds which have no cotyledons at all, for inftance, fuch
as the ferns, moffes, flags, and fungufes.

The other parts of feeds are the alz, or wings, and the
coronille, or crowns; in the former, many of which are
winged, or furnifhed with a thin membranous web or film, by
which means they fly and are affifted in being difperfed about,
as in the fir, birch, maple, afh, elm, hops, and a great number
of other forts ; and in the latter kind many of the feeds are
crowned, and fome furrounded with a pappofe fubftance, or
a fort of feathery or hairy down, efpecially in many of the
compound and other defcriptions, which ferve for the pur-
pofe of their diflemination, they being thus framed for fly-
ing, in a fomewhat fimilar manner to the fhuttlecock, fo as
to be eafily carried and tranfported by the wind to very con-
fiderable diftances from their natural fituations, examples of
which are to be met with in hawk-weed, groundfel, dande-
lion, and many other plants: this, however, is not much
the cafe with garden-feeds of the common: kinds.. But
there are {till numerous forts of feeds which are perfe@ly
fimple, having neither any thing of the wing or pappofe
fubftance about them ; as in moft of thofe employed by the
gardener.

It may likewife be obferved, that the number, form or
fhape, fize or dimenfions, and the fubitance or folidity of
different feeds, are extremely various, as produced by dif-
ferent kinds of garden plants. In refpeét to the particular
number, it may confilt of from one, to feveral hundreds, or
even thoufands, in a fingle feed-veflel, according to the par-
ticular plant from which it istaken: for though fome plants
do not afford more than one or two, others three or four,

4

there are many which have vaft numbers of feeds, and ate of
amazing fertility ; as, for inftance, in the tobacco-plant, one
fimple feed-veffel frequently contains not lefs than about one
thoufand feeds ; and in that of the white poppy plant it is
often not lower than eight thoufand:; the whole produce of
one fingle tobacco-plant is certainly upwards of forty thou-
fand ; but fome have fuppofed it to be more than three
hundred thoufand; and that of one fingle flalk of fpleen-
wort is conceived from calculation to be abeve one million of
feeds. This is moftly the cafe in flower and other plants,
but rarely in the culinary forts.

In regard to what concerns the forms of garden feeds,
they are, in general, either round, oval, kidney-fhaped,
heart-fhaped, angular, flat, or fome other form approaching
to fome of thefe. And in relation to the fizes and dimen-
fions of fuch feeds, they are very different according to the
plants from which they are taken, varying from the mag-
nitude of the large nut kind, down to the very minute feeds
of creffes, and others, which are {till much fmaller in their
fizes. With refpeét to the fubftance and folidity of feeds
they vary greatly, fome feeds are foft, pulpy, flefhy, others
hard and frm without any flefhy matter, fome membra-
nous, others hard and long in their natures, which is the
cafe in all the different kinds of the nut tribe, as well
as in the {tones of many forts of berries and other ftone
fruit.

Seeds of the garden fort are likewife either covered or
naked; the covered feeds are all fuch as are contained and
concealed in fome veflels either of the capfule, pod, berry,
apple, pear, cherry, or fome other fimilar kinds; the naked
feeds are all thofe which are not contained in any veffel, but
lodged in their receptacles, or in the bottoms of the cups
belonging to the different plants or flowers.

There is an almoft endlefs variety in the modes which
nature has provided for the diffeminating and difperfing the
feeds of plants, which is truly wonderful, though of but
little confequence in garden culture; in a very great many
plants, the fruit or veflels containing the feed, are raifed
above the ground, either by ereét firm ftems, or by climbing
{talks, fo that the fruit being elevated from the ground, it
may be more readily and eafily fhaken by the wind which
blows the feeds not unfrequently to a great diftance ; for the
fame reafon alfo, that defcription of feed-veffels which is
called capfule, in fome inftances, opens at the top, in order
that the feeds may be more fully and completely, as well as
more readily, difperfed or thrown about. And froma great
number of feeds being winged, as has been feen above, they
are in that way fpread far and near by the winds, and find
their paffage into different foils and territories. Befides,
fome feed-veffels are endued with a remarkable degree of
elafticity, by means of which they dart and throw their feed
with great force to a very confiderable diftance ; of this kind
are the plants called touch-me-not, and the f{pirting cu-
cumber, as well as fome others. There are many feeds and
feed-veflels too, which are armed with a fort of hooks, hairs,
&c. by which they attach themfelves to different kinds of
animals, or other matters, and are thereby difperfed ; fuch
for inftance, as in the feed of the carrot, hemp, agrimony,
burdock, &c. Further, the feeds of many forts that are de-
voured by birds, being carried and voided by them in an en-
tire and perfect ftate in different parts, often at a very great
diftance, not unfrequently take root and grow. In berries,
as well as other pulpy fruits, which have been eaten as food,
the feeds and kernels of many kinds of which pafs through
the body unhurt, and falling to the ground, likewife not
feldom take on a growing ftate. Seeds are alfo very fre-
quently carritd, difleminated, and difperfed by brooks,

rivers,

SEED.

rivers, torrents, and all forts of running waters and tides to

a t number of leagues diflance from their native foils

expolures, where, <i being left in fuch different grounds

and climates, they, however, not unfrequently eftablith and

reader themfelves familiar and agreeable in fuch new fitua-

tions. Thefe circumftances are neceffary to be known to

the » in order that he may guard againit the intro-
duétion of weeds, &c. more perfectly.

The duration or lating of fk, in oo as Bape shale

or ies of vegetating or ucing new plants,

airy cokdereble ietieds. ts re ne sitcy thofe of the cu-

cumber, melon, and gourd, not feldom retain their powers

ion for eight, ten, or twelve years; and it has been

hae ger thofe of the mimofa, or fenfitive

4 oi botain or preferve the principle of life or growth

thirty or forty years or more ; while, on the other hand,

H

a far number of feeds will not keep good, or in a
germinatin for more than one or two years; and many,
or indeed the greateft part of thefe, will not vegetate pro-

ey hae than one year old, nor fome even when kept
this length of time. ‘There are fome indeed which re-

to be fown or put into the ewe foon after they be-
ripe, or will not grow until the fucceeding year ;
a "hey are ieee bavesdicaly after anithone

ill not grow at all, as is not unfrequently
cafe with the berries of the coffee-plant. It has, how-
» been remarked, that almoft all forts of feeds which have
firft year after being collected or » in
, and a great deal ftronger, than fuch
been kept for a greater length of time ; for which
i y advifed to have recourfe to new feeds,
as are, not more than one year old, wherever it can
be done; except in the particular cafes of cucum-
in which feeds of two or three years old, or
more to be preferred, as the plants of this
when raifed from new feeds, are liable to run or grow
to flems or ftalks, without becoming
itioufly fruitful, or producing fruit in

keeping of garden feeds, all fuch as are
_ produced in dry capfules, or other dry {eed-veffels, are found
keep much better and longer in fuch veffels than if taken
and retain their germinative property the longeft and
in the bowels of the earth, when they may have
depofited and buried to a confiderable

HEBEL
ut
]

ih
t

i
i

u
1

in fuch places any time
before, very length of time. Mott
forts of feeds thould therefore be kept conftantly in
cap’ hufks, and other parts in which they are in-

“It may alfo beremarked, that moft forts of feeds, if fown

too deep, remain inactive, and fome never exert their vege-
tative properties at all, while others, notwithflanding, pre-
ferve theie power of ctation and growth; and whenever
the ground or foil is again freth flirred, or newly turned Up,
fuch of them as happen to approach towards the upper part,
will frequently thew themfelves, and come up, which fully
demonttrates the power and effe€@t which the fun and free air
have, in promoting and bringing forward the vegetation of
feeds as well as he On this account,’ therefere, it is
advifed that feeds of this fort thould never be fown too deep
in the ground, but conftantly, in fome meafure, in propor-
tion to their fize, or the quantity of matter which they con-
tain, as from about a quarter or half an inch deep, in the
{maller forts, to about one, two, and fometimes three inches
in the middling and large kinds, See Sowine of Seeds.

In relation to the vegetation, germination, or growth of
feeds, after they have been remelarts fown or fited in
the earth or foil to a proper depth, it is very quick in fome
forts, while in others it is flow, as for inftance, the feeds of
crefles, muitard, turnips, and many other forts, vegetate and
come up in a few days, fome other forts in one, two, or three
weeks; as in moft of the efculent kinds of the kitchen

arden, and a great many others of the herbaceous clafs;
foe the feeds of parfley and fome other kinds of plants often
remain in an inaétive {tate for a month or fix weeks, and there
are fill fome other forts which lie one or two years or more

in the und before they germinate and nfe in plants.
With re to the feeds of fhrubs and trees, there are fome
which will rife in the courfe of a month or fix weeks, or

even in a much fhorter time, while others require two or
three months to veyetate and grow, and there are fome kinds
which lie a whole year or more, before they begin to vege-
tate and grow, as in the cafe of the hawthorn, the holly,
and moit others of the very hard long-feeded kinds.

On the whole, thefe feeds are the deciduous parts of the

tables to which they belong, each of which includes the
rudiment of a new plant, and is endowed with a vital or
living principle by means of the {prinkling of the pollen or
male duft, which they are capable of retaining for a very con-
fiderable length of time when properly kept and preferved.

It is of great importance in the practice of gardening, to
be careful in colleGing feeds from the beft forts and varieties
of the different kinds of plants, to preferve them in a proper
manner, and to put them into the ground with due attention
to their nature and qualities. uch advantage may like-
wife be gained in fome cafes, by iteeping them in a {uitable
manner, and by producing a change in them, from the mix-
ing or combining of different varieties of the fame plants, in
raifing thofe from which they are taken. Peafe have been
pes getty improved in this way.

ith proper precautions, and with a zeal in any de

refembling that of the late Dr. Solander, of Mr. Blake,
who had formed a plan of procuring the feeds of all the
vegetables produced in China, which are ufed in medicine,
manufactures, or food, er are in any way ferviceable to man-
kind, and to forward to Europe not only fuch feeds, but
the plants ucing them (fee Kippis’s edit. of Biog.
Brit. art. Blake), and of fir Jofeph Banks; we might ob-
tain a variety of curious and ufeful plants now unculti-
vated in this country.

The feed of fruit-trees, it is faid, fheuld not be chofen
from thofe that are the moit fruitful, fo much as from the
moit folid and fair; nor are we to covet the largeft acorns,
but the moft weighty, clean, and bright. Porous, infipi
mild forts of feeds, are to be fown as foon as ripe; hot,
bitter feeds, ought to be kept a year before they are fown.
See Seminary.

SEE

The fhape and weight of feeds dire&t how they are to be
fet ; moft of them, when they fall, lie on one fide, with the
{mall end towards the earth; which fhewss that pofture to be
beft to fet any ftone or nut in; if they be heavy, fow them
the deeper. Acorns, peaches, &c. are to be fown two or
three inches deep. See SEMINATION.

There is a common method of trying the goodnefs of
many forts of feed, which is by putting them in water ; and
thofe which fink to the bottom are efteemed good, but thofe
that {wim on the furface are rejeGted. This rule, Mr. Miller
obferves, is not: univerfal ; for having faved the feeds of
melons which floated on the furface of water, they were
wafhed from the pulp, and keeping them two years, they
grew very well; but the melons they produced were not fo
thick-flefhed as thofe which he obtained from heavy feeds of
the fame eee The lightnefs of many forts of feeds he
afcribes to their not having been fufficiently impregnated
by the farina feecundans ; and, therefore, care fhould be
taken that this operation be properly performed, by not ex-
cluding plants that are in flower from the external air, or
even by affifting nature in conveying the farina of the male
flowers to thofe of the female. Miller’s Gard. Dictionary,
art. Seed.

Srp, Change of, a term ufed by the farmers to exprefs
the common, and, as they fuppofe, neceflary cuftom, of
changing among one another the feed of their lands, as wheat,
and the like; it being 4 received opinion, that the feed pro-
duced on one land will grow better on another than on that
which produced it, though the fame fpecies of plant be
fown.

Seeds, in their natural climate, do not degenerate, unlefs
culture has improved them ; they then indeed are liable, upon
omiffion of that culture, to return to their natural flate again.
Whatever benefit arifes to the farmer from the changing of
the feed of the fame fpecies, is from caufes which are them-
felves the effeGts of different climates, fuch as heat and
moifture, which may vary very much in the fame neighbour-
hood.

Laurembergius has carried this notion of degeneracy and
change from the foil, fo far as to affirm that wheat will, in
fome places, degenerate into rye; and in other places, rye
will be exalted into wheat by the foil; but thofe who are
acquainted with botany know, that a horfe might as foon be
changed into a bull by feeding in an improper pafture, as
one plant degenerate into another by fault of the foil.
Tull’s Hufbandry, p. 116. See Cuance of Seed.

Sreps, Steeping of, in prolific liquors, is a practice that
has occafionally prevailed, and it is not of modern invention.
The Romans, who were good hufbandmen, have left us
feveral receipts for fteeping of grain, in order to increafe
the powers of vegetation. In England, France, Italy, and
in all countries where agriculture has been attended to, a
variety of liquors has been recommended for this purpofe.
The pra¢tice is founded on a prefumption, that, by filling
the veflels of the grain with nourifhing liquors, the germ,
with its roots, would be invigorated. On this fubjeé&t Dr.
Hunter obferves, that all his experiments demonftrate, that
fteeps have no inherent virtue ; having fown more than once
the fame feed, fteeped and unfteeped, all other circumt{tances
being alike, he never found the leaft difference in the growth
of the crop. When, indeed, the light feeds are fkimmed off,
as in the operation of brining, the crop will be improved,
and difeafes prevented ; but thefe advantages proceed from
the goodnefs of the grain fown, and not from any prolific
virtue of the fteep. In this opinion many rational farmers,
determined by their own experience, concur. Duhamel

{peaks in the ftrongeft terms againft the prattice of fteeping,

SEE

fo far as it {uppofes an impregnation of vegetative particles,
Dr. Hunter, having farourcacal kinds of aoe in : sane
of fteeps, aflures the farmer, that the radicle and germ never
appeared fo vigorous and healthy, as when {prouted by ele-
mentary water ; whence it appears, that the feed requires no
afliftance.

Upon the whole he concludes, that as no invigorating or
fructifying liquor, however pompoufly introduced, has ever
ftood the teft of fair and correé&t experiment, it may be laid
down as an eftablifhed truth, that plump feeds, clear of
weeds, and land well prepared to receive it, will feldom
difappoint the expetations of the farmer; and upon thefe
he fhould rely for the goodnefs of his crop. Hunter’s
-Evelyn’s Silva, p. 15, &c.

Sreps, in Pharmacy, &c. The medicinal feeds, efpe-
cially thofe imported from the Indies, Levant, &c. are
feverally defcribed under their refpeGtive articles; which
fee. Among thofe ufed with us, the principal are, the four
greater hot, and the four greater cold feeds, as they are
called. The firft are thofe of anife, fennel, cumin, and
carraway ; the latter, thofe of gourd, citrul, melon, and
cucumber.

The chief ufe of the four cold feeds is for the making of
emulfions, cool refrefhing drinks, paftes for the hands, and
oils ufed by the ladies for the complexion.

SEEDS, in Agriculture, a term applied to young grafles,
or to lands newly laid to grafs, in many cafes.

Srep-Furrow, the furrow or ploughing on which the
feed is fown, or put in. Itis ufual, in the laft ploughing
before fowing, to have the furrow lefs turned than in other
cafes. See PLoUGHING.

Srep-Gra/s, a term ufed to fignify cultivated herbage,
or grafs, raifed in oppofition to natural grafs. See Arti-
Jicial GRASSES. , ;

Srxrp-Lip, a fort of bafket, in which the fower carries
his feed, in order to fow it. It is fometimes written /eed-
leap, or feed-lop.

A great improvement has lately been made on the com-
mon fowing-bafket, by a farmer at Malden, in the county
of Effex. He has contrived it in fuch a manner, that the
bottom is a wire-fieve, which fifts out the feeds of weeds
from the grain, in the motion of fowing ; a cloth bag being
attached beneath, for the purpofe of catching them.

SrEp-Room, the room or place where garden feeds are
kept and preferved in, either for the purpofe of fale, or
future ufe in fowing and raifing crops. Rooms for this
purpofe fhould have but little fun, be perfeétly free from
all forts of moifture, and be fitted up with every kind of
convenience for receiving, hanging, and keeping all defcrip-
tions of feeds.

In the arrangement with other garden buildings, the
feed-room fhould have a place as near the hot-houfe and
fruit-room as poffible ; but where there are no other build-
ings, it may have any fituation which is ready and con-
venient for depofiting the feeds.

SEED-Seam, the interftice between two plats, as left by
the plough; alfo the channels made by floating, drill-
ing, &c.

Cent eeds, fuch weeds as arife from the fowing or dif-
perfion of their feeds, and which do not propagate them-
felves by the roots. See Wexups.

Seep, Amber, Anife, Lac, Line, Muftard, Worm.
the refpective articles.

Seep of Pearl. See PEARL. é

SEEDLINGS, among Gardeners, denote fuch roots of
gilliflowers, &c. as come from feed fown. Alfo the young
tender fhoots of any plants that are newly fown.

SEEDLY,

See

F SEE
SEEDLY, in'Gregrapty, a town of Morung; 55 miles
N.W. of a y a
SEEDNESS, in Agriculture, provincially ufed for feed

who are not wainted, experienced, and expert in the
| Dufinels of fowing. They are, befides, in many inftances,
incapable of g on with the work with that expedition
which is ; which is a great inconvenience and

lofs to the farmer at this buly feafon of the year, when
every thing of this fort pad § be in the greatett activity.
See Seep and Sowinc.
It is alfo a term which is made ufe of to fignify the perfon
a thop, or other place, for the fale of feeds,
, or the gardener, or any other perfons.
Thefe feed-dealers have fometimes’ the name of en
feedimen. ‘The London feed-dealers are a very confiderable
of men, who do much bufinefs in the difpofing of all
of feeds which are neceflary to be employed in the
farming and gardening, as well as in different
ways.

garden {eed{man is commonly the gardener himfelf,

ing never, or very rarely, employed in fow-
any fort of garden crop.

“SEEDY, in the Brandy Trade, a term ufed by the

a fault that is found in feveral Is of

and which renders them unfaleable.

HIE

itt
'

The
that thefe brandies obtain the flavour,
exprefs by this name, from the weeds which
the vines, from whence the wine, of which this
r was made, was prelled.
i the thing is evident, and the tafte not of
kind ; but fome pieces of brandy hhall tafte ftrongly
feed, fome of carraway feed, and fome of other of
ong flavoured feeds of plants, principally of the um-
rous kind; fo that it fhall be rather taken for anifeed,
raway, or fome other water, than for brandy.
“he ere of fuch brandies is always at great trouble
off, and ufually is reduced to the neceflity of
; Sitesi Weall ceranthrlas with pieces of other brancice,
as to drown and conceal the tafte ; and where he has not
portunities of doing this, he is obliged to fell them on
y difadvantagevus terms.
bufinefs of rectification of {pirits is very little under-
yd abroad, though much praétifed with us; and a man

t advantages by it. There
De et ed aly to toc-

i
i

if
°

a

és

SEE

ftinking oil, which always arifes with it in the firfl di4ifls.
tion, would alfo ferve to purify thele brandics, and
leaving the extraneous oils behind, render them as well tafl
as any others; flace there is no queftion, but that the oil of
malt, which is 3 principle of the fame ingredient with the
{pirit, is more firmly united to it than thefe flavouring oils
in the brandy, which are not the produce of the grape, but
of fome foreign matter enly accidentally mixed with it. See
Branpy and Srinirs,

It is a millake to imagine, that al! brandies made in
France are fo fine a5 thole which we meet with on the quays
of London; on the contrary, there are many hundred pieces
made every year, which are as badly flavoured as our coarfet
malt {pirit, But the cafe is this, they fend the belt brandies,
and the beft wine, to Fngland, where they can get the bett
prices for them. In Hollard, on the contrary, the mart
of goods of all forts, it is fometimes difficult to fele& one
aid of brandy out of fifty, the general run of them

ing either feedy, or mutty, oily, or otherwife infeed
with fome unnatural and difagreeable flavour: and thefe are
the forts which in France they defpair of curing by re-
diftillation, or bringing to the hate of three-fifths, or trois
cingues, as they exprefs their ftronger brandies. Shaw’s
Eflay on Dittillery.

Szepy Abdel Abbus, in Geography, a town of Tunis, an-
ciently called “ Muifti;’’ 16 miles N.E. of Keft.

Srepy Abdelmoumen, a town of Algiers, in the
of Tremecen, on the coaft of the Mediterranean, ving a
good road for fhips. It derives its name from a celebrated
prophet, whefe tomb the inhabitants hold in great venera-
tion; 4 miles S.W. of Mejerda.

Srevy Abdullah, a town of Morocco, on the coaft of the
Atlantic ; 30 miles N. of Mogador.

Seepy Abid, a town of Algiers, in the province of Tre-
megen, at the conflux of the Arhew and the Shelliff, held
as a fanctuary ; 30 miles E. of Muitygannim.

ey Bofgannim, a town of Tunis; 40 miles $.W. of

rovince

eft.

Srrpy Bu/oro@on, a town of Morocco, on the coait of
the Atlantic; 10 miles N. of Mogador.

Sgeepy Doude, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, at the north extremity of the infula of Dakkul,
furrounded with the ruins of the ancient Mifna. Its pre-
fent name is derived from Doude, or David, a Moorith
faint, whofe fepulchre, as they fhew it, is five yards long.
But, according to Dr. Shaw (in his Travels), this is aany
a fragment of fome Roman pretorium, as he is led to con-
jeCture from three teflellated or mofaic pavements, wrought
with the moft exa& fymmetry ; and executed with all the
artful wreathings and variety of colours imaginable, and with
an intermixture of figures of horfes, birds, fifhes, and trees,
curioufly inlaid, fo that they appear more gay and lively
than many tolerably good paintings; 10 miles S.W. of
Cape Bon.

gepy Ee/ah, a town of Algiers, anciently called Sava;
25 miles S. of Boujeiah.

Seepy Meddub, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis; 20 miles N. of Gabs.

Szepy Nedja, a town of Algiers; 26 miles E. of Burg
Hamza.

Seepy Occuba, a town of Africa, in the province of
Zaab, famous for a tomb of an Arabian general of that
name, and for that of Seedy Lafcar, its tutelar faint; 15
miles S.E. of Bifcara.

SEEFELDT, a town of Auftria; 6 miles W. of

Laab.
SEEHAUSEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Old
Aa Mark,

SEE

Mark, on the river Aland, which almoft {urrounds its
40 miles N.W. of Brandenburg. N. lat. 52° §3!. E. long.
11° 59’.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Bremen; 3 miles
W. “of Bremen.— Alfo, a town of Weltphalia, called
‘* Sommerchenburg,”’ in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 18 miles
W. of Magdeburg.

SEEHAUSZ, a citadel of Germany, in the lordfhip of
Schwarzenberg, on a lake; 6 miles S. of Scheinfeld.

SEE-HOO, or S1-Hou, alake of China, on the borders
of which ftands the wealthy and extenfive city of Hang-
choo-foo, or Hang-tcheou-fou ; which fee. This lake, with
the furrounding {cenery, is accounted one of the grandett,
as well as moft beautiful, fpots in all China. The Lui-
fang-ta, or tower of the thundering winds, ftanding on the
point of a promontory; jutting into the lake, forms a bold
objet. It is faid to have been built in the time of the phi-
lofopher Confucius, who lived centuries before the Chrif-
tian era. ‘The vale of tombs has an almoft infinite variety
of ornaments. Naked coffins in great abundance lie {cat-
tered upon the ground, and the fides of the hills that rife
from the vale are thickly fet with groups of farcophagi,
in the fhape of {mall houfes, arranged in fuch a manner as
to have the appearance of {o many Lilliputian cottages. In
the Pinte annexed to Staunton’s Voyage, we have an in-
terefting view of this lake.

SEEHURAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Gurry-Mun-
della; 25 miles N. of Gurrah.

SEEING, the a& of perceiving objets by the organ of
fight ; or, it is the fenfe we have of external objects, by
means of the eye.

For the apparatus, or difpofition of the parts neceflary
to feeing, fee Evr. For the manner in which feeing 1s
performed, and the laws of it, -fee VisIon.

Our beft anatomifts differ greatly as to the caufe why we
do not fee double with the two eyes. Galen, and others
after him, afcribe it to a coalition, or decuffation of the
optic nerve, behind the os fphenoides. But whether they
decuflate or coalefce, or only barely touch one another, 1s
not fo well agreed.

Fhe Bartholines and Vefalius fay exprefsly, they are
united by a perfeé&t confufion of their fubftance ; Dr. Gib-
fon allows them to be united by the clofeft conjunction, but
not by a confufion of their fibres.

Alhazen, an Arabian philofopher of the 12th century,
accounts for fingle vifion by two eyes, by fuppofing that
when two correfponding parts of the retina are affected, the
rind perceives but one image.

Defcartes, and others, account for the effet another way ;
viz. by fuppofing that the fibrille conftituting the medullary
part of thofe nerves, being fpread in the retina of each eye,
have each of them correfponding partsin the brain ; fo that
when any of thofe fibrille are truck by any parts of any
image, the correfponding parts of the brain are affected
thereby.

Somewhat like which is the opinion of Dr. Briggs, who
takes the optic nerves of each eye to confift of homologous
fibres having their rife in the thalamus neryorum opti-
corum, and being thence continued to both the retine,
which are compofed of them; and farther, that thofe
fibrillz have the fame parallelifm, tenfion, &c. in both eyes ;
confequently, when an image is painted on the fame cor-
refponding fympathizing parts of each retina, the fame
effe€ts are produced, the fame notice carried to the thalamus,
and fo imparted to the foul. Hence is that double vifion en-
fuing upon an interruption of the parallellifm of the eyes ;
as when one eye is deprefled by the finger, or their {ym-
phony is interrupted by difeafe: but Dr. Briggs maintains,

SEE

that it is but in few fubjeéts there is any decuffation ; and itt
none any conjunction more than mere contact,

Dr. Briggs’s notion is by no means confonant to facts, and.
is attended with many improbable circumttances.

It was the opinion of fir Ifaac Newton, and of many
others, that objets appear fingle, beeaufe the two optic
nerves unite before they reach the brain. But Dr. Porter-
field fhews, from the obfervation of feveral anatomifts, that
the optic nerves do not mix, or confound their f{ubttance,
being only united by a clofe cohefion ; and objets have ap-
peared fingle, where the optic nerves were found to be dif-
joined. ‘To account for this phenomenon, this ingenious
writer fuppofes, that, by an original Jaw in our natures, we
imagine an objeét to be fituated fomewhere in a right line
drawn from the piture of it upon the retina, through the
centre of the pupil; confequently the fame objeét appearing
to both eyes to be in the fame place, the mind cannot diltin-
guifh it into two. i

In an{wer to an objeétion to this hypothefis, from objects
appearing double when one eye is diftorted, he fays, the
mind miftakes the pofition of the eye, imagining, that it
had moved in a manner correfponding to the other, in which ~
cafe the conclufion would have been juft: in this he feems
to have recourfe to the power of habit, though he difclaims
that hypothefis. This principle, however, has been thought
fufficient to account for this appearance.

Originally, every object making two pictures, one in each
eye is imagined to be double; but, by degrees, we find that
when two correfponding parts of the retina are imprefied,
the object is but one ; but if thofe corre{ponding parts be
changed by the diftortion of one of the eyes, the object muft
again appear double, as at the firlt. This feems to be verified
by Mr. Chefelden, who informs us, that a gentleman, who,
from a blow on his head, had one eye diltorted, found every
object to appear double, but by degrees the mott familar
ones came to appear fingle again, and in time all objects did
{fo without amendment of the diftortion. A: fimilar cafe is
mentioned by Dr. Smith.

On the other hand Dr. Reid is of opinion, that the cor-
refpondence of the centres of two eyes, on which fingle
vifion depends, does not arife from cultom, but from fome
natural conflitution of the eye and of the mind.

M. du Tour adopts an opinion, long before fuggefted by
Gaffendi, that the mind attends to no more than the image
made in one eye at a time; in fupport of which he produces
feveral curious experiments; but as M. Buffon obterves, it
is a fufficient anfwer to this hypothefis, that we fee more dif-
tinétly with two eyes than with one; and that whena round
objeé&t is near us, we plainly fee more of the furface in one
cafe than in the other.

With refpest to fingle vifion with two eyes, Dr. Hartley
obferves, that it deferves particular attention, that the optic
nerves of men, and fuch other animals as look the fame way
with both eyes, unite in the fella turcica in a ganglion, or
little brain, as it may be called, peculiar to themfelves, and
that the aflociations between fynchronous impreffions on the
two retinas mu{t be made fooner, and cemented ftronger on
this account ; and that they ought to have a much greater
power over one another’s images than in any other part of
the body. And thus an impreffion made on the right eye
alone by a fingle object, may propagate itfelf into the left,
and there raife up an image almol equal in vividnefs to
itfelf; and, confequently, when we /ee with one eye only,
we may, however, have pictures in both eyes.

It isacommon obfervation, fays Dr. Smith, that objects
feen with both eyes appear more vivid and ftronger than they
do to a fingle eye, efpecially when both of them are Sey

good.

SEE
. Porterfield on the Eye, vol. ii. pp. 285. 315:

Smith's Optics, Remarks, p. 31. Reid's Inquiry, p. 267-
Mem. Prefentes, p. 514. Acad. Par. 1747. M. ps 334.
yo em Man, vol. i. p. 207. Pricitley’s Hitt. of Light
and Co urs, P- 663, &e.

Whence it is that we fee objects ereét, when it is certain
that the images of them are painted invertedly on the retina,
iganother difficulty in the theory of fecing.

: artes accounts for it hence, that the notice which the
foul takes of the object does not depend on any image, nor
on any action coming from the object, but merely on the
fituation of the minute part of the brain whence the nerves
arife. £. gr. the fituation of a capillament of the optic
nerve corre — to a certain part of the brain, which oc-
eafions the foul to fee all thofe places lying in a right hne
therewith.

But Mr. Molyneux gives us another account ; the eye, he
obferves, is only the organ or initrument ; it is the foul that
fees. To enquire, then, how the foul ves the object
— ereét by an i image, is to inquire into the foul’s facul-
ties. Again, imagine that the eye receives an impulfe on its
lower part, by a ray from the upper part of an object, mutt
not the vifive faculty be hereby direéted to confider this
ttroke as ing from the top, rather than the bottom of the
—_ objeét ; and, confequently, be determined to conclude it the
* reprefentation of the top? :

Upon thefe principles, we are to confider, that inverted is
only a relative term, and that there jsa very great difference
between the real obje& and the means or image whereby we
perceive it. When all the parts of a diitant profpeét are

iuted upon the retina (fuppofing that to be the feat of vi-

a

a

), they are all right with refpeét to one another, as well as
the parts of the pro{peé itfelf ; and we can only judge of an
object being inverted, when it is reverfe to its natural
pofition with refpect to other obj we fee and com-
pare it with.

Sa
The eye, or vifive faculty, (fays Molyneux) takes no
notice of the internal furface of its own parts, but ufes them
as an inttrument as contrived by nature for the exercife
of fuch a faculty. If we lay hold of an upright ftick in
the dark, we can tell which is the upper or lower part of it,
by moving our hand upwards or downwards ; and very well
» that we cannot feel the upper end by moving our
hand downwards. Juft fo, we find by experience and habit,
that upon direGting our eyes towards a tall objet, we can-
not fee its top by turning our eyes downward, nor its foot
by tu our upward; but mutt trace the obje& the
fame way by the eye to fee it from head to foot, as we do by
the | to feel; and as the judgment is informed by the
= of the nee cd one cafe, fo it is alfo by the motion
eye in the other. Molyneux’s Dioptr. p. 105, &c.
‘Mufchenbroeck’s Int. ad Phil. } Nat. vol. P 2 ha Fer-
*s LeGiures, p. 132. See on the fubjects of this ar-
our account of the phyfiology of the eye, under

Oa G Faith, See Fairn.
_ SEEKIRCHEN, in_ , a town of the arch-
bithopric of Salzburg, on the Waller See; 4 miles N. of

__ SEEKPORUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Boggilcund ;
Rewah.

;
.

It is fometimes written /eal.
SEELAND, -in . See ZRaLann.
SEELANG, a i in the Eaft Indian fea, near

SEE
the S. coaft of the ifland of Bachian, with which it forms
a good inner and alfo outer harbour.

SEELBURG, or Sennritis, a town of the duchy of
Courland, on the Dwina, where the bifhops of Semigallia
formerly refided, and who, on that account, were called
bifhops of Seelburg; so miles S.E, of Riga.

SEELING. A horfe is faid to fel when he begins to
have white eye-brows, that 1s, when there grows on that
part about the breadth of a farthing of white hairs, mixed
with thofe of his natural colour, which is a mark of eld
age.

It is faid a horfe never feels till he is fourteen years old,
and always does before he is fixteen, ‘The light lorrel and
black fooner {eel than any other.

Horfe-jockies ufually pull out thofe hairs with pincers:
but if there be fo many that it cannot be done without
making the horfe look bald and ugly, then they colour their
eye-brows, that they may not appear old.

See.inG, in Falconry, is the running a thread through the
eye-lids of a hawk, when firit taken, to make her endure the
hood the better.

SeewinG, at Sea, is ufed in the fame fenfe nearly with
heeling : when a fhip lies down conftantly, or fteadily, on
one fide, the feamen fay the heels; and they call it feeling,
when fhe tumbles on one fide violently and fuddenly, by rea-
fon of the fea forfaking her, as they call it, i. ¢. the waves»
leaving her for a time in a bowling fea. When a thip thus
tumbles to leeward, they call it /ee-/ee/ ¢ and in this there is
not much danger, even ina florm, becaufe the fea will pre-
fently right her up again ; but if fhe rowls or feels to wind-
ward, there is fear of her coming over too fhort or fuddenly,
and fo by having the fea bees right into her, be either
foundered, or elfe have fome of her upper works carried

away.

SEELINGAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Sooloo Archipelago. N. lat. 6° 4. E. long. 118° 15’.

SEELKEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Na-
tangen; 9 miles W.N.W. of Liel.

SEELOW, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark ; 1o miles W. of Cuttrin.

SEEM, or Seme. See Seam.

SEE-MA-KOANG, in Biography, a Chinefe mandarm
and philofopher of the eleventh century, .who enjoyed the

favour of the emperor, and had feveral important places,

which he refigned and retired to a folitary place, where he
wrote a hiftory of China, commencing at the 403d year be-
fore the Chriftian era. He was author likewife of fome
moral treatifes. é

SEEMO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Kaflon.
N. lat. 14° 25’. E. long. 8° 45’.

SEENEENDOONG, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the N. coait of Borneo. N. lat. 7° 48’. E. long.
117° 45".

SEENGHOO, a large town of the Birman empire,
fituated on the lrawaddy, having in its neighbourhood, and
for a great diftance along the eaftern bank of the river,
{mall temples built clofe to the water; 10 miles S, of Ps-

m.
wEEEOR, atown of Hindooftan, in Malwa; 50 miles
E.S.E. of Shajehanpour. '

SEEPARRAN, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the eaft coait of Borneo. N. lat. 4°8'. E. long.
118° 23'.

SEER, Principality of, a petty fovereignty of Arabia,
extending from oS ie dom along the Perfian gulf.
The Perfians call it the country of Dsjulfar, another cape
near Muflendom. The Europeans alfo call the inha-

Aaz bitants

SEF

bitants the Arabs of Dsjulfar. The other Arabs call
it Seer, from the town of the fame name, which has a
good harbour, and is the feat of the fcheick. He formerly
poffeffed and {till retains the ifle of Scharedsje, with {ome con-
fiderable places upon the oppofite fide of the gulf, among
which are Kunk and Lundsje. This country not long fince
acknowledged the fovereign authority of the Imam ; but it
has withdrawn itfelf from this condition of dependence ; and
the fcheick often goes to war with his old mafter ; but with-
out affiftance, he 1s not able to defend himfelf. He takes
care, however, to live upon good terms with the other inde-
pendent {cheicks, efpecially with the fcheick of Dsjau, whofe
dominions lie weltward from Oman. The prince of Seer
makes fome figure among the maritime powers in thefe
parts. His navy is one of the mott confiderable in the Per-
fian gulf. His fubje&ts are much employed in navigation,
and carry on a pretty extenfive trade. N, lat. 25°. E.
long. 54° 38. Niebuhr’s Travels into Arabia, vol. ii.
Eng. ed.

SEERD, atownof Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Diarbekir; 55 miles E. of Diarbek.

SEERKA, a town of Bengal; 25 miles E. of Pa-
lamow.

SEERPOUR, a town of Bengal; 18 miles W. of
Moorfhedabad.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 25 miles N.E.
of Nattore.—Alfo, a town of Hindoottan, in Allahabad,
on the Ganges; 40 miles E. of Gazypour.—Alfo, a town
of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sumbul; 4o miles S. of
Nidjibabad.—Alfo, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar; 15
miles W. of Patna. —Alfo, a town of Hindoottan, in Bahar ;
g miles N. of Arrah.

SEERSY, a town of Bengal; 40 miles S.S.W. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 22°39!. E. long 87° 35!.

SEERWAY, a town of Hindoottan, in Myfore; 10
miles N. of Chinna Balabaram.

SEES, a town of France, in. the department of the
Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Alen-
son, before the revolution the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan
of Rouen; 24 pofts N. of Alengon. The town, fituated
onthe Orne, contains 5471, and the canton 10,848 inha-
bitants, ona territory of 210 kiliometres, in 18 communes.
N. lat. 48° 36’. E. long. 0° 15'.—Alfo, a river of France,
which runs into the fea near Mount St. Michel.

SEESEEN, atown of Wettphalia, in the principality of
Wolfenbuttle ; 4 miles E. of Ganderfheim.

SEESKAR, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N.
lat. 60° 5’. E. long. 25° r1/.

SEESUCUNDA, a town of Africa, in Woolly. N.
lat. 13° 25'. W. long. 12° 54’.

SEETACOON, atown of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 18
miles N. of Iflamabad.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 15 miles
N. of Curruckpour.

SEETAPOON, a town of Bengal; 20 miles N.N.W.
of Iflamabad. N. lat. 22° 37/. E.long. g1° 48'.

SEETRUNGE, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes in
Guzerat, and runs into the gulf of Cambay ; 4 miles E. of
Sultanpour.

SEETUL, a town of Bengal; 13 miles N. of Maul-
dah.

SEEVE, ariver which runs into the Elbe, near Haar-
burg.

SEEWAH. See Srwa.

SEEWALD, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland, near Deutfch Eylau.

SEEWEE Bay. See SEweEE.

SEFAKIN, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen ; 60 miles S.E, of Loheia. ;

SEF

SEFATIANS, a fect of Mahometans, who held the
oppolite opinion to the Moatazalites, with refpe&t to the
eternal attributes of God, which they affirmed, making no
diftin@tion between the effential attributes, and thofe of
operation ; and hence they were named Sefatians, or Attri-
butifts. See MoaTazALitrs.

The do@trine of the Sefatians was that of the firft Maho-
metans, who were not yet acquainted with thefe nice diltinc-
tions ; but this fect afterwards introduced another fpecies of
declarative attributes, or fuch as were necelflarily ufed in
hiltorical narration, as hands, face, eyes, &c. which they
did not offer to explain, but contented themfelves with
faying they were in the law, and that they called them
« declarative attributes.” At length, by introducing vari-
ous explications and interpretations of thefe attributes, they
divided into many different opinions; fome, by taking the
words in the literal fenfe, fell into the notion of a likenefs
or fimilitude between God and created beings, to which
it is faid the Karaites or Caraites among the Jews, who are
for the literal interpretation of Mofes’s law, had fhewn
them the way :—others explained them in another manner,
faying that no creature was like God, but that they neither
underftood, nor thought it neceflary to explain the precife
fignification of the words which feem to affirm the fame of
both; it being fufficient to believe that God hath no com-
panion or fimilitude.

The feéts of the Sefatians are, 1. The ‘ Afharians,’’ or
followers of Abu’l Hafan al Afhari, who allowed the attri-
butes of God to be diftin& from his eflence, yet fo as to
forbid any comparifon to be made between God and his
creatures; and who, as to predeftination, maintained that
God hath one eternal will, and that he willeth both the good
and evil, the profit and hurt of men, and who have even
faid, that God may even command man to do what he is not
able to perform ; and as to mortal fin they taught, that if a
believer guilty of fuch fin die without repentance, his
fentence is to be left to God, whether he pardon him out of
his mercy, or whether the prophet intercede for him, or
whether he punifh him according to his demerit, and. after-
wards, through his mercy, admit him into paradife ; but that
it is not to be fuppofed he will remain for ever in hell with the
infidels :—fuch were the more rational Sefatians, who were
very different from—z. The ‘ Mofhabbehites,”’ or <* Affi-
milators.”? (See MosHasppenires.) 3. The ‘ Kerami-
ans,’ called alfo ‘* Mojaflemians,”” or ‘* Corporealifts,”?
who declared God to be corporeal. (See Keramrans.)
4. The “‘ Jabarians.” (See JaBarrans.) 5. The “ Mor-
gians,’’ faid to be derived from the Jabarians, who teach, that
the judgment of every true believer that hath been guilty of a
grievous fin, will be deferred till the refurreétion, and that
difobedience with faith is not injurious, but, on the other
hand, that obedience with infidelity doth not profit. The
Morgians are diftributed into four fpecies; three of which,
according as they happen to agree in particular dogmas with
the “ Kharejites’” the ‘* Kadarians,” or the ‘ Jabarians,’?
are diftinguifhed as Morgians of thofe feéts, and the fourth
is that of pure Morgians, and this fpecies is fubdivided into
five others. The opiions of Mokatel and Bafhar, both be-
longing toa fect of Morgians, called * Thaubanians,”’ are as
follow. The former aflerted that difobedience hurts not him
who profefles the unity of God and is endowed with faith,
and that no true believer fhall be caft into hell; he alfo
taught that God will certainly forgive all crimes befides infi-
delity ; and that a difobedient believer will be punifhed at
the refurreétion, on the bridge laid over the midft of hell,
where the flames of hell-fire fhall catch hold on him,. and
torment him in proportion to his difobedience, and that ‘he

fhall

SEG

fhall then be admitted into paradife. The latter held, that
if God do caft the believers guilty of grievous fins into hell,
- they will be delivered thence after they fhall have been
ufficient) punifhed ; but that it is neither poflible nor con-
wich jultice, that they fhould remain there for ever.
aes Dile. F
U, ia G » a town of Perfia, in the
of Farfittan ; ead S.W. of Schiras.
SEFROI, a town of Africa ; zo miles S.E. of Fez.
oo tome a town of Africa, in Foota. N. lat. 10°
. W. + 10° a6’.
SEG. Rural sey, the name of a caftrated bull.
SEGAGHEE, in G » a town of the Birman
—— on the lrawaddy ; 6 miles from Deneebow.
EGALLA, a gold mine of Africa, in the kingdom
of Bambouk.

SEGAR, Sir Wituian, in Bi » garter king at
arms, was author of “ Honour Ft itarg Military,” folio,
1602. He was imprifoned for granting the royal arms of
Arragon, canton of Brabant, to George Brandon,
the common hangman, but it being very evident that he had
edhe eg upon he was releafed. He died in 1633.

's Baronage is faid to have been principally taken

from Segar’s MSS.
Szcar, ia . See Sapskar.
SEGARDEE, a town of Hindooitan, in Golconda ;

30 miles W.N.W. of Hydrabad.
. SEGARGIUM, a town of Thibet; 52 miles S.W. of

Zz
‘SEGEBORG, atown of the duchy of Holftein, the
name of which is derived from a caitle built there by the
emperor Lotharius in the 1137, of which few vettiges
; = thtoryend 18 miles N.W. of ubeck. N. lat. 53° 58’.
> TC Se :
4 SEGED, 7 town of Nubia; 30 miles: S. of Sennaar.
SEGEDA, in Ancient G , avery celebrated town
t of Spain, in Bettica, in the interior of the country, between
the coait of the ocean and the river Tader, according to
Pliny.—Alfo, a large and powerful town of Spain, in Cel-
— belonging to the people called Beffi, according to

ppian.

SEGEDIN, in Geography. See ZecEvIn.

SEGEDUNUM, in Aacient G by, a town on the
confines of Dacia, on the river Tibifcus, which belonged
to the Jazyges.
_ Srcepunum, one of the eighteen ftations on the wall of
Severus, in Englith « Coufins’-houfe,” being the firft ftation
reckoning from eaft to weit, three miles five furlongs and
one and a half chain from the next ftation to the welt of it.
SEGEHERAD, in Geography
a8 » in » atown of Norway, in

province of Chriitiania ; 24 miles W. of Chriftianis:

ELOCUM, in Anci-nt Cogeanly a town of the

4

ifle of Albion, inthe sth Iter of Antonine, between Lin-
n and Dan our antiquaries agree in placing
; i Agelocum in 8th Iter, at Little-

ie called
between Lincoln and Doncatter, where Roman
and other ancient remains have been found.

of
ERS, or Secuexs, Genarn, in Biography, ‘This
painter was born at Antwerp in 1589. He was
pupil of Henry van Balen, but afterwards entered the
: Abraham Janffens, and had made confiderable
is in the ar¢ when he went to Italy. On his arrival

SEG

at Rome, he attached himlelf as a difciple to Bartolommeo
Manfredi; and from him sdopted a talte for the vigorous
flyle of Michael Angelo Caravaggio, ‘To the ftreagth of
contraft, which he thus adopted, * added fomewhat of the
tone and colour he had brought with him from his native
country; producing the powerful efleét of candle-lght,
though often fallely applied in fubjeéts which appertain to
the milder illumination of the day. By fkilful produétions
of this nature, he acquired very confiderable fame, and
was at length invited by the cardinal Zapara, the Spanith
ambaflador at Rome, to accompany him to Madrid. He
accepted the invitation, and was prefented by the cardinal
to the king, who received him in the moft gracious manner,
and engaged him in his fervice, with a confiderable penfion.
He employed himfelf at Madrid in painting feveral hilto-
rical fubjects, and fome mufical converfation pieces, which
were greatly admired ; but after remaining there fome years,
the defire of revifiting his native country induced him to

ueft permiffion to retire. His renown had reached
Flanders, and his fellow-citizens were impatient to poflefs
fome of his produétions; yet, when he had arrived there,
and poker fome paintings in his ftrong manner, they,
whofe eyes had been accuftomed to the pure brilliant hues,
and clear contraits of Rubens and Vandyke, were unable
to yield him that harveit of praife to which he had been
accuftomed, and he was obliged to change his manner, and
adopt a more tender and a ble ityle. The facility with
which he effected this change, proves his power over the
materials of the art, and his judgment in its principles;
and many of his latter pictures bear evident teftimony in
{upport of his general ability. His moit efteemed produc-
tion is or was the principal altar-piece in the church of
the Carmelites at Antwerp, the fabject of which is the
Marriage of the Virgin. Vandyke painted his portrait
among the eminent artiits of his country, which is engraved
by Pontius. He died in 1651, aged 62.

Secers, Daniet, was the younger brother of Gerard,
and born at Antwerp in 1590. His taite leading him to
defign fruit and flowers, he was placed asa difciple with
J. Brughel. At the age of 16 he entered the fociety of
the Jefuits, and abandoned painting during his noviciate, but
when that term expired, he obtained permiffion of his fupe-
rior to vilit Rome, where his brother was then flourifing
with diftinétion ; and he alfo acquired confiderable celebrity,
by the fidelity and {kill with which he imitated the beauty
and variety of thofe objects of creation, as flowers, plants,
and infeéts, which he chofe for his models.

His produétions were fought with avidity, and his talents
were not unproduétive even to his convent, which received
valuable tributes in return’for thofe ingenious and entertain-
ing treafures of art. He appears, indeed, to have painted
more for the benefit of the wily fociety to which he had
attached himfelf, than for his private advantage : and whea
he had produced his moft celebrated picture, at the com-
mand of the prince of Orange, it was prefented to that
monarch in the name of the fociety, which was munificently
recompenfed in return. He frequently painted garlands of
flowers, as borders for pictures, which were filled up with
hiftorical fubje€&ts by the firft painters. He died at Aut-
werp in 1660, aged 70.

SEGESTA, or crsra, or Sege/le, in Ancient Geogra-
piss a town in the interior of Sicily, W. of Panorma. It

a harbour and gulf of the fame name. The harbour
was called “ Segeftanorum emporium,’’ according to

Ptolemy.
Thucydides reprefents it as a maritime town, and {peaks
of the navigation at JEgefta. This ancieus name is fad to
have

SEG

have been given to the place by Egeftus the Trojan, who is
faid to have been one of its founders; but the Romans pre-
tend that it was founded by Aineas. Its ruins are {till
vilible. The mineral waters of this place were called ‘ Se-
geftane aque :” and they are placed in the Itinerary of
Antonine on the route from the Lilybean promontory to
Tyndaris, between Drepanum and Parthenicum.

Sreesta Tiguliorum, Sefiri, a town of Italy, in the interior
of Liguria, towards the eaft. It was anciently confi-
derable.

SEGESTAN, or Sristan, in Geography, a province of
Perfia, formerly called « Nimrofe,’? from a fabulous tra-
dition that it was once under water, and that it was drained
in the fhort {pace of half a day by the Genii, comprehends
part of Ariana and the country of the Sarangezans, and is
bounded on the N. and N.W. by Khorafan, E. by Canda-
har and Zableftan, and S. and S.W. by Mekran and Ker-
man. The greater part of this province is flat, fandy, and
uninhabited. A wind blows for a hundred and twenty days,
during the hot months, with fuch violence as to overwhelm
with clouds of fand, houfes, gardens, and fields. Although
Segeftan is now reduced to a deplorable condition, it once
rivalled in profperity the moft flourifhing provinces of the
empire. The noble river Heermund (the ancient Ety-
mander), navigable for boats from Boft to Zarang, flows
through the extent of it, from the mountains of Hazara,
beyond Cabul to the lake of Zerrah. Capt. Chriftie, who
travelled in 1810 through the heart of Seittan, reports that
from Noofhky, in northern Mekran, to the banks of the
Heermund, the country was a mere defert, interfected with
fand-hills, and that he did not fee a fingle town, or even
village, in the way ; the only inhabitants of this wild being
a few Balouche and Patan fhepherds, who lived in tents
pitched in the vicinity of the {prings. He reached the Heer-
mund in N. lat. 30°24!. E. long. 64° 16!, and followed
the banks of that river for about feventy or eighty miles.
Its courfe lies through a valley, varying in breadth from
one to two miles, the defert rifing on either fide in per-
pendicular cliffs. The valley, irrigated by the waters of
the river, is covered with verdure and brufhwood. Our
traveller found an aftonifhing number of mixed towns,
villages, and at one of thefe, Kulcaupul, a noble palace in a
tolerable ftate of prefervation. The remains of a city,
named “ Poolkee,’’ he defcribes as immenfe. The Heer-
mund is four hundred yards wide, very deep ; the water
being remarkably fine, and the banks cultivated for half a
mile on each fide. The prefent capital of Seiftan is “ Doo-
fhak,”’ fuppofed to be the fame with the ancient Zarang, and
now the refidence of the prince of Seiftan, fituated in N.
lat. 31° 8. E. long. 63° 10’; about eight or nine miles
from the river. Jt is {mall and compa&, but the ruins cover
a vaft extent of ground, It is populous, has a good bazar,
and the inhabitante, drefled in the Perfian manner, appeared
more civilized than the other natives of the province, who
are either Patan or Balouche fhepherds, men of wandering
life, and pitching their tents under the ruins of ancient pa-
laces, ‘The country in the vicinity of the town is open, well
cultivated, and produces wheat and barley fufficient for ex-
portation to Herat; the paiturage alfo is good and abundant.
The revenues of the chief of Seiftan amount to no more
than 80,000 rupees, and he can bring into the field about
3000 men. Twenty-five miles N. of Doofhak are the
ruins of a very large city, named “ Pefhawaran,”’ and a few
smiles beyond that the remains of another, called “ Jouen.””
Ferrah, or Ferah, is diftant fixty-five miles from Doofhak ;
and it is defcribed as a very large walled town, fituated
in a fertile valley, on a river which flows into the lake of

SEG

Zerrah, or Zara, and nearly half-way between Candahar and
Herat.

Seiftan is, at prefent, divided into a number of {mall inde-
pendent ftates, governed by chiefs, who live in fortified vil-
lages, fituated principally on the banks of the Heermund.
About ten days’ journey from Doofhak is the city of Kub-
beer, fituated in the mid{t of the defert, fifteen days’? march
from Kerman and fixteen from Yezd. The whole of the inter-
mediate fpace is an arid wafte, interfe¢ted with one or two
ranges of mountains. ‘Through this defert is a path, by
which Caffids, or couriers, can go from Kerman to Herat in
eighteen days; but the rif of perifhing is fo great, that a
perfon of that defcription demands 200 rupees for the car-
riage of a letter. Kuinneir’s Mem. of the Perfian Empire.

SEGESTE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Iftria, be-
longing to the Carni, according to Pliny. Strabo places it
in Pannonia, at the confluence of feveral navigable rivers,
fo that the Romans eftablifhed their magazines in it, during
their war with the Dacians.

SEGESTE, a town of Italy, in Liguria, S.E. of Portus
Delphini.

SEGESVAR, in Geography. See ScuEspurc.

SEGETICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of European
Myfia, or of Meefia, of which Craffus gained poffeffion,
according to Dion Caffius.

SEGEZ, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which forms a
communication between the lakes Sig and Vig, in the govern-
ment of Olonetz.

SEGGARS, in the Manufadure of porcelain and pottery,
are cafes formed of coarfer clays, but which are capable of
fuftaining the required heat without fufion; in which dif-
ferent kinds of earthenware are baked. See PorceLain
and Porrrry.

SEGGERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SEGIDA, a town of Spain, in Celtiberia.
Byz. and Strabo.

SEGILMESSA, in Geography. See SuGuLMEsSA.

SEGISA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in the
Tarragonenfis, in the interior of the country of the Ba-
riftani.

SEGISAMA, and Segifama Julia, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonenfis, depending upon the Vacceans, according
to Ptolemy. It was fituated S. of Lacobriga, and E. of
Pallentia.

SEGLINGE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Baltic,
near the coaft of Finland. N. lat. 60° 14! E. long,
20° 30!.

SEGLORA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
25 miles E, of Gothenburg.

SEGMENT of a Circle, in Geometry, a part of a circle,
comprehended between an arc and its chord ; or, it is a part
of a circle comprehended between a right line lefs than a
femi-diameter, and part of the circumference.

Thus the portion AFBA (Plate XIII. Geometry,

jig. 13.) comprehended between the are A FB and the
chord A B, is a fegment of the circle A BF D, &c.; fois
allo ADBA a fegment comprehended between the arc
AD Band the chord A B.

As it is evident every fegment of a circle muit either be
greater or lefs than a femicircle, the greater part of the circle
cut off by a chord, i. ¢. the part greater than a femicircle,
is called the greater fegment, as A F B; and the lefler part,
or the part lefs than a femicircle, the er fegment, as
ADB, &c.

The angle which the chord A B makes with a tangent
LB, is called the angle of 4 fegment. Jt is demonttrated,

that.

Steph.

SEG
that the angle included by a tangent to a circle and a chord,
Gravy from the point of contact, is equal to the angle in the
alternate nt.
Some call the two mixed angles comprehended be-
tween the two extremes of the chord and the arc, angles of
7 but thofe are in reality the fame with thole of
the and tangent.
Sromenr, Angle in the. See Anau.
Seouunts, Similar, See Srmiran.
The height of a fegment D E, and half its bale, or chord,
E, being given, to find the area of the fegment. Find
diameter of the circle. On this defcribe a circle, and
bafe of the ent AB; draw the radii AC,
find the number of of the are ADB.
diameter had, and its ratio to the periphery, find
Led y itfelf; and from the ratio of the iphery to
arc AD B, and vod reg itfelf, find t kogth of
are ADB. This » find the area of the feétor
D BCA; and that of the triangle AC B. Lattly, fub-
trad the tri from the fector, and the remainder is the
a

of the t BFA were required,
i ACB mutt be to the feétors A C F and
BCF. For other methods of finding the area of a fegment
of a circle, we refer to Hutton’s Menfuration, p. 133, &c.
Seoment As tg is a part of a {phere terminated by
jon of its furface, anda plane which cuts it off, paffin
fomewhere out of the centre.
a feBion a .
The “4 fuch a fegment, it is evident, is always a circle
whofe centre is in the axis of the {phere.
The folid content of a fegment of a {phere is found, by
multiplying the furface of the whole {phere by the altitude
fiothne: and then dividing the product by the dia-
{phere, and to the quotient adding the area
if it be lefs than a hemi-
at Lack gh ae t from the radius
the and by the difference aie the area of the
bafe of the t, and fubtraét this produét, from that

>

the
2¢

ee kez
Fr

This is more properly

which will by multiplying the femi-axis of the {phere
into the convex {urface the ala gs then divide the re-
mainder by 3, and the quotient is the folidity fought.

The latter method fes the axis of the {phere to

that

figures.

att Pea area ean there et
fegments ; are num’

10, and ea fawn 5 eT ee fines, and

a denomination given by botanitts
fhreds,

to
cut and divided into many or

SEG

avements, made up of pieces of various thapes and colours,
ut which had an uniform and regular arrangement.
SEGMOIDAL Vatves, in Anatomy, are little valves of
the pulmonary artery; thus called from their refembling
fegments of circles, but more ufually called /milunar valves,
SEGNA, in Coagraple » a fea-port town of Morlschia,
on the coalt of the Siatic, declared a free port, and
erected into a bithoprie by the emperor Jofeph I1., in the
year 1785. It is a free town, under the protection of
Auftria. “The city is ill built, worfe paved, and weakly
fortified. It lies on the brink of thie fea, on a foundation
of concreted ground, at the mouth of a narrow valley, fur-
rounded by marble hills. Segna is fuppofed to have been
formerly fituated almoft three miles farther from the vailey,
on a fpot where are found traces of ancient habitstions and
funeral monuments. ‘The fea {cers to have covered the
bottom of the valley as far as the city, which ftood on the
fide of a hill, and formed a tolerable harbour. The walls
*of this city were not conftructed before the 16th century ;
and this, together with other circumitances, affords a
further proof that Segna does not occupy the feite of the
ancient Senia. The wind from the mountains fometimes
blows with fuch violence, that it is dangerous in winter to
encounter it in the ftreet. Horfes loaded with falt are fre-
qpentiy thrown down in the market-place of Segna; and
e roofs of houfes, though covered with heavy ltones, are
removed. When hurricanes occur, the fhips that happen
to be in the harbour run the greatelt rifk of being loft; nor
are they preferved without great labour and expence. The
fea in the mouth of the channel of Segna, oppofite to the
valley, is hardly ever calm; but notwithftanding all thefe
perils and difaiters, the inhabitants had, about the begin-
ning of the laft century, fifty merchant-fhips at fea; and
they acquired wealth by exporting the corn, wood, wax,
honey, tar, and iron of the Turkifh ftate, on which they
border, as well as the timber felled in the ancient forefts of
Vilebich ; and by importing, befides many other articles of
merchandize, falt, od, and wine, for the fupply of the in-
terior provinces. At length, however, the inconvenience
of their fituation difconcerted their marine and commercial
enterprifes, fo that at prefent Segna has but few fhips be-
longing to it. Another damage was fultained by this city,
in confequence of the regulation made by the court of
Vienna in 1741, which deprived it of 60,000 florins a-year
in money, 40,000 ells of cloth, and 20,000 meafures of
gate given yearly by the emperor to the inhabitants of
egna, who were a warlike people, and formed a kind of
barrier againft the Turks on that fide. When the Auftrians
took the country of Lika from the Turks, and formed all
the inhabitants into militia, Segnaloft its importance. The
foil is fo unproduétive, that, with the utmoft labour, it
fupplies {carcely provifions fufficient for two months in the
year ; and they are under a neceflity of procuring water from
a {pring at the diftance of twelve miles. ‘The population
of Segna is at prefent computed at lefs than 7000; and yet
the people, amidit all their difadvant manifeft a civility
and politenefs of manners, which are not met with in any
other place of the Auftrian coaft, nor even among the Ve-
netian fubjeéts of thefe parts. N. lat. 45° 4’. *. long.

15° 3’.

sEGNI, Bexnanpo, in Biography, an early Italian
hiftorian and man of letters, was born at Florence about
the clofe of the 15th century. He was educated at Padua,

f where he purfued with great afliduity the ftudy of the

Latin and Greek languages. He then eo in
urfuits, which were interrupted by a : bg
to manage fome commercial bufinefs at Aquila. Re-
3 turning

SEG

turning to Florence, he was employed in public affairs by
the republic, and by duke Cofmo, who in 1541 fent him
on an embafly to Ferdinand, king of the Romans. He
was, in 1542, appointed conful of the univerfity of Flo-
rence, then in very high reputation. He wrote a hiltory
of Florence from the year 1527 to 1555, which in every
refpect is confidered as one of the belt productions of the
age. It was feen by no one during his life, and was not
printed till the year 1713, when it appeared, together with
a life of Niccolo Capponi, gonfalonier of Florence, Segni’s
uncle. This writer likewife tranflated into the Italian lan-
guage feveral treatifes of Ariltotle, which were printed at
Florence in 1549—50. He died in 1550.

SEGNI, in Geography, a town of the Campagna di Roma,
the fee of a bifhop, under the pope. Organs are faid to
have been invented in this town; 25 miles S.E. of Rome.

SEGNI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul, who are
fuppofed to have occupied a territory, which is the {cite of
a {mall town, called “ Sinei,”’ or ‘* Signei,”’
of Namur, and to have founded it.

SEGNITZ, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg, on the Maine; 12 miles S.E. of Wurzburg.—
Alfo, atown of Germany, in the principality of Anfpach ;
4 miles S.W. of Maynbernheim.

SEGNO, Ital., in AZu/fic, a fign or mark of reference,
for the repetition of any itrain, or portion of a ftrain. It is
ufually an S, the initial of /ignum or /egno, dotted on each
fide, thus “f°; of more ufe in rondeaux than in any other
movements. ‘The fharp x, natural g, and flat b, are acci-
dental figns, as is the diefis x, or double fharp. The paufe,
or corona @, is a fegno di filentio, as well as a final terminating
fign. (See all thefe terms under their feveral heads.)
The ‘$ is likewife ufed in canons and catches written on
one line, to mark the places where the feveral parts
come in.

SEGO, in Geography, a city of Africa, and capital of
the kingdom of Bambara, fituated on the Joliba or Niger.
Mr. Park, whofe death we have now reafon to lament, ar-
rived at this city in his firft African expedition ; and to him
we are indebted for the following account of it. He fays,
that it confifts, properly fpeaking, of four divifions or
quarters, two on each fide of the water, and each of them
furrounded by a mud wall; fo that they exhibited the ap-
pearance of four diftinét towns. The two divifions on the
north fide of the river are called ‘ Sego Korro’”’ and “ Sego
Boo ;”’ and thofe on the fouth bank are called « Sego Soo
Korro”’ and ‘* Sego See Korro.”? The houfes are built of
clay, and have flat roofs ; but fome of them have two ftories,
and many are white-wafhed. Befides thefe buildings,
Moorith mofques are feen in every quarter. Thefe objects,
with the numerous boats on the river, a crowded population,
and the cultivated ftate of the furrounding country, formed
altogether a profpe& of civilization and magnificence, which
our traveller little expected to find in the bofom of Africa.
From the beft inquiries he could make, he had reafon to
believe, that Sego contained altogether about 30,000 in-
habitants. The king of Bambara conttantly refides in the
largeit quarter of the city, called Sego See Korro; he em-
ploys a great many flaves in conveying people over the
river ; and the money thus obtained, though the fare is only
ten cowries for each perfon, furnifhes a confiderable annual
revenue to the king. ‘Fhe boats on the Niger are of a fin-
gular conftruétion, each of them being formed of the trunks
of two large trees, rendered concave, and joined together,
not fide by fide, but lengthways; the junction being ex-
atly acrofs the middle of the boat. ‘They are, therefore,

2

on the frontier.

SEG

very long, and difproportionately narrow; for Mr. Park
obferved in one of them four horfes and a great many
people, crofling from a ferry. It was at a village near
this city that Mr. Park was ordered by the king to take up
his abode; but the inhabitants being indifpofed, either
from averfion or from fear, to accommodate him with
lodging and entertainment, he was under a neceffity of fhel-
tering himfelf, in a ftorm of thunder and ram, under a tree.
For an account of the hofpitable treatment he received’ on
this occafion from a poor Negro woman, fee the article
Arrica. When he received, on the third day of his abode,
an order from the king to depart from the vicinity of Sego,
Manfeng (the king) wifhing to relieve a white man in dif-
trefs, fent him 5000 cowries, to enable him to purchafe
provifions in the courfe of his journey. The meflenger
added, that if Park’s intentions were to proceed to Jenné,
he had orders to accompany him as a guide to Sanfanhing.
Sego is fituated in N. lat. 14° 10! 30!/,, W. long. 2° 26/.

SEGOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography. Sce Sucorse.

SEGODUNUM, a town of Gallia Celtica, belonging:
to the people called «* Rutani,”’ or “* Ruteni,” according
to Ptolemy. In the Peutingerian Tables, itis called ‘ Se-
godum ;”’ and it afterwards took the name of * Rutena,”*
or ‘* Ruteni,’”’ and at length that of Rhodez.

SEGOLTA Rex, one of the Hebrew accents, ufually
an{wering to our femicolon, and marked with three points
over a letter, thus (°.-) or (.*.)

SEGONTIA, in Aacient Geography, a town of Spain,
in the Tarragonenfis, upon the route from Emerita to Sara-
gofla, between Cafada and Arcobrega, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine.

SeconT1a Paramica, a town of Spain, in the Tarra-
gonenfis, belonging to the people called Varduli.””

SEGONTIACLI, a people of the ifle of Albion, wha
inhabited with the Trinobantes, and were of the number of
thofe who fubmitted to Czfar.

SEGONZAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Charente, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri€t of Cognac; 6 miles §.E. of Cognac. The
place contains 2549, and the canton 12,386 inhabitants,
on a territory of 2225 kiliometres, in 19 communes.

SEGOR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Palettine, in
the Pentapolis, at the fouthern extremity of the Dead fea.
It efcaped the deftruétion of the four other towns of the
Pentapolis. Its firft name was ‘ Bala;”’? but Lot having
obtained permiffion to flee from Sodom, called it Segor, or
the little town.

SEGORBE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Valencia, with the title of duchy, agreeably
fituated in a very fertile vale, abounding in grain and in
fruit, on a river of the fame name, which there takes that
of Murviedro er Morviedro. Its population confitts of
1200 families, or about 6000 fouls. Some people relying
on the fimilarity of names, pretend that this is the ancient
“ Segobriga,” which we find on many Roman medals ;
others, on the contrary, place that ancient town in Cattile ;
and others in Aragon. Segorbe is the fee of a bifhop, fuf-
fragan to Valencia, the diocefe of which comprehends 42 pa-
rifhes. ‘The clergy of its cathedral are compofed of four
dignitaries, ten canons, twenty-four beneficiaries, and
thirty-three chaplains. The town has four convents of
monks, a convent of nuns, a feminary, a hofpital, five her-
mitages, oratories or chapels; a provifor, who is at once
official and vicar-general of the diocefe; nine gates, and
fix {quares. It abounds in fountains, three of which are
public, and about forty in private houfes. It was taken
from the Moors in 1245, by James I., king of Aragon.

‘The

SEG

cathedral church has fome paintings of the {chool of
_— and of that of Ribaltay "The church of the con-
vent of nuns is of good architedture, and has fome good
in The femmary is kept in the ancient houfe of the
efuits, Antonio Ximen, Apeet in the commencement of
the 16th century, and Juan Valero, a theologian of the be-
ginning of the 17th century, were born in thistown. At
a league from Segorbe flands the Carthufian
Sapehoy of Vel ie gary ae by the we don
Martin, fon and fuccellor of Peter 1V., king o n.
Here are fome good pontiogs by Vergara, a,
nofo, Joannex, and te. The monks have eftablithed
at Altura, a village of about 1500 in-
gs to them, and which is at a quarter
's diftance between their monaltery and Segorbe.

league’
N. lat. 8. W. long. o° 39'.
SEGORT IALACT: ; 2 aces Geography, a town
Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, which belonged to the
SEGOSA, a town of Gaul, marked in the Itinerary of

between Ags and Bourdeaux. It is now the
called “ Efcoutfé,””

z,

2 eee Sore.
EGALAUNI, in Ancient Geo-
7.3 of the interior of Gallia Narbonnentfis, in
i int the Rhone. Pliny.
of 1A, a town of Hither Spain, fouth of Cauca;
famous for its aqueduét, faid to have been conitruéted in
the time of Trajan.
Sxeovia, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old Cattile,
the arran t of its buldings exhibits the
eens saiatin Rerntn theest, and the prow to

AE
n

:

whence the a) tion
to the inhabitants of thefe vallies.
with walls; and a range of towers,
i Ages Pagani een
at 5000, but

an hae pita amp 4
ularly paved. The four
and contain feveral manu-

i

gangs
fi

:
i
!
-

L
crooked, and ir
on more even g
t ia is the fee of a bithop, fuffragan of the
ifhop of “oe RRR a 2 peal wlb

and
are

ins are att to the church.
24 parifhes, a chapel of eafe, and

1 corregidor,
i Here are a ftatiftical fociet
of eke ones the title of “ friends of oe
and a military {chool, deftined for the inftruétion

oung engineers, Segovia was once a commercial and
ulent town, eminently diftingui for its cloth and
en manufactures; and it been calculated, that

ons were employed by them;
; trade declined, fo that, in the
1th eee anaes ed Sith exiployed

f injurious to the majefty of the original edifice.

SEG
no more than 120 looms, in which only 4318 quintals of
Bet

wathed wool were confumed. ween 40 aad 50 years
ago, this manufa@ture revived ; and in 1790 there was an
tion of 63 looms, which employed Boo or goo quintals of
wool, and afforded occupation to 2 manufafturers.
This city has ftill a manufsétory of delf-ware, but it is of
little importance. Among its public edifices we ma
reckon the mint, producing at {ent only copper, which
is a handfome building, sealed in the igth century by
Henry IV., and in part re-edified by Philip 1L.: its epers
tions are carried on by hydraulic machines ;—the convent of
the Capuehins, with a Cheuentiaie chapel ;—the convent
of the Carmelites s—the town-houfe, the front of which bas
two compartments, with fimple Doric pillars, arranged in
double rows, and on each fide a tower {upported on a piazza
by ten columns ;—the church of the Jeronimites of Parral ;
—the cathedral church, which prefents a mixture of Gothic
and Grecian architeéture, though couflruéted ia the 16th
century, with the principal altar of marble, snd having m
the middle a filver ftatue of the Virgin, and feveral otber
ornaments ;—and the alcazar, formerly the refidence of the
Caftilian kings, bearing the charaéters of venerable anti-
quity, where Alphonfo the Wife compofed his aftronomical
tables, and in which are apartments fretted with mofaic
work, {till freth ; and a feries of §2 ftatues of painted wood,
and each bearing an appropriate infcription, The nobleft
monument of Segovia is its aquedu€, which has been re-
ferred by fome writers to a very remote antiquity, and
aferibed to the architeéts who built the Egyptian temple of
Serapis; but which much more probably originated with
the Romans, at an unafcertained period, but perhaps with
the authority of Licinius, Larcius, or Trajan. The ma-
terials are of rough free-ftone. It commences at a large
ftone bafon, (about 50 paces from the town,) from whence
it receives the water, which it conveys through an o
canal towards the fouth. At its origin the fabric is
on a long range of 75 arches, of which the firit is 14 feet
6 inches in height ; the laft, which is at the convent of St.
Francifco, is 33 feet 6 inches. At this point begins a
double row of arches, fupported one ver the other, which
run in the direétion of eatt and weft, and crofs the valley
and the place of Azoquejo; of thefe the greateft elevation
is 80 feet 10 inches, The whole range comprehends 159
arches, fupported on pilafters, moft of which meafure 6 feet
11 inches in the front furface, and g feet 4 inches on the in-
terior fide. The aquedué terminates at the alcazar, after
having diftributed the greater part of the water through
different quarters of the town. In modern times, this a
work of Roman archite&ture has been disfigured by the
erection of feveral houfes on its pilafters, a di{pofition highly
It is built of
{quare ftones, which are placed one on the other, without
any appearance of cement. Segovia was the native place
of Alphonfo de Ledefma, a good poet, who flourithed at
the commencement of the lait century ; of Domenico Soto,
the fon of a » who publifhed an eflay ** De Juftitia
et Jure,’? two books “ De Natura et Gratia,’? and Com-
mentaries on St. Paul’s Epiftle to the Romans. At Se-
via was alfo born the Jefuit Francis Ribera, who died at
alamanca in 1591, well known for the erudition and acu-
men difplayed in his Commentaries on the minor prophets.
Segovia is diftant 46 miles N.N.W. of Madrid. N. lat.
41° 3’. W. long. 4° 1'.

Secovia, Nueva, a town of the ifland of Lugon,
founded in 1598, the fee of a bifhop, defended by a fort and
a ecaesd come the N. coaft of the land; ago
N. of pomameees town of Mexico, in the pro-
b

vince

SEG

vince of Nicaragua; 70 miles N.N.E. of Leon. N. lat.
13° 30!.. W. long. 89° 56!.—Alfo, a town of South Ame-
rica, in the government of Caraccas, and province of Vene-
zuela, founded by the Spaniards in 1552 ; 130 miles S.W. of
Caraccas. N. lat. 8° 50'. W. long. 68° 16’.

Secovia, Nueva, or Yare, a river of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Coita Rica, which runs into the Spanifh Maim, N.
lat. 13° r0o!. W. long. 83° 5’.

SEGRA, ariver of Spain, which rifes in the N. part of
Catalonia, and joins the Ebro, on the borders of Aragon,
near Mequinez.

SEGRAIS, Jonny ReGNAvELT vB, in Biography, a man
of letters, was born of a good family at Caen, in 1624. He
was intended for the church, but a courtier, charmed with the
{prightlinefs of his converfation, carried him to Paris when
he was about twenty years of age, and placed him with
Mademoifelle de Montpenfier, who firft gave him the title of
heralmoner in ordinary, andthen of her gentleman in ordinary.
He became known to the literary world by his lyric and paf-
toral poetry, and in 1656 he publifhed ‘a collection of pieces
of this kind, together with fome little ftories called «* Nou-
velles Frangoifes,” by which he obtained confiderable repu-
tation. He wasthought to have been particularly happy in
his Eclogues, in which he attempted to unite elegance with
the feiatieite appropriate to his fubje&t. He aimed at a
higher ftrain in his metrical tranflation of Virgil’s A®neid,
which was well received by the public, though it was not
free from faults, which were heavy drawbacks on its merit.
The reputation of Segrais gave him admiflion,in the year 1662,
into the French Academy. In 1672 he quitted Mademoifelle
de Montpenfier, and was domefticated with Madame de la
Fayette, whom he affifted with his advice and correétion in
the compofition of her romance of ‘ Zayde,’’ and he en-
gaged his friend the learned Huet to prefix to it his Diflerta-
tion on Romances. He at length retired to his native city,
and married a rich heirefs, who was his coufin. Being now
at his eafe, and fomewhat incommoded with deafnefs, he de-
clined engaging in the education of the duke of Maine, ob-
ferying that experience had taught him that at court both
good eyes and good ears are requifite. He collected the dif-
perfed members of the academy of Caen, and gave them an
apartment to meet in. He died in 1701, at the age of 76.
After his death, there appeared his tranflation of Virgil’s
** Georgics,’? and a mifcellany of anecdotes and literary
opinions.

SEGRE’, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftri€, in the department of the Maine and Loire ;
18 miles N.W. of Angers. The place contains 558, and
the canton 9247 inhabitants, on a territory of 205 kilio-
metres, in 15 communes.

SEGREANT, a term ufed in Heraldry for a griffon,
when drawn in a leaping potture, and difplaying his wings,
as if ready to fly.

SEGREGATA, Poryeamia, in Botany, the laft order
of the clafs Syngenefia, in which the flowers are doubly com-
pound, each floret, or aflemblage of florets, having a partial
calyx.

SEGRO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ;
10 miles N.E. of Manfredonia.

SEGS, in Rural Economy, provincially the name applied
to fedges, or fedge-grafs.

SEGSTADT, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg; 5 miles E. of Hasfurt.

SEGUATANEIO. See Curqueran.

SEGUE, in Jtalan Mujic, is often found before aria,
aro, allelujah, amen, &c. to acquaint performers that fuch
movements immediately follow the lait bar of the preceding

SEG

piece, over or after which fuch notice is written. But if the
words ff giace, or ad libitum, are added, they imply that fuch
movements may be performed or not, at pleafure.

SEGUENZA, Ital. in Zcclefiaflical Mujic, is alkind of
hymn fung in the Roman church, generally in profe. The
feguenze are generally fung after the Gradual, immediately
before the Gofpels, and fometimes in the vefpers before the
Magnificat. ‘They were formerly more ufed than at prefent.
The Romifh church has retained three feguenze, called by the
Italians, /i tre feguenze dell’ anno: which are, “* Lauda Sion
falvatorem,”’ &c. ; “ Vittima pafchali laudes,”’ &c. ‘ Veni
Sanéte Spiritus.’? Thefe are fung, in many places, to figura-
tive mufic. There is alfo one beginning “ Dies irz, dies
ille,” in the funeral fervice, which has been admirably fet by
all the great compofers a cappella of Italy, and among the
Catholics of Germany.

SEGUIERIA, in Botany, named by Linnzeus in honour
of his friend and corre{pondent John Francis Seguier, fecre-
tary to the Academy of Sciences at Nifmes, in Languedoc,
who was the author of an excellent and original work, enti-
tled Plante Veronenfes, publifhed in two volumes o€tavo, in
the year 1745, and to which a third fupplementary volume
was added in 1754. Seguier died in 1784.—Loefl. It. 191.
Linn. Gen. 272. Schreb. 364. Jacq. Amer.176. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1219. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Jufl. ggo.
Lamarck DiG. v. 7. 52. Loureir. Cochineh. 341.—Clafs _
and order, Polyandria Monogyniae Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fpreading, permanent,
of five, oblong, coloured, concave leaves. Cor. none. Stam.
Filaments numerous, capillary, fpreading, longer than the
calyx ; anthers oblong, flattifh. Pf. Germen fuperior,
oblong, comprefled, membranous at the top, thicker on
one fide; ftyle very fhort, at the thicker fide of the germen ;
ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule oblong, augmented by a
very large wing, thicker on the ftraight fide, with three
fmaller wings on each fide at the bafe, of one cell, not
gaping. Seed folitary, oblong, {mooth. ,

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Corolla none. Capfule
terminated by a large wing, and furnifhed with fmaller la-
teral wings. Seed folitary.

1. S. americana. American Seguieria. Linn. Sp. Pl.

747. Jacq. Amer. 170. ‘ Pidt. t. 82.?—Stem climbing,
prickly. Leaves lanceolate, emarginate. Clufters branched,
leafy.—Native of South America, efpecially in woods and
coppices about Carthagena, flowering in September. The
jflem of this fhrub is generally twelve feet in height, with
very long, round, green fhining branches, by which it is
fupported. Leaves alternate, ftalked, ovate, entire, fhining,
with recurved prickles. 2/owers in terminal clutters,
whitifh, {melling difagreeably. The unripe fruit is faid to
refemble that of Securidaca.

2. §. affatica. Afiatic Seguieria. Loureir. Cochinch.
341.—Stem climbing, without prickles. Leaves ovate,
entire. Clufters long, axillary, terminal.—Native of woods
in Cochinchina. Stem fhrubby, branched, round, long,
tough. Leaves alternate, on fhort ftalks, rough. - P/owers
in long terminal clufters, whitifh-green, fcentlefs.

SEGUIN Isuanp, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the
coaft of Maine, in Cafco bay.

SEGULAM, one of the Fox iflands, in the North Pa-
cific ocean. N. lat. 53°35'. E. long. 187° 50’. 3

SEGUNTIA Csuirieerum, in Ancient Geography, 2
town of Spain, in Celtiberia. Livy.

SEGUR, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Correze ; 12 miles W. of Uzerche.—
Alfo, a townof France, in the department of the Aveiron ;
12 miles E.S.E. of Rhodez.

SEGURA,

2
os]

SER

SEGURA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ara-
fron 5-23 miles S.E. of Daroca.—Alfo, a river of Spain,
which nfes in the mountains of Murcia, 10 miles 5.5.E.
from ra de la Sierra, traverfes the province of Murcia,
and the fouth of Valencia, and runs into the Mediter-
ranean, 16 mi S.S.W. of Alicant.—Alfo, a town of
Tm in Guipufcoa ; 18 miles §.S.W. of St. Sebattian.—

a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, near
the frontiers of Spam ; 6 miles N. of Rofmarilhal.—Alfo, a
cali Spain, io Eftremadura; 25 miles 5.E. of Xeres
Seouna & la Frontera, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Tiafeala, built by Cortes; 50 miles S. of Tlal-

Srouna de la Sierra, atown of Spain, in Murcia; 60
miles 5.W. of Chinchilla.

SEGUS, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Pyrenees; 4 miles N. of Argellez.

eGus, in Ancient G. , a river of Germany, the

banks of which were inhabited by the Sicambri, according
to Cefar and Tacitus.

SEGUSIANI, the inhabitants of Segufio. Their

country, in “poe Tranfpadane Gaul, towards the fources
of the i inor, formed a {mall ftate, of which Cot-

tius was the anly king upon record. This prince retired to
the mountains, and a fubjeGtion to the Roman yoke
by his obfeurity. But he fought fecurity in an alliance with

the Romans, and with this view he flattered Auguftus by
affuming the name of Julius Cottius. He made many
efforts for rendering the paflage of the Alps practicable in
that part which he occupied. Claudius, upon augmenting
his {mall territory, gave him the name of Ling. After his
death, Nero united this country to the empire ; but the me-
mory of Cottius was long refpected in the country which he
aniseed In the time of Ammianus Marcellinus, that is,
the 370 of our era, the tomb of Cottius was
fhewa at i
m :

Segui One part of the Alps took its name,

Cottian,” him.

Secustan1, or Secufiani, a le of Gallia Celtica
L Srey tae wee cat Gieded wad Be

wags the E. and N. the Allobroges, and to the W. the
verni.

or

Pliny fays, that thefe were dependent on
the CEdui in lie Time of Cefar; but that they rendered

themfelves independent under the empire of Auguftus.
SEGUSIO, Suzx, a town formerly not inconfiderable,
in Tran Gaul, among the mountains, on Duria
: - Under the Romans it obtained the title of muni-
x In later times, its rulers were Gefignated by the title
ef marquis. At prefent it is comprehended in Pi ts
Among other things found in this place is the triumphal
arch on which were infcribed the appellations of the people
_ who were fubje& to Cottius in the time of Auguitus. See

ANI.

_ SEGUSTERO, Sisreron, a town of Gallia Narben-
ni From its Celtic name we are led to prefume that it
_ exifted, or at leaft that its territory was inhabited, before the
i. ° came into Provence. ’ Some have thought that this
,a town of Hindooitan, in

Damaun.

>

_W.N.W. of Doran.
_ SEHAURUNPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, and ca-
pital of a circar, to which it gives name, between the Jum-

ah and the Gangee, in the fubah ef Delhi; 86 miles N.

SEJ

of Delhi. N. lat. 30% 4’. FE. long. 77° 15’. Alo, a cir-
car or province © Hindooltan, ia the fubsh of Delhi,
bounded on the N. by mountains, which feparate it from
Thibet, on the E. by the Ganges, which divides it from
Sumbul, on the 5. by the diltriet of Delhi, and on the W.
by Sirhind, from which it is divided by the river Jumnah. Ite
chief towne are Schaurunpour, Merett, and Hurdwar. Le
isabout go miles from E. to W., and nearly the fame from
N. to 8.

SEHESTEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Natangen ; 54 miles 5.E. of Konigtberg.

SEHIMA, in Botany, fo called by Forfkal, from ite
Arabic name; a genus of that author’s, feparated trom
Lfchamum, but apparently without fufficient reafon.

SEHIRMAN, in Geography, a mountain of Arabia, in
the province of Yemen; 8 miles 5S. of Kataba.

SEHWAN, a town of Seweettan, on the Sinde; 66
miles N.E. of Nufferpour. N. lat. 26° 5’. E. long.
69° 16.

SEIAL, atown of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeitzan ;
50 miles S.E. of Ardebil.

SEJANT is a term ufed in Heraldry, when a lion, or
other beaft, is drawn in an efcutcheon, fitting like a cat,
with his fore-feet ftraight.

SEJANUS, AExius, in Biography, celebrated in the hif-
tory of Rome for the tyranny of lus adminiltration, wasa
native of Vulfinii, in Etruria. His father, Seius Strabo, a
Roman knight, was commander of the pretorian guards in
the reigns of Auguftus and Tiberius. /Zlius, when young,
attached himfelf to Caius Cxfar, the grandfon of Auguitus.
After the death of that prince, and of Auguflus, he
was aflociated with his father in his command, by Tiberius,
with whom he rofe to great favour, and was appointed go-
vernor to young Drufus. When the theatre ef Pompey was
deitroyed by fire, the emperor, at the time that he
his intention of rebuilding it, pronounced an eulogy on Se-
janus before the fenate, on which that fervile body decreed
by
y

At length Tiberius began to be fufpicious of his defigus,
“ Bb so

SEI

but for a time he concealed his {ufpicions in his own’reatt,
and even while under the fear of danger, he conferred upon
his minilter additional marks of his favour, making him his
colleague in the confulfhip. He however gradually withdrew
from him the tokens of his confidence, and finding that the
fymptoms of this change had greatly diminifhed the crowds
that attended his levees, he proceeded, though with much
caution, to the meafures for his deftru€tion. He now ap-
pointed another commander of his pretorians. Sejanus,
knowing the extent of his own guilt, began to be alarmed :
he called together his friends and followers, and held forth
to them the moft flattering promifes, and having increafed
the number of his partifans, formed a bold confpiracy, re-
folved by any means to feize the fovereign power. A
powerful league was fermed with aftonifhing rapidity, and
great numbers of all defcriptions, fenators as well as mili-
tary men, entered into the plot. Among thefe, Satrius Se-
cundus was the confidential friend and prime agent of the
minifter, who, for reafons that are not known, refolved to
betray his maiter. For this purpofe he addrefled himfelf to
Antonia, the daughter of Antony the triumvir, the widow of
Drufus, and the mother of Germanicus. When this illuf-
trious woman, who was highly elteemed by the people, as
well as honoured by the court, heard the particulars, fhe
fent difpatches to the emperor by one of her flaves. 'Tibe-
rius was aftonifhed, but not at all difmayed: the danger
prefled, and he determined to take decifive meafures. He
fent Macro to Rome with a fpecial commiflion, and giving
him ample powers that might be adapted to all emergencies.
Early in the morning of the 15th, before the kalends of
November, areport was fpread, that letters had arrived at
Rome, with the view of augmenting ftill farther the ho-
nours of Sejanus. The fenate was fummoned to meet in the
temple of Apollo, near the imperial palace. Sejanus at-
tended without delay, and a party of pretorians followed
him. Macro met him in the veftibule of the temple. He
approached the minifter with all demonttrations of profound
re{fpe&t, and taking him afide, told him not to be furprifed
that he had not received a letter from the emperor himfelf,
but, fays he, I am this day to deliver the emperor’s orders.
Sejanus, elated with joy, expeting fome unlooked-for dig-
nity, entered into the fenate-houfe, and Macro followed.
He opened his commiffion by reading a long letter in the
fenate to the confuls from Tiberius, which concluded with
an order to feize his perfon ; inftantly the whole aflembly
loaded with infults and reproaches the man at whofe feet
they lately bent, and the people began to throw down and treat
with every indignity the ftatues before which they had been
accuitomed to offer facrifices. His perfon was feized, and
thrown into prifon, and being accufed of high treafon, he
was condemned without a fingle defender. On the fame day
he was executed, and his body thrown into the Tiber. A
mailacre of his relations took place, and even his infant
children were inhumanly flaughtered. This cataftrophe
took place in the year 31 of the Chriftian era, and it fur-
nifhed to Juvenal a fine inftance of the mutability of fortune,
of which he took advantage in lis tenth fatire.

SEIBERSHOLZ, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in
the principality of Aichftatt; 3 miles N. of Aichftatt.

SEIBERSTORF, a town of Auftria; 8 miles N.E. of
Ebenfurth.

SEIEO, or Zeyzo, atown of the ifland of Hifpaniola ;
50 miles E.N.E. of St. Domingo.

SEIBOUSE, a river of Algiers, which runs into the
Mediterranean, near Bona.

SEICHES, atown of France, in the department of the
Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-

SE

triét of Marmande; fix miles N.E. of Marmande. The
place contains 1351, and the canton 13,546 inhabitants, on
a territory of 230 kiliometres, in 20 communes.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the Maine and Loire,
and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of Bauge ; nine
miles W. of Bauge. ‘Che place contains 1364, and the
canton 9906 inhabitants, on a territory of 240 kiliometres,
in 13 communes.

SEID Genprr, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Lariftan ; 25 miles N. of Lar.

SEIDE’. See Sarpa.

SEIDENBACH, a town of Germany, in the principa-
lity of Culmbach ; 9 miles W.S.W. of Bayreuth.

SEIDENBERG, a town of Lufatia, in which are ma-
nufactures of cloth and knit ftockings ; 8 miles S.S.E. of
Gorlitz.

SEIDENSCHWANZ, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflau; 8 miles N. of Turnau.

SEIDENSTETTEN, or SrirrensteTTIN, a town
of Aultria; g miles N.N.W. of Waidhoven. :

SEIFERSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflau; 5 miles S. of Krottau.

SEIGH, atown of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 15 miles S.
of Bahar,

SEIGHN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 31 miles
N. of Hagypour.

SEIGN, a fortrefs of Dalmatia, in the territory of Spa-
latro ; 16 miles N.E. of Spalatro.

SEIGNELAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Yonne; 6 miles N. of Auxerre.

SEIGNEUR, or Srienor, Lord. See Sinz, SIEUR,
Monsereneur, Lorp, &c.

SEIGNIORY, Dominivum, in our Law, is ufed for a
manor or lordfhip.

SEIGNORAGE, or Se1gnourace, aright or due be-
longing to a feigneur, or lord.

SEIGNORAGE Is particularly ufed for a duty belonging to
the prince for the coining of money, called alfo coinage,
(which fee), and in the bafer Latin monetagium. See Ru-
MEDY for the Mafter of the Mint.

This duty is not always the fame, but changes according
to the pleafure of the prince, andthe occafions of ftate. It
is in fome meafure for the difcharge of this duty that alloy
was invented; that is, the mixture of other metals with
gold and filver.

Under our ancient kings, for every pound of gold brought
in the mafs to be coined, the king’s duty was five fhillings ;
one fhilling, and fometimes eighteen pence, of which went
to the matter of the mint. Under Edward III. the feig-
norage of every pound weight of filver was eighteen penny-
weight, which was then equivalent to a thilling. Under
Henry V. the king’s feignorage for every pound of filver
was fifteen pence. At prefent, the king claims no feig-
norage at all, but the fubjeé& has his money coined at the
public expence ; nor has the king any advantage from it,
but what he has by the alloy.

In France, under Philip Auguftus, the feignorage was
one-third of the profit made by coining; St. Louis fixed it
at one-fixteenth part of the value of the money coined:
king John, at three livres the mark of gold: Charles VIT.
by reafon of the diftreffed ftate of his finances, raifed it to
three-fourths of the value; Louis XIII. fixed it at fix
livres the mark, or eight ounces of gold, and ten fols the
mark of filver. Louis XIV. took away the right of feig-
norage in 167g, though it was re-eftablifhed in 1689, on
the foot of feyen livres ten fols the mark of gold, and

twelve fols fix deniers the mark of filver. i
2

SE1

It mult be obferved, that for the levying of this duty of
feiguorage, the jult value of the money is augmented by the
value of the duty.

SELHAN Dac, in Geography, a mountain of Turkih
Armenia; 36 miles S.S.E, of Erzeram,

SEIHOUN, a river of Caramania, which runs into the
Addava. at Podendo.

SEJIAT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Diarbekir ; 6 miles N.E. of Diarbekir.

SEILKS. See Sinus.

SEIL, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of Scotland. N.
W. long. 5° 37'-

See Zeita.
a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the
coalt of Norway. N. lat. 70° 20'.

SEILHAC, a town of France, in the department of the
Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diltridt of
Tulles; 6 miles N.W. of Tulles. ‘The place contains
1271, and the canton 11,355 inhabitants, on a territory of
od ee res, in g communes,

ILLAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Var ; 10 miles N.E. of Dragui

SEILLE, La, a river of _ cea which runs into the
Sadne, 4 miles S.W. of Cuifery, in the department of the
Sadne and Loire.—Alfo, a river of France, which runs into
the Schelde, Valenciennes.

Thy they ufe as manure to their lands.
ys aa ga gp agg ag gh a Soa
lands where it is to be ufed, as they can

SEIMAN, in a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
ra ; 48 miles N.N.E. of Alah Sehr.

RIEH, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the
Korna

meee) cae Wr. of 7
IME, a town of Nubia, which affords good water.
N. lat. 22° 15'. E. long. 30° 12’.

SEIMOUR, a river of Hindooftan, which runs into
the Jumna, 70 miles below Etayah.

SEIN, ifland near the coaft of France, in the

a
eet ot the Misifitarc, the coals of which are dan
-gerous on account of its rocks and hallows; 28 miles

-5-E. of Uthant. N. lat. 48° 2'. W. long. 42° 2’.

a ELE. Ee ariver of France, whi about two
= of Aignay-le-Duc, in the tof the Céte
@’Qr, and runs into the Englifh Channel at Havre de Grace.

La, a town of France, in the department of the
pean we & tonene of bend, which runs into the fea ;

} a department of the northern region of France,
d of the ifle of France, fituated in 8° so! N. lat.
ning 24 fquare leagues, on 4524 limetre , and

763 inhabitants, divided into three circles or
‘ts, 20 cantons, PR eaenes cies Caneite aes See

communes, and 42,984 inhabitants ;

with 24 communes, and 3 Satthelcry and

12 cantons, in one commune, and

‘d upon it 1,814,941 francs 34 cents. The
dicuarding’ co. Hinfaivets, its length

SEI

is fix and breadth five French leagues. Ite circles are
eight, cantons 17, and population 947.472. ‘This depart.
ment is diverfiied with plaine and eminences ; ite foil ss of
various ‘qualities, and in fome parts moderately fertile. It
abounds with foflile of all kinds, efpecially im the vicimty
of Paris,

Szine, Lower, a department of the northern region of
France, formed of Roumois and the territorice of Ceux and
Bray, and bounded on the N.W. by the Englith Channel,
oa the E. by the departments of the Somme and the
Oife, and on the S, by the departments of the Eure and
the Calvados, from both which it ## moltly feparated by the
river Seine. It is fituated in 49° N. lat., and contains
63724 kiliometres, or 207 {quare leagues, and 642,773
inhabitants. Itis divided into five circles, 50 cantons, and
987 communes. The circles are, La Havre, containing
1175735 inhabitants, in 123 communes; Y vetot, with 129,222
inhabitants, in 202 communes; Dieppe, having 106,082
inhabitants, in 222 communes; Neuchatel, with 82,506 in-
habitants, in 200 communes; and Rouen, with 207,228 in-
habitants, in 200 communes. Its contributions in the year
Il, were 9,104.417 fr. and expences 570,526 fr. 33 cents.
Its capital is Rouen. According to Hafleatratz, its length
is 35 aud breadth 30 leagues; its number of circles is fewer,
and of cantons 64, and its population comprehends 536,400
inhabitants. ‘This. department aflords abundance of grain,
fruits, and pattures,

Seine and Marne, a department of the fame region of
France with the former, formed of a portion of Freach
Gatinois, and of Upper and Lower Brie, and bounded on
the N. by the departments of the Oife and the Aifne, on
the E. by the departments of the Marne and the Aube,
on the S.E. by the department of the Yonne, on the S.
by that of the Loiret, and on the W. by the departments
of the Loiret, and of the Seine and Oife. It contains 61274
kiliometres, or 300 fquare leagues, and 298,815 inhabitants.
It is fituated in 48° 45! N. lat., and is divided into five
circles, and 561 communes. The circles are Melun, com-
prehending 55,830 inhabitants, in 107 communes ; Coulom-
miers, with 49,420 inhabitants, in 80 communes; Meaux,
having 88,411 inhabitants, in 164 communes; Fontainbleau,
with 57,964 inhabitants, in 104 communes; aud Provins,
having 47,190 inhabitants, in 106 communes. Its contri-
butions in the 11th year of the French era, were 5,126,616
fr. and expences 307,848 fr. 33 cents. The capital is
Melun. According to Haflentratz, the length of this
department is 32, and its breadth 16 French leagues ; its
number of circles is five, and of cantons 37, and its popu-
lation is 296,467. This department is diverfified with
forefts, cultivated ttaéts, and paftures.

Seine and Oife, a department of the fame region of
France, confitting of a portion of Vexin-Frangais, of
Hurepoix, of Mantois, &c. and bounded on the N. by the
department of the Oife, on the E. by the department of
the Seine and Marne, on the S. by that of the Loiret, and
on the W. by the departments of the Eure, and of the
Eure and Loire. It contains 5880 kiliometres, or 286
fquare leagues, and 429,523 saliekecante: It is fituated in
48° 30! N. lat., and divided into five circles, and 656 com-
munes. The circles are Mantes, including 59,209 mha-
bitants, in 127 communes; Pontoife, with 91,068 1
bitants, in 165 communes ; Verfailles, having 163.849 in-
habitants, in 195 communes; Corbeil, with 56,507 mha-
bitants, in 96 communes ; and Etampes, with 58,890 inha-
bitants, in 111 communes. Its canon pas in the year 11,
were 7, 373,685 fr. and its expences 448,928 fr. 62 cents.
‘The capital is Verfailles. According to Hatflenfratz, the
length of this department is 24, and its breadth 18 Fresch

leagues.

SEI

leagues. Its circles are nine, and cantons 59, and its
population 471,612. The foil of the two lait circles is
moderately fertile, but the others yield abundance of grain,
fruits, and pattures.

SEINSHEIM, Markt, a town of Germany, and ca-
pital of a lordfhip, united to the country of Schwarzenberg ;
18 miles S.E. of Wuraburg.

SEIONT, a river of North Wales, which runs into the
Menai, near Caernarvon.

SEIR, in Ancient Geography, the name of mountains
which lay to the E. and S. of the Dead fea, appropriated
to them before the eftablifhment of the Ifraelites in the land
of promife.—Alfo, a mountain on the frontier of the tribe
ef Juda and that of Dan. Jofh. iv. 10.

SEISACHTHEIA, Desay Devoe, in Antiquity, a public
facrifice at Athens, in memory of Solon’s ordinance, by
which the debts of poor people were either entirely remitted,
or at leuit the intereft due upon them leflened, and the
creditors prevented from feizing upon the perfons of their
debtors, as had been cuftomary before that time.

The word fignifies the fhaking off a burden.

SEISENBERG, or SusonserG, in Geography, a town
of Carniola; 11 miles S.E. of Weixelburg.

SEISENSTAIN, a town of Auftria, on the Danube;
z miles N.E. of Ips.

SEISIN, Srisina, in Law, fignifies poffe/fion.
fenfe we fay, primer /eifin, for the firft pofleflion, &c.

Seifin is twofold, /eifin in fad, and feifin in law. The
former is when an actual and corporal pofleffion is taken :
and the latter, when fomething is done, which the law ac-
counted a feifin, as an enrolment.

This in law gives a right to lands and tenements, though
the owner be by wrong diffeifed of them. He who hath an
hour’s poffeflion quietly taken, hath /eiffin de droit, S de
claime, of which no man may difleife him by his own force
or fubtlety, without procefs of law. See DissErsin.

The civilians call the latter civilem poffefionem, and the
former naturalem.

SeErsin, Livery of. See Livery.

SEISINA habendo, guia rex habuit annum, diem et vaflum,
a writ that lies for delivery of /eifin to the lord of lands
er tenements, after the king, in right of his prerogative,
hath had the year, day, and wafte, ona felony committed.

SEISINAM habere facias. See HABERE.

SEISOR. See Dissetsor.

SEISSAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers; g miles S. of Auch.

SEISSEN, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzge-
birg; 18 miles S.S.E. of Freyberg. N. lat. 50° 35/-
E. long. 13° 27.

SEITAN, a name given by Avicenna, and other of the
Arabian writers, to a f{pecies of prickly tree, often recom-
mended in their prefcriptions.

The word is fometimes alfo written /etan, fiten, fetah, or
‘elim.

! Pliny mentions this as a wood remarkably durable. He
fays it grew moft plentifully in Egypt, and that it re-
mained uncorrupted in waters. It is called by him, and
others of the old Latin writers, /pina nigra, the black-thorn ;
and the durable nature of our common floe-tree, or black~-
thorn, growing on our hedges, has tempted fome to believe
it to be the fame with the /eten, or /ping nigra of the ancients 5
but this is overthrown by the common account of Pliny,
and others, of fhips being built of this wood, the {mall fize
of our black-thorn rendering it wholly impoffible to put it
to fuch ufes.

Theodotion is to be underftood of this wood, when he
fpeaks of the /etah, or acanthina.

In this

SEK

It is plain, from Avicenna, that this /etan, or /eitan, is no
other than that {pecies of acacia, which, from its producing:
our gum arabic, 1s called the gum arabic tree.

SEILTIL, in Commerce, a wine meafure at Vienna; 168
feitils = 70 kopfen = 40 maafles = 4 viertels = an eimer 3
and 30 eimers = a dreyling, and 32 eimers = a fuder of
wine. The contents of a maafs are 71,3, French cubic
inches, or 86,5, Englith ditto, or 3 Englifh pints nearly ;
fo that one eimer is = 15 English gallons,

SEITSAARI, in Geography, an ifland of the Baltic, five
verits long, and about half as much in breadth, diltant 95
verits from St. Peterfburg, and 75 from Vyborg. The
fand-banks here reach as. tar as to the Peterfburg channel,
and, being invifible from their lying under water, are fo
dangerous in dark nights, that in this place alone not fewer
veflels have been loft than in all other parts of the gulf
of Finland together.
though in fome of the marfhes there is a flight crop of hay.
Great numbers of eels and {tone pearch are caught here.
The herring-and feal fifheries are alfo confiderable. The
inhabitants compofe about 20 families, Here is a light-
houfe.

SEITTENHOFF, a town of the duchy of Carniola;
3 miles N. of Weixelburg.

SEITZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 6 miles N.E.
of Cilley.

SEJUR, a river of Syria, that rifes a little N. of Antab,
and after a courfe of about 30 miles through a plain deriving
its name from it, lofes itfelt in the earth A fo, a town of
Syria; 15 miles 5. of Antab.

SEIX, a town of France, in the department of the Ar-
riege; 7 miles S. of St. Girons.

SEIZE, Suaze, or Sei/e, To, in Sea Language, is to join
two ropes, or the two ends of one rope, together, &c. by
feveral clofe turns of {mall rope, line, or {pun-yarn, round
them, with two or more crofs-turns. .

Throat-feizing, is the firft ferzing clapt on where a rope
or ropes crois each other; fee Riccine, Plate N° 11.
Jig. 16, at 5.

Middle-feizing, is a feizing between a throat and end-
feizing, as at 6.

End-feizing, is a round feizing uear the end of a rope, as
at 7, on the Jame plate. :

fy aa is a round feizing next the eye of a fhroud,
&c. Riceine, Plate Il. fig. 15, at 3.

The /eizing, Jeafing, or feafen of a boat, is a rope tied to
a ring or little chain in the forethip of the beat, by which
means it is faftened to the fide of the thip.

SEIZING, in Falconry, is when an hawk. gripes her
prey, or any thing elfe, fait between her claws.

SEIZURE, in Gommerce, an arrett of fome merchandizes
moveable, or other matter, either in confequence of fome
law, or of fome exprefs order of the fovereign.

Contraband goods, thofe fraudulently entered, or landed
without entering at all, or landed at wrong places, are fub-
ject to feizure.

In feizures among us, one half goes to the feizor, or in-
former, and the other half to the king. In France, half
the painted linens, &c. feized, ufed to be burnt, and the
other half fent abroad ; but in 1715, by an arret ef council,
the whole was ordered to be burnt.

SEKI, in Geography, a town of Japan, jn the ifland of
Niphon ; zo miles $.5.W. of Ixo.

SEKIALE, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed ; 300 miles E. of Madian.

SEKIDO, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coaft, in
the diftrict of Agouna, which has an Englith factory.

SEKIN,

The land is every where unfruitful ;”

SEL

SEKIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania, go
miles 5. W. of Selefkeh.

SEKMARA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
w on the Niger ; 940 miles E. of Ghana, N, lat.
4s”

. E.. long. 18°,
KOOBOOM, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archipe-
NW. lat. 5° 5’. E. long. 120° 207,

Lx, a town of France, in the department of the
Ile and Vilaine, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tid of Rédon ; 7 miles N.N.E. of Bain. The place con-
tains » andthe canton 4971 inhabitants, on a territory
- in 7 communes.

Sex, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a name given
of an Indian plant, refembling the cucumber
manner of growth, but bearing a fruit like a pilta-

Be omeargeh apnea fruits mentioned by the Arabian
writers, ;
ates ety tho: the bel and fel, as alfo the fruit

fel, were not the fruit of a tree, but of a plant, and that
the creeping kind. It is very probable, that the other
of Avicenna isthe root of the nymphea Indica, which he
mentions in the of nenuphar, as poflefling the fame
“erp tos -rmaphedrammamadatend or the fame with

thofe of
,» atown of Palettine, in the
to Jofhua. Here Saul was in-

miles S.W. of Rofenburg.
SELACHLEA, a town of Abyffinia; 20 miles E. of

Siré. .
a a =r of Affam, on the Burram-
pooter ; 6o'miles N.W. of Ghergeng.
SELAGINOIDES, in 2 p teal a genus of
mofles in the arran of Dillenius, a {pecies of lyco-
podium ; the of which are thefe: the capfules
(ae tener far tae allnge rag thofe
int but they are of a different form, being tricec-
cous, fometimes i
‘mature, into fo many valves.
Of this genus of mofs we have only one known fpecies,
which is the prickly felaginoides, commonly called feeding
juntain mo/s. This ie found in the mountainous parts
F Yerkfhire, and in Wales, and loves rocky and moilt

» and opening, when

Selago has alfo been thought to be
ed . seer esten Liakisboveg gptterad
eiette medicinal religious es. t

olible ea rl tar which heey ade
this name to the genus under confideration, which
ars to have nothing in common with the celebrated fuc-
nt of the ancieuts.—Linn. Gen. 317. Schreb.
Sp. PL v. 3. 181. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.
Kew. v. 3.431. Juff. 110 Lamarck Tlluftr,

SEL

t. 521, Garto. t. ¢1.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Gym-
nofpermia, Nat, Ord. Aggregate, Linn. Vitices, Jul,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, {mall,

rmanent, cloven into four, oceafionally five, fegments, the
ower ove larger, Cor. of one petal: tube very {mall,
thread-fhaped, fearcely area limb {preading, five-
cleft; the two upper fegments fmaller, the bottom one
larger, Stam. Filaments four, capillary, the length of
the corolla, to which they are attached, the two upper
ones longer; anthers fimple. Pif. Germen fuperor,
roundih ; ftyle fimple, as long as the ttamens ; fligma limple,
acute, eric. none, except the corolla involving the feed.
Seeds one or two, roundith.

Eff. Ch, Calyx four-cleft. Corolla a capillary tube,
with an almoft equal limb. Seeds one or two.

Juffieu obferves that all the {pecies of Selago are herbaceous
or fhrubby ; and that the flowers in moft of them are allied
to thofe of ELranthemum aad Verbena.—W illdenow enume-
rates twenty {pecies, and fo does proteflor Martyn. From
the joint ftock of thefe two authors, the following ones are fe-
le&ted, as an epitome of the genus. They are all natives of
the Cape of Good Hope, flowering for the moft part be-
tween June and September.

S. corymbofa. Fine-leaved Selago. Linn. Sp. Pl. 876.
(Camphorata africana umbellata frutefcens; Commel.
Hort. v. 2. 79. t. 40.) —Corymb much divided. Flowers

feparate. Leaves thread-fhaped, in bundles. —Sems flender,
woody, feven or eight feet high, branched, not ftrong
enough to fupport themfelves. Leaves fhort, linear, hairy,
in axillary cluiters. Flowers {mall, perfectly white.

S. polyflachya, Many-{piked Selago. Linn. Mant. 250.
(Valerianella africana fruticans, foliis erice ; Commel. Hort.
Vv. 2. 221.t. 111?)—Corymb compofed of numerons cluttered

i Leaves thread-fhaped, in bundles.—Stem ereét, fix

ches high, branched at thetop. Leaves fomewhat rigid ;
linear, fhort. Flowers numerous, white.

S. Rapunculoides. Rampion-leaved Selago. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 877. Amer. Acad. v. 4.319. (Rapunculus, foliis an-
guitiffimis, dentatis, floribus umbellatis; Burm. Afr. 113.
t. 42. f. 1.)—Spikes forming acorymb. Leaves toothed.—
Root long, woody, creeping, fibrous. Stems erect, fimple,
two feet high, thick, oe 9 Leaves {effile, very narrow
and rough, toothed and pointed. Flowers terminal, corym-
bofe, nearly umbellate.

S. fpuria. Liinear-leaved Selago. Linn. Sp. Pl. 877.
(Melampyrum africanum, {picatum, foliis anguitifiimis den-
tatis; Burm. Afr. 115. t. 42. f. 3.)—Spikes corymbofe.
Leaves linear, with {mall teeth.—Stem about two feet in
height, branched, round, purplith. Leaves alternate, cluf-
tered, refembling thofe of Heben/ireitia dentata. Flowers
in ovate, oblong fpikes, clofely imbricated, violet-co-
loured. :

S. fafciculata. _Clufter-flowered Selago. Linn. Mant.
250. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 3. t.496. Collect. v. 3. 246.—
Corymb much divided. Leaves obovate, {mooth, ferrated.
Stem quite fimple, erect, about two feet high. Leaves al-
ternate, oblong, ferrated except towards the bafe, flightly
decurrent, dark green above, yellowifh underneath. Flowers
purple or violet-coloured, forming an elegant, terminal,
capitate corymb.

S. ovata. Oval-headed Selago. Willd. n. 11. Curt.
Mag. t. 186. (Lippia ovata; Linn. Mant. 89.)—Spikes
conical, cylindrical, terminal. Leaves fcattered, linear.
Stem thrubby.—A proitrate » about afoothigh. Stems
lender, hairy, branched. flightly fucculent ; feve-
ral fmaller ones at each axil, generally ternate. Flowers
white, with a yellow {pot on the two uppermoft cory

SEL

and fometimes on all of them, and an orange {pot at the
mouth of the tube. Braéeas alternate, ovate, large. It is
valuable not fo much on account of its beauty as its fra-
grancy. Linnus deferibed it under the name of Lippia
ovata from a dried fpecimen, which may account for his
faying the flowers are of a dark-violet colour. M. L’He-
ritier firlt referred it to Se/ago; indoing which, Mr. Curtis

obferves, it would have been better to change ‘the. {pecific
name to draéeata, its floral leaves or bratteas conftituting

the molt prominent feature of the plant.

SELAGO, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the fhrubby
and under-fhrubby kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated
are; the fine-leaved felago (S. corymbofa); the linear-
feaved felago (S. fpuria); -and the ovate-headed felago

S: Ovata).

Method of Culture-—Thefe plants may be increafed by
cuttings and layers. The cuttings fhould be made from the
young under-fhoots, and be planted out during the fummer
months in a bed of freth earth, covering them clofe witha
bell or hand-glafs, fhading them from the fun, and refrefh-
ing them now and then with water. They- fhould be gra-
dually hardened, and then tranf{pianted into fmall pots,
placing them in the fhade till they have taken root. The
layers may be laid down in the autumn or f{pring, and when
well rooted be taken off and planted out in pots, as above.
The plants fhould afterwards be placed out with other hardy
greenhoufe plants, and about the end of October removed
into the dry ttove. They only require protection from froft,
being treated-in the fame manner with the hardier fort of
greenhoufe plants.

They afford much ornament and variety in greenhoufe
colleétions, among other fimilar plants.

SELAH, in Scripture Critici/m, a word which occurs no
lefs than feventy times in the Hebrew text in the Pfalms,
and which has occafioned great difficulty to the critics.
The Septuagint renders it dixd auc, g.d. a paufe in finging :
and this, it muft be owned, was greatly wanted before the
Pfalms were divided into verfes.

SELAM, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left
bank of the Nile; 6 miles N. of Siut.—Alfo, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Yucatan, near the coaft; 45
miles N.W. of Merida.

SELAME’, an ifland, or rather clufter of {mall iflands,
near the coaft of Arabia, at the entrance into the gulf of
Perfia, near cape Mocandum.

SELAMUM, atownof Egypt, on the W. branch of
the Nile; 48 miles N.N.W. of Cairo.

SELANIEH, or Zevanien, a town of Egypt, on
the E. branch of the Nile, oppofite to Damietta.

SELANION, in Botany, aname by which fome authors
have called the common crocus vernus, or the garden {pring-
flower, which we call the crocus.

SELB, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach; 14 miles S.E. of Hof.

SELBE, a river of the Ifle of Man, which runs into
Ramfey harbour.

SELBERG, a mountain of Auftrian Swabia; 4 miles
W.N.W. of Schonau.

SELBISTAN, a {mall town of Perfia, in the province
of Farfiftan, at the diftance of 18 furfungs from the capital
of the province, containing about 4000 inhabitants, fituated
at the foot of a hill, on the banks of a {mall ftream, which
is moftly abforbed in the irrigation of the gardens and fields
adjoining the town.

SELBITZ, a town of -Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach; 3 miles $.S.E. of Lichtenberg.—Alfo, a

river of Germany, which rifes in the principality of

SEL

Culmbach, and runsinto the Saal, 2 miles N.E. of Lich.
tenberg.

SELBOE, atown of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron.
theim, where a copper-mine was difcovered in the year
1712; 40 miles S.E. of Drontheim,

SELBOSOE, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim; 16 miles S.S.E. of Drontheim.

SELBY, a market-town partly within the liberty of
St. Peter of York, and partly in the lower divifion of the
wapentake of Barkflon Ath, Weft Riding and county
of York, England, is fituated on the fouth bank of the
river Oufe, at the diftance of 14 miles S. by E. from
York, and 181 miles N. by W. from London. Thistown
is of great antiquity, having been known in Saxon times by
the appellation of Salebia. In the year 1070, William the
Conqueror erected a monaftery at Selby ; and having fhortly
after vifited his new foundation, along with his queen, the
latter was here delivered of a fon, who fucceeded to the throne
by the title of Henry I. From thefe circumitances this
place derived confiderable celebrity ; and was endowed with
varicus privileges. Many of thefe, however; are now loft,
but it ftill retains a market, held on Monday weekly, and
three annual fairs, held on Eafter Tuefday, the 22d of
June, and the roth of O&tober. “Here alfo are holden the
petty feffions for the wapentake of Barkfton Afh. -

Selby abbey ttood on the weft fide of thetown. It was
dedicated to the honour of St. Mary and St. German; and
was filled with monks of the Benedi&tine order. King
William Rufus gave the patronage of it to the archbithop
of York and his fucceflors, in lieu of the claim they had to
fome part of Lincolnfhire. Previous to the diffolution its
revenues were valued at 729/. 125. 10d. per annum, according
to Dugdale; and at 819/. 25. 6d. according to Speed;
which, with the abbey itfelf, were granted by king
Henry VIII. to fir Ralph Sadler. Since that period the
buildings of this monaltery have been appropriated to various
ufes ; and moft of them are now demolilhed, except the
church, which appears to have been a very {pacious and ele-
gant pile. From the various ftyles of its architecture, no
doubt can be entertained of its having been ereGied at dif-
ferent periods. The oldeft divifions are the body and nave,
which evince an early Norman origin, and are probably
coeval with the foundation of the abbey. The weftern
front, though extremely irregular, is exceedingly curious,

both with refpeé to ftruGture and ornaments. The entrance ©

on this fide, and likewife the northern porch, are particularly
worthy of obfervation.

its tranfept 100 feet. From the centre of the whole pile
rifes a maflive tower, which was rebuilt in 1702. On each
fide of the choir are twelve ancient ftalls, fimilar in form and
workmanfhip to the prebendal ftalls in York cathedral. In
the windows are confiderable remains of ftained glafs, re.
prefenting the armorial bearings of Thomas, earl of Lan-
cafter, and other diftinguifhed charaéters of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. Here are likewife feveral ancient
monuments, and agreat variety of modern date, i. e. erected
fince the church became the parochial place of worfhip about
the year 1600. y

According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Selby
parifh contains 742 houfes, and 3363 inhabitants. The
principal trade of the town confilts in fhip-building, and
in the manufature of leather, fail-cloth, and iron articles.

Five miles to the northward of Selby is the village of

Cawood, remarkable for the ruins of its ancient caftle,
which is faid to have been erected by king Athel{tane in
the year 920, and which afterwards became a palace of the

archbifhops

The form of this church is that of |
a crofs, the fhaft of which meafures 267 feet in length, and

SEL

archbithops of York, ‘The flately entrance or gateway ts
full ining, on the fuumit of which cardinal Wolley ufed
to fit, and enjoy the view of the furrounding country. Ca-
wood caitle continued in all its {plendour till the commence-
meat of the civil war in 1641, when it was feized upon,
and garrifoned for the parliament. It fubfequently, how-
ever, fell into the hands of the king's party, and fultained
a fiege of ten moaths before it was retaken by the parlia-
ang | troops, when it was ordered to be demolithed.
The Hittory of Selby, by James Mountain, 12mo. York,
1800. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by John
TF, Svo. 1812.

ELCH Sxernir, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, a
little N. of North Ronaldtha.

SELCHA, or Szcecua, in Ancient a A
of Judwa, fituated in the half tribe of Mana ih,
other fide of Jordan, according to Jofhua.

SELDEN, Joun, in Biography, a very diltinguifhed
: {cholar, and an eminent political charaéter, called by Gro-

tius * the glory of England,”’ was born at Salvington, in Suf-
fex, in 1584. He was educated at the free-fchool at Chi-
chefter, whence he was fert to Hart-hall, Oxford, where
he refided about four years. He then removed to Lon-
don, for the ftudy of the law, and with this view entered
himfelf in Clifford’s-[nn, and about two years after he re-
moved to the Inner Temple, where he foon acquired great
reputation oon learning. He had already made himfelf
by works of great merit, and this year he
wrote verfes in Latin, Greek, and Englifh, upon Mr.
William Browne’s Britannia’s Paitorals.

Having been called to the bar, he occafionally pleaded,
but was much more employed as a chamber counfellor. The
firft objet of his private itudies was the hiftory and anti-
tiquities of his own country, and in 1607 he drew up a
work, entitled “ Analecton Anglo-Britannicon,”? which was
a chronological { of Englith hiftory down to the
Norman uett. This work was followed, in 1610, b
* England’s pinomis,”’ and “ Jani Anglorum Facies < f
___ tera,’”? a Latin and Englith treatife on tl

a town
on the

degrees
this kingdom, in which light it is itill referred to ; and it
‘hounds in hittorical informati
~ diftin@tions as he traced through other countries. In
year
_and made himfelf known to the learned throughout Europe,
by a celebrated work “ De Diis Syris.”” The chief or

eee nie of che formance was to treat on the hea-
in the Old Teftament, but he ex-

it to an enquiry into Syrian idolatry in with
tieiraion of the theology of o nations.

work was received with applaufe by the learned

and a new and im edition of it was printed at

under the care of Daniel Heinfius.

Selden had pafled his life in the tranquillity of a

\: mca, hot liable to debate ; but

man of
Vor.

SEL

his next publication, being “A Hiitory of ‘Tythes,"’
printed in 1618, fubjeéted him to much angry oppofitios,
and brought upon him, fays his biographer, * a ftorm from
a quarter which has always proved engnene to free en
quirers.”” In the work alluded to, he had confidered the
queltion of the divine right to that impoft, advanced by the
clergy, aud now beginning to be maintained by the Englith
church, and though he oe treated of it as a matter of his
hiflory, without arguing for or againitthe nght, yet as the
fum of his authorities manifeftly inclined the balance to the
negative fide of the queftion, fome of the clergy took of
fence at his freedom, and made an accufation againft hun be
fore king James. ‘That fovereign, who was Bend of inter-
fering in theological difputes, and who was always defirous
of keeping on good terms with the church, fent for Mr.
Selden, and gave him a le€ture on the fubjeét, and being af-
terwards called before the archbifhop of Canterbury, and
fome other members of the high commiflion court, he was
induced fo to degrade himfelf, as to fign a declaration of
his forrow for what he had done. He, however, cautioufly
avoided retraéting his opinion, or contradi¢ting the facts
which he had produced. Several an{wers to Selden'’s work
were publifhed, to which he was not permitted publicly to
reply, though be circulated fome remarks upon them among
his friends~ ‘This incident unqueftionably confirmed him im
that hoftility to civil and ecclefiattical tyranny which ever
after marked his condu@. Selden was next to thine in the
charaéter of an advocate for conttitutional liberty, with
which his name is now fo clofely allied. ‘The parliament
which James’s neceffities had obliged him to convoke in 1621,
was foon at iflue with him on the point of their powers and
rivileges, all of which the king afferted to have been grants
va his predeceflors and himfelf, while they maintained
them to be an inheritance from their anceltors. Selden be-
ing reforted to by the parliament as the ableft legal antiqua-
rian of his time, for information relative to the ancient pri-
vileges of that body, {poke fo freely before them init
the practices of the court, and was {fo inftrumental in draw-
ing up their {pirited proteftations, that he was felected as one
of the viétims to the royal refentment, and committed to
cuftody. His imprifonment was not rigorous, and he was
foon difcharged upon his own petition. Refuming now his
antiquarian ftudies, he edited, in 1723, the hiitorical work
of Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, with learned notes re-
lative to the laws and cuftoms eltablifhed by William the
Conqueror. Inthe following year he was elected to the new
parliament, as one of the reprefentatives for Lancatter, but
nothing occurred to call forth his exertions during that fef-
fion. He was again a member in the two firft parliaments
of king Charles, in the fecond of which he was appointed
to fupport fome articles of impeachment of the duke of
Buckingham. He afterwards took up the caufe of fir Ed-
ward Hampden, who had been imprifoned for refufing to
contribute to a forced loan ; and in 1628 he was the perfon
whom the houfe of commons employed to produce matter
of record to juitify its refolutions in favour of the fubject’s
right to his liberty and property. ‘Thefe ufeful and very ho-
nourable labours did not fo entirely engrofs his attention,
but that he found time, in 1629, to draw up his learned
treatife, entitled “« Marmora Arundeliana,” the occafion of
which was the importation by the earl of Arundel of fome
very ancient Greek marbles, containing infcriptions of great
value in the ttudy of hiftory and chronology. This was
another obligation conferred by Selden on the learned world,
which was received with due gratitude.
On the diffolution of the parliament, on account of its vi-
gorous proceedings againft ee of the court, Sel-

c den

SELDEN.

den was one of the eight members of the houfe of commons
who were thrown into the prifon of the Tower, on a charge
of fedition. Their application to be releafed on bail was
only affented to by the judges, on condition of giving fecurity
for future good behaviour, which they refufed to do, as re-
pugnant to the dignity of parliament, and the rights of
Englifhmen. Being brought up by virtue of the habeas
corpus at to Weiltmintter-hall, the like condition was again
propoied, and again rejefted, and both parties feemed to
perfitt in their determination: of courfe the term of impri-
fonment was indefinitely protracted. Its rigour was, how-
ever, foftened, and fhortly after became very lenient. Sel-
den being removed, firft to the Marfhalfea prifon, and then
to the Gatehoufe, was at length fuffered to go at large on
bail, as were the others likewife, till the beginning of 1634,
when bail was no longer required, and they were fully libe-
rated. Their firmnefs was much applauded by the parlia-
ment party, and Selden was diftinguifhed among them as
being their {pokefman, when the point was argued before
the judges. During the imprifonment of Selden, his mind
was net inactive ; his itudies were turned to Jewifh hiftory
and antiquities, and the firlt fruits of them were fhewn in a
work entitled « De fucceflionibus in bona defunéti ad leges
Ebrzorum,’’ which was publifhed in 1631, and reprinted in
1636, with the addition of a treatife “ De fucceffione in
Pontificatum Ebreorum.’? Selden had long employed his
great talents ina work which was intended to affert and
juitify the maritime prerogatives of this country, in oppo-
fition to the principles advanced by Grotius in his work en-
titled “« Mare Liberum.’? Selden’s treatife was, after it had
long lain on the fhelf in MS., read and approved by king
James: and the fubje&, in 1635, having become very inte-
re{ting in confequence of fome difputes with the Dutch, his
majeity commanded its publication. It was therefore fitted
by him for the prefs, and appeared in that year under the
title of «« Mare Claufum feu Dominio Maris.”? In this per-
formance, the author firit attempts to prove, by reafoning and
example, that the fea is capable of dominion ; and then to
eftablifh hiitorically the Britifh right over the circumjacent,
or, as they have been denominated by others, the narrow
feas. (See Campbell’s Lives of the Admirals, vols. i. ii.)
This author, {peaking of Mr. Selden and his Mare Claufum,
fays in which, “ he has effeétually demonftrated, from the
principles of the law of nature and nations, that a dominion
over the fea may be acquired, and from the moft authentic
hiftories, that fuch a dominion has been claimed and enjoyed
by feveral nations, and fubmitted to by others for their com-
mon benefit : that this was, in fa@t, the cafe of the inhabit-
ants of this ifland, who, at all times, and under every kind
of government, had claimed, exercifed, and con{tantly en-
joyed fuch a dominion, which had been confeffed by their
neighbours frequently, and in the moft folemn manner. All
which, with learning, induftry, and judgment fuperior to
praife, this great man hath fully and unqueftionably made
out to the fatisfaétion of foreigners, as it is the defign of
this work to imprefs the fame fentiment on the minds of all
fenfible Britons, viz. “that they have an hereditary, uninter-
rupted right to the fovereignty of their feas, conveyed to
them from their earlieft anceftors, in truft for their lateft
potterity.”’

Selden’s work was, in truth, acceptable to all parties, and
the king in council ordered copies of it to be kept in the
council cheft, the court of exchequer, and the court of ad-
miralty, as faithful and {trong evidence to the dominion of
the Britifh feas. Several following years of Selden’s life
feem to have been chiefly occupied in Hebrew itudies, of
which one of the principal produéts appeared in 1640, under

the title * De Jure Naturali et Gentium juxta difciplinarn
Ebrzorum :”’ Lib. feptem. This work is a copious digeft
of Jewifh laws and inftitutions, as well from the rabbinical
writers, as from the writings of the Old Tettament, which
is generally efteemed a valuable repertory of all the matter
afforded by hiftory or tradition relative to the fubje&.

This year, 1640, the ong parliament met, and Selden wae
chofen one of the reprefentatives for the univerfity of Ox-
ford. His name appears in feveral committees appointed
for the correcting of the abufes, and reftraining the oppref-
fions of the reign, which parliament was, at this period, re-
folved to purfue. One of its {trong meafures, viz. the im-
peachment of lord Strafford, he did not concur in, not con-
fidering that this meafure was warranted by the law of the
land. Nor did he feem willing to proceed further in the re-
formation of religion, than to check the ufurpations of ec-
clefiaftical power, to which he was a‘moft decided enemy ;
and he had no wifh whatever to abrogate the epifcopal form
of church government, which he preferred to the prefby-
terian. So well affe€ted was he, upon the whole, to the
exifting conftitution in church and ftate, that after the king
had withdrawn to York, there was a defign of appointing
him keeper of the great feal. When the differences between
the king and parliament were manifeftly tending to an open
rupture, Selden oppofed the attempts of both parties to
gain pofleflion of the power of the f{word, hoping that the
{trong arm of the law might prove fufficient to fettle the
conteft, and when his efforts had proved fruitlefs, he with-
drew, as much as he was able, from public bufinefs. He re-
mained, however, in parliament, and was one of the fynod
which met at Weittmintter for the eftablifhment of church -
government. In 1643 he was appointed by the houfe of
commons keeper of the records in the Tower, and in the
next year he fub{eribed the Solemn League and Covenant.
1t is mentioned to his honour, that he conftantly employed
his influence, in thefe contentious times, for the fervice and
protection of learning and learned men; and the univerlity
of Oxford, on different occafions, exprefled its gratitude
for the good offices which he performed for it in times of its
diftrefs. He likewife befriended the fifter univerfity, in
which he was regarded with fe much veneration, that he
was ele&ted to the mafterfhip of Trinity-haH, though he
thought it right to decline the office. His learned la-
bours were {till unintermitted, and new works were occa-
fionally iffuing from his pen. Of thefe, the moft confidera-
able were, “ Eutychii A.gyptii Origines Eeclefiz fuz,’’
tranflated from the Arabic; ** De Anno Civili Veteris Ec-
clefia ;?? “* Uxor Ebraica,”? which contained an account of
all the Jewifh rites and inftitutions relative to marriage ; an
edition of the ancient work entitled “* Fleta 5”? “« De Syne-
drtis Veterum Ebrzorum,”’ being a copious account of the
juridical courts of the Jews. His concluding work was
‘‘ Vindicie de Scriptione Maris Claufi,’”? the object of
which was to controvert a malignant infinuation of a Dutch
author, that he had compofed his Mare Claufum in order to
pleafe king Charles, and obtain his liberation from imprifon-
ment. Selden died in November 1654, having completed
his feventieth year. He was mterred with great folemnity
in the Temple church, and on this occafion the learned Uther
pronounced a funeral difcourfe. Selden was always in
affluent circum{tances, and had intended, at his death, to
bequeath his valuable library and mufeum to the univerfity —
of Oxford, but owing to fome offence given to him, he.
left it to his executors, who, however, reftored them
to their firft deftination, and they now make part of
the Bodleian library. After his death, his amanuenfis
printed a colleétion of Selden’s fayings, entitled a

SEL
Talk,’’ which contains much curious matter, and became
popular.
* Selden,” fays Dr. Aikin, to whofe lives of Selden
and Uther our are referred for much curious and in-
ing matter, * was one of the molt learned men of his

tume, e though the nature of his fubjects, and a harfh and
n fhyle, have thrown his works out of the ordinary

i

us, Bochart, Gerard Voflius, Gronovius,
i aud many other writers of great celebrity,
im with high encomium, and in England
as at the head of aliterary body. He
of men of letters, and appears
from the jealoufy and arrogance too fre-
ing the learned character. Lord Claren-
’ different from him in political fenti-
his own life, {poken of him in terms of pro-
refpe@ and admiration ; and from perfoual know “
teltified to the amiable qualities of his heart, and urba-
as as to the powers of his under-
Another author oy “ t he ay pene of
of foul, averfe ‘
remy to the poor. ———-
vols. folio, by Dr. David
with a Latin life of the author.
in German muifical di@tionaries, as a
the Arundelian Marbles, con-
the flute, the Ambabaiz,
the ancients. frig 2 ’
in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
ae ee of Naples, which runs
. a river which runs into
° 28’. E lo
. of Arkiko.

Ff

bFe
i
35

|

:
;

eit
; PUPEGE
a :

FE

Fi
;

foil

aan
me, 5
rl
i
Jp

g

.

B.

ng. 13°.—Alfo,

4°2'. E. long. 102° 15'.
I Jupices, in the Roman ic, were per-
inted by the pretor with the mutual confent of
ies, and bearing in many re{peéts a remark-
to our juries; for they were firft returned
by the prxtor, then their names were drawn by lot, till a cer-
tain number was completed ; then the parties were allowed
ir challenges; next they itruck what we call a tales;

and, laftly, the judges, like our jury, were {worn.
_ SELEFKE’, or Irscui, m Geography, a town of
ic Turkey, in the province of Caramania, feated on 2
+ which foon after g the town dif s itfelf into
i oppofite to the ifland of Cyprus; an-
ciently called Seleucia. It is now the refidence of a fan-
i under the government of Cyprus. N. lat. 36° 40'. E.
io MEUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Achaia,
_ NW. and E. of the river Charadrus, which difcharged itfelf

eeegri ot Corinth.

SE IE, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the E.

branch of the Nile; 43 N. of Cairo.

_ SELENE, Dtkwas, in i iguii » a kind of cakes ufed

‘in facrifices, and fo called from being broad and horned,
itation of the new moon

ERB)sin: the..Mance, are chaps or mangy
in the bending of a horfe’s hough, as the malanders are

: ENEUSIACA Terra, Earth of Selencufia, in
: ia Medica of the

z
:
F
F
_

f

Ancients, a light fungous earth,
vealled by later naturaliits agaricus mincraliz, and when

SEL
found in form of powder, or in a difcontinuous fate, Jac
lune

Ic is an earth common enough, wherever there are flone
uarrics, all over the world; but the finelt ever met with is
pe from Sicily, the place where the ancient Scleveufia, or
Selinus flood, and from whence the ancient phyficians had
it. Some of them have ealled it the ereta Selene a; but
all their defcriptious agree in proving it to be thie very earth
now found there, Diofcorides and Galen mention its re-
markable diffufibility in water, and Pliny mentions its melt-
ing in a kind of juice, or fmooth gene fubltance with
it; properti¢s fo very applicable to this earth, and fo little
fo to any other, as to leave no doubt of their having bees
originally applied to the very fame fubitance
he ancients gave it internally as an altringent ; bat its
principal ufe was external, as a cofmetic among the ladies.
And Dr. Plot recommends our lac lunz, on perfonal ex-
perience, for the fame purpofes.

SELENGA, in Geography, a river which rifes in Chinefe
Tartary, and traverling the confines of Rufflia, runs inte
the Baikal lake, 36 miles W.N.W. of Verchnei Udintk.

SELENGINSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkuthk, at the conflux of the Selenga and Chilok. It was
made an oftrog in the year 1666, and about 20 years after-
wards, the fort, which is now flanding, was built, and to
this the place owes its profperity. The town lies parallel
to the river, and contains two churches, and about 150
houfes, inclofed within the fortification. This is defen
by five pieces of brafs cannon, and as many iron guns; and
the garrifon confilts of a regiment of foldiers. The in-

habitants are nicknamed * Perofhniki,’”’ from the great quan-
tities of fand found in thefe parts. The who j t
country is mountainous and barren, but a few miles w

it there is good arable land. The country about Selenginfk
ields a great quantity of rhubarb, infomuch that the rhu-
arb exported from Ruffia grows in thefe parts; 84 miles
S.E. of Irkutik. N. Jat. 51°. E. long. 106° 44'.

SELENIACON, a name for a kind of amulet worn for
the epilepfy.

SELENITE, in Mineralogy, cryftallized gypfum. See
Gyrsum, and Sulphate of Lint.

SELENIZ, in Geography, a mountain of Carinthia; 10
miles S. of Clagenfurt.

SELENOGRAPHY, formed from 22m», moon, and
ygx $n, defcription, a branch of cof{mography, which defcribes
the moon, and all the parts and appearances of it, as geo-
graphy does thofe of the earth.

Since the invention of the telefcope, felenography is very
much improved.

We have now diltin& names for moft of the regions,
mountains, &c, vifible in the moon’s body. The firft who
attempted, but ina very rude manner, to make a map of
the moon’s furface, was Riccioli. Hevelius, a celebrated
altronomer, who was a burgher-matler of Dantzic, and
who publihed his felenography, reprefented the appearance
of the moon in its different ftates from the new to the full,
and from the full to the new, and named the feveral places
of the moon from thofe of the earth, which figures Mayer
prefers; but Langrenus and Ricciolus named them after-
wards, from the names of the celebrated aftronomers and
philofophers, afligning the largeit {pots to thofe of the moft
celebrated oly ay which diftin¢tion is now generally fol-
lowed. Thus, what the one calls mons Porphyrites, the
other calls Ariflarchus. What the one calls Zina, Sinai,

Athos, Apenni &c. the other calls Copernicus, Pofidonius,
Tycho, Cafindss &c. A map of the moon, as it appears
when » was drawn by Caflini, who publifhed a work

Ces entitled

SEL

entitled « Inftrutions Seleniques.’? The late Mr. Rutfiel,
a painter of eminence, made excellent drawings of the
moon; but the moft accurate and complete that have yet
been publifhed, are thofe of the celebrated Schroeter, who
has given highly magnified views of moft parts of the moon’s
furface. Dr. Brewiter, in his improved edition of Fer-
gufon’s Aftronomy, has given feveral tables of the lunar
fpots. The firft of thefe tables is formed from the obferva-
tions of Lambert, and contains the longitude and latitude
of 207 fpots, with the names given them by Riccioli and
Hevelius, together with remarks on their pofition, appear-
ance, and ftructure. The fecond table contains the longi-
tude and latitude of S89 lunar fpots, as determined by To-
bias Mayer, with general remarks. The third table ex-
hibits the new names which have been given to the anony-
mous lunar {pots by Jer. Schroeter, with their pofitions, as
determined by the editor, from a comparifon of Schroeter’s
plates with Mayer’s engraving of the moon, and his table
of the lunar fpots. Our limits will not allow of our in-
fertion of either of thefe tables, and they are incapable of
abridgment.

SELENTI, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Caramania, at the mouth of the river Selenti, which here
runs into the Mediterranean ; 45 miles E. of Alanieh. N.
lat. 39° 3!.. EF. long. 29° 18!.

SELERNES, one of the fmaller Shetland iflands. N.
lat. Go° 4o!. W. long. 1° 22!.

SELESTRIA, a town of Aftatic Turkey, in Carama-
nia; 50 miles S.W. of Tarfus.

SELETZEATA, atown of Ruffia, in the government
of Archangel; So mules S. of Archangel.

SELEUCIA, in Ancient Geography, a famous city of
Afia, built by Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals,’ and
fituated cn the weftern bank of the Tigris, about 45 miles
N. of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the Macedonian
conquetts in Upper Afia, and is faid to have been the firft
and principal caufe of the deftruétion of Babylon. . Pliny
reports, that the intention of the firft of the Seleucid was
to raife, in oppofition to Babylon, a Greek city, with the
privilege of being free. ‘The ramparts and fofle of this
Grecian city are {aid to be nearly oppofite to the ruins of
Ctefiphon (which fee); and in procefs of time Seleucia and
Ctefiphon became united and identified, under the name of
Al Modain (which fee), or the two cities. For the precife
fituation of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctefiphon, Modain, and
Bagdad, cities often confounded with each other, we refer
with Gibbon, to an excellent geographical tra@ of M.
d’Anville, in Mem. de Academie, tom. xxx. Many ages
after the fall of the Macedonian empire, Seleucia retained
the genuine characters of a Grecian colony, arts, military
virtue, and the love of freedom. The independent republic
was governed by a fenate of 300 nobles; the population
confifted of 600,000 citizens; the walls were flrong; and as
long as concord prevailed among the feveral orders of the
ftate, they. viewed with contempt the power of the Par-
thians ; but the madnefs of faétion was fometimes provoked
to implore the dangerous aid of the common enemy, who
was potted almoft at the gates of the colony. The Par-
thian monarchs, like the Mogul fovereigns of Hindooftan,
delighted in the paftoral life of their Scythian ancettors ;
and the imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain
of Ctefiphon, on the eaftern bank of the Tigris, at the
diftance of only three miles from Seleucia. (See Strabo,
lib. xvi. p. 743.) By the influx of the innumerable at-
tendants on luxury and defpotifm, who reforted to the
court, the little village of Ctefiphon infenfibly {welled
into a great city. Under the reign of Marcus, A.D. 165,

SEL

the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctefiphon and Se-
leucia. ‘They were received as friends by the Greek colony ;
they attacked as enemies the feat of the Parthian kings ;-
and yet both experienced the fame treatment. The fack
and conflagration of Seleucia, with the maflacre of 300,000
of the inhabitants, tarnifhed the glory of the Roman
triumph; though it has been alleged in their favour, that
the citizens of Seleucia had firft violated their faith. Se-
leucia, already exhaufted by the neighbourhood of a too
powerful rival, funk under the fatal blow: but Ctefiphon,
in about 33 years, had fufficiently recoyered its ftrength to
maintain an obftinate fiege againft the emperor Severus.

Browne (Travels in Africa, p. 391.) identifies Seleucia
with Suadea, the port of Antioch, about four hours dif-
tant from it. Its former poffeflors, he fays, took immenfe
pains to render it convenient for traffic ; but it is now ren-
dered ufelefs, by the negligence of its prefent mafters. A
large gate, fays this traveller, yet remains entire; it ap-
proaches to the Doric order. The rock near it has been
excavated into various apartments. A part exilts of the
thick and fubftantial wall which defended Seleucia towards
the fea. The port mutt have been commodious and fecure,
though fmall, as it was formed by a mole of very large
ftones. Although it be at prefent dry, the fand in the
bottom appears no higher than the furface of the fea. A
little to the north is a remarkable paflage, cut in the rock,
leading, by a gentle defcent, from the fummit of the moun-
tain towards the water. It is about 600 common paces
long, from 30 to 50 feet high, and above 20 broad. In
the middle of it is a covered way, arched through the:
rock, but both the ends are open. A channel for water
runs along the fide, conveying the pure element down from
the mountain to Seleucia. ‘The whole rock above is full
of artificial cavities, formed for fome purpofe now unknown.
A Greek infcription of five lines is vifible on the S. fide of
the cavern. ‘Towards the fea are fome catacombs, orna-
mented with pilafters, cornices, and mouldings.

Jackfon, in his ‘¢ Journey from India,”’ confiders Bagdad
as the {cite of the ancient Seleucia, and he fays that feveral
of the coins of Seleucus are found in Bagdad. The gold
coin is worth about two guineas; it bears as ftrong an
impreffion of the head as the ancient Roman coins, but has
a long beard.

SELEUCIA, a town of Afia Minor, which was anciently
in Cilicia; but in the 4th century of the Chriftian era, the
province of Ifauria was made to conftitute a part of Ci-
licia; and this city became the metropolis of the pro-
vince. The Notitia of Huerocles reprefents Seleucia as
founded by Seleucus Nicanor, and as being one of the
largeft and richeft towns of the Eait. ‘The river Calycadnus
was navigable near this city, and facilitated the commerce
of the country. In the year 116, Seleucia threw off the
Roman yoke; but Trajan fent hither a body of treops in
the beginning of the year 117, who reduced it to fubjec-
tion. However it again recovered its liberty, as we learn
from a medal of Gordian and another of Philip, on which
it is denominated c/eothera, or free.

SELEuctA, a large town of the Perfide, in the territory
of Elymais, on the river Edyphonte, according to Strabo.
It was alfo named Soloce.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Pi-
fidia, according to the Notitia of Hierocles. Appian re-
lates that it was one of the nine towns built by Seleucus
Nicanor, who gave it his own name,—Alfo, the name given
to the town of Trallis, in Lydia. Pliny.—Alfo, an epif-
copal town of Afia, in Pamphyha. .

SEveuctA Pieria, a town of Afia, in Syria, fituated on
the coaft of the Mediterranean fea, N.W. of the river

1 Orontes;

SEL

Orontes, and near it, and S,W. of Antioch. According
to Pliny, it was @ free city.

Serwvcta, the name which Seleucus gave to a town of
Gadara, fituated to the E. and beyoud the fea of ‘Tiberias,
— Allo, a town of Judea, in the half-tribe of Manafleh, on
the other fide of Jordan,

SELEUCIANS, Sexnvcians, in Eeelfafical Hiflory,
a fe8 of ancient heretics, called alfo Hermtani.

Seleucus and Hermias taught, that God was corporeal ;
that the elementary matter was co-cternal with him ; and

that the human foul was formed by the angels of fire and air.
ego denied, that Jefus Chrift fat at the right hand of
5 afferting that he had quitted the right, and had re-
moved his throne into the fun.
SELEUCIDA, in Chronolegy ; era of the Scleucide,
or the § onian era, is a computation of time, com-
ing from the eftablifhment of the Seleucidx, a race of
Greck kings, who reigned as fucceffors of Alexander the
Great, in Syria, as the Prolemies did in Egypt.
This era we find exprefled in the book s accabees, and
on a great number of Greek medals flruck by the cities of

Syria, &e.
be rabbins and Jews call it the era of contra&s, becaule,
ing then fubject to the kings of Syria, they were obliged

i

* to their method of computing in all contracts.
"Phe Arabs call it stherick dilcarnain, era of two horns,
which fome fay fignify the era of Alexander the Great ; be-

caufe that prince bore two rams’ horns on medals, in imitation
of Jupiter Ammon, whofe fon he-would needs be ; but others
underftand it much better of the two kingdoms of Syria and
Egypt, which were now cloven or divi
parted into two mouarchies,

The grand point is to know the year in which the fepa-
ration was made; or, which is the fame thing, when Se-
leucus Nicanor, one of Alexander’s captains, a the firlt of
the Scleucidz, eftablifhed his throne in Syria.

Without detailing the various fentiments of various au-
thors, it may fuffice to obferve, that, according to the bett
accounts, the firft year of this era falls in the year 311 or

12 before Chriit, which was twelve years after Alexander’s

S-e Epocna.

SELEUCIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in Syria, which took its sous HEE the city of Seleucia.
It was alfo called Tetrapolis, on account of four celebrated
towns contained in it, according to Strabo. This country
extended fouthwards as far as Phoenicia.

SELEUCO Be us, a town of Afia, in Syria; fituated
towards the mver Orontes, W. of mount Belus, about N.

bat. #5 +2
ey EUCUS, atown of Afia, in Syria, in the vicinity

pamea.
Serevcus [., in Bierapl , furnamed Nicator, king of
Syria, was fon of a ian named Antiochus, a cap-
tain under king Philip. Seleucus entered, when young, ingo
the fervice yap Great, by whom he was raifed
an 14, eon command, aad after death of that con-

» he was by Perdiccas at the head of the ca-

, and of one fingle

i
i

i

valry. On the divifion of the provinces made by Antipater,
the t of that of Babylon was entrutted to Seleucus,
» ‘hich fituation he fed the advance of Eumenes againft

-Antigonus. When, however, that leader, after the death

of Eumenes, marched to Babylon, he thewed fuch a hottile

palcegars Seleucus, that the latter thought it ne-
to

refuge with Ptolemy, king of Egypt. Upon
the defeat of Demetrius, the fon of Anti ct Ptolemy,
Seleucus recovered his eedcatoas oh Dados. ak edt

to it Media and Sufiana, which he wrefted from Nicanor,
Ys

.Lyfimachus.
ful

SEL

the governor, for Antigonus. Demetrius afterwards ea-
pelled Seleucus from Babylon, but he foon returned, and
durably eflablithed his authority. He thea proceeded with
a powerful army to the Ealt, conquered and flew Nicanor,
and marching through Perfia, Ba¢tna, and Hyreania, fub-
dued thofe countries, and the other provinces which had
formed part of Alexander's empwe on this fide the Indus,
From thefe important vidtones he aflumed the name of Ni.
cator ; andthe other fuccefsful captains of Alexander taking
the title of kings in the year 306 B.C., he followed their
example. ‘The hiftorieal era of the Seleucide, however,
commenced fix years earlier than this, wiz. in the year 312
B.C., when he recovered Babylon. He now Monet to
regain the diftri@s of India Proper, conquered by Alexander,
but he was eoppled by fo large a force, that he thought n
expedient to leave him in potleflion, on condition of being
fupplied by him with 500 elephants. One reafon of his
making this treaty was the neceflity of joining with Caf-
fander, Lyfimachus, and Ptolemy, mm order to reduce the
overgrown power of Antigonus, which menaced the inde-
pendence of them all. This purpofe was effected by the
t battle of Ipfus, in which Antigonus loft his life.
Fi. dominios were fhared by the four confederate monarchs,
revioufly to which Seleucus had feized the province of
pper Syria, and founded the famous city of Antioch.
He alfo built other cities in the fame province, to which he
oe family names, as Seleucia, from himfelf ; Apamea,
rom his wife; and Laodice, from his mother; and as he
was a great founder of cities in all his territories, he filled
Afia with places bearing the names of his family. After
this, he built Seleucia on the Tigris, which became one of
the moit famous cities in the Eail, and was the caufe of the
defertion and ruin of Babylon. In many of his new cities
he fettled colonies of the Jews, whom he endowed with ample
privileges, and to him was owing their eftablifhment in
Afiatic provinces to the weft of the Euphrates. When he
was advanced in years, he is {aid to have refigned to his fon
Antiochus, his wife Stratonice, and with her he refigned to
the prince all the provinces of Upper Afia. Seleucus and
Ly hus were now the only furvivors of Alexander’s
captains, and a domeittic tragedy having taken place in the
family of the latter, fome of its members took refuge in the
court of Seleucus, whom they a to make war upon
He accordingly invaded, with a very power-
army, the territories of Lyfimachus in Afia Manor,
That prince croffed the Hellefpont to proteét them, and a
moft bloody battle was fought between the rivals in Phrygia,
in which Lyfimachus was flain, in the year B.C, 281. Se-
leucus took pofleflion of his dominions, but did not long
enjoy the fruits of victory, for as he was marching into
acedonia, feven months after, he was treacheroufly mur-
dered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, one of the fugitives from the
court of Lyfimachus. Seleucus died in the 43d year from
the death of Alexander, and in the 73d year of his age.
He was a prince of {plendid qualities, mild and enmeaic
in his government, and a patron of letters and learned men.
Univer. Hitt.

Sereucus II., furnamed Callinicus, fueceeded his father
Antiochus Theos, in the year 246 B.C. His mother Lao-
dice having cruelly put to death Berenice, the fecond wife of
Antiochus, and her fon, Ptolemy Euergetes, the brother of

ice, marched into Syria, flew Laodice, and took pof-
feffion of great part of the Syrian empire. After his return
to Egypt, Seleucus recovered part of his loft dominions ;
but being defeated by Ptolemy, he applied for aid to his
brother. This union brought about a truce with Ptolemy,
but the two brothers then quarrelled, and Seleucus re de-
cated

SEL

feated by Antiochus in a great battle at Ancyra. The war
between them was carried on with great inveteracy, while
the empire was invaded on one fide by Eumenes and Attalus,
kings of Pergamus ; and on the other, Arfaces, founder of
the Parthian monarchy, was making a progrefs in Hyrcania.
Seleucus was at length delivered from the holtility of his
brother, who was detained captive in Egypt, whither he
had fled, and he then turned his arms again{t Arfaces, but
ina great battle that was fought he was defeated and taken
prifoner. He died in Parthia, in confequence of a fall from
his horfe, in the year 226 B.C.

Sereucus III., furnamed Ceraunus, eldeft fon of the
preceding, fucceeded him on the throne. He was a weak
and incapable prince, and after a reign of three years he
was poifoned by two of his chief officers, while engaged in
an expedition againit Attalus.

Setreucus IV., furnamed Philopator, fucceeded his
father Antiochus the Great, in the year 187 B.C. He
was favourable to the Jews during the greateft part of his
reign, but near the clofe of it he employed Heliodorus to
carry off the treafures of the temple at Jerufalem, as is men-
tioned in the fecond book of Maccabees. He was after-
wards poifoned by Heliodorus, who ufurped his throne.
This event occurred in the year 176 B.C. There were
feveral other kings of the name of Seleucus, but they did
nothing worthy of notice.

SELEZNEVA, in Geography, atown of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk, on the Ilim; 28 miles S. of Ilimfk.

SELF-Asuse. See Se/f-Pottution.

SeLr-Defence, in Law. With regard to the defence of
one’s felf, or the mutual and reciprocal defence of fuch as
ftand in the relations of hufband and wife, parent and child,
matter and fervant, it is obferved, that, in thefe cafes, if the
party himfelf, or any of thefe his relations, be forcibly at-
tacked in his perfon or property, it is lawful for him to repel
force by force; and the breach of the peace, which happens,
is chargeable upon him only who began the affray.

Self-defence, therefore, as it is juftly called the primary
law of nature, fo it is not, nor can it be in fa@, taken away
by the law of fociety.

In the Englifh law, particularly, it is held an excufe for
breaches of the peace, nay, even for homicide itfelf ; but care
mult be taken, that the refiftance does not exceed the bounds
of mere defence and prevention, for then the defender would
himfelf become an aggreffor. Blackft. Com. vol. iii.

SELF-Examination. See EXAMINATION.

SEL¥F-Freal, in Botany. See PRUNELLA.

Seir-Heal, inthe Materia Medica. The greater felf-
heal, with an undivided leaf, grows wild in pafture grounds,
and flowers in June and July. 1t has been reckoned among
the vulnerary plants, and is accounted ferviceable in all forts
of wounds and putrid ulcers. It is reftringent, and good
for inward bleedings, and making bloody water ; and has
been much ufed in gargles, for ulcers in the mouth, throat,
or gums, either in juice, or ina {trong decoétion.

Its virtues do not appear to be very great ; its auftere or
bitterifh tafte is more fenfible in the flowery tops than in the
leaves ; though the latter are generally dire¢ted for medi-
ciral ufe.

Self-heal is alfoa name given to fanicle.

Sevr-Love, in Ethics, is that principle, or paffion, which
leads a man to defire and purfue his own happinefs. It is con-
tradiftinguifhed from benevolence. See Mental Purtosopny.

SELF-Opens, a term ufed by the miners in the north of
England to exprefs certain natural cavities, or chambers,
which are frequently met with, fome near the furface, fome
at very great depths, fome {mall, and others very large.

SEL :

Thefe are of various figures, and often run into ftrange
finufes. Dr. Lifter, in accounting for the origin of sie
quakes, fuppofes the whole cruft of the earth to be more or
lefs hollowed in this manner ; which he alfo argues for, from
the ftreams of waters which arife in large quantities from
the fides of mountains, and muft have communication with
thefe felf-opens, and fupplies from them.

Thefe natural hollows the doctor thinks to be the means
of continuing, and propagating earthquakes ; the firft caufe
of which he afcribes to the breath of the pyrites, which he
alfo fays is the pyrites itfelf tota /ubflantia. This he ob-
ferves takes fire of itfelf, on being expofed to the air in our
fight, and may do fo, from various other caufes under-
ground. The fulphureous {mell of the air and waters. be-
fore and after earthquakes, in the places where they happen,
feems a proof that they owe their origin to fome fuch ful-
phureous matter as this {tone ; and the rolling and defultory
noife of an earthquake feems alfo to fhew that it is not ex-
panded every way at once, but is propagated through a
chain of thefe fubterranean hollows.

It is not neceflary that we fhould fuppofe a continued
chain of them, from the place where the earthquake begins
to be felt to the {pot where it ends; but if there are many
of them irregularly fcattered about the earth, the force of
the explofion will be fufficient to burft through the folid
parts between, and open a paflage from one to the other,
which may continue open no longer than the force continues,
and after the fhock is over, clofe together again, fo as to
leave no trace where it was.

Our miners not only find the natural caverns, but they |
alfo find them often full of what they call fire damps, which
are inflammable vapours, of the very nature of thofe which he
fuppofes to occafion earthquakes ; and when fired make the
fame explofions, and caufe the fame effeéts in a certain degree.
Thefe fometimes require a candle, or other aétual fire, to
come in conta&t, in order to kindle them; but fometimes
they are found kindled of themfelyves, and flaming on the
furface of the waters, in the bottoms of the pits, or at the
fillures of the coal. Phil. Tranf. N° 157.

SELGA, or Sree, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable
and well-peopled town of Afia, in Pifidia. It was co-
lonized from Lacedsemon.

SELGENFELT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the circle of Natangen; 3 miles S. of Konigfberg.

SELGENTHAL, atown of Germany, in the circle of
the Lower Rhine; 3 miles N.W. of Burken.

SELGOV, in Ancient Geography, a people of Britain,
feated to the weft of the Gadeni, in the countries now
called Efkdale, Annandale, and Nithfdale, lying along the
fhores of the Solway Frith, which is believed to have de-
rived its name from that of this ancient Britifh nation. Mr.
Baxter fuppofes that the name of thefe people was com-
pounded of the two Britifh words Sal Git, which fignify
falt waves, alluding to the Solway Frith, with which the
coafts of their country were wafhed. But Dr. Macpherfon
thinks it more probable, that the name was derived from
the Britifh word Sealg, which literally fignifies hunting,
and metaphorically theft. The Selgove became firft ac-
quainted with the Romans, when Agricola marched his
army through their country into Caledonia, in the fecond
or third year of his government in Britain; at which time
they made their fubmiffion to that vi€torious general.
From that period they were alternately under the dominion
of the Romans, or enjoyed freedom, as that people ex-
tended or contracted the limits of their empire in this ifland.
The Romans had feveral ftations and camps in the country

of

SEL
of the Selgove, of which fome veitiges are itill re-
: SELL, in Beany, a word formed by an abbreviation of
the word rr fignifying the fame plant.

: SELIA, in Aacicat ya. » atown of Hifpania, in
the interior of Betica. It eat to the Turduli, ac-

to Ptolemy. ,

. SELIAKINSKO, in Geograpdy, an oltrog of Rufla,

in the government of ‘To , on the Enifei; 260 miles
N.N.W. of Turuchantk. N. lat. 69° 55’.
85°

SEL

CHA, aname given by the Arabians to a kind of

E. long.

cinnamon.
SELICO, or Seivco, in G by, a town of Africa,
on the north fide of the Gambia, 1n Mandingo.
’ SELIGENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine, and electorate of Mentz, formerly
imperial, on the Maine ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Franckfort oa
; the Maine. N. ea a E. long. 8° 46'.
SELIGENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the county
S a + 3 miles N. of Smalkalden.

H
SELIGER, a lake of Ruflia, in the government of

Geography, a town of Palettine, in
of Judah, on the fouthern fide along the frontiers
according to Jofhua. This was ards com-
oe Simeon. a wie rm

ean Biography, a Turkifh emperor, was e-
of II. In rg11, being governor of Tre-
he inft his father, and marched to
was defeated and obliged to feek
‘his fafety in a precipitate flight. The janizaries, however,

_coggan fire ere ae his crown to
him, foon died, probably by poifon. Selim
ieee 1 ri eing 2 tht fume about
46 years ° i was to inft his
Mae roth Achaes, who was at the head of Senko heslops
in Afia. He defeated and put him to death, which was
foon after the fate of another brother. Selim then invaded
Perfia with 2 numerous army, and defezting Shah [{mael in
agreat battle, entered the city of Tauris. He afterwards
annexed Diarbekir to the Turkifh empire; and one of his
_ officers recovered Bofnia, which had been conquered by the
dungarians. In 1517 Selim turned his arms again{t the
tan of em OE RE over him near
ing lain inthe engagement. A
nd D. = fubmitted to Selim after this event, a
rep march into Egy Arriving in the neigh-
of Cairo, a very bloody battle enfued between
him and Tuman Bey, which terminated in a total defeat of
the Mamelukes. Cairo, after a defperate refiftance, was
taken, and all Egypt fubmitted. Selim returned to Con-
tinop elated with his fuccefles, made a vow that

i “ Selim was one of the moft able and vi us of
1 er additions to the
i — He

ci in his projets of am-
and bad all the ious cruelty — eaftern

» fon of Solyman I., fuc-
ded his father in 1566. Being of an indolent difpofition,
| extremely intemperate, the actions of his reign are

$8 E L

thofe of his viziers and generals. Of thele the principal
was the capture of Cyprus, then belonging to the Venetians,
which, after a vigorous refiltance, was reduced in 1571,
The European powers, who had combined for its relief,
gained, in the fame year, the famous naval battle of Le-
panto, which nearly ruined the Turkith marine, Notwith-
itanding this fuccefs, the Venetians were obliged to make
peace with the Turks in 15974, upon very difadvantageous

terms, During the remainder of Selim’s reign, the affairs
of the Ottoman empire .were profperous. Selim dicd at
the age of 52, probably of intemperance. He had many

good qualities, but was flothful and fenfual.

SELIMABAD, in Cues » atown of Hindooftan,
in Bengal; 12 miles S.S.E. 0 ican. N. lat. 23° 5’.
E. long. 87° 48!

SELIMBRIA. See Setivna.

SELIME’, a village of Nubia, on the route of the
Soudan caravan from Affiut to Darfur; 42 miles S. ot
Sheb.

SELIMPOUR, a town of Bengal; 24 miles N.W. of
Burdwan, N. lat. 23° 23’. E. long. 87° 35’.

SELIN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Galam ;
15 miles S. of Galam.

SELINA, in Ancient Geography, Ilan-Adaffi, or Ifle of
Serpents, an ifland of the Euxine fea, near the mouth of
the Danube: called Para@itus, or Paracladium. Some
authors have denominated it Melafta.

SELINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan,
in Oude, on the Ganges, oppotite to Furruckabad.

SELINCOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme; 18 miles W. of Amiens.

SELINE, a river of Silefia, which runs N.W. into the
Loh, 7 miles S. of Breflau.

SE-LING, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in the
province of Quang-fi. N. lat. 21° 55'. E. long. 106° 2g’.

SELINGUES See pert eke : as)

SELINO, a province of the ifland of Crete, fouth of
that of Kiffamos, which takes its name from that of a imall
town, built on the fouth coaft of the ifland, in the fituation
formerly occupied by Liffa or Liffus, a place of {mall im-
portance, mentioned by Ptolemy. It 1s entirely moun-
tainous, but very fertile. It furnifhes a little filk, honey,
wax, and a tolerably large quantity of fruits, fuch as
cherries, apricots, peaches, pears, and oranges. This is
the only province in which the chefnut-tree 1s cultivated,
and it thrives well on the fchiftofe hills and mountains of
this country. The chefnuts are carried to Canea, Retimo,
and Candia. A quantity is alfo annually exported to Syria.
Oil, however, is the principal commodity of Selino ; and it
is reckoned better than any other in the ifland, The mer-
chants of Canea generally eftablifh their {peculations on the
quantity and quality of the oils of Selino. Wine, wheat,
and barley, are not plentiful. The population of the
Turks is eftimated at a fourth or fifth of the inhabitants.
Olivier.

SELINUM, in Botany, an ancient generic name of
Theophraitus and Diofcorides, whofe Exiver is faid to be
derived from waxgx zo « Au Quicdas, On account of its grow-
ing in mud, whence Homer’s ersheexer cx. De Theis
fays that Schnum is derived from ctrms, the moon, becaule

the thape of its growing feeds ; and that it is the founda-
tion of many other compound names of umbelliferous plants
among the Greeks, as ORtOTEAIvOr, WET COTEALO?, &c.— Linn.
Gen. 133° Schreb. 184. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1396.
Mart. Mill. Di. v. 4. Sm. Fi. Brit. 303. Ait. H. :
Kew. v. 2. 131. Purfh 127. Juff. 223. Lamarck Il-
luitr. t. 200. Gartn, t. 21.—Clafs and order, Pen-

4 tandria

SEL
tandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Unmtbellifere,
Jul.

Gen. Ch. General umbel of numerous, flatly-{preading
rays; partial fimilar. General involucrum of many, lanceo-
late, linear, reflexed leaves ; partial fimilar, {preading, the
length of the flower. Perianth {carcely difcernible. Cor.
univerfal uniform; all the flowers fertile; partial of five,
heart-fhaped, equal petals. Svam. Filaments five, capil-
lary; anthers roundifh. Ps/. Germen inferior; ftyles
two, reflexed; ftigmasfimple. Peric. Fruit comprefled or
flat, oval, oblong, ftriated on each fide in the middle, fe-
parable into two parts. Seeds two, oval-oblong, flat on
both fides, {triated in the middle, their fides mem-
branous.

Obf. The form of the feeds is liable to variation, and
fo is the number of leaves in the involucrum.

Eff. Ch. Fruit oval-oblong, comprefled, ftriated down
the middle. Involucrums reflexed. Petals heart-fhaped,
uniform.

1. S. fylvefre. Wood Milky Parfley. Linn. Sp. PI.
350. Fil. Dan. t. 412. (* Theffelinum Plinti; Lob.
fe. 711.”? Tournef. Inft. 319.) —Stem fmooth. Root
{pindle-fhaped, much divided. — Native of Denmark,
France, and Piedmont. The whole herd is fomewhat
milky. Stems numerous, {mooth, ftriated. Leaflets linear.
Flowers white, in {preading umbels. Seeds oval-oblong,
with three, elevated, approximating furrows.

2. S. palufire. Marth Milky Parfley. Linn. Sp. Pl.
350. Engl. Bot. t. 229.—Herb milky. Root generally
jingle. Stem folitary. Styles much divaricated after
flowering. Petals involute.—Native of marfhes in Great
Britain and the north of Europe, flowering ia July. Root
perennial, fomewhat fpindle-fhaped. Stem folitary, erect,
four feet high, hollow, furrowed, {mooth, leafy, bright
purple at the bafe, branched upwards. Leaves alternate,
about five or fix on the {tem, remote, twice or thrice op-
politely pinnated, and cut into narrow, pointed, f{mooth
fegments. St¥ipulas fheathing, reddifh. Umbels large, ho-
rizontal, compound, compofed of white flowers, on pale
purplifh footttalks. “The whole plant abounds with a
white, bitter, foetid juice, of the confiftence of cream,
which foon dries to a brownifh refin. The Ruffians are faid
to ufe the root inftead of ginger.”

3. S. auftriacum. Auttrian Selinum. Willd. n. 3.
Jacq. Auttr. v. 1. t. 71.—Stem furrowed. Leaves of the
involucrum wedge-fhaped, much divided.—Native of Auf-
tria and the fouth of Europe, flowering in July. Root
perennial, containing a yellowifh-white milk, Stem ttriated,
{mooth. Radical leaf divided by a round ftalk into three
branches, which are again fubdivided. Leaves dark green
above, paler beneath. Flowers yellowifh-white, forming a
“ compound umbel, which is ufually made up of about twenty
partial ones.

4. S. fibiricum. Siberian Selinum. Willd. n. 4. Retz.
Obf. fafc. 2. 16.— Leaves triply pinnate. _Involucrums
faded, of nine leaves.—Native of Siberia. Root biennial,
{pindle-fhaped. Stem ere&, three feet high, hoilow, {ftri-
ated, glaucous. Leaves triply pinnate; leaflets acute, on
comprefled {talks which are channelled on the upper fide.
Flowers white; the general umbel compofed of twenty or
thirty partial ones. Its root fmells like that of Daucus
Carota. bi

5. S. Caruifelia. Caraway-leaved Selinum. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 350. Jacq. Auftr. v. 1. t. 16.—Stem furrowed,
acutely angular. General involucrum none. Leaflets
Janceolate, cut, callous and pointed at the tip.—Native of
Avuftria and Siberia. It flowers at Kew in July and Au-

SEL

guft. Root perennial, fibrous, both taftelefs and fcentlefs.
Stem almoft three feet in height, pale green, fimple, occa-
fionally with one branch. Leaves pinnate in a compound
manner, terminating ina white point. //owers white, with
a tinge of red on the under fide; the general umbel com-
pact, contifting of about twenty partial ones.

6. S. Chabrei. Carrot-leaved Selinum. Willd. n. 6.
(S. caruifolia Chabrxi; Jacq. Auitr. v. 1. t. 72.)—Stem
round, ftriated. General involucrum none. Sheathes of
the leaves loofe. Leaflets thread-fhaped, linear.—Native
of Switzerland and Germany. Frrft introduced at Kew by
E. Daval, efq., in 1791, where it flowers in July and
Augult. Stems about a foot high, {mooth, channelled,
Radical leaves refembling thofe of the lat fpecies; /fem-
leaves fimply pinnate. Flowers white, flightly purplifh on
the outfide. Partial umbels unequal in fize, much {maller
than in the lait {pecies, generally about ten in number.
Villars has obferved that this fpecies is as it were inter-
mediate between Peucedanum and Selinum.

7. S. Seguiert. Fennel-leaved Selinum. Linn? Suppl.
179. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 61.—Stem nearly round,
furrowed. General involucrum none. Leaflets trifid,
linear, pointed.—Native of Italy, flowering in July. Stem
much branched, four feet high, obfcurely ftriated at the
top. Branches oppofite. Leaves oppotite, triply pinnate,
fpreading ; leaflets linear, acute, decurrent. Flowers
white, the general umbel large and handfome, compofed of
about forty partial ones.

8. S. Monnieri. Annual Selinum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 351.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. t. 62.—Umbels crowded together.
General involucrum reflexed. Seeds with five membranous -
ribs.—Native of the fouth of France, flowering in July and
Auguft. Rost annual. Stem ereét, two or three feet high,
fometimes purplifh, with numerous ftreaks. Zeaves fmooth,
bipinnate ; leaflets deeply pinnatifid. Flowers greyith-
white, forming a clofe compaé general umbel.

g. S. decipiens. Madeira Shrubby Selinum. Willd. n. 9.
‘¢ Schrad. Sert. Hannov. fafc. 3. 23. t. 13.”’—Stem woody,
naked below. Lower leaves bipinnate. Leaflets lanceo-
late, entire, unequally ferrated.—Native of Madeira, flower-
ing in June and July. Stem an inch thick. Leaves re-
fembling thofe of Angelica, wide and bipinnate. Sheathes
widened, toothed. Znvolucrum many-leaved. :

10. §S. canadenfe. Canadian Selinum, Purfh v. 1. 192.
(Apium bipinnatum; Walt. Fl. Carn. 115.)—Herb very
{mooth, fhining. Leaves bipinnate. Leaflets much di-
vided; fegments lanceolate. Fruit oval—On the mouths
of large rivers from Canada to Carolina, flowering in J uly.
Flowers white.’’ This {pecies is adopted on the authority
of Mr. Purfh, who has referred it from pium to the pre-
fent genus.

SeLinuM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, in
the Thebaid, on the other fide of the Nile, between Panum
and Anten, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SELINUS, or Sarinuntum, a town of Sicily, fouth-
eaft of Mazarum, on the fouthern coalt. It was founded by
a colony from Hybla, another town of Sicily, 100 years
before the deftruction of that city by Gelon. In its vi-
cinity were many palm-trees, whence arofe the epithet of
palmofa given to it by Virgil. It was deftroyed, a little
before Himera, by Hannibal, who took it by ttorm, and
treated the inhabitants with great barbarity, maflacreing a
great number, and carrying the reft into captivity. The
inhabitants had confecrated to the Olympian Jupiter a trea-
fure, in which, among other rarities, was a ftatue of
Bacchus, the face, hands, and feet of which were made of
ivory. It appears to haye been deftroyed in the er of

ome

; SEL

Rome 350: its ruins are itil vifible. It took its name from
that pa imall river, on the banks of which grew pariley,
ealled in Greek 20.0.

Sxuius, a river of Sicily, the mouth of which is placed
by Ptolemy on the fouthern coait of the ifland, between the
promontory of Lilybxum and the mouth of the river Ma-
gara.—Alfo, a river of the ‘Trachwan Cilicia, the mouth of
which is placed by Strabo between a fortified place called
Laertes, and a rock named Cragus,—Alfo, a river of

ia, which commenced in mount Lampia, and ran from
tonorth, and pafled to the ealt of Egium,—Alfo, a
of the Peloponnefus, iv the Elide ; it watered the ter-

of Scillunte, accerding to Paufanias,—Alfo, a river

Afia Minor, in Ionia: it ran near the temple of Diana,
according to Strabo.—Alfo, a river of Mytia, which tra-
verfed the town of Pergamus, and after having watered the

i of Caicus, flowed into that river.—Alfo, a town

of where Trajan died in the year 117, after his re-
the Parthian war.—Alfo, a port of Egypt, upon

the coalt, of the nome of Libya, between Zagylis-Villa

aod Trifarchi-Villa, ing to Ptolemy.
SELION of Land, Selio Terre, is derived from the
r illen, which fignifies a ridge of land, or ground

fays, that a felion of land cannot be in demand,

gay deem mng
_ SELISIA, in cography, a river of Friuli, which unites
with the Cobara, and the Meduna.

SELIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hif-
ania, in Lufitania, in the interior of the country. Pto-

Geography a fea-port
a pao

Greek ad stots W. of Coutantiaope N. lat.
3! . 28° 12!.
PORTA. o tron of Elindooltan, is the circar of Sur-

ef AAG S.S.W. of S ja.
t AKARI, a {mall i on the eaft fide of the
4 gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 30. E. long. 24° 54!-
__SELKIE, the name in Zetland for a feal. Many of
thefe are found in that ifland.
KI ALEXANDER, in Biography, whofe adven-
iven ri a well-known and highly efteemed
in Fifefhire, in Scotland,
to the fea-fervice.

inque-Ports-Galley
and agg of September, the
from Cork, in company with another
© men, called the St. George, com-
Witiiam Dampier (fee his article),
jards in the South fea.

:
E
A
:
f

following September, Stradlin
uan Fernandez, where Selkirk an

SEL

his captain having a quarrel, he determined to remain there
alone. But when the thip was ready to fail, his refolution
was fhaken, and he defired to be taken on board; but now
the captain refufed his requett, and be was left with his
clothes, bedding, a gun, and a {mall quantity of powder
and ball, fome trifling implements, and a few books, with
certain mathematical and nautical inftruments. Thus left
fole monarch of the ifland, with plenty of the neceflaries of
life, he found himfelf at firfl in a fituation fearcely fup-
pertable ; and fuch was his melancholy, that he ee lian
determined to put an end to his exiltence. It was full
eighteen months, according to his own account, before he
could reconcile himfelf to his lot. At length his mind be-
came calm, and fully reconciled to his fituation: he grew
happy, employed his time in building and decorating his
huts, chafing the goats, whom he foon equalled in {peed,
and {carcely ever failed of catching them. He alfo tamed
oung kids, and other animals, to be his companions.
hen his garments were worn out, he made others from
the fkins ol the goats, whofe fiefh ferved him as food. His
only liquor was water. He computed that he had cau
during his abode in the ifland, about 1000 goats, of
which he had fuffered to go at large, having firlt marked
them with a flit in the ear. Commodore Anfon, who
went there 30 years after, found the firit goat, which they
fhot, had been thus marked; and hence they concluded
that it had been under the power of Selkirk. Though he
conftantly performed his devotions at ftated hours, and read
aloud, yet when he was taken from the ifland, his lan-
guage» m difufe of converfation, had become f{carcely
intelligible. In this folitude he remained four years and
four months, during which only two incidents occurred
which he thought worthy of record. The firft was, that
purfuing a goat eagerly, he caught at the edge of a pre-
cipice, of which he was not aware, and he fell over to the
bottom, where he lay fome time fenfelefe; but of the exaét
{pace of time in which he was bereaved of his aGtive powers
he could not form an accurate eftimate. When, however,
he came to himfelf, he found the goat lying under him dead.
It was with difficulty that he could crawl to his habitation,
and it was not till after a confiderable time that he entirely
recovered from his bruifes. The other event was the arrival
of a fhip, which he at firft fuppofed to be French, but
bp the crew’s landing, he found them to be Epemerts
of whom he had too great a dread to truft himfelf in their
hands. They, however, had feen him, and he found it ex-
tremely difficult to make his efcape. In this folitude Sel-
kirk remained until the 2d of February 1709, when he faw
two fhips come to the bay, and knew them to be Englith.
He immediately lighted a fire as a fignal, and he found,
upon the landing of the men, that they were two pri-
vateers from Briitol, commanded by captains Rogers and
Courtney. Thefe, after a fortnight’s ftay at Juan Fer-
nandez, embarked, taking Selkirk with them, and returned
by way of the Eaft Indies to England, where they arrived
on the 1ft of Grlober Hates Selkirk having been abfent
eight years. The public curiofity being much excited, he,
Eo his return, = up fome stant of what had oc-
curred during his folitary exile, which he put into the hands
of Defoe, who made it the foundation of his well-known
work, entitled Robinfon Crufoe. The time and place of
Selkirk’s death are not on record. It is faid, that fo late
as the year 1798, the cheit and mufket, which Selkirk had
with him on the ifland, were in pofleffion of a grand nephew,
John Selkirk, a weaver in Largo, North Britain. The
circumitances of Selkirk’s feclufion from human fociety,
during his {tay on the aeons Seats have given birth ra

SEL

fine poem by Mr. Cowper, with which all our readers are
no doubt well acquainted. Biog. Brit.

SELKIRK, in Geography, a royal borough town, and a
parifh, in the county of Selkirk, Scotland. It derived its
name from the Celtic word Scheleckgrech, which fignifies
the kirk in the wood ; expreffing thus in one word the fitua-
tion of the place itfelf, and the itate of the furrounding
country, which in former times was one continued forett.
From the circumitance of its being placed on the fummit of
a confiderable eminence, Selkirk enjoys an extenfive pro-
fpe@ in all direGtions, efpecially up and down the river
Ettrick. The inhabitants boaft greatly of the fpirit dif-
played by their ancetftors at the celebrated battle of Floddon.
Of a hundred citizens of Selkirk, who followed the fortune
of their prince on that occafion, it appears that feveral fur-
vived the conteft, and even carried off fome fpoils and
trophies. ‘The Enelifh, in refentment, reduced their town
to afhes. But, on the other hand, king James V. granted
to them a thonfand acres of the foreft; the trees for re-
building their houfes; and the property as the reward of
their heroifm. Thefe borough lands are now worth about
1soo/. per annum, and are divided into a great number of
{mall properties ; a circumftance which tends to damp that
fpirit for commerce and manufactures, by which the in-
habitants of towns are in general diftinguifhed. On the
day on which the magiftrates annually furvey this traé&, a
ftandard, taken from the Englifh in the field of Floddon, is
carried before the corporation of weavers, a member of
which was the captor. It may be added, that the fword
of William Brydon, the town clerk, who led the citizens to
the battle, and who is faid to have been knighted for his
valour, is ftill in the poffeffion of a citizen of Selkirk, his
lineal defcendant.

Selkirk has a weekly market held on Tuefday, and fix
annual fairs ; two in March, and one in July, Auguft, Oc-
tober, and December. As a royal borough, it unites with
Lanark, Linlithgow, and Peebles, in fending one member
to parliament. The corporation confifts of two bailies,
a dean of guild, treafurer, and ten counfellors, and pofleffes
a revenue of about 300/. per annum, drawn from that por-
tion of the borough lands which has not been alienated in
fee to private individuals. The parifh, which is about ten
miles fquare in extent, lies partly in Selkirkfhire and partly
in Roxburghfhire ; and, according to the parliamentary re-
turns of 1811, contains 440 houfes, and a population of
2466 perfons, of whom about 1000 are refident within the
borough.

The principal obje& of intereft in this vicinity is Newark
eaftle, fituated on a peninfula, formed by the ftream of
Yarrow, which has here cut its turbid courfe through a
deep gulf of rugged rocks, enveloped in wood, and pre-
fenting a moft “ fantattically wild fcene of grandeur and
beauty.””? The caftle is now 2 ruin, but enough of it yet
remains to evince its ancient ftrength and importance. It
is generally fuppofed to have been the birth-place of Mary
Scot, the flower of Yarrow. Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii.
8vo. 1805. Statiftical Account of Scotland, by Sir John
Sinclair, vol. ii. 1792.

SELKIRKSHIRE, one of the fouthern counties of
Scotland, is fituated between 55° 22! and 55° 43! N. lat.
and between 2° 50! and 3° 20! W. long. from the meridian
of Greenwich. It is bounded on the W. by the county of
Dumfries ; on the E. by Mid-Lothian and Roxburghfhire ;
on the S. by the county laft mentioned ; and on the N. by
that of Peebles. Its greateft length, from the fource of
Ettrick water to the jun@tion of Gala and Tweed, is 27
miles, and its greatet breadth from Borthwick brae to Glen-

SEL

faxburn, about 17 miles. Taking, at a medium, 20 miles
for its length, and 12 for its breadth, its contents may’
be calculated at about z240{quare miles, or 153,600 acres.
The proportion of arable land a€tually occupied in huf-
bandry may be computed at about 6880 Scotch acres.

General Afpedl of the County.—With the exception of a
few vallies, the whole of Selkirkfhire is mountainous, and
prefents elevations of confiderable height, Meade, in the
parifh of Galafhiels, being 1480 feet above the level of the
fea. In the parifh of Ettrick, the molt remarkable hills
are the Ward Law and Ettrick Penn: the former rifes 1000
feet above the level of the fea, the latter 2200. In the
parifh of Yarrow, the hills are in general fteep and tower- _
ig: the moft remarkable are thofe called “ Blackhoufe
heights.”” ‘The higheft point of elevation above the level of
the fea meafures 2370 feet. For the moft part, the moun-
tains exhibit a green appearance ; though upon fome few
there is a confiderable quantity of heath. Toward the
fource of the waters of this county, that is, on its weftern
extremity, the hills are more green, and are covered with
long coarfe grafs. Towards their junGtion with the Tweed.
they have a greater mixture of heath, and the grafs is
fhorter. On the north fide of the Tweed, fome of the hills
are covered with loofe ftones, but none of them are very
rugged or barren of herbage, or interrupted by mofles.
Bordering on Minchmoor, over which was the old road
from Peebles to Selkirk, their afpeét is bleak and barrens
and forms a {triking contraft with the green hills on the op-
pofite fides of the Yarrow and the Tweed.

Rivers and Lakes.—The Tweed, Ettrick, and Yarrow,
flow through this county. The Tweed enters it near the
ancient: feat of Elibank, and flows through it for nearly
ten miles, along a well-cultivated and fertile but narrow
valley. At the eaitern corner of the county it receives the
Gala, a {mall water, which rifes in Mid-Lothian, and
which forms the boundary of Selkirkfhire for five miles.
Yarrow water rifes near the weltern extremity of the county,
and flowing through the Loch of Lows, and St. Mary’s
Loch, augmented by many fmaller waters, joins the Ettrick
about a mile above Selkirk. From the nature of its
fource, lochs, and from the circumftance of its receiving
in its courfe many additional ftreams from the hills, the Yar-
row, in time of high winds and rain, is rapidly flooded, and
rendered impaflable ; but, from its rapid defcent, it as rapidly
fubfides.

The Ettrick alfo takes its rife in the weftern angle of the
foreft, and running in an almoft parallel dire€tion with the
Yarrow, unites with it about a mile above ; they fall into
the Tweed three miles below Selkirk, after a courfe of 30
miles. 'Thefe waters, as they pafs through this county,
form many beautiful windings. Near their fource they are
hemmed in on each fide by high towering hills; but as they
approach their confluence with the Tweed, the expanfe be-
tween the hills becomes wider and more open ; and they flow
through fertile vallies, in a broader channel, with a lefs rapid
ftream. Fora confiderable way above their junétion, they
are finely fringed with natural and artificial wood; but
the extenfive forefts which ‘once beautified and adorned
their banks, and from which the country obtained the ap-
pellation of £ztrick fore/t, are now almott entirely deftroyed.
Every ftream abounds with trout; and for a confiderable
way up the Ettrick and Yarrow, falmon are caught in large
quantities. Ale water takes its rife from the Kingfmoor loch,
but only runs in this county fora fhort way; in fome
places pafling out of it into Teviotdale, andin others form-
ing its boundary. Borthwick water alfo conftitutes part of
its boundary. The hills are eyery where interfeQed Oy {mall

ttreams

SELKIRKSHIRE.

burns. Thele, flowing in a deep bed, form
hollows, provincially called bepes, which afford
uring the night, and in ftormy weather, to the theep
diltri&, and produce richer grafs than the
of the hills. When the country was covered
thele ~~ mult have afforded much beautiful
outh-weit diftmét of the county are a
{mall lakes, not however worthy of deferip-
mentioned, ws. the Loch of t
lie contiguous, being feparated
of land. ‘The firit is very {mall,
miles in circumference, and one
\ f them are furrounded by high aad
hills, and abound with pike and pearch.
‘The foil of the theep-walks, with fome exceptions,
and dry, generally from its lying on a bottom of

E
E

LEYHLTt
fel
if

T

= : or whinflone ; and even a good deal of it
Sting rere lo acento cy
is retaining a uantity of water

its tleepnels, sal bhn-tiee contihence of tr Se T ;
is and molt of

rie
if
i

Fy
:
4
=
%
4
2,

- oe eras puna apie con

to general aflertion t ce-
pr ay grows vigoroufly on dry foil,
ing to the wetnefs o

ee ;
7 a

fometimes appearing in its na-
fterile hue, but more frequently prefenting a
of beavtiful and tender grafs, which the

or lefs, according to the depth of
fubftance, and the quantity of rain it has imbibed.

leaves and root fheep are extremely
when other food is f{carce. The

the fmall part in tillage is light, dry, and eafily ma-
d. which lie on tialth have fo much
little care in laying out and ploughing the

i Aprapied
oats: peas, too, fucceed very
aaesistonab sop leass have thin hufks,

an quality. Turnips feldom
is “eth ey oe yore rt
idea of a tharp, warm, and kindly
the whole, however, deficient in
ver inevery field that is furren-
hout ing been fown, and indeed is
county w

Same oem eae

the medium of heat 43 degrees. Branaholm or Wool may
be taken as a pretty juit tlandard of the clunate, about fx or
eight miles above Selkirk, on the waters of the Etcrick and
Yarrow. There are few places, even in the higheit part of
the country, fo very as Langholm, though, ia pro-
portion as it rifes, there is a greater quantit - rain; the
air becomes colder and more rating ; froits are more
early and feverely felt, and lies deeper and longer
The rays of the fun, refleéted by the furrounding moun-
tains on fome vallies Goo feet above the ocean, excite a de-
gree of heat that brings the crop very quickly to maturity,
The number of {prings that are ebitructed in their post
forms more or lefs deep avd extenfive. There are
many morafles, fome of them of an unknown depth;
good deal of mofly land ; and feveral lakes, ‘The moiiture
exhaled from the vait quantity of water colleCted im thele,
tly increafes the dampnets of the atmofphere, and pro-
uces frequent mitts and thowers. Nor cas this woonve-
nience be effetually obviated by the numerous drains
which are daily making, though thefe muft doubtlefs contr-
bute to meliorate the climate. The general courle of the
weather and feafons is much the fame us in Roxburghfhire.
See Roxsuncusnike.

Mi .—There are no metals, coal, lime, or free-
ftone, in any part of this county. But there is abundance
of whinftone and ite. Mofles, formed of decayed wood
and other vegetables, are made into peat for fuel. Some of
them are of confiderable extent and depth; and thofe to-
wards the fouth-eaft, in the parithes of Selkirk, Robertfon,
and a corner of Yarrow and Ashkirk, cover large beds of
excellent fhell-marle. In the rills by which fome of them

f are fed, many {mall itones are found ; fome of them overs

fpread with a glutinous fubftanee, others incrufted with
matter very fimiar to that of which the thells are com-
nee ; others again with fhells in every progreflive itate of
formation ; and a few with the animals alive, in fhells com-
= Sagan but of different degrees of confittence and
sare 3.

To account for this incruftation of ftones with calcareous
earth, in a county where no lime is known to exit, and to
determine whether it comes from fome rock as yet unex-
plored, from loofe fragments or particles feattered amon
other fubftances, and wafhed away by ftreams, or from pul-
verized fhells, or from any other matter found in the netgh-
bourhood, would require a {cientific and accurate exami-
nation of the furrounding mountains, and the different ftrata
of which they are formed. On the fuppofition of the
incruitation proceeding from a rock, or detached pieces of
lime, it may become a queftion how far this fubitance is ne-
ceflary or ufeful to the animals in rearing their fhells, and on
the other fuppofition, of its being occafioned by pulverized
fhells, it is HY equal importance to afcertain the materials
from which thefe fhells are conitruéted.

Agriculture. —The agriculture of fuch a county as this,
cannet be a very intereiting fubje&. In the lower parts of
the county, the beit praétices in agriculture are fuccefsfully
purfued, as in Roxburghthire and Berwiekthire ; but in the
pork aah county, or foreft, as it is called, where the

is not fenced off, and the difadvantages of an un-
favourable foil and climate occur, little can be done. In this
fituation, the {mall portion of arable land on the fkirts of the
hills is chiefly cropped with oats, which are the grain beit
adapted vey Poke of the climate, and the wants of its
inhabitants, both as a part of their food, and for the fup-
port of their horfes. In thefe fituations, the principal um-
provement that can be adopted, coniiits im rendering the
arable land fubfervient ie en ee which. -
d2

SEL

the great obje& of the farmer’s attention. Accordingly,
green crops, fuch as turnips and hay, &c. are raifed on many
of the farms, from which very great advantages are derived,
being food to the fheep in ftorms. Little wheat is pro-
duced in the county. Both barley and bear or bigg are
fown. The return from barley is, at an average, from {even
to eleven-fold. The return from bear is nearly the fame,
but the weight and market price are greatly inferior. Arti-
ficial grafles are very generally fown. Peafe are lefs culti-
vated than formerly, the preference being given to turnips.

Live Stock.—Sheep are the {taple animal of this county,
and their number is eftimated at 118,200. There are two
forts, viz. the original breed, which are black-faced, and the
white-faced, which are generally of the Cheviot breed. The
former, being about one-third of the whole number, are to be
found in the upper or weftern part of the county, and the
latter moftly in the lower diftri€ts of the fhire. The dif-
ferent qualities and value of thefe two breeds fhould feem
nearly balanced, for though, of late years, a preference has
been given to the Cheviot fheep, on account of their fuperior
fleece, and even the opinion of their being lefs hardy than the
black-faced fheep has been difputed, yet it is admitted that
the white-faced lambs, when very young, are much barer in
wool, and therefore lefs prote€ted from the weather, than
the black-faced ; and in an inclement lambing feafon, nearly
four times more of them die than of the black-faced kind.
The mutton of the latter is likewife accounted more deli-
cate. The practice of making ewe-milk cheefe is nearly
abandoned, from an opinion that it weakens the ewe. The
few horfes requifite for cultivating the arable diftriét, are of
the Lanarkfhire and Northumberland breed. Swine are
reared only by a few gentlemen for their tables, and by
millers forthe market. Vaft quantities of poultry are raifed
by the farmers, who fend cart-loads of eggs to Berwick,
which are bought by ‘“egglers,”? who fell them again for
the London market.

Inclofures.—Inclotures are not very generally ufed, unlefs
round gentlemen’s feats, and on the farms in their own pof-
feffion. The reader is referred to what is mentioned in the
account of Roxburghfhire, as to the kind of inclofures ufed.

Towns, Villages, Reads, Fairs, and Manufaéures.—Sel-
kirk is the capital of the county. (See SerkirK.) Gala-
fhiels, fo called from its being fituated on the banks of the
water Gala, is a thriving village. It has been long known
for its manufaétures of woollen cloth, which was at firft
coarfe, and of a grey colour, and was called “ Galafhiel’s
grey ;”’ but the cloths recently manufaCtured are of various
kinds and colours. In confequence of an aét of parliament
obtained in 1764, a road of twelve miles was made from
Crofslee toll-bar, on the confines of Mid-Lothian, through
Selkirk, to Haremofs toll-bar, with a branch of three miles
to Galafhiels. Part of the road from Kelfo to Peebles, of
about fix or feven miles long, alfo runs through this county
from Galafhiel’s bridge to Gait-hope burn, beyond Hollilee
toll-bar. The expence of thefe roads, and of a fubitantial
bridge over the Tweed, was 6560/. ‘There are two con-
fiderable fairs held at Selkirk ; four lefler fairs are likewife
held there, and three at Galafhiels for various purpofes.
The chief manufaGures are woollen cloth, ftockings, tanned
leather, and different implements of hufbandry, or wood
blocked out for making them.

Antiquities—There are but few remains in this fhire of
Britifh or Roman antiquities. There are the remains of
fome Britifh ftrengths in the eaftern divifion of the fhire,
which were ereéted upon heights, and were conitrucéted gene-
rally in a form between the circular and the oval. There is
alfo a Roman camp in the midft of feveral of thefe ftrengths,

5

SEL

in the parifh of Robertfon. But the moft remarkable reo
mains of the Britons in this fhire, is the “ Catrail,’’? or battle

fence, confifting of a large fofllé, with a rampart on either

fide. Its length is 28 miles. ‘This valt war-tence can only

be referred, for its con{tru€tion, to the romanized Britons,

who, after the abdication of the Roman government, had

this country to defend againft the intrufion of the Saxons on

the ealt, during the fifth century, the darkeft period of our
hiftory. ‘he modern antiquities of Selkirkfhire contift

chiefly of ruined caftles and mofs-grown towers, erected, fome

of them, in the twelfth century, but the greater number of
aaah in fubfequent ages of foreign hoftilities or domettic”
euds.

Hiftorical Events.—Like other counties of Scotland, Sel-.
kirkfhire has. its fhare of family feuds, fanatical conflicts,
wars, and battles, which would occupy too large a portion of
our pages to recount. Selkirk became a royal burgh on an
occafion that reflects high honour on the loyalty and fpirit
of this ancient town. When James IV. was marching for-
ward to his fate at Floddon field, a hundred townfmen joined
him under the town clerk. They fought ftoutly; they
almoft all fell in the field rather than flee. On the 13th of
September 1645, was fought the decifive battle of Philip-
haugh. This is one of the laft civil confliéts which ftained
the forefts of Selkirkfhire with human gore.

Eminent Natives.—This fhire puts forth a fair claim to
rank in its annals many characters of celebrity. |The
Douglaffes, the Scotts, the Murrays, and Patrick Ruth-
ven, who had learned the art of war under the great
Guttavus, and was created lord Etterick, are names con-
{picuous in hiftory. Andrew Pringle, who was placed in
the fenate houfe on the 14th of June 1759, by the title of
lord Alemoor, as a lawyer was diftinguifhed by his modetty
and eloquence, and as a judge for his dignity and knowledge.
It produced an eminent foldier in colonel William Ruffel, of
Afhytted, who diftinguithed himfelf amongtt the warriors of
India. Mary Scott, the flower of Yarrow, is ttill remem-
bered by the ‘cold-blooded minilters of Etterick forett.”?
She is celebrated by Ramfay in amorous rant :

«¢ With fuccefs crown’d, I’ll not envy
The folks, who dwell above the fiky ;
When Mary Scott’s become my marrow,
We'll make a paradife on Yarrow.”

Population.—This county has feven parifhes, and a por-
tion of two others, containing a population of 5889 perfons.
Selkirkfhire, as a county, fends one reprefentative to the
united parliament. Beauties of Scotland, vol. 11. Svo. 1805.
Chalmers’ Caledonia, vol, 11. 4t0. 1810.

SELL, in Building, is of two kinds, viz. ground-fell,
which denotes the loweft piece of timber in a timber
building, and that on which the whole fuperftruéture is
raifed. See Grounp-Plates.

SELL, Window, called allo window-/oil, is the bottom
piece in a window-frame.

Sriu-Bed, in Mining, a term ufed in fome parts of
England to expre{s fore particularly rich parts of the vein
of ore. :

In Cornwall they fometimes find the tin-ore fo pure, that
it requires only bruiling to drefs it, without the wafbing
and {feparation by grates, launders, and the like means:
they call thefe colleétions of ore the fell-beds of tin; and
it is obferved, that thefe never have any ftrings ifluing from
them, as the other lands have. Philof. Tranf. N° 60.

SELLA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Metlenia, N.-
of the ifle of Oenufla.

Sxuuua, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Benguela.

: SELLA;

SEL :
Sexra, the Romans, a chair in which the old and
jnfirm are prec he

by fervants through the city, and in

Sometimes the phyficians preferibed it as an
See Lecrica.

Serra Curslis, among the Romans. See Cunure chair.
Setra Eywine
hame

» Tureica, or § ides, itt Anatomy, 18 &
to the four apophyfes of the os {phenoides, or
in the brain ; in regard of their forming a re-
of a faddle, which the Latins call /el/a.
are fometimes alfo called by the Greek name
In it is contained the pituitary gland, and in
the rete mirabile.
_SELLARE, in G » a town of Naples, in
Calabria Ultra; 16 miles N-E. of Bova.
SELLASIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Laconia,
S.W. of ee far on the river Oenus. It was “eat
= —s seman When T. Quintius gros fed
Peloponnefus, 195 years B. C., to deliver Greece
yoke of the dies who oppretied. it, he fo-
near this place; but a little after this time, it was
Aratus, the conqueror of the Lacedamonians.
N.W. was a mountain, which bore the name
The famous battle of Sellafia, in the
B. C., was fought between this mountain and Eva.
ing of was at the head of the
commanded the

into Egypt to king Ptolemy Philadelphus,
: Geegraply, a finall land of the Hebrides,
Harris and county of Invernefs, Scotland.

SELLE, atown of France,in artment of the Can-

S. of Aurillac.—Alfo, ariver of France, which
the Scbeldt, about fix miles above Valenciennes.

Se Bied, La, a town of France, ia the department

of the Loiret; 7 miles N.E. of Montargis. _ :

<6. » a town of Hindoottan, in Guzerat; 25

S.E. of Mahmoodabad.

: F, 2 town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;

110 miler E. of Ifpahan.

SELLEIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelo-
poanefus, in Sicyonia. Strabo places the villaze Ephyra
on the bank of this river.—Alfo, a river of Etolia, in

Agrea, ing to Strabo.—Alfo, a river of Afia Minor,

5 a town of Hindooftan,
42 — SE. of . N. lat. 26° 15!.
1

mult be underitood to
n that they were rather minifters of the temple thaa a
t people. Strabo, however, fays, that a barbarous
ple of this ination inhabited the environs of

, eis eee eee oe
i » and chief place of a
: diftri& of Romorantin; 14 miles S W. of
orantin. The place contains 3406, and the canton
5 inhabitants, on a territory of 325 kiliometres, in g
LI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Afia, in the

oAw, in ity, an a tion given to thofe
delivered er Tae et to Strabo

SEL

and Eultathius, were meo, and the name /el/i is (aid to come
from Selle, » town in Epirus, or from the river called by
Homer Selleis,

SELLIA, in Geography, a town of Naples, io Calebria
Ultra ; 4 miles N.N.E. of St. Severina

SELLIERA, in Botany, a genus dedicated by Cave-
nilles to a Parifian engraver, Nasalis Seller, who executed
the plares of the firit aod fecond volume of Cavanilles’
Icones, and alfo of his Monadelphia,—Cavan. le. ¥. §. 49
- Theis, 427.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monegynia

at. Ord) 2. ;

Gen, Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, permanent, deeply
five-cleft. Cor. of one petal, irregular ; tube cleven lou.
aimee 4 to the bafe; limb afcending, cloven into five,
anceolate fegments. Stam. Filaments five, placed in an
ereét manner on the germen, furrounding the i le; anthers
ovate, erect. Pi/i. a inferior, ovate, an-fhaped ;
tee fimple, incurved, longer than the filaments ; fligma
aye akc Peric. Berry ovate-turbinate, crowned
y the calyx, of one cell and many feeds. Seeds ovate,
compreffed, roughith.

ff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, five-cleft. Tube cloven lon-
gitudinally to its bafe. Berry of one cell and many feeds.

1. S. radicans. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. t. 474. f. 2.—Native
of the moift maritime parts of Chili, flowering between
February and May.—Stem proftrate, hairy, a toot high,
fending out fibrous roots, Branches fearcely more than an
inch long. Leaves alternate, {patulate, entire, cluftered at
the axils. Flowers blue and white, either terminating the
branches, or axillary, on folitary ftalks, which have two
awl-thaped bra¢teas in the middle.—Cavanilles defcnbed
this elegant little plant from a dried fpecimen only. He
fays that it differs from Scevola in its fruit, which he fuf-
peéts to be fucculent, as in Pafiflora ; for after immerfing
the dérry in warm water, he found it abounded with little
moilt cavities containing a glutinous fluid.

SELLIERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Jura; 9 miles W. of Poligny.

SELLIGA, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
fome authors have called the narda Celta, or Celtic {pike-
nard of the fhops. 3

SELLINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan,
in Oude, on the left bank of the Ganges; 6o*miles W. of
Kairabad

SELLING of Land, in Rural Pra@ices, the bufinefs of
difpofing of or transferring it from one to another for a cer-
tain itipulated fum. There are different modes of effeGting
this, according to Mr. Marfhall, as by public biddings,
and private contra&t or agreement, in each of which a pro-
per degree of precaution is requifite. In the former, as
the conditions are fixed, an accurate valuation affords the
= fafety ; and in the latter, with upright intentions,

more is uecefflary. In particular cafes, however,
where a landed ettate has fallen into bad hands, more caution
may be required, and it may be occafionally neceflary to
call in the profeffional aid of thofe who, from the nature
of their employment, are upon their inft all forts
of trick and cunning. It 1s fuggeited as highly- improper
to make ufe of the perfon who 1s to examine the title and
adjuft the deed of conveyance, to carry on the bufinefé of
purchafing an eftate ;—of whofe value and ufes he is profel-
fionally ignorant ; as the irrefolution, want of decifion, the
confequent mifiakes, and the neceflary delays, that will
always attend the iations of men who are confcious
of a want of knowledge in the fubject they are employed to
treat on, mutt ever tend to the difadvantage of the em-
ployers. The above writer has known fo many nie
°

SEL

of difadvantage arifing from fuffering mere men of the law
to intermeddle in the purchafes of lands, before the preli-
minaries of agreement have been adjuited, that no apology
is due to the profeffion for the obfervations which he has
thrown out in the above cafes.

But in purchafing by private contraé&, the particulars
which may be required to be furnifhed by a feller, are, he
fays, the quantities of the feveral pieces of lands on fale,
together with the maps, or rough draughts of the fame ;
the tenure under which they are holden; fome aflurance
as to the title of the feller, and his right of alienation ; the
tenancy under which the feveral farms are let: and, if on
lives, the ages of the nominees; if for a term of years,
the number unexpired; if at will, the notices (if any)
which the tenants have had: and an abftraét of the co-
venants under which they are let ; particularly thofe which
relate to taxes and repairs, to the expenditure of produce,
to the ploughing of gra{s-lands, &c.: the exiting rents
and profits receivable ; whether for tenanted lands, appur-
tenances, or abftraé& rights; with the eftimated value of
the demefne, and the wood-lands, in hand; together with
the eftimated value of the timber growing upon the eltate
on fale; as well as of the minerals and foffils which it may
contain: the outgoings to which the eftate is liable ;
the propofed time of the delivery of pofleffion; the price
and the mode of payment expeéted for the fame. And in
the next place, he confiders it as proper to fet down the par-
ticulars of in/lrudious to be given to a furveyor, or other
valuer, of an eitate to be purchafed. But it will be right,
however, he thinks, to premife, that much, in this refpect,
depends on the probability of purchafing ; and on the time
allowed for making the eftimate. In cafes of fale by
public auction, where there can be no certainty as to pur-
chafe, and where the time for valuation is limited, a rough
eftimate of each farm, and a general idea of the valut of
the timber and other appurtenances, may be all that can
be prudently afcertained. While in a fale by private con-
tract, where the refufal of an eftate is granted, and time
allowed for deliberate furvey, a more minute inveftigation
may be proper, efpecially when there is every reafon to
believe that a bargain will take place. For the fame re-
port will not only ferve as a guide to the purchafe, but
will become a valuable foundation on which to ground the
future management of the eftate. And he fuggefts, that
for thefe and other reafons, a purchafe by private contract
is moft to be defired by a gentleman, who is not in the
habit of perfonally attending public fales, and is unac-
quainted with the bufinefs of au@tion rooms. But, he fays,
it does not follow that a fale by auétion is equally ineligible
for a feller; who may gain the vantage ground by this
mode of dilpofal; provided he can fruftrate the combina-
tions of public fales. The auGtion duty, however, and the
heavy expences of public fales, are objeétions to this
method of making a bargain ; as the money thus expended
mutt neceffarily come out of the pocket of the buyer or
the feller.

And in regard to the particulars to be required from a
furveyor or furveyors, they are principally thefe. The
rental value of each field or parcel of land, with the ftate in
which it lies, as to arable, meadow, pafture, or wood-land.
The value of the timber, and other appurtenances. The
charaGteriftie, and the ftate of management, of each farm or
tenement ; with the eligibility of its occupier; together
with the ftate of repair of buildings, gates, fences, water-
eourfes, and roads; the amount of the incumbrances and
outgoings; and, laftly, the probable value of the im-
provements of which the eftate may appear to be capable, in

‘SEL

different ways. And it is alfo added, that thefe feveral
particulars of information being procured, the fubjeéts of
treaty are few. ‘The two ftatements having been duly com-
pared, fo that no mifunderftanding can take place between
the parties, the price, with the times and mode of payment,
are the principal matters of agreement. A clear under-
{tanding refpecting the cuftody of title deeds, and the expences
of conveyance, require, however, to be enumerated amon
the preliminaries of the purchafe before any thing is finally
fetttled. j

But in what relates to the bufinefs of the negociation, it
is belt carried on by letters; which become vouchers of
fats. Whatever 1s done by interview requires to be re-
duced to writing, and to be read by or to the parties before
they feparate, that no poflibility of mifconception may
arife. Andin addition to thefe precautions, it is proper, in
large purchafes, and when abitraéts of intricate title deeds
are to be made out, and examined, that alegal contraét, or
memorandum of agreement, fhould be entered into for the
mutual fatisfa¢tion and furety of the parties. This con-
traét, and the deed of conveyance, (namely, the inftrument
which is legally to transfer the property from the feller to
the purchafer,) may be faid to conclude and ratify the
bufinefs of the purchafe, and in this part of it, legal
affittance is eflentially neceflary ; to examine exifting deeds,
and fee that the feller has a legal right and clear title to the
land, and a legal power to difpofe of it ; as well as to draw
up, or examine, the frefh deed of conveyance, and fee that
it is fufficient to transfer the property, legally and ade-
quately, to the purchafer of fuch landed eftate or property.
See VaLuation of Land.

SELLIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Lufitania, S.E. of Callipo and N.E. of Scalabis.

SELMA Creek, in Geography, a river of Kentucky,
which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 54’. W. long.
84° 34!.

SELMAST, atown of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan or Azerbijan, fituated in the moft piéturef{que, and
at the fame time, the moft flourifhing divifion of the pro-
vince, lying along the N. and W. border of the lake of
Urumea, from Tabruz or Tabris, to the confines of Ar-
menia. ‘The town contains about 2000 inhabitants, prin-
cipally Neftorian Chriftians, and is famed for its lofty
poplars and delightful gardens ; 75 miles W.S.W. of Ta-
breeg. N. lat. 37° 45'. E. long. 45° 20!.

SELNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim ; 16 miles N.W. of Chrudim.

SELO, a river of Naples, which runs inte the Medi-
terranean, near Pelti.

SELOCZOW, a town of Auitrian Poland, in Galicia;
40 miles E. of Lemberg.

SELOGOORAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ;
zo miles N. of Notchegong. :

SELOKOT, a town of Ruffia, in the government of To-
bolfk. N. lat. 64°8!. E. long. 76° 14!.

SELOMMES, a town of France, im the department of
the Loire and Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriét of Vendébme; 6 miles S.E. of Venddme. The
place contains 652, and the canton 4396 inhabitants, on a
territory of 215 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

- SELON, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic; 10
miles S.W. of Tiagar.

SELONDA, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the N. coatt of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° 5/. E. long. 117°34!.

SELONGEY, a town of France, in the department of
the Céte d’Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié
of Dijon; 4 miles N. of Is fur Tale. The place containe

1878,

SEL
| on, and the canton s8o1 i
Boo in 11 comm
SELORICO. Sce Cetonico.
SELOWITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of

Brunn; 12 miles S. of Brann.
SELRAIN, a town of Tyrol; 7 miles W.5S.W. of

TET SEA Bitt, a cape on the S. coaft of England, in

county of Suflex, which takes its name from a village,
on a peni formed by an inlet of the fea, called
harbour ;” 8 miles S, of Chicheiter, N. lat. 50°

‘SELSTEN, a hl of the duchy of Bremen; 8 miles

itants, on a territory of

LTERS, or Nieper Sevrens, a town of Germany,
in the ithopric of Treves, fituated on the Emfbach ;
near v is a celebrated medicinal {pring ; 21 miles N. of
Mentz. See Serrzen-Water.—Alfo, a village of the prin-
pyacsidc| Naffau, on the Laha, with a medicinal {pring ;
SELTSCHAN, or Supiezany, a town of Bohemia,
a Et “Moldau ; 22 miles $.E. of Beraun. N, lat.

° * Ae ea TA
SEL CREEL Srey wick roma lle tine,

* Baur or SE Ba
artment of the

= Benbeim, a town of France, in the de-
the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton,
itn& of Wiflembo feated on the Rhine; 22

tzer, a
which is now ufed in En og eos ee arpa
hi iffues at the with great rapidity,
is remarkably Duby cheer sed bright ; i od nonabee ie Sak ous
sag Sera di abundance of air-bubbles.
which is im at London is brought over in
fone-bottles, clofely corked and cemented, containing about
three Englith pints each, by which means this water, as
_ long as the common air is excluded, will retain many of its
excellent qualities for feveral months ; but this caution is fo
| tsa ideale an empty {pace is left even in
the neck of a bottle, it foon lofes in a great degree the

—brifk, {mart, tafte, which princi characterizes
“its excellence, #1 more liable rir gacws by by keeping
an an other mineral water. ore ee
Hoffman, in confequence of an ° Ss water,
rfe p, ani dj e wa

ds, on a
Pp falt ;
water, and added to a folution

SEL

of corrofive fublimate, precipitates a yellow powder or tur-
bith miveral, and mi with ao infuhon of rhubarb, gi

it a reddith colour, and mixed with fal ammoniac, emits a
pungect fmell: that @ quart of this water, faturated with
pirit of vitriol, and gently evaporated, affords a drachm
and a half of falt, not diftinguifhable from vitriolated tar-
tar; that no medicinal water is fo apt to _ and be
corrupted by keeping, and that if it te fet for a day or
two in an open veflel, it wholly lofes its natural flavour,
and taftes only like water in which oil of tartar had been
mixed,

From all thefe obfervations he infers, that this water
abounds with an alkaline falt in a much greater quantity
than any of the other known mineral waters, without feem-
ing to contain any particles of the ferruginous earth and
bitter purging falt, which are the common ingredients of
the other mineral waters; on this account, he adds, that it
does not purge, but ly goes off by urine. Hoffman
recommends it as one of the mildeft and moft innocent of
all the mineral waters, and obferves that it may be taken
by perfons of the weakeft conftitution,

From the experiments of Dr. Brocklefby on Seltzer-
water, we learn, that upon dropping twelve drops of very
highly coloured fyrup of violets into a wine-glafs of it, the
fyrup feemed firt to manifeit a purple hue, but upon thei
intimate union, the whole changed into a beautiful green:
that the fame quantity of oil of tartar per deliquium
dropped into a glals of fparkling, freth, clear water,
quickly turned the whole milky, and after ftanding, a fine
pearl-coloured powder fell to the fides and bottom of the
glafs; on adding an equal number of drops of pure de-
phlegmated fpirit of vitriol to a glafs of this water, a light
cloud was feen fufpended take the middle of the glafs,
and numerous air-bubbles rofe from all parts of the water,
and the fparkling might be renewed by adding one or more
drops of the acid, and fhaking the glais; and the like ebul-
lition was more readily produced by a {olution of fugar and
Rhenifh wine, or vinegar with the fame: and the — ap-
pearances were exhibited by dropping any vegetable or
mineral acids into this erage tay. Mare! when alkalies
and acids are mixed together: a volatile cauftic alkali, in
half an hour after it had been dropped into this water, pro-
duced at firft a cloud and afterwards a precipitation. Lixi-
vium faponarium fo far decompofed a glafs of Seltzer-
water, that a cloud inftantly appeared in the middle of it,
and the air-bubbles emerging from the lower part of it were

ily abforbed by the cauftic alkali, which is known to
imbibe fixed air, whenever’ it comes into contact with it.
This water, fays Dr. Brocklefby, poured into a glafs, fe-
parates more air-bubbles than any other water which he had
tried, and continues longer to do fo in the open air, but its
{parkling may be renewed by adding any fub-acid vegetable,
and a little fugar, as tharp cyder and Rhenifh wine and
fugar ; but, he adds, that the belt Seltzer-water here will
not perfeétly curdle milk, nor lather with foap, and that
with powder of gall-nuts no farther change of colour ap-
peared thao in pure water. By evaporating twenty-four
ounces of the beft Seltzer-water, hie obtained thirty-fix
grains of a faline refiduum; and the greateft quantity he
could ever get from a pint, wine meafure, was lefs than
thirty grains.

Ten drops of trong f{pirits of vitriol, poured on as many

ins of falt of Seltzer-water, caufed great and inftant
llition, and fuffocating fteam, which ts blackith a
filver {poon held in them, and gave to its furface a

bitter taite,
Having diffolved fixty-fix grains of pure white falr, ob-
rs tained

SEL

tained from this water, in diftilled water, and filtrated it, he
thereby obtained feven grains of a calcareous earth, per-
feétly foluble in all weak acids; but by feveral different
modes of trial he was led to conclude, that this water con-
tains no ferruginous principle.

Finding that the falts and earths contained in Seltzer-
water are too inconfiderable, both in quantity and quality,
to promife any very material medicinal effeéts, he proceeded
to inveitigate what might be afcribed to the great quantity
of fixed air, which this water conttantly difcharges, in a
heat not exceeding that of the human body ; and the refult
was, that the factitious air yielded by a bottle full of water,
containing exaGtly fourteen ounces feven drachms, ina heat
never exceeding 116° by Fahrenheit’s {cale, amounted to a
quantity which occupied a fpace, that required two ounces
two and a half drachms of water to fill it; or allowing two
hundred and fixty-five grains of common water fora cubic
inch, the whole water amounted to twenty-feven cubic
inches, and that which weuld fill the fpace occupied by the
air four ounces and one-fifth ; and fo large a quantity of in-
terltitial air, he fays, was generated in a heat not incom-
patible with life in any part of the world, as the fever-heats
in all climates teftify, and lefs than the heat which is often
experienced without inftantaneous prejudice, in fome tropi-
cal climates.

However, this generated air foon began to be re-abforbed
into the body of the water, and in about eight hours, the
{pace occupied by the remaining air did not exceed one-
fifth of what it had formerly done.

From another experiment with the falt of Seltzer-water,
he found that this feems to have let go much the greatetft
part of its fixed air, and probably thereby loft moft of the
virtues inherent in the pure frefh water itfelf.

From fuch experiments Dr. Brocklefby infers, that Selt-
zer mineral water contains, befides the mere elementary
water, a very {mall quantity of calcareous earth, and a
much greater portion of a native mineral alkali, together
with fome acid retained a while within the water, but which
either evaporates into the open air, or elfe is foon combined
with the mineral alkali: and he thinks it probable, that the
active virtues of this water depend more on this ela{tic mat-
ter, or fixed air, which it contains in fuch uncommon
abundance beyond other mineral waters, than in any combi-
nation of its faline and earthy contents, which are found in
fuch {mall quantities, as to be incapable of any material
fervice, though this water is known to be exceedingly bene-
ficial.

This account of the analyfis of Seltzer-water is clofed
with the hiftory of fome medical cafes, in which the ufe of
this water completed a cure, after a great variety of other
remedies had proved infufficient.

The operation of this water, as Hoffman obferves, is
chiefly by urine, for it has no purgative virtues. It cor-
rects acidities, renders the blood and juices more fluid, and
promotes a brifk and free circulation ; and, therefore, it is
good in obftru€tions of the glands, and againft grofs and
vifcid humours. It is of great ufe in the gravel and ftone,
and other diforders of the kidnies and bladder.

It is alfo excellent in gouty and rheumatic complaints,
efpecially when mixed with milk, or improved by the addi-
tion of Rhenifh wine and a little fugar. It is drank with
great fuccefs in fcorbutic, cutaneous, and putrid diforders.
It relieves the heart-burn, and is an excellent ftomachic.
On account of its diuretic quality, it is ferviceable in drop-
fical complaints : and mixed with affes’ milk, it is much re-
commended in confumptive cafes, and in diforders of the

Jungs; with or without milk, it isin great efteem in nervous

SEM

diforders, and alfo in hypochondriacal and hyfteric com-
plaints, and in obftruétions of the menfes, accompanying
the ufe of it with proper exercife.

It is alfo adminiftered with fuccefs in purging and fluxes
arifing from acidity in the bowels; and it is faid, if drank
by nurfes, to render their milk more wholefome and nourifh-
ing, and to prevent it from turning fouron the ftomachs of
children. See on the fubjeét of this article Hoffman,
Oper. vol. v. p. 144. London Med. Obfery. vol. iy. p. 75
&c. Ellot’s Account of the Principal Mineral Waters,
p- 194, &c. “

Sevtzer-Water, Artificial, may be prepared by adding
one feruple of magnefia alba, fix feruples of foffil alkali,
and four feruples of common falt to each gallon of water,
and faturating the water with fixed air, in the manner di-
rected under Pyrmont-Water.

SELVA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia,
on the coatt of the Mediterranean, 35 miles N.E. of Ge-
rona. N. lat. 42° 20/. E. long. 3° 2!.

SELvaA, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Venice, feparated
from Ulbo by a narrow channel ; it is rocky, and the foil fo
poor, that the olives feldom come to perfection: the vines
produce bad grapes, and the corn is ftill worfe. The ftone
that abounds here is chiefly hard whitifh marble. N. lat.
44° 38!. E. long. 14° 5!.

SELVAGE, in Sea Language, a fort of hank or fkein
of rope-yarn tied together at feveral diftances. It is ufedto
faften round any rope, asa fhroud or ftay, fo that a tackle
may be hooked in it, to extend the faid fhroud or ftay,
whichis called /etting it up.

SELUCHUSA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland near
the Peloponnefus, being one of thofe which were fituated
on the coaft ef the promontory of Spireum. Pliny. |

SELUCIA, in Geography, a town of the Arabian Irak,
160 miles N.W. of Baffora.

SELVE, La, atown of France, in the department of the
Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Rodes or Rhodez; 14 miles S. of Rhodez. The place
contains 840, and the canton 6738 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 2424 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

SELVIG, a townof Denmark, onthe W. coatft of the
ifland of Samfoe. N. lat. 55° 52'. E. long. 10° 36/.

SELUNE, a river of France, which runs into the fea,
near mount St. Michel.

SELUR, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on this
fide of the Ganges, in the interior of the country of the
Careans, according to Ptolemy.

SELYMBRIA, Stryvra, called alfo by Suidas Oly-
bria, a town of Thrace, on the coaft of the Propontide,
between the mouth of the river Athyras and Perinthus, or
Heraclea.
fying town in the language of the Thracians.
LIVRA.

SELZBACH, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Rhine, 7 miles below Fort Vauban.

SEM, a river of Reffia, which rifes inthe E. part of the
government of Kurfk, and pafling by Kurfk, unites with
the Dema, near Sofnitza, in the government of Novgorod
Sieverflcoe.

SEMAMPLEXICAULE Lear, in Botany. See
Lear.

SEMANA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, inthe
fubah of Delhi ; 35 miles S. of Sirhmd. N. lat. 29° 23".
E. long. 75° 33'.—Allo, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; 125 miles W. of Meaco.

SEMAO, an ifland of the Eaft Indian fea, about 24
miles long from N. to S., and from fix to ten broad ; mite

rate

See Sz-

Its name fignifies the town of Selys, dria figni- »

SEM

fated from the S.W. end of the ifland of Timor by a narrow
channel, called the “ Straits of Semao.” 8S. lat. 10° 15'.
E. long. 123° 45'.

SEMAR, a river which rifea in mount Cenis, and after
forming a boundary by its courfe between Savoy and Pied-
mont, falls into the Doria at Sulfa.

SEMARILLARIA, in Botany, a term applied to
feeds which are furrounded half way down by an arillus, or

other fimiar covering.
EMATAI, in Geegraphy, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Pe-tche-li; 35 miles N.E. of Pekin.

SEMAU, an iiland in the Eatt Indian fea; 9 miles S.
from the iland of ‘Timor,

SEMAUE, or Semauat, a town of the Arabian Irak,
on the Euphrates, where a toll is collected; 115 miles S.E.

of B R
SEMBEKE, ao and in the Red fea, near the coaft
of Arabia. N. lat. 25° 12!.
SEMBELLA, among the Romans, a {mall filver coin,
in value and weight to half the libella.
SEMBEWGHEWN, in , a town of the
Birman empire, on the Irawaddy ; 30 miles S. of Pagham

SEMBIANI, Semnians, in Ecclefiaflical Hiflory, a {ek
of ancient heretics, denominated from their leader, bius,

or Sembianus, who condemned all ufe of wine, as evil of it-
felf ; uaded his followers, that the wine was a uc-
tion of Satan and the earth, denied the refurreétion of the
dead, and rejected moft of the books of the Old Teftament.
Jovet.

SEMBRACENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ara-
bia Felix, n¢ar the fea, inthe kingdom of the Sabeans, ac-
ing to Ptolemy. x, ,
RADOR, an engine, invented by Don Jof. de

for the evenly fowing of feeds, defcribed in the
ical TranfaGtions under the title of the Spani/b

perfection of agriculture is allowed to confift much
ants at proportional diltances, and giving fuf-
to the roots, that they may {pread, and receive
nourifhment ; yet there is very little care

orts of grains are fown by handfuls catt at random,
we parts in five of the feed are loft. To

this inconvenience, the fembrador, or fower, is in-
which being faftened to the plough, the whole bufi-
ughing, fowing, and harrowing, is done at once ;

’s trouble is faved, and the grain f{pread at
diftances, and equally deep at the bottom of the

_ An experiment to this purpofe was made before the em-
peror Leopold in the fields of mayne aac in Auftria,
where the land ufually yields four or five-fold; but the
crop from the fowed by this inftrument was fixty-
as appears by a certificate of the emperor’s officer
i to fee the experiment ; figned, Vienna, Aug. 1,

Ww ‘e have a figure of the fembrador, in the Tranfaétions,
» 60. by the earl of Caftlemain. See PLoucu.
a or Simacuon, in Ancient Geography, a

SEM

ftain, which ferves as an excellent natural marking ink.—
Linn. Suppl. 25. Schreb. 196. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1476.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. (Anacardium; Juff. Gen, 368.
Lamarck Illuitr. t. 208, Gertn, t. 40.) —Clafs and
order, Pentandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord, Terebintacee, Juli,

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-thaped,
cloven half way down into five, heart-fhaped, acute feg-
ments. Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, bordered, obtufe, larger
than the fegments of the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, awl-
fhaped, fhorter than the coaetee inferted into the receptacle ;
anthers oblong, {mall. Pi. Germen fuperior, globular,
flattened ; ftyles three, recurved, fituated on the germen and
fhorter than it; ftigmas club-fhaped, retufe. Peric. none,
except the receptacle, which is ere¢t, flefhy, pear-thaped,
{mooth. Seed, a nut refling upor the receptacle, heart-
fhaped, flattened on both fides, {mooth and thining.

bf. Dr. Roxburgh has obferved fome trees of Seme-
carpus with male flowers only, on which account profeffor
Martyn has deferibed the genus as belonging to the clafs
and order of Polygamia Dioecia.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, inferior. Petals five. Nut
fomewhat kidney-fhaped, ftanding on a Jarge, fiefhy, flat-
tened receptacle,

1. S. Anacardium. Marking-nut tree. Linn. Suppl.
182. Roxb. Coromandel. y. 1. 13. t. 12.— Native of
mountainous, dry woods throughout the Eatt Indies, flower-
ing in July and Auguft, but ripening its feed in January
and February. A handfome lofty tree, whofe bark is rough,
afh-coloured and glutinous withinfide. Branches numerous,
{preading, rather hairy. Leaves alternate, on fhortith ftalks,
wedge-fhaped, rounded at the tip, entire, firm, nearly {mooth
above, whitifh and a little rough beneath. Flowers in large,
terminal, erect panicles, compofed of numerous, {mall {pikes,
of a dirty-greenifh-yellow po Braéeas numerous, {mall,
deciduous. Receptacle yellow, as large as the nut, which is
black, containing a corrofive refinous juice, at firft of a pale
milk colour, but turning black.

The qwood of this tree is foft, containing an acrid juice.
The flefhy receptacles when roaited have the flavour of
apples, and are eaten by the natives. The — fruit,
pounded into a pulp, makes good bird-lime ; when ripe, its
black acrid juice is highly elteemed by the Telinga phy-
ficians, as a remedy for various diforders.

SEMEGONDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Wangara, on the Niger, near a lake called
by Ptolemy Libya Palus. N. lat. 15° 22’. E. long.
22° 30’.

SEMEIOTICA, Dnpctiwrixny formed from orp, fign,
or fymptom, that pent of medicine which confiders the figns
or appearances of difeafes, which are the fole guides to the
wane, by which he can afcertain the feat and nature of

ifeafes, and their probable termination. It includes, there-
fore, the art of dia ofis and prognofis, and nofology, or the art
whew ciind dled in methodical order. See thefe words
re! vely.
EMELA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Tripoli ;
45 miles S. of Mefurada.
EMELE, in Mythology, the mother of Bacchus.

SEMELITANI, in Ancient Geography, a people who
inhabited the interior of Sicily, according to Pliny.

SEMEN, in Botany. See Seep.

Semen, in P. » an animal fluid fecreted by the
male, the contact of which is neceflary to render the germs
formed by the female prolific. See Genera TION.

Semen San@um, or Santonicum. See Wonm-Seed.

SEMENCAN, in G api» a town of Grand Bu-
charia; 100 miles S.E, of Bs k

Ee SEMEN.

SEM

SEMENDERY, atown on the S. coalt of the ifland of
Java. S.lat.7° 1. E. long. 106° so’.

SEMENDRIA, a town and fortrefs of Servia, on the
S. fide of the Danube; 20 miles S.E. of Belgrade. N.
lat. 44° 52'. E. long. 20° 41!.

SEMENGE, in Mufic, an in{trument ufed in Arabia by
thofe wandering muficians who accompany the dancing
women. It is a fort of bad violin, joined with a drum.
The body is commonly a cocoa-nut fhell, with a piece of
fkin extended upon it; three flrings of catgut, and fome-
times of horfehair, are fitted to it; and it is played with a
bow, not lefs awkward in its form than the Greek lyre.

SEMENGIAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the

rovince of Segeftan ; 132 miles S. of Kin.

SEMENJAN, a town of Grand Bucharia; 70 miles
W. of Anderab. N. lat. 36° 22!. E. long. 66° 50’.

SEMENNUD, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of
the Nile ; 8 miles $.S.W. of Manfora.

SEMENOV, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Niznei-Novgorod ; 36 miles N. of Niznei-Novgorod. N.
Jat. 55° 30’. E.long. 44° 14!.

SEMENOVSKOI, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Vologda; 44 miles N.N.W. of Vologda.

SEMENTINA Ferra, in Antiquity, fealts held an-
nually among the Romans, to obtain of the gods a plentiful
harveit.

They were celebrated in the temple of Tellus, or the
Earth, where folemn facrifices were offered to Tellus and
Ceres.

The time of the celebration was about feed-time, ufually
in the month of January ; for Macrobius obferves, they
were moveable feafts. They had their name from /emen,
feed.

SEMERON, in Ancient Geography, a royal town of
Judea, in the tribe of Zebulon, according to the book of
Jofhua, whither, it is faid, Jabin fent a meflenger to de-
mand fuccour of the king of the city, and which he accord-
ingly obtained, together with that of feveral other kings, to
attack the Ifraelites ; but they were all defeated and flain in
the combat.—Alfo, a mountain of Judaa, in the tribe of
Ephraim, E. of Sichem; called alfo the mountain of Sa-
maria.

SEMETS, SummeEts, or Summits, in Botany, are ufed
by Dr. Grew and others, for the apices of the attire of
plants.

SEMI, a word borrowed from the Latin, fignifying half ;
but only ufed in compofition with other words, as in the
following articles.

The French, inftead of /émi, frequently ufe demi, the
Greeks hemi.

In mufic, /emi has three feveral ufages ; firft, when pre-
fixed to the name of anote, it exprefles a diminution of half
its value, as in femi-breve, &c.

Secondly, when added to the name of an interval, it ex-
preffes a diminution, not of half, but of a leffer femi-tone,
or four commas, in the whole compafs, as in femi-diapente,
&c.

Thirdly, in old mufic to the end of the 16th century, it
implies imperfeétion in the value of notes, as a femi-circle,
or circolo mezzo; the whole circle then implying perfeétion,
or triple-time. O three breves, or three times three femi-

breves, without a point. C commen time, or, as It was
See Mufical

then called, imperfect, or dual meafure.

Cuaracters, and the firlt Time-Table.
SEMI-ARIANS, ia Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, a branch of

the ancient Arians, confifting, according to Epiphanius, of

4

SEM

{uch as, in appearance, condemned the errors of that hereft-
arch, but yet acquiefced in fome of his principles, only pal-
liating and hiding them under fofter and more moderate
terms. See ARIANS.

It is true, they feparated from the Arian faétion; but
yet could never be brought to acknowledge that the Son was
homooufios, that is, confubftantial, or of the fame fub-
{tance with the Father ; they would only allow him to be
homoioufios, that is, of a like fubftance wigh the Father,
or fimilar to the Father in his eflence, not by nature, but
by a peculiar privilege. See Homooustos, &c.

Though, as to expreflion, they only differed from the or-
thodox by a fingle letter, yet were they, in effect, of the opi-
nion of the Arians, as they placed the Son in the rank of
creatures. It did not avail their teaching, that there was
no other creature of the fame clafs with him, fince by deny-
ing him confubftantial with God, they effectually precluded
him from being truly God.

Yet fome, even among the orthodox, ufe the word homoi-
oufios, in {peaking of the Son; applying fuch an idea to it
as it feems is confiftent with orthodoxy.

But the name Semi-Arians is alfo given, by the fecond ge-
neral council, to another branch of Arians, who believed
orthodoxly of the Father and Son, but denied the deity of
the Holy Ghoft; thus rejeéting that part of the Arian
fyitem relating to the Son, but ftiffy retaining that which
related to the Holy Ghott.

As the zeal of the Arians was chiefly levelled againft the
fecond perfon in the Trinity, that of the Semi-Arians was
bent againft the third; whence, as the former were fome-
times called Xeisoucxot, the latter were denominated [yevpcc~
TOK NK Ob»

Macedonius, bifhop of Conftantinople, made an innova-
tion in this fe€t in 360, and gave rile to a new branch of
Macedonian Semi-Arians, or Pneumatomachi ; who allowed
the Son not to be ouooucisc, of the fame fubftance, but o010:,
of like fubflance with the Father; and at the fame time

openly aflerted the Holy Ghoft to be a creature. This a.

herefy was condemned by the eleventh general council held
at Conftantinople in the year 381. See Maceponrans.

SEMIBREVE, © ©, half a breve mel in Mufic.

oa
See the Trme-Tables.
SEMICIRCLE, in Geometry, a figure comprehended

between the diameter of a circle, and half the circumference. |

Two femicircles can only cut each other in one point.

SremicrrcLe is alfo an inftrument in Surveying, fome-
times called the graphometer.

It confitts of a femicircular limb, as F, 1, G, ( Plate VII.
Surveying, fig. 3-). divided into one hundred and eighty de-
grees, and fometimes fubdivided diagonally or otherwife |
into minutes. This limb is fubtended by a diameter F G,
at the extremities of which are erected two fights. In the
centre of the femicircle, or the middle of the diameter, is
fixed a box and needle. On the fame centre is fitted an —
alidade, or moveable index, carrying two other fights, as _
H, I. And the whole is mounted ona ftaff, with a ball and
focket.

The femicircle, then, is nothing elfe but half a theo-
dolite ; with this only difference, that whereas the limb of
the theodolite, being an entire circle, takes in all the 360°
{ucceflively ; in the femicircle the degrees only going from
1 to 180, it is ufual to have the remaining 180°, or thofe

within the former.
To take an Angle with a Semicircle, Place the inftrument
in fuch manner, as that the radius C G may hang over one

leg

from’180° to 360°, graduated in another line on the 7.

‘.
SEM
leg of the angle to be meafured, and the centre C over the
vertex of the fame, The firft is done, by looking through
the fights F and G at the extremities of the diameter to a
mark se up in one extremity of the leg; the latter is had
by letting fall a plummet from the centre of the inftrument.
‘This done, turn the moveable index HI on its centre to-
wards the other leg of the angle, till through the fights
fixed in it, you fee a mark in the extremity of the leg.
Then the » which the index cuts on the limb, is the
oy rch angle.
For ules of the femicircle, they are the fame with
theedolite.

of the
SEMICIRCULAR Ancues. See Ancu.
Semicrncutan Canals, in Anatomy, three {mall mem-
branous tubes, inclofed in excavations of the bone, and com-
of the labyrinth of the ear. See Ear.
SEMICIRCULARIS Tenia, a part of the brain.
Bra.
Searcrcutanis Palpebrarum Mu/culus, a name given

{ Spigsliue, and fome others, to one of the mufcles of the
Piha. b

y Albinus and Winflow the mufculus orbi-

m,
LON, in Grammar, one of the points or ftops,
_ ufed to diftinguith the feveral members of = alee from

The mark or character of the femicolon is (;). It has its
name, as having fomewhat lefs effet than a colon, or as de-
manding a fhorter paufe. :

The ufe of the femicolon, the grammarians generally fay,
is to mark a fenfe lefs complete than the colon, and more
complete than the comma ; but this only conveys a very ob-
feure idea. In effeé&, the precife office of the femicolon, or
that office which dittingoithes it from the colon, isa thing
very. known to the world. Our beft authors feem to
ufe mifcuoufly. See Coron.

Dr. Ward, formerly profeflor at Grefham, is perhaps the
firit who fettled a jult ufe of the femicolon. His pofition
is, that the femicolon is properly ufed to diftinguifh the con-
juoé& members of fentences. Now by a conjunc member
of a fentence, he means, fuch an one as contains at leaft two

henever, then, a fentence can be divided into feveral
members of the fame , which are again divifible into
_ other emi members, the former are to be feparated by a

the: ple or compounded, that requires a greater paufe
lan acomma, yet does not of niga sen lete fen-
nee, but is followed by ere. singe depending on it,
pay be diflinguithed by a femicolon. £. gr. But as this

ion for admiration, when it works according to reafon,

the beautiful part of our fpecies in every thing that

SEM
is laudable; fo nothing is more deftrudtive to them, whea
it is governed by vanity and folly, Here the whole fen-
tence 18 divided into two parts by the femicolon ; cach of
which parts is a compounded member, divided into its fimple
members by the comma ; which fee.

SEMICON, a mufical inftrument among the Grecks,
which had thirty-five ftrings,

SEMICROMA, Seatuple of. See SexrTurte.

SEML-CUBICAL Pamasoxa, a curve of the fecond
order, in which the cubes of the ordinates are as the {quares
of the abfcifles. Its equation is ax*= y’.

SEMICUPIUM, a half bath, in which the patieot us
only placed up tothe navel. See Insessus.

SEMIDIAMETER, aright line drawn from the centre
of a circle or {phere, to its circumference ; the fame with
what we otherwile call a radius.

The diftances, diameters, &c. of the heavenly bodies,
are ufually eftimated by aftronomers in femidiameters of the
earth,

For the proportions and values of the femidiameters of the

lanets, fee Praners. For their apparent idi
ce DiAMErer.

SEMI-DIAPASON, in Mufic, a defective oftave; or
an o¢tave diminifhed by @ leffer femitone, or four commas.
See DIAPAson.

SEMI-DIAPENTE, a defeétive fifth, called ufually
by the Italians fa//a quinta, and by us a falfe fifth.

SEMI-DIATESSARON, a defeétive fourth, called,
properly, a fal/e fourth.

SEMI-DITONE, Diapason. See Diapason.

Semi-pirone, Dis-diapafon. See Dis-piapason.

SEMI-DITONUS, is ufed by fome writers, as Salinas,
for the third minor.

SEMI-DOUBLE, in the Romifb Breviary, a term ap-

lied to fuch offices and feftivals as are celebrated with lefs
5 nai than the double ones; but yet with more than the
fingle ones.

The femi-double office has double vefpers, and nine leffons
at matins; but the anthems are not redoubled. It is per-
formed on Sundays, on the otaves, and on the feafts marked
for femi-double in the calendar.

SEMIFLOSCULOUS, a term ufed to exprefs the
flowers of a certain clafs of plants, of which the ion,
hawkweed, and the like, are kinds.

This fort of flower confilts of a number of femiflofculi,
which are difpofed into one or more circles, and all com-
prehended in the fame cup, which often becomes ‘inverted
as the flower ripens. Thefe femiflofcules are petals, hollow
in their lower part, but in their upper half are flat, and con-
tinued in the fhape of a tongue. Pele are often feparated
from each other by intermediate leaves, and are placed upon
the embryo fruit, from which there ftands out a flender ca-

illament, divided at the end into two parts; often carried
fed the vagina, {upported by five props. The embryos
are placed in the thalamus, or bottom of the cup, and finally
become feeds, fometimes winged with down, fometimes
naked, fometimes coronated, and fometimes foliated.

SEMIGALLIA, Duchy os in Geography, a divifion of
Courland, about 110 miles in length, and from 10 to 25 in
breadth, bounded on the north by Ruffia, from which it is
feparated by the Dwina, and elfewhere by Courland. It is
fubjeét to Ruffia. Its capital is Mittaw.

SEMIGERMANZ Genres, in Ancient G. .
the name of a people who inhabited the Pennine Alps, ac-
cording to Prolemy.

Ee2 SEMIJA,

SEM

SEMIJA, in Geography, one of the Fox iflands, in the
North Pacific ocean. N. lat. 53°5!. E. long. 175° 14’.

SEMI-INTEROSSEUS Innicis, in Anatomy, a {mall,
fhort, flat, fleflhy mufele, very like the antithenar, or in-
ternal femi-interofleus of the thumb. It is fituated ob-
liquely on one fide of that of the thumb, between the firft
phalanx of it and the firft metacarpal bone. It is fixed by
one end to the outfide of the bafis of the firft phalanx of
the thumb, and a little to that bone of the carpus, by
which this phalanx is fupported; and by the other end it is
fixed near the head of the firlt phalanx of the index, on
that fide next the thumb. It lies almoft parallel to the
antithenar, crofling it a little; this mufcle lying on the
convex fide of the hand, and the antithenar on the concave.
Winflow.

SEMI-JUDAIZERS, in Ecclefiaflical Hiflory, a fe&t
of Socinians, confifting of the difciples and friends of
Francis Davides, fuperintendant of the Socinian churches
in Tranfylvania; who, in confequence of his adherence to
the opinions he had adopted, was thrown into prifon by
Chrittopher Bathori, prince of Tranfylvania, where he died,
in the year 1579, inan advanced age. The molt eminent of
his followers were Jacob Palxologus, of the ifle of Chio,
who was burnt at Rome in the year 1585; Chriftian
Francken, who had difputed in perfon with Socinus; and
John Somer, who was matter of the academy of Claufen-
burg. The followers of Davides were called Semi-Judaizers
by the Socinian writers, according to Mofheim, by way of
reproach; but others maintain, that it was grounded on
their fentiments, and that it was defigned to exprefs the

artial preference they gave to the Law of Mofes above the
Gofpel of Chrift. The words of Chrift, as Davides aflerts,
and thofe of his apoftles, are to be tried by the doétrine of
Mofes and the prophets, which ought to be to us the fole
rule of life and religious worfhip. He alfo maintains, that
there is no difference between the old covenant eftablifhed
by Mofes, and the new confirmed by Chrift, in do€trine or
in promifes; and that they differ merely in this circum-
ftance, that under the former there was the miniftry of the
letter, and under the latter that of the {pirit ; and, therefore,
the one has not abrogated or changed the other: fo far
from it, that the new covenant exilted’ only till the
deftru€tion of -Jerufalem, and will have no farther in-
fluence till the time of Chrift’s worldly government over
Hrael in the city of Jerufalem, which is to be rebuilt. In
the mean time, Chrift is not really the Chrift or king of
God’s people, but only by defignation; the Chrift pre-
diéted by the prophet, and promifed by God, having no
other than an earthly kingdom, which Jefus was appointed
to take poffeffion of ; but being flain by the Jews, contrary
to the divine purpofe, he was tranflated into a fecure and
quiefcent ftate. In this ftate he is not any more to be
called God, as he was by virtue of his office during his
abode on earth, becaufe his office hath ceafed; nor is he
entitled to any adoration and worfhip, as Socinus thought,
nor to any other kind of reverence, except obedience to his
precepts, and faith im his doftrine; nor is he employed
under the diftinguifhing appellation of prieft and interceflor,
both which offices terminated at his death. See the pro-
pofitions drawn up by Faultus Socinus, and prefented to
C. Bathori, in Socin. Op. tom. ii. p. 801—803, or Toul-
min’s Life of Socinus,-p. 453, &c.

SEMIL, ia Geography, a river of Cabuliftan, which
joins the Dilen at Kerdiz, to form the Cow.

SEMILUNAR, Semitunaris, in Anatomy, an epithet
applied, in confequence of their figure, to various parts of
the body.

SEM

SEMILUNAR Cartilages of the Knee-joint, are two {mall
portions of cartilage fituated in that articulation. See Ex-
TREMITIES.

SEMILUNAR Portion or Edge of the Fafcia Lata.
Fascia.

Semitunar Valves of the Aorta and pulmonary Artery,
the three valves placed at the entrance of each of thefe vef-
fels. See Hearr.

SEMILUNARES Cocniem, in Natural Hiflory, the
name of a genus of fea-{nails, fo called, from them having
femicircular mouths. See ConcHoLocy.

The charaéters of the genus are thefe. They are uni-
valve fhells of a compaé& body, witha flat femicircular, and
often dentated mouth; the columella, or inner lip, running:
diametrically acrofs it in a ftraight line. Some of the
{pecies have exferted apices, and tome deprefled; thefe are
nearly globofe fhells, and the turban is never much pro-
duced, but lies flat or level with the bottom.

There are many diltin&tive and fpecific charaéters in the
feveral {pecies of this genus, which arrange together con-
fiderable numbers of the {pecies under each. hus the
neritez, which are of this genus, are fome of them umbili-
cated, and others have teeth and a kind of gums. The {nail
kinds, diftinétly fo called, that fall under this genus, are
very different from the neritz, in that they have no teeth,
no gum, and no palate. The term /émilunares cochlee was
invented by Rumphius to exprefs their mouths, being of the
fhape of half a circle.

The nerite generally inhabit caverns in the fides of rocks,
and ufually ftick faft to the ftone. Bonani, Recreat. Ment.
et Ocul. p. 56. Atdrovand. de Teftac. lib. iii. cap. 8.
Plin. lib. ix. cap. 33.

All the fpecies of the femilunar fhells have few convolu-
tions, and have the extremity of the voluta fmall, and ufually
ftanding a little out.

The fpecies of the femilunar cochlee are thefe, as ar-
ranged under the two general divifions of dentated neritz,
and umbilicated cochlex; wiz. the dentated nerita, com-
monly called the gum-fhell; the bloody-tooth nerita; the
ox-palate nerita; the ftriated and punctuated nerita; the
canaliculated, the furrowed, the thrufh, and the partridge
nerita.

OF the nerite which have no teeth, we have ten fpecies ;
viz. the jafper with a long beak; the jafper with an oper-
culum; the lemon-coloured pea; the yellow pea; the
prickly ; the reticulated ; that variegated with black {pots ;
the red and white fafciated ; the lightly ftriated green; and
the undulated nerita.

Of the umbilicated {nails we have nine fpecies; viz. the
long umbilicated ; that with an exferted apex ; that with a
deprefled apex ; tefticulated ; the hermit; the umbonated ;
the {mall nipple; the heavy white ; and the orange-coloured
cochlea. Hilt. Natural. Eclairc. part 11. p. 256.

Semitunaris Linea, in the abdomen, is the line follow-
ing the outer edge of the re€tus abdominis mufcle. See
Oxsriquus.

SEMIMEMBRANOSUS, (ifchio-fous-tibien ; demi-
aponévrotique) ;.a mufcle of the thigh, fituated on the
polterior part of the limb, elongated, and extending from
the tuberofity of the ifchium to the upper and back
edge of the tibia. It commences from the tuberofity
of the ifchium, in front of the biceps and femitendinofus,
and behind the quadratus femoris, by a ftrong flat ten-
don, which foon expands into a broad aponeurofis, thicker
at its external than at its inner edge, and giving origin
fucceflively bythe latter to the mufcular fibres. The
latter are all parallel, fhort, and placed obliquely, and sree

a thick

See

a

SEM

a thick mafs, which is largelt at its middle, and fmaller at
the two ends, They defend obliquely inwards, aod termi
nate in an aponeyrofis, which, begianing oppofite to the end
of the fuperior one, receives the fibres fuccellively, and
ends below in a thick tendon, which paifes behind the knee-
joint, and divides into three portions, exterual is var-
row and flender, afcends obliquely outwards behind the
joint, and is fixed above the external condyle of the thigh,

with the external head of the gaflrocnemius.
The middle, which is broad and continuous with the pre-
ceding, is fixed to the back of the internal tubercle of the
tibia, and feuds an expanfion over the popliteus. ‘The in-
ternal, mare con and rounded, feems to be the con-
tinuation of the tendon; it turns round the twberofity, and
is attached in front of it, contained in a fibrous theath, lined
bi Ba anger membrane, which muit be opened to gain a

of it.

It is covered by the femitendinofus, the biceps, and the
fafcia lata ; it lies on the quadratus, the adductor magnus,

the artery, joint, and the inner head of
the jus, between which and its tendon there is a
{ynovial membrane.

or 2 thigh on the leg ;
carries the pelvis
» aterm formerly applied in Chemifiry,
to thofe metals not poilefling Soeility we snollesbilry 3 thefe
properties being then confidered as the principal characters of
a metal. Inamechanical point of view this is doubtlefs the
cafe, but the chemical ies of this numerous clafs of
bodies are fo ftriking, as to render the above diftinétion ob-
See Merats.
SEMINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in

PSEMINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindook
in , atown o >
in Oude: 96 mules N or ee se

F

plain, and undivided leaves,
from greateft part of all fown
from thofe of the fucceeding i
other refpeGts. See Seep and

¢
Plants, {uch as are produced from
is invariably the cafe, as in

Hii a name given by Grew
i which es otherwife
feed: this is diftributed

in degree, that to the fe-
or earth is to the plant-root, or
is

is to the plant-root, what the

are many abroad, furnifhed with
the exercitants, and little cham-

SEM

bers, or cells, where each perfon retires, fucics, aod prays
apart. Such is the feminary of St. Sulpitius, at Paris.

The council of Trent decrees, that children exceedin
twelve years of age be takeo, brought up, and intrude
in common, to qualify them for the ecclefiaftical flate ; and
that there be a feminary of {uch belonging to each cathedral,
under the direétion of the bifhop.

In France, the efablithment of feminarics was fomewhat
different from the decree of the council ; none are taken ia
but young people ready to ftudy theolegy, and tu be or-
dained; fo that the feminaries were a kind of houfes of pro-
bation, where the vocation of clerks is examined, and they
are prepared to receive orders. And by an edit of 1749,
no feminary could be eltablifhed without letters patent from
the king.

For the fubfiltence of thefe (eminaries, there are feveral
unions of benefices, or elie the clergy of the diocefe are
obliged to contgibute to maintain them.

Pope Pius IV. having eftablithed a femi at Rome, in
confequence of the decree of the council of Trent, by ad-
vice of the cardinals, it was given to the Jefuits, who have
made very good ule of it.

EMINARY, among the canons of St. Auguftine, is ufed
for a kind of college, or fchool, where penfioners are kept,
and inflruéted in faffical and other learning ; and this among
us is the popular fenfe of the word.

The houles of the fociety de propaganda fide, eftablithed
for the preparing of ecclefialtics for millions among infidels

heretics, are alfo called feminaries. The principal of
which is that at Rome, called the apoftolical college, apoftolical
Seminary, pafloral feminary, /eminary of the propaganda, &c.
See Pistoia.

Seminary is now ufed among us in the fame fenfe with
School ; which fee.

Seminary, in Gardening, the term ufed for the feed-plot,
or place allotted for raifing plants from feed, and keeping
them till they are fit to be removed into the garden, or
nurfery.

When the feminary is intended for trees, it muft be pre-
portioned to the quantity of feeds fown, and of a foil adapt-
ed to the generality of the trees intended to be raifed in it.
The land fhould be good, and the fituation warm, and well
defended, and as near the nurfery as poflible. A fertile
mead, or rich pafture, lowly fituated, will be very proper
for the purpofe. In preparing the feminary, let the
be double dug, working the {ward to the bottom, which
operation may be performed in er. Inthe fpring, the
weeds mult be conitantly kept down; and about Midfum-
mer, if the foil is not naturally very rich, fome rotten d
fhould be {pread over the furface of the ground, whi
fhould be then trenched, or double dug afrefh, From
Midfummer till September, the ground muit be kept
clean from weeds, and jutt before the feeds are com-
mitted to it, it fhould be double dug afrefh ; at which time
the parts mult be wholly in ted. When this is
done, the ground muft be levelled, and the beds laid out for

the different purpofes wanted; referving fuch a portion of
it as will be wanted for the reception of feeds which are
to be fown in the {p

The femivary zeny a divided into different apartments,
for the different forts of feeds, according to ther nature ;
thofe feeds that are fowa in autumn being fown in a part by
themfelves ; thofe in the {pring in oo Thofe feeds,
which remain till the fecond {pring before they come up,
fhould be all fown in beds contiguous to each other ; and
thofe, whieh often continue three years, muft be fown by
themfel Whea the plants produced im any of the

apartment 8

SEM

apartments are taken off forthe nurfery, the ground fhould
be double dug, and lie fallow the following fummer, ma-
nuring it with rotten dung, and double-digging it about
Midfummer, as before. In autumn it will be ready to be
fown afrefh, which fhould be done with feeds of a different
nature from thofe by which it was before occupied. The
feminary fhould be well fenced and guarded. The feminary
which is molt in ufe is for the fupply of the flower-garden,
and this is the place where flowers are tobe raifed from their
feeds, to procure varieties, or, as the florifts exprefs it, new
flowers : as alfo forthe fowing of all the biennial plants, to
fucceed thofe which decay in the flower-garden.

The feminary fhould always be fituated at fome diftance
from the houfe, and be walled or paled round, and kept un-
der lock and key, to keep out dogs, &c. and to prevent a
great deal of damage that is frequently done by thofe who
are not acquainted with gardening before they are aware of
it. The feveral direGtions for the management of the femi-
nary are to be feen under the names of the feveral plants in-
tended to be raifed in it.

SEMINATION, in Agriculture, the a& of fowing
grain or other forts of feed. It is of much confequence to
have this performed in as equal and regular a manner as pof-
fible ; the crops being thereby much better, and more pro-
ductive. See Sowinc.

SEMINERVOSUS, in dnatomy, See SemIrENDINO-
sus.

SEMINIFEROUS Tubes or Dués, the innumerable
fine canals compofing the body of the teftis, into which the
feminal fluid isfecreted. See GENERATION.

SEMINIUM, aterm ufed by the writers on foffils to ex-
prefs a fort of firft principle, from which the feveral figured
ftones, or, as they are more ufually called, the extraneous
foffils, are fuppofed to have their origin.

The generality of the learned world, at this time, fup-
pofed thefe to be the remains of real fhells, &e. brought
from the fea to the places where they are now found, at the
time of the univerfal deluge. See Formed Srones, and
Adventitious Fosst1s.

But thofe who diffent from this fyftem pretend, that thefe
foflile bodies, though they exaétly reprefent fhells, &c. yet
never were in the fea at all, but that their minute firft prin-
ciples, or, to ufe their own term, their feminia, have been
carried from the fea, through fubterranean paflages, to the
places where we now find the complete fhells, &c. into which
they have grown. Langius, who has written exprefsly on
this fubje&t, though he has candidly colleGted all that has
been faid in favour of the diluvian fy{tem, by the abettors
of it, yet is not convinced by thofe arguments, but rather
inclines to the other fide of the queftion, or the rife of fuch
foffils from feminia.

Thefe foffile fhells are ufually found throughout one and
the fame fubftance, and that the moft different imaginable
from the {fubftance of the living creatures which they re-
prefent ; and often, though found in pairs, and perfe@ly
clofed on all fides, yet when broken, they are found full of
the fubftance of the itone in which they lie; and the armature
of feveral kinds of them, particularly of many of the cor-
nua ammonis, is fuppofed to plead greatly in favour of this
hypothefis ; as it is not of the nature of or at all owing to
the fubftance of the matrix in which they lie, or of the
matter of which they are formed, and is therefore to arife
folely from the nature of the feminium from which they
are formed.

The immenfe number of the fea-fhells, as they are called,
thus found foffile, is alfo thought to argue much on this fide
of the queftion ; as the favourers of this hypothefis fuppofe

SEM

that the fea could not, at any one time, have given up fuck
numbers as the earth is {locked with, though there are no
limits to the numbers fuppofed to be raifed from feminia ;
andthe immenfe columns of black marble found in Ireland,
and found of fuch regular joints, are brought as a proof of
the poffibility of-fuch a formation of foflils as this from fe-
mee which they fuppofe muft have given origin to thofe
illars.

SEMINOLES, in Geography, a divifion of the Creek
nation of Indians, who inhabit the flat level country on the
rivers Apalachicola and Flint.

SEMIORBICULARES Onts, Superior and Inferior,
in Anatomy, the names under which Winflow defcribes the
orbicularis oris. See DreGLurition.

SEMI-ORDINATES, in Geometry, the halves of the
ordinates or applicates. See Orvinate and Conic Sec-

tions.
SEMI-PARABOLA, a curve defined by the equation,
ax” iyi asax” A cease — vi

In femi-parabolas y” so” (:: ax™—* 2 a 2"—") s2a™—2:
z”—}, or the powers of the femi-ordinates are as the powers
of the abfcifles, one degree lower; e. gr. in- cubical femi-
parabolas, the cubes of the ordinates y? and v3 are as the
fquares of the abfciffes x* andz. See PARABOLA.

SEMI-PELAGIANS, in Ecclefiafical Hiflory, a name
anciently, and even to thisday, given to fuch as retain fome
tinéture of Pelagianifm.

St: Profper, in a letter to St. Auguftine, calls them ze-
liquias Pelagii.

Many learned men, principally among the Gaule, who
could not come into St. Auguftine’s doétrine of grace, &c.
were accufed of Semi-pelagianif{m; they were ailfo called
Mafflians, or priefts of Marfeilles, in regard their opinions had
their firft rife in that city.

Caflian, who had been a deacon of Conftantinople, and
was afterwards a prieft at Marfeilles, was the chief of thefe
Semi-pelagians. And about the year 430, feveral other per-
fons embarked in the undertaking of fixing upon a kind of
mean between the opinions of Pelagius and thofe of Auguf-
tine, and formed this new feét. .

The leading principles of the Semi-pelagians were the five
following. 1. That God did not difpente his grace to one
more than another in confequence of predeftination, 4 e. an
eternal and abfolute decree, but was willing to fave all men,
if they complied with the terms of his gofpel. 2. That
Chrift died for all men. 3. That the grace purchafed by
Chritt, and neceflary to falvation, was offered to all men.
4. That man, before he received grace, was capable of faith
and holy defires. 5. That man was born free, and was con-
fequently capable of refifting the influences of grace, or of
complying with its fuggeftion. ‘The Semi-pelagians were
very numerous ; and the doétrine of Caffian, though varioufly
explained, was received in the greateft part of the monattic
{chools in Gaul, from whence it fpread itfelf far and wide
through the European provinces. As to the Greeks, and
other eaftern Chriftians, they had embraced the Semi-pelagian
do€trine before Caflian, and ftill adhere firmly to it. In the
fixth century, the controverfy between the Semi-pelagians
and the difciples of Auguftine, prevailed much, and centinued
to divide the Weltern churches. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hitt.
vol. i. j

SEMI-PERIOD, in Grammar, a mark of diftinétion re-
commended by Dr. Ward, but not admitted by other gram-
marians, It is greater than the colon, and fuppofed to an-
fwer the fame purpofe between the colon and period as the
femicolon does between the comma and colon. It is ufed to
terminate a perfect fentence, when a new fentence arifing out

of

SEM

| of the preceding is annexed to it; and he diftinguithes it by
—- ning the new fentence with a {mall letter, But the colon
and femicolon, differently applied, fuperfede the neceflity of
his new dittindtion.

SEMIPOLATNOI, or Sewratat, in Geagraphy, a
fortrefs Ruffia, in the government of Kolivan, on the
Irtifch, firft built in the year 1714, on the bank of the
Irtifch ; but afterwards taken down and ereéted in feveral
different firuations. Tt now flands in its fourth fituation,
and is eafily commanded from the mountains that lic to the

of it; and the adjacent country is very pleafant and
but remains uncultivated. The gardens at Sempa-

Jat yield a very fine {pecies of melons. ‘The fort derives its
Sempalat, a ruinous town, diftant from it about
16 verits on the river Irtifch, where are feen fome remains
i The Ruffian fettlers found here
Some
learned men are of opinion, that certain infcriptions found
hie b relate to the mythology of the Kalmucks ;

is profaned by war, i Id be rb re-
F 148 miles S. of Kolivan. N. lat. 50° 25’.

° 14!
-PORCELLANA, in the Hiflory of Shells. See

Sneus.
SEMIPREBEND. See Presenn.
SEMIPROOF, an imperfeét proof.
In the French law, the Sapoktine of a fingle evidence
makes a femiproof.
“7 teltament of a perfon deceafed is deemed a femi-

In enormous cafes, the femiproof frequently determined
them to try the torture.

SEMIQUARTILE, or Semiquaprare, is an afpect
of the planets, when diftant from each other 45 degrees, or

one thes a half.

SEMIQUAVER, in Mufic. See Quaver.

SEMIQUINTILE is an aipe& of the planets, when at
Vad an of 36 3 omg one another.

A, in by. See Samra. va

SEMIRAMIS, in Biography, queen of Affyria, a very
diftingui in ancient hiftory, lived at a period
fo remote, that little can be known with certainty of her
oh tp ap es eth that Semiramis - was a female
. *6 origin, but o t beauty and a fuperior under-

Sag teat Wa Mermne the wie of Moers, ax-ollices

band to the army, the engaged in the invafion of Bactra,
Seine sotcn whom he afterwards married,

_ her former hufband, through jealoufy or defpair, having put
Ned Aaa eh bal Ninus, who le’ 3a
“Tegent guardian of their infant fon, the aflumed the
of empire, and governed with great glory. She
founded the famous city of Babylon: then a her

fart
H
E

at the head of a vait army, and underwent
i ws eh ra he return to Baétra with
of forces. A confpiracy being
her, at the inftigation of her own
under it, or was obliged to refign her
aon upwards of 40 years.
ERATORY Fire in Chemifiry, aterm

SEM

ufed to exprefs fuch a reverberatory fire, in which the Mame

is only beaten back upon the bottom of the vetlel
SEMIRHOMBUS, in Surgery, a tort of bandaye.
SEMIRUS, in Ancient Geography, a navigable over of

Italy, in Brutium, the country of the Locri, aceurumy to

Pliny.

SEMIS, among the Romans, the half of the as.

SEMISAT, in Geography. See Samisar.

SEMISEXTILE, or Semisexrus, or 5. S. an afpeA
of two planets, wherein they are dillant from each other oue-
twelfth part of acircle, or 30 degrees.

The femifextile was added to the ancient afpeéts by
Kepler; and, as he fays, from meteorological obferva-
tions.

SEMISICILICUS, a word ufed by fome pharmaceutic
writers to exprefs a drachm.

SEMISIDERATUS, a word ufed by fome for a perfon
ftruck with a hemiplegia.

SEMISOSPIRO, in the /ialian Mufic, a lit-le paufe,
or the eighth part of a bar in common ume.

SEMISPINALIS Dons, in Anatomy, a portion of the
mufcular mafs, which fills the hollow of the {pine between
the traniverfe and the {pinous procefles. 1 arifes from the
tranfverfe procefles of four, five, fix, or feven of the
inferior dorfal vertebre, beginning with the fecond from the
luins, and is inferted in the {pinous proceffes of the two
loweft cervical, and of the two, three, or four firft dorfal
vertebra. It lies on the multifidus {pine, with which it is
much conneéted ; and it is covered by the longiflimus dorfi
and complexus. It is deferibed as a diftinét mufcle by Al-
binus and Soemmerring : Boyer and Bichat include it with
the multifidus {pine under the name of tran{verfaire Epineux.
See Mutriripus, under which article its ation is de-
feribed.

SEMITA Luminosa, a name given to akind of lucid
traét ia the heavens, which a little before the vernal equinox,
or after the autumnal, may be feen about fix o’clock at
night, extending from the weitern edge of the horizon, up
towards the Pleiades.

The phenomenon has been taken notice of by Caffini and
Fatio, who both evince, that this light comes diffufed from
both fides of the fun. Its brightnels is much the fame with
that of the via laétea, or the tail of a comet: it is feen

laineft with us about the beginning of Odtober, or the
tter end of February. :

Fatio conjectures, that the bodies, or rather the conge-
ries or ag te of bodies, which occafions this light,
conforms to the fun like a lens, and takes it to have ever
been the fame; but Caffini thinks it arifes from a vait
number of {mall planets, which encompafs the fun, and
give this light by reflection ; efteeming it alfo not to have
exiited long before he obferved it. See Zopiacat Light.

SEMITALES, among the Romans, a name given to
the gods who were the protectors of roads,

SEMITEINTS. See Ternts.

SEMITENDINOSUS, (feminervolus; ifchio-pré-tibien,)
in Anatomy, a long mufcle at the back of the thigh, thicker
above and very flender below, extending from the tuberofity
of the ifchium to the tibia. It arifes from the ifchium by a
tendon, which, for the {pace of three inches, is common to
it with the long head of the biceps flexor cruris. The mufcular
fibres arifing this tendon form a fafciculus, which is firit
flender, then larger, and then again diminifhed, and inter-
fected ip its middle by an aponeurofis very obliquely directed.
The femitendinofus pafles along the inner and polterior edge
of the thigh, and terminates below in a tendon, which firt

conftitutes

SEM

conttitutes the fharp edge of the inner ham-{tring, then goes
behind the internal condyle and the knee-joint, fends off an
expanfion, which contributes to the formation of the aponeu-
rofis of the leg, turns round the head of the tibia, and {preads
into a flat form to terminate on the anterior furface of that
bone, a little below the knee, behind the tendon of the far-
torius, andin company with that of the gracilis. Between
this tendon, and the internal lateral ligament of the knee-
joint, there is a burfa mucofa. The mufcle is covered by
the fafcia of the thigh, and at its origin by the gluteus
magnus: it covers the femimembranofus and the adductor
longus. The femitendinofus aéts on the knee, the hip, and
the pelvis, in the fame way as the femimembranofus does.
See the defcription of that mufcle.

SEMITERTIAN Fever. See Fever, Semitertian.

SEMITONE, in Mufic, one of the degrees, or concin-
nous intervals, of concords.

There are three degrees, or lefs intervals, by which a
found can move upwards and downwards fucceffively from
one extreme of any concord to the other, and yet produce
true melody ; and by means of which, feveral voices and
inftruments are capable of the neceflary variety in pafling
from concord to concord. Thefe degrees are the greater
and lefs tone, and the femitone. The ratio of the firft is
8:93 that of the fecond g: ro.

The ratio of the femitone is 15 : 16 ; its compafs is five
commas ; which interval is called a femitone, not that it is
geometrically the half of either of the tones, for it is more ;
but becaufe it comes fomewhat near it. It is alfo called the
natural femitone, and the greater femitone, becaufe greater
than the part it leaves behind, or its complement to a tone,
which is four commas. The. Italians alfo call it /econda
minore, or a lefler fecond.

There are feveral {pecies of femitones; but thofe that
ufually occur in praGtice are of two kinds, diftinguifhed by
the addition of greater and le(s. The firft is exprefled by
the ratio of 16 to 15, or +2; and the fecond by 25 to 24,
or 33. The ogtave contains ten femitones major, and two
diefes, nearly ; for the meafure of the oétave being exprefled
by the logarithm 1.000000, the femitone major will be mea-
fured by 0.093109; and the o€tave contains feventeen femi-
tones minor, nearly. lf the meafure of the octave be the
logarithm 1.000000, the meafure of the femitone minor will
be 0.058894. Thefe two differ by a whole enharmonic diefis ;
which is an interval praGticable by the voice, and was much
in ufe among the ancients, and not unknown even among the
modern practitioners. Euler, Tent. Nov. Theor. Muf.
p- 107. See INTERVAL.

Thefe femitones are called fGitious notes ; and with refpee&
te the natural tones, are exprefled by charatters called flats
and /harps.

Their ufe is to remedy the defe&ts of inftruments, which,
having their founds fixed, cannot always be made to anfwer
to the diatonic feale.

By means of thefe we have a new kind of feale, called the
Sremitonic Scale; which fee.

In praétical mufic, on keyed and fretted inftruments, it
is a nominal half-tone ; though mathematicians, in theory,
find it impoffible to divide a tone into halves. Roufleau,
after explaining the {cientific and nominal difference between
the major and minor femitone ; the major changing its place,
asetof, andé/toc; and the minor remaining on the fame
line, or on the fame {pace of the ftaff; as Fy Fx, Bb BA;
obferves, that though the imaginary change of tone is ex-
preffed by the accident of a fharp or a flat, yet there is no
difference in the found of Ex and F4, or in Ax and Bh, on

5

SEM

the organ or harpfichord, the fame tones being fometimes
major and fometimes minor, fometimes.diatonic and fome-
times chromatic, according to the key we are in.

For the importance of the femitone in mufic, fee Matthe-
fon’s Srganiflen-probe, or Treatife on Thorough-bafe, where
he has beftowed many pages on this interval. Zarlino. calls
it i/ fale, the falt, or feafoning of nvufic.

The ufe of femitones has been much abufed of late,
by the now too common trick of running up and down the
piano forte in half-notes. Our flow chromatic is fundamen-
tal, and produétive of modulation; but the quick chiefly
conlifts of appoggiaturas, and mere notes of tafte, unnotiged
in the bafe and the accompaniments. See Mopern Curo-
MATIC.

For the fober ufe of fucceffive femitones with good talte
and effe&t, fee Mozart’s Theme, N° 5. Var. 4. fecond ftrain.

SEMITONIC Scatz, orthe Scale of Semitones ; a {cale
or fyftem of mufic, confilting of 12 degrees, or 13 notes,
in the oGtaye, being an improvement on the natural or diatonic
{cale, by inferting between each two notes of it another note,
which divides the interval or tone into two unequal parts,
called /emitone. :

The ufe of this fcale is for inftruments that have fixed
founds, as the organ, harpfichord, &c. which are exceed-
ingly defeétive on the foot of the natural or diatonic fcale.
For the degrees of the feale being unequal, from every note
to-its o€tave, there is a different order of degrees; fo that
from any note we cannot find any interval in a feries of fixed
founds; which yet is neceflary, that all the notes of a
piece of mufic, carried through feveral keys, may be found
in their juft tune, or that the fame fong may be begun in-
differently at any note, as may be neceflary for accommo-
dating fome inftrument to others, or to the human voice,
when they are to accompany each other in unifon. :

The diatonic feale, beginning at the loweft note, being
firft fettled on an inftrument, and the notes thereof diftin-
guifhed by their names, a, 5, c, d, e, f; g3 the inferted
notes, or femitones, are called /iditious notes, and take the
name or letter below with *, as cX, called c /harp; fignify-
fying that it is a femitone higher than the found of c in the
natural feries ; or this mark 6, called a fat, with the name
of the note above, fignifying it to be a femitone lower.

Now +% and +22 being the two femitones the greater
tone is divided into; and +3 and 22, the femitones the lefs
tone is divided into; the whole ogtave will ftand as in the
following fcheme, where the ratios of each term to the next
are written fraétion-wife between them below.

Scale of Semitones.

E210 Wide dx) eamafan foxemce) East 1a) 6. ce
15 128 15 a4 15 i123 Tees 15 24 15 128 15
Te 35; gan ition iOnaslicrss TS ZT. TS rss 1S

Tor the names of the intervals in this feale, it may be
confidered, that as the notes added to the natural feale are
not defigned to alter the fpecies of melody, but leave it
{till diatonic, and only correé&t fome defeéts arifing from
fomething foreign to the office of the fcale of mufic, viz.
the fixing and limiting the founds; we fee the reafon why
the names of the natural feale are continued, only making
a diftinGtion of each into a greater and lefs. Thus an in-
terval of one femitone is called a /e/s fecond ; of two femi-
tones, a greater fecond; of three femitones, a Le/s third; of
four, a greater third, &c. :

A fecond kind of femitonic feale we have from another
divifion of the o€tave into femitones; which is performed
by taking an harmonical mean between the extremes of the

greater

SEM
and lefs tone of the natural feale, which divides ic

16:
numbers | the lengths of the chords; but if
Seine tha vibrations, the lengtiGl the chords are

~ oo oppress which puts the greater femi-
lower part of the tone, and the lefler 44
upper, which is the property of the harmonical di-
And after the fame manner the lefs tone g : 10 is

the two femitones 18 ; 19, and 19; 20; and

s
s

thus
oe . i
st ott iy
Salmon tells u

Sm
Ww oa]

a
is
3, in the Philofophical

* x. 2.
J Grammar. See Consonants.
which Gefner,

cohen es f
ungary ; 12 -N.W. ©
Stuhl Wei

SEMMARA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra; 10
miles W. of Oppido.
a A, atown of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 14 miles
_ SEMNAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Comis ;
miles S.W. of Damegan.
_ SEMNEON, in Ancient Geography, a town and epifco-

lia.
_ SEMNI, a race of Philofophers in India.
SEMNO, in » ariver of Albania, which runs
into the Adriatic; 4 W. of Canovia.
‘Tacitus, ee
_ SEMODIUS,

on a lake to which it gives name; 7
: witzerland, in
of Lucerne, fix miles long and two wide ; 8 miles

[PERVIVA, in B » a natural order of
fiom one of the principal genera s as al

et >in to the tenacioufnefs of the

.principic, common to the whole order, and to which
Son itsname. See Sempervivum.

pot
0 -

SEM

This is the 83d of Juflieu’s orders, the firfl of hist
clafs, whofe chara¢ters may be found at length under
article Ficoinna. The Semperviva are defined as follows,

Calyx inferior, divided deeply into a definite number of
fegments, Petals inferted into the bottom of the calyx,
alternate with its fegments, and agreeing with them in num-
ber, or more rarely the corel/a is monopetalous, either tubu-
lar, or deeply divided. Stamens either as many as the petals,
and alternate therewith ; or twice as numerous, inferted al-
ternately into the claws of the petals, and the bottom of
the fegments of the calyx ; anthers roundith. Germens feve-
ral, equal in number to the joined together by the
internal angle of their bafe, glandular at the eppofite part,
their lands, in fome inftances, afluming the form of {eales ;
np and fligmas as many as the germens. Capfules as many,
of one cell, with many feeds, feparating at the inner
into two valves, whofe edges bear the fords. Coreulum in-
curved, furrounding a farinaceous mals. "Stem herbaceous, or
fomewhat fhrubby. Leaves oppofite or alternate, fucculent.

The genera are Tillea, Craffela Cotyledon, Rhodiola, Se-
dum, S. ivum, and Septas; to which Penthorum is fab-
joined, as akin to the reft, but differing in habit, (as on
not fucculent,) and in ‘the mode in which the capf
burfts ;” fee PenrHorum, where Juffieu’s mittake is rec-
tified, and this genus referred to the order in queftion, with.
out any exception or doubt.

SEMPERVIVUM, a name which immediately befpeaks
its own derivation, emper vivens, ever-living, or evergreen 5
the plants which en 8 this genus bein . from their very
fucculent nature fo extremely tenacious of Peper Gen.
244. Schreb. 329.. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.930. Mart. Mill.
Did. v.4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 522. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
v. 1. 334. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 171. Juff. 307. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 413. Gaertn. t. 65.—Clafs and order,
Dodecandria Dodecagynia. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn.
Ry ive, Juil.

- Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, deeply
cloven into about twelve, concave, acute fegments. Cor.
Petals twelve, oblong, lanceolate, acute, concave, a little

than the calyx. Ne¢taries ufually wanting. Stam.
Filaments twelve, flenderly awl-thaped ; anthers roundith.
Pif. Germens twelve, fuperior, placed in a circle, ere@,
terminating in the fame number of fpreading {tyles ; eA
acute. eric. Capfules twelve, oblong, comprefled, ort,
ranged circularly, pointed outwardly, opening inwardly.
AY | ane pee {mall. : bout

- Ch. Calyx inferior, in twelve fe ts.
twelve. Capfules twelve, with many coke a em

Obf. Linneus in a remark under the natural charaéter
in his Gen. P/. makes the greater number of petals the
effential diftinétion between this genus and Sedum, but in the
Syf. Veg. the neCtariferous f{eales are properly made charac-
teriftic of the latter. According to this principle, Semper.
vivum fediforme, of Jacquin, has been referred by fir J. E.
Smith, in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 6, to Sedum, with which
it accords alfo in habit, differing altogether from Sempervi.
vum, except in number of petals, &c. a circu
known, in this cafe, to be uncertain. Neverthelefs, there
being in S$. ivum birtum, according to Schmidel’s fi
at leaft, a minute indication of a fcale, or tooth, at the bafe
of each germen, the learned editor of Hort. Kew. was in-

duced, on that und alone, to prefer the charaéter de-
duced from number, in the above plant of Jacquin. Both
Willdenow and enumerate fourteen {pecies of this
handfome genus, including Sediforme ; many of thefe are
beautifully figured by — and Curtis. The following,

ig with the only Britith {pecies, may ferve as an

epitome of the whole.

Ff s. te/Jorum.

SEM

5. teoruim. Common Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. Pl. 664.
Engl. Bot. t..1320, Curt. Lond. fafc. 3. t. 29. Fl. Dan.
t. 601.—Leaves fringed. Offsets {preading. Common on
old tiles and decayed thatched roofs, where it forms large,
denfe tufts, flowering, though {paringly, in July.— Roots
perennial, fibrous, throwing out numerous, rofaceous, leafy
runners. Svems ereét, nearly a foot high, round, flefhy,
downy, leafy, corymbofe at the top, many-flowered.. Leaves
extremely fucculent, carinated, acute ; the radical ones obo-
vate ; thofe of the ttem alternate, lanceolate, more {lender,
reddifh. Flowers pale pink, or flefh-coloured, downy.—
«The bruifed leaves are by rultic furgeons ufed as a cooling
external application, but their virtues are inconfiderable.””

S. globiferum. Globular Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. Pl. 665.
Curt. Mag. t. 507. Jacq. Auttr. v. 5. t. 40. App.—Leaves
fringed. Offsets refembling little globes.—Native of Ruflia
and Germany, flowering in June and July.—Roots perennial,
refembling thofe of the laft {pecies in habit, as indeed do
all the other parts. Svems not fo high, more leafy. Leaves
narrower, clofely fringed, tipped with red; thofe of the
globular offeets compaétly imbricated. /owers large and
handfome, in a terminal clufter; their petals yellow, and
lilac coloured at the bafe.

S. tortuofum. Gouty Houfeleek. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
173- Willd. n.8. Curt. Mag. t. 296.—Leaves obovate ;
gibbous and hairy beneath. Neétaries two-lobed.—Native
of the Canary Iflands, flowering in July and Auguft—A
Sorabby plant of humble growth, producing numerous flefhy
evergreen eaves growing thickly together, in clufters, on
the offsets; thole of the ftem ovate, {maller, coloured.
Flowering flems numerous, each fupporting many ftarry,
elegant, bright yellow flowers.

S. arachnoideum. Cobweb Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. Pl. 665.
Curt. Mag. t. 68. Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. t. 42. App.—Leaves
interwoven with hairs. Offsets globular.—Native of the Alps
of Italy and Switzerland, flowering in the fummer.— This
very elegant {pecies, commonly known by the name of Cob-
qeb Sedum, refembles all the other {pecies in habit, but is
exceedingly remarkable for a woolly fubftance on the top of
its globular offsets, which, as the /eaves expand, is extended
with them, and affumes the appearance of a cobweb, whence
the {pecific name. Flower-/lalks about fix inches high, of
a bright pink colour, like the ftem-leaves. Flowers ter-
minal, corymbofe, pink or reddifh.

S. mantanum. Mountain Houfeleek. Linn. Sp. Pl. 665.
Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. t. 41- App.—Leaves not fringed. Off-
fets fpreading—Native of Switzerland, flowering in June
and July.—This elegant {pecies differs chiefly from 8. ¢eco-
rum in having {maller /eaves without any fringe or indenture
at their edges, and more expanded offsets. F/oqwers beau-
tifully variegated with lilac anda brownifh-red colour.

S. monanthes. Cluttered or Dwarf Houfeleek. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3-174. Willd. n. 14. Curt. Mag. t. 93.—Leaves
roundifh, club-fhaped, cluftered together. Stalks folitary,
generally fingle-flowered. Neétaries obcordate.— Native of
the Canary Iflands, flowering in July.—Remarkable as being
by far the {mallett {pecies of Sempervivum, but more fo on
account of its ze@aries, which are ufually feven in number,
and form a principal part of the fructification.

The remaining f{pecies are S. arboreum, canarienfe, glutino-
fui, glandulofum, villofum, Jiellatum, and hirtum.

Sempervivum, in-Gardening, contains plants of the fuc-
eulent, hardy, herbaceous, evergreen, and fhrubby peren-
nial kinds, of which the fpecies cultivated are; the common
houfeleek (S.tectorum); the globular houfeleek (S. globi-
ferum); the cobweb houfeleek (S. arachnoideum) ; the
mountain houfeleek (S. montanum) ; the tree houfeleek (5S.
arboreum) ; and the Canary houfeleek (S. canarienfe).

SEM

In the fixth fort a variety with variegated leaves was ob~
tained from a branch accidentally broken from a plant of
the plain fort, at Badmington, the feat of the duke of
Beaufort.

Method of Culture.—The different herbaceous forts are
all capable of being increafed without difficulty, by plant-
ing their off-fet heads, which fhould be flipped with a few
root-fibres to them, and planted in the {pring feafon on
rubbith, rock-works, or other places, or in pots for variety :
and the tender greenhoufe forts may be railed from cuttings
of the branches and from feeds; but the firft is the better
method. The cuttings fhould be made from the {maller
branches in the early ne months, and be planted out in
pots, or a bed of fine earth, in a warm fhaded fituation ;
where the cuttings are fucculent, they fhould be laid in a
dry place for a few days to heal over the cut part; they
fhould be fhaded from the fun; and thofe in pots lightly
watered in dry weather; when they are become well rooted,
they fhould be carefully removed into feparate pots of a
middle fize, being placed in the greenhoufe. Some for-
ward thefe plants by means of bark hot-beds.

The feeds of the Canary kind fhould be fown in the au-
tumn or early {pring in pots of light mould, placing them
in a garden-frame to protect them from froit, having the air
freely admitted in mild weather : when the plants are come
up, and have a little ftrength, they fhould be removed into
{mall pots and placed in the greenhoufe.

The firft forts are ornamental on walls, buildings, and
rock-works, as well as in pots; and the laft two kinds
among other potted greenhoufe plants.

SEMPHIROPOL,. in Geography, 2 town of Ruffia, in
the province of Tauris; 60 miles S. of Perekop. N. lat.
45° 8. E. long. 34° 10!.

SEMPHORIS, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated
in the environs of Galilee, according to Jofephus.

SEMPRONIUS, in Geography, a polt-town of New
York, nearly in the centre of the county of Onondago,
within the jurifdi€tion of the townfhip of Scipio, 20 miles
S.E. from the ferry on Cayuga lake, and 457 miles from
Wathington.

SEMPT, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Ifer,

miles above Landfhut. :

SEMRAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 38 miles
N. of Chuprah. N. lat. 26° 45'. E. long. 84° 51’.

SEMSAT. See Samisar.

SEMSHIN, or Semprcuin, a town of Little Bucharia 5
18 miles E.S.E. of Tourfan. N. lat. 44° 30!. E. long.
89° 40!

SEMTCHIARSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on the Ir-
tifch. N. lat. 51°. E.long. 78° 10. ‘

SEMUR, or Semur en Auxois, a town of France, and
principal place of a diltri€t, in the department of the Céte
@Or, feated on a rock, near the river Armangon; 10 miles
N.W. of Dijon. The place contains 4295, and the canton
14,782 inhabitants, on a territory of 2773 kiliometres, in
28 communes. Its principal commerce confifts in woollen
cloth of its own manufaGture. N. lat. 47° 29/. E. long.

On fi g
" ee en Briennois, 2 town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sadne and Loire, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri@ of Charolles; 12 miles S. of Charolles. The
place contains 598, and the canton 11,106 inhabitants, on
a territory of 182% kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat.
46° 16. E. long. 4° rol.

SEMUSSYR, one of the Kurilfkoy iflands, 30 verlts
from Ketoi, another of the fame iflands. Its length is
130 verlts, and its breadth not more than ro. This ifland
has four mountains, one of which exhibits evident traces of

its

SEN

its having been formerly burnt: in other refpects it has the
fume jes with thofe of Ketei; which fee. ‘The paf-
this and to Tihirpo Oi is 200 verits.

EMYDA, in Botany, the name of a tree, mentioned
us, aod by fome fuppofed to be the fame

with the , or birch-tree, but erroneoully.
SEMYSTA, in Ancient Gasgraph » an ifland of the
Britith ocean, wear the coaft of the Ouifmits in which the
Gauls had a celebrated oracle, according to Pomponius Mela.

SEMZA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
wernment of ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Mezen.

SENA, or Marzati, a town of Africa, in the coun
of Mocaranga, on the river Zambeza, where the Portuguefe
have a fadtory. 5S. lat. 17°35’. E. long. 35° 20’.

Sena, Senna, or ian Caffia, inthe Materia Medica,
- leaf much in draughts and compofitions of
The thrub which bears it is a {pecies of ca/ia ; which fee.
There is alfo a kind of fena growing about Florence ; but
is inferior to that ee alien Pate quid trp the
Italians themfelves. Father Plumier mentions alfo a third
kind growing in the Antilles iflands.

rant; the rk

seen Qenucect
Gaim ‘Trpelis

z

parts of Arabia, efpecially about Mocha ;

grea

into Europe, it has lon been diftinyuifhed
itendtee fenna or fae:
named in Nubia “ y,” grows wild,
the dance of which de-

|
/
:

fe
i

te
ui
-

a
:
7

they are mixed of
the one the C. enna of Forfkal, with obtufe leaves ;
other probably the C. anguflifolia of Willdenow, the
» narrower, and i
fena, and come from Mocha.
inking that it is further adul-
of colutea, bladder-fena, and of box.
thus mixed, is repacked in bales at
i to Euro

Tey
E

:

:

The fena, after being
it

is exported

z
y
£
£
E
z
&
;
‘4
i
y
i

plant growing f{pontaneoufly in Upper
i implicitly received.
to have been cultivated in England in the time
A.D. 1640.
‘The odour of fena leaves is faint, rather difagreeable, and
3 the tafte flightly bitter, fweetifh, and naufeous.
water extracts about one-third of the weight of the
employed: the infufion has a deep reddifh-brown co-
with the odour and tafte of the leaves. This infufion,
expofed to the atmofphere, depofits a lemon yellow-co-
infoluble matter; and a fimilar precipitate is produced
oxymuriatic acid, and feveral other fubitances. Alcohol

SEN
and fulphuric ether, digeiled on the powdered leaves, ac-

quire a deep olive-green colour. When the ethereal tincture
is poured on the furface of pure water, » dark olive pellicle
remains after the evaporation of the ether, which is almott
infipid, and has all the properties of refing and a yoiden
colour is communicated to the water. ‘This colour may be
produced by fome extraétive being taken up by the ether,
clofely united to the refin. ‘The alcoholic un¢ture is ren-
dered only flightly milky by the addition of water, and
{carcely any precipitate is produced; but a copious one is
thrown down by oxymuriatic acid. The ative principle of
fena appears to be a very oxidizable extractive, retin, and a
peculiar volatile matter; and it contains alfo mucus, and
fome faline ingredients. According to Buillon Lagrange,
the refidue of the watery infufion evaporated to drynefs,
and burnt, yields potafs, fulphate of potafs, carbonate of
lime, magnefia, and filica.

It is in common vfe as a purgative, generally operating
under four hours after it is taken ; and 1s well adapted for
all cafes, in which the bowels require certain, but moderate,
evacuation (fee Cassia Senna); and though it be not eafily
accounted for, its bitternefs aids its operation. To this

urpofe Dr. Cullen remarks, that when fena was infufed
in the infufum amarum, a lefs quantity of the fena was ne-
ceflary for the dofe than the fimple infulion of it. Sena,
however, when infufed in a large proportion of water, as a
drachm of the leaves to four ounces of water, rarely ogeafions
much pain of the bowels ; and to thofe who do not object to
the bulkinefs of the dofe, may be found to anfwer all the
So poe of a common cathartic, its vperation being aided

y plentiful draughts of weak broths or gruel. The dofe,
in fubftance, is from a {eruple to a drachm ; 1m infufion, from
one drachm to three or four. It gives out its virtue both to
watery and fpirituous menitrua; communicating to water
and proef {pirit a brownith colour, and to rectified {pirit, a
fine green. The two inconveniences attending the ufe of
this medicine, are its being liable, in moit pine Nene tre to
occafion gripes, and its being accompanied with an ill fla-
vour, which is apt to naufeate the ftomach and palate.
The griping feems to be occafioned by the refinous matter,
as the infufion made with cold water does not gripe, al-

though it eros The firtt may be greatly obviated by
dilution ; the latter by aromatic and other additions ; ¢. gr.

cinnamon, or a drachm or two of its diitilled water, or car-
raway, or cardamom feeds. The decoétion is a bad form
in which to adminifter this drug, as its activity is much im-
paired by boiling ; owing, according to Grew, to the total
diffipation of the naufeous and volatile principles; but, as
Thomfon conceives, to the oxydizement of the extractive,
which alfo accounts for the fevere gripings occalioned by
the decoétion.

Several compofitions of this kind are prepared in the
fhops, fufficiently palatable, and which operate for the moft
part with eafe and mildnefs. Such are the following: viz.
confeBien of fena, the eleGtuary of féna of the Lond. Ph. of
1787 an lenitive ele€tuary of P. L. 1745 and 1720.
( Exvecruary of Sena.) The Dublin pharmacepeia
direéts the of fena to be prepared: by taking of
fena leaves, in fine powder, 4 ounces; pslp of prunes,
1 pound; pulp of tamarinds, 2 ounces; molafles, 14 pint ;
and effential oil of carraway, 2 drachms. Boil the pul
with the fyrup, to the thicknefs of honey; then add Km

3 and when the mixture is nearly cold, the oil:
ly, mix the whole thoroughly together.

Thefe eleétuaries furnifh a mild and pleafant purgative,
and well adapted for thofe who are afflicted with habitual
coftivenefs, and alfo for pregnant women. ‘The dofe is
from 3j to Ziv, or more, taken at bed-time.

Fé&2 Evira&

SEN

Lxtrad of Sena. See Cassia.

A\s the activity of fena is impaired by the preparation of
it in the form of-a decoétion, it muft neceffarily fuffer much
more in this preparation. The extraét is black, fhining,
and tenacious, and has an odour fimilar to that of wort, and
a bitterifh tafte. It is almoft inert as a purgative, and might
properly be altogether rejected.

However, fome have highly extolled M. Geoffroy’s dry
extraGt, which is made of a very {trong infufion, evaporated
to a.dry and pulverizable fubftance. This, they fay, is
eafily taken, of no ill tafte, and operates in a very {mall
quantity, one-third part containing the virtue of the whole,
or nearly fo; the niceft calculations fhewing, that 24 grains
of the extraét, fome part of which may be fuppofed to be
earth, or other accidental or ufelefs matter, poflefs the
virtues of a drachm in fub{tance. Mem. de l’?Acad. des
Scienc. Paris, 1738.

Infufion of Sena. See Cassta.

The Dublin pharmacopeia direGts this infufion to be pre-
pared by taking 3 drachms of fena leaves, half a drachm of
lefler cardamom. leeds, freed from the capfules and bruifed,
and boiling water, as much as will yield, when {ftrained,
6 ounces by meafure. Digeft for an hour, and when the
liquor is cold, {train it. Thefe infufions will {poil in warm
weather in-48 hours ; and by fimple expofure to the air, at-
traét oxygen, which occafions a yellowifh precipitate of
oxydized extractive, that gripes violently, but is not pur-
gative; on which account they fhould be preferved in a
well-cloied veflel, and made only when wanted. They are
alfo precipitated by the {trong acids, the alkaline carbonates,
lime-water, folutions of nitrate of filver, oxymuriate of mer-
cury, fuperacetate of lead, tartarized antimony, and infu-
fion of yellow cinchona bark, which are confequently in-
compatible in formule with thofe infufions. The infufions
now mentioned contain all the purgative principles of the
plant, and the aromatics corret its griping properties.
They are given alone, or more generally combined with
neutral falts and manna. The dofe of the fimple infufions
may be from f Ziij to f Ziv; but with the addition of 3] of
the tartrate of potafs, or 3i1j of the fulphate of magnefia,
which are the ufual adjunéts, f 2ij are fufficient.

Infufion of Tamarinds and Sena is prepared, according to
the Edinb. Ph., by taking of preferved tamarinds, 1 ounce ;
fena leaves, 1 drachm; coriander feeds, bruifed, half a
drachm; raw fugar, half an ounce; and boiling water,
8 ounces. Macerate in a covered earthen veilel, which is
not glazed with lead, thaking frequently, and after 4 hours
ftrain. It may be made with double or triple the proportion

of fena. This infufion is made, according to the direétions

of the Dubl. Ph., in the fame manner as the infufion of
fena, except that 3] of tamarinds is added, before {training
the liquor.

In thefe infufions, the nauleous tafte is covered by the
fugar and the acid of the tamarinds; but in other refpects
they agree both in their properties, and in the effets of the
incompatible fubftances ; to which, however, muft be added
all falts having potafs for their bafe.

Compound Powder of Sena. See Cassta, and PowpEr
of Sena.

Tindure of Sena is prepared, according to the Lond. Ph.
of 1809, by taking of fena leaves, 3 oz., carraway feeds
bruifed, 14.0z., cardamom feeds bruifed, 1 dr., raifins {toned,
4 0z., and proof fpirit, 2 pints. Macerate for 14 days and
filter. The Dubl. Ph. dire&s to take of fena leaves r1lb.,
carraway feeds bruifed, 14 oz., lefler cardamom feeds hufk-
ed and bruifed, 4 0z., and proof fpirit, a gallon. Digeft
for 14 days, then filter.

Compound Tin@ure of Sena, formerly called Elixir falutis,

SEN

or Elixir of health, is prepared by taking of the leaves of
fena, 20z., jalap root bruifed, 1 0z., coriander feeds
bruifed, $0z., proof {pirit, 34lb. Digeft for 7 days, and
to the filtered tin€ture add of refined fugar, 4 02.

Thefe tinétures are ftomachic and purgative : they are
very efficacious in flatulent colic, atonic gout, and as an
opening medicine for thofe whofe bowels have been weaken-
ed by intemperance. The dofe is from £3ij to fj in any
appropriate vehicle.

Syrup of Sena, according to the Lond. Ph., is prepared
by taking of fena leaves, 1 0z., fennel feeds bruifed, 1 dr.,
manna, refined fugar, of each 1lb., and boiling water, a
pint. Macerate the fena leaves and the fennel feeds in the
water for 12 hours; {train the liquor and mix with it the
manna and the fugar. The Dub]. Ph. directs to take of
manna, refined fugar, of each 1lb., fena leaves, 4 0z.,
and boiling water, a pint. Let the fena leaves be mace-
rated in the water in a covered veflel for 12 hours; then
diflolve the manna and the fugar in the {trained liquor.

This fyrup contains the purgative properties of the fena,
and is chiefly intended for children ; but the fimple infufion
of fena, fweetened with fugar, and with the addition of a
little milk, given in the form of tea, is more willingly taken
by children, and operates with greater certainty. Lewis.
Woodville. Thomfon.

Srna, Baflard, in Botany. See Cassia.

Sena, Bladder. See CoLuTeEA.

Sena, Podded. See CoroniLLa.

Sena, Scorpion, Emerus, a {pecies of coronilla 3 which
fee. The leaves of this plant are ufed, but Boerhaave is
unacquainted with any medicinal virtue in them. Ruppius
writes, that the common people fubftitute the leaves in-
ftead of thofe of fena; and Buxbaum tells us, that old
women who pretend to medicine, call it /enes blatter, and ufe
it inftead of fena leaves.

Sena, in Ancient Geography, ariver of Italy, in Umbria,
between the Metaurus and the Mitfus, according to Silius
Ttalicus.

Sena Gallica, Senagaglia, a town of Italy, in Umbria, of
Gaulifh origin, as its name indicates. When the Romans
had put the Gauls to flight, they eftablifhed a colony in
this city, towards the year 359. Pompey vanquifhed Mar-
cius in this place and deftroyed it. Ptolemy afligns it to
the Senones, from whom it derived its name.

Srna Jnfula, an ifland, according to Mela, in the Britifh
ocean, on the coaft of the Ofifmu. It is now the Ifle of
Sein or of Saints, on the coaft of Bretagne.

Sena Julia, Sienne, a town of Italy, in Etruria, E. of
Volaterre, from which it is feparated by mountains. Dif-
ferent accounts have been given of its origin, from which
we may infer, that it is not one of the ancient towns of
Etruria. The Romans eftablifhed a colony in this place in
the year of Rome 456, or as others fay, 471. A new
colony was eftablifhed in this place in the time of Julius
Czfar, who gave it the name of Julia. In 1370 it wae
fubje&t to Charles IV. : it fuffered much in the wars of the
Guelphs and Ghibellines. Charles V. gave the inveftiture
of it to Philip II. his fon, who fold it to Cofmo, duke of
Florence, in 1558.

SENABA, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the left
bank of the Nile; 13 miles S. of Melati.

SENAC, Joun, in Biography, a diftinguifhed French
phyfician, was born in Gafcony, about the clofe of the
17thcentury. Little is recorded refpeGting the progrefs
of his education and life; but he is ftated to have been a
door of the faculty of phyfic of Rheims, and a bachelor
of that of Paris; which laft degree he obtained in the
year 1724. or 1725. He was a man of profound ena

unite

a

—_————

Se

SEN
with great fty, and became pofleffed, by his in-
in
of

:

mode

in the practice of his flion, of much fouad
knowledge, His merits obtained for him the
the court, and he was appointed confuluing phy-

ian to Louis XV., and fublequently fucceeded C nae
in office of firft phyfician to that monarch. He

P member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
the Royal Society of Nancy. He died in
1770, at the age of about 77 years, and the
appointed no phyfician as his fuccellor, as long as he

able phyfician left fome works, which will probably
a reputation as long as medicine is fludied. We
allude more elpecially to his treatife on the heart and its
difeafes, “ Trawé de la Structure du Coeur, de fon Adtion,

i

ut

?
E

fe

natura,” Amit. 1759, is generally afcribed to
He alfo —— young, an edition of
Heiiter’s Anatomy, with fome interefting comments and
we of his own, entitled, “ Anatomie d’ Heifter,
des Effais de Phyfique fur |’ Ufage des Parties du Corps
Humain,”’ Paris 1724, and afterwards “ Difcours fur
Méthode de Franco, et fur celle de M. Rau touchant
POperation de la Taille,” 1727.“ Traité des Caufes, des
Accidens, et de la Cure de la Pelte,”” 1744. A work
under the aflumed name of Julien Morifon, entitled « Let-

tres fur la Choix des Sai ”? 1730, was from his pen ;
as well as a paper in Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences for 1725, under the title of « Reflexions fur les
Noyés,”’ in which he combatted fome erroneous opinions
refpecting the caufe of death by drowning, and the treat-
ment founded upon them. A work, entitled “ Nouveau
Cours de Chymie fuivant les Principes de Newton et de
_ ‘Stahl,”? Paris, 1722 and 1737, has been attributed by mif-
_ take to Senac ; it was in a compilation of notes taken
at the letures of Geoffroy by fome ftudents, and is un-
worthy of his pen. See Eloy, Diet. Hitt. de la Médécine.
SENACIA, jn Botany, a genus of Commerfon’s, ap-
parently named “ him in honour of the French phyfician

ing article,) who might perhaps have
ition of Commerfon, but of whofe bo-
_ tanical merits we find nothing recorded. Juffieu, Gen. PI.
_ 378, merely mentions this genus under Ce/afirus, as differing
¢. that in having a longer ftyle, oblong anthers, and a fruit
_ with generally two cells; two valves, and fix feeds. Our
a or, Rev. Mr. Wood, feems to have intended to
: Senacia ; Rus, at the end. We do not
c wera that any other writer has done fo, nor ~~
what {pecies the genus in queftion ought to confi
except thofe mentioned in as place jut shed” The precife
of the capfule, and the number eee agouti
ttle afcertained in fome reputed {pecies of Celaffrus,
Natibstonele of slits charetvere, in others, “ab

!
i

BRractur

fubdivide the latter. The compara-

h of the ftyles in thefe plants, variable in different
1 flowers, can afford no certain mark of generic
_SENAILLE'E, Joun Baptiste, in Biography, a
French mufician, born about 1688. He was a great per-
on the violin for his time. Having travelled into

» the manager of the O at Modena engaged him
perform in his orcheftra, and did him the honour to prepare
is reception a feat more elevated than what was allowed

SEN

to tl refit of the band. ‘The duke defired him to play fome
folos between the acts of the opera, and he obeyed his
ferene highnels, to the great joy of the whole audience,
He has left five books of folos, which had great reputation,
ull thofe of Le Claire appeared; which are now as little
known as thofe of Senaillée, though infisitely fuperior to
them. What a fluétuating art is mufic, and how tranfient
the fame of ite profeflors! fince we may be certain, that
the works of him who now enjoys the higheft reputatien,
will be for ever plunged into oblivion, at the lateft, in a
period of 25 years; or appear as ridiculous to our children,
as our ancient mufic now does to us!

SENAMARIBO, in Geography, a river of Guiana,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 5° go’. W. long.
4° 6.

4 SE-NAN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the pro-
vince of Koei-tcheou, furrounded on all fides by moun-
tains; 845 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 27°56. E.
long. 107°.

Sevan, a town of Algiers; 20 miles S. of Oran.

SENANLU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
30 miles N.W. of Selefkeh.

SENAPSE’, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 17 miles W. of Dendera.

SENARPONT, a town of France, in the department
of the Somme; 22 miles W. of Amiens.

SENATE, Senarus, an aflembly or council of fena-
tors ; that is, of the principal inhabitants of a ftate, who
have a fhare in the government.

Such were the fenates of Rome, of Carthage, &c. among
the ancients; and fuch are the fenates of Venice, of Ge-
nea, &c. among the moderns.

The fenate of ancient Rome was, of all fenates, the
moft celebrated, during the fplendour of the republic.
Cicero in his oration for Milo, defines it, templum fanGitatis,
amplitudinis, mentis, confiltique publici Romani, caput orbis,
ara fociorum, portufque omnium gentium. The Roman fenate
exercifed no contentious judbiation’ it appointed judges
either out of the fenate, or among the knights; but it
never ftooped to judge any proceffes ina body. The fenate
concerted matters of war, appointed who fhould command
the armies, fent governors into the provinces, took order,
and difpofed of he revenues of the commonwealth. Yet
did not the whole fovereign power refide in the fenate ; it
could not alone eleét magiftrates, make laws, nor decide of
war and peace: but in all thefe cafes, the fenators were to
confult the people. Uuder the emperors, when the fenate
became defpoiled of moit of its other offices, they began
to hear caufes. For thofe of lefs confequence they ap-
pointed particular judges; the reft, principally criminal
caufes, they referved for their own cognizance, to be judged
by them in a body, and that frequently in the emperor’s
eaten. This was put in their way to keep their heads

ftate affairs. Nero farther committed to the fenate
the judgment of all appeals; but this did not hold long;
nor do we find any footfteps of it any where but in ni
fixty-fecond Novel.

With regard to the jurifdiGion of the fenate, Dr. Mid-
dleton obferves, that the fupreme power at home was in the
colleétive body of the people; yet where hatte, perhaps,
or fecrecy was required, and where the determinations of
the fenate were fo juft and equitable, that the confent of
the people might be prefumed, and taken for granted, the

would cata omit the trouble of calling them

from their private affairs to an unneceflary attendance on
the public; till by repeated omiflions of this kind, begun
at firft in trivial matters, and proceeding infenfibly 4 more
erious,

SENATE.

ferious, they acquired a fpecial jurifdi€tion and cognizance
in many points of great importance, to the exclufion even
of the people; who yet, by the laws and conftitution of
the government, had the abfolute dominion over all. For
example :

1. They aflumed to themfelves the guardianfhip and
fuperintendance of the public religion ; fo that no new god
could be introduced, nor altar erected, nor the Sibylline
books confulted, without their exprefs order.

2. They held it as their prerogative, to fettle the number
and condition of the foreign provinces, that were an-
nually affigned to the magiftrates, and to declare which of
them fhould be confular, and which pretorian provinces.

3- They had the diftribution of the public treafure, and
all the expences of the government ; the appointment of
ftipends to their generals, with the number of their lieu-
tenants and their troops, and the provifions and clothing of
their armies.

4. They nominated all ambafladors fent from Rome, out
of their own body, and received and difmiffed all who came
from foreign ftates, with fuch anfwers as they thought
proper.

5. They had the right of decreeing all fupplications, or
public thankfgivings, for vi€tories obtained, and of con-
ferring the honour of an ovation, or triumph, with the title
of emperor, on their victorious generals.

6. It was their province to inquire into public crimes or
treafons, either in Rome, or the other parts of Italy ; and to
hear and determine all difputes among the allied and de-
pendent cities.

7. They exercifed 2 power, not only of interpreting the
laws, but abfolving men from the obligation of them, and
even of abrogating them.

8. Inthe cafe of civil diflenfions, or dangerous tumults
within the city, they could arm the confuls by a vote with
abfolute power, to deftroy and put to death, without the
formality of trial, all fuch citizens as were concerned in ex-
citing them.

g. They hada power to prorogue, or pottpone the aflem-
blies of the people ; to decree the title of king to any prince
whom they pleafed; thanks and praife to thofe who had de-
ferved them; pardon and reward to enemies, or the dil-
coverers of any treafon; to declare any one an enemy by a
vote; and to prefcribe a general change of habit to the city,
in cafes of any imminent danger or calamity.

The tribunes foon fnatched from them that original right,
which they had enjoyed from the very foundation of the
city, of being the authors, or firft movers of every thing,
which was to be enaéted by the people, and excluded them
from any fhare or influence in the aflemblies of their tribes ;
and though in the other affemblies of the curiz and the cen-
turies, they feemed to have referved to them their ancient
right, yet it was reduced to a mere form, without any real
force ; for inftead of being what they had always been, the
authors of each particular a¢t that was to be propofed to the
people’s deliberation, they were obliged, by a {pecial law,
te authorize every aflembly of the people, and whatever
fhould be determined in it, even before they had proceeded
to any vote. And C. Gracchus afterwards, in his famous
tribunate, ufed to boaft that he had demolifhed the fenate at
once, by transferring to the equeftrian order the right of
judicature in all criminal caufes, which the fenate had pof-
feffed from the time of the kings.

It has been a queftion among the learned, how fenators
were created, and how the yacancies of the fenate in old
Rome were fupplied.

Dr. Middleton is of opinion, that the conftant and regular

9

fupply of the fenate was from the annual magiftrates ; who,
by virtue of their feveral offices, acquired an immediate right
to fit and vote in that aflembly. The ufual gradation of
thefe offices was that of que{tor, tribune of the people, dile,
pretor, and conful ; which every candidate, in the ordinary
forms of the conftitution, was obliged to take in their order,
with this exception only, that he might forego either the tri-
bunate, or the zdilefhip, at his own choice, without a ne-
ceflity of pafling through them both. See Quxsror, Trr-
BUNE, &c. :

But though thefe offices gave both an immediate right,
and aétual entrance into the fenate, yet the fenatorian cha-
rater was not elteemed complete, till the new fenators had
been enrolled by the cenfors at the next luftrum, or general
review of all the orders of the city, which was generally held
every five years. Yet this enrolment was but a matter of
form, which could not be denied to any of them, except for
fome legal incapacity, or the notoriety of fome crime, or in-
famy upon their characters; for which the fame cenfors
could expel, or deprive any other fenator, of what rank or
itanding foever. See Censor.

Tt bas been the opinion of fome, that under the kings of
Rome the choice and nomination of all the fenators depended
wholly on the will of the prince, without any right in the
people, either direct or indire& ; and that the confuls, who
fucceeded to the kingly power, enjoyed the fame prero-
gative, till the creation of the cenfors, who ever after pof-
{efled the fole and abfolute right of making and unmaking
fenators. But Dr. Middleton is of opinion, that the kings,
the confuls, and the cenfors, aéted in this affair but minif-
terially and fubordinately to the fupreme will of the people,
in whom the proper and abfolute power of creating fenators
always refided. And the doétor aflures us, upon the ftricteft
fearch into the ftate of the prefent queftion, asit ftood under
the kingly government, he cannot but conclude, from the
exprefs teftimony of the belt hiftorians, the concurrence of
fimilar faéts, and the probability of the thing itfelf, that the
right of choofing fenators was originally and conflitutionally
vetted in the people. Middleton of Rom. Sen. p- 36.

But lord Hervey, who feems to have ftudied the Roman
hiftory with care and attention, is of a diflerent opinion.
The fenate, at its firft eftablifhment (notwithitanding the
judicial and legiflative power it afterwards acquired) was
nothing more than the king’s council. In this light not
only Feftus, Eutropius, and Livy, reprefent the fenate, but
even Dionyfius himfelf. It is therefore highly probable, his
lordfhip fays, that each member of this council was merely,
as Livy and Plutarch relate, the choice of the king, and not,
as Dionyfius reports, eleéted by the people. Nor is there
the leaft ground to imagine, he tells us, from any author
whatever, except Dionyfius, that during the whole regal
government, the people had, direétly or indireétly, aGtually
or virtually, any fhare or concern at all in the choice of the
fenators. The firft inftitution, in a word, every augmenta-
tion, and every fupply on vacancies, he fuppofes to have
depended entirely on the will and authority of the kings.
Nor does he, like Monfieur Vertot, imagine the reafon why
Dionyfius had reported otherwife, proceeded from his repub-
lican f{pirit, but from what every body who reads him mutt
find in his manner of defcribing every inftitution, law, or
cultom, among the Romans, wz. an affectation of tracing
its origin from fome fimilar pra¢tice in the Grecian ftates, in
order, from his partiality to that country, to give Greece
the honour of having furnifhed the fketch of every plan, on
which the Roman government was framed, and the Roman
greatnefs raifed. ;

Soon after the expulfion of Tarquin, and the edablitiment

to)

SENATE.

of the confular t, the fenate, which, by many
condemnations to death, or exile, the laft king had reduced
to lefs than half ne eet, was filled up to its former
number of three hu ; this fwpplys according to every
hiftorian, was made out ef the plebeians; and in all pro.
bability, hiv lordthip fays, by the fole power of the confuls,
fince no author relates otherwife, and all authors a that
confulate power at firit differed from the nem em
’ but that of being annual, inflead of per-
and divided between two perfons, inftead of being
in a fingle one.
the time of the cenfors then, lord Hervey tells us,
there is not the leaft reafon to imagine, that the beagle had
any hand ia promoting any man to the fenatomal rank.
From the time that the were allowed to choofe the
annual magiltrates out of their own body, till the time the
commonwealth fell into confufion, which ended, as con-
does, with a total lofs of liberty, the onl
in accounting for the filling up of the fenate, his
lordthip fays, is to ile the right of the annual magif-
enter the fenate, with the power of the ceafors.
is, he thinks, may be done by diftinguifhing between
ing a fenator, which were
two diflerent privileges, and quite diftin& honours. The
firit was obtained by virtue of exercifing et pow office,
from the ah via eet ee ore f
quently con’ 7 was a dig-
: only b thee cenfors. Feftus fays, that thee
held any Sabie office ia the fate, and by virtue of that
voted in the fenate, were neverthelefs no fenators till
made fo by the cenfors. And Aulus Gellius, in his chapter
upon the Pedarii Senatores,”’ {ays the fame thing.
_ Thefe two clafles were always diftinguifhed even in the
that convoked the fenate ; the form of the edié, as

: jal, as it may at firft appear; for thofe, who had
ee eng tee coal oaks vee

no right to and could o: sin
; ey aha ae Bagge 7 amelie ll as
Whereas an enrolled fenator had a

and a voter in the fenate ; for by that ftory one mutt i
that thofe who were enrolled fenators, de taba pany

power of taking cognizance of the manners of every
Roman citizen, was firft annexed to the cenforfhip, when
the office itfelf was disjoined from that of the confulthip,
the three hundred and eleventh year of Rome, as may be
Livy, book iv. chap. 8. But the power of choofing
ew fenators was not transferred from the confuls to the
il near a hundred years afterwards, in the tribune-
p of Ovinius ; and it was el gi to the cenfors by the
eople, to revenge the breach of the Licinian law (which
pdained that one of the confuls should always be chofen

out of the epg for both the confuls being that year
atricians, and one of the cenfors that year, for the firit time,
ing a plebeian, the tribune Ovinius put the people upon
this expedient to do themfelves juftice, and mortify the
nobility.

When the annual magiftrates were not fufficient to fupply
the vacancies in the fenate, the cenfors chofe whom they
pleafed. And that the annual magiftrates were {eldom
enough to fupply the vacancies, may eafily be concluded,
when one confiders how few they were, and how many va-
cancies mult be made in fo large a body as three hundred
men, by natural deaths, the change of perpetual war, and
the purgations made by the a. authority of the
cenfors.

The filling up of the fenate then from the Olivian tribune-
fhip till the time of the Gracchi, lord Hervey thinks, de-
pended entirely on the cenfors; for though he allows that
the annual magiltrates, at the expiration of their office, had
a fort of claim and pretenfion to be put on the roll of fe.
nators, by the cenfors; yet as the cenfors, under the pre-
tence of reformation, had an uncontroulable power to re-
move fenators already enrolled, fo on the fame pretence
could, if they pleafed, refufe to enrol, and even. without
giving any reafon ; fince their manner both of expelling or
admitting fenators was merely by omitting or inferting a
name in the ceremony of calling over the =r

Though the cenforthip, therefore, at its original inftitu-
tion by aa Tullius, was nothing more than the office
of numbering the people, and taking the valuation of their
eftates, and an office annexed firft to the royal authority,
and afterwards to the confular power; yet when it was
detached from the confular power, and erected into a
feparate office, with the power of filling up the fenate
annexed ; from that time, as the cognizance of the manners
of every citizen of Rome was alfo in their department, his
lordfhip looks upon the cenfors to have been full as abfolute
in the city and civil government, with regard to all pro-
motions and degradations, from the fenate down to the
loweit tribe, curia, or century, as the confuls were in the
camp and the military government.

Ever after the time of the Gracchi, the ftate was either
in fuch confufion, or fuch abfolute flavery, that his lord-
fhip thinks there was no regular method at all obferved in
filling up the fenate, or any juitice in purging it. Who-
pena the fovereign power in his hand, under what title
foever he feized or poffeffed it, modelled the fenate by the
introduétion of new members, or the expulfion of old ones,
jutt as he thought fit.

Dr. Middleton politely acknowledges, that the hypo-
thefis of lord Hervey has the advantage of his own, and
will be thought the more folid or plaufible by the gene-
rality of readers. See Letters between Lord Hervey and
Dr. Middleton, concerning the Roman Senate ; publifhed
by Dr. Knowles, quarto, 1778.

The magiftrates who had the power of aflembling the
fenate were the di@ator, the confuls, the pretors, the
tribunes of the commons, and the interrex. Yet upon
extraordinary occafions the fame privilege was allowed to
the tribuni militum, invefted with confular power, and to
the decemviri, created for regulating the laws; and to
other magiftrates chofen upon fome unufual occafion.

In the early ages of the republic, when the precinéts of
the city were [mall, the fenators were perfonally fummoned
by an apparitor ; and fometimes by a public crier, when
their affairs required immediate Sita ; but the ufual
way of calling them, in later days, was by an edict ap-
pointing the time and place, and publifhed feveral days

before,

SENATE.

before, that the notice might be more public. Thefe
edi&ts were commonly underftood to reach no farther than
to thofe who were refident in Rome, or near it ;: yet when
any extraordinary affair was in agitation, they feem to have
been publifhed alfo in the other cities of Italy. If any fena-
tor refufed, or neglefted to obey this f{ummons, the conful
could oblige him to give furety for the payment of a
certain fine, if the reafons of his abfence fhould not be
allowed. But from fixty years of age they were not
liable to that penalty, nor obliged to any attendance but
what was voluntary.

The fenate could not regularly be affembled in a private
or profane place, but always in one fet apart, and folemnly
confecrated to that ufe by the rites of augury.

The fenate frequently met in certain curiz.
Curi=.

But their meetings were more commonly held in certain
temples, dedicated to particular deities; as in that of
Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Vulcan, Caftor, Bellona; of Con-
cord, Faith, Virtue, the Earth, &c.

Thefe temples, on account of the ufe which the fenate
made of them, were called likewife curie; as well as the
proper curiz, or fenate-houfes, on account of their folemn
dedication, are frequently called temples.

On two {pecial occafions the fenate was always held
without the gates of Rome, either in the temple of Bellona,
or of Apollo. rift. For the reception of foreign ambaf-
fadors, and efpecially of thofe who came from enemies,
who were not permitted to enter the city. 2dly. To give
audience, and tranfact bufinefs with their own generals,
who were never allowed to come within the walls as long
as their commiffion fubfifted, and they had the a€tual com-
mand of an army.

The fenate met always, of courfe, on the rft of January,
for the inauguration of the new confuls, who entered into
their office on that day.

The month of February, generally fpeaking, was re-
ferved entire by old cuftom to the fenate, for the particular
purpofes of giving audience to foreign ambafladors.

In all months, univerfally, there were three days, which
feem to have been more efpecially dettined to the fenate,
the kalends, nones, and ides, from the frequent examples
found in hiftory, of its being convened on thofe days. But
Auguftus enaéted afterwards, that the fenate fhould not
meet regularly, or of courfe, except on two days only of
each month, the kalends, and ides.

On their days of meeting, they could not enter upon any
bufinefs before the fun was rifen, nor finifh any after it was
fet; every thing tranfafted by them, before or after that
time, was null and void, and the author of it liable to cen-
fure. Whence it became a ftanding rule, that nothing new
fhould be moved after four o’clock in the afternoon. The
fenate, as has been fhewn above, was compofed of all the
principal magiftrates of the city, and of all who had borne
the fame offices before them: and confifted therefore of
feveral degrees and orders of men, who had each a different
rank in it, according to the dignity of the charaéter which
he fuftained in the republic. At the head of the fenate fat
the diétator and confuls, in chairs of ftate. Manutius
thinks that the other magiftrates fat next to the confular
chair, each according to his rank; the pretors, cenfors,
zdiles, tribunes, quzttors. But Dr. Middleton rather
thinks that the confular fenators, who, in all ages of the
republic, were the leaders and firft fpeakers in the fenate,
ufed to fit next in order to the confuls; and after them the
pretors, and all who were of pretorian dignity, or had
been pretors; then the <diles, the tribunes, and the

See

queitors, on diftin& benches; and on the fame bench with
each, all who had borne the fame offices ; but the curule
magiftrates, as the pretors and zdiles, were perhaps diftin-
guifhed, at the head of their feveral benches, by feats fome-
what raifed, or feparated at lealt from the reft, in the form
of our fettees, or of that /onga cathedra, which Juvenal men-
tions, to denote the curule dignity.

All the private fenators fat on different benches, and in a
different order of precedency, according to the dignity of
the magiftracies which they had feverally borne. Firft
the confular, then the pretorians, edilitians, tribunitians,
and queitorians ; in which order, and by which titles, they
are all enumerated by Cicero. And as this was their order
in fitting, fo it was the fame alfo in delivering their opinions
when it came to their turn. Cic. Phil. 13, 14.

The fenate being aflembled, the confuls, or the magiftrate,
by whofe authority they were fummoned, having firlt taken
the aufpices, and performed the ufual office of religion, by
facrifice and prayer, ufed to open to them the reafons of
their being called together, and propofe the fubje& of that
day’s deliberation ; ia which all things divine, or relating to
the worfhip of the gods, were difpatched preferably to any
other bufinefs. When the conful had moved any point,
with intent to have it debated and carried into a decree,
and had f{poken upon it himfelf as long as he thought proper,
he proceeded to afk the opinions of the other fenators,
feverally in their name, and in their proper order, beginning
always with theconfulars, and goingon to the preetorians, &c.
It was the pradtice originally to afk'the prince of the fenate
the firft; but that was foon laid afide, and the compliment

transferred to any other ancient confular, diftinguifhed by ~

his integrity and fuperior abilities ; till, inthe later ages
of the republic, it became an eftablifhed cuftom to pay that
re{pe& to relations, or particular friends, or to thofe who
were likely to give an opinion the moft favourable to their
own views and fentiments on the queftion propofed. But
whatever order the confuls obferved in afking opinions on
the 1{t of January, when they entered into their office, they
generally purfued the fame through the reft of the year.
Julius Czfar, indeed, broke through this rule; for though
he had afked Craffus the firft, from the beginning of his
confulfhip ; yet, upon the marriage of his daughter with
Pompey, he gave that priority to his fon-in-law, for which,
however, he made an apology to the fenate.

This honour of being afked in an extraordinary manner,
and preferably to all others of the fame rank, thovch of
fuperior age or nobility, feems to have been feldom carried
farther than to four or five diftinguifhed perfons of confular
dignity ; and the reft were afterwards afked according to
their feniority. And this method, as has been faid, was
obferved generally throughout the year, till the eletion of
the future confuls, which was commonly held about the
month of Augult; from which time, it was the conftant
cultom to afk the opinions of the confuls ele&t, preferably
to all others, till they entered into their office, on the r1ft
day of January following. :

As the confuls elect had this preference given in {peaking
before all the confulars, fo the pretors, and tribunes elec,
feera to have had the fame, before the reft of their particular
orders.

None were allowed to fpeak till it came to their turn,
excepting the magiltrates, who feem to have had a right of
{peaking on all occafions, whenever they thought fit ; and
for that reafon, perhaps, were not particularly afked, or
called upon by the confuls.

If in the debate feveral different opinions had been
offered, and each fupported by a number of fenators, the

conful,

SENATE.

gris. war Ap of te ufed i recite phen at. that ie
¢ mi 3 a vote rattly upon each; but in t
he gave what Cress ie, thoneke i to that opinion
ich he moft favoured, and fometimes even fuppreiled
fuch of them as he wholly difapproved.
In cafes, however, where there appeared to be no diffi-
culty or oppofition, decrees were fometimes made, without

ani ion being afked or delivered upon them.
TWikea any oeftion was put to the vote, it was determined
always by a divition, or arcrion &f the oppofite parties,

| 3 thefe, whe think » to this.
| Pine’ the ity of them approved, was drawn up into
a decree, or

or fenatus-confultum, which was generally con-

ceived ‘in words prepared and diftated by ha firit mover

or the principal {peaker in favour of it ;

{poken what he thought fufficient to re-

ufed to conclude his h by

g up his opinion in’ the form of fuch a d as he

to obtain, Which decree, when confirmed by the

was always figned and attefted by a number of

who chofe to attend through the whole procefs of

fake of adding their names to it, as a teftimony

particular approbation of the thing, as well as

to the core by whofe authority, or in whofe
= drawn.

fenate appeared to be difpofed and ready to

» it was in the power of any one of the ten

f the people to intercede, that is, to over-rule it.
°

iN.

cafes, where the determinations of the fenate were
by the negative of a tribune, of which there are
erlefs in if the fenate was unanimous, or gene-
rally inclined to the decree fo inhibited, they ufually pafled a
’ Rios fame words, ny: was
called fenatus au@oritas, an authority or judgment of the fenate,
and was entered into their reso ut this wi ab psu
pe than to teftify the judgment of the fenate on that par-
Ha ion, and to throw the odium of obftruéting an

ful on the tribune who hindered it.
~ In order to deter any magiftrate from aéting factioufly
“and arbitrarily in affairs of importance, they often made it
of the decree, which they were going to enaét, that if
an) Meds uincdiptedl tp obfTGA i. te thoulll be deemed to a2
“againft the intereft of the republic. Yet this claufe had
feldom any effeét on the tribunes, who ufed to ap-
pl their negative sa'ichaice ot’ 00 freely as on any other

Al

th

i

‘i

¥

aE,
nw
&,

pune:

iy
—

bist
E

ting, ing a decree, by many pretexts and
impedimer they could throw in its way. Some-
‘times they alleged {cruples of religion, that the aufpices
fre not faveurable, or not rightly taken; whicly if con-
irmed by t! put a ftop to the buliwels For that day,

é

piel

‘the affair at that meeting : yet when fome of the more
bulent mz (aly abufing this right, againit
> eS 4 8 ga
enerai Inc bly, the fenators were
mes fo impatient as to filence them, as it were, by

» and to difturb them in fuch a manner, by their clamour
Vhifling, as to oblige them to defift.
A

€ 4

The decrees of the fenate were ufually publithed, and
openly read to the people foon after they were pafled ; and
an authentic copy of them was always depofited in the public
treafury of the city, or otherwile they were not confidered
as legal or valid.

As to the force of thefe decrees, it is difficult to define
precilely what it was. [tis certain that they»were not con-
fidered az laws, but feem to have been defigned originally as
the ground-work, or preparatory flep to a law, with a fort of
provifional force, tll a law of the fame tenor fhould be en-
aéted in form by the people ; for in all ages of the republic,
no law was ever made, but by the general fuflrage of the

ople.
se ven under the kings, the colleétive body of the people
was the real fovereign of Rome, and the dernier refort in
all cafes. But their power, though fupreme and final, was
yet qualified by this check, that they could not regulady
enaét any thing, which had not been previoufly contidered
and approved of by the fenate. This indeed continued to be
the general way of proceeding in all quiet and regular tunes,
from the beginning of the republic to the end of its and the
conflant ftyle of the old writers, in their accounts of the
public tranfactions, is, that the {enate voted or decreed, and
the people commanded fuch and fuch an a. Middleton,
ubi con and the authorities cited by him.

Before the acceflion of Auguftus the fenate had loft its
power, and alfo its dignity. Many of the moft noble families
were extin&t; the republicans of {pirit and ability had
rifhed in the field of battle, or in the profcription. The
door of the aflembly had been defignedly left open for a
mixed multitude of more than a thoufand perfons, who re-
flected difgrace upon their rank, inftead of deriving honour
from it. Julius Czfar introduced foldiers, ftrangers, and half-
barbarians into the fenate ; and this abufe, recorded by Sue-
tonius, became {till more fcandalous after his death. Au-
gultus, foon after his acceflion, fet about the reformation of
it. He was eleéted cenfor; and in concurrence with his
faithful Agrippa, he examined the lift of the fenate, expelled
a few members whofe vices or whofe obftinacy required a
public example; perfuaded near two hun to prevent
the fhame of an expulfion by a voluntary retreat ; raifed the
qualification of a ienator to above ten thoufand peunds ;
created a fufficient number of patrician families ; and accepted
for himfelf the honourable title of prince of the fenate, which
had always been beftowed, by the cenfors, on the citizen mott
eminent for his honours and fervices. But in thus reftoring
the dignity, he deftroyed the independence of the fenate,
the principles of a free conftitution being irrecoverably loft,
when the legiflative power is nominated by the executive.
How he was afterwards recompenfed by the flattery of the
fenate is well known. (See AuGustTus, ProconsuL, and
Imperator.) It was, however, on the dignity of the
fenate, that Auguitus and his fucceflors founded their new
empire ; and in the adminiftration of their own pewers, they
frequently confulted the great national council, and /eemed
to refer to its decifion the moft important concerns of peace
and war. Rome, Italy, and the internal provinces, were
fubjet to the immediate jurifdiétion of the fenate, With
regard. to civil objeéts, it was the fupreme court of ap-

; with regard to criminal matters, a tribunal, coniti-
tuted for the trial of all offences that were committed by
men in any public ftation, or that affected the peace and
majefty of the Roman people. The exercife of the judicial
power became the moit frequent and ferious occupation of
the fenate; and the important caufes that were pleaded before
them afforded a laft refuge to the {pirit of ancient eloquence.
As a council of fate, and as 2 court of juilice, the fenate pof-

Gg fetled

SENATE.

feffed very confiderable prerogatives; but in its legiflative
capacity; in which it was fuppofed virtually to reprefent the
people, the rights of fovereignty were acknowledged to
refide in that aflembly. Every power was derived from their
authority ; every law was ratified by their fan@ion. Their
regular meetings were held, as we have already faid, on three
ftated days in’ every month; their debates were conducted
with decent freedom; and the emperors themfelves, who
gloried in the name of fenators, fat, voted, and divided with
their equals.

Auguftus found by experience, what he had previoufly
expeéted, that the fenate and people would fubmit to flavery,
provided they were refpectfully affured, that they {till enjoyed
their ancient freedom; a feeble fenate and an enervated
people cheerfully acquiefced in the pleafing illufion, as long
as it was fupported by the virtue, or even by the prudence
of the fucceflors of Auguttus. It was a motive of felf-
prefervation, not a principle of liberty, that animated the
con{pirators againft Caligula, Nero, and Domitian. After
feventy years of patience, the fenate made an ineffe€tual at-
tempt to reaffume its long-forgotten rights. When the
throne was vacated by the murder of Caligula, the confuls
convoked the aflembly in the Capitol, and during forty-eight
hours aéted as the independent chiefs of the commonwealth.
But while they deliberated, the pratorian guards had re-
folved: the dream of liberty was at an end; and the fenate
awoke to all the horrors of inevitable fervitude. Deferted by
the people, and threatened by a military force, that feeble
aflembly was compelled to ratify the choice of the prz-
torians, and to embrace the benefit of an amnefty, which
Claudius had the prudence to offer, and the generofity to
obferve. ‘T'o cenfure, to depofe, or to punifh with death the
firit magiftrate of the republic, who had abufed his delegated
truft, was the eminent and undoubted prerogative of the
Roman fenate ; accordingly they condemned Nero to be put
to death, as Suetonius obferves, more majorum ; but on the
death of Commodus, that feeble aflembly was obliged to
content itfelf with infli@ting on a fallen tyrant that public
juftice from which, during his life and reign, he had been
fhielded by the ftrong arm of military defpotifm. Till the
reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good fenfe of the
emperors, had been diftinguifhed by their real or affeéted
reverence for the fenate, and by a tender regard to the nice
frame of civil policy inftituted by Auguttus. But Severus,
trained from his youth to the defpotifm of military command,
difdained to profefs himfelf the fervant of an affembly that
detefted his perfon, and trembled at his power: he affumed
the condué& and ftyle of a fovereign and a conqueror, and
exereifed, without difguife, the whole legiflative as well as
executive power. Hence the fenate, neither eleCted by the
people, nor guarded by military force, nor animated by pub-
lic {pirit, refted its declining authority on the frail and crum-
bling bafis of ancient opinion. The fine theory of a republic
infenfibly vanifhed, and made way for the more natural and
fubftantial feelings of monarchy. The polifhed and eloquent
flaves from the eaftern provinces, by whom the fenate was
filled, juftified perfonal flattery by fpeculative principles of
fervitude. The lawyers and the hiftorians concurred in teach-
ing, that the imperial authority was held, not by the dele-
gated commiflion, but by the irrevocable refignation of the
fenate ; that the emperor was freed from the reltraint of civil
laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and for-
tunes of his fubjeéts, and might difpofe of the empire as of
his private patrimony. Pofterity, who experienced the fatal
effeCts of the maxims and example of Severus, juftly con-
fidered him as the principal author of the decline of the Ro-
man empire. Such was the timid ingratitude of Gallienus,

that, unmindful of his obligations to the fenate and people for
repulfing the Alemanni from Rome, he publifhed an edi&t,
prohibiting the fenators from exercifing any military em-
ploy ; and Evi from approaching the camps of the legions.
Tacitus was chofen emperor by the fenate, and the judg-
ment of this aflembly was confirmed by the confent of the
Roman people, and of the pretorian guards. By this elec-
tion the fenate regained feveral important prerogatives, the
principal of which were the following: 1. To inveft one of
their body, under the title of emperor, with the general com.
mand of the armies and the government of the Frontiel pro-
vinces. 2. To determine the lift, or as it was then ftyled,
the college of confuls. 3. To appoint the proconfuls and
prefidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the magif-
trates their civil jurifdi@ion. 4. Toreceive appeals through
the immediate office of the prefeét of the city from all che
tribunals of the emperor. 5. To give force and validity by
their decrees to fuch as they fhould approve of the emperor’s
edi&ts. 6. To thofe feveral branches of authority, we may
add fome infpeétion of the finances, fince even in the ftern
reign of Aurelian, it was in their power to divert a part of
the revenue from the public fervice. Diocletian exprefled
his diflike of Rome and Roman freedom, by framing a new
fy{ftem of imperial government, which was afterwards com-
pleted by the family of Conftantine; and as the image of
the old conftitution was religioufly preferved in the fenate,
he refolved to deprive that order of its {mall remains of power
and confideration. The name of the fenate was mentioned’
with honour till the laft period of the empire; the vanity of
its members was {till flattered with honorary diftin&tions ;

and the affembly which had been fo long the fource, and fo -

long the inftrument of power, was refpeCtfully fuffered to
fall into oblivion. The fenate of Rome lofmg all connec-
tion with the imperial court and the a€tual conttitution, was
left a venerable but ufelefs monument of antiquity on the
Capitoline hill. During the Gothic war, and in confequence
of the conquelt of Rome by Nacies, the inftitution of Ro-
mulus, after a period of thirteen centuries, expired ; and if
the nobles of Rome {till aflumed the title of fenators, few
fubfequent traces can be difcovered of a public council, or
conttitutional order. Afcend fix hundred years, and contem-
plate the kings of the earth foliciting an audience, as the
flaves or freedmen of the Roman fenate. From the year
1144 the fenate was reftored, and its eftablifhment is dated as
a glorious era in the aéts of the city. After its revival, the
confcript fathers, if the expreffion may be ufed, were invefted
with the legiflative and executive power; but their views
feldom reached beyond the prefent day, and that day was
moft frequently difturbed by violence and tumult. In its
utmoft plenitude, the order or aflembly confilted of fifty-fix
fenators, the moft eminent of whom were diltinguifhed by
the title of counfellors : they were nominated, perhaps ane "
nually, by the people ; and a previous choice of their ele&tors,
ten perfons in each region or parifh, might afford a bafis for
a free and permanent conftitution. The popes confirmed by
treaty the eftablifhment and privileges of the fenate, and
expected from time, peace, and religion, the reftoration of
their government. ‘The motives of public and private in-
tereft might fometimes draw from the Romans an occafionat
and temporary facrifice of their claims; and they renewed
their oaths of allegiance to the fucceffors of St. Peter and
Conftantine, the lawful head of the church and republic. At
length the union and vigour of a public council were dif-
folved in a lawlefs city ; and the Roman fee adopted a more
ftrong and fimple mode of adminiftration. They condenfed
the name and authority of the fenate in a fingle magiftrate,
or two colleagues; and as they were changed at the end of
a year,

SEN

ayear, or fix months, the greatnefs of the fenate was compen-
fared. by the thortnefs of the term. The fenatore of Rome
their avarice and ambition; their juftice was per-
by the intereft of their family aud fadtion ; and as
punifhed only their enemies, they were obeyed only by their
adherents. In this itate of anarchy, molt of the Tealian
republics chofe, in fome foreign but friendly city, an im-
partial magiltrate of noble birth and unblemifhed character,
a foldier and a ftatefman, recommended by the voice of fame
and his country, to whom they delegated for a time the fu-
| adminiftration of peace and war. See Gibbon’s Hit.
of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

Sexare of four bundred, an ancient fenate of Athens,
when the city was divided into four tribes, each of which
_ ebofe a hundred men. This lafted till Solon inftituted the
fenate of five hundred, after the city was divided into five

Senate of Venice. Sce Preoani.
SENATOR, a member of meas,

appointed by Romulus, and called » fathers. Upon
} 4 union yith the Sabines, eel en others fay,
) peers rere’ HANDera: rales petro jorum gen-
| fium: this diftinguithed them from a third hun nil

the elder cone et called patres minorum gentium, fathers

pofed to have been limited

the kings to that of the Gracchi. But this muit not be
ftriGly. ‘The fenate generally had that number,

a ut, and upon any remarkable deficiency, was
; u

ton.

j

5

to that complement by an extraordinary crea-
0 ut as the number of the public magiftrates increafed
with the increafe of their conquefts and dominions, fo the
of the fenate, which was fupplied of courfe by thofe
tes, muft be liable alfo to fome variation. To what
increafed them is not abfolutely certain ; but
8 time they were not lefs than four hundred and
appears by his letter to Atticus, lib. i. ep. 14.
ime of Gracchus they were fix hundred; during
they were reduced to three hundred. Julius
‘far augmented that number to nine hundred; the trium-
to above a thoufand: and Auguitus reduced them to
ix hundred, according to Dion Caflius; and to three hun-
py | to Suetonius. For the choice of fenators
onged at firit to the kings, then to the confuls, then to
the cenfors, who in their cenfus or furvey every fifth year,
pointed new fenators in lieu of thofe dead or degraded ;
it fell to the emperors. See Senare.
__ Though, for a long time, none were raifed to the dignity
fenators, but mioft confpicuous for their prudence,
&c. yet fome regard was afterwards had to their ettate, leit
their dignity thould become debafed by poverty. To hold
the fenatorial dignity, a yearly revenue of eight hundred
‘thoufand fefterces was required, which amounts to between
fix and feven thoufand pounds of our money. Half as much

i

ed for the qualification of the knights. The fena-

ho funk below this revenue, were difcarded, and ex-

ed out of the lift by the cenfor ; and this was increafed
uguftus to twelve thoufand. ;

: fication muft not be taken, as it is by fome, for

al income, but the whole eftate of a fenator, real

perfonal, as eltimated by the furvey and valuation of the

SEN
and unequal to the high rank and dignity of a Roman fens.
tor, but it muft be confidered only as the lowell to which
they could be reduced ; for whenever they funk below it,
ey forfeited their feats in the fenate.

n ancient Rome, a certain age was required fora fenstor,
as is often intimated hy the old writers, though nove of them
have exprefaly fignified what it was. The logal age for
entering into the military fervice was fettled, by Servius
Tullius, at feventeen years ; and they were obliged, as Po-
lybius tells us, to ferve ten years inthe wars, Ecfope they
could pretend to any civil magiltracy. ‘This fixes the pro-
per age of fuing for the quettorfhip, or the firit flep of

onour, to the twenty-cighth year; and as this office gave
an admiffion into the ‘am fo the generality of the learned
feem to have given the fame date to the fenatorian age. Some
writers, indeed, on the authority of Dion Caffius, have
imagined it to be twenty-five years, not reflecting that Dien
mentions it there as a regulation only propofed to Auguttus
by his favourite Mecenas. Dr. Middleton takes the quef-
torian age, which was the fame with the fenatorian, to have
been thirty years complete. :

The laws concerning the age of magiftrates were not very
ancient : and were made to check the forward ambition of
the nobles, and to put all the citizens upon a level in the
purfuit of honours. And Livy tells us, that L. Villius, a
tribune of the people, was the firft who introduced them,
A.U. 573, and acquired by it the furname of Annalis.
Middlet. of Rom. Sen. p. 99.

The fenators were ordinarily chofen from among the
knights, or from among fuch as had borne the principal
offices. At firft the magiltrates were taken wholly from
among the fenators; whence Tacitus calls the fenate the
Jeminary of all dignities: but after the people had been ad-
mitted to magiftratures, fenators were taken from among
fuch as had difcharged thofe offices, though before ple-

ians.

There was fome law fubfifting from the earlieft times, con-
cerning the extraétion and defcent of fenators, enjoining
that it fhould always be ingenuous ; and as their morals were
to be clear from all vice, fo their birth likewife from any
ftain of bafe blood. In confequence of which, when Ap-
pius Claudius, in his cenforfhip, attempted to introduce the
grandfons of freed flaves into the fenate, they were all im-
mediately turned out again.

Thefe are fome of Se laws by which the cenfors were
obliged to aét, in the enrolment of the new, or the omif-
fion of old fenators; and when we read of any left out,
without any intimation of their crime, it might probably be
for the want of one or other of thefe legal, or cuftomary
qualifications.’

Tt was from the fenatorian order alone, that all ambafla-
dors were chofen and fent to foreign ftates ; and when they
had occafion to travel abroad, even on their private affairs,
they ufually obtained from the fenate the privilege of a free
legation, a3 it was called; which gave them a right to be
treated every where with the honours of an ambaflador, and
to be furnifhed on the road with a certain proportion of pro-
vifions and neceffaries, for themfelves and their attendants ;
and as long as they refided in the Roman provinces, the go-
vernors uled to ailign them a number of lidiors, or mace-
bearers, to march before them in ftate, as before the magif-
tratesin Rome. Ad if they had any law-fuit, or caufe of
property, depending in thofe provinces, they feem to have

aright to require it to be remitted to Rome.

At home, likewife, they were diftinguifhed by peculiar
honours and petrilegrs 3 for at the othe fhows and plays
they had particular feats fet apie ang appropriated to them

g2 ia

SEN

in the moft commodious part of the theatre; and on all fo-
lemn feftivals, when facrifices were offered to Jupiter by the
magittrates, they had the fole right of fealting publicly in
the Capitol, in habits of ceremony, or fuch as were proper
to the offices which they had borne in the city.

The peculiar ornament of the fenatorian tunic was the
Tatus clavus (fee LaticLavium), as it was called, being a
broad {tripe of purple fewed upon the fore part of it, and
running down the middle of the breaft, which was the pro-
per diitin@iion between them and the knights, who wore a
much narrower ftripe of the fame colour, and in the fame
manner. The fafhion alfo of their fhoes was peculiar, and
different from that of the reft of the city ; this difference
appeared in the colour, fhape, and ornament of the fhoes.
The colour of them was black, while others wore them of
any colour perhaps, agreeable to their, feveral fancies; the
form of them was fomewhat like to a fhort boot, reaching
up tothe middle of the leg, as they are fometimes feen in
ancient ftatues and bas-reliefs ; and the proper ornament of
them was a half moon fewed, or -faftened upon the fore-
part of them, near the ankle.

Confuls, pretors, ediles, tribunes, &c. during the year
of their magiftracy, always wore the pretexta, or a gown
bordered round with a ftripe of purple. In which habit
alfo, as has been fignified above, all the reft of the fenate,
who had already borne thofe offices, ufed to afhift at the pub-
lic feftivals and folemnities.

The fenators carried their children with them to the fe-
nate, to inform them betimes of affairs of ftate; though
thefe children had not admittance till feventeen years of age.
Some make a diftin@tion among the fenators, and fay, that
befides the fenators who were allowed to fpeak, and were
afked their opinions, there were others, who, without {peak-
ing, or being ever afked their judgment ; were only to follow
the opinion of thofe they thought the moft reafonable, and
were hence called fedaritz. A. Gellius gives us another no-
tion of the pedarii, and fays, thofe were thus called, who,
having never borne the office of curule magiftrate, were
obliged to go to the fenate on foot.

They had the name fenators, q. d. old men, given them in
imitation of the Greeks, who called their fenate yzgeoia.
So when the Athenians aflembled the people to confult about
the affairs of the public, the officers fummoned none but
fuch as were at leait fifty years old.

The Egyptians and Perfians followed the fame example,
after the Hebrews; and the Lacedemonians and Cartha-
ginians received none but fuch as were fixty years of age.
See Conscripr.

As to other matters relating to Roman fenators, fee the
article Senatkt, fupra.

SENATUS Avcroriras. See SENATE.

SENATUS-CONSULTU™M, a vote, or refolution, of
the Roman fenate, pronounced on fome queition, or point
of law, propofed to it. See SENATE.

The fenatus-confulta made a part of the Roman law: when
pafled, they were depofited in the temple of Ceres, under
the cuftody of the ediles ; and at lait they were carried, by
the cenfor, 'to the temple of Liberty, and put up in an ar-
mory called abularia.

Julius Capitolinus fpeaks of a fort of /enatus-confulta ta-
cita, which, he fays, were made in reference to affairs of
great moment and fecrecy by the fenators themfelves, with-
out the privity of the public officers, under an oath of fe-
erecy, till their defigns fhould be effected.

The narrative of the famous fenatus-confultum, or rather
decree, againft the mufician Timotheus, at Sparta, for

3

SEN

augmenting the number of {trings on his lyre, i3 confirmed
by Paufanias and Suidas. . :

This curious piece of antiquity is preferved at full length
by Boethius (De Mufica, cap. 1.) Mr. Stillingfleet (Prin.
and Power of Harm. § 185.) has given an extraét from it,
in proof of the fimplicity of the ancient Spartan mufic. The
faét is mentioned in Athenzeus; and Cafaubon, in his notes
on that author (Animad. in Athen. p. 386.), has inferted
the whole original text from Boethius, with correétions, to
which we refer the learned reader. We {hall here, how-
over, give a faithful tranflation of this extraordinary Spar-
tan dé of Parliament.

«© Whereas Timotheus the Milefian, coming to our city,
has difhonoured our ancient mufic, and, defpifing the lyre
of feven {trings, has, by the introduétion of a greater va-
riety of notes, corrupted the ears of our youth ; and by the
number of his ftrings, and the novelty of his melody, has
given to our mufic an effeminate and artificial drefs, jnitead
of the plain and orderly one in which it has hitherto ap-
peared ; rendering melody infamous, by compofing in the
chromatic, inftead of the enharmonic ; ‘The
kings and the ephori have, therefore, refolved to pafs cen-
fure upon Timotheus for thefe things: ‘and, farther, to
oblige him to cut all the fuperfluous ftrings of his eleven,
leaving only the /even tones ; and to banifh him from our
city, that men may be warned for the future, not to introduce
into Sparta any unbecoming cuftoms.”’

The fame ftory, as related in Atheneus, has this addi-
tional circumftance, that when the public executioner was on
the point of fulfilling the fentence, by cutting off the new
{trings, Timotheus, perceiving alittle ftatue in the fame place,
with a lyre in his hand, of as many ftrings as that which
had given the offence, and fhewing it to the judges, was ac-
quitted.

Indeed the deeree only informs us, that the ufe of a lyre,
with more than feven ftrings, was not allowed at this time
by the Lacedemonians; but does not prove that the reft of
Greece had confined their mufic within the compafs of /even
notes: nor, confequently, afcertain how many of the eleven
{trings were additions peculiar to Timotheus. hat the out-
cry again{t the novelties of this mufician was, however, not
confined to Sparta, appears from a paflage in Plutarch’s
Dialogue, where he gives a lift of the innovators who had
corrupted and enervated the good old melody, by additional
notes both upon the flute and lyre.

“« Lafus of Hermione,”’ fays he, “ by changing mufical
rhythms to the dithyrambic irregularity of movement, and,
at the fame time, emulating the compafs and variety of the
flute, occafioned a great revolution in the ancient mufic.
Melanippides, who fucceeded him, in like manner, would
not confine himfelf to the old mufic, any more than his {cho-
Jar Philoxenus, or Timotheus.”’

The fame thing alfo appears from the bitter inveCtives to
which the comic poets at Athens, efpecially Pherecrates and
Ariftophanes, gave aloofe ; not, perhaps, from underftand-
ing mufic, or being at all fenfible of its effects, but from
that envy which the great reputation of the mufician had
excited. An exalted chara¢ter is a fhooting butt, at which
fatirifts, and wicked wits, conftantly point their arrows ;
and the ftage at all times wages war againtt whatever calls
off the public attention from itfelf.

The abufe, therefore, of this mufician, which abounds
in ancient authors, is, perhaps, as great a proof of his fu-
periority as the praife. A Greek epigram, preferved in
Macrobius, informs us, that the Ephefians gave him a thou-
{and pieces of gold for compofing a poem in honour of
Diana, at the dedication of the temple of that goddefs ;

an

SEWN
and was not that a fullicient reafon for Aumgry authors to
rail

?
. Plutarch tells us, that the comic poet Pherecrates intro-
. duced Mufic on the ftaye, under the figure of a woman,
whole body was terribly torn and mangled, She is alked
Juftice, under the figure of another woman, the caufe
her ill-treatment ? when the relates her ftory in the follow-
Sete “ The firit fo’ of all my reap: was
ippi who began fo evervate and debilitate me by
apa agra »s, However, this would not have reduced
me to the deplorable condition in which I now appear, if Ci-
nefias, curfed Athenian, had not contributed to ruin
i me in his dithyrambic ftrophes, by his falfe
and untuueable inflexions of voice. In fhort, his cruelty to
me was beyond all defcription; and next to him, Phrynis
took it into his head to abufe me by fuch divifions and 7 bsg
rithes, as no one ever rages of before, making me {ub-
fervient to all his whims, twilting and twirling me a thoufand
‘ways, in order to produce fro for Arig, the ¢ewelve dif-
Fert modes. But ttill, the freaks of fuch a man would
not have been fufficient to complete my ruin, for he was able
to make me fome amends. Nothigg now was wanting but
the cruelty of one Timotheus to fend me to the grave, after
‘maiming and mangling me in the moft inhuman manner.”
# Who is this Timotheus ?” fays Juttice.
“< Music.
« O’tis that vile Milefian blade,
hrs. oi ‘Who treats me like an arrant jade :
Lo Robs me of all my former fame ;
* . And loads me with contempt and (hame :
_ Contriving itil, where’er he goes,
New ways to multiply my woes :
_. Nay more, the wretch I never meet,
beri” Be 1t in palace, houfe, or ftreet,
But ttraight he tries to clip my wings,
. And ties me with a dozen firings.”
-

_ SENAURA, in
ck ©. OF Jeteimere.

: ogland, which rifes in Leicefter-
into the er, near Atheritone, in War-

by fe when a bhip, either at an
fail, falls ‘with her eae ce ftern, deep
, i.¢. into a hollow made between
ed, fay the fends much that way,
our Old Writers, a kind of thin fine filk,
ftat. 2 Rich. II. cap. 1.

in G a town of Egypt, on the
Nile eet S. of pina

, a town ef Hindooftan, in

y, in the bifhopric of
miles $.S.W. of Munfter.”
HORST, a town of Germany, in the bi-
c ee Io oop S.S.E. SS ‘s
SEND a town o t, on its enhi ;
les N. of Behnefe. wis :
SENDGEAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
niles S.E. of Balikefri.

NDGISCHOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
3 36 miles S.S.W. of Sandomirz.
in the country called Sendica, in ‘the vicinity of
of the Tauro-Scythians. Pliny.

| or Sixpi, in Ancient Geography, a people of gard,

SEN

SENDIA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico, of
the Bravo; so miles 5. of Santa Fé.

SENDUARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 45
miles 5.5.W. of Patna.

SENEBIERA, in Botany, a genus of Decandolle’s,
dedicated to Mr, John Senebier, a Genevan naturalift, whe

ublifhed a work upon Vegetable Phyfiology, in 1791.
ecand. Mem. de la Soc. d'Hiftoire Naturelle, 142. De
Theis, 427.

SENECA, Lucius Awnaus, in Biography, a cele-

brated philofopher, was born at Corduba, near the com-
mencement of the Chriftian era. His father was a man of
equeltrian rank, and an eminent orator, of whom fome de-
clamations and controverfies are extant. His mother was
Helvis, a Spanith lady of diftin¢tion. Being educated at
Rome, he was early initiated in the ftudy of eloquence by
his father, and other mafters; but his own propenfity led
him to devote his talents to the ftudy of philofophy. He
firft joined the Pythagoreans, whom he foon left for the
Stoics: he, however, confined himfelf to no fe@, but ex-
tended his inquiries to all the fyftems of Grecian philofophy.
In conformity to the wifhes of his father, he pleaded fuse
time in the courts of juitice, and acquired by the praétice a
confiderable reputation; but it is thought he relinguifhed
the bar, through fear of the jealoufy of Caligula, who was
ambitious of oratorical fame. Entering into public life, he
obtained the office of queitor, and had rifen to {ome con-
fequence in the court of Claudius, when, at the inftigation
of Meflalina, he was accufed of an adulterous commerce
with Julia, the daughter of Germanicus, and was banifhed
to the ifland of Corfica. In that ifland he remained in exile
eight years, confoling himfelf with the maxims of phi-
lofophy, though never refigned to the feverity of his lot, as
may be bnifereed from his complaints, and his abjeét applica-
tion to the emperor for pardon.
» Upon the marriage of Claudius to his fecond wife Agrip-
pina, Seneca was, through her influence, recalled, and,
after being raifed to the pretorfhip, was appointed preceptor
to her fon, the afterwards moft infamous Nero; while Bur-
rhus was made his governor and military inftruétor. They
are faid to have aéted with the moft perfe& unanimity in
reftraining him from thofe vices, to which his fituation and
inclination prompted him ; and obtained an afcendancy over
him, te which is attributed the flattering promife of the firft
years of his reign.

When Nero began to difplay his real charaGer, his
quarrels with his mother, who was as violent and wicked as
her fon, laid his governors under great difficulties. Once
they were the means of reconciling them, but at length the
breach was irreparable, and Nero determined to free hinifelf
from one whom he regarded as a dangerous competitor, by
the horrid crime of matricide. Seneca and Burrhus were
apprifed of his intention, and did not oppofe it, as
ought to have done; and after the deed was perpetrat

wrote to the fenate, in the name of the emperor, to

juitify it. Burrhus died very foon, and the influence of
Seneca over his pupil was entirely loft; neverthelefs the
tyrant heaped upon his preceptor unbounded wealth, which
not only expofed the character of the philofopher to fevere
cenfure, but was in the end the principal caufe of his de-
ftruétion. Finding that he was an obje& of envy to the
favourites of the prince, he requefted permiflion to retire
from court, and refund all that he ‘had received from the
imperial liberality, Nero aflured him of his continued re-
and would not hear of the proffered rettitution of re-
wards, which he had fo well merited. Seneca, however,
knew him teo well to place any confidence in his declara-
hone,

SEN

tions, and kept himfelf out of fight as much as poflible.
Notwithftanding his prudence, it is faid that the tyrant en-
gaged one of his freedmen to poifon him, and that Seneca
by good fortune efcaped the fnare. It was not long, how-
ever, before an occafion was given to the emperor to gratify
his hatred againft one, whom he felt as a fecret cenfor of
his vices. Under the pretence of Seneca’s conneétion with
a confpiracy, a military tribune was fent with a band of
foldiers to Seneca’s houfe, where he was at fupper with his
wife Paulina, and two friends. He was, without much
ceremony, commanded to put an end to himfelf. The phi-
lofopher heard the fentence with equanimity, and only afked
for time fufficient to make his will. This was refufed, and
turning to his friends, he faid, that fince he was not allowed
to fhew his gratitude to them in any other way, he would
leave them the image of his life, as the belt memorial of
their friendfhip. He then exhorted them to moderate their
grief. He embraced Paulina, and endeavoured to comfort
her; but fhe refufed any other confolation than that of
dying with him. The death which he chofe was that by
opening his veins, and he expired in the year 65, and in the
12th year of Nero’s reign. The emperor would not fuffer
Paulina to die with her hufband; but fhe never recovered
the lofs of blood which fhe had experienced, before the im-
perial decree arrived.

The charaéter of Nero has been greatly extolled by fome
writers, and not lefs deprecated by others; but Tacitus,
without pretending to conceal his faults, inclines to a fa-
vourable opinion of him; and it is completely afcertained,
that while Nero followed the precepts of his mafter, he ap-

peared a good prince ; and that all virtue was banifhed from.

the court, when Seneca left it.

“If,” fays one of the philofopher’s biographers, “a
writer could be eftimated by his works, a purer moralift
could not eafily be found; for their conftant tenor 1s that
of folid virtue, tempered with humanity, and exalted by
the nobleft principles of theiim. They are indeed marked
with the tumid pride inculcated by the Stoical feé&, to
which he chiefly adhered, though he freely adopted what he
found good in others.”? Of his writings which have come
down to us, the greater part are moral, confilting of epiftles,
124 in number, and of diftiné& treatifes on Anger, Confola-
tion, Providence, &c. There are, moreover, feven books
on phyfical topics, entitled «¢ Natural Queftions,”? in which
are to be found the rudiments of fome notions regarded as
fundamental in modern phyfics.

A number of tragedies are extant, under the name of
Seneca, but they are probably not his; nor is it at all
known to whom they ought to be afcribed. The editions
of Seneca’s works are very numerous. Of the works, not
including the tragedies, the moft efteemed are thofe of
Lipfius ; the Variorum, 3 vols. 8yo.; the Leipfic, 2 vols.
$vo.; and the Bipontine. Of the tragedies, are the Va-
riorum; that by Heinfius, with notes by Scaliger; and the
quarto Delphin.

Spveca, in Geography, atown of America, in the county
of Onondago, in New York, laid out in ftreets and {quares,
on the north fide of Seneca Falls. The inhabitants have
erected, at a great expence, flour and faw-mills, of the beft
kind in this place, and. alfo a bridge acrofs Seneca river ;
and as the place is central, and acceflible from the eaftern
and weftern countries, it promifes a rapid increafe.

Seneca Creek, a creek in Maryland, which has two
branches; one called Little Seseca. It empties into Po-
tomac river, about 19 miles N.W. of the mouth of Rock
creek, which feparates George-town from Wafhington
city.

SEN

Seneca Lake, a lake in Ontario county, New York,
which is a handfome piece of water, from 35 to 40 miles in
length, and about 2 miles wide. At the N.W. corner of
the lake ftands the town of Geneva; and on the E. fide, be-
tween it and Cayuga, are the towns of Romulus, Ovid,
Hector, and Ulyfles, in Onondago county, New York.
Its outlet is Scayace river, which alfo receives the waters of
Cayuga lake, g miles N.E. from the mouth of Canada Saga,
18 miles below Geneva.

Seneca River, a river in the ftate of New York, which
has an eafterly courfe, and receives the waters of Seneca and.
Cayuga lakes, which lie north and fouth, to or 12 miles
apart, and empties into the Onondage river, 14 miles below
the Falls, at a place called the Three Rivers. The river-is
boatable from the lakes downwards. Within half a mile of
the river is the famous falt lake.

SENECAI, or Srnec, Antorne BAUDERON DE, in
Biography, a French poet, was born at Magon in 1543.
He was brought up to the bar, and pleaded for a time,
rather in compliance with his father’s wifhes, than from his
own inclination. A duel, in which he was engaged, obliged
him to retire to the court of Savoy, where he had another
quarrel with the brothers of a lady, who attached herfelf to
him ; and the confequences of which caufed him to with-
draw to Madrid. After this he returned to France, mar-
ried, and purchafed the place of firft valet-de-chambre to
Therefa, the wife of Lewis XIV. Lofing that office, on
the death of the queen, he, with his family, was received
into the houfe of the duchefs of Angouleme, where for
30 years he enjoyed an honourable retreat. At her death,

he fixed his refidence at his native town, where he died in ©

1737, having attained to his g4th year. Senecé devoted
himfelf to literature, and many of his compofitions were
inferted in the ‘* Mercures,’? and other periodical works of
the time. By his poems he has obtained a rank among the
fuccefsful votaries of the French mufes. Voltaire deno-
minated him “a poet of a fingular imagination,”’ and fays,
that his tale of ‘ Kaimac”’ is a diftinguifhed performance.
He alfo fpeaks in praife of his ‘Travaux d’Apollon.’’
His tale, entitled «* La Maniere de Filer le parfait Amour,”’
is much efteemed. He was alfo the author of «« Remarques
Hittoriques,”’? with obfervations on the Memoirs of Cardinal
de Retz. .
SENECAS, or Senexas, in Geography, a tribe of In-
dians, being one of the Six nations. They inhabit the
territory on Geneflee river, at the Geneffee caftle. This
tribe confilts of about 1780 perfons. They have two towns
of 60 or 70 inhabitants each, on French creek, in Pennfyl-
vania; and another town on Buffaloe creek, which falls
into the eaftern extremity of lake Erie, on the New York
fhore; and two {mall towns on Alleghany river. The
Seneka Indians are wonderfully expert in the ufe of bows
and blow-guns, with which they fhoot {quirrels in the
woods. The blow-gun is a narrow tube, about fix feet
long, made of a cane-reed, or fome pithy wood, through
which they drive flender arrows by the force of the breath.
The arrows are not much thicker than the lower ftring of a
violin: they are generally headed with fmall triangular bits
of tin; and round the oppofite ends, for the length of two
inches, a quantity of the down of thiltles, or fomething very
like it, is bound, fo as to leave the arrows at this part of
fuch athicknefs that they may but barely pafs into the tube.
The arrows are put in at the end of the tube that is held
next to the mouth, the down catches the breath, and with
a {mart puff they will fly to the diftance of 50 yards.
SENECEY, or Grand SENNECEY, a town of France,
in the department of the Sadne and Loire, and chief place

9 of

SEN

of a canton, in the diftri& of Chalons fur Sadne; 8 miles
8. of Chalons fur Sadne, The place contains 2345, and
the canton 13,612 inhabitants, on a territory of 2224 kilio-
metres, in 18 communes.

SENECIO, in Botany, an ancieut name, occurring in
Pliny, derived from /enex, an old man; or /enefeere, to grow
old; which is faid to have been borrowed from the fancied
refemblance of its capitate feed-down to the grey or filvery
head of age —Linn, Gen, 424. Schreb. 555. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 3.1973. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm, Fl. Brit. 88).
Prodr. Fi. Grit: Si v. 2. 176. Ait. Hort. Kew,
¥. 5. 36. Thunb. Prodr. 157. Purh. 528. Tournef.
t. 260. Jull. 181. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 676. Gertn.
t. 166. (Jacobea; Gaertn. t. 170.)—Clafs and order,
Syasencha Polygamia-S lua. Nat. Ord. Compofite Di/-

» Linn, Capymbifere, Jul,
Ch. Common calyx calyculate, conical, truncated ;
feales eee numerous, parallel and ner ge = a
at the wu » contiguous, equal; not fo au-
> all the B, Fo tatetoaled, ethering at the tip.
. » higher than the calyx ; florets of the difk
perfect, tubular, numerous, funnel-fhaped, with a five-cleft,
eflexed limb ; thofe of the radius, if any, female, ligulate,
oblong, flightly three-toothed. Stam. (in the perfe& florets)
Filaments five, capillary, {mall ; anthers cylindrical,
tubular. Pif. (in all the florets) ovate; ityle

. the length of the ftamens; ftigmas two, ob-

jong, te. Peric. none, except the conical, converging

. calyx. Seeds in both kinds of florets alike, folitary, ovate,

crowned with wag long down, Recept. naked, flat.

7 Senecio of Tournefort and others, is deftitute of a
common radius to the corolla, whereas their Jacobea is fur-
nifhed with one. This, however, is by no means a fufficient

P ic diftin€tion. Mott authors have accordingly united

into one genus,

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down fimple. Calyx cy-

many-leaved, equal, {caly at the bafe ; fcales dead

Species Plantarum of Linnzus we meet with only
of Senecio, (to which however many others are
ee ee Plantarum, ) whereas Willdenow
one hundred and twenty-two. Thhefe are divided
tl four following fe€tions, from each of which we fball

a a few {pecies in order to give as clear and concife an ac-

2 ved Groundfel. Linn. Suppl. 369.
as Ts ieee s Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 1.
174.)—Corolla naked. Calyx ventricofe, fomewhat im-
ed. Leaves thread-fha linear, quite entire, {mooth.
of the Cape of Good Hope, flowering from June
gu. Siem herbaceous, about three feet high, wavy,
ed and branched at the top, yellowifh-green, round.
_ Leaves feffile, feattered, grafly, fpreading, revolute at the
cdge, rough. Flowers terminal, panicled, golden-coloured,

- Purple Groundfel. Linn. Sp, Pl. 1215.
6. (Cacalia villofa ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. v. 3. t. 580.)
orc ed. Leaves lyrate, hairy ; the upper ones lan-
ceolate toothed, Natit alfo of the Cape, and flowering
m June to September. Root perennial, thick.
lumerous, ere€t, a foot high, ftriated. Leaves alternate,
obtufe, thickifh ; the lower ones on long {talks ; all

tes veined. Flowers terminal, corymbofe, purple,
S. cern Drooping Groundfel. Linn. Suppl. 370.

rf IP

Stems

SEN

Willd. n. 7, (S.rubenss Jacq. Hort. Vind, v. 4. t. 98.)—
Corolla naked. Leaves gs. toothed or ferrated, rather
hairy. Stalks elongated, fingle flowered, — Native of the
Eaft Indies, fowermg in July and Auguft. Stem herba-
ceous, a foot high, ereét. J.canes alternate, flalked, veined,
rough, with two little angulated fipulas at the bale of each
footttalk, Flowers folitary, tcrminal, violet-coloured, on
long, generally drooping flalks.

S. Pfeudo-China, Chinefe Groundfel. Linn. Sp. PI.
1216. Willd. n. 18. (8, madrafpatanus, rapi folio, flori-
bus maximis, cujus radix a nonnullis Chios dicitur ; Dill.
Elth. v. 2. 345. t. 258. f. 335.)—Corolla naked. Leaves
lyrate, pinnaufid, toothed. Flower-ftalk nearly naked,
very long.—Native of the Ealt Indies, flowering from June
to Auguft. Root perefinial, tuberous, flefhy, fibrous.
Stem none. Leaves radical, large, thaped like thofe of a
turnip, fmooth, Flower-/la/k flender, more than a foot
high, fuftaining a few yellow flowers at the top.

S. vulgaris. Common Groundiel, or Simfon. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1216. Engl. Bot. t. 747. Curt. Lond. fafe. 1.
t. 61.— Flowers without a radius, feattered. Leaves
finuated in a pinnate form, toothed, embracing the ftem.
A common weed, flowering throughout the year, in any
kind of foil or fituation. Roof annual, fibrous. Stem cre,
branched, ive fomewhat panicled, round, angular, either
f{mooth or clothed with a cottony down like the back of the
foliage. Leaves alternate, bright green; radical ones
flalked ; thefe of the {tem feffile, auriculate. Flowers ter-
minal, feattered or panicled, yellow. Seeds furrowed, pu-
befcent. Sted-down {eflile, rough. The great peculiarity
of Senecio in having the fcales of the calyx withered, and
black at the tip, is very confpicuous in the prefent {pecies,
whofe flower-buds and young tops are the food of many
{mall birds, and efpecially domeftic Canary-birds. In
feveral parts of England it is called Simfon, apparently a
corruption of the generic name, perhaps through the me-
dium of the French Senc/on.

~The remaining fpecies of this fe€tion, defcribed by Willde-
now, are, S. anguflifolius, mucronatus, niveus, hicracifolius,
trubefcens, perficifolius, biflorus, paniculatus, bidentatus, feaber,
veflitus, virgatus, divaricatus, creaticus, japonicus, peucedani-
Solius, arabicus, and verbenefolius.

Se&. 2. Floribus radiatis, radio flatim revoluto.
with a revolute radius.

S. vifcofus. Stinking Groundfel, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1217.
Engl. Bot. t. 32.—Radius revolute. Leaves _pinnatifid,
vifeid. Scales of the calyx lax, and nearly as long as the
calyx itfelf, which is hairy. Not uncommon in many parts
of Britain, in a chalky or fandy foil; flowering from July
to O&ober. The whole herb is hairy and vifcid, with a
very fetid fmell. Root annual. Stem a foot high, much
branched, fpreading, furrowed, leafy. Leaves alternate,
feffile, very lightly embracing the ftem, pinnatifid, fome-
what toothed. Flower-flalks folitary, terminal, each bear-

ing a er of a bright gold colour.

% fered Greas feild Groundfel. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1216.
Engl. Bot. t. 2515. (S. corollis revolutis, foliis amplexi-
cauhbus lanceolatis dentatis, {quamis calycinis breviffimis in-
taétis; Linn. Hort. Upf. 261.)—Radius revolute, Leaves
clafping the ftem, lanceolate, pmuatifid, and toothed. Scales
of the calyx fhort ; their points acute and not difcoloured,
—Native of Spain, and lately difcovered by W. Middle-
ton, efq. in Yorkthire. It bitists in Oétober. “ This
new Britifh fpecies,”” fays the author of Englifh Botany,
«is moft like S. Lylvaticus, but the effential and all-fafficient
marks of diftinétion are the dilated bafe of the ‘emo

embrace

Flowers

SENECIO.

embrace the ftem, and the taper-pointed {cales at the bafe of
the calyx, which are not blackened and abrupt at the tip, as
in perhaps every other Senecio.”’? This {pecies varies much
in the depth of the fegments of its leaves. The florets of
the radius are not at firft revolute, but gradually become fo.

S. /ylvaticus. Mountain Groundfel. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1217.
Engl. Bot. t. 748. “Fl. Dan. t. 869.’? — Radius revo-
lute. Leaves pinnatifid, lobed, toothed. Scales of the
calyx fhort. Stem erect, itraight, corymbofe.—Common
in bufhy {pots upon gravelly or fandy heathis, flowering in
July. Root annual. Stem three fect high, leafy, fur-
rowed, rather hairy, many-flowered. Leaves numerous,
{cattered, with an unpleafant {mell, and flightly vifcid.
Flowers yellow, but.paler and fmaller than in /j/vaticus, of
which fome authors have confidered this as a variety, but
from which it is perfectly diftin@.

The remaining {pécies of Willdenow in this fe€tion are,
S. triflorus, egyptius, aufiralis, lautus, craffifolius, humilis, leu-
canthemifolius, auritus, giganteus, telephifolius, trilobus, cineraf-
cens, javanicus, coronopifolius, multifidus, nebrodenfis, glaucus,
and varico/fus.

Se&. 3. Floribus radiatis, radio patente; foliis pinnati-
fedis. Flowers with a {preading radius and pinnatifid leaves.

S. hafatus. Spleen-wort-leaved Groundfel. Willd. n. 45.

Jacobza afra perennis vifcofa lutea, afplenii folus ; Dill.
Elth. 183. t. 152. f 184.)—Radius fpreading. Leaf-
ftalks embracing the ftem. Flower-italk thrice as long as
the leaf.. Leaves haftate, finuated.—Native of the Cape of
Good Hope, flowering moft part of the fummer. Stem
herbaceous, perennial, about two feet high, branched at the
bottom. Leaves ftalked, narrow, feven or eight inches
long, very glutinous. #/owers terminal, yellow, two or
three on each /alk.

S. elegans. Elegant Groundfel, or Purple Jacobzea.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1218. Willd. n. 58. Curt. Mag. t. 238.—
Radius fpreading. Leaves hairy, vifcid, pinnatifid, equal,
much-fpreading. Common ftalk narrowed below. Calyx
hairy.—Native alfo of the Cape, flowering from June to
autumn. Linnzus gave to this annual the name of elegans,
becaufe of the beauty of its fowers, their radius being of a
mo‘t brilliant purple, and their difk bright yellow ; colours
peculiar to this and §. venu/tus, Willd. n. §7.—The /lem is
about eighteen inches high, ere&t, branched, furrowed.
Leaves at the ftem-joints, bright green. The figure of
Curtis exhibits a beautiful variety of this fpecies, with double
flowers, whofe colours are equally brilliant as when fingle,
Tt occafionally produces white flowers. _~

S, /qualidus. Inelegant Ragwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1218,
Engl. Bot. t. 600.—Radius {preading, longer than the
calyx; its florets elliptical and entire. Leaves pinnatifid ;
their fegments diftant, fomewhat linear. Plentiful on almott
every wall in and about Oxford, flowering from June to
OGober. Root annual or biennial. Stem erect, branched,
much fpreading, fometimes a little hairy. Leaves feflile,
deeply pinnatifid, narrow, {mooth, flat, rather flefhy, often
purplifh beneath. Flowers folitary, of a bright golden
yellow, on terminal, folitary, bra€teated, corymbofe ftalks.
The whole herb has a peculiar fmell, fomewhat like Tanfy
er Mugwort,

S, abrotanifolius. Southern-wood leaved Groundfel,
Linn, Sp. Pl. 1219, Jacq, Auftr. t. 79.—Radius fpread-
ing. Leaves pinnatifid, jagged ; leaflets linear, naked, acute,
Stalks moltly two-flowered,—Native of the Auftrian Alps,
flowering from July to OGtober, Root perennial, com-
pofed of many, long, flender fibres, ftriking deep, and
fpreading on all fides, Stem from one to two feet high,

{triated upwards. Lower leaves bipinnatifid, ttalked ; upper
pinnatifid, feflile ; all dark green above, glaucous beneath.
Flowers large and handfome, lemon-coloured, in terminal

bunches.

S. tenuifolius. Hoary Ragwort. Willd. n. 75. Engl.
Bot. t. 574. Jacq. Auitr, t. 278.—Radius f{preading.
Leaves pinnatifid, fomewhat revolute; paler and fhaggy be-
neath, Stem ereét, cottony.—Found occafionally in woods,
on hedges, and by road fides, chiefly in a calcareous foil,
flowering in July and Augult. Root perennial, rather
creeping. Stem ereé&t, wand-like, furrowed, leafy, corym-
bofe at the top. Leaves numerous, alternate, embracing the
{tem, more or lefs cottony beneath, and often white with
down. Flowers corymbofe, bright yellow. This 1s cer-
tainly diftin& from S. erucifolius of Linneus, fays the author
of Englifh Botany, who is inclined to think it may rather be
a variety of /y/vaticus which it more nearly refembles. .

S. Jacobea. Common Ragwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1219,
Engl. Bot. t.1130. Mart. Ruft. t. 85.—Radius fpreading,
Leaves doubly pinnatitid, fomewhat lyrate, divaricated,
toothed, {mooth. Stem ereét. — Abundant in all kinds of
walte ground, flowering in the height and drought of
fummer, when ‘it forms a contraft with the furrounding
{corched and withered herbage.’’ Roof pereunial, fibrous,

Stem erect, branched, ftriated, fmoothifh, leafy, curymbofe,

many-flowered. Leaves moftly {mooth, dark green, cut into
various, fpreading, toothed fegments. lowers very nu-
merous, of a bright, golden yellow, terminal, corymbofe.
A cottony web, more or lefs denfe, frequently invefts the
flower-ftalks and calyx.

S. aquaticus. Marfh Ragwort. Willd, n. 77. Sm, Fl.
Brit. 885. Engl. Bot. t.1131. Fl. Dan. t. 784.—Radius
{preading ; florets elliptical. Leaves lyrate, ferrated; the
lowermoft obovate and undivided. Seeds {mooth.—Very
common in moift meadows and ditehes, where it flowers
from July to the end of autumn, ‘The herbage of this pe-
rennial is moftly fmooth, except when it grows in dry
fituations, and then it is fometimes alittle woolly. Stem
ereét, branched, purplifh at the bafe, like the lait {pecies.
Leaves variable in fhape, from ovate to deeply pinnatifid, of
a much lighter green than in Jacobeq. The flowers are
larger, fewer in number, and of a brighter colour; but the
entire fmoothnefs of its feeds conftitutes the moft ftriking
mark of fpecific diftinétion between this and the laft, of
which Linnzus confidered it only asa variety. ‘ In having
the feeds both of the dif and radius quite {mooth, it differs
(fays fir J. E. Smith) from every other Senecio we haye been
able to examine,’ Bun

The remaining {pecies of Willdenow in this feétion are,
S, /quamofus, incifus, carnofus, abruptus, lyratus, fpireifolius,
pubigerus, vernalis, montanus, rupefiris, dentatus, venuflus, eruci~
folius, fpeciofus, erofus, uniflorus, incanus, carniolicus, parvi-

florus, muricatus, levigatus, grandiflorus, myrrhifolius, dif-
fufus, canadenfis, delphinifolius, auriculatus, aureus, Bai-

JSamita, obovatus, and umbellatus.

Se&. 4. Floribus radiatis ; foliis indivifis.
aradius. Leaves undivided.

S. paludofus, Great Fen Ragwort.
Linn, Sp. Pl. 1220. Engl. Bot. t. 650.
—Radius fpreading. leaves {word-fhaped, fharply fer-
rated, fomewhat woolly beneath. Stem perfectly {traight.
—Native of Europe in fens and marfhes, but very rare in
Britain. It flowers in June and July, Root perennial, of
many long, fimple fibres. Stems erect, from three to fix
feet in height, fimple, leafy, round, ftriated, hollow, clothed
with a loofe down. Leaves feffile, feattered, narrowed i

% the

Flowers with

Bird’s-tongue,

Fl, Dan. 1,385. 0

SEN

the baie, {mooth above, paler and downy beneath. Flowers
above an inch in diameter, bright yellow ; in a kind of ter-
minal corymb, the lowermett fa/ds arifing from the bofoms
of the upper leaves.
S. memorenfis. Branching Groundiel. Linn. Sp. PI.
y221, Jacq, Auftr, t. 184.— Radius nearly revolute.
Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ferrated, fringed at the margin,
very lightly downy beneath, feflile, unequal at the bafe.—
Native of Auttria and Switzerland ; flowering in July and
. Reet perennial, fibrous, not creeping. Stems ge-
fingle, two or feet high, ereét, flightly an-

gular or grooved towards the top, pale green, purplifh here
there. Leaves alternate or fcatteredy five or fix inches
- long, pointed, fmooth above, hairy beneath. Flewers very
in terminal compound corymbs.

S. faracenicus. Broad-leaved Groundfel. Linn. Sp. Pl.
y22%. Engl. Bot. t. 211. Jacq. Auttr. t. 186.—Ra-

i . Flowers

dius mw corymbefe. Leaves lanceolate,
ferrated, fmooth.—Native of the fouth of Europe,
hostile though very rarely found in Britain, It
flowers in July and Auguit. Root perennial, creeping.
Stems from three to five feet high, angular, ae
aaa eg sored at the top. Leaves alternate, feflile,
lanceolate, flightly downy. Flewers bright yellow, in a
large, inal corymb, with narrow, + pointed
éra&eas, and rather downy .—This is one of our rareft
iti The {pecific name alludes to its being ufed
asavulnerary. Its qualities are aftringent,
confiderable acrimony.
8. Doria. wns aR Linn. Sp. PL 1221.
Willd. n. 97. Jacq. Auftr. t. 185.—Radius fpreading.
Outer feales of the calyx fpreading. Leaves eT
oblong-lanceo » glaucous, {mooth, ferrated.—
of Auftria, flowering from July to September.—
Cre brownifh, bitter, with long white fibres.
two to five feet in height, much branched up-
i Leaves alternate, lower ones ftalked ; upper

all of them extremely glaucous and ribbed. Flowers
{mall, numerous, palith yellow, in terminal, com-

icum.. Alpine Groundfel. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1222.
Jacq. Auttr. t. 45. App.—Radius fpread-
fingle-flowered. Leaves undi-

inet]

au
E

!

ferrated ; radical ones ovate, oi oN Pe
of the fouth of » flowering from July to September.
—Root i rous. Stem perfe@ly fimple, hairy.

; Rada! Lace talked, thickith, # renee or yaa i
7 tee eee 1 Pot ieoeie Goll, nearly awl-
thaped. Flowers large, terminal, moftly folitary, of
: yellow or orange-colour, on longith, thick, hairy
h, 8. Spear-leaved Groundfel. Willd. n. 102.
— Saeq- . t. 304.—Radius {preading. ves
A and embracing the ftem at the
ferrated. Ste abloy_cDletitie of

c pe, flowering from July to O&ober.
perennial, fibrous. Stems numerous, annual, round,
; from four to fix feet high, ftreaked with purple.
alternate, fomewhat
veined with purple. Flowers in i thick,
corymbs, bright yellow; the dik turmng
The ining fpecies of this laft and fourth fectio
Reel Wha, ee in ee
rofmarinifolius, » frriatus, cruciatus, rige/cens,
‘ > » ovatus, cortaceus, orientalis, Barrelieri,
longifolius, undulatus, byzan-

SEN

tinus, betcrophyllus, balimifolius, marginatus, mardumus, lanaius,
mollis, quercifolius, ilicifolius, crifpus, crenatus, angulatus, cor-
difolius, repandus, rigidus, aud “Undapineian,

Senscio, in Gardeniag, contains plants of the herbaceous,
annual, and perennial kinds, of which the {pecies cultivated
are; the hieracium-leaved groundfel (5S, hierscifolius) ; the
Chinefe groundfel (S. pfeudo-chioa); the {pleenwort-
leaved ground{el (S, hattatus); and the elegant ground{el,
or purple jacobea (S. elegans).

n the fourth {pecies there are varieties with very double
purple, and with equally double white flowers, “The former
is now chiefly cultivated.

And there are other {pecies that may be cultivated for
variety.

Method of Culture —The firit and two lait forts are
readily increafed by planting cuttings of the branches in
pots filled with fine mould in the fummer feafon, fhading
them till they have taken root; and, as the winter ap-

roaches, removing them under the protection of the green-
oute, where they fhould remain till May, when they may
be planted out in the borders or clumps. They mey like-
wife be raifed from feed, which fhould be fown in the {pring
in pots, and placed in a gentle hot-bed.

he fecond fort fhould be more carefully attended to,
being raifed from offsets; which fhould be planted in pots in
the fpring feafon, and be plunged in the hot-bed of the
ftove, where the plants fhould be conftantly kept.

The firft and cwwo lait forts afford variety in the borders,
and among potted plants; and the fecond in ttove col-

ons.

SENECTA Ancuium, the exuvie, or floughs of fer-
pents. The {nakes cait their whole fkin, and with it were
fuppofed to caft off their age, and be born anew ; whence
the name of thefe cait fkins. A decoétion, or infufion of
thefe, is recommended by medical writers againit pains of
the ears and eyes, and fome fuperititious a recom-
mended it to women to tie about their waiits, to prevent
mifcarriages, and about their thighs, in time of labour to
hatften ey ‘

SENEFFE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Jemappe, chief place of a canton, in the
diftri@ of Charleroy ; 13 miles N.W. of Charleroy. The
place contains 2531, and the canton 12,063 inhabitants,
on a territory of 1674 kiliometres, in 13 communes.

SENEGA. See Gum Senega.

SENEGAL, or Senecamaia, in Geography, a country

either of Africa, fituated between the rivers Senegal and Gambia,

and including many kingdoms and ftates. It derives the
former name from the river » and the latter from
that of Gambia. According to Bruns, all the coaft ex-
tending from Cape Blanco to the mountains to the N. of
» has been called Upper Senegambia, It is fre-
uented by the Moors, wandering thepherds in the defert of
Ton or Sahara. They acknowledge the fupremacy of
the emperor of Morocco ; but only obey him as they find
it to be their intereft. The Europeans trade with thefe
— in rs and the’ eftablifhment of Portendeck,
by the Dutch, and that of Arguin, have been dif-
puted by feveral European nations, with inconceivable
eagernels. The dreadful portrait which Mungo Park has
= us of the foolith pride, perfidy, and barbarity of the
oors of the environs of Tombuétoo, eGtly agrees
with that given by Briffon of thofe who inhabit the coaits.
The whole country watered by the rivers of Senegal and
Gambia has been called Senegambia, and exteads, according
to Bruns, from the northern thores of Senegal to the
northern fhores of Sierra Leone.

Hh SENEGAL,

SENEGAL,

SENEGAL, a river of Africa, which rifes in the interior of
the country, and runs, after a winding courfe, into the
Atlantic. It takes its rife by various ftreams in a chain of
mountains, fituated, according to Mr. Park’s difcoveries,
between the 5th and goth degrees of weft longitude, and
dire&ts its courfe towards the N.W. Within the fame
fpace are the fources of the Gambia, which runs to the
W.N.W.., and thofe of the Joliba or Niger flowing towards
the E.N.E. A large portion of the tract bordering on the
northern foot of the mountains, whence the branches of the
Senegal river iffue, is covered with thick forefts. One part
of this tra&t is denominated the Jallonka wildernefs, in which
no habitations are to be feen during nine days of forced
marching. The head of the principal branch of the Sene-
gal is about So geographical miles W. of that of the Joliba ;
and the head of the Gambia is about 100 miles W. of the
Senegal. The branches of the latter are very numerous,
and interfe& the country for about 200 miles from E. to W.,
in the line of the caravan route. In Mr. Park’s judgment,
the Senegal river, below the falls of F’low, or Feloe, as
Labat calls it, was about the bulk of the Tweed at Melrofs
in fummer; but this was in the dry feafon, or Chriftmas ;
and as the river does not {well periodically, till many months
after that, Mr. Park did not fee it at its loweft pitch.
And yet this was the aflemblage of all the rivers, the
Falemé excepted, which was itfelf about three feet deep
at the fame feafon. But the Senegal is even fordable in
fome places before the conflux of the Falemé, according to
Labat ; for the Moors crofsit in the dry feafon, and commit
depredations on fome of the lands to the fouth. However,
almoft ali the towns and villages are placed on the fouth
fide, with a view of being in fecurity for the longeft poffible
term. The Senegal river is then by no means a very capital
ftream, except in the rainy feafon; when, like all the other
tropical rivers, its bed is filled, and it very commonly over-
flows. Mr. Park obferved, by the mark of the higheft
point of {welling of the river Kokaro, or eaftern branch of
the Senegal, that it had been twenty feet higher than when
he croffed it, in the line of the fouthern route. The main
branch of this river, the Ba-fing, or Black river, was not
fordable, and was croffed over a temporary bridge of a very
fingular conftru@tion. Alligators and crocodiles are found
in all thefe rivers, at the height at which Mr. Park pafled
them. ‘The Falemé river has a remote fource, and drains
a great extent of country. The great body of the river
Senegal is precipitated from the upper level, containing the
political divifions of Manding, Jallonkadu, Fooladu, Kaflon,
Gadon, and fome other {maller ftates, to the intermediate
one ; thus forming the falls of Govinea. The intermediate
level contains Bambouk, Konkadoo, Satadoo, Dentila, and
fome others, and is bounded on the S.W. by the great flope
of country at Kirwanney, when the waters firfl begin to flow
towards the W. Onthe N.W. it is bounded by the great
defcent which forms the fecond or lower fall of the Senegal
river, named F’low. This fall is about 30 miles below
Govinea, 48 above fort St. Jofeph; and here the river,
being arrived at the loweft level of the country, continues
navigable, with little interruption, to the fea. The Falemé
river, of courfe, muft run on a far lower level than the other
heads of the Senegal river. The diftance between Koonia-
karry in Kaffon, lat..14° 34!, and the Senegal river, 13
miles, pointstoa W.N.W. courfe, orthereabouts, of the river
between the falls ; not much different from its general courfe,
lower down. But as the Ba-fing, or principal arm of the
river, muft run almoft direGly to the N. from the place
where Mr. Park croffed it, in Jallonkadu, it is highly pro-
bable that the two great branches unite at no great diftance

above the upper fall: the fame ridge of mountains that oc-
cafion the fall, may, perhaps, occafion a junétion of the dif-
ferent {treams above it. Thefe falls are faid by Labat to
be from 30 to 4o toifes perpendicular, or 180 to 240 French
feet. The Senegal, in its courfe, feparates the two coun-
tries of Kajaaga and Kaflon. f

Within fix miles of the fea, the river in its courfe takes a
fudden turn to the fouth, and for the remainder of its paf-
{age is divided from the fea only by a natural ridge of fand,
fometimes not 100 toifes over. By this curve it prolongs
its courfe for 75 miles farther, from north to fouth, till at
length it difcharges itfelf into the ocean, in N. lat. 15° so’.
This great river feparates the country of the Negroes from
the Moors of Sahara, or the Defert, Rretching by a number
of windings to a prodigious length, from eaft to weft. The
extreme rapidity of this river is attributed to the {pace pafled
through by fo large abody of water, confined within fo
narrow a channel; the mouth of it being no more than a
mile and a half over, and that choaked up with fand, called
a bar, which renders the paflage exceedingly difficult and
dangerous. This bar is doubly dangerous, on account not
only of the fhallownefs of the water at all times, but the
fhifting of the bar, and the change of its fituation after
floods and heavy rains, by which the channels are loft, and
new foundings requifite to difcover them ; indeed the Sene-
gal would be quite fhut up, but for one channel of 200
toifes in breadth, and two fathoms depth, which has long
kept its fituation immoveable, amidft the floods and over-
flowings of the river. This bar prevents fhips of 500
tons from entering the river, and mooring under the fort ;
an inconvenience that obliged the French company to keep
a veflel conftantly at anchor in the channel, for no ether
purpofe than to keep an account of the foundings. The
moit commodions time of the year for crofling the bar, is
from the month of January till Auguft, the winds being
then variable, the river fmooth, and the bar fixed till the
enfuing rainy feafon, when the prodigious fwell of the
river, and fouth-weft winds, oppofed to its rapid courfe,
raife waves of fo prodigious height at the bar, that their
clafhing refembles the fhock of mountains, and fo furious,
as to dafh in pieces the ftouteft fhip. After crofling the
bar, it becomes a beautiful, fmooth, and gently gliding
river, at four fathoms depth. In advancing three miles
higher, the country on the fouth fide is clothed with a
beautiful verdure, the trees in perpetual bloom, than which
nothing can form a more agreeable contraft to the dry,
fandy, and barren points of land, that firft prefent themfelves
to the fhipping. All around it lie a great number of
iflands, pleafantly ftocked with trees, fruits, herbage, and
birds, but appropriated to no ufe, except the ifland of
Senegal.

Fort St. Louis, at the mouth ofthe Senegal river, accord-
ing to the obfervations and refults of M. D’Anville and M.
Fleurieu, is placed in lat. 16° 5! hy D’Anville), long. 16° 8!
by Fleurieu: and Cape Verd in lat. 14° 48/, long. 17° 34!
W. of Greenwich. By the treaty of 1783, the river of
Senegal and its dependencies were left in the poffeffion of
the French, who had extended their fa€tories above 500
miles from the fhore. In 1784 was founded the company
of the gum of Senegal, which obtained an exclufive privilege
of trading in gum, flaves, gold-duft, ivory, wax, and other
produéts of the river Senegal, and dependencies, from Cape
Blanco to Cape Verd. Goree was chofen as the refidence
of the adminiftrators. In 1791 this company was fupprefled
by the national aflembly, and the trade with Senegal was
declared free.

The Moors chiefly gather the gum in the three forefts of

10 : Sokel,

b
:
.
&

SEN

Sokel, Eliabar, and Alfectak, fituated on the north of the
iMand St. Louis. ‘The feafon is the month of March, and
the confumption in Europe is eftimated at a thoufand tons,

each of 2000 pounds. In 1788, different ports in France
employed in this trade tos thips, the een: exceeding
g5,000. The French fett t on the coalt of Africa,

according to Herbin, is Arguin, a little 3 sag =
company of Senegal in 1727. A confiderable trade in

m sie maintained with the river St. Juan, which is not

diftant ; and by the treaty of 1783 the Englith obtained
the right of trading with this river. On the river Senegal
there were feveral French fettlements, particularly in the ifle
of St. Louis at the mouth of that river, which is a great feat
of the gum trade. The white population may FS show
400; but in 1801 the whole, including captives, was com-
puted at 10,000.

Seneoat, an ifland of Africa, in the river fo called, about
one mile and a quarter in length, from north to fouth, and
almoft half a mile Me 9 , from eaft to weft. It is
compofed of a bed of loofe fand, productive of nothing but
what is forced by art and the richeft manure, sotwithiband-
ing which it contains 3000 inhabitants, whofe principal
food is fifth and maize. This fort of corn grows in great
oe almoft all over the whole country. It may feem

urprifing, that a part of the world fo very unhealthy as
this, fhould yet be fo populous, but the wonder will ceafe
when we come to underftand, that the greateft pride among
the men confifts in the number of their wives; fo that every
one takes as many as he is able to maintain ; fome fix, others
= a and otherstwelve at a time. In the year 1758, this
ifland was taken from the French by the Britifh toops, and
by the peace of 1763 it was ceded to Great Britain. N. lat.
oe

16° 5.

SENEGALIA, or Senecattus, in Ornithology, the

Loxia oe See Loxta. See alfo Frinciixa Senegala.
SENEKA, Rarrtiesnake-root. This is root lately
brought into ufe among us, and which feems to deferve
very regard. It is the root of a {pecies of polygala,
fee PoLyGALa Sinienc) diftingui by
Gronovius, in his Flora Virginica, under the name of the
i ftalk, with oval leaves, pointed at
clufter of flowers. We generally
call it the rattlefnake-root, and the French, from the place
whence it comes, Sencka. The plant is a native of Vir-
‘ginia, Pennfylvania, and Maryland, and is cultivated in fome

of our gardens.
The root is perennial ; the thicknefs of it is generally
about that of a man’s little finger. It is four or five inches,

or more, in length, and is varioufly contorted and twifted,
and divides into many branches, furnifhed with {mall fibres,
and with a membranaceous rim running all along it. It is
with on the outfide, and white within, very acrid, and

hat bitter to the tafte, and has fomewhat of an aro-

matie flavour. From this root arife numerous ftalks, all
fimple, and without branches; fome lie on the ground,
others ftand ereé&t. Thefe are ten or twelve inches high,
grown. The leaves ftand alternately on the

a peculiar kind of fubtile, pungent, ——— tafte.
Its virtue is extraéted both by water and fpirit.
Dr. Tennent, who brought over a quantity of this
from America fome years ago, and took great pains
introduce it into ‘esllice, praifes it very largely as a
diuretic, a diaphoretic, and an alexipharmic, and a very

SEN

powerful attenuant and refolvent.
times vomit and purge.

The Senegaw Indians firft taught the ufe of it to the Eu-
ropeans ; they elteem it a fovereign remedy againit the bite
of the rattlefnake; and Dr. Tennent affures us, that he
{aw two perfons, who had been bitten by this creature in
the month of July, when its poifon is moft fatal, perfetily
reflored to health by it. The powder, or a decottion of
the root, is taken internally ; and either the powder or
cataplafms made with it applied to the wound.

e afterwards gave it in pleurifies and perippeumonies
with great fuccefs, and in all other cafes where the blood
is infpiflated. The effeét of this medicine was found to
be, that it made the fizy blood fluid, (which is contradidted
by a ftrong fa@ adduced by De Haen,) procured a plenti-
ful {pitting, increafed perfpiration and urine, and fome-
times purged or vomited. If the firft dofes of it provoke
a vomiting, it is not at all the worfe, except in cafes in
which the patient is very weak ; and in fuch this effe& is
eafily prevented, by giving fome of the teftaceous powders
with it.

In pleurifies it is beft to take away ten ounces of blood,
before the entering on the ufe of the medicine ; in other
cafes no precaution is required, but it is to be given in
powder, or tinéture, in white wine, particularly Madeira
wine; and the ordinary drink, during the ufe of it, thould
be marfhmallow tea. Its good effects in pleurifies have
been attefted by feveral of the French academicians and
others. But repeated bleeding is not to be negleGted.

This medicine may be given either in powder or decoc-
tion, and combined with aromatics, opium, or camphor,
which check its naufeating qualities; but Dr. Tenneat

refers the decoction, having obferved it to give relief
ooner than the powder does. The dofe of the powder is
thirty-five grains, and he gives at once three {poonfuls of
the = Ne ig prepared by boiling three ounces of the root
bruifed in a quart of water to nearly the half. The dofe is
repeated every fix hours. He is alfo fond of this root in
the rheumatifm, dropfy, and gout, in which laft difeafe,
he fays, he has given it with fuccefs. See his Letter con-
cerning the Sencka, or rattle/nake-root. ‘The extraé of it
in combination with carbonate of ammonia has been found
by Dr. Brandreth, of Liverpool, to be efficacious in fome
cafes of lethargy ; and in America the decoétion given in
divided dofes, at fhort intervals till it vomits er p has
been employed with feeming fuccefs in croup; it has alfo
been lately ufed as a ftimulatin ‘gle in the fame difeafe.

The ufual dofe, fays Woodville, is from one f{cruple to
two of the powder, or two or three {poonfuls of a decodtion
ogee by boiling an ounce of the root in a pint and a

of water till it is reduced to a pint.

Mefirs. Lemery, Du Hamel, and Juffieu, vouch for the

effe&s of the Seneka-root in pleurifies, and other in-

matory difeafes. Mem. de l’Acad, des Scienc. 1739.

SENEMBI, in Zoology, a name given by Marcgrave to
the Lacerta iguana. See Lizanp.

SENESCHAL, Sewescattus, a name anciently ufed
for a fteward or majordomo ; formed from the German fad,
houfe or family, and fealc, fervant.

hus the fenefchal of a lord, or a baron, is his fteward
or bailiff, who holds his courts, and manages his demefne
lands ; and the fub-fenefchal, his under-iteward.

High fenefebal of England is the high-iteward of ~%
land ; high se egg del hotel du rei, is the fteward of
u

king’s ho
"Phe office of fenefchal was at all times a great office ;
but the jurifdiGtion of it increafed much, when the
Kih2 jufticiary’s

He faye it will fome-

SEN

jufticiary’s was diminifhed ; which did not happen till after
the deceafe of king Henry II. Indeed thefe offices could not
poflibly have fubfited together, in the height of their power ;
the funGtions and dignity appertaining to each of them having
been nearly the fame. But inthe reign of Henry II. that of
fenefchal was much inferior to the other ; and the authority
of it feems to have been not very different from that of
the lord fteward of the houfehold at prefent.

The ancients ufed the term /enefcallus indifferently with
that of dapifer ; whence we are fure it fignifies feward.

SENESCHALLO ¢ mare/hallo quod non teneant placita
de libero tenemento, in Law, a writ dire&ed to the fteward
and marfhal of England, inhibiting them to take cognizance
of an ation in their court that concerns freehold.

SENESINO, Francesco BerNarpo, Detto, in Biogra-
phy, called Senefino, from being a native of Siena, one of the
greateft fingers and the beft a€tor who performed in Han-
del’s operas during the Royal Academy of Mulfic, efta-
blifhed in the year 1720, and diffolved in 1729. He con-
tinued finging in England: till the year 1735; but in an
opera eftablifhed by the nobility and gentry in oppofition
to Handel.

We have converfed. with feveral good judges of mufic,
who had been canftant in their attendance at the operas of
thofe times, who always {poke of Senefino’s voice, ftyle of
finging, figure, and ne in the higheft terms of admira-
tion. In early youth his voice had been a foprano, but it
had defcended into the fulleft, moft melifluous, and moft
flexible contralto, that was ever heard in thiscountry. He
had not more than fix or feven notes in his compaf{s ; but
thefe were fo mellow and powerful, and his execution of
divifions fo granito, or diftin&, that, without: the rapidity
of a bravura finger, he feemed pofleffed of every folid and
laiting charm of a great performer. Quantz, who heard
him at Drefden in 1719, gives him the following character.
*‘ Francefco Bernardo, called Senefino, had a powerful,
clear, equal, and fweet contralte voice, with a perfeé in-
tonation, and an excellent fhake; his manner of finging
was matterly, and his elocution unrivalled; though he never
loaded adagios with too many ornaments, yet he delivered
the original and eflential notes with the utmoft refinement.
He fung allegros with great fire, and marked rapid divifions,
from the cheft, in an articulate and pleafing manner ; his
countenance was well calculated for the itage, and his
action was natural and noble: to thefe he joined a figure
that was truly majeftic, but more fuited to the part of a
hero than a lover.’’

When he returned to his own country, he fung no more
on a ftage; but retired to Siena, the place of his nativity,
where he built himfelf a magnificent manfion, called there
a palazzo, and ended his days in fplendid tranquillity.

SENETOSO, in Geography, a cape on the S.W. coalt
of the ifland of Corfica; 20 miles W. of Sarcena.

SENEZ, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrit of
Caftellane, before the revolution the fee of a bifhop, fuf-
fragan of Embrun; 6 miles N.W. of Caftellane. The
place contains 768, and the canton 2081 inhabitants, on a
territory of 180 kiliometres, in 4 communes.

SENFTENBERG, a town of Auttria; 3 miles N. of
Staia.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz; 3 miles N. of Geyerfberg.—Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the marggravate of Meiflen, containing about
300 houfes, furrounded with ramparts and ditches ; 32 miles
N.E. of Meiflen, N. lat. 51° 31. E. long. 14° 1/.

SENGANA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Mewat
country ; 95 miles S.W. of Delhi.

SEN

SENGBEST, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khorafan ; 25 miles S.E. of Mefghid.

SENGEN, or Sensen, a river of Switzerland, which
joins the Sanen river, near Laupen, in the canton of
Berne.

SE-NGEN, or Sen-GueEN; a city of China, of the firft
rank, in Quang-fi. N. lat. 23° 24!. E. long. 107° 34!.

SENGERSHASARA, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Ghilan; 69 miles N.W. of Refhd.

SE-NGIN, or Sr-NGcuEeN, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Quang-fi; 25 miles N.W. of King-yuen.

SENGLEA, a town of the ifland of Malta, divided by
a canal from Vittoriofa; and containing about 4000 in-
habitants.

SENGMA, a town of Africa, in the country of Cal-
bari ; 5 miles N. of Cape Formofa.

SENGOA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan or Axzerbijan; 48 miles S.E. of Tauris or Ta-
breez.

SENGREEN, in Botany. See SAXIFRAGA.

SENGWARDEN, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the lordfhip of Kniphaufen; 6 miles E. of Jever.

SENJEN, a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the coaft
of Norway. N. lat. 69° 15).

SENIGAGLIA. See SiniGacrta.

SENINGHEM, a town of France, in the department
of the Straits of Calais; g miles W. of St. Omer.

SENIONITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of

Konigingratz ; 6 miles N. of Konigingratz.

SENIORE, a town of Algiers; 22 miles W. of Tif-
fefh.

SENITO, a river of Naples, which runs into the
Sibari.

SENITZ, a town of Hungary; 25 miles W. of To-
poltzan.

SENKE!, a town of Thibet; 24 miles E. of Toud-
fong.

SENLIS, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftriG, in the department of the Oife, before the revolu-
tion the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Rheims; 54 potts
N.E. of Paris. The place contains 4312, and the canton
11,690 inhabitants, on a territory of 2224 kiliometres, m
18 communes, N. lat. 49° 12!. E. long. 2° 4o!.

SENN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
of Moful, on the Tigris; 80 miles $.S.E. of Moful.

SENNA, or Sennau, a molt romantic and flourifhing
little town of Perfia, in the province of Ardelan, fecluded in
the bofom of a deep valley, well cultivated and interfperfed
with orchards of peach, apricot, pear, apple, and cherry trees.
Its population amounts to about 8000 perfons, of which
number 2000 are Jews, Armenians, and Neitorians, who trade
to Moful, Bagdad, and Ifpahan. The Wallea, who feldom
quits this place, refides in a fumptuous palace, built on the
top of a {mall hill in the centre of the town, where he
maintains a degree of ftate and {plendour fuperior to any
thing in Perfia, except at court. His houfe is ever open
for the entertainment of ftrangers, and he always retains
about his perfon a body of horfe: The mountains to the
W. of Senna are covered with forefts of oak, which pro-
duce fine timber and abundance of gall-nuts. The former
is made into rafts and floated down the Tab into the Tigris;
the latter is an article of trade, and exported to India. A
{mall river of the fame name flows about one mile and a half
or two miles from it. The route from Tabreez by way of
Maraga to Sennah is 223 miles; that from Senna by Ker-
manfhaw to Bagdad is 303 miles; and that from Senna to
Hamadan is 89 miles.

SENNA;

SEN

Senwa, in Botany. See Cassia.
Senna, Bladder. See Corvurea,
Sprna, eaten, See Eaenus,
Suwwa, in the Materia Medica. See Suna.
SENNAAR, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, ia
the country of Bisbiag Austad on the banks of the Nile,
between Egypt and Abyilina, At the beginning of the
16th century, the whole country from the frontiers of Egypt
of Abyflinia, though nominally fubject to Egypt
fake of trade, had its own prince of the race of
whole title was Welled Agveb, /on of the good;
alfo called Ahi, or Mahomet Welled Ageeb.
was, neverthelefs, only the fheikh of all the
whom they paid a tribute for the fupport of his
authority. The refidence of this Arab prince
Gerri, a town fituated on the ferry which leads
Nile to the defert of Bakiouda, and the road to
pt, joming the great defert of Selima. In
‘04, a black nation, hitherto unknown, inhabit-
weftern banks of the Bahar El Abiad, in about
made a defcent, in a multitude of canoes or boats,
winces, and in a battlencar Herbagi, de-
and forced him to a capitulation, in
ich the Arabs became tributaries to their
uerors, and Welled Ageeb was allowed to retain his
ity, on condition that he fhould be always
coercion in favour of the victors, in cafe any
to enjoy their former poffeffions
payment; and thus he became, as it
their lieutenant. This race of Negroes were called
their own ne Came It was in the year 1504
» the firtt of their fovereigns on
founded this monarchy, and built
been the capital. From this
vifited the country, 266 years
kings had reigned, that is, from Amru
was king at the time of Bruce’s
At the eftablifhment of this monarchy,
nation of Shillook, were Pagans.

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agente ar Cairo, and took the name of
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reigning prince as can

to death. Ts postive of cour.
collaterals of the royal family is fimilar to

SEN

though thele people are Mahometans, are fo
with regard to their women, that they fell their Dawes
having Teed with them, and even after having had

by them. The king himfelf, it is faid, is guilty of
this unvatural pradtice, utterly unknown in any other Ma.
hometan country. Once in lus reign the king is ebli
with his own hand, to plow and fow a piece of land. From
this operation he is called Baady, the countryman or pea-
fant; and this name is common to the whele race of kings,
as Cxfar was among the Romans.

No horfe, mule, afs, or any beat of burden, will breed
or even live at Seanaar, or many miles about it. Poul
does not live there. Neither dog nor cat, theep nor b
lock, can be preferved there for a feafon. All of them
mult be removed every half year to, the fands. Though
all poffible care be taken of them, they die in every place
where the fat earth is about the town during the firk
feafon of the rains. Hence, it appears that the foil of
Sennaar is very unfavourable both to man and beait, and
particularly adyerfe to their propagation. This circum-
itance is aleribed by Bruce to fome noxious quality of the
fat earth; for this noxious quality is not known in the
fands. Aira, between three aud four miles from Sennaar,
which has no water near it but the Nile, furrounded with
white barren fand, agrees perfectly with all animals. Nevere
thelefs this foil contributes very abundantly to the nourifh-
ment of man and beaft. It is faid to render 300 for 1:
though this muit be an exaggeration; it is fown with
dora or millet, which is the principal food of the natives,
The falt ufed at Sennaar is wholly extra¢ted from the earth
about it, efpecially at Halfaia, in lat. 15° 45/54". E. loug.
32° 49/15", fo ftrongly is the foil impreguated with thus
ufeful foffil. Hialfaia is a large, handfome, and pleafant
town, though built with clay. The houfes are terrafled at
the tops. This town is the limit of the rains, and is fitu-
ated upon a large circular peninfula, furrounded by the Nile
from 5.W. to N.W. about half a mile fromthe nver. It
confiits of about goo houfes, and derives its principal gai
from a manufaGiure of very coarfe cotton cloth,
Deinour, which ferves for {mall money through all the
lower parts of Atbara. The people here eat cats, and alfo
the river-horfe and the crocodile, which are very plentiful.

About twelve miles from Sennaar, nearly to the N.W. is
a colletion of villages called Shaddly, from a great faint,
who in his time di large pits to be dug, and plattered
clofely within with clay, into which a quantity of grain was
put when it was at the cheapelt, and thefe were covered up,
and plattered again at the top, which they call /ealing, and
the itfelf matamore. Thefe matameres are in gueat
number all over the plain, and, on any p of corn
growing dearer, they are opened, and corn at a low
price both to the town and country.

To the north of Shaddly, about twenty-four miles, is
another foundation of this fort, called Wed Aboud, ftill
— than Shaddly. Upon thefe two charities the chief
ubfiftence of the Arabs depends ; for as there is continual
war among thefe people, and their violence being always
directed againit the crops rather than the perfons of their
news deftruction of fala same would follow the
its harveit, was it not for extraordinary fuppli
furnifhed at fuch times by thefe granaries. ~~

The {mall villages of foldiers are fcattered up and down
through this immenfe plain to watch the grain is fown,
which is dora only, and it is {aid that here the ground will
produce no other grain. Prodigious excavations are made
at proper diftances, which fill with water in the rainy fea-
fon, and are a great relief to the Arabs in their paflage be-

11 tween

SENNAAR.

tween the cultivated country and the fands. The fly, that
inexorable perfecutor of the Arabs, never purfues them to
the north of Shaddly. The knowledge of this circumftance
was what, perhaps, determined the firft builders of Sennaar
to place their capital here; this too, probably, induced the
two faints, Shaddly and Wed Aboud, to make here thefe
vat excavations for corn and water. This is the firft reft-
ing-place the Arabs find, where, having all things neceflary
for fubfiftence, they can at leifure tranfaé their affairs with
government.

To the weftward of Shaddly and Aboud, as far as the
river Abiad, or El-aice, the country is full of trees, which
make it a favourite {tation for camels. As Shaddly is not
above three hours ride on horfeback from Sennaar, there
could not be chofen a fituation more convenient for levying
the tribute; for though Gerri, from the favourable fitua-
tion of the ground, being mountainous and rocky, and juft
on the extremity of the rains, was a place properly chofen
for this purpofe by the Arab prince before the conqueft of
the Funge, (for his troops there cut them off, either from
the fands, or the fertile country, as he pleafed), yet many
of them might have remained behind at Shaddly, and to the
weftward, free from the terror of the fly, and confequently
without any neceffity of advancing fo far north as Gerri,
and there fubjeting themfelves to contribution.

In this extenfive plain, near Shaddly, arife two moun-
tainous diftri€@s, the one called Jibbel Moia, or the Moun-
tain of Water, which is a ridge of confiderable hills nearly
of the fame height, clofely united; and the other Jibbel
Segud, or the Gold Mountain, a broken ridge compofed of
Sane fome high and fome low, without any regular form.

oth thefe enjoy a fine climate, and are full of inhabitants,
but of no confiderable extent. They ferve for a protection
to the Daheera, or farms of Shaddly and Wed Aboud.
They are alfo fortreffes in the way of the Arabs, to detain
and force them to payment in their flight from the cultivated
country and rains to the dry lands of Atbara. Each of
thefe diftri€s is governed by the defcendant of their ancient
and native princes, who long refifted all the power of the
Arabs, having both horfe and foot. They continued to be
Pagans till the conquett of the Funge. Bloody and un-
natural facrifices were faid to have been in ufe in thefe
mountainous ftates, with horrid circumftances of cruelty,
till Abdelcader, fon of Amru, the third of the kings of
Sennaar, about the year 1554, befieged firft the one and
then the other of thefe princes in their mountain, and forced
them to furrender; and, having faftened a chain of gold to
each of their ears, he expofed them in the public market-
place at Sennaar in that fituation, and fold them to the
higheft bidder, at the vile price of fomething like a farthing
each. After this degradation, being circumcifed, and con-
verted to the Mahometan religion, they were reftored each
to their government, as flaves of Sennaar, upon very eafy
conditions of tribute, and have been faithful ever fince.

Nothing is more pleafant than the country around Sen-
naar, in the end of Auguft and beginning of September, I
mean (fays Bruce) fo far as the eye is concerned ; in{tead of
that barren, bare walte, which it appeared on our arrival in
May, the corn now fprung up, and covering the ground, made
the whole of this immenfe plain appear a level, green land,
interfperfed with great lakes of water, and ornamented at
certain intervals with groups of villages, the conical tops of
the houfes prefenting, at a diftance, the appearance of {mall
encampments. Through this immenfe, extenfive plain, winds
the Nile, a delightful river there, above a mile broad, full
to the very brim, but never overflowing. Every where on
thefe panks are feen numerous herds of the moft beautiful

cattle of various kinds, the tribute recently extorted from
the Arabs, who, freed from all their vexations, return home
with the remainder of their flocks in peace, at as great a
diftance from the town, country, and their oppreffors, as
they poffibly can. 3

The banks of the Nile about Sennaar refemble the plea-
fanteft parts of Holland in the fummer feafon; but foon
after, when the rains ceafe, and the fun exerts his utmoft
influence, the dora begins to ripen, the leaves to turn yel-
low and to rot, the lakes to putrefy, fmell, and be full of
vermin, all this beauty fuddenly difappears ; bare, fcorched
Nubia returns, and all its terrors of poifonous winds and
moving fands, glowing and ventilated with fultry blafts,
which are followed by a troop of terrible attendants,
epilepfies, apoplexies, violent fevers, obftinate agues, and
lingering, painful dyfenteries, {till more obftinate and
mortal.

War and treafon feem to be the only employment of this
horrid people, whom heaven has feparated, by almoft im-
paflable deferts, from the re{t of mankind, confining them
to an accurfed fpot, feemingly to give them earneft in time
(as Mr. Bruce forebodes) of the only other worfe which he
has referved to them for an eternal hereafter.

The drefs of Sennaar is very fimple. It confifts of a long
fhirt of blue Surat cloth called Marowty, which covers
them from the lower part of the neck down to their feet,
but does not conceal the neck itfelf; and this is the only
difference between the men’s and the women’s drefs; that
of the women covers their neck altogether, being buttoned
like ours. ‘The men have fometimes a fafh tied about their
middle; and both men and women go bare-footed in the «
houfe, even thofe of the better fort off people. Their floors
are covered with Perfian carpets, efpecially the women’s
apartments. In fair weather, they wear fandals ; and with-
out doors they ufe a kind of wooden patten, very neatly
ornamented with fhells. In the greateft heat at noon, they
order buckets of water to be thrown upon them inftead of
bathing. Both men and women anoint themfelves, at leaft
once a day, with camels’ greafe mixed with civet, which
they imagine foftens their fkin, and preferves them from cu-
taneous eruptions, of which they are fo fearful, that the
{malleft pimple in any vifible part of their body keeps them
in the houfe till it difappears: for the fame reafon, though
they have a clean fhirt every day, they ufe one dipt in
greafe to lie in all night, as they have no covering but this, |
and lie upon a bull’s hide, tanned, and very much foftened
by this conftant greafing, and at the fame time very cool,
though it occafions a f{mell that no wafhing can free them
from.

The principal diet of the poorer fort is millet, made into
bread or flour. The rich make a pudding of this, toafting
the flour before the fire, and pouring milk and butter into
it; befides which, they eat beef, partly roafted and partly
raw. Their horned cattle are the largeft and fatteft in the
world, and are exceedingly fine; but the common meat
fold in the market is camel’s flefh, The liver of the animal,
and the {pare rib, are always eaten raw through the whole ©
country. Bruce never faw one inftance where it was drefled
with fire; it is not then true that eating raw flefh is peculiar
to Abyflinia ; it is pra@tifed in this inttance of camels’ flefh
in all the black countries to the weftward. :

Hogs? fiefh is not fold in the market ; but all the people
of Sennaar eat it publicly: men in office, who pretend to
be Mahometans, eat theirs in fecret.

There are three principal governments in the kingdom of ©
Sennaar. ‘The firft is at El-aice, the capital of that coun-
try, from which the Shillook came. The Bahar el Abiad

fpreads

,

SENNAAR.,

{preads itfelf all over the territory, and, divided into a quan-
tity of {mall channels, (whether by art or nature we know
not,) furrounds a number of little iflands, upon each of
which is a village, and this colletion of villages is called
the town of El.aice. The inhabitants are all fithermen,
and have a number of boats, like canoes, in which they fail
and down to the cataraéts. With incredible fleets of
their invafion was made when they undertook the con-
queit of the Arabs, who had not the f{malleft warning of the

attem, They had, at that time, no weapons of iron:
their iwords and lances were of a hard wood called Dengui-

+ Te mutt be a relation of the Mek of Sennaar that
commands at El-aice ; and he is never fuffered to leave that
pot, or come to Sennaar.

The fecond government, next to this in importance, is
Kordofan. revenue confifts chiefly in flaves procured
from Dyre and Tegla. It feems this fituation is the moft
convenient for invading thofe mountains, cither from its

ing water in the way, or from fome other circumftance

not known. Mahomet Abou Kalec had this govern-
and with him about 1000 black horfe, armed with
of mail, with whom he maintained himfelf at this time
of the king. It is a frontier neareft to Dar-
black ftate icisddbacbersenn if poffible, than
and by them it often has been taken from Sennaar,
and again retaken.
government is Fazuclo, bounded by the river
on the weft, and the Nile on the eafl, and the moun-
of Fazuclo, great cataraéts, on the
are chain of mountains of
weitward into the con-
chief fupply both of gold
riches of this country; for
the revenue of Fazuclo is geld; and
commands it is not a Funge, but the fame
prince from whom the army of Sennaar conquered it.
This feems to be a very remarkable piece of policy in this
nation, which muft have fucceeded, as they con-
adhere to it, of making the prince of the ftate
cong’ their lieutenant in the government of his
country afterwards. Such was the cafe with Dongola,
Mek they continue; alfo with Wed Ageeb, prince
Arabs, whom they fubdued ; and fuch was the cafe
Wed Aboud, Jibbel Moia, and other petty
which they conquered, but did not change

F

Wii
:

FF

;
"

with coats of mail, and
i a at aapen but a broad Sclavonian fword.
he fu by the weight and power of man and
would down, or through double the num-

any that has

difeafes of Sennaar are the dy{entery, or bloody flux,
al in jon as it begins with the firit of the rains, or
Siiieaiy snd actos of the fair weather. Intermit-

ting fevers accom this complaint frequently, which
am ends in done Bark “ayy ee fo fond this
country, and feems to be by fo much the furer, that it
purges on taking the firft dofe, and this it does almoft with-
out exception. Epilepfies and {chirrous livers are likewife
very frequent, owing, as is fuppofed, to their defeating or
diminifhing perfpiration, or flopping the pores by conftant
un@tion, as alfo by the quantity of water they deluge them-
felves with at the time they are hotteft.

The elephantiafis, fo common in Abyflinia, is not known
here. The {mall-pox is a difeafe not endemial in the coun-
try of Sennaar, ft is fometimes twelve or fifteen years
without its being known, notwithflanding the conftant in-
tercourfe they have with, and merchandizes they bring from
Arabia. It is likewife faid this difeafe never broke out in
Sennaar, unlefs in the rainy feafon. However, when it
comes, it fweeps away a valt proportion of thofe that are
infe&ted : the women, both blacks and Arabs, thofe of the
former that live in plains, like the Shillook, or inhabitants
of El-aice, thofe of the Nuba and Guba, that live in moun-
tains, all the various {pecies of flaves that come from Dyre
and Tegla, from time immemorial have known a {pecies of
inoculation which they call Tithteree el Jidderee, or, “ the
buying of the {mall-pox.’’ The women are the conduétors
of this operation in the faireft and drieft feafon of the '.
but never at other times. Upon the firft hearing of the
fmall-pox any where, thefe people go to the infected place,
and, wrapping a fillet of cotton cloth about the arm of
the perfon infected, they let it remain there till they bargain
with the mother how many fhe is to fell them. It is necef-
fary that the terms be difcufled judicially, and that the bar-
gain be not made collufively or gratuitoufly, but that one
— of filver, or more, be paid for the number. This

ing concluded, they go home, and tie the fillet about
their own child’s arm ; certain, as they fay, from long ex-

ience, that the child infe&ted is to do well, and not to
ave one more than the number of puitules that were
agreed and paid for. There is no example, as far as Bruce
could learn, either here or in Abyflima, of this difeafe
returning, that is, attacking any one perfon more than
once.

The trade of Sennaar is not great; they have no manu-
fa€tures, but the principal article of confumption is blue
cotton cloth from Surat. Formerly, when the ways were
open, and merchants went in caravans with fafety, Indian
goods were brought in quantities to Sennaar from Jidda,
and then difperfed over the black country. The return
was made in gold, in powder called Tibbar, civet, rhinoce-
ros’s horns, ivory, oftrich feathers, and, above all, in flaves
or glafs, more of which was exported from Sennaar than all
the eaft of Africa together. But this trade is almoft de-
ftroyed, fo is that of the gold and ivory. However, the

d ftill keeps up its reputation of being the pureit and

ft in Africa, and therefore bought at Mocha to be car-
ried to India, where it all at laft centers. If the wakea of
cry harrwae gold fells at 16 patakas, the Sennaar gold fells
at the fame place for 22 patakas. The ivory fells at 14 0z.
per rotol at Cairo, which is about 25 per cent. lighter than
the rotol of Mocha. Men-flaves, at a medium, may be
about a wakea head at Sennaar. There are women,
however, who fell for 13 or 14 wakeas. What their pecu-
liar excellencies may be, which fo far alters the price,
Bruce could not tell, only they are preferred by rich peo-
ple, both Turks and Moors, to the Arab, Circaflian, and

ian women, during the warm months in {ummer.

The Daveina Arabs, who are great hunters, carry the
ivory to Abyflinia, where they are not in fear. But no

caravan

SEN

caravan comes now from Sudan (Nigritia) to Sennaar, nor
from Abyffinia or Cairo. The violence of the Arabs, and
the faithleffnefs of the government of Sennaar, have fhut
them up on every fide but that of Jidda, whither they go
once a-year by Suakem.

The wakea of Sennaar, by which they fell gold, civet,
{centedjoils, &c. confifts of 10 drachms ; 10 of thefe wakeas
make a rotol. This wakea at Sennaar is accounted the
fame as that of Mafuah and Cairo. It is equal to 7
drachms 57 grains troy weight.

1 Rotol 10 Wakeas.
1 Wakea-= to Drachms.

But there is another wakea ufed by the merchants called
the Atareys.

1 Rotol = 12 Wakeas.
1 Wakea = 12 Drachms.

But this is only ufed for coarfe goods. There is but one
jong meafure in Sennaar, called the Draa, which is the
peek, or cubit, and is meafured from the centre of the
elbow-joint to the point of the middle finger. This is pro-
bably the ancient cubit of Egypt, and of the holy {cripture.
Bruce’s Travels, vol. iv.

SENNAAR, a city of Africa, and capital of the kingdom
of the fame name, fituated on the W. fide of the Nile, and
elofe upon its banks. The ground on which it itands rifes
juft enough to prevent the river from entering the town,
even in the height of the inundation, when it comes to be
even with the ftreet. Poncet fays, that when he was at this
city, his companion, father Brevedent, a Jefuit, an able
mathematician, on the 21ft of March 1699, determined the
latitude of Sennaar to be 13° 4! N. the difference there-
fore will be about half a degree. The reader however may
implicitly rely upon the fituation given it by Poncet, being
the mean refult of above fifty obfervations, made both night
and day, on the moft favourable occafions, by a quadrant
of three feet radius, and telefcopes of two, and fometimes
of three feet focal length, both reflectors and refractors
made by the beft matters.

The town of Sennaar is very populous, there being in it
many good houfes after the fafhion of the country. Poncet
fays, in his time they were all of one ftory high; but now
the great officers have all houfes of two. They have para-
pet roofs, which is a fingular conftruGtion ; for in other
places, within the rains, the roofs are all conical. The
houfes are all built of clay, with very little ftraw mixed
with it, which fufficiently fhews the rains here mutt be lefs
violent than to the fouthward, probably from the diftance
of the mountains. However, when Poncet was there, a week
of conftant rain happened, and on the 30th of July the
Nile increafed violently, after loud thunder, and a great
darknefs to the fouth. The whole ftream was covered with
wrecks of houfes, canes, wooden bowls, and platters, living
camels and cattle, and feveral dead ones pafled Sennaar,
hurried along by the current with great velocity. A hyzna,
endeavouring to crofs before the town, was furrounded and
killed by the inhabitants. The water got into the houfes
that ftand upon its banks, and, by rifing feveral feet high,
the walls melted, being clay, which occafioned feveral of
them to fall. It feemed, by the floating wreck of houfes
that appeared in the ftream, to have deftroyed a great many
villages to the fouthward towards Fazuclo.

It will not be thought furprifing, confidering the latitude
of Sennaar, that the heats fhould be exceflive. The ther-
mometer rifes in the fhade to 119°. Neverthelefs, from 70°
to 78° Fahreuheit’s thermometer, the air is cool; from 79°

SEN

to g2° temperate; at 92° it begins to be warm. N. lat. 13°
34! 36". E. long. 33° 30! 30". For further particulars re-
lating to this city fee the preceding article.

SENNE, ariver of France, which enters the Demer, a
little below Malines.

SENNECEY, Granp. See SENEcEY.

SENNERAT, an ifland near the W. coaft of Wet
Greenland. N. lat. 61° 28/.. W.long. 47° 35'.

SENNERTUS, Daniex, in Biography, an able and
learned phyfician, was born at Breflaw, in Silefia, on the
4sth of November, 1572, where his father was a fhoe-
maker, anddied in his childhood. THe received his early
educatien in his native city, under the direétion of his mo-
ther, and was then fent to the univerfity of Wittemberg, in.
the year 1593, where he exhibited fuch proofs of acutenefs
of mind and folidity of judgment, that every opportunity
was afforded him, by vifiting the other celebrated univerfities
of Germany, efpecially thofe of Leipfic, Jena, Francfort
on the Oder, and Berlin, of cultivating his talents. He
returned to Wittemberg in 1601, and received the degree of
do&or in September of that year, andin the fame month of
the following year was appointed toa profefforfhip of medi-
cine. In this office his eloquence and knowledge were cal-
culated to raife him to a high reputation, and his luminous
method of teaching brought crowds of pupils to his lec-
tures. He alfo endeavoured, by means of various publi-
cations with which he enriched the profeffion among his con-
temporaries, to affilt them in cultivating the fcience of medi-
cine. By thefe means his reputation became fo extenfive,
that patients came to him from all parts of the world, and _
he refufed his afliftance to nobody. He took what was
offered for his trouble, but demanded nothing, and even re-
turned to the poor what they gave him. ‘Fhe plague pre-
vailed feven times at Wittemberg, while he was profeffor
there; but he never retired, nor was ever known to refufe

‘to vifit the pooreft fick. George I., eleGtor of Saxony,

whom he had cured of a dangerous illnefs in 1626, appointed
him one of his phyficians in ordinary ; but with the permif-
fion to remain at Wittemberg, that the world might continue
to derive the benefit of his public inftruétions. He was
three times married, and had feven children by his firft wife,
three of whom furvived him. He was at length carried off
by anattack of the plague, which was raging in Wittem-
berg, in the month of July 1637, in the fixty-fifth year of —
his age.
Sennertus was a voluminous writer, and has been charac-
terized, by fome critics, as a mere compiler from the works
of the ancients. It is true that his writings contain an epi-
tome, but, it muft be added, a moft comprehenfive, clear, and
judicious epitome, of the learning of the Greeks and Ara-
bians, which renders them, even at this day, of confiderable
value as books of reference, and which are highly creditable,
confidering the age in which they were compofed, to his
learning and difcrimination. The freedom, indeed, with
which he impugned many of the doétrines of the ancients,
called up many opponents, and led him into much contro- —
verfy. He was the firft to introduce the ftudy of chemiftry
into the univerfity ef Wittemberg, and demonftrated his
freedom from the fhackles of ancient opinion, by combining
much of the chemical with the Galenical dotrines ; an union
which the mere advocates of antiquity ftrongly deprecated,
as well as the introdu@tion of chemical medicines. His
treatife «De Confentu et Diffenfu Galenicorum et Peripa-
teticorum cum Chymicis,” 1619, may be faid to have intro-
duced a new feét into Germany by this union. His various
works have been colleéted together, and publifhed at dif-
ferent timesand places, under the title ef «* Opera ana 3h
nat

SEN
but they were og ae promulgated by himfelf under the

ing titles; * Quattionum Medicarum controverfarum
iber ;"’ 1609. * Inttitutiones Medicw, et de Origine ani-
marum in Brutis;"’ 1611, “ Epitome Scientie Natu-
ralis;’ 1618. “ De Febribus Libri quatuor ;’’ 1619.
“De Scorbuto Traftatus);” 1624. “ Practice Medicine
Liber primus ;'’ 1628. Five other books of the fame work
were foceefiieely publithed. * Trraétatus de Arthritide ;”’
1631. “Epitome [aftirutionum Medicarum difputationibus
18 comprehenfa ;’’ 1631. “ Epitome Init, Med. et Librorum
de Febribus;’’? 1634. “ Hypomnemata phyfica;’”’ 1635;
and one or two {mall works of lefs note. Almoft all thefe
works have pafled through many editions and tranflations.
See Eloy Dict. Hilt. de iy Méd. Vita Dan. Sennerti, pre-
fixed to his “ Opera omnia,”

SENNIT, (of /even and énit,) a fort of flat, braided
ecordage, formed by platting five or feven rope-yarns toge-
ther. This is beaten {mooth and flat with a hammer,
and ferves to keep the ropes to which it is applied from

, "SENNONE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Medi-

_ terranean, near the coatt ot Naples. N. lat. 41° 3'. E.
dong. 11°.

SENO, a river which rifes in the N. part of Etruria,

ecrofles the department of the Amone, in Italy, and runs

into the S. branch of the Po, between Ferrara and the

Adriatic.
SENOGU, a town of New Navarre ; 27° miles S.S.E.
of Caia Grande. ;
_ SENOMALY, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Ra-
konitz ;-5 miles W.S.W. of Rakonitz. .
_ SENONCA, a town of Naples, in Lavora; 43 miles
Wz. of Cuma. -
SENONCHES, a town of France, in the department
_. of the Eure and Lvire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Dreux ; 9 miles W. of Chateauneuf. The place
tains 1856, and the canton 7541 inhabitants, on a terri-
ory of 205 kiliometres, in 12 communes.
SENONE, a river of France, which runs into the
- Meurte, 5 miles S.E. of Nancy.
_ SENONES, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
(St. Dié; 9 miles S.W. of Salem. The place contains

of France. According to Cefar, they were confined to
: i This oiertarh of them: “eft civitas in primis
et magne apud Gallos auctoritatis.”,—Alfo, a peo-
ple of Italy, in Gallia Cifpadana, upon the borders of the
_ Adriatic fea. Their arrival in Italy may be fixed in the year
before the era 397. Having joined a leader named
Aruns, who withed to mo bimfell of one of the Leuce-

of the river, in Umbria, ttill occupied by its ancient inha-
’ They eflablithed themfelves from the Utis as far
asthe (Elis, having the Adriatic fea to the N.E. and the
anines to the S.W. | After having {pent about fix years
ing their eltablifhments, Aruns conducted them to
um, to behege that place, where his,wife and her ra-
er were. The Romans, whofe mediation was refufed,
part with the inhabitants of Clufium, and joined the
opsof that city. The Senones were indignant, and de-
Vor. XXXII. e

SEN

termined to do themfelves juftice. Accordingly they marched
towards Rome, and penetrated into the city, in defiance
of the army that was popes tothem. The Capitol made
a vigorous refiftance ; tll at length Camillus arrived, de-
feated the Senones, and refeued Rome. About 100 years
after this expedition they engaged in a war, and were over-
powered in the year of Rome 463, by M. Curius Gentalus
and P. Cornelius Rufinus, ey were afterwards drives
from the whole country which they occupied, from the C2 Gs
to the Rubicon, A colony was fent into their country,
which affumed the name of “ Sena Gallia.’ Seven years
wre they were almoft entirely exterminated by Dola-
bella.

SENOPLE. Sce Sinope.

SENORA, in Geography. See Sonona. |

SENORIA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the banana-tree, or mu/a fru@u breviore. —

SENOSAD, in Geography, 2 town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Czaflau; 20 miles $.S.W. of Czaflau.

SENOSECZ, or Stnosercn, a town of Carniola; 8
miles S.W. of Cirknitz.

SENRA, Sennma; or Serra, in Botany, a genus of
Cavanilles, upon which different authors have beftowed the
above appellations. None of thefe, however, feem fatif-
factory, for it has beer fuggefted, that Sennea would be a
preferable name to any of the foregoing. We are ignorant
of its derivation.—Cavan. Diff. 2.83. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.
695. Juff. 274.—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Decandria.
Nat. Ord. Malvaceae, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth double, permanent; outer of
three, heart-fhaped, roundifh leaves ; inner very {mall, of
one leaf, cloven half way down into five fegments. Cor.
of five petals, malvaceous, tubular. Stam. Filaments com-
monly ten, united, placed on the upper fuperficies of the
tube; anthers kidney-fhaped. iff. Germen ovate, con-
cealed inthe tube, furrounded by four membranes, or rather
by a fingle four-toothed membrane ; ftyle fimple, five-cleft.
Stigma globofe. Peric. Fruit ovate, downy. Seeds ten,
oblong, kidney-fhaped.

Efl. Ch. Calyx double; outer of three leaves; inner
five-toothed. Petals five. Style five-cleft. « Capfule
five-celled ?””

1. S. incana. Cavan. Diff. 2. t. 35. £. 3. Willd.—Na-
tive of Arabia, oppofite the ifland Socotora. The whole
plant is white with down, whence its fpecific name. Stem
{earcely three inches high, {tiffifh, folitary. Leaver alter-
nate, italked, heart-fhaped, ovate, truncated, terminatin
with three notches. Flowers axillary, folitary, nearly fef-
file, probably yellowish.

Deferibed by Cavanilles trom a dried {pecimen, which
was communicated to him by fir Jofeph Bauks. It appears
to be allied both to Malva aud Gofypium.

SENS, in Geography, atown of France, and principal
place of a diftrié, in the department of the Yonue, fituate
onthe Yonne. Before the revolution it was the fee of an
archbifhop, and coutained 16 parifh churches, and 14 abbies
and convents. In the reign of Edward [1]. and Henry V.
Sens was taken by the Englifh ; 24 poits N.N.W. of Dijon.
The place contains 10,600, and the canton 21,847 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 2574 kiliometres, in, 23 com-
munes. WN, lat. 43° 12’. E. long. 3°22'.—Alfo, a town
of France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ; 14
miles N.N.E. of Rennes. —Alfo, a townof France, in the
department of the Sadne and Loire ;°7 miles N.N.E. of
Louhans.

SENSABARY, a town of Bengal; 20 miles N. of

i.

Ti SENSAON,

SEN
SENSAON, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez,

near a mountain of the fame name; 25 miles S. of Tetuan.

SENSATION, in PAyfology, a general term denoting
the effe& produced in the mind by the impreflions of exter-
nal bodies on our organs of fenfe, by various changes in the
internal organs, and by affections of any parts of the body
which poflefs nerves. The appropriate external objects,
being prefented to the eyes, ears, nofe, tongue, or {kin,
give us the fenfations of which thofe parts are refpeCtively
the organs: hunger and thirit, naufea and ficknefs, griping,
fainting, agitation, &c. are the refults of particular {tates
of internal organs; fatigue is caufed by exertion of the
mufcular fyftem ; mechanical or chemical applications to any
parts poffefling nerves caufe pains of all kinds and degrees.
Thus feeing, hearing, fmelling, tafting, and touching ;
hunger and thirlt, ficknefs, fainting, &c.; and all the
agreeable or difagreeable effe&ts produced by external ob-
je&ts ating on our frame, are fo many modes of fenfation,
fo many ttates of exiftence, accompanied each with a peculiar
feeling or act of confcioufnefs.

In the five fenfes, fenfation requires a healthy condition
of the external organs of the brain, and of the nerves which
pafs between the organs and the brain. The abfence of
either of thefe conditions deftroys fenfations: if the optic
nerve be divided there is no feeing, although the eye and
brain be healthy ; if the brain be comprefled, the nerve and
the eye remaining unaffeQed ; orif the eye be difeafed, the
nerve and the brain being found, vifion is deftroyed. The
fame is the cafe with the general feeling of the frame: if
the nerves of a limb be divided, or the brain be compreffed,
there is no fenfation; a pin might be thruit into the part
without being felt. ‘he dependance of the internal feelings
on the brain 1s not fo clearly made out in every inftance. On
the whole, however, phyfiologilts confider it as eltablifhed,
that fenfation is the funétion of the nervous fyltem. On this
fubje&, as well as on the phenomena of fenfation exhibited
by the brain and nerves, we refer to Brain, Phy/fiolgy of
the, to Lirz, and Nervous Sy/fem.

As there are fo many different phenomena included under
the common term of fenfation, what is the point in which
they agree ? What is the character by which they are all re-
cognized as fenfations? It is the feeling excited, the con-
fcioufnefs of a new mode of exiftence, the modification
which the fentient being experiences. Senfation in fhort is
feeling. 3

This is the only point in which the various fenfations agree ;
independently of this there is little refemblance, or even ana-
logy between them. Hearing is no more hike feeing, and
either of thefe is no more like hunger or thirft, than a
mufcle is to anerve or the fkin.

Senfations may be reproduced without any external ob-
jets, by an active ftate of the brain: thus m dreams we
pafs through fcenes, and experience feelings, which are not
diftinguifhable from real occurrences.

Senfation, according to Dr. Reid, is a name given by phi-
lofophers to an aét of mind, which may be diftinguifhed from
ali others by this, that it bath no object diftin@ from the
aét itfelf. Pain of every kind isan uneafy fenfation. The
pain and the feeling, he fays, are one and the fame thing;
and cannot be disjoined even in imagination. Pain, when
it is not felt, has no exiftence. The fame obfervation may
be applied to every other fenfation. This author adds, that
when we have acquired a diftiné& notion of that fimple a&
of the mind called fenfation, we fhall be able the more
eafily to diftinguifh it from every external obje€& that
accompanies it, and from every other aét of the mind that
may be eonjeined withit. Hence it is of importance, that

SEN

the name of fenfation fhould, in philofophical writings, be
appropriated to fignify this fimple a& of the mind, without
including any thing more in its fignification, or being ap-
plied to other purpofes. ‘The word feeling, which fignifies
the perceptions we have of external objeéts by the fenfe of
touch, is alfo ufed to denote the fame thing as fenfation ; in
which fenfe it has no object, the feeling and the thing felt
being one and the fame. He acknowledges, however, that
betwixt feeling, taken in this lait fenfe, and fenfation, there
may be this {mall difference ; that fenfation is moft com~
monly ufed to fignify thofe feelings which refult from our
external fenfes and bodily appetites, and all our bodily
pains and pleafures. But there are feelings of a nobler na-
ture, accompanying our affeétions, our moral judgments,
and our determinations in matters of tafte, to which the
word fenfation is lefs properly applied.

Dr. Reid, in another place, obferves, that almoft all our
perceptions have correfponding fenfations, which conftantly
accompany them, and, on that account, are very apt to be
confounded with them. Hence the names of moft of our
fenfations become ambiguous, and this ambiguity hath
very much perplexed philofophers. He alleges {everal
facts that ferve to illu{trate and evince this ambiguity, in re-
ference to the names we have for {mells, taftes, founds, and
for the various degrees of heat and cold, which names denote
both a fenfation, and a quality perceived by means of that
fenfation. The caufe 1s the fame with ref{pect to many ope-
rations of mind to which we give one name, and which we
always confider as one thing ; and yet they are complex in
their nature, and made up of feveral more fimple ingredients ;
of which ingredients fenfation very often reckons one. In-
deed, the number of our fenfations and feelings is prodi-
gious; and the molt yeneral and important divilion of them
is into the agreeable, the difagreeable, and the indifferent.

The preceding remarks ferve to evince the importance of
diftinguifhing carefully between our fenfations and that per-
ception of external objeéts which is conftantly conjoined
with them. Senfation, fays this author, taken by itfelf, im-
plies neither the conception nor belief of any external ob-
ject. It fuppofes a fentient being, anda certain manner in
which that being is affected, but it fuppofes nomore. But
perception, in his view of it, implies an immediate convic-
tion and belief of fomething external ; fomething different
both from the mind that perceives and from the aét of per-
ception. Things fo different in their nature ought to be
diftinguifhed ; but by our conttitution they are always united.
Every different perception is conjoined with a fenfation that
is proper to it. The one is the fign, the other the thing
fignified. They coalefce in our imagination ; they are fig-
nified by one name, and are confidered as one fimple ope-
ration. To the philofopher it belongs to diftinguifh between
them.

Our author elfewhere obferves, that when certain impref-
fions are made upon our organs, nerves, and brain, certain
correfponding fenfations are felt, and certain objeéts are
both conceived and believed to exit. But we car neither dif-
cover the caufe of any one of thefe operations, nor any ne-
ceflary connection of one with another.

On the fubjeét of this article, in its connection with meta-
phyfics, or the philofophy of the human mind, we refer to
Ipra, Perception, Mental PHiLosoPHy, VIBRATION, and
other terms of a fimilar import, or in any degree connected
with them, occurring in various parts of the Cyclopzdia.

SENSBURG, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Bartenland; 14 miles S. of Raftenburg. N.
lat. 53° 44’. E. long. 21° 23).

SENSE. Sensxs, in Phyfiology and Anatomy, the or-

gans

SENSE.

gaus by which we become acquainted with furrounding

objects, by which external bodies imprefs our frame, fo as
to communicate to us a knowledge of their tics.
"They ate five in number, wis. the eyes, ears, nole, tongue,
and fkin; for the anatomical and phyfiological account of
which, we refer to thele articles. Thefe are often called
the external fenfes; while the internal organs, the on of
the brain which are concerned in knowing and reflecting,
have fometimes been called the internal fenles. See Mental

Paivosorny.

_ Dr. Hutehefon gives us a more extenfive and philo-
fophical notion of feufe. On his principle, fenfe is detined,
a power of perception, or a power of perceiving ideas; at
leatt if what is abfolutely pailive may be properly called a

On fome occafions, inflead of power, he chufes vo call it

a determination of the mind to receive ideas; and the ideas
thus perceived, or raifed in the mind, he calls /enfations.

Senfe, he confiders, ether as natural or moral; and the

either as external or internal: though the diitribu-

tion is chiefly founded on the common ways of conceiving ;
. for, in reality, they appear to be all natural and neceflary.
Some reafons, however, for the diftinction, will be thewn

under the feveral articles of uk.
External fevles, then, are powers of perceiving ideas,
upon the prefence of external objects. On fuch occafions,
we find the mind is merely paflive, and has not power di-
reétly to prevent the perception, or idea, or to vary it at its

ion; aslong as the body is continued in a {tate fit to

be atted upon by the external object.
_ When two ions are entirely different from each
other, or agree in nothing but the idea of fenfation,
the powers of receiving thofe different perceptions are called
fenfes. Thus, fe “ug and hearing denote the dif-
“ powers of receiving. 1e ideas of colours and founds.
though colours, as wetl as founds, have vatt differences
3 yet is there a greater agreement among
te colours, than between any colour and a
all colours aré deemed perceptions of the

fenfe.
_ All the feveral fenfes feem to have their diftin& organs,
: feeling, which is, in fome degree, diffufed over the
wok boy Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of
Virtue, p. 2. 8vo. 1726.

preflions are made upon the organs of the body, or motions
RRA ae Risen al tele peccecsticna ace.seceived Solely
arse fenfe ; others may be received by two or more. Of

former clafs are thet. five forts; viz. colours, founds,

taftes, fmells, cold, or heat. Some ingenious authors
reckon more: thefe we may call the proper ideas of fenfa-
tion. Syitem of Moral Philofophy, vol. i. p. 4.

Internal fenfes are powers or determinations of the mind
with certain forms and ideas, which occur to
in objetts perceived by the external fenfes.

two different {pecies, diitinguifhed by the
of pleafure, viz. sioclanbiaiot beautiful

or
become divifible into natural and moral ;

jing on our external fenfes, we plainly fee, that

ar | of ure and pain do not depend direétly
Arcam do not pleafe us, aseotdeg as we in-

cline they thould; the prefence of fome objcéts neceMarily
pleafes us, and the prefence of others as nece!larily difpleafes
us; nor can we by our will any otherwile procure pleafure,
or avoid pain, than by procuring the former kind of objeéte,
and avoiding the latter, By the very frame of our nature,
the one is made the oceafion of delight, and the other of dif-
fatisfaction. In effect, our fenfitive perceptions are plea-
fant, and painful, immediately, and without any knowledge
of the cauie of this pleafure and pain, or of the manner how
they excite it, or are oceafions of it, or without our fecing
to what farther advantage, or detriment, the ufe of fuch
objets might tend. Nor would the moft accurate know-
ledge of hefe things vary either the pleafure, or the pain,
of the pereeption; however it might give a rational pleafure,
diflinét from the fenfible ; or ary. raife a diltinét joy, from
profpect of farther advantage in the objeét, or another aver-
tion, from apprehention of evil, ‘There is fearcely any objeG
which our minds are employed about, but is conttituted the
neceilary occation of fome pleafure or pain. ‘Thus, we fhall
find ourlelves pleafed with a regular form, a piece of archi-
tecture, or painting, a compofition of notes, a theorem, an
action, an affection, a charafter ; and we are confcious, that
this pleafure naturally arifes from the contemplation of the
idea then prefent to the mind, with all its circumftances,
though fome of thofe ideas have nothing of what we call
fenfible perception in them; and in thofe which have, the
pleafure arifes from fome uniformity, order, arrangement,
and imitation ; and not from the fimple ideas of colour, or
found, or mode of extenfion, feparately confidered.

It feems hence ‘to follow, that when initruétion, educa-
tion, or prejudice of any kind, raife any defire or averfion
towards an objeét; this defire, or averfion, is founded on
an opinion of fome perfection, or deficiency, in thofe qua-
lities, for perception of which we have the proper fenfes.
Thus, if beauty be defired by one who has not the fenfe of
fight ; the defire mult be raifed by fome apprehended regu-
larity of figure, {weetnefs of voice, fmoothnefs, foftnefs, or
fome other quality, perceivable by the other fenfes, without
relation to the ideas of colour.

The only pleafure of fenfe, which our philofophers feem
to confider, is that which accompanies the fimple ideas of
fenfation ; but there are vaitly greater pleafures in thofe
complex ideas of objeéts, which obtain the names of beau-
tiful and harmonious. The power, then, by which we re-
ceive ideas of beauty and harmony, has all the chara@ters of
afenfe. It is no matter, whether we call thefe ideas of
beauty and harmony, perceptions of the external fenfes of
feeing and hearing, or not: we fhould rather choofe to call
thefe ideas an internal fenfe, were it only for the convenience
of diflinguithing them from other feufations of feeing aud
hearing, which men may have without perception of beauty
and harmony. Hutchefon’s Inquiry, &c. Preface, and

» &e.

or the | manner iu which our fenfes a, or, more
properly, the manner in which we become fenfible, that is,
ie eo external objeéts, fee Sensarion.

or the particular fenfes, or, more properly, the parti-
cular manner in which we become feufible, by the parti-
cular organs of fenfe, fee Heaninc, Seetnc, SMELLING,
&e.

For the feyeral organs of fenfe, miniftering to the feveral
manners of fenfation, fee Ev, Ean, Nose, &c.

Pliny obferves, that of all the fenfes, feeling and tafting
are thofe which man enjoys in the greateft perfeétion. As
to feeing, he fays, he 1s excelled by the eagle, &c.; as to
{melling, by the vulture, &c.; and as to hentia. by the
mole, even when hid under pat:

i2 The

SENSE.

The fenfes have been fometimes found greatly fharpened
and improved by difeafes. Mr. Boyle mentions a gentle-
man, who, during a diftemper he had in his eyes, had his
organs of fight brought to be fo fenfible, that when he
waked in the night, he could, for a while, plainly fee and
diftinguifh colours, and other objets ; and the fame author
gives an inftance of another perfon, who, after getting half-
tuddled with claret, if he waked in the night, could fee for
fome time to read a moderate print.

Grimaldi tells us, that {ome women of Megara were able
by their eyes alone to diltinguifh between eggs laid by
black hens, and thofe by white ones. Grimald. de Lum.
& Col.

In the Philofophical Tranfaétions, N° 312, we have an
account of Dan. Frafer, who continued deaf and dumb from
his birth to the feventeenth year of his age; when, upon
recovering from a fever, he perceived an uneafy motion in
his brain, after which he began to hear, and by degrees to
f{peak.

Dr. Reid, in his fecond Eflay, fuggelts a variety of
methods, by which our fenfes may be improved, as they
give us information of things that concern us. Our original
powers of perceiving objects by our fenfes admit of great
improvement by ufe and habit; but, befides, there are
various ways In which our fenfes may be improved, or their
defects remedied by art; as by a due care of the organs of
fenfe, that they be in a found and natural {late ; by accurate
attention to the objects of fenfe; by additional organs or
inftruments contrived by art; and by difcovering the con-
ne¢tion which nature has eltablifhed between the fenfible
qualities of obje¢ts, and their more latent qualities.

Dr. Reid fuggeits, that the fallacy of the fenfes has
been a common complaint among philofophers, both ancient
and modern; and this, he thinks, is founded on a common
error, to which another has been added, that our ufe of
reafon is to deteét the fallacies of fenfe. In his opinion,
there is no more reafon to account our fenfes fallacious,
than our reafon, our memory, or any other faculty of
judging which nature hath given us. They are all limited
and imperfect, but wifely fuited to the prefent condition of
man. Weare liable to error and wrong judgment in the
ufe of themall, but as little in the information of fenife as in
the deductions of reafoning ; and the errors we fall into,
with regard to objeéts of fenfe, are not correéted by reafou,
but by more accurate attention to the information we may
receive by our fenfes themfelves.

Sense, Moral, is a determination of the mind to be
pleafed with the contemplation of thofe affections, a¢tions,
or charaéters, of rational agents, which we call good or
virtuous.

This moral fenfe of beauty in aCtions and affections, may
appear ftrange at firft view; fome of our moralifts them-
felves are offended at it in lord\Shaftefbury, as being accuf-
tomed to deduce every approbation, or ayerfion, from ra-
tional views of intereft. Qur gentlemen ot good talte can
tell us of a great many fenfes, taltes, and relifhes for beauty,
harmony, imitation in painting and poetry ; and may we not
find, too, in mankind a relifh for a beauty in chara¢ters, in
manners ? The truthis, human nature does not feem to have
been left quite indifferent in the affair of virtue, to form to
itfelf obfervations concerning the advantage or difadvan-
tage of aétions, and accordingly to regulate its conduét.
The weaknefs of our reafon, and the ayocations arifing from
the infirmities and neceflities of our nature, are fo great,
that very few of mankind could have framed thofe long
deduétions of reafon, which may fhew fome ations to be,
in the whole, advantageous, and their contraries pernicious.

5

The Author of nature has much better furnifhed ws for a
virtuous condu& than our moraliits feem to imagine; by
almoft as quick and powerful inftructions, as we have for the
prefervation of our bodies: he has made virtue a lovely
form, to excite our purfuit of it ; and has given us {trong
affe&tions, to be the fprings of each virtuous aétion. Hut-
chefon’s Inquiry, &c. ubi fupra. Effay on the Nature and
Condué& of the Paffions, p. 5, &c. See Mental and Moral
Purtosoruy, and alfo Virtue.

Sense, Public, is defined by the fame author to be our
determination to be pleafed with the happinefs of others,
and to be uneafy at their mifery. This, he fays, is found
in fome degree in all men, and was fometimes called xor-
vovonuosuyn, or fén/us communis, by fome of the ancients.

SENSE, Common, is aterm that has been varioufly ufed
both by ancient and modern writers. With fome it has
been fynonimous with public fenfe ; with others it has de-
noted prudence ; in certain inftances it has been confounded
with fome of the powers of tafte; and, accordingly, thofe
who commit egregious blunders with regard to decorum,
faying and doing what is offenfive to their company, and
inconfiftent with their own chara¢ter, have been charged
with a defect in common fenfe. Some men are diftingwifhed
by an uncommen acutenefs in difcovering the charaéters of
others ; and this talent has been fometimes called common
fenfe: fimilar to which is that ufe of the term, which makes it
to fignify that experience and knowledge of life which is ac-
quired by living in fociety. Hor. lib. i. fat. 3. lin. 66. To
this meaning Quintilian refers, {peaking of the advantages
of a public education: * Senfum ipfum qui communis dicitur,
ubi difcet, cum fe a congreflu, qui non hominibus folum,
fed mutis quoque animalibus naturalis eft, fegregarit ?”’
Lib. 1. cap...

Dr. Reid obferves, in his 6th Eflay, ‘ of Common
Senfe,’”” that, in common language, fenie always implies
judgment, nor is the popular meaning of the word fenfe
peculiar to the Englifh language : the correfponding words
in Greek, Latin, and probably in all the European languages,
have the fame latitude. The Latin words /entere, fententia,
Jenfa, fenfus, from the laft of which the Englifh word fenfe is
borrowed, exprefs judgment or opinion, and are applied in-
differently to objects of external fenfe, of tafte, of morals,
and of underltanding.

This is the meaning which Mr. Pope has given to it; and
in his epiftle to the earl of Burlineton he has thus defcanted
upon it:

“ Oft have you hinted to your brother peer,

A certain truth, which many buy too dear ;
Something there is more needful than expence,
And fomething previous ev’n to tafte—’tis Senfe.
Good fenfe, which only is the gift of Heayen ;
And though no {cience, fairly worth the feven :
A light, which in yourfelf you muft perceive,
Jones and Lr Norre have it not to give.”

Having fhewn that fenfe, in its moft common, and there-
fore moft proper meaning, fignifies judgment, our author
infers that common fenfe fhould ‘mean common judgment ;
as it really does.

Lord Shaftefbury las given to one of his treatifes the title ©

of “ Senfus Communis ;”” and he has introduced fome cri-
ticifm upon this word in Juvenal, Horace, and Seneca:
after fhewing in his facetious manner, that the fundamental
principles of morals, of politics, of criticif{m, and of every
branch of knowledge, are the diétates of common fenfe, he
fums up the whole in thefe words ; ‘that fome moral and
philofophical truths are fo evident in themfelves, that it

would

—————

SENSE.

would be eafier to imagine half mankind run mad, and joined
precifely in the fame f{pecies of folly, than to admit any
thing as truth, which fhould be advanced againft fuch natural
koowledge, fundamental reafon, and common fenfe ;"* and
on taking leave he adds; “and now, my friend, fhould you
_ find I had moralifed in any tolerable manner, according to
common fenfe, and without canting, I fhall be faristied with
my After citing other numerous teltimomes
in vindication of common fenfe, as a principle of knowledge,
our author concludes with obferving, that it is abfurd to
conceive that there can be any oppofition between reafon
and common fenfe. To reafon we afcribe two offices, or
two The firit is to judge of things felf-evident ; the
fecond to draw conclufions that are not felf-evident from
thofe that are: the firlt of thefe is the’province, and the
fole province, of common fenfe ; and therefore it coincides
with reafon in its whole extent, and is only another name for
one branch or of reafon. The firtt is purely the gift
of heaven ; the fecond is learned by practice and rules, w
the firft is not wanting. :

Our author further obferves, that the province of com-
mon fenfe is more extenfive in refutation than in confirmation.
A conelufion drawn by a train of jutt reafoning from true

, ee cannot poflibly contradi& any decifion of common
» becaufe truth wih always be confiltent with icflf.
Neither can fucha conclufion receive any confirmation from
common fenfe, becaufe it is not within its jurifdiétion. But
it is poflible that, by fetting out from falfe principles, or by
‘anerror in row heen may be led to a conclufion that
contradicts the deci of common fenfe. In this cafe, the
‘conelufioa is within the jurifdiction of common fenfe, though
the ing en which it was grounded be not ; and a man
of common fenfe may fairly reject the couclufion, without
peae able to thew the error of the reafoning that led to it.
* thefe preliminary remarks, we obferve that the term
; hath in modern times been ufed to fignify
that power of the ~y wer perceives truth, or com-
: ds belief, not ve mentation, but b
fantaneou ieinGieer ahd ireelidcble tinplte detived
er from education nor from habit, but from nature ;
zi of our will, whenever its object is pre-
fented, according to an eltablifhed law, and, therefore,
called fenfe ; and aéting in a fimilar manner upon all, or at
deait upon a great ity of mankind, and, therefore,
called common fenfe. The firlt among the moderns who took
“notice of this principle as one of the {prings of our know-
ledge, was Buffier, a French philofopher of the lalt cen-
we in a book entitled “ Traité des Premiéres Veritez ;”
ind this doétrine hath lately, in our own country, been illuf-
‘trated and maintained by Drs. Reid, Beattie, Ofwald, and

Campbell.
__ In order to evince that there is a real and effential dif-
er ceweae tise faculty and that of reafon, it is ob-
erved ef y confcious, —_ internal feeling, that the
energ) a » whi ceives intuitive truth,
differer shot othe catdgy sahieh unites a conclafion
ith a firit principle, vy a chain of intermediate
ns; that we cannot difcern any neceflary connection
bet reafon and common fenfe ; that the one is more in
our than the other ; the faculty of reafoning being
improveable by culture, whereas common fenfe, like other
ts, arrives at maturity with almott no care of ours,
is impoffible to teach common fenfe to one who wants
ough this, like other inttinéts, may languith for want
3; and that a diftinétion, fimilar to that which 1s
intained, is acknowledyved by the vulgar, wh {peak
it as fomething different from the deductions of

reafon, and the refinements of felence. All found reafoning,
it is faid, muft ultimately reft on the principles of common
fenfe ; that is, on principles intuitively certait, or intuitively
probable ; and, confequently, common fenfe is the ultimate
judge of truth, to which reafon mult continually af in
fubordination. ‘Thus the advocates for this faculty, as an
original and diflinét power of the human mind, affiyn to it
a very extenfive empire, and an authority that is fupreme aud
abfolute. And they have pi fo far as to fubltiture,
in the room of Mr. Locke's abftraétion, this faculty as the
charaéteriltic of rationality, ‘T’o this they refer the evidence
of mathematical truth, of external and internal fenfe, of
memory, of reafoning from the effeét to the caufe, of pro-
bable or ssasietiaenbal vealoring: of analogical reafoning, of
faith inteftimony, and, indeed, of all primary truths. To
common fenfe, therefore, all truth muft be conformable :
this, they fay, is its fixed and invariable ftandard. And
whatever contradiéts common fenfe, or is inconfiltent with
that ftandard, though fupported by arguments that are
deemed unanfwerable, and by names that are celebrated by
all the critics, academics, and potentates on earth, # not
truth, but falfehood. In a word, the dictates of common
fenfe are, in refpeét to human knowledge in general, what
the axioms of geometry are in refpect to mathematics: on
the fuppofition that thefe axioms are falfe or dubious, all
mathematical reafoning falls to the ground; and on the
fuppofition that the diétates of common fenfe are erroneous
or deceitful, all truth, virtue, and {cience, are vain. And
hence it appears, that, according to this fyitem, common
fenfe is not only the teft of truth, but the ftandard of moral
obligation.

Dr. Prieftley, in his attack upon this fyitem, has charged
the abettors of it with an unneceflary innovation in the re-
ceived ufe of aterm ; as no perfon ever denied that there are
felf-evident truths, and that thefe muft be aflumed as the
foundation of all reafoning. But they alfo recommend par-
ticular pofitions as axioms, not as being founded on the per-
ception of the agreement or difagreement of any ideas,
which is the great doGirine of Mr. Locke, and which makes
truth to depend upon the neceflary nature of things, to be
abfolute, unchangeable, and everlalting ; but merely fome
unaccountable inttinétive perfuafions, depending upon the
arbitrary conititution of our nature, which makes all truth
to be a thing that is relative to ourfelves only, and confe-
quently to be infinitely vague and precarious. This fyitem,
he fays, admits of no appeal to reafon, properly confidered,
which any perfon might be at liberty to examine and difcufs ;
but, on the contrary, every man is taught to think himfelf
authorized to pronounce decifively upon every queftion,
according to his prefent feeling and perfuafion ; under the
notion of its being fomething original, initinétive, ultimate,
and incontrovertible, though, if itriCily analyfed, it might
appear to be a mere prejudice, the offspring of miftake.
Some of the maxims which they have adopted as felf-evident
truths, and which they have multiplied without neceffity,
are fo far from being felf-evident, that, in the judgment of
many fober and candid enquirers after truth, they are not
true, but capable of a fatisfa¢tory refutation.

At the fame time, fince oo man can pretend to any natural
right to fix the principles of faith for another, they teach un-
believers, and by their example authorize them, to reject
the principles of religion by the fame fummary aud fuper-
Selah peace, as what appear to them to be, at frit fight,
too abfurd and ridicuious to be admitted as true and divine.

Dr. Prieltley apprehends, that the inconvemences above-
mentioned, may attend even the calling of that faculty by
which we difcern truth by the name of /en/z. By this term,

philofophers

‘SEN

philofophers in general have denominated thofe faculties, in
confequence of which we are lable to feelings relatively to
ourfelves only,-and from which they have not pretended to
draw any conclufions concerning the nature of things;
whereas truth is a thing not relative, but abfolute and real,
independent of any relation to this or that particular being,
or this or that order of beings. Belfides, if the determi-
nations of this new principle of common fenfe be fo inftanta-
neous, irrefiftible, and infallible, as Dr. Reid, Dr. Beattie,
and Dr. Olwald reprefent, how can we account for all the
error there is in the world?
in its pra€tical influence, tends to prevent the exercife of
free and unreftrited enquiry, with regard either to truth or
duty ; and to promote, in many cafes, the extravagancies of
credulity, enthufiafm, and myflicifm. Dr. Prieltley alfo
obferves, that Dr. Price (in his Review of the Principal
Quefions and Difficulties in Morals, 8vo.) though un-
noticed by the writers above cited, by maintaining that the
underttanding is the fource of many of our mott important
fimple ideas (fee Ipea), has fecured all the flattering ad-
vantages of the new doétrine of common fenfe, without the
capital inconveniences attending it. Like this fyltem, his
{cheme cuts off, if it be admitted, all objections to primary
moral truths, refting them on a fimple appeal to the faculty
of intuition ; and refufing to reafon upon a fubje€t, which is
maintained to be as evident as the truth of the geometrical
axiom, that if equal things be taken from equal things, the
remainders will be equal.

If the ideas of moral right and wrong, &c. be perceived
by a fenfe, it depends upon our arbitrary conftitution, that
we conceive of them as we do, or whether we perceive them
at all; and we have no method whatever of inveftigating,
whether they have any foundation in the abfolute nature of
things; whereas by making moral ideas the object of the
underitanding as fuch, the principles of morality become
part of this fyftem of neceflary, eternal, and unalterable
truth, perceived by the divine Being as by ourfelves, but
altogether independent of his will, as well as of all other
beings and things whatfoever ; as much fo as the truth of
the axiom above-mentioned, or of the propofition, that two
and two make four.

It is added, that thefe writers feem even to have bor-
rowed their language, as well as their ideas, from Dr. Price,
who alfo ufes the term common fenfe, though applied in a
different manner. Reid’s Enquiry into the Human Mind
on the Principles of Common Senfe, 8vo. ed. 2. 1765.
Reid’s Effays, abovecited. Beattie’s E-flay on the Nature
and Immutability of Truth, Svo. ed. 2. 1771. Ofwald’s
Appeal to Common Senfe in behalf of Religion, 8vo. ed. 2.
1768. Campbell’s Philofophy of Rhetoric, 8vo. 1776,
vol. i. p- 109, &c. Prieitley’s Examination of Reid,
Beattie, and Ofwald, &c. 8vo. 1774. For a farther ac-
count of this fyftem, fee Agsrracrion and Ipra.

SENSEN, in Geography. See SENGEN.

SENSIBILITY, in Phyfiology, the power of receiving
an impreffion, and tran{mitting it to the brain, fo as to caufe
fenfation or fecling. The queftion whecher any part be fen-
fible is, therefore, whether by a€ting on it in any way, feel-
ing can beexcited. Senfibility in this, its common accepta-
tion, obvioufly refers to the internal feeling or aét of con-
fcioufnefs refulting from its exereife. Some phyfiologilts
have ufed the word in a more extenfive fenfe, t» denote all
impreffions produced on our organs, even thofe which are
not felt ; as that of the blood on the heart, the food on the
alimentary canal, &c. They call the former animal fen-
fibility, becaufe it is peculiar to living beings ; and they dif-
tinguifh the Matter by the name organic, as it belongs to thofe

Not to add, that this fyitem, -

SEWN

parts where motions are involuntary, and which conttitute
the automatic or organic life. See Lire.

Roufleau has given the word fentibility a place among
Fresch mufical technica. The foul of the compofer fhould
furnifh ideas, the performer fhould be gifted with feeling in
their expreflion, and the audience fhould be capable of being.
impreffed with the beauties and defects of the mufic which is
executed for their amufement.

SENSIBLE WAHorizon, Point, and Qualities.
fubftantives.

SensrstE Note. See Nore, Senfible.

SENSITIVE Fruip. Some have imagined a fenfitive
fluid as the principle that preferves animals from corruption,
and to which we owe our fenfation and motion. This animal
fluid paffes in the proper nervous tubes to the organs of
motion ; but is contained in the fibrous coats of the nerves to
become an organ of fenfation. This fenfitive fluid is, ac-
cording to M. Le Cat, capable of thinking, and is fo mo-
dified by the ganglions, that what is lodged in each part, is
capable of being imprefled by the object proper to each
organ. And from the doétrine concerning this animal fluid,
he endeavours to account for moft operations, which are
generally faid to depend on the foul. (Med. Eff. Edinb.
Abridg. vol. ii. p. 481.) But all thefe attempts to account
for fenfation and thought, from the properties of matter,
feem to be very defperate undertakings, not to fay abfurd.

Sensitive Plant, in Botany. See Mimosa.

The fenfitive plant is fufficiently known to the world for
its remarkable property of receding from the touch, and
giving figns, as it were, of animal life. Philofophers in

See the

general have, however, contented themfelves with admiring -

the faét, without giving themfelves any trouble about the
caufe. See Lear. y

Mr. Hook, indeed, has made fome conjectures about it ;
but the greateft light that has been given into the thing, is
from the inquiries which Meflrs. Du Fay and Du Hamel,
gentlemen of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, concerted
together, and afterwards made {eparately on different fhrubs,
or at different times, that each might be able to correct the
errors of the other.

Botanic writers mention many kinds of fenfitive plants,
fome of which contraét at a touch, others with heat, others
with cold. The truth is, many, if not moft, vegetables ex-
pand their flowers, down, &c. in warm fun-fhiny weather,
and again clofe them towards evening, or in rain, &c. efpe-
cially at the beginning of flowering, or after the flowers are
fallen, whilft the feed is yet young and tender ; as is very
evident in the down of dandelion, &c. and in the flower of
the pimpernel, the opening and fhutting of which are the
countryman’s weather-wifer ; by which, Gerarde fays, he
foretels what weather fhall follow the next day ; for if the
flowers be clofe {hut up, it betokens rain and foul weather 5
if they be fpread abroad, fair weather.

The ttructure of the fenfitive plant is this; from the large
ftems, or main branches of the whole, there part off feveral
other lefler ones, and from thefe there go off others itil lefs,
which, by way of diftin@ion, may be called the ribs of the
leaves, as they ferve to fupport a number of leaves arranged
on each fide, and ftanding on fhort pedicles in pairs, over
again{t one another. Several other plants have this fort of
compound leaves, as the caffia, colutea, and the like; and
all thefe fhut their leaves together at night, amd open them
again in the morning, in the fame manner as the fenfitive
plant does. This periodical opening and fhutting of the
leaves are therefore common to many plants, not peculiar ta
the fenfitive plant; but the wonder in this is, that befide
having this motion periodical and regular, it isto be brought

on

SEN

at other times, and by accidents, there requiring no more
than the touching of the plant to make it clofe its leaves at any
time of the day, which it foon afterwards naturally opens
This is peculiar to this plant, and refembles the
of an animal which had been injured or frighted, A
elofe obfervation alfo of the manner in which this is per-
formed, will give many hints towards the finding of its caule,
It isa very difficult thing to touch the leaf of a vigorous
fenfitive plant fo lightly, as not to make it clofe ; its fenfation
is extremely delicate, and its large rib or nerve, which runs
along its middle, is as it were a hinge, on which the two
halves of the leaf move when they turn upon being touched,
till they Aand ereé&t, and by that means meet one another.
imaginable gives this motion to the

fide of the leaf which is touched, which is communicated
the otber fide, or half, and they move to-
if the touch has been a very little rougher, the
rib receives the impreilion, and

and
— leaf on the }
up in the fame manser with that which was actually

is. all, for when the np bart or ga of thefe

wards, the pedicle of ca moves up-
ay ee time, and by this means they, in fome
meafure, a towards each other, and make the angles
of theic with the main rib, or {talk of the compofite
leaf, and the total motion of each leaf is
thefe two motions.
be itill rougher, the whole t of
rib feels its influence on each fide, and all

and if the touch be yet ftronger than this, the rib
it, and attempts to clofe in its way ; moving itfelf
from which it is produced, jutt
of the leaves did towards it: and if the
hard and rough, the very branches have
on propagated to them, and apply themfelves to
of the fhrub, as the fimple leaves did
that rib to the branch; fo that the
itfelf from a very complexly

of itraight cylindric one. That

others, the greateit effect upon this
ant, is a thaking one.
Thefe three motions of the plant are performed by means
Pthree diftin& and fenfible articulations; the firit that of
i jcle, the fecond that of the pedicle to

H

iP
iF

tt
|
[

a
:

Be
3

the third that of the branch to the trunk, The
pn motion of al) which, is the clofing of the two
of the leaf upon their rib, which an alfo to be per-

d in. a fimilar manner, and by a fimilar articulation ;
; pwever, is much lefs vifible than the others. _

oi motions are | yi of one another, as

y be proved by experiment. It fhould appear, that if

‘alks are moved, and collapfe towards the branches, or
sdeniordadie trunk, that the leaves, whofe motion is
if i thefe, fhould be affeéted alfo ; yet expe-
nent it is poffible to touch the branches in
ree rene eave st the them apply

es to other of the plant in their pal-
Na as deve shay Seonotinnst? became otc.
Wind emer epee the fenfitive ts to fhut
leaves, while eafy thowers do not at all affe& them ;
cieapimnby Sn targe wed iby: ope of ran
of rain,
dineiee of

SEN

By whatever accident the plant lias been made to clofe its
leaves, it always regularly opens them egein afterwards.
This, however, requires different times, according to feveral
circumitances, as the time of the day, the feafon of the year,
and the more and lefs vigorous end healthy ftate of Uc plant,
fometimes this is done ia ten minutes, fometimes it requires
half an hour; and the manner is pot lefs different than the
time, for fometimes the leaves unfold themfelves firll, and
fometimes the branches, whereas fometimes all ic done at
once, and the whole plant feems in motion at a time.

In endeavouring to account for the motions of this plant,
the gentlemen above named have conjectured that they are
performed by means of a fort of very nice and fine hinges,
which communicate one with another by means of very
minute and flender cords, which oecafien them to aét as we
fee when the plant is {ufficiently dilturbed, and thefe cords
fhaken ; and what gives a {trong probability to this can-
je¢ture is, that the decayed and dying leaves of the plant
perform this motion as regularly and vigoroufly, as thofe
which are frefh and full of juice.

It feems plain, that while the juices are evaporating, and
the parenchymatous fub{tance of the leaves drying up, thefe
more folid parts, the lines and cordages, retain their figure ;
and, confequently, if it is by means of thefe that the motion
is always performed, it will be as well performed in thefe as
in the frefher leaves, which could not be the cafe were it
owing to the juices.

The ee opening and fhutting of the leaves of this plant
at night and morning, are not fo fixed but that they are
variable alfo, according to circumftances of place, tempe-
rature, &c.

{n the month of Auguit, a fenfitive plant was carried in
a pot out of its ufual place into’a dark cave, the motion that
it received in the carriage {hut up its leaves, and they did not
open till twenty-four hours afterwards ; at this time they be-
came moderately open, but were afterwards fubje& to no
changes at night or morning, but remained three days and
nights with their leaves in the fame moderately open itate.
At the end of this time they were brought out again in the
air, and then recovered their natural periodical motions, fhut-
ting every night and opening every morning, as naturally

as “alee om as if it had not been in this forced tate ; and
while in the cave, it was obferved to be very little lefs af-
feéted with the touch than when abroad in the open air.

Repeated experiments have proved, fay thefe philofophers,
that it is not the light of the day that opens the leaves of this
plant, nor the darknefs of the night that clofes them; neither
is it the alternate warmth of the day and cold of the night,
that have this effeét, fince it fhuts in nights which are much
warmer than the days often are in which it opens; and the
increafing the heat of the place in which it is kept, and mark-
ing the increafe or decreafe on the thermometer, have been
found to have not the leaft effeét, as to its fooner or later
opening or fhutting its leaves. «

The molt probable conjecture feems, that it is not great
heat, or great cold, fuch as it can bear, that bring on
this effet, but the fudden change from one to the other, and
this is confirmed by this experiment, that if one of thefe
plants be raifed under a gla(s bell, or cafe, and the bell or
covering be n off, it immediately clofes, even though it
be in the middle of the day ; and this is alfo obferved, that
the more open or expofed the plant ftands, the more itrong
and lively are its fhutting and opening ; and that they are
mott obfervable in fummer, and much lols fo when it is kept
in a clofe ftove in winter.

The t heats of fummer, when there is open funthine at
noon, affeé the plant in fome degree like cold, caufing it to

2 fhut

SEN

fhut up its leaves a little, but never in any very great degree.
The plant, however, is leaft of all affeGted about nine o’clock
in the morning, and that is confequently the propereft time
to make experiments on it. A branch of the fenfitive plant
cut off, and laid by, retains yet its property of fhutting up
and opening in the morning for fome days; and it holds it
longer if kept with one end in water than if left to dry more
fuddenly.

The leaves only of the fenfitive plant fhut up in the night,
not the branches; and if it be touched at this time, the
branches are affe€ted in the fame manner as in the day, fhut-
tise up, or approaching to the ftalk or trunk, in the fame
manner, and often with more force. It is of no confe-
quence what the fub{tance is with which the plant is touched,
it an{wers alike to all; but there may be obferved a little
{pot, diftinguifhable by its paler colour in the articulations of
its leaves, where the greateit and niceft fenfibility is evidently

aced.

i The fenfitive plant plunged into water immediately clofes
its leaves, which is partly owing to the touch, partly to the
coldnefs of the water; afterwards the leaves expand again,
and if they are then touched, clofe again as before, as if in the
open air, only that they do it with lefs force.

If the end of one of the leaves be burning with the flame
of a candle, or by a burning glafs, or touching it with hot
iron, it clofes up ina moment, and the oppofite leaf does the
fame, and after that the whole feries of leaves on each of the
rib, then the rib itfelf, then the branch, all do the fame, if
the burning has been in a fufficient degree. "This proves
that there is a very nice communication between all the parts
of the plant, by means of which the burning, which only is
applied to the extremity of one leaf, diffufes its influence
through every part of the fhrub.

If a drop of aqua fortis be carefully laid upon a leaf of the
fenfitive plant, fo as not to fhake it in the leatt, the leaf doee
not begin to move till the acid liquor corrodes the f{ubftance
of it; but at that time, not only that particular leaf, but all
the leaves placed on the fame rib, clofe themfelves up. The
vapour of burning fulphur has alfo this effe€t on many-leaves
at once, according as they are more or lefs expofed to it;
but a bottle of very acrid and fulphureous {pirit of vitriol,
placed under the branches unftopped, produces no fuch
effec.

The wetting of the leaves with f{pirit of wine has been ob-
ferved alfo to have no effeét, nor the rubbing oil of almonds
over them; though this laft application deftroys many
plants. *

A branch of the plant was cut away longitudinally, till
only a third part of the fubitance remained, yet it commu-
nicated the effects of the touch, in the fame manner as be-
fore, to thofe branches which arofe lower on the fhrub.
The tranfpiration of the plant being retarded, is of no effe&
as to its periodical opening and clofing; for one kept under
a clofe glafs bell fhuts and opens as regularly mght and
morning, as when it itands in an open green-houfe. A
branch of it put into the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump,
is found to haye its force of opening and clofing up much
impaired, but not wholly taken off. Mém. de l’Acad. des
Scienc. Par. 1736.

Dr. Hill, notwithftanding the experiments and obferva-
tions above recited, confiders the phenomenon of the fen-
fitive plant as the effe@ of light, and in an exprefs diflertation
on this fubjeét, endeavours to account for it from this prin-
ciple ; afcribing that other phenomenon, which is called the
fleep of plants, to the abfence of light. Hill’s Sleep of
Plants, and the Caufe of Motion in the Senfitive Plant ex-
plained, 12mo.

SEN

Mr. Ellis has defcribed a fenfitive plant, which is a native
of the fwamps in North Carolina, called dionea mufcipula, or
Penus’s fly-trap, (fee Dionma,) and which, from his ac-
count of it, appears to be the moft animated of the whole:
fenfitive tribe of vegetables. {ts fenfibility exifts in its
leaves, each of which exhibits, in miniature, the figure of a
rat-trap with teeth clofing on every fly or other infect that is
tempted to tafte the {weet liquor which is fuppofed to be
fecreted in certain minute red glands that cover its inner fur-
face ; but before it has had time to tafte it, the lobes of the
leaves rife up, and inclofe and grafp the invader, and he is
foon deprived of his life by the aétion of three {mall erect
{pines, fixed near the middle of each lobe; nor do the leaves
open again while the dead animal continues there. The
fame effeét is produced by a ftraw or pin.

Mr. Ellis conjectures, that in the conftru€tion and motive
powers of this plant, nature may have had fome view to its
nourifhment, by forming the upper joint of each leaf hike a
machine to catch food, and by having laid a bait upon the
middle of it, to entice the unhappy infe@ that becomes its
prey. But, perhaps, it may be equally probable, that
nature has armed and animated this plant for the prefervation
of its juices againtt the depredation of infe@ts. Ellis’s Di-
rections for bringing over Seeds and Plants, &c. 1770.

Sensitive Plant, Bafiard. See /EscHYNOMENE.

Sensitive Power. See Mental Puitosopuy.

SEnsITIVE or Senfible foul, the foul of brutes, or that
which man is fuppofed to have in common with brutes.
See Brure. ‘

It is thus called, either as intimating its utmoft faculty to

be that of fenfation; or, perhaps, becaufe it is fuppofed to «

be material, and to come under our fenfes.

Lord Bacon afferts, that the fenfible or brute foul is
plainly no more than a corporeal fubftance, attenuated by
heat, and thus rendered indivifible ; or a kind of aura or
vapour, partly of an aerial, and partly of a fiery nature, en-
dued with the foftnefs of air, to be fit to receive impreffions,
and with the vigour of fire to communicate its action; fed”
partly with oily matters, and partly with aqueous ones in-
clofed in the body, and, in the more perfeé animals, prin-
cipally in the head, moving along the nerves, and reftored
and repaired by the f{pirituous blood of the arteries. Bac.
de Augment. Scient. lib..v. See Lirs.

SENSKOWA, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
palatinate of Culm; 15 miles N.E. of Thorn.

SENSORIUM, in Phyfiology, the part which feels and
perceives, the common centre, to which fenfations are con-
veyed, and from which volition emanates; in other words,
the brain. In medical and phyfiological writings, this ex-
preffion is ufed as fynonimous with brain; thus we read of
affections of the fenforium ; of fenforial power and influence,
&e. Senforium commune, is the imaginary point of the
brain, the refidence of the metaphyfical foul, to which
every fenfation is brought, and from which all determi-
nations of the will proceed. The fpeculations on this fub-
ject have been founded in the aflumed unity. of the foul.
Phyiiologically fpeaking, there is not the flighteft ground
for fuppofing fuch a part to exift in the brain. Our re-
marks on the funétions of the brain and parts connected with
it, will be found under the articles Brain, Lirn, and Ner-
vous Syflem. See alfo Menta] Puitosorny.

Sir Ifaac Newton confiders the univerfe as the fenforium
of the godhead.

SENTELIUS, Lonovicus, in Biography, a difciple of
Henry Ifaac, and in 1530 appointed chapel-mafter to the
duke of Bavaria. Many of his compofitions are inferted in
the Dodecachordon of Glareanus, with great encomiums.

He

SEN

He was in high favour with Martin Luther, a good judge
of mufic; and Sebaldus Hayden, in 1540, calls him the
ince of German muficians,

SENTENCE, in Law, doom; a judgment pafled in
court by the judge upon fome procefs either civil or cri-
minal.

Sentences are either definitive, which put an end to the
fuit and controverfy, and regard the dbincipal matter in

yon; or interlocutory, which determine only fome inci-

matter ; contradidery, &e.
There are fentences of abfolution, excommunication, &c.
rior judges may either confirm or annul the fentences

ones.
fentence mutt be in writing, on a ftamp, and it
pronounced in the prefence of both parties; other-
fentence given in abfence of one of the parties is void.
Sentences, Three conformable, tres fententia conformes.
the Romith Eeelefaflical Law, it is allowed to appeal
times ; fo that there mult be three conformable fentences
. the decifions of the judges can take effet. The firlt
) of jurifdidtion is in the bifhop’s official ; from him
an appeal hes to the metropolitan, from the metropolitan to
) the primate, or immediately to the pope. If the appeal
the metropolitan to the pope, the pope is ob

r 3

to delegate Jay eee ibus; and then if the three fen-
tences pafled in fiages be conformable, there is no
farther appeal; but if one of them annul another, new

;

are to be required of the pope for a fourth fentence ;
thus they fometimes oie te a fixth or feventh: fen-

number of jurifdiGions is found infinitely preju-
the public, and vexatious to private perfons.

TENCE, in Grammar, denotes a period, or a fet of
comprehending fome perfect fenfe or fentiment of

comprehends at leait two words.
in his Hermes, p. 17, &c. confidering that
wers of the foul are thofe of ption and
that every fentence, in ieee to thefe
either a fentence of affertion, or a fentence
: and he defcribes it as a compound quantity of
ound fignificant, of which certain parts are themfelves alfo
nl + Thus he diitinguithes a fentence from a word,
c is a found fignificant, of which no part is of itfelf

is
bufinefs. of pointing is, to diftinguifh the feveral
audaies oft A a

Eft

He

if
i

&
z

A

a

Pp fentences, fo as to render the fenfe of
it the clearelt, apteit, and fulleft poffible. See Puncrua-
TION.

ot Te fentence there are two parts neceflarily required ;
* tary the fubje&, and a definite verb; whatever is

und more than thefe two, affedts one of them, either im-
i y the intervention of fome other, by whieh
is >

the firft
_ Again, every fentence is either fimple or conjuné&t: a
fimpl artes 8 that confifting of one fingle fubjeG, and
finite verb. A conjun@, or compounded fentence, con-
ns feveral fubjeéts, and finite verbs, either exprefsly or

citly ; or it confifls of two or more fimple fentences

tence needs no point or diftin€tion, only a pe-
it; saad phar lowes virtue for itfelf. In fuch
ce, the adjungs affect either the fubje&, or
b, in a different manner. Thus the word good ex-
the quality of the fubje&, virtue the objeét of the
nm, and, t#felf, the end of it. Now none of thefe

Sts can be feparated from the reit of the fentence ; for
Vou. XXXII.

SEN

if one be, why fhould not all the reft? And if all be, the
fentence will be minced into almolt as many parts as there
are words,

But if feveral adjunéts be attributed in the fame manner
either to the fubje¢t, or the verb; the fentence becomes
conjunét, and is to be divided into parts.

tn every conjunét fentence, as many fubjets, or as man
finite verbs as there are, either expretled or implied, PA
many diftin¢tions may there be. Thus, My hopes, fears,
Joys, pains, all centre in yous and thus Cicero, Catilina, abiit,
ak evafit, erupit. The reafon of which pointing is ob-
vious ; for ag many fubjects or finite verbs as there are in
a fentence, fo many members does it really contain; when-
ever, therefore, there occur more nouns than verbs, or con-
trariwife, they are to be conceived as equal; fince, as every
{ubje& requires its verb, fo every verb requires its fubje@,
with which it may agree, excepting, perhaps, in fome
figurative expreflions.

Indeed there are fome other kinds of fentences which
may be ranked amongit the conjunét kind, particularly the
abfolute ablative, as it is called. Thus, Phyficians, the
difeafe once difcovered, think the cure half wrought ; where the
words, di/eafe once difcovered, are equivalent to, when the
caufe of the difeafe is difeovered.—So allo in nouns added by
appolition, as, The Scots, an hardy people, endured it all; {o
alfo in vocative cafes and interjeétions, as, This, my friend,
you muft allow me: and, What, for heaven's fake! would be
be at?

The cafe is much the fame when feveral adjunéts affe&
either the fubje€t of the fentence or the verb in the fame
manner, or at leaft fomething by which one of them is
affeGted, as, 4 good, wife, learned man is an ornament to the
commonwealth: where the feveral adjectives, denoting fo
many qualities of the fubjeét, are to be feparated from one
another. Again, when I fay, Your voice, countenance,
geflure, terrified him, the feveral nominative cafes denote fo
many modes of the verb, which are likewife to be diftin-
guifhed from each other. The cafe is a fame in ad-
verbs, as, He behaved him/felf modefily, prudently, virtuou/ly.
In the firlt example, ape ag shai affe& uf
fubje& ; in the third, the verb; in the following one,
another adjun@, as, / /aw a man loaden with age, ficknefr,
wounds

Now, as many fuch adjunéts as there are, fo many feveral
members does the fentence contain ; which are to be diltin-
guifhed from each other, as much as feveral fubjeéts or finite
verbs; and that this is the cafe in all conjun@ fentences,
appears hence, that all thefe adjunéts, whether they »be
verbs or nouns, &c. will admit of a conjunétion copulative,
by which they may be joined together. And wherever
there is a copulative, or room for it, there a new member of
a fentence begins. For the other partitions, &c. of fen-
tences, fee Coton, Semicoton, and Periop.

SenTence is alfo ufed, in Rhetoric and Poetry, for a fhort
pithy remark, or reflection, containing fome fentiment of ufe
in the condué of life.

Such are Difcite juftitiam moniti, &F non temnere divos ; or,
A teneris affuefcere multum eft, &c.

Sentences, father Boflu obferves, render poems ufeful ;
and, befides, add I know not what luitre and fpirit, which
pleafes. But there isno virtue which is not accompanied
with fome dangerous vice. Too many fentences give a
poem too philofophical an air, and fink it into a kind of
gravity ; this is lefs fit for the majefty of a poem than the
ftudy of a learned man, and the quaintnefs of a dogmatitt.
Such thoughts not only contain, but infpire a certain
wifdom, which is directly aa to the paflions, and cools

them

SEN

them both in the hearers and in the fpeaker. Liaftly, the
affetation of {peaking fentences leads a perfon to trifling
and impertinent ones, inftances of which we have an abun-
dance in Seneca’s tragedies. Petronius recommends it to
authors to difguife their fentences, that they may not ftand
glaring above the thread or ground of the difcourfe.

SENTER Harsour, in Geography, a cove in the N.W.
part of lake Winnipifcogee.

SENTHENHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine; 10 miles N.E. of Befort.

SENTICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonenfis, afligned by Ptolemy to the Vacczans.

SENTICE, a country of Macedonia, according to Livy.

SENTII, a people of the Maritime Alps, S.E. of the
Bodiantici, mentioned by Ptolemy, who afligns to them
the town of Dinia.

SENTIMENTS, in Poetry, and particularly dramatic,
are the thoughts which the feveral perfons exprefs, whether
they relate to matters of opinion, paflion, bufinefs, or the
like.

The manners form the tragic a&tion, and the fentiments
explain it, difcovering its caufes, motives, &c. The fenti-
ments are to the manners, what thefe are to the fable. In
the fentiments, regard is to be had to nature and pro-
bability ; a madmanr, for inftance, mutt {peak as a madman ;
a lever, as alover; a hero, asahero. The fentiments, in
great meafure, are to fuitain the character. The word fen-
timent, in its true and old Englifh fenfe, fignifies a formed
opinion, notion, or principle; but of late years it has been
much ufed by fome writers te denote an internal impulfe of
paffion, affection, fancy, or intellect, which is to be con-
fidered rather as the caufe or occafion of our forming an
opinion, than as the real opinion itfelf.

SENTINEL, Great, in Geography, an ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, about 10 miles in circumference ; 20 miles
S.W. from the Greater Andaman. N. lat. 11° 36. E.
long. 92° 4o!.

SENTINEL, Little, a {mall ifland in the Fatt Indian fea,
about 8 miles from the Little Andaman. N. lat. 10° 59).
E. long. 92° 23/.

SENTINEL, Centry, or Sentry, in War, a private foldier
placed in fome poft to watch any approach of the enemy,
to prevent furprifes, and to flop fuch as would pafs withont
orders, or without difcovering who they are. They are
placed before the arms of all guards, at the tents and doors
of general officers, colonels of regiments, &c.

The word is modern; it is not long fince they faid, To
be on the fcout, in the fame fenfe as we now fay, To fland
feniry, Sc. Menage derives the word @ /entiendo, from
perceiving.

Sentinel perdue, is a fentinel placed at fome very advanced
and dangerous polit, whence it is odds that he never returns.
See PERDUE.

The fentinel’s word, when he challenges, is, Who is there?

ui vive, or Qui va la! Stand! Demure la!

SENTINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Umbria, according to Strabo and Ptolemy.—Alfo, a town
of Italy, belonging to the Senones, S.W. of Suafa.

SENTINUS, ariver of Italy, in Picenum.

SENTO, in Geography, a river of Naples, which runs
into the Adriatic ; 3 miles S.E. of Lanciano.

SENTOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Se-tchuen, on the river Kincha; 22 miles N.E. of Pei.

SENTUR, a town of Egypt; 9 miles N.W. of
Fayoum. ,

SENURIS, atown.of Egypt, near the Birket il Kerun ;
g miles N.W. of Fayoum.

SEP

SENUS, im Ancient Geography, a river of Hibernia, ac-
cording to Ptolemy, who places its mouth on the weftern
coaft, between the mouths of the Aufoba and of the Dur.—
Alfo, a river of India, in the country of the Sines, according
to Ptolemy, who fays, that it was conneéted with the
Cotiaria, at a great diltance from its mouth.

SENZA, an Italian prepofition, implying, in Mujfic,
without: as in Handel’s organ concertos, when pallages
are to be wholly left to the violins, /énza organo implies,
without the organ; /enxa viola, without the tenor; fenza@
baffo, without the bafe, &c.

SENZARSKATA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in
the government of Tobolfk ; 80 miles S. of Yalutorovik.

SEODA, a fea-port of Japan, on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Niphon; 105 miles E. of Meaco. N. lat. 37° 20/.
E. long. 139° 107.

SEON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in the
tribe of Iflachar, according to Jofhua. Eufebius fays,
that in his time there was a place of this name at the foot
of mount Tabor. :

Sron St. Henry, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mouths of the Rhone; 4 miles N. of
Marfeilles.

SEOUJI Kramen, a poft of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of the Monguls ; 23 miles S.W. of Kara Hotun.

SEPARABLE Mopss. See Mops.

SEPARATE Arrsction. See Arrecrion.

SEPARATE, Penultimate of the. See PENULTIMATE.

Separate J/land, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Chinefe fea. N. lat. 3°.6!. E. long. 107° 45/.

SEPARATED Frowenrs, in Botany, are fo called when
the {tamens and pittils are fituated in different flowers of the
fame [pecies. Hence it appears that feparated flowers are
confined to {uch plants as are either monoecious, dioecious,
or polygamous. They are termed by Linnzus, Diciines.

SEPARATERS, among Hor/es, the teeth ufually called
incifors, by which the animal feparates or bites off a portion
of his food for chewing. See Tretu.

SEPARATION, in Navigation, the fame with what
we more ufually call departure.

SEPARATION of Man and Wife. See Divorce.

SEPARATION, Waters of. See WATER. ;

SEPARATION Bay, in Geography, a bay in the Straits of
Magellan, on the coaft of Terra del Fuego; to miles S.E.
of Cape Pillar.

SEPARATISTS, in Leclefaftical Hiffory, a religious
feét in England, fo denominated from their fetting up a
Jeparate church, different from that eltablifhed by law.
See DissENTERS, &c.

At prefent, Separatifts is rather the name of a collection
of feéts than of any particular one ; but nearer their original,
there was that agreement among them, that one name ferved
them all.

Their divifion into Prefbyterians, Anabaptifts, Inde-
pendents, &c. is a more modern thing.

The Separatifts, Hornius tells us, Hift. Eccl. are fuch as
under Edward VI. Elizabeth, and James I. refufed to con-
form to the church of England, and who were firft called
Puritans, then Separatifts, and laftly, Nonconformitts.

The firft leader of the Separatifts was Bolton, who, upon

quitting the party he had formed, was fucceeded by Robert
Brown, from whom the Separatifts were called Brownilts.
SEPARATORIUM, the name of a furgical inftrument
ufed for feparating the pericranium from the fkull.
SEPARATRIX, in Arithmetic, denotes the point, or
comma, which feparates and diftinguifhes decimals from in-

tegers 5 thus, 465,32 or 465.32.
Aig, oe ane SEPARI,

SEP

SEPARI, in Ancient Geography, a people who inhabited
an ifland on the coatt of Liburnia, according to Pliny

SEPAUNAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, iv the circar of Bopal; 30 miles W. of Huflingabad.

SEPAUX, a town of France, wm the department of the
Yonne ; 9 miles W. of Joigny.

SEPELACUS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Spain,
upon the route from Tarragon to Carthage, between dua
and Saguntum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SEPHAAT, or Zeenat, a town of Paleftine, in the
tribe of Simeon, according to the book of Judges.

SEPHALITES. See Moarazarires.

SEPHAMA, in Ancient G , a town of Afia, in
Syria, which ferved as a limit to the land of promife, ac-
cerding to the bouk of Numbers.

SEPHAR, a mountain of the Eaft, probably about

Armenia. (See Gen. x. 30.) This mountain feems to have
been the habitation of the aim and of the Sufpires,
mentioned by geographers.

SEPHARVAIM, a people who were brought by Shal-
manafer into Paleftine, to fupply the place of the Ifraelites,
_ whom he carried away from Samaria to a country be-
| ~ the Euphrates (2 Kings, xvii. 24- 31.) A.M. 3283,
C. 1721. Their former habitations feem to have been on
the mountains of Sephar, and the Sefpires or Sufpires, who,
| according to Herodotus (lib. i. iii. vi.) were the only peo-
ple that inhabited between the Colchians and the Medes, were
probably the bos saecbee = The Scripture {peaks (Ifaiah,
xxxvil. 13. 2 Kings, xix. 13.) of the city of Sepharvaim,
which was the of thefe people, and the
of Sepharvaim was the god of chet people. See

2 xviii. Uf. xxxvii. 13. 2 Kings, xix. 13.
Sere HIROS, a a a by Paracelfus _ his fol-
to exprefs a fort o and hard im ume, or

kind of fpurious fcirrhus. a . =

SEPHIROTH, a Hebrew word fignifying brightneffes ;
and the cabalifts give the name of {ephiroth to the moft fecret
parts of their fcience.

SEPHORIS, in Ancient Geography, a famous city of
Zebulun, and the capital of Galilee; afterwards named
Diocefarea; 18 ing to fome, and according to others
i t was not far from Tabor and the

—_—--- -—_

URE, in G , a town or

y Sephor or » which was

town of the country, and capital of Ga-
i Here was

habitation of Joachim and Anna, parents of the blefled
$ 12 miles N.W. of Tabaria.

7 ‘ography, a mountain of the Pe-
in Arcadia, to the left of mount Geronte, near
called Tricéne, upon which AEgyptus, the fon of
: meee aa tlle aa and where he was
d, according to Paufanias.

in Natural Hiflory, the Cuttle-ffb, a genus of the
Mollufea clafs and order, of which the generic cha-
as follows; the body is flefhy, receiving the breaft
th, with atubular aperture at its bafe ; it has eight
» befet with numerous warts or fuckers, and in moft

SEP

{pecies two pedunculated tentacula; the head is fhort; the
eyes large ; the mouth refembling a parrot’s beak.

Thefe animals inhabit various feas, and in hot climates
fome of them grow to an enormous fize; they are armed
with a dreadful apparatus of holders furnifhed with fuckers,
by which they fatten upon and convey their prey to the
mouth; they have the power of {quirting out a black fluid
refembling ink, and which is faid to be an ingredient in the
compofition of Indian ink; the bone in the back is con-
verted into pounce: the eggs are depofited upon fea-weed,
and exaétly refemble a bank pes; at the moment the
female depofits them they are white, but the males pafs over
them to impregnate them, and they then become black ;
they are round, with a little point at the end, and in each of
them is enclofed a living cuttle-fifh, furrounded by a gela-
tinous fluid. There are eight {pecies, of which five are na-
tives of this country.

Species.

* Ocropus. The fpecific charaCter of this {pecies is, that
the body has no tuil or appendage ; it has no pedunculated ten-
tacula, or longer arms. It is found in the Mediterranean and
Indian feas, in the latter of which it fometimes grows to a vait
fize; the arms are faid to be eight or nine Sette long.
In thefe feas the Indians never venture out without hatchets
in their boats, to cut off the arms, fhould it attempt to
faften upon them under water. This {pecies is charaGterized
by the fhortnefs of the body, which is rounded behind; the
arms taper to a point, joined at the bafe by a membrane or
web, and covered within with two rows of alternate fuckers.
When opened this animal is faid to exhibit fo brilliant a
light as to illuminate a large room,

* OrricinaLis. Body without tail or appendage, and
furrounded by a margin; it has two tentacula, or lon
arms. This 1s found on our own coafls, and alfo in o
oceans, and is frequently the prey of the whale tribe, and
of plaife; its arms are frequently eaten by the conger-eel,
and are reproduced; the beny feale on the back is that
which is fold in the fhops; and the black matter which it
{quirts out to darken the waters round it, and elude the pur-
fuit of its enemies, is fometimes ufed as ink. The body
was eaten by the ancients, and it is even now ufed as food
by the Italians. The body of this fpecies is ovate, the
margin crenate, and interrupted at the bottom; eight of
the arms are fhort/and pointed ; the two tentacula are four
times as long as the others ; they are rounded, and the tips
are very broad, and furnifhed within with numerous fuckers,

Uneuicutata. The body of this is without a tail or
appendage; the arms are furnifhed with hooks, and it is
found in the Pacific ocean. The body is rounded behind ;
the arms are furnifhed with hooks, which are retraétile
within their proper fheaths initead of fuckers.

Hexapus. The body of this is tailed, four or five-
jointed ; arms only fix in number. This alfo is found in the

acific ocean. The body is about half a foot long, and
the thicknefs of a finger; arms furnifhed with very minute
fuckers, which ftick faft to whatever it fixes on.

*Mepia. Body long, flender, cylindrical; the tail is
finned, poms and carinate on each fide; it has two long
arms. It inhabits the ocean, and in fome refpeéts it re-
fembles the S. officinalis. The body ends in a point, and
is furni with a membrane on each fide, commencing
about the middle of the body.

* Lorico; the Calamary. The body of this is fubcy-
lindrical, fubulate, and furnifhed with a flattith fharp-edged
rhombic membrane at the tail on each fide. This is found
in divers parts of the ocean, and is from nine to twelve

Kk2z inches

SEP

inches long. The body is of a reddifh-brown, with two
longer arms or tentacula; the eyes are of a fine blue; the
cartilaginous plate or bone in the back is long, lance-fhaped,
and tranf{parent ; it has fometimes been placed as a {pecies
of the pennatula.

* Seprora. The body of this fpecies bas two rounded
wings or procefles behind. It is found in the Mediterranean
and European feas, and is very fmall. The body is fhort,
rounded behind, with a round membrane or fin at the lower
extremity ; it has two long arms.

Tunicatra. The body of this {pecies is entirely enclofed
in a black peilucid membrane, with two femicircular wings
or procefles behind. This is an inhabitant of the Pacific
ocean. The body is very large, and is faid fometimes to
weigh one hundred and fifty pounds, and is convertible into
palatable and pleafant food.

SEPIACE, in /talian Mufic, fignifies that the part, it is
joined to may be repeated or not, at pleafure.

SEPIAS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of Thef-
faly, in Magnetia, at the entrance of the Pelafgic gulf, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. Cape Sepias is now the promontory
of St. George’s.

SEPIUSSA, an ifland fituated on the coaft of Afia
Minor, in the Ceramic gulf, according to Pliny.

SEPOORY, in Geography, a fortrefs of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Gohud ; 18 miles S.W. of Narwa.

SEPOU, a town of Hindooftan; 12 miles’ S.W. of
Agra.

SEPRA, or Sippra, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes
near Indore, joins the Callifind in the circar of Kitchwara,
and, united with other ftreams, forms the Chumbul.

SEPRIO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Olona; 20 miles N.W. of Milan.

SEPS, in Zoology, the name of a very peculiar animal of
the lizard or lacerta kind, but feeming as if of a middle
nature between that genus and the fnakes, and appearing
rather a ferpent with feet than a lizard.

It is a fmall {pecies; its body is rounded, and its back
variegated with longitudinal lines of black ; its eyes are
black ; it has ears, and a {mall and very flender tail. What
appears moft fingular in it is, that it has four legs, with feet
divided into toes; the firft pair are placed very near the
head, the other by the anus; the feales are laid in a reticu-
lated manner, they are of an oblong figure, approaching to
a rhomboides, and laid longitudinally ; its belly is white,
with a flight caft of blue, and it has noftrils near the end of
the fnout. Columna took five living young ones out of
the body of one of this fpecies, fome of which were in-
cluded in membranes, and others loofe, as is the cafe in the
foetus found in the viper.

The bite of the feps is faid to occafion an inftant putre-
fa&tion of the flefh of the whole body.

SEPT Moncex, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Jura; 2 miles E. of St. Claude.

SEPTA, in Antiquity, were inclofures, or rails made of
boards, through which perfons went in to give their votes in
the aflemblies of the Romans.

The word alfo fignifies divifions, and, in that fenfe, is
ufed to exprefs the plates of {fpar, which feparate or divide
the tali of the ludus Helmontii, thence called by Dr. Hill,
feplarie ; which fee. _

SEPTALIUS, or Serrara, Louis, ia Biography, an
Italian phyfician of celebrity, was born at Milan, in Fe-
bruary, 1552. He evinced from his early childhood, a
ftrong inclination to the purfuits of literature, and at the
age of fixteen defended fome thefes on the fubje& of natural

To*

Sik P

philofophy with an acutenefs of reafoning far above his
years, and which excited the furprife of the audience, among
whom was the archbifhop of Milan. It was now fuppofed
that he would follow the iteps of his anceftors, both ma-
ternal and paternal, who had been much diltinguifhed at
the bar; but his inclination led him to the medical profef-
fion, and he accordingly repaired to Pavia, for the purpofe
of commencing the ftudy of it. Here he proceeded with
the fame fuccefs, and obtained the degree of doétor in his
2ift year, and was even appointed to a chair in this cele-
brated univerfity in his 23d year. In his profefforial capa-
city, though fo young, he gave fo many demonttrations of
his talents and acquirements, that he foon became known to
the moit diftinguifhed men of his time. Neverthelefs, at
the end of four years from the time of his appointment, he
determined to relinquifh the profeflorial dignity, for the
purpofe of exercifing his medical {kill in his native city.
While he was engaged in the practice of his art at Milan,
Philip III., king of Spain, feleGted him for his hittorio-
grapher. But though fully fenfible of the value of this
compliment, yet neither this, nor many other more con-
genial honours, that were offered to him, could induce him
to quit his native city, to which he was ardently attached.
He was invited by the ele€tor of Bavaria to @ profeflorfhip
in the univerfity of Ingoldftadt ; by the grand duke of Pifa,
to a chair at that place; and by the city of Bologna toa
fimilar appointment in their fchools; and the fenate of
Venice, by ftill more confiderable offers both of honour and
reward, laboured affiduoufly to bring him to the univerfity
of Padua. But he declined all thefe opportunities of eleva-

tion, content with the efteem and affection of his fellow- ©

citizens, which he amply obtained; and with the domettie
felicity, which the fociety and education of his family, con-
fitting of feven fons and fix daughters, conftantly afforded
him. The only honour which he accepted was the ap-
pointment of chief phyfician to the ftate of Milan, which
Philip IV. conferred upon him in 1627, as a reward for
his virtues and talents. In the year 1628, the plague vifited
Milan. Septalius gave all the aid in his power to his fellow-
citizens, and in the midft of his labours to alleviate the
diftreffes occafioned by this fatal calamity, he was himfelf
feized with the difeafe. He had fearcely recovered from
this attack, when he was fuddenly furprifed by a fit of
apoplexy, which left him fpeechlefs, and paralytic on oné
fide. From this, however, he in a great meafure recovered,
and lived feveral years afterwards, but in a ftate of feeble-
nefs and imperfe& health. He died in September 1633, in
confequence of an attack of dyfentery, at the age of 81.
Septalius was a man of acute powers, and folid judgment,
and was reputed extremely fuccefsful in his practice. He
was warmly attached to the doétrines of Hippocrates, whofe
works he never ceafed to ttudy. He was author of the fol-
lowing works: “In Librum Hippocratis Coi, de Aéribus,
Aquis, et Locis, Commentarii quinque,” 1590; “ In
Ariftotelis Problemata Commentaria Latina,”? tom.i. 1602,
ii. 1607; ‘* De Nevis Liber,” 1606. In this work Sep-
talius has not difplayed his ufual judgment; for he afcribes
the zevi, or mother-fpots, to thé imagination of the preg-
nant mother, and deduces from their appearances many
practical inferences, which are as unfounded as the notion
of their origin. ‘* Animadverfionum et Cautionum Medi-
carum Libri duo, feptem aliis additi,’? 1629. This is a
valuable work, the refult of 40 years of praétice, and equal
to any of its contemporaries of the 17th century. ‘“ De
Margaritis Judicium,”’ 1618; ‘* De Pefte et Peftiferis Af-
fe&tibus Libri V.”? 1622; ‘ Analyticarum et Animatti-
carum Diflertationum Libri IL.”? 1626; « De Morbis ex

mucronata

SEP

mucronata Cartilagine evenientibus, Liber unus,’’ 1632,
&e. See Eloy Dict. Hitt, de la Médécine.
SEPTANA, a word ufed by the ancient phyficians for
a 7 fever, or one that performs its regular period
in feven days. ,
SEPTARLA, in Netural _ » the name of a large
clafs of foflils, called by fome / br Helmontii, and by others
the evaven wins. They are defined to be foflile bodies not
inflammable, nor foluble in water, naturally found in loofe
detached mailes of a moderately firm texture and dufky
hue, divided by feveral fepta, or thin partitions, and com-
of a {parry matter greatly debafed by earth, not giv-
fire with fteel, fermenting with acids, and in great part
iflolved by them, and calcining in a moderate fire.
| OF this clafs there are two diltin& orders of bodies, and
- under thofe fix . The feptarix of the firlt order are
thofe which are ufually found in large mafles of fimple uni-
form conttruétion, st divided by Rs fepta, either into
larger or more irregu rtions, or into fmaller and more
al ones, called sale. ~
Thofe of the fecond order are {uch as are wfually found in
fmaller maffes of a eruftated tlruéture, formed by various
incruftations round a central nucleus, and divided by very

a name indicative of the number

. £ Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, permanent,
cloven into feven, {preading, acute fegments. Cor. Petals
feven, oblong, equal, twice as long as the calyx. Stam.
Filaments feven, awl-fhaped, the length of the calyx ; an-
thers nearly ovate, ereét. Pif. Germens feven, {uperior,
terminating in awl-fhaped ftyles, the length of the ftamens ;

fomewhat obtufe. Peric. Capfules feven, oblong,

acute, parallel, of one valve. Seeds numerous.

EM Ch. Calyx feven-cleft. Petals feven. Germens
feven. Capfules feven, many-feeded.

~ 4. 8. » Cape Septas. Linn. Sp. Pl. 489. Ameen.
Acad. v. 6. 87. Andrews Repof. t. 9o.—Native of the

atte Good Hope. Introduced at Kew in 1774, where
~flowers in Auguft and September. Roof perennial,
_ tuberous, fibrous. Stem thort, fimple, crowned with a tuft
ur, oppofite, blunt, naked: notched, fucculent
lightly ftalked, roundifh ;
F: lalk flender, fome-

to the
Gtifica-
cold
was induced to refer this genus to Cra/-

iro has given the name of Seftas to a plant in Didy-
t which, according to profeflor Martyn,

i i » atown of Afia Minor,
gia, according to ltolemy.
PTEM Aqua, a town oF the Sabines, fituated on

the Rura rofea, or the fine

ce, and commandin
4 the abbé Chaupi to be the

valley. It is fappoled
Pont Grifpeldi

SEP

Sepraem Are, Arronches, a place of Hifpania, betweer
Matufarum and Budua, according to Antonine’s Itinerary.
It was fituated towards the N.W. of Emeritan Augulta,

Seprem Fratrss, a mountain of Africa, io M. intania

Tingitana. Ptolemy calls it Heptadelphus Mons, and
places it on the Northern coaft, between Enxilila and
Abyla.

Seprem Maria, a name given, according to Herodian,
to the marfhes which were formed by the feven branches of
the Eridanus, before its difcharge into the Adriatic fea.

Serrem Pagi, the name ofa plain of Italy, on the bank
of the Tiber, in the country of the Veians, according to
Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus,

Seprem Pda, a town of Italy, in the Picenum, accord-
ing to Strabo. Frontinus makes it a Roman colony, and
gives it the title of Oppidum.

SEPTEMBER, the ninth month of the year, reckoned
from January, and the feventh from March, whence its
name, viz. from /eptimus, feventh.

The Roman fenate would have given this month the
name of Tiberius, but that emperor eppofed it ; the emperor
Domitian gave it his own name Germanicus; the fenate
under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus; Commodus
gave it his furname Herculeus, and the emperor Tacitus his
own name Tucifus. But thefe appellations are all gone into
difufe.

SEPTEMES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ifere ; 9 miles E. of Vienne.

SEPTEMVIR, in Antiquity. See Quinquevir.

The Germans fometimes afe: the word /eptemvirate, for
the feven eleGtors of the empire. See Execror.

SEPTENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lydia.

SEPTENTRIO, or Seprenrriones, in Afronomy, a
northern conitellation of itars, more ufually called Ur/a
Minor, or the Little Bear; and by the people, Charles's
Wain: though the feven itars in the Great Bear have been
of late fo denominated.

The word is formed from the Latin /eptem, feven ; and
triones, bullocks, which, in the ancient conttellation, were
yoked to the plough.

SEpTeNTRIO, in Cofmography, the fame with north ; thus
called from the ancient conitellation Septentrio, one of
whofe ftars is the pole-ftar. Hence alfo,

Bere eR ONAL. SePTENTRIONALIS, fomething
longing to the north; as entrional figns, feptentrional
ites iee. are thofe on al carer aoe
SEPTERION, exingior, in Antiquity, a Delphic fef-

tival, celebrated every niath year, in memory of Apollo’s

victory over Python. The chief part of the folemnity was

a reprefentation of Python purfued by Apollo.
SEPTEUIL, in Geography, a town of France, in the

department of the Seine and Oife; g miles N.W. of

Montfort.

_ SEPTFOIL, in Botany. See Tormentit.

- SEPTFONS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lot; 16 miles N.E. of Montauban.

SEPTICOLLIS, in Ancient Geography, a name, or
rather an epithet, given to the city of Rome.

SEPTICS, among Phyfcians, an appellation given to
all fuch fubftances as promote putrefaction.

From the many curious experiments made by Dr. Pringle
to afcertain the feptic and antifeptic virtues of natural
bodies, it appeurs that there are very few fubflances of a
truly feptic nature. Thofe commonly reputed fuch by
authors, as the alkaline and volatile falts, he found to be no
wife feptic. However, he difcovered fome, where it feemed

leat

SEP

leait likely to find any fuch quality ; thefe were chalk, com-
mon falt, and teftaceous powders. He mixed twenty grains
of crab’s eyes, prepared with fix drachms of ox’s gall, and
an equal quantity of water. Into another phial he put an
equal quantity of gall and water, but no crab’s eyes. Both
thefe mixtures being placed in the furnace, the putrefaétion
began much fooner where the powder was, than in the other
phial. On making a like experiment with chalk, its feptic
virtue was found to be much greater than that of the crab’s
eyes: nay, what the doétor had never met with before, in
a mixture of two drachnis of flefh, with two ounces of water
and thirty grains of prepared chalk, the flefh was refolved
Into a perfect mucus in a few days.

To try whether the teftaceous powders would alfo diflolve
vegetable {ubitances, the doGtor mixed them with barley and
water, and compared this mixture with another of barley
and water alone. After a long maceration by a fire, the
plain water was found to {well the barley, and turn mucila-
ginous and four; but that with the powder kept the grain
to its natural lize, and though it foftened it, yet made no
mucilage, and remained {weet.

Nothing could be more unexpected, than to find fea-falt
a haitener of putrefaétion; but the faé& is this: one drachm
of falt preferves two drachms of frefh beef in two ounces of
water, above thirty hours uncorrupted, in a heat equal to
that of the human body ; or, which is the fame thing, this
quantity of falt keeps flefh {weet twenty hours longer than
pure water ; but then halfa drachm of falt does not preferve
it above two hours longer. Twenty-five grains have little
or no antifeptic virtue, and ten, fifteen, or even twenty
grains, manifeftly both haften and heighten the corruption.
~ The quantity which had the moit putrefying quality, was
found to be about ten grains to the above proportion of flefh
and water.

Many inferences might be drawn from this experiment :
One is, that fince falt is never taken in aliment beyond the
proportion of the corrupting qualities, it would appear that
it is fubfervient to digeftion, chiefly by its feptic virtue,
that is, by foftening and refolving meats; an action very
different from what is commonly believed.

It is to be obferved, that the above experiments were

made with the falt kept for domeftic ufes. See Pringle’s
Obferv. on the Difeafes of the Army, p. 348, feq. See
Sat and Scurvy.
' From fome experiments of Mr. Canton, it appears like-
wife, that the quantity of falt contained in fea-water haftens
putrefaétion ; but fince that precife quantity of falt which
promotes putrefaction the moft, is lefs than that which is
found in fea-water, he concludes it probable, that if the fea
were lefs falt, it would be more luminous. See Luminou/-
nefs of the SEA.

SEPTIEME, Fr. Seftima, Lat. Settima, Ital. the feventh.
Broflard has been the guide of all fubfequent mufical lexico-
graphers. He has been very awkwardly tranflated by
Graffineau; Graflineau has been followed in the lait folio
edition of Chambers; and Roufleau, who writes clearly and
elegantly, has retained the mixture of theory, ratios, and
the ufelefs jargon of major and minor tones and femi-tones,
with praétice, fo much, as to render the ufeful knowledge of
this important interval totally unintelligible to young ftudents
in harmony ; to whom we fhall addrefs all we have to offer on
the fubject of the prefent article, referring fcientific enqui-
rers to Harmonics, Ratios, and the definitions of major and
minor tones and femi-tones.

The 7thin mufic, is one of the principal difcords; fome
fay the only original difcord, as all the reft are derived from
ite The 2d and the oth are only inverfions of the 7th. The

SEP

4th in itfelf is a concord, and only made a difcord by
another difcord being {truck upon it; but the 2d and
the oth, however derived from inverfion, are difcords to the
ear at all times and in all places.

There are three kinds of 7ths ufed in praétical har-
mony; the minor, or flat 7th, ten femi-tones, or half notes,
above the bafe ; the major, or fharp 7th, eleven femitonic
intervals above the bafe ; and the extreme flat 7th, only nine

half notes above the bafe or loweft note, as a > ©? and

Fb
Fx ;

In counterpoint and thorough-bafe, the 7th is accompa-
nied by the & or common chord, from which its harmony

only differs by the addition of that fingle found from the
triad. And as a bafe, in practice, is called fundamental,
by being accompanied only with the common chord, the ad-
dition ob the 7th to this common chord does not rob the bafe
figured witha 7th of its title of fundamental.

The 7th in binding notes is prepared in the 3d, 5th, 6th,
and 8th, and refolved-on the 6th, 3d, and 5th.

Dr. Pepufch has given an excellent chapter on 7ths pre.
pared and refolved in the treble ; but to his inftrutions for
7ths prepared and refolved in the bafe, p. 37 of the text, we
cannot fubfcribe. See Peruscn, and Analylfisiof his Treatife
on Harmony.

The 7th is the only difcord which need not be always
prepared.

The fharp 7th, which the French call /a note fenfible, till
about the middle of the laft century, was only ufed in re-
citative ; but fince that time it has been rapidly increafing in
favour ; firft in German fymphonies, and afterwards in fongs, -
and every fpecies of elegant mufic. Its chord is frequently
indicated by a7, a fharp 7th; but different mafters fre.
quently ufe the following numerical expreflions of this

chordi: 75,75 5 and é, Its origin is an appoggiatura or-
ganized.

The extreme flat 7th gives what has been termed by} Rouf-
feau the enharmonic chord, confifting entirely of flat 3ds,
whence twelve modulations may be acquired, by making
each note of the chord the fharp 7th, or leading note to a

new key ; by which means thefe three chords 4 a ¥e fe x”
Z ” give 36 modulations. See Mujfic Plates, and InrTxER-

vALs, Cuorps, Mopuration, and CounTErrPoint.

SEPTIER, or Serrer, a French meafure, differing ac-
cording to the fpecies of the things meafured.

For dry meafure, the feptier is very different in different
places and different commodities ; as not being any veflel of
meafure, but only an eftimation of feveral other meafures.

At Paris, the feptier of wheat confifts of two mines, the
mine of two minots, and the minot of three bufhels or boif-
feaux, and 12 feptiersare a muid. The boifleau contains 16
litrons. A muid of wheat weighs about 288olbs. poids de
marc ; anda feptier, 240lbs. But a muid of oats contains
24 feptiers. The boiffeau is a cylinder 8 inches 23 lines in
height, and ro inches in diameter: its contents are, there-
fore, 644 French cubic inches, or 780 Englifh ditto ; hence
11 feptiers of Paris are = 6 Englifh quarters, and 11 boif-
feaux = 4 Englifh bufhels. A muid of falt contains alfo 12
feptiers, and a feptier, 4 minots, 16 boifleaux, 256 litrons,
or 4096 mefurettes, weighing about goolbs, poids de marc,
or 432lbs. avoirdupois. At Abbeville 18.87 feptiers are

equal to 10 Englifh quarters, and each feptier is 9 364. cubic
inches,

SEP

inches. At Amiens, 85.79 feptiers = 10 Englith quarters,
and cach feptier = 2005 cubic inches. At Arles, 47.40
feptiers = 10 Englith quarters, and each {eptier = 3628 cu-
bie inches. At icalaths 16.32 feptiers = 10 Englith
quarters, andeach feptier = 10,535 cubic inches. At Calais,
16.95 feptiers = 10 Englifh quarters, and each feptier =
10,144 cubic inches. At Cette, 42.98 feptiers = 10 Englith
quarters, and cach feptier = 4002 cubic inches. At Liege,
~ om ca == 10 Englith quarters, and each feptier =
% cubic inches. At Montpellier, 53.21 feptiers = 10
Englith quarters, and each feptier = 4253 cubic inches.
At Nantes, 19.68 feptiers = 10 Englith quarters, and
feptier = 8739 cubic inches. At Paris, 18.38 fep-
= 10 Englith quarters, and each feptier = 9360 cubic
At Rouen, 15.75 feptiers = 10 Englith quarters,
and each feptier = 10,920 cubic inches. At St. Valery,
iers = 10 Englifh quarters, and each feptier =
ie inches.
cag alfo aliquid meafure at Paris and in other
parts of and at Geneva. A muid of wine at Paris and
in fome other parts of France, contains 36 feptiers, 144 quarts
or pots, or 288 pintes, and 280 pintes without the lees. The
inte contains 2 ines, 4 demi-feptiers, or 8 poiffons, in
French cubic inches, or nglith ditto; fo that a
pinte is nearly equal to an Englifh quart ; and a muid
of wine contains 713 English gallons.
begs Geneva, the char, wine meafure, my Z 2 feptiers ;
feptier, or 48 pots; an eptier is =
about 12 Eat gallons ; 8.37 feptiers are = 100 Englith
wine meafure, and = 2760 cubic inc
SEPTIMANCA, S: AS, In Ancient a
town in the interior of Hifpamia Citerior, belonging to the
or In the Itinerary of Antonine it is marked on the
from Emerita to Saragoffa, between Amallobrica and
Nivaria. It was fituated on the Durias, S. of Pallentia.
_ SEPTIMENI. Sec Seprumant.
SEPTIMINICIA, atown of Africa Propria, upon the
route from Therz to Affure, between Madaflama and Ta-
blata, ape the Itinerary of Antonine.
_SEPTIMO IUM, among the Romans, a fettival ce-

} in » on all the feven hills of Rome ;
whence alfo it had this
—nali a

name, being otherwife called Ago-

aug pomtton ited bg the Ancient - ecto ev
2 a toa ous maufoleum

of the Anbotines: which, Aur, Viétor tells us,
va in the tenth region of the city of Rome, being
ge infulated building, with feven ftages or {tories of

was {quare, and the upper ftories of columns

much, rendered the pile of a pyramidical form,

yc with the ftatue of the emperor Septimius
mu

Hiftoria make mention of another feptizon, more an-
t than that of Severus, built near the Therme of An-

-SEPTUAGESIMA, in the Calendar, denotes the
rd Sunday ogg or before quadragefima ; and
oe fi is

by fome to take its name from its bein
days before Eaiter: pope Telefphorus fir
10

name /eplizon, ae ium, from /eptem and zona,
ones or y reafon of its being girt with -

SEP

pote ae a fealt day, and appointed Lent to commence
rom it,

The laws of king Canutus ordained a vacation from judi-
cature, from feptuagefima to guindena pafehe. (See Quin-
QUAGESIMA.) From feptuagefima to the oftaves after
Eafler, marriage is forbidden by the canon law.

SEPTUAGINT, LXX, or she Seventy, « term famous
pan divines and critics, for a verfion of the Old Teftament
outof Hebrew into Greek, faid to have been performed by
feventy-two Jewith interpreters, in obedience to an order of
Prolemy Philade!phus.

The ancients, till Jerom’s time, univerfally believed, that
the Seventy were infpired perfons, not mere trauflators,
grounding their belief on a fabulous hiftory of this verfion
given by Arifteas ; who tells us, that the high-prieft Eleazar
chofe fix do@ors out of each tribe for this office, which
made the number of feventy-two; and that thefe being fhut
up each in his feveral cell, each tranflated the whole ; and
without feeing what any of the reft had done, they were found
toa to a letter.

learned Dr. Hody, “ De Bibliorum Textibus Ori-
are &c. who feems to have ftudied the origin of the
reek verfion more accurately than any critic before him,
has laboured very fuccefsfully in deteéting the falfe ftory of
Arifteas ; and he has likewife proved, that this verfion was
made by the Jews living at Alexandria, for the ufe of them-
{elves and many thoufands of their brethren, who were then
fettled in Egypt, and who, living among the Greeks, gene-
rally ufed the Greek language. And he has alfo proved,
that the whole Hebrew bible was not tranflated into Greek
at once, but that different parts were tranflated at different
times: that the Pentateuch was tranflated firft, about 285
years before Chrilt ; that only the Pentateuch was read in
the fynagogues till about 170 years before Chrift, when
Antiochus Epiphanes, their cruel perfecutor, forbad them
to recite any part of the law; that foon after this prohibi-
tion, ‘the Jews tranflated into Greek [faiah, and the follow-
ing ipropbets: for the ufe of the temple at Heliopolis and
the Alexandrian fynagogues ; and that the other books were
tranflated afterwards, with different de: of {kill and
care, at various times, and by various perions. See alfo on
this fubje&t Prideaux’s Connedt. vol. ili. p. 38, &c. Brett’s
Differtation on the ancient Verfion of the Bible, publifhed
in Bithop Watfon’s Colleétion of Tra&s ; Dupin’s Canon,
Walton’s Prolegomena, &c. &c. See ALEXANDRIAN
Copy, aud Greek Bree.

SepruaGint, Chronology of the, or Seventy, is an ac-
count of the years of the world, very different from
what is found in the Hebrew text, and the Vulgate;
mene the world 1466 years older than it is found in thefe
atter.

The critics are much divided as to the point of preference.
Baronius prefers the account of the Seventy ; and If. Voflius
makes an apology for it. The two lateft and moit ftre-
nuous advocates in this difpute, are father Pezron, a Ber-

‘nardine, and father Le Quien, a Dominican; the firft of
whom defends the chronology of the Septuagint, and
the latter that of the Hebrew text. See Sacred Cunono-
LoGy.

SEPTUM, in Anatomy, a name applied to various parts
of the body; generally fuch as feparate contiguous ca-
vities.

The Septum Auricularum in the heart is placed between
the two auricles, See Hearr.
Ssprum Cerebri and Cercbelli, the falciform procefies of
the dura mater. See Brain.
Serrum

SE P

Septum Cordis or Ventriculorum, the partition between
the ventricles of the heart. See Hearr.

Sserum Lucidum, the part interpofed between the two
lateral ventricles of the brain. See Brain.

Seetum Narium, the partition between the noftrils.
Nose.

Septum PeGiniforme Penis.
penis under GENERATION.

Septum Scrofi, See GENERATION.

Septum Thoracis, the mediaftinum, which forms the par-
tition: between the two fides of the cheft. See Lune.

SEeptuM Tran/verfum, or Mujfculare, the diaphragm. See
DIAPHRAGM.

SEPTUMANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, who inhabited the town of Bitterz, according
to Pliny. In procefs of time a province of their territory
was denominated Septimania.

SEPU, in Geography, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Sivas; 4o miles S.E. of Sivas.

SEPULCHRAL, Seputcuratis, fomething belong-
ing to fepulchres or tombs.

SEPULCHRAL Column. See CoLuMN.

SEPULCURAL Jnfcriptions, are the furelt monuments we
have of antiquity.

SEPULCHRAL Lamps. See Lamp.

SEPULCHRAL, or Sepulchralis, is alfo the appellation of a
fe& ; thus called from their fuppofed principal error, which
was, that by the word Ae//, whither the Scripture tells us
Jefus Chrift defcended after his death, they underftood no
more than his grave or fepulchre. See HELu.

Seputcurauis Pecunia. See PEcuNtIA.

SEPULCHRE, Serpurcurum, a tomb, or place, def-
tined for the interment of the dead.

The term is chiefly ufed in {peaking of the burying-
places of the ancients; thofe of the moderns we ulually
call tombs.

Befides the ufual fepulchres for the interment, either of
the whole body, or of the afhes of the burnt, the ancients
had a peculiar kind, called cenotaphia, being empty fepulchres
made in honour of fome perfons, who, perhaps, had no
burial at all; froma fuperftitious opinion, that the fouls of
thofe who wanted burial wandered a hundred years before
they were admitted to pafs into the Elyfian fields. See Bu-
RIAL and CenoTaPuH.

The pyramids are fuppofed to have been built as fepulchres
for the kings of Egypt. And the obelifks had generally
the {ame intention.

Sepulchres were held facred and inviolable, and the care
taken of them was deemed a religious duty, grounded on
the fear of God, and the belief of the foul’s immortality.
Thofe who fearched or violated them, have been odious to
all nations, and always feverely punifhed.

The Egyptians call their fepulchres eternal houfes, in con-
tradiftinGion to their houfes and palaces, which they called
inns ; by reafon of the fhort fojourn we have in the one, in
comparifon of our long flay in the other. The eattern pil-
grimages are all made with defign to vifit the holy fepulchre,
that is, the tomb of Jefus Chriit. Nobody enters here but
bare-footed, and with abundance of ceremonies. The Turks
exa&t twenty-four crowns of each pilgrim, whom devotion
carries to the holy fepulchre.

SEPULCHRE, St., or-the Holy Sepulchre, gives the deno-
mination to an order of regular canons, anciently inftituted
in Jerufalem, in honour of the holy fepulchre.

They afcribe their inftitution to Godfrey of Boulogne,
who, they fay, upon his taking Jerufalem in the year 1009,
placed canons in the patriarchal church of the Holy Sepul-

See

See the defcription of the

SEP

chre, which indeed is true, but then they were not regulars.
Ineffe&, it was Arnoul, who, of archdeacon of the church
of Jerufalem, got himfelf ele&ted patriarch of it, that, in
1114, firft obliged his canons to live in community, and to
follow the rule of St. Auguttine.

From the Holy Land numbers of thefe canons were
brought into Europe, particularly into France by Louis the
Younger ; into England by king Henry; into Poland by
Jaxa, a Polifh gentleman ; and into Flanders by its counts.

But the order was afterwards fupprefled by Innocent
VILL, and its effeGts given to that of Our Lady of Bethle-
hem, which itfelf ceafing, they were beftowed, in 1484, on
that of the knights of St. John of Jerufalem ; but the fup-
preffion did not take place-in Poland, nor in feveral pro-
vinces of Germany, where they ftill fubfiit : their general is
in Poland: their habit, father Heliot obferves, has been
different in different places.

Srputcure, Si., or the Holy Sepulchre, is alfo the name
of amilitary order, eftablifhed in Paleftine, as fome fay, by
Godfrey of Boulogne, but according to others by his fuc-
ceffor, Baldwin.

However, it is certain there were none but canons in the
church of St. Sepulchre till the year 11143; and it is no
more than probable, the knights were only initituted upon
the ruins of the canons, four hundred years after, and that
by pope Alexander VI. in order to excite rich and noble
perfons to vifit the holy places, by giving them the title of
knights of the Holy Sepulchre, and to this end, inftituting an
order under that name, of which he referved the quality of
mafter to himfelf and his fucceflors.

Leo X. and Clement VII. granted to the guardian of the
religious of St. Francis, in the Holy Land, the power of
making thefe knights ; which power, firft granted viva voce,
was afterwards confirmed by a bull of Pius IV. In 1558,
the knights of this order in Flanders, chofe Philip II. king
of Spain, their matter, and afterwards his fon; but the
grand matter of the order of Malta prevailed on him to re-
fign ; and when afterwards the duke Nevers aflumed the
fame quality in France, the fame grand matter, by his in-
tereft and credit, procured a like renunciation of him,
and a confirmation of the union of this order to that of
Malta.

SEPULCHRI Pretium. See Pretium.

SEPULVEDA, Joun Genestus, in Biography, an emi-
nent Spanifh divine, born in the diocefe of Cordova in 1491.
He became diltinguifhed for his knowledge of law, philofo-
phy, and divinity, and was, on account of his great learning,
nominated by the emperor Charles V.. hiftoriographer
and theologian. His fame was chiefly owing to his verfion
of Ariftotle into the Latin language. When in the height
of his reputation, he was engaged in a controverfy from
which he derived no honour. It is thus related :

At the time that the celebrated Las Cafas, bifhop of
Chiapa, was pleading the caufe of the opprefled Indians be-
fore the court of Spain, Sepulveda, induced by fome Spa-
niards who had tyrannized over that people, wrote a book in
the Latin language, by way of dialogue, in which he un-
dertook to prove, that the wars of: the Spaniards in the In-
dies were jult, and founded on their right to fubdue the
people of that new world ; that it was,the duty of the In-
dians to fubmit to be governed by the Spaniards, on account
of their own inferiority in knowledge and wifdom ; and that
if they would not voluntarily acquiefce in the Spanifh domi-
nion, they might and ought to be compelled by force of
arms. Sepulveda, to add weight to his argument, declared
that his whole obje& was to eftablifh the right of the kings
of Caftille and Leon to take pofleffion of their domain in

the

SEQ

Las
perfuaded that

which he com.

both of which pronounced that it ought not to be
committed to the prefs. ihe author, determined if poflible
is point, fent his book to Rome, where it was
en » informed of his intention, fent ex-
prefs orders to rohit its circulation, and caufed the copies
of them, however, had already reached
Spain, Las Calas thought it neceflary to make a reply in
defence of the poor Indi The emperor at length cited
the parties before the council of the Indies, and fent Domi-
nic Soto to arbitrate between them. He heard the argu-
meats on both fides, and made a report in Fevonsiied teas
oe. The matter, however, remained undecided ; |
rah i ithop had not the fatisfaction to fee the I
from their tyran

which he was acanon, in 1572, _ Befides the works above-

_ SEPuLV in Geography, a town of Spain, in Old
Caitile, aly | river Duraton; 28 miles N.E. of Se-
_SEPYRA, in Ancient
mount Amanus, of which
_SEQUANA, a river which fepara
Gauls from that of the Belge, according to Czfar.
Tt is the pee
_SEQ 7a

the mete ia Cokin, ut Auguitus places them in Bel-

_ SEQUATUR /ub fuo periculo, in Law, a writ that
ie nee rt 8, Lowy a wit the
the fheriff returns that the party hath nothing by which
may be fummoned; thea goes forth an alias and a
ies; and if he comes not on the pluries, this writ

iflue.
SEQUEANG, in G. » atown of Pegu, on the
wrth 20 miles N. Ran 0.
5 EL, Sequeta, in Logic, a confequence drawn
fre preceding propofition.
As if I fay, The human foul is immaterial, and therefore im-
I; the ft member of the fentence is a /eque of the

SEQUENCE, French, from fequor, J follow, in Gaming,
nes or fet of cards rarest am cuth abouts
me {uit or colour.

fay, a fequence of four cards, of five, &. At
ot are tierees, quarts, quints, &c.

Q RESP RATION, omens in Common

a town of Syria, upon
made himfelf mafter.

ted the country of

of feparating a thin in controverfy, from
sof both pares ell the right be determined

415 4 voluntary and neceffary : volunt ,

@ it is done by confent of both parties : a bar
a} which the judge doth by his authority, whether

es will or not. :

STRATION, in the Civil Law, is the aét of the

! 1g of the goods and chattels of one de-

uled, whofe eftate no man will meddle with.

Tg eet a faid to fequefler, when fhe difclaims

of Gaul. In the time of Cefar the

SEQ
having any thing to do with the eflate of her deceafed
hufband.

Among the Romanifts, in quettions of marriage, where
the wife complains of impotency in the bufband, the is to
be fequeftered into a convent, or into the hands of matrons,
ull the procels be determined.

Swavestnation is alfo ufed for the aét of gathering
the fruits of a benefice void, to the ule of the next in.
cumbent.

Sometimes a benefice is kept under fequeftration for many
years, when it is of fo fmall value, that no clergyman fit
to ferve the cure, will be at the charge of taking it by in-
ititution; in which cafe the fequeltration is committed
either to the curate alone, or to the curate and church-
wardens jointly. Sometimes the profits of a living in con-
troverfy, either by the confent of the parties, or the
judge’s authority, are fequettered and placed for fafety in
a third hand, till the fuit is determined, a minifter being
appointed by the judge to ferve the cure, and allowed a
certain falary out of the profits. Sometimes the profits of
a living are fequettered for neglect of duty, for dilapida-
tions, or for fatisfying the debts of the incumbent. And
this is, where a judgment hath been obtained againit a

an, and upon a feri facias directed to the theriff to
deny the debt and damages, he returns, that the defendant
is a clerk beneficed having no lay fee. Whereupon a Lvari
facias (fee Levani) is direéted to the bifhop to levy the
fame of his ecclefiattical goods, and by virtue thereof the
tithes fhall be fequeftered. (Watfon. c.15.) Inthis cafe
the bifhop may name the fequeftrators himfelf, or grant the
fequeftration to fuch perfons as fhall be named by the party
who obtained the writ. If the fequeitration be laid an
executed before the day of the return of the writ, the mean
profits may be taken by virtue of the fequeftration after
writ is made returnable, otherwife not. If an =
be made againft a fentence of fequeftration, and lawfull
prefented, the party fequeitered fhall enjoy the profits Mon: |
ing the appeal. (Lind. 104.) It is ufual for the eccle-
fiaitical judge to take bond of the fequettrators, well and truly
to rand receive the bichon deeded and other profits,
and to rendera juit account (Watfon. c. 30.): and thofe
to whom the fequeitration is committed are to caufe the
fame to be publifhed in the re{peCtive churches, in the
time of divine fervice.

The fequeftrators cannot maintain an aétion for tithes in
their own name at the common law, nor in any of the
king’s courts; but only in the {piritual court, or before the
jultices of the peace where they have power by law to take
cognizance. When the fequeitrators have performed the
duty required, the fequcitration is to be taken off, and the
profits applied according to the direétion of the ordinary,
and they fhall be allowed out of the profits a recompence
for their trouble, and alfo for the fupply of the cure, and

for the maintenance of the incumbent and his family,
if they need it. “Sequeitrators refufing to deliver up their
charge, may be compelled to do it by the ec i
judge. If the in nt be not fatistied with the condu&
of the fequeftrators ig the execution of their charge, his
proper remedy is by application to the fpiritual judge ; and
if he be not fatisfied with his determination, he may appeal
to a fuperior jurifdiétion.

In the time of the civil wars, f{equeftration was ufed for
a feizing of the eitates of delinquents, for the ufe of the
commonwealth,

Sequestration, in Chancery, is a commiffion ufually
i to feven therein named, empowering them
to feize the defendant’s a eftate and the profits -

SEQ

his real, and to detain them, fubje& to the order of the
court. It iffues on the return of the ferjeant at arms,
in which it was certified that the defendant had fecreted
himfelf.

Sequeftrations were firft introduced by fir Nicholas
Bacon, lord keeper, in the reign of queen Elizabeth ;
before which the court found fome difficulty in enforc-
ing its procefs and decrees: and they do not feem to be
in the nature of procefs to bring in the defendant, but
only intended to enforce the performance of the court’s
decree.

SEQUESTRATION, in London, is made upon an ation of
debt: in which cafe, the a@ion being entered, the officer
goes to the fhop or warehoufe of the defendant, when
there is nobody within, and puts a padlock upon the door,
&c. ufing thefe words, “ I do fequefter this warehoufe,
and the goods and merchandifes therein of the defendant
in the action, to the ufe of the plaintiff,” &c. and having
put on his feal, makes return of it to the compter; and
after four court days, the plaintiff may have judgment to
open the doors, and appraife the goods by a aene who
takes a bill of appraifement, haying two freemen to appraife
them, for which they are to be fworn at the next court
holden for that compter ; and then the officer puts his hand
to the bill of appraifement, and the court giveth judgment.
However, the defendant in the ation may put in bail be-
fore fatisfa&tion, and fo diffolve the fequeftration; and
after fatisfaction may put in bail ad di/prabandum debitum,
&c.

SEQUESTRATION, Sequefiratio, in Chemiftry, a term ufed
by fome writers to expre{s feparation.

SEQUESTRO Hasenpo, in Law, a writ judicial
for the difcharging a fequettration of the profits of a
church-benetice, granted by the bifhop at the king’s com-
mandment, in order to compel the parfon to appear at the
{uit of another. The parfon, upon his appearance, may
have this writ for the releafe of the fequeftration.

SEQUIN, Zecarn, Zecchino, a gold coin ftruck at
Venice, Genoa, Rome, Milan, Piedmont, and Tufcany,
and in feveral parts of the grand fignior’s tates.

Ablancourt derives the word from Cizicum, or Cizxiceni-
cum; as fuppofing the fequin firft ftruck at Cizicum: Me-
nage, from the Italian xecchino, of secca, the name of the
mint at Venice. At Florence, pieces of 3 fequins are called
Rufponi (fee Ruspono) ; zecchini or fequins, called Gig-
Jiati, weigh 2 denari 23 grani, and are worth 13} lire or
20 paoli. The Roman and Genoa fequins circulated here
are valued at 13 lire; Venetian fequins at 13% lire. The
fequin Gighiato weighs 53% Enclifh grains, and the gold is
232 carats fine: it is therefore worth gs. 6d. fterling. At
Rome roo francefconi, or 50 zecchini, are exchanged for
too fendi Romani, more or lefs. At Genoa, the fequins
are valued at 13 lire ro foldi, In 1807 the Roman fequins
were valued here at 14/, and the Venetian at 14/. 10s.
The weight of the fequin at Genoa is 76 graivs of gold
23% carats fine, and its value is gs. 5d. At Leghorn the
fequin is current for 13 lire 6 foldi 8 denari, of moneta
buona, and for 13 lire 18 foldi 3 denari of moneta langa.
At Lucca in Italy the fequin paffes for 142 lire: Venetian
fequins are taken at the fame as other Italian fequins, and
German ducats at 14 lire 6 foldi. In the ifland of Malta,
Venetian fequins pafs for 6 {cudi: the fcudo current money
being worth 201d. fterling. At Marfeilles, Italian fequins
pafs for 11 livres 2 fous, more orlefs. At Milan, fequins,
weighing 2 denari 2034 grani, are valued at 15 lire 4 foldi.
At Parma the fequin is valued at 45 lire, the lira being
worth 23d. nearly.

SEQ

At Rome, the zecchini or fequins are current at 21k
paoli, with their doubles and halves in proportion. The
fequin is to weigh 2 denari 21 “j4%5 grains, or 52 ,°, Englifh
grains, and the gold is 23% carats fine; fo that it contains
little more than 52 grains of pure gold, and is therefore
worth gs. 3d. flerling. At Tunis, a Venetian fequin pafles
for 2 piaftres, 32 afpers, more or lefs. At Venice, the
gold coins of the old republic are zecchini or fequins,
with halves and quarters. ‘he fequin is commonly reckon-
ed at 22 lire, but it bears a fluctuating agio, which in the
year 1805 was 37 per cent.: 68% zecchini or fequins are
to contain a Venetian mark of fine gold; and are faid to
have no alloy ; the quantity of alloy, however, is {mall and
uncertain. The Venetian fequin weighs 54 Englith grains
nearly, and it is therefore worth gs. 6d. fterling.

The aflay of the Genoa fequin is better than the Enolifh
ftandard of 22 carats, and its value, &c. according to the
mint price of gold in England, viz. 3/. 175. 10Ld. per oz.
is as follows: viz. the aflay 1 carat 34 grains, weight
2 dwt. 53 grs., contents im pure gold 53.4 grs., and value in
{terling gs. 54d. The fequin of Milan is better than the
Englifh ftandard; its aflay is 1 car. 3 grs., its weight
2dwt. 53 grs., its contents in pure gold 53.2 grs., and its
fterling value is gs. 5d. The fequin, or two-ducat piece
of Naples, of 1762, is worfe than Eng. ftand.; its aflay
is I car. 22 grs., weight 1 dwt. 202 gr., contents in pure
gold 37.4 grs., and fterling value 74d. The fequin of
Piedmont (and half fequin in proportion) is better than
Eng. ftand. ; its aflay is car. 25grs., weight 2dwt. s3ers.,
contents in pure gold 52.9 grs., and value gs. gid. The -
fequin of Rome, coined before 1760, is better than Eng.
ftand.; its aflay is 1 car. 2 grs., weight 2 dwt. 4= grs.
contents in pure gold 51.4 grs., and value os. 13d. The
aflay of the fequin coined fince 1760 is icar. 34 ¢rs.,
weight 2 dwt. 44 grs., contents in pure gold 52.2 grs., and
value gs. 3d.

The zecchino, or fequin of Tufcany, is better than the
Englifh ftandard; its aflay is 1 car. 33 grs., its weight
2dwt. 52¢rs., its contents in pure gold 53.6 grs., and
its value gs. 53d. The zecchino or fequin (the half and
quarter in proportion) of Venice is better than the Eng-
lish ftandard; its aflay is 1 car. 32% grs., its weight 2 dwts.
6 grs., its contents in pure gold 53.6 grs., and its value
gs. 5d.

The impreffions on the Italian fequins are as follow :
on that of Genoa, St. John the Baptift holding a crofs ;
legend, NON SURREXIT MAJOR, i.e. a greater has not
arifen, and the date ; reverfe, the arms of Genoa with a
crown; legend, Dux et Gub. Reipub. Genu. i. e. doge and
governor of the republic of Genoa. On that of Mulan,
the head of the reigning emperor of Germany, with name
and title thus; JOSEP. Il. D. G. R. IMP. S. AUG. G.H. ET Be
REX. A.A. i.e. Jofeph the fecond, by the grace of God, em-
peror of Rome, ever auguft, king of Germany, Hungary,
and Bohemia, archduke of Auttria ; reverfe, arms of Milan;
legend, MEDIOLANI ET MANTU# Dux, duke of Milan and
Mantua. On that of Venice, a man holding a crofs, and
another kneeling before him with the doge’s name, a3 ALOY.
woc. (Aloyfius Mocenigo,) and the letters s. M. Vv. E.N. E.
one above the other near the edge of the piece, z.¢. Sanéus
Marcus Venetus ; alfo the letters p. v.x. Dux, duke or
doge, placed in the fame manner above the kneeling figure :
reverfe, a whole length figure of St. Mark, holding a book,
and furrounded with tars; legend, stv T. xPE. DAT. Q.
TU REGIS ISTE DucA, fuppofed by Muratori in his “ An-
tiquitates Italice Medi Aévi,”’ to denote, Sit 2idi Chrifle
daium, quod (vel quia) tu regis Lffe ducatum, i.e. To thee,

O Chritt,

SEQ

OChrift, be it (this coin) given, becaufe thou governeft (uni-
verfally). He, St. Mark, governs the duchy. Muratori
doubts this interpretation, and fuppofes that (fe might
have been originally ip. The legend, however, 18 curious,
, a ae both an hexameter om and a monkith rhyme.
The and quarter fequins bear the fame impreflions,
d on the reverie is, Ego /um lux mundi, i. ¢.

T am the of the world,

At Cochin, on the Malabar coaft, Venetian fequins are
worth 72 fanams, of which 20 are reckoned for a rupee.
At Goa, Venctian fequins are worth 16 good tangas, each
of which is worth about 74d. flerling. At Surat, the
weight of a Venetian fequin is reckoned at g} valls, of
which 824 make 1 oz, troy.

The coins of Turkey are the fequin or chequeen,
called fequin fonducli, coined in the year 1764; 100

* of thefe weigh tro Turkifh drachms, or 5418 Englith

i a are about 23 earn aes he fequin

i at tinople paffed at ‘or 3} piattres, or
| i afpers ; but its price was gradually ville en 4 pialtres.
oe oy of them were called in for a new coinage.

gingerly; the nisfié, or half mahbub; and the roubbié,

or one-third ditto: 100 mahbubs, 200 nisfiés, or 300

roubbiés, were to weigh 824 Turkifh drachms, or 4061

Englith grains: they were at firft 22 carats fine, but in 1781

to 19$ carats; and in fubfequent coinages

non ae ftill on genre” Venetian feqains pafs at

piaftres. At Alexandria in Egypt the fe-

quin, so Cemetaed is worth 146 medini; that called

\ is valued at 120 medini, 40 medini being = a
146

At Grand Cairo in Egypt, contraéts are made in
and mahbub fequins; the former are reckoned at

bub) fequins, and medini: 40 me-
gfd. fterling, fo that the mahbub is
934. fterling. Mahbubs, however, of inferior
the Beys in Egypt, and generally pafs
Turki m9 are current at Patras
pean gold ducats and fequins cir-
fequin fonducli of Coultentivople of
73 is worfe than the Englith ftandard; its affay is 2 car.
sf gr; itéweight 2dwt. 53 gr.; its contents in pure gold
te and its flerling value 7s. 8id. The fequin fon-
i of 1789 is alfo worfe than the Englifh ftandard : its
aflay is 2 car. 3} gr.; its weight 2 dwt. 53 gr. ; its contents
in pure gold 42.9 gr., and its value 7s. 7 The double
p mahbub of Conttantinople of 1773 is better than the
itandard: its aflay is 1 car.; its weight 3 dwt.
its contents in pure gold 73.1 gr., and its value
t1¢d. The fequin mahbub of 1789 is worfe than the
f : its aflay is 2 car. 3 gr.; its weight 1 dwt.
its contents in pure gold 28.9 gr., and its value
St. ae The fequin of Cairo of 1773 18 alfo worfe than
the Englih ttandard : its affay is 3 car. of gr.; its weight
154 gr.; its contents in pure gold 31 gr., and its
s- 53d. The fequin of Cairo of 1789 is alfo worfe
i : its allay is 5 car. 24 gr.; its
1 dwt, ro) its contents in pure gold 26.9 gr.,
value 4s.

As the jon of men and animals is forbidden by
Mahometan law, the Turkish coins have no other im-
than infcriptions ftating the names, titles, defcent,
of their fultans, with the date of the hegira, or Ma-
era. They are in the Arabic language, and the

ee
are coined

5
4a

‘than

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following tranflations from the principal coins of (ultan
Selim (1789) may ferve as a {pecimen, as there is but lathe
variety in the form or fhyle of thefe compofitions.

The fequin mahbub has on one fide, * Sultan Selim, fon
of Multafa Khan, may he be vi¢torious, and his valour be
bleft, flruck at Slambul (Conftantinople) in the year
1203 ;”” and on the reverfe, * Sultan of the two lands, and
fovereign of the two feas, fultan by inheritance, fon of a
fultan.’’ The words, ** May he be victorious, and his
valour be bleit,’’ are occafionally ufed by the Turks at the
end of their prayers. By the “two lands,” are meant

Europe and Afia; and by the * two feas,” the Black fea
and the Archipelago. ‘The latter w alfo called here the
White fea.

The fequin fonducli has on one fide, “ Sultan Selim, fon
of Muftafa Khan ;’’ and ov the reverfe, “ Struck at Slam-
bul, in the year 1203.”

The impreffions of fequins of different periods moftly
anfwer to either of the foregoing deferiptions; but the fe-
quins coined at Cairo, under fultan Abdulhamid in 1773,
have their inferiptions as follows: “ Sultan Abdulhamid,
fon of Ahmed Khan, may his valour be bleft, ftruck in
Egypt in the year 1187 ;’’ and on the reverfe, the titles as
on the fequin mahbub of Selim.

he pieces of two, three, four, and five fequins bear the
fame infcriptions as the fingle fequin, and they are fome-
times alfo encircled with ornaments.

The fequins of the Barbary ftates are coined in the name
of the grand feignior, and are only diltinguifhed by the
words, “ Struck at Tunis, Tripoli,” &c. They bear on
the reverfe the titles as on the fequin mahbub of Selim.
Kelly’s Un. Cambitt.

SERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Serica, which
had the title of metropolis, according to Ptolemy.

Sera, in Geography, a town of Hindooitan, and capital
of a diftri€, once a confiderable fubah, conquered by Hyder
Ali; taken from the dominions of his fon Tippoo, and

iven to the Nizam in the year 1800; 58 miles N.W. of
angalore. N. lat. 13° 28’. E. long. 75° 54'.—Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 24 miles S. of Dunger-

pour.

Sera Capriola, a town of Naples, in the province of
Capitanata; 14 miles S.S.E. of Termola.

SERAB, a diftri@ of Adirbeitzan, or Azerbijan, and
a town, 15 miles E. of Tabris.

SERABIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Hifpania,
in the Tarragonenfis. Ptolemy.

SERACH, in the Turki/b Military Orders, an officer
who holds the ftirrup of the caia of the janizaries in charge,
attends him when he goes out on horfeback, and ferves him
as a meflenger on all occafions. After this office he has the
title of chous ; and after he has pafled through this, he has
the fame office under the aga of the janizaries. Pococke’s

Egypt, p- 168.
SERACONYA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 38
miles E.S.E. of Iflamabad.

SERACORRO, a town of Africa, in Bambarra; 80
miles W.N.W. of Sego.

SERAES, or Serxas, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Khorafan; 180 miles N.N.W. of Herat. The
Tedzen has its fource near this place.

SERAFINI, in Biography, an Italian finger with a
feeble foprano voice, but fo good an a@or, that in 1754,
when Metatftafio’s “ Attilio Regolo,” fet by Haile, was
performed in London, in the laft feeue of this opera, which
ends with an accompanied recitative, without an air, he
was conitantly encored : but pow it was the poet who

Li2 was

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was encored ; for the addio of Regulus, returning to Car-
thage to certain torture and death, in fpite of the prayers
and intreaties of his family and all Rome, is fo charaéteriltic
and truly Roman, that it muit have ftruck every one who
had the leait knowledge of the Italian language, and the in-
flexible virtue of Regulus.

SERAGANORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan,
in the Carnatic; 5 miles S.S.W. of Ootatore.

SERAGE, in Ornithology, an Englifh name for a bird of
the larus, or gull-kind, more ufually called the /2a-/wallow,
and by authors /lerna.

SERAGIO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cor-
fica; 6 miles S. of Corve.

SERAGLIO, a diftri& of Italy, fouth of Mantua, in
which Auguftus had fome pofleflions; called alfo ‘ Vir-
ginian Fields.”’

Seraciio, formed of the Turkifh word /erai, which is
borrowed from the Perfian /eraw, fignifying a hou/t, among
the Levantines denotes the palace of a prince or lord.

At Conttantinople they fay, the feraglio of the ambaflador
of England, of France, &c.

The feraglio is ufed, by way of eminence, for the palace
of the grand feignior at Conftantinople, where he keeps his
court, and where his concubines are lodged, and where the
youth are trained up for the chief pofts of the empire.

It is a triangle about three Italian miles round, wholly
within the city, at the end of the promontory Chry{foceras,
now called the Seraglio Point. The buildings run back to
the top of the hill, and from thence are gardens that reach
to the edge of the fea. It is inclofed with a very high and
ftrong wall, upon which there are feveral watch towers: and
it has many gates, fome of which open towards the fea-fide,
and the reft into the city: but the chief gate is one of the
latter, which is conitantly guarded by a company of ca-
poochees, or porters; and in the night it is well guarded
towards the fea.

The outward appearance, du Loir tells us, is not beauti-
ful, in regard the architecture is irregular, being cantoned
out into feparate edifices and apartments, in manner of
pavilions and domes. No itranger, it is faid, has ever yet
been admitted to the inmoft parts of the feraglio. See
SULTANA.

The old feraglio is the place where the emperor’s old
miftreffes, who have died or who have been depofed, and
the fultanas that have belonged to the deceafed grand
feigniors, are kept.

They are here fed and maintained with fome luxury, and
feryed with much attention, but they can no longer go out
of this place of retirement ; for it would not be decent, in
the eitimation of the Muffulmans, that a flave, fuppofed to
have enjoyed the favours of a fultan, fhould pafs into the
arms of another man.

The Aarem is that quarter of the feraglio in which the
females are kept. This is foon replenifhed, becaufe traders
come from all parts to offer young flaves, and the pachas
and great men are eager to prefent beauties capable of
fixing the attention of the fovereign ; thus hoping to obtain
inftantly his good graces, and place about his perfon the
women who at fome future time may be ufeful to them.

It is very difficult, and perhaps impoffible, to learn ex-
aétly the manner in which the female flaves are treated in
the harem of the grand feignior: never has the eye of the
obferver penetrated into this abode of hatred, jealoufy, and

ride; into this abode where pleafure and love have fo
feldom refided. But, according to the account of the wo-
men, whofe profeffion calls them thither, the reader may
reprefent to himfelf three or four hundred black eunuchs,

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malicious, peevifh, tormented by their impotence, curling
their nullity, endeavouring to counteraét the female flaves
intrufted to their charge; then a confiderable number of
young women, whofe hearts would willingly expand, whofe
fenfes are moved at the idea of the pleafures which they wifh
in vain to know, jealous of the happinefs which they are
perfuaded that their rivals enjoy, curfing the overfeers who
perplex them, folely taken up with their toilet, with their
drefs, and with all the nonfenfe which idlenefs and ignerance
can fuggelt to them; feeking, rather from vanity than from
love, every means of pleafing a mafler, too frequently dif-
dainful. We may reprefent to ourfelves, in fhort, a fultan
young or old, maftered by ridiculous prejudices, without
delicacy, often whimfical or capricious, alone in the midit
of five or fix hundred women, all equally beautiful, in whom
he gives birth to defires which he is unable to gratify, who
enjoys with them no pleafures but fuch as are too eafy and
without prelude, in which the heart has no fhare, and we
fhall have a true idea of what pafles in the harem of the
grand feignicr. .

The charge of the women is intrufted only to black
eunuchs, whofe mutilation is fuch, that there remains no
trace of their fex. Oriental jealoufy has very rightly
judged, that {uch creatures were rather capable of infpiring
fentiments of hatred and contempt, than thofe of affeGion
and friendfhip, which would not have failed to take birth,
if the charge of the harem had been intrufted to women. It
was not enough to condemn thefe unfortunate females to
long privations, never to let them know of love only what

was to excite in them defires, it was even neceflary to de- |

prive them of the confolation of opening their heart in the
bofom of friendfhip.

The chief of the black eunuchs, called £i/lar-aga, is one
of the greateit perfonages of the empire: he it is who carries
to the female flaves the will of his mafter ; he it is who an-
nounces to them the happinefs which they have to pleafe
him. Independently of the authority which he exercifes in
the harem, he has the fuperintendance of all the imperial
mofques; he is charged with the general adminittration of
all the pious foundations which relate to them; he has the
pre-eminence over the chief of the white eunuchs, and, what
is more flattering to a flave, he more frequently approaches
his mafter, and more commonly enjoys his confidence. His
income is very confiderable.

The khafne-vekili is the fecond eunuch of the feraglio: he
replaces the £/lar-aga, when he dies, or is turned out of
office, He has the general adminiftration of the interior
imperial treafure, which mult be diftinguifhed from the pri-
vate treafure of the grand feignior, adminiftered by the
khafnadar-aga, one of the pages of confidence. There are
fome other eunuchs raifed in dignity, fuch as he who belongs
to the queen-mother, he to whom the care of the princes 1s
intrufted, thofe who ferve the royal mofque of the fultana
Validai, whither the flaves of the grand feignior go to fay
their prayers; he who has the particular fuperintendance of
the apartment of the ha/ekee ; and a few others whofe func-
tions are lefs important, Z

The white eunuchs do not approach the women: they
are employed out of the harem, and in the particular fervice
of the fultan. They have the charge of the gates of the
feraglio; they fuperintend and inftruét the pages. Their
chief is called capou-agalf (See Capr-aca.) For an ac-
count of other officers of the feraglio, fee BostaNnGi-BASCHI,
Icuocians, and Capici.

Balzac obferves, that the feraglio at Conftantinople is
only a copy of that which Solomon_anciently built at Jeru-
falem, for his wives and concubines. For a particular

defcription

SER
‘defeription of the feraglio, fee Greave’s Works, vol. ii.

1, &e.
Pe RAL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia; 24 miles E. of Cattamena.—Alfo, a town of the
‘defert of Syria ; so miles E, of Aleppo.—Alfo, a town of
“Hindoottan, in the circar of Naderbar; 20 miles S.S.W.
of Naderbar

SERAING, 4 town of France, in the department of
the Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
: Liege. The place contains 2503, and the canton 6400 in-
habitants, on a territory of 924 kiliometres, in 7 com-
Mmunes, °
SERAJO, or Boswa Senaso, atown of European Tur-
‘key, in Bofnia, fituated on the river Bofna, and the refidence
of a fanjiac. It is large, rich, and commercial, and the fee
ofa eos when appointed by the king of Hungary ;
118 miles W. of Be . NN, Jat. 44°26’. E. long. 18°,
SERAKINO, a {mall Greek ifland, which, together
with Dromi, afford a place of thelter to navigators.
‘SERAMICA, a river of Surinam, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. ps4. Ww. 8 55° 38".
\ UR, a town of Hin an, near the river

SE
oe 9 fi 12 miles N. of Calcutta.—Alfo, a town of Hin-

Bengal ; 40 miles S. of Dacca. N. lat.

& -3 on tang a town of Bengal; 20
§.S.E. of Curruckdeah. N. lat. 24° 6’. E. long.

86° 28'.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 37 miles N.W. of

SERANGAN, a cluiter of three {mall iflands in the
Eatt Indian fea; copra Sa oh Semper and
jf broads and the other two male. * lat. 5° 258 E

i 20'.

b. NGODES, a word ufed originally as an epithet
for the pumice-flone, and exprefling cavernous, fpungy, or
full of holes. It has been hence applied to finuous ulcers,
and to all forts of things that are cavernous, or of a fpungy

texture.
_ SERAPGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
_~28 miles N. of Mauldah.

_ SERAPH, or Serapuim, in the Hierarchy of Angels,
eee ne er ee rank.

~, s him, make that clafs of an-

Gibeast Aw

hence their name, which is formed from the He-
to burn, sme: :
id to be the name of a Turkith gold

fterlin
7 Horaldsy, is ufed to denote a child’s
et beet viz. two in chief, two in

» Order of, in Her , Otherwife furnamed of
‘was inftituted m Sweden, in 1334, by Magaus II.
Sweden, in memory of the fiege of the metropolitan
3 and not, as fome authors fay, by Eric the
Smeck ; nor by Guitavus I., as others ima-

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give, Upon the change of religion which happened in
Sweden, under Charles 1X., this order was abolifhed ; but
it was revived, February the sith, in the year 1748, by
Frederic I., king of Sweden. The Aadis of the order is a
white fattin facbet, trimmed with black lace, and lined
with black; with white breeches, flocs, and tlockings,
trimmed with black, and black ribbons; « black fatrin thort
cloak, lined with white, the cape being white, trimmed with
black lace ; a hat of black fattin, bound with white, havin
on the left fide four white oftrich feathers, and in the midd
of them one black feather. Upon the left breait of the
cloak is a flar of cight points, embroidered in filver; and
upon the jacket, on the rte fide, is the like ftar, but fome-
what lefs in fize. The col/ar of the order is compofed of
eleven golden heads of feraph:, with wings expanded, and
eleven blue patriarchal crofles, enamelled on gold, all joined
with chains of the laft. ‘To the collar is fufpended the enfign
of the order, viz. a ftar of eight points, enamelled whute,
the centre blue, with the arms of Sweden, and the initial
letters, 1.H.S.; over the H. a crofs; the arms inclofed
with four feraphs’ heads, as in the collar; in the arms,
under the bottom crown, the paffion-nails. N.B. The fe-
raphs’ heads are between the double points of the ftar; and
over the upward points is the royal crown of Sweden, by
which it is pendant to the collar. The enfign alfo is pendant
to a broad fky-blue watered ribbon, worn fcarf-wife, and
brought over the right fhoulder, and under the left arm.

SERAPIAS, in Botany, one of the poetic names, de-
rived from Serapis, the Egyptian idol. The Serapias of
Pliny was evidently, from his defcription, a plant of the
Orchis tribe, with globular roots, and fuppofed to have an
aphrodifiacal quality. Hence Linneus retains the abeve
name for a genus of the fame natural order, which, accord-
ing to his chara¢ters and ideas, was more ample than bo-
tanilts at prefent make it, including many {pecies of our
Eprpactis. (See that article.)—Linn. Gen. 462. Schreb.
603. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 70. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4
Swartz AG&. Holm. for 1800. 223. t. 3. f. H. Schrad.
New Journ. v. 1. 47. t. 1. f. H. Juff. 65. Brown in
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 194. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
v. 2, 218.—Clafs and order, Gynandria Monandria. Nat.
Ord. Orchides.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of three ovate,
pointed, concave, converging, equal leaves. Cer. Petals
two, lanceolate, acute, Fncller than the calyx, and con-
cealed within it. Neétary a lip, without a fpur; concave
at the bafe; its terminal lobe largeft, undivided, pointed,
dependent. Stam. Filament none; anther oblong, ere@,
attached in a parallel manner to the fore part of the ftyle,
of two cells, opening in front ; the mafles of pollen club-
thaped, attaching themfelves, each by its taper bafe, toa
by the itigma, in one and the fame pouch; Breen.

if. Germen inferior, obovate, furrowed ; ftyle elongated,
erect, with ataper point extended above the anther ; ttigma
in front, below the anther, concave. eric. Capfule obo-
vate, of one cell, with three ribs, burfting longitudinally
between the ribs. Seeds very numerous, minute, roundifh,
each with a chaffy tunic. :

Eff. Ch. Calyx converging. Neétary a lip without a
{pur ; concave at the bafe ; its terminal lobe very large, de-
pendent, undivided. Anther parallel to the ftyle, fur-
mounted by a point.

1. S. Lingua. Tongue-lipped Serapias. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1344. Willd. n. 1. Ait. on. 1. Sm. Fl. Grae. Sibth:
t. 931, unpublifbed. (Orchis n. 1267; Hall. Hitt. v. 2.
135. O. macrophylla; Column. Ecphr. 321. t. 322. O.
montana italica, lingua oblonga, altera ; alfo lingua trifida ;

Rudb.

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Rudb. Elyf. v. 2. 204. Orchides Etrurie; Petiv. Ga-
zoph. t. 128. f. 1—3? Telticuli fpecies tertia; Matth.
Valgr. v. 2. 233. f 1. Dalech. Hift. 1551.)—Lateral
fegments of the lip ere€t ; middle one ovate, {mooth.—Na-
tive of open mountainous fituations in the fouth of Europe.
Dr. Sibthorp gathered it in Zante, as well as in Greece,
and we readily affent to the opinion of a learned German
writer, in the Allgemeine Literatur-zeitung, for June
1807, n. 133. 1060, that this plant, and not Jris tubero/a,
is probably the true Aoyxitis of Diofcorides. The root con-
fits of two ftalked, roundifh knobs, like others of this
tribe, but rather {maller. Stem a foot high, clothed in the
lower part with lanceolate, fheathing, {mooth caves. Spike
of from two to eight flowers, with a large, concave, pur-
plith-grey braéea toeach. Calyx ribbed, of the fame colour
as the bracteas, and pointed like them, three quarters of an
inch long. Lip twice that length; its difk whitifh, with a
dark red, oblong, undivided elevation at the bafe, and two
rounded, ere&, lateral lobes, of the fame colour; the
central Iobe dependent, ovate, pointed, undulated, purplith,
veiny, {mooth. Haller juftly refers both the above fy-
nonyms of Rudbeck to this fpecies.

2. S. cordigera. Hieart-lipped Serapias. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1345. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
t. 932, unpublifhed. Andr. Repof. t. 475. (Orchis
montana italica, flore ferrugineo, lingua oblonga; Rudb.
Ely{. v. 2. 203. f. 18. O. Etrurie, lingua ferruginea pi-
lofa; Petiv. Gazoph. t. 128. f. 4.)—Lateral feements of
the lip ere& ; middle one heart-fhaped, hairy.—More fre-
quent than the foregoing in the fouth of Europe, and north
of Africa, in the fame kind of fituations. We gathered it
in July 1787, in pattures at St. Orfefe, near Genoa. The
whole plant, efpecially the éu/bs and flowers, are larger than
in §. Lingua, and the whole {pike 1s of a more dingy hue.
The colour, however, of the different parts is variable in
both. The broad hairy ip of cordigera, with a divided
glandular elevation at its bafe, is fufficiently chara¢teriftic.
Wetruit we are right in the citation of Rudbeck, and that
he mifquotes Matthiolus.

Willdenow’s S. oxyglottis, founded folely on Petiver’s
t. 128. f. 5 & 6, appears to us too uncertain to be adopted,
though we doubt not that fome diftin@ fpecies of this
order, and perhaps of this genus, are {till latent in Italy.

SrRAPIAS, in the Materia Medica, the officinal name of
the dried root, called /alep.

SERAPION, of Alexandria, in Biography, lived about
the year 280 before Chrift, or in the 125th Olympiad, and
is affirmed by Celfus to have been the founder of the em-
piric fe&t of phyficians, and accufed by Galen of vaunting
himfelf, and of maltreating the character of Hippocrates.
(See Empiric.) He was probably a contemporary of
Philinus, to whom alfo the origin of the fame fect has been
attributed. See Celfus, Pref.

Srerapion, Joun, or Joun, the Son of Serapion, an
Arabian phyfician, lived between the time of Mefue and
Rhazes, and was probably the firft writer on phyfic in the
Arabic language; for it appears that Mefue, like his pre-
deceffor Aaron, or Ahrun, wrote in the Syriac tongue.
Haly Abbas, when giving an account of the works of his
countrymen, defcribes the writings of Serapion, as con-
taining only an account of the cure of difeafes, without any
precepts concerning the prefervation of health, or relating
to furgery ; and he makes many critical obfervations, which,
Dr. Freind obferves, are fufficient proofs of the genuine
exiftence of the works afcribed to Serapion, from their truth
and correétnefs. Rhazes alfo quotes them frequently in
his * Continent.”” Serapion mu{t have lived towards the

SER

middle of the ninth century, and not in the reign of Leo
Ifaurus, about the year 730, as fome have ftated. One
circumitance remarkable in Serapion, Dr. Freind obferves,
is, that he often tranfcribes the writings of Alexander
Trallian, an author with whom few of the other Arabians
appear to be much acquainted. This work of Serapion has
been publifhed, in tranflations, by Gerard of Cremona,
under the title of “* Practica, Diéta Breviarum ;’’ and by
Torinus, under that of ‘ Therapeutica Methodus.”? See
Freind’s Hiltory of Phyfic, and Sprengel Gefchichte der
Arzneykunde, ii. 365.

Some confufion appears to exift refpe€ting another Sx-
RAPION, whom Sprengel calls the younger, and places 180
years later than the former, and who was probably the
author of a work on the materia medica, entitled ‘“* De
Medicamentis tam fimplicibus, quam compofitis.’”? This
work bears intrinfic evidence of being produced at a much
later period, fince authors are quoted who lived much pof-
terior to Rhazes. It is probable that this work, which
muit obvioufly have been compofed in the latter part of the
eleventh century, (for Avenzoar, who wrote in that cen-
tury, is quoted in it,) is the fame with that which is often
cited by Conftantine, the African, under the name of
Joannes Damafcenus, a name which fome authors have er-
roneoufly given to the elder Serapion, inftead of the fubjeét
of the prefent article ; and fome to Mefue; to the latter of
whom Freind has fhewn that it could not belong. See
Freind and Sprengel, as above quoted.

SERAPIONIS Portus et Promontorium, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a port and promontory of Ethiopia, between Effina
emporium and Tonice emporium, according to Ptolemy.

SERAPIS, in Mythology, an Egyptian deity, who was
worfhipped under various names and attributes, as the tute-
lary god of Egypt in general, and as the patron of feveral
of their principal cities.

Tacitus informs us, that he was worfhipped as a kind of
univerfal deity that reprefented Efculapius, Ofiris, Jupiter,
and Pluto; and he was fometimes taken for Jupiter Am-
mon, the Sun, and Neptune; and the honours that were
rendered to him at Alexandria were more folemn and extra-
ordinary than thofe of any other place.

Learned writers have differed in opinion as to the time of
the introduction of this deity into Egypt: fome have fup-
pofed that he was known and worfhipped in this country
long before the time of the Firft Ptolemy, and that he was
the fame with their Apis; Serapis being no other than Apis
ey Loew, i.e. Apis in his coffin. Accordingly, they fay, that
while the facred bull, which the Egyptians worfhipped for
their great god, was alive, he was called pis; and that
when he was dead and buried in his coffin, he was called
Serapis, that is, pis in foro, and thus they derive his name
by corruption from /oroapis : and fome have even imagined
that the patriarch Jofeph was worfhipped under this title 5
but to this etymology it has been objected, that as the
Ptolemies firft brought the Greek language into Egypt, if
Serapis had been an ancient god worfhipped in that country
before the Ptolemies reigned there, his name could not have
had a Greek etymology.

According to the learned Mr. Bryant, /ar fignified any
thing noble; and Ofiris, the great hufbandman, who had
been expofed in an ark, was ftyled /ar-apis, which fignifies
illuftris genitor, the great father of mankind. But, he ob-
ferves, that there was likewife the term /or, from whence
came the ozgos of the Greeks, which fignified @ bier or coffin,
and alfo a place of interment. Hence the temple where the
dead Apis was depofited, had the name of Sor-apis, rendered
inaccurately /arapis.

Plutarch,

SERAPIS.

Plutarch, who did not know this dillin€ion, fancied that
a>. in Egypt would not allow forapis to have been

r

; the difpute was about the found of a word: no
tian could deny the divinity of the god Serapis, but

y Y P
i another meaning ; and this was the term in de-

bate. Upon the whole he concludes, that the demon, or
deified man, was Sar-epis, and that /or-apis was the tomb
of Apis. Analyfis of Ancient Mythology, vol. 1. p. 428.

have maintained, that Serapis was not origially
an Egyptian deity, auciently worfhipped in that country,

but an adventitious god brought t from abroad. The
ancient of his ftation, ac g to Polybius, was on
the of the Propontis, on the Thracian fide, over-

ain Hieras ; 2 Low teyy when he went — Ar-
gonautic expedition, facri tohim. Thence his image
Qo ora in Pontus; and from Sinope, Pto-

y> the firit of that name, in obedience, aie is Oh, toa
direction, es it to Alexandria, and fet it

one of the fuburbs of that city, Rhacotis, where
worfhippedby the same of Serapi and this new
had in place, foon after, a very famous temple
to him, called the Scrapeum. This temple, fays
s Marcellinus, did, in the magnificence and orna-
ings, exceed all other edifices in the world,
of the Capitol at Rome. Hence Serapis be-
court, and led the Egyptians almeft to

Tite

it

Be

Hl
zee
aie
See

ing temples to him, and burning incenfe on his
The moit ancient temple, leads to Paufanias,
at Memphis.

_ And this, fay the advocates of this opinion, was the firft

time that this deity was either worfupped or known in

i
;

found great difficulty in obtaining this i 3
the inhabitants of Sinope, bein epprehed wah:

famine, were relieved by Ptolemy with a fleet of
corn, and in return they confented to part with the image

The of Serapis, according to Macrobius, was of a
human form, with a bafket or bufhel on his head, refembling
and referring, as fome fay, to the hiftory of Jofeph’s

g the Egyptians with corn; or, according to

to the relief of Sinope by Ptolemy : his sate too

on the head of a ferpent, whofe body was wound
with three heads, of 2 dog, a lion, and a
held a meafure of a cubit length, as it
height of the waters of the Nile.

makes no mention of Serapis; which he
have , if he had been one of the great
people. Moreover, the Hfiac table, upon
ee aes prefents us with
a des, Tacitus relates,
peared in a to Prolemy, under the
exquifitely beautiful man, and ordered
moft faithful friends to Sinope, a

city of Pontus, where he was worthipped, and to bring his
abel, having communicated this

deputed a fele& to Si , and frem thence
the ftatue of that god was brought. it is concluded
yat he was unknown in Egypt before this event.

the other hand, who contend that Serapis was

soe quae goss of Egypt, where he was worthi
aie, that before eee

ony of Tacitus can be admitted, it mutt be proved
4

that Serapis was the deity aGtually worthipped at Sinope,
whereas, they fay, that the god to whom that city paid
adoration was Pluto; and that the name Scrapis was not
given to bin» till his ftatue was brought uto Eyypt. Plu-
tarch teftifies, that he had not that name when he came mto
Egypt; but upon his arrival at Alexandria, he took the
name which the Egyptians gave to Piuto, which was Se-
rapis. When Paufanias relates, that the Alexandnans re-
cewed from Ptolemy the worthip of Serapis, he fays, at the

fame time, that there was already at Alexandria a ve
magnificent temple of that ; and another, not fo grand,
but of great antiquity, in the city of Memphis. ‘Tacitus
himfelf, when he fays that Ptolemy, after Serapis was
brought into Egypt, built a flately temple to him in the
lace named Rhacotis, afferts alfo, that there was another
maller one, confecrated to the fame god, and to lis; which
proves, not that Serapis was not worfhipped in Egypt till
the time of the embafly to Sinope, but only that the wor-
fhip of that god, perhaps negledied for a long time, was re-
ettablifhed t with folemnity. The filence of Hero-
dotus, and the omiflion in the Ifiac table, may be accounted
for by the following confiderations. ‘Though it is true
that Herodotus fet apart his fecond book for the hittory of
the Egyptian religion, yet we cannot be fure that he has
omitted none of their gods. Befides, having fpoken fully
of Ofiris, who was perhaps the fame with Serapis, he might
think it needlefs to fay any thing particularly of the latter.
The fame obferva'ion is applicable to the Ifiac table. Al-
though a great number of the Egyptian gods may be found
there, yet it cannot be affirmed that they are all there, and
much lefs that they can all be diftinguithed by their parti-
cular fymbols. The proof drawn from the diverfity of re-
prefentations is yet lefs conclufive. The Egyptians varied
exceedingly with refpeét to the figures of their gods, and
the fymbols annexed to them. The figures frequently bore
a vait number of attributes, which could not agree to a
fingle divinity. Thefe are what have been called the Pan-
theon figures, which reprefented feveral deities ; as any one
may be convinced by viewing fome of thofe of Ifis, of
Harpocrates, and others. From thefe and fome other con-
fiderations, many learned men have inferred that Serapis
was an Egyptian god, known and worthipped by that
people long before the time of the Ptolemics ; and that he
was the fame with Pluto; and though the teftimonies of
Tacitus and Plutarch, above cited, were lefs conclufive
than they are, yet one of the fineft flatues of that god, at
whofe feet we fee the three-headed Cerberus, would leave
no room to doubt. See a print of this figure in Mont-
faucon’s Antiquity, tom. ii. p. 185, Antiquarians have
furnifhed us with feveral other figures, always known to be
thofe of Serapis by the calathus, or a kind of bonnet which
he wore upon his head. Sometimes he is joined with Ifis,
and reprefented like a young man, and then he is taken for
Ofiris or the Sun: frequently like a bearded old man, very
much refembling Jupiter, whofe name he alfo bore ; at leait,
from the time that the Greeks became mafters of Egypt.
Varro fays, that there was a law which forbade faying,

under pain of death, that Serapis had been a mortal man.
We hall here add, that Ofiris was varioufly reprefented,
fometimes by a {ceptre and eye, to exprefs his power and
providence; at other times, by the image of a hawk, be-
caufe of its tharp fight, fwiftnefs, and other qualities ; and
in later times, in a human form, in a pofture not very decent,
fignifying his generative and nutritive faculty; but the

greateft adoration was paid to his living image, the bull.

The image of Ifis was ufvally in the form of a woman,
with cow’s horns on her head, reprefenting the appearance
of

SER

of the moonin her increafe and decreafe, and holding the fif-
trum (a kind of cymbal) in her right hand, and a pitcher in her
left ; the former fignifying the perpetual motion there is in
nature, and the other the fecundity of the Nile. But fome-
times fhe was reprefented as Cybele, having her body full of
breafts, to exprefs her nourifhing of all things.

It is obferved, that when Serapis was introduced into
Egypt, at the period above-mentioned, as writers have in-
ferred from the filence of Herodotus, and of other authors
who wrote before the times of the Ptolemies, he brought in
with him among the Egyptians, a new way of worfhip: for
till the time of the Ptolemies, the Egyptians never offered
any bloody facrifices to their gods, but worfhipped them
merely with their prayers and frankincenfe ; but the tyranny
of thefe princes having forced upon them the worthip of two
foreign gods, viz. Saturn and Serapis, they in this worfhip
firft introduced the ufe of bloody facrifices among that peo-
ple. And fo averfe were the Egyptians to this mode of
worfhip, that they would never fuffer any temple to be
built to either of thefe gods within any of the walls of their
cities, but they were always erected in their fuburbs: and
they feem to be only Egyptians of the Greek original who
conformed to this practice, and not thofe of the old race.
See Exod. vill. 26, 27. Prid. Conn. vol. iii. p. 15, &c.

The famous temple of Serapis at Alexandria was dettroy-
ed by order of Theodofius ; and the celebrated itatue of this
deity was broken in pieces, and its limbs carried firft in
triumph by the Chriftians through the city, and then thrown
into a fierce fire, kindled for that purpofe in the amphitheatre.
As the Egyptians afcribed the overflowing of the Nile, to
which was owing the fertility of that country, to the be-
nign influence of their god Serapis, they concluded, that,
now he was deitroyed, the river would no longer overflow,
and that a general famine would enfue; but when they ob-
ferved, on the contrary, that the Nile {welled to a greater
height than had been known in the memory of man, and
thereby produced an immenfe plenty of all kinds of provi-
fions, many of the pagans, renouncing the worfhip of idols,
adored the God of the Chriitians. Ancient Univ. Hitt.
vol. vi. p- 417.

The figure of Serapis is found on many ancient medals.

SERAPIU, in Ancient Geography, a place of Egypt,
beyond the Nile, between Hero and Clifmo, according to
the Itinerary of Antonine.

SERAQUINO, in Geography, an ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago; 8 miles N.E. of Scopelo.

SERARIUS, Nicuoras, in Bisgraphy, a learned Je-
fuit, was born at Rambervilliers, in Lorraine, in ig55.
He ttudied at Cologne, where he entered into the fociety of
the Jefuits, and afterwards was for twenty-four years a pro-
feflor of the languages of philofophy and theology at
Wurtzburg. He died at Mentz in 1609, having, befides
his employment in teaching, occupied himfelf in the compo-
fition of a vaft number of works, which were printed col-
leétively at Mentz, in 3 vols. folio. Of thefe, the moft
efteemed were “ Commentaries on feveral Books of Scrip-
ture :’? “ Prolegomena on the Holy Scriptures :”? “ Tri-
herefium, feu de celeberrimis tribus, apud Judzos, Pha-
rifgorum, Sadduczorum, et Effenorum Seétis.”? This laft
work was afterwards printed at Delft, with the addition of
the treatifes of Drufius and Scaliger on the fame fubje&.
Serarius was a ftrenuous defender of the church of Rome
againit the reformers, and wrote feveral works againtt Lu-
ther and his followers, Cardinal Baronius gives him the
title “ of the luminary of the Germanic church.’? Dupin
fays, that the Prolegomena of Serarius have a great deal of
erudition, but that he handles his queftions in too fcholaftic

2

SER

a manner, and mixes up too much controverfy in them: he
thus fums up the literary character of this author: «“ Sera-
rius,’? fays he, “* was very learned, and well verfed in the
languages, and in topics relating to the Holy Scriptures:
he is not equally exact in ecclefiaftical hiltory, nor equally
powerful in controverfy. He wrote with eafe, but without
politenefs. In treating on a fubje&, he often defcends to
impertinent and tedious trifling, and fometimes wanders from
the point to attack the Protettants, and difcufs controverfial
quettions.”’

SERASAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
{tan, in Bahar; 18 miles W. of Bahar.

SERASKER, a Turkifh word, compofed of fer, which
in Perfian fignifies head, and afker, i. e. foldiers. This isa
military degree, that admits of no fuperior, fomewhat like
generaliffimo, and is a title given to tholfe who command on
the frontiers, or are detached with a confiderable body of
troops.

SERASPARE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the Leffler Armenia, and in the prefecture of Rhanena,
according to Ptolemy.

SERASS, in Ornithology, a bird of the fame genus with
the colum, which comes yearly to Surat in the Eaft Indies,
from mount Caucafus, and diflinguifhed by a plication of the
afperia arteria; which is defigned to anfwer fimilar purpofes
with that of the colum. ’

SERAT, Serep, or S/ered, in Geography, a town of
Hungary, on the river Waag ; 27 miles E. of Prefburg.

SERATZ, a town of Sclavonia; 28 miles N.W. of
Pofzega.

SERAVAN, in Ornithology, the name given by Buffon i

to the Loxra Affrild, which fee.

SERAUCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Aifne; 6 miles S. of St. Quinten.

SERAVI, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of the
Nile ; 21 miles N. of Cairo.

SERAUSTEH, a town of Candahar ; 30 miles S.W.
of Cabul.

SERAY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 12 miles
N. of Chuprah. N. lat. 25° 18’. E. long. 84° 53/.—
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Boggileund; 20 miles W.
of Rewah.

SERAYA, a town of Hindooftan, on the right bank
of the Jumnah; 42 miles S.E. of Agra. —Alfo, a town of
Hindooftan, in Bahar; 20 miles S. of Bettiah. N. lat.
26° 28!. E. long. 84° 53’.

SERBADJE, atown of Egypt, on the E. bank of the
Nile; 20 miles N. of Cairo.

SERBAJEE, in the Zaffern Military Orders, is a cap-
tain in the horfe in the fervice of the grand feignior.

SERBAR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Mekran ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Kidge.

SERBATIS, Yisser, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Africa, in the eaftern part of Mauritania Czfarienfis, which
difcharged itfelf into the Mediterranean, to the E. of Rut-
guniz colonia. Ptolemy places its mouth between Modunga

and Ciffla.

SERBI, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, who Heelies

with the Orinxi and Vali, between the Ceraunian mountains
and the river Rha, according to Ptolemy.—Alfo, a people
called likewife Scythians, who inhabited a territory towards
Dalmatia.
SERBINUM, a town of Lower Pannonia, along the
Danube.
SERBONIS Lacus, or Serbonite lake, a lake which
was fituated between Egypt and Paleitine, near mount ee
US §

ee SER
fius ; and wh by different aurhors has been affigned to
Egypr oyria, Paleltine, or Judea.

iny fays that it was 150 miles long, Strabo afligns to

it 200 fhadiaof length, and so of breadth, It had commu-
nicated with the Mediterranean by an opening which was
filled up in the time of Strabo. The fable fays that Ty-
phon lay at the bottom of this lake, and the Egyptians
ealled its opening the breathing-hole of Typhon.
. SERBORA, See Scuennno,
SERBORI Laxe. See Dean Sea.
afligned by the my-
» a8 an attendant on
Yama, the regent of their infernal regions. The name means
varied, or fj » and reminds us of the three-headed Cer-
berus of we fable. It might as well be written Cerbura;
and when we add that another of his names is Trifiras, or
and that he is fo reprefented, we can no longer
doubt of their identity, and of the fable of one nation being
the other, or both from a common fource.

SERCELLI, in Geography. See Snerswenc.
_ SERCHIO, ariver which rifes in the duchy of Modena,
and after tra the ftate of Lucca, runs into the Medi-
terranean, 4 miles N.N.W. of Pifa.
_ SERD, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeit-
tan; 15 miles N, of Tabris. *

SERRE en tern of Dertin ou the Kerman ; 83 miles
§.S.W. of Kin.
_ SERDAO, O, town of Portugal, in the province of

jo; 30 miles W.N.W. of Ourique.

_ SE L, a town of Hungary; 2 miles S. of

_. SERDOB, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Saratov, ov the Donetz, near its fource ; 72 miles N.W.

of Saratov. - N. lat, 52° 30’. E. long. 54° 44'.

_ SERDOBOL, a town of Ruffia, in the government of

——

|

fron all parts of Alia, t was taken and plundered by the
.c under Lucullus in the year -C. Itis now
d by 5000 Curds, Syrians, and ans, and ge"

by a prince fubject tothat of Zok ; 75 miles S

Seren. Bee Serar,

EREEK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Mekran,
of the chief of Jaik; it contains a large
6oo huts, fituated four miles from the fea,
the hills. The country between Jafk and this
ms Numerous plantations of palms, and abundance
Jatk is trib to the Imam of Mufcat, and

ees fi nial t lies two miles from the fea,

Serene. In

SER

and eight from the hills, and the town confilts of 250 huts,
defended by a mud fort.

SEREGIPPE. Sce Sexcire.

SEREGNAN, a town of Tyrol; 8 miles N.N.E. of
Trent.

SEREGNO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
10 miles N. of Milan.

SEREIL Feathers of a Hawk, the name which anfwers to
pinions in any other fowls.

SEREJON, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Eftramadura; 20 miles S. of Plafencia.

SERENA, La, a town of Spain, in the province of
Eltramadura; 18 miles E.S.E. of Merida.

Serena, a river of Chili, which runs into the South
Pacific ocean, near Coguimbe ; which fee.

Serena, Gutta, in Medicine, the fame asamaurofis. See
Gurta Serena.

SERENADE, an evening concert, given by a lover
under the window of his mittrefs, It generally confilts of
inftrumental mufic ; fometimes, however, a is added.
Thefe pieces in Italy are alfo called /erenate. The mode
of ferenades, fays Roufleau, has been long difcontinued,
unlefs by the common people ; and its difcontinuance 1s to
be lamented. The filence of the night, which banifhes all
diitra€tion, gives mufic additional charms, and renders it
more delicious. In the fummer of 1770, this was not the
cafe at Venice, fix years after Routleau’s Diétionary was
written ; as we find in our journal, during the month of
Augutt of that year, the Pa aeten memoranda. “ The
poole here (at Venice) a a feem to begin to
ive only at midnight. Zhen the canals are cro with
gondolas, and St. Mark’s {quare with company ; the banks
too of the canals are all peopled, and harmony prevails in
every part. If two of the common people ms
arm m arm, they feem to converfe in fo ; if there is com-
pany on the water, in a gondola, it is the fame; a mere
melody, unaccompanied with a fecond part, is not to be
heard in the city ; all the ballads in the ftreets are fung in
duo. Luckily for us, this night, Auguift 7th, a barge,
in which there was an excellent band of mufic, confiiting of
violins, flutes, horns, bafes, and a kettle-drum, with a pretty
good tenor voice, was on the great canal, and fttopt very
near the houfe where we lodged ; it was a piece of gallantry,
at the expence of an inamorato in order to ferenade his
miftrefs. Shak{peare fays of noéturnal mufic,

‘© Methinks it founds much fweeter than by day.
Silence beftows the virtue on it—I think
The nightingale, if the fhould fing by day,
When every goofe is cackling, would be thought
No better a mufician than the wren.” .

Whether the time, place, and manner of performing this
mufic, gave it adventitious and collateral oe we will
not pretend to fay; but all we know is, that the fympho-
nies /zemed to us to be admirable, full of fancy, of
fire ; the paflages well contrafted ; fometimes the graceful,
fometimes the pathetic prevailed ; and fometimes, y Saceim
ftrange it may be thought, even noife and fury had their effe&.

SEREN » SERENUS, 2 quality or title of honour given
to certain princes, and chief magiltrates of republics,

The king of England is ftyled, the mof ference ; the fame
term is allo applied to the doge of Veuice, The pope
and the facred college, writing to the emperor, to kings,
or the doge, give t no other title but that of mof
the Venetians fet the title of ferenity above
that of highnefs,

Tn 1646, Wicquefort obferves, there was a clafhing be.
tween the courts of France and Vienna, becaufe the

Mm . relied

SER

refufed the king of France any other title than that of
ferene. Bifhops alfo were anciently addrefled under the title
of ferene. ‘

The kings of France, of the firft and fecond race, fpeak-
ing of themfelves, ufe no other quality. but notre ferenité.

The emperor gives no other title to the king of England,
nor even to any other king, excepting the king of France.

The king of Poland, and other kings, give it to the eleGtors.
The emperor, writing to the electors, or other princes of the
empire, only ufes the term di/efion ; but in treating with
them he ufes e/edoral /erenity to the electors, and ducal ferenity
to the other princes.

SERENE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Red fea.
N. lat. 19° 30’. E. long. 39° 501.

SERENT, atown of France, in the department of the
Morbihan ; 13 miles N.E. of Vannes.

SERENUS, Sammonicus, Quintus, in Biography, a
Roman phyfician in the reigns of Severus and Caracalla,
who was afflaflinated at a banquet by the order of the lait
mentioned emperor. He left an immenfe library, faid to
contain twenty thoufand volumes, to his fon, who was pre-
ceptor to the younger Gordian, to whom he prefented this
valuable bequeit. Serenus was the author of feveral works
on hiftory and the produits of nature ; and alfo of a medical
work in verfe, which has pafled through a multitude of
editions, under the title of «*Carmen de Medicina.” He
was fuperttitious in the choice of his remedies, and efpecially
in that which he propofed for the Semitertian fever, which
confifted in wearing about the neck, fufpended by a linen
thread, a piece of paper, on which was written the word
Abracadabra in the form of atriangle. Eloy Di&. Hitt.
de la Méd.

SERENZ, in Geography, atown of Hungary; 9 miles
W. of Tokay. Bee Se

SERERES, a people of Africa, in the vicinity of Cape
Verd, difperfed into feveral {mall republics, which unite
into one body againft a common enemy. Their laws are
merely thofe of nature. They wear no clothing, and they
have little or no idea of a Supreme Being or future life:
neverthelefs they feem to be inoffenfive, unacquainted with
ftrong liquors, induftrious, and hofpitable to ftrangers.

SERES, in Ancient Geography, a name given to thofe
people who were fituated to the eaft of India, and who,
by the inveftigations and difcoveries of the moderns, are fup-
pofed to have inhabited Serica. They were renowned for
their juftice, according to Mela, and for their longevity of
200 years, according to Strabo. They had an infe& which
produced filk, fays Paufanias. (See Serica.) People of
the fame name were alfo eftablifhed in the northern part of
Taprobana.

SERET, in Geography. See Sirrr.

SERETIUM, in Ancient Geography, atown of Dalma-
tia. Dion Caffius reports, that ‘Tiberius was obliged to raife
the fiege of this town, but that it was afterwards taken by
the Romans.

SERETKINA, in Geography, atown of Ruflia, in the
government of [rkutfk, on the Angara; 24 miles E.S.E.
of Balaganfkoi.

SERGA, atown of Ruflia, on the Volga; gomiles S. of
Aftraecan.

SERGAG, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Niznei Novgorod ; 48 miles S. of Niznei Novgorod. N.
lat. 56° 51!. E. long. 45° 20!.

SERGE, in Commerce, a woollen quilted ftuff, manufac-
tured on a loom with four treddles, after the manner of ra-
teens, and other ftuffs that have the whale.

The goodnefs of fergesis known by the quilting, as that
of cloths by the {pinning.

SER

Of ferges there are various kinds, denomius, either from
the different qualities of them, or from the places Wicre they
are wrought. ‘The moit confiderable is the London ferge,
now highly valued abroad, particularly in France, where a
manufacture has been carried on with good fuccefs, under
the title of /erge fagon de Londres.

Serce, Manufa@ure of London, Yor wool, the longeft
is chofen for the warp, and the fhortelt for the woof. Be-
fore either kind is wfed, it is firft feoured, by putting it in
a copper of liquor, fomewhat more than lukewarm, com-
pofed of three parts of fair water and one of urine. After
having {laid long enough therein for the liquor to diffolve,
and take off the greafe, &c. it is ftirred brifkly about with
a wooden peel ; taken out of the liquor, drained, and wafhed
in a running water, dried in the fhade, beaten with flicks on
a wooden rack, to drive out the coarfer dirt and filth, and
then picked clean with the hands. Thus far prepared, it is
greafed with oil of olives, and the longeft part, deftined for
the warp, is combed with large combs, heated in a little
furnace for the purpofe. To clear off the oil again, the
wool is put in a liquor compofed of hot water, with foap
melted in it: whence being taken out, wrung, and dried,
it is {pun on the wheel.

As to the fhorter wool, intended for the woof, it is only
carded on the knee with {mall cards, and then {pun on the
wheel, without being f{coured of its oil. Note, the thread
for the warp is always to be {pun much finer, and better
twifted than that of the woof.

The wool both for the warp and the woof being fpun, and
the thread divided into fkains, that of the woof is put

on {pools (unlefs it have been fpun upon them) fit forthe

cavity or eye of the fhuttle ; and that for the warp is wound
ona kind of wooden bobbins to fit it for warping. When
warped it is ftiffened with a kind of fize, of which that made
of the fhreds of parchment is held the beft ; and when dry
is put on the loom.

When mounted on the loom, the workman raifing and
falling the threads (which are pafled through a reed), by
means of four treddles placed underneath the loom, which
he makes to a& tranfverfely, equally and alternately, one
after another, with his feet, in proportion as the threads are
raifed and lowered, throws the fhuttle acrofs from one fide
to the other; and each time that the fhuttle is thrown, and
the thread of the woof is crofled between thofe of the warp,
ftrikes it with the frame to which the reed is faftened,
through whofe teeth the threads of the warp pafs ; and this
ftroke he repeats twice or thrice, or even more, till he
judges the crofling of the ferge fufficiently clofe : thus he
proceeds till the warp is all filled with woof.

The ferge now taken off the loom is carried to the fuller,
who fulls, or {cours it in the trough of his mill, witha kind
of fat earth, called fullers-earth, firft purged of all ftones
and filth. After three or four hours fcouring, the fullers-
earth is wafhed out in fair water, brought by little and little
into the trough, out of which it is taken when all the earth
is cleared ; then, with a kind of iron pincers, or plyers, they
pull off all the knots, ends, ftraws, &c. fticking out on the
furface on either fide ; and then returning it to the fulling
trough, where it is worked with water fomewhat more’
than lukewarm, with foap diffolved therein for near two
hours ; it is then wafhed out till fuch time as the water be-
comes quite clear, and there be no figns of foap left ; then
it is taken out of the trough, the knots, &c. again pulled
off, and then put on the tenter to dry, taking care as faft as
it dries to ftretch it out both in length and breadth till it be
brought to its juft dimenfions. When well dried, it is taken
off the tenter, and dyed, fhorn, and prefled.

SERGEANT. See SERJEANT. —

10

SERGEN-

° SER

SERGENTIUM, in Ancient Geography, 2 town fituated
in the interior of Sicily. Ptolemy.
SERGIEV, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolik, pon. we Enifei ; 72 miles N. of Enifeitk.
SERGIEVSK, a town of Rudia, in the government of
Upha; 180 miles W. of Upha. N. lat. 54°. E. long. 54° 44’.
SERGIEVSKAIA Nova, a fortrefs of Ruflia, in the
of Upha, on the Samara; 56 miles N.W. of

.

| SERGIEVSKOlI, a town of Ruflia, in the province of
| onthe Vim; 52 miles N.E. of Yarenfk.—Alfo, a
| town of Ruflia, in the province of Ekaterinburg ; 48 miles

S.W. of cepa ft

SERGILUS, ‘y - a genus cos by oie i
v. 2. t. 174. £. 6, 0 innwan C ia, Chry-
uaa a: 2, ote Jam. 316. t. 34. f. 4, Op following

Calyx fomewhat turbinate, imbricated with clofe-prefled,

Rightly membranous f{cales. Flowers all perfeét
ve-cleft. Receptacle naked. Down capillary,

The above author remarks that this plant “ differs in its

oo te Theset spc ta -
in feed-down that it is neare in tot
leaves sone te fometimes oppofite, but are
remote, as well as extremely minute.”” The

3

HY

i

i

Browne _ it the habit of our European
being the only tree of the fame appearance, obferved
in that country. Swartz has not noticed this plant.
and Curysocoma.

RIFE
mL
:

in Geography, a town of France, in the de-

the Yonne, and chief place of a canton, in the

iftri& of Sens; g miles N. of Sens. The place contains

1 and the canton 10,094 inhabitants, on a territory of
i in 18 communes.

SERGIPE del Conde, a river of Brazil, which runs
into the bay of All Saints.

Sencire, or ippe, a ay or province of Brazil,
which chiefly cattle, grain, and tobacco, for
which laft Brazil is particularly celeb the ca-
pital of the dittri@, fituated near the coaft of the Atlantic,
on a river of the fame name, which runs into the Atlantic,

» was defcended from a
ap Seckeag 98 but was born, and brought up
P . Hecame to Rome in the time of pope Adeo-
ing among the oly erg capital, was
rm II On Hehe: of Conon, in the
was a great {chifm refpeCting his fucceflor,

the caufe of Theodore a archprieft,
Pafchal the archdeacon. The principal
not being able to bring them to an agree-
in the choice of ius, and put him in
Theodore inftantly refi his claim,
ive up his pretenfions for a confiderable
however, fubmitted. The fecond

> pontificate of ius was rendered memorable
at Rome of walla, king of the Wett-
came to receive baptifm from his hands, and
after he had fubmitted to that rite. In 691 the
uftinian II. aflembled a cil at Conftantinople,
number of canons were pafled. Five of thefe
by the < popes among which was one condemn-
canon church, that forbad ecclefiaftical
to have any conne¢tion with their wives after ordina-

°
g

g
Ht
aH

-
= *

d
:

re
8

the

au
i

as

eS

E

i

SER

tion, ius not only rejected thefe canons, but on their
account invalidated all the proceedings of this council, whuch
fo much exafperated the emperor, that he feat his fword-
bearer with an order to apprehend the pope, and bring
him to Conftantinople. ‘The foldiery in Italy, however,
ftanding in fo much awe of his holinefs, not pe refufled to
fuffer violence to be offered to him, but intimidated the
{word-bearer, that he dared not execute his commiflion, and
was glad to quit Rome in fafety. In 696 Sergius conle-
crated Willibrod bifhop of the Frifians, recommended to him
by Pepin the elder, as a perfon every way adapted to undertake
the converfion of that heathen wie Sergius died in the
year 701, in the r4th year of Lis pontificate. He had the
reputation of much learning and virtue, and is faid to have
repaired and enriched feveral churches, which added, in thofe
times, very much to his celebrity.

Sencius II., pope, a Roman, was eleéted in 844, on
the death of Gregory IV. He had a competitor in John,
deacon of the Roman church, who took pofleffion of the
Lateran, but was expelled by the nobilitys Sergius was con-
fecrated immediately after his election, without waiting for
the imperial confirmation. Lothaire, the emperor, fo much
refented this feeming hoftility, that he fent into Italy his
fon Lewis, whom he had declared king of Lombardy, with
a powerful army, attended by his uncle Drogo, archbihop
of Metz. This prince, after cruelly ravaging the -
aftical ftate, marched to Rome, and entered the city amidit
the acclamations of the people. He proceeded to the
Vatican church, in great folemnity, with the pope, and
was afterwards crowned by the latter as kin, a Italy.
Sergius now gladly toek the accuitomed oath of allegiance
to the emperor, and received a confirmation of his election.
This pontificate, fhort as it was, is marked by the predatory
incurfions of the Saracens, who failing up the Tiber, burnt
the fuburbs of Rome, and pillaged the churches of St.
Peter and St. Paul without the walls. Sergius died in 847.
The famous /cala-/an@a, or holy ttair-cafe at Rome, was
ere€ted during the pontificate of Sergius II.

Serius III., pope, a prefbyter of the church, thou
eleGted by a party, in 898, after the death of Theodore II.,
was not able to enter upon the duties of his office. A
more powerful party fupported John IX., and Sergius was
glad to feek his fafety by flight from the city. He lay in
concealment for feven years, during which he contrived to
engage in his intereft his relation Adelbert, marquis of
Tufcany, by whofe affiftance he was enabled to expel
Chriftopher, who had forcibly intruded into the pontifical
feat, and placed himfelf there in the year 904. Sergius,
who is termed by Baronius, and apparently with good rea-
fon, “ one of the moft wicked of men,’’ had a fcandalous
conneétion with the infamous Marozia, who with her mother
Theodora, and her fifter of the fame name, at that time
almoft entirely governed Rome, and difpofed of the holy
fee. Marozia, who had already been muiftrefs of the mar-
quis Adelbert, bore a fon to the pope, who was afterwards
raifed to the papal throne under the name of John XI,
fuch is the purity of the holy bifhops of the Roman church.

ius received a folemn embafly from Leo, emperor of
the Eaft, on account of the refufal of the patriarch Nicholas
to confirm the fourth marriage of Leo, as forbidden by the
Greek church. Sergius, as there was no limitation to the
number of fucceflive marriages in the Roman church, not
only approved the marriage of Leo, but fent legates to
Conftantinople to confirm it. The patriarch, however,
could not be prevailed upon to admit its legality. Sergius
died in gt1. He rebuilt the Lateran church.

Sercius IV., pope, a native of Rome, whofe family
name is faid to have Pa Buccaporci, or in Englifh,

mz

og’ s-

SER

Hog’s-{nout, was bifhop of Albano at the time of his elec-
tion to the papal fee in ro09, after the death of John XVIII.
Little is recorded of the tranfactions of this pontiff; he fent
a legate into France to confecrate a monaitery in the diocefe
of Tours, which the archbifhop of that fee regarded as an
encroachment upon his jurifdiction: he alfo determined a
difpute between the archbifhop of Hamburgh and the
bifhop of Verden. He was greatly refpeéted for the mild-
nefs of his difpofition, and his liberality to the poor. He
died in 1012.

Seretus I., patriarch of Conftantinople, is well known in
ecclefiaftical hittory for the fupport which he gave to the doc-
trine of the Monothelites. He was a Syrian by birth, and
born of parents who adhered to the herefy, as it was deno-
minated, of the Monophyfites. He was raifed to the pa-
triarchal dignity in the year 610. The emperor Heraclius,
being defirous of re-uniting the perfecuted Neftorians to the
Greek church, and having held conferences with perfons of
influence in that fe&, was affured by them, that there
would be no difficulty in terminating the controverfy, pro-
vided the Greeks would aflent to the following propofition,
“* that in Jefus Chrift there was, after the union of the two
natures, but one will, and one operation.”? Sergius thought
this propofition might be adopted without the {malleft injury
tothetruth; and without derogating from the authority of the
council of Chalcedon, which had condemned the doétrine
of a fingle nature: in confequence of this decifion, the
emperor iffued an edict in the year 630 in favour of the
doGtrine of the /ingle-will. This hope of concord was foon
fruttrated, by the violent oppofition of Sophronius, a monk,
and patriarch of the fee of Jerufalem, who alfo endeavoured
to gain pope Honorius to his party, but Sergius was before-
hand with him, and had perfuaded his holinefs to approve
the doétrine in queftion. In order to quiet the commotions
in the church, Heraclius, in 639 iflued an edi€&t compofed
by Sergius, which was entitled ‘* Ethefis,”? or an expofition
of the faith in which all controverfies on the quettion
** whether in Chrift there were one or two operations,”
were prohibited, though the edié& plainly inculcated the
doétrine of one will. Sergius died in the fame year, and
his memory was afterwards anathematized in feveral
councils.

SERGODE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bednore ; 8 miles S.W. of Sacrapatam.

SERGOM, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana; 25
miles N. of Baffeen.

SERGOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bednore; 25
miles W. of Sacrapatam. i

SERJAN. See Srrcran and Kerman.

SERIANA, in Botany, could hardly be fuppofed to
have been defigned to commemorate a perfon of the name of
Sergeant ; yet fuch was the intention of Plumier. ‘The
Rev. father Philip Sergeant, a native of Calais, of the order
of Minims, in Provence, an able botanift, but more able
phyfician, praétifed medicine at Rome for 25 years, with fo
much fuccefs, as to gain the high efteem of all ranks of
people. His departure from that city caufed the deepett
regret, but he was welcomed at Paris with no lefs exulta-
tion.”? Plumier, from whom we take this account, named
the genus Serjania ; but Linneus, who united it to Paul-
linia, by accident, as it feems, altered the word, as he
adopted it for a fpecific name, to Seriana. So it now re-
mains, the genus having been reftored by recent authors ;
nor do the botanical claims of the reverend father appear
fufficiently great, to make us folicitous about the precife
mode of {pelling the name of his plant.—Plum. Gen. 34.
t. 35. <* Schumacher in AG. Hilt. Nat. Hafn. v. 3. p. 2.”
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 464. (Paullinia; Lamarck Illuftr.

SER

t. 318. f. ty 2, 3.) ——Clafs and order, Ofandria Trigynias
Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn. Sapindi, Jufl,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, concave,
{preading, permanent, unequal leaves, Cor. Petals four,
obovate-oblong, twice the length of the calyx, furnifhed
with claws; two of them more diftant than the reft. Nec-
taries two; one of four oblong f{cales, inferted into the claws
of the petals; the other of four glands at the bafe of the
petals. Svam. Filaments eight, fimple, fhortifh ; anthers
{mall, ovate, two-lobed. if. Germen fuperior, ftalked,
obovate, with three furrows ; ftyles three, combined at the
bafe, recurved; ftigmas fimple, obtufe. Peric. Capfules
three, globofe, combined longitudinally, each of one cell,
not buriting, dilated at the bafe into a half-ovate mem-
branous wing. Seeds folitary, ovate.

Eff, Ch. Calyx of fiye unequal leaves. Petals four.
Neétaries of four feales and four glands. Capfules three,
globofe, combined, not burfting, each with a dilated wing
at the bafe. Seeds folitary,

Obf. The fruit fufficiently diftinguifhes this genus from

PautwiniA, fee that article, however fimilar the flowers, ~

and habits of the plants. ,

1. S.finuata, Willd. n. 1. Schumacher, as above,
t. 12. f. 1.’ (S. fcandens, triphylla ct racemofa; Plum.
Gen. 34. Ic. t. 113. f. 2. Paullinia Seriana; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 524. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 3. 11. t, 61. £. 2.) — Wings of
the capfules dilated below their infertion. Leaves ternate ;
leaflets ovato-lanceolate, finuated and toothed.—Native of
South America. Neither this, nor any other of the genus,
is known in our gardens. The /fem is angular, furrowed
and downy, climbing by means of tendrils.
nate, ftalked; leaflets about two inches long, veiny, taper-
ing at the bafe; roughifh to the touch, though fomewhat
fhining, above; paler beneath. Jowers {mall, in com-
pound downy cluiters. Wing of each capfule near an inch
long.

e S. divaricata. Willd. n.2. Schamach. t. 12. f. 2.”
(Paullinia divaricata; Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 2. 696.)—
Leaves twice ternate; leaflets ovate, acute, entire, ftalked,
fhining. Common footftalks without wings, — Native of
the woods of Jamaica. Svem climbing to a great height,
zigzag, with a few diftant flight prickles, angular, {mooth.
Foviftalks two inches long, furrowed, fmooth. — Leaflets
ftalked, the ttalk of the middle one winged. Tendrils axil-
lary, divided at the extremity. Panicles from the fame
point, on long ftalks, their branches racemofe,, alternate,
{preading. /owers white.

3. S. caracafana. Willd. n. 3. (Paullinia caracafana ;
Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. 1. 52. t. 99.)—-Wings of the cap-
fules not dilated below their infertion. Leaves twice ter-
nate, leaflets oblong, acute at each end, diltantly toothed.
Common ftalks without wings. — Native of the Caraccas,
from whence we prefume it was fent by Dr. Mzrter to the
ftoves at Vienna, where it flowers in the fummer. The nu-
merous /lems climb by tendrils to a great height. Leaves
fmooth; leaflets elliptic-oblong, two or three inches in
length. Flowers white, in compound cylindrical cluflers,
each clufter on a long ttalk, accompanied by two {trong re-
volute tendrils at the top of the ftalk.

4. S. racemofa. Willd. n. 4, * Schumach. t. 12. f, 3.”
—‘‘ Wings of the capfules dilated below their bafe, fome-
what finuated in front. Leaves twice ternate ; leaflets ovate,
deeply ferrated.— Native of Vera Cruz. Leaves acute.
Footftalks {carcely bordered. Panicle (or compound clu/fer )
with two tendrils.” Schumacher.

5. S. fpedabilis, Willd. n.5. ‘+ Schumach. t. 12. f. 4.”
—Wings of the capfules dilated below their bafe. Leaves
twice ternate; leaflets obovate; the terminal one abrupt.

3 Foot-

Leaves alter- .

SER

Footftalks winged.—Native of the Weft Indies. Commu-
nicated by fir J. Banks, from Miller's herbarium. This
has at the rye S. caracafana, but the winged
forsftalts obtufe , dittinguih it eflentially. We
do pot find any tendrils under the flowers, as aiceniies
deferibes them, nor are the /raflets, as Willdenow fays, quite

og Clufters aggregate.—Native of Mexico. Akin
to lait, but the entire and compound infle-

Speebeliatentaly in'cne barge 5 sacl Willdesow faye
are » in one nicle. illdenow fays
Schumacher’s figure is taken eae the {pecimen in the Lin.
With this Linnwus at one time con-

founded the true eet ae to which the figure of
| Hernandez better anfwers. The Linnzan {pecimen wants

and yet its habit, colour, and leading charaéters, are
near the Seriane we have juft been defcribing, that there
can fearcely be a doubt of its belonging to this genus.

7. S. angufiifolia. Willd. n. 7. (S. {candens, ennea-
wimps at Plum. Gen. 34. Ic. t. 113. f. 1.)—
L twice ternate ; linear- te, acute, en-
tire. Footitalks winged.—Native of South America.

’ reso can be like the laft, with which Linngus
unds this narrow-leaved {pecies, whofe tare moreover
5

—*‘ Wings of the capfules half-oval. Leaves twice ter-
crenate, ruity beneath; the terminal leaflets nearly
thomboid ; the lateral ones ovate. Footitalks flight)
‘ ”” — Native of South America. Cluflers aimott

¢, the length of the leaves, and accompanied by two
Schumacher.

_ g. S. lucida. Soland. MSS. Willd. n. 9. “ Schu-
‘mach. as above, p. 128.’"—Wings of the capfules half-
Leaves twice ternate ; leaflets ovate, acute, ferrated.
fearcely winged.—Native of Santa Cruz. The

upper furface of the deaves is highly polithed, and {trongly
“ined Clufters in fome meafure com d, accompanied
two fpiral tendrils. Communi by fir J. Banks, to

(S. f{candens, poly-

racemofa; Plum. Gen. 34. Ic. t. 112. Paul-

Footitalks winged

are not accompanied by tendnils, but form a fort
asin S. mexicana. See PauLuinia, n. 8.
feem to be more {pecies, of which incomplete {pe-
as or defcriptions exift, but with which we are not fuffi-
ntly acquainted to reduce them to order. Nor is the
in every cafe, to be afcertained, for want of the
uit, fo effential in diftinguifhing Seriana and Paullinia.
_ SERIANE, Suicu, or Efrich, in Ancient Geography,
‘town of Afia, in Syria, fituated in the mountains 5.E. of
cis, about the 35th degree of latitude. It appears by
ruins te have been formerly a large town.
SERIATE, in c » a town of Italy, in the de-
tment of the Serio; 3 miles E.S.E. of Bergamo.
RICA, in Ancient Geography, an oriental country, the
ofition of which was indicated very vaguely by the writers of
atiqui , but which has been, it mult be acknowledged, more
cifely afcertained by Ptolemy. Its fituation and hiltory,

SER

however, have been more accurately delineated by M. d’An-
ville, iv an interefling memoir entitled * Réchérclees G
hiques et Hifloriques fur la Sérique des Anciens."” M.
"Aaville refutes the opinion of thole who apprehended that
the Serica defcribed by Ptolemy corre! pounded Lo the vorthern
part of China; and he adopts the opinion of M, de Guignes,
in bis Hiltory of the Huns, that it belonged to the conquelts
of the Chinete towards the weft. M. d’Anville adds, that
with the exception of a {mall angular territory at the ex-
tremity of the province of Chen-fi, towards the N.W., China
formed no part of Serica. In {peaking of Scythia, on the
other fide of the Imaus, Ptolemy mentions a paflage in this
mountain, which was the ftation of merchants that traded
with the Seres. Contiguous to this ftation, according to
Ptolemy, is a country called Cafia, which M. d’Aaville
f{uppofes to be the fame with Cathgar, called by the Chinefe
Kin-tfe. In proof of their identity it may be alleged that
the tables of Nafir-Uddin and Ulugh-beigh aflign to Cath-
ar 44° of latitude, and that Ptolemy waked the latitude of
afia 43°, differing only by one degree. Ptolemy men-
tions the river Occhardes, which M. d’ Anville fuppofes to be
Yerghien, Another river near the limits of Serica, men-
tioned by Ptolemy, is that called Bautes, which, in its courfe
towards the N., is joined by the lateral branch of another
river peciain the fame direétion ; and thefe circumftances
correfpond with thofe of the prefent Etziné. The Bautes,
as M. d’Anville apprehends, lofes itfelf in certain lagunz,
at the entrance of the defert called by the Tartars Cobi, and
by the Chinefe Sha-ono. Duly informed concerning the
Bautes of Ptolemy, M. d’Anville was able to fertle the
pofition of Sera, the metropolis of Serica. For accerding
to the ancient geographers, this town is very near the point
where the laft branch of the Bautes feparates from it, and a
town is actually found at the eaftern branch of the Etziné,
towards its fource. This town mutt therefore correfpond
to the Sera of Ptolemy, and bear the name of Can-tcheou.
It is the firft confiderable town that occurs at the entrance
of the Chinefe province of Chen-fi. This town belongs toa
particular country known to the Orientals under the name
of Tangut. ‘Tangut may therefore probably be the country
anciently inhabited by the Seres, of which Sera was the
capital, Another decifive proof that Can-tcheou is the
Sera metropolis of Ptolemy, is deduced from the circum-
ftance that this town, according to the Greek grapher,
is 38° 35! of latitude, and that the latitude of eg aml
according to the Jefuit aftronomers, 1s 39°, the difference
being only 25’. Ptolemy places the Effedones in Serica.
But Effedum or Effedo fignifying a chariot, and fome of
the Scythians, called by the ee Hamaxobii, or perfons
living tn chariots, it has been inferred, that the people who
bore the name of Effedones, in the Serica of Ptolemy, were
merely thofe whofe habitation was in chariots, and it is alfo
added, that a part of the country of the Seres had borne the
name of Eygur, and that the nation who occupied a part of
this country is called by the Chinefe Kao-tché, a word which
fignifies high chariots.

Serica, according to Ptolemy, is bounded to the W. by
Scythia, on the other fide of the Imaus; to the S, by us-
known territories, and by a part of India beyond the Ganges
and the Sines; the other boundaries are unknown. Its
prope: mountains are the Annibi, which encompafs the

eres to the N.; the Auxacii, which extend to the Seres by
their eaftern parts; the Afmirai in the country ; the eaftern
pat of the Caflian mountains ; mount Thagurus, called alfo
thagurus; the mountains Emodi and Sericus. The chief
rivers are the Oichardes or Occhardes, which rifes in the
Auxacian mountains; and the Bautes, which fprings from
mount Caflius. The north of Serica was inhabited . An-
thrope-

SER

thropophagi; below thefe were the Annibi, bearing the
name of thefe mountains ; the Axacii and the Sizyges, be-
low whom were the Damnz; the Piaddx extended them-
felves to the river Oechardes. The Garinwi and the Nab-
bane lay more to the eaft than the Annibi. To the S. was
the country called Afmirza, where were the mountains of the
fame name ; the I ffedones, or Efledones, were fituatedto the S.,
and extended themfelves to mount Caffius; and thefe formed
a powerful nation ; the Throanilay to the E., and below them
the Ithaguri; the Afpacarz lay to the S. of the Ifledones,
and below them the Bate; the Ottorochorre were fituated
tothe S. The principal towns were the Damne, Piada,
Abmirza or Almirza, Tharrana or Throana, Iffedon, Se-
rice, Afpacara, Drofache, Paliana, Abfagana, Thogara,
Daxata, Orofana, Ottorochorrha or Ottorocorras, Saas:
and Sera Metropolis. It appears from the article Little
Bucwaria, to which we refer the reader, that no region but
this can correfpond to Ptolemy’s Serica.

SERICH, the name of a feed ufed in the food of the
Egyptian Coptics. It is produced by an herb called
fimfim, and is pounded and put into oil. In this they dip
their bread, which is always new, being baked as often as
they eat, in {mall flat cakes; thefe they eat dipped in this
oil with raw onions, or elfe they break the cakes to pieces,
and put them into a fyrup of fugar, made when the-canes are

een. Pococke’s Egypt, p. 183.

SERICORA, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the

rovince of Mazanderan ; 15 miles N.E. of Aiterabat.

SERICUM, Sirx. See Sink.

Srricum is alfo a name given by feveral chemical writers
to the flowers of zinc raifed by fublimation in an inclined
open crucible. Thefe flowers are not reducible into zinc
again, and are of a fibrous texture, and a beautiful bright
white colour. This has made them be called alfo the philo-
Sophie cotton, and others have named them the aqua ficca philo-
ophorum.

Has, in Botany, a generic name given by Juffieu to
thofe {pecies of Centaurea which are included under the fixth
fe&tion (Siche) of that genus. Jufl. 173. See CENTAUREA.

SERJEANT, or SERGEANT, aterm in our Law, ap-
plied to fundry offices. Serjeant at law, or of the coif, is
the higheft degree taken in the common law, as that of
doétor is in the civil law.

The firft mention which judge Blackftone has met with
of ferjeants, or countors, is in the ftat. of Weft. 1. 3 Edw. I.
c. 29. But M. Paris, in his life of John IT. abbot of St.
Alban’s, which he wrote in 1255, 39 Hen. III. {peaks of
advocates at the common law, or countors (quos banci nar-
ratores vulgariter appellamus) as of an order of men well
known ; and the antiquity of the coif appears from the fame
author’s Hift. of England, A.D. 1259- Serjeants were an-
ciently called /ervientes ad legem, and fervientes narratores ;
Mr. Selden adds, that they were alfo called doéores legis ;
though others are of opinion that the judges are more pro-
perly the dodores legis, and ferjeants, the bachelors of law.

Spelman obferves, that however a ferjeant may be richer
than all the doétors of the Commons, yet a doétor is fuperior
in degree to a ferjeant, for the very name of a do¢tor 1s ma-
gifterial, but that of a ferjeant minifterial. Hence, the
do&tors are feated and covered when they plead, but the fer-
jeants ftand uncovered at the bar, excepting for their coif.

As thefe are fuppofed the moft learned and experienced,
there is one court appropriated for them to plead in by
themfelves, which is the Common Pleas, where the common
law of England is moft ftri€tly obferved; but they are not
prohibited pleading in other courts; and all judges, who, by
cuftom, mutt firft be ferjeants, call them brothers.

Serjeants at law are bound by a folemn oath to do their

SER

duty to their clients ; and by cuftom the judges of the courts
of Weltmintfter are always admitted into this venerable order,
before they are advanced to the bench ; the original of which
was probably to qualify the puifné barons of the exchequer
to become juftices of affife, according to the exigence of
the ftatute of 14 Edw. III. c, 16.

They are called by the king’s mandate, or writ, direéted
to them, commanding them to take upon them that degree,
by a day affigned. See Barrister.

Out of thefe, fome are made the king’s ferjeants to plead
for him in all caufes, efpecially in cafes of treafon ; and one
is ufually appointed, called premier ferjeant. See CounsEL
and PRECEDENCE.

Srerseants at Arms, are officers appointed to attend the
perfon of the king, to arreft traitors, and perfons of quality
offending, and to attend the lord high fteward when he fits
in judgment on any traitor, &c.

Thefe officers were firft inftituted by king Richard I. in
imitation of a corps of the fame name, formed by Philip Au-
guitus, king of France, when on a crufade, to guard him
againft the fubje€ts of the old man of the mountain, famous
for their daring affaffinations. Of thefe by ftatute (13 Ric. II.
c. 6.) there are not to be above 30 in the realm.

The duty of thefe ferjeants originally was to watch round
the king’s tent in complete armour, with a mace, a bow,
arrows, and a fword, and occafionally to arreft traitors, and
other offenders, about the court, for which the mace was
deemed a fufficient authority. ‘They were called the va-
lourous force of the king’s errand, in the execution of juf-
tice; they held their places for life; their number was ori-

ginally twenty-four, all perfons of approved worth, and not - |

under the degree of the fon of aknight ; but afterwards the
fons of gentlemen were admitted into the body. In the
reign of Edward I. the ferjeants at arms were allowed two
marks for winter, end the fame for fummer robes; their
pay in that of Edward II. was 12d. per diem, when they
attended on horfeback, and 8d. when they attended with-
out a horfe. Their allowance, when abfent from court, on

the king’s affairs, was 12d. each by the day; and under,

another head they appear charged at 26s. 8d. each for
winter, and 20s. for fummer. ‘They were befides entitled
to certain fees from perfons.arrefted, in proportion to their
rank anddegree. According to the orders given by Thomas
of Lancatter, conftable at the fiege of Caen, Sept. 3d. 1417,
a ferjeant at arms was to appear in the king’s prefence, with
his head bare, his body armed to the feet with the arms of a
knight riding, wearing a gold chain with a medal, bearing all
the king’s coats, with a peon royal, or mace of filver, in his
right hand, and in his left hand a truncheon. In the 7th
of Hen. VII. they were ordered to attend the army. The
number of this corps has varied exceedingly. Inthe reign of
Edw. IV. they were reduced to four; in that of Edw. VI.

they were increafed to twenty-two, and in the fucceeding |

reign to twenty-three ; but by king James I. retrenched to

fixteen, and afterwards to eight.

Such is the number now at court, at 100/. per annum falary —

each ; they are called the Aing’s /erjeants at arms, to dif. ©

tinguifh them from others; they are created with great cere-
mony, the perfon kneeling before the king, his majefty lays

the mace on his right fhoulder, and fays, Rife up ferjeant at —

arms, and efquire for ever. They have, befides, a patent for

the office, which they hold for life.

They have their attendance in the prefence-chamber, where —
the band of gentlemen-penfioners wait ; and receiving the

king at the door, they carry the maces before him to they

chapel door, whilft the band of pentfioners ftand foremolt, —

and make a lane for the king, as they alfo do when the king
goes to the houfe of lords.
They

SE R

e
‘They t<e 3 confiderable thare of the fees of honour, and
“travelling charges wed them whe in waiting, wis, five
fhillhngs per day when the cous is within ten miles of Lon-
don, ten fhillings when twenty miles from London.
The places are in the lord chamberlain’s gift.

There are four other ferjeants at arms, created in the {ame
manner; one who attends the lord chancellor; a fecond,
the lord treafurer; a third, the {peaker of the houfe of
commons; and a fourth, the lord mayor of London on

There are alfo ferjeants of the mace of an inferior kind,
who attend the mayor, or other head officer of a corpora-

Sexseant, Common, an officer in the city of London,
who attends the lord mayor and court of aldermen on court
and isin council with them on all occafions, within
without the precinéts, or liberties of the city. He was
to take care of orphans’ eftates, either by taking account of
ing their indentures, before their pafling the
court of aldermen; and he was Flewils to
the orphans’ eftates, according to his judg-
ment to their beft advantage. See Recorper.
are officers who execute
king’s houfhold, mentioned in

:

ig the exercife of a battalion, regularly itands or moves
hind each officer, ing or a€ting with a platoon
company. When the ranks take open order, and the
cers move in front, the coverin ~<a: replace their
ers; and when the ranks are they fall back in

cir rear.

Sexseant, Drill, an expert and a€tive non-commiflioned
pificer, who, under the immediate direCtion of the ferjeant-
major, inftrudts the raw recruits of a regiment in the firft prin-

ples of military exercife. When awkward or ill-behaved
en are fent to drill, they are ufually placed under the care

t.

i Secape On cgelagae caelly peet aS
pany. only receives o
tia tae

‘ay, an honeft, fteady, non-commiffioned

Senseant,
cer, who is a good accountant, and writes well, that
captain of a company in the ree ge
my,

a
s felected by the
) men twice a-week, and to account weekly to
to his fubaltern, for all difburfements. He likewife
beeps a regular ftatement of the neceflarics of the men, and
is in making up the monthly abitra& for pay, allowances,

SERJEANT, Quarter-Mafter, a non-commiffioned officer,
ho aéts under the quarter-maiter of a regiment: he
ight to be fteady, a good accountant, and acquainted
with the refources of a country town or village.
SERJEANTY, or SerGeanry, in Law, a fervice an-
ly due to the king for lands held of him, and which
' Se tied inet rcd and pol
It is into and petit ferjeanty.
E Grand, is ee doe holds lands of the king
fervice \ ought to do in his own perfon, as to
t king’s banner or {pear, afliit at his coronation, or
ome office in his court. -

SER

It was in mott other refpeéts like knight-fervice, ony
he was not bound to pay aid or oenee and when tenant
by koight-fervice paid five pounds for a relief on ew
knight’s fee, tenant by grand-ferjeanty paid one .
value of his land, whether it were much or little. "eat
by cornage was a fpecies of grand-ferjeanty. See Con-
NAGE, Litt. § 153. 158. 2 Init. 233.

Senseanry, Petit, is where a man holds land of the king
to yield him yearly fome {mall thing towards bis wars, as
a fword, dagger, bow, {purs, &c. in the manner of rent.

Coke, on Littleton, tells us, that fir Richard Rockefly
held lands at Seaton, by grand-ferjeanty, to be vantrarius
regis, i. e. the king’s fore-footman, when he weat ito
Gafcogne, till he had worn out a pair of thoes of the price
of four-pence.

By the ftatute 13 Car. II. all tenures of any honors,
maners, lands, &c. are turned into free and common focage:
but the honorary fervices of grand-ferjeanty are thereby
continued.

SERIES, a continual fucceflion of things in the fame
order, and which have fome relatien or conne&tion with
each other.

Medals are formed into /uites or feric/ez, both with re
to the metal and to the fubject. The different metals of
medals conititute three different feriefes in the cabinets of
the curious, we mean, as to the order and arrangement of
the feveral metals.

The gold feries, for inftance, of imperials, amounts to
about 5000; that of filver may amount to 10,000; and
that of brafs to 30,000. See MEDALs.

With regard to the fubjeét, the feries of medals are
ufually formed from the fide called the Acad: in the firtt
clafs, is difpofed the feriefes of kings ; in the fecond, that of
Greek and Latin critics; in the third, the Roman confular
families; in the fourth, the imperial; in the fifth, the
deities ; and to thefe may be added a fixth feries, confifting
of medals of illuftrious perfons. See Mepats.

There are alfo ferieles of modern medals; that of the
popes only commences from Martin V. in 1430. From
that time we have a feries of papal medals, tolerably com-
plete, to the number of five or fix hundred.

We might likewife have a feries of emperors from Char-
lemagne, provided the current coins were admitted ; but in
practice they commonly commence with Frederic Il. in

1463.
The feries of the kings of France is moft numerous and
moit confiderable of all the modern kings. See Mears.
Series, in Analyfis, is a {ucceflion of terms, or progrefiion
of quantities, connected par by the figns plus and

minus, and ee according to fome law or determinate
relation. hack anon e following. :
Pepe pty pe
3 5 7 9
I I 1 1
x ile a a, te

The former being the reciprocals of the odd numbers, and
the terms of the latter a geometrical \progreffion, of which
the ratio is 4.

Series are of various forms, and arife in many different
ways, as from the expanfion of funGtions, the inverfe method
of fluxions, &c. But they very frequently arife inde-
pendent of any ral derivation, and the object of en-
quiry is then to ine that funétion to which they are
equivalent, and from the expanfion of which they may be
reproduced, or the fala | value of a certain or of an
infinite number of their terms.

Thus,

SERIES.

Thus, of the former kind, we have

ra Si) ssbb ee fig 2 alee
a eee aut aia Baatees
Y I b b* 53
and a variety of others. And of the latter,
I 2
+434 44 F, + &c.
a a a a @
I I 1 1
Ttatatatet x
2% dig ts, gt tag tame
&e. &c. &e.

Many of which are {till irreducible to any equivalent finite
funtion.

Series alfo receive feveral different denominations ac-
cording to certain circumftances attending their formation,
the law which they follow, the form of the function to
which they are reducible, &c. &c. as arithmetical, geome-
trical, converging, diverging, reciprocal, &c. feries.

Series, Couverging, are thofe in which the terms decreafe,
or become fucceflively lefs and lefs ; as

eke eee SS
Saint BG) ose

Series, Diverging, are thofe in which the terms con-
tinually increafe ; as

pent &e.

Y—24+ 27— 23 4+ 24— 2° + &e

Series, Neutral, are thofe in which all the terms are
equal to each other; as

I—-t+t-1+1i1-—-14 &e

This arifes from the divifion of 1 by 1 + 4, and is there-
fore equal to 3.

Series, Indeterminate, is fometimes ufed to denote a
feries, whofe terms proceed according to the powers ef fome
indeterminate letter or quantity ; as

e+ : 6° + L #e+ : sees ae &e.
2 3 4 B)
Other writers, however, mean by this denomination thofe
feries whofe fms are indeterminable in any finite form.
Series are again either afeending or defcending.
Series, A/cending, are thofe in which the powers of the
indeterminate quantity continually increafe ; as

Vtartha + ew + dut + ke,

Series, Defending, are thofe in which thefe powers de»
ereafe in the numerator, or increafe in the denominator 3 as

t+ ae7t + by? + cx? + dx-* + Ke, or

a b Cee
fed ee ties Cle meet eer
# s aye By

Series, Circular, are thofe whofe fums depend upon the
quadrature of the circle’ thus,

are circular feries ; the former being equal to anetglith oF
the circumference of a circle whole »/Us 18 13 and the
latter equal to one-fixth of the fquare of the femi-cireum-
ference to the fame radius. x

Serigs, Logarithmic, ave thofe which exprefs, or whofe
fums depend upon‘the logarithms of numbers ; as

(a~1)=$ (a1) + § (a—1)) F(a — 1) 4 ea
which is equal to the hyperbolic logarithm of a.

SERIES, Arithmetical, are thofe whofe fucceflive terms dif-
fer from each other by a certain and determinate quantity; as

a+(a+d)+ (a+ 2d)+ (a+ 3d)4+ &e.
a+(a—d)+(a—2d) +(a— 3d) + &e.

Series, Geometrical, are thofe whofe fucceflive terms are ©

fome multiple or fubmultiple of thofe immediately preceding
them ; as
@tratrat+rastria+ &e.
a a
Sep

r r3

a a.
a@a+—+ 5 ar &c.
r r
Serres, Fra@ional, are thofe whofe terms are all frac.
tional ; as
Sih Berni) ae pit Sel ee zai il tS pret ies
b(6+¢) (6+¢)(b+2c) (b+2c) (6 + 3¢)
Senrizs, Trigonometrical, are thofe which relate ta trigo-
nometrical lines or quantities; as

+ &e,

fin.3a@ fina . 5 fin.7a
Gti) gi ee sna olga Sas ye ae !
j CS Glaty a amass ake Oogre as
tan.ta tan.‘2@ tan.’4
tan. @ — ae Se Plainget + ke,

which are each expreffions for the length of a circular arc,
the former in terms of the fine, and the latter in terma of
the tangent. i ;

Spries, Exponential, are thofe which arife from the
expanfion of, or whofe fum dependa upon exponential
quantities ; as :

x 2e* wo ast
nie dese e Hr gige Megara rgatys Hes
which is equal to e*, ¢ being the number whofe hyperbolic
logarithm is 1,

Serres, Recurring, are thofe in which each term has a
conftant relation to a certain number of the preceding terms,
See RECURRING Series,

Serius, Law of a, is ufed to denote that relation which
fubfilts between the fucceflive terma of a feries, and by
which their general term may be denoted ; thus the feries

8 16 128
thu ae (sh bee Nina tans SUTRA
1) 35 315
may be put under the form

2 P04 1246 2.4.6.8
eb GO EI ce =

3 $5 Bib diet Soy ae
where the law by which it may be indefinitely continued is
manifeft ; and from which we draw the general.term, wiz

2-4-6++02("~1) nwt

3°5> 7740 (2n— 4)

Pre
, 3

wi + at + &ee

Serins, Interpolation of, See INVERPOLATION, ai

Series, Reverfion of, See Reversion,
Sertes, Summation of, is the finding the fum of a feries,
whether the number of its terms be finite or infinite; the
yarious methods of performing which ig treated of in the
fubfequent part of this article,

Method

SERIES.

Methed of feries is vfed in a general feafe to denote the

inci poacher authors have treated this fub-

» a5 with refereace to the reverfion and interpolation
= feries, as to the finite and approximate fummation of

The dotirine of fries is certainly ove of the molt important
fubjects of mathematical inveltigation, and has been very
appropriately denominated by James Bernoulli the /hect-
anchor of analyfis; being our only hope and laft refort, in
a variety of difficult problems, whi

ch bid defiance to every
other method of computation.

‘The fummation of feries, and the quadrature of a curvi-
linear f{pace, are intimately connected with each other, as
well in their origin as in their fubfequent progrefs. We have
flated under the article QuapRATURg, that Archimedes was
the firft who found the area of a curvilinear {pace, which
he effeéted by one of a oa yee of an Serge {eries
upoa geometrical principles, and which is the inflance
on record of fuch an operation ; from which time, for nearly

“two thoufand years, little or nothing was attempted relative
to this fubjeét ; but about the middle and the latter end of
the 17th century, it nto attract the general attention

__ of mathematicians, and has fince that time been purfued with
| a degree of perfeverance and fuccefs commenfurate with its

Ce eee the general progrefs of analyfis
Ww

is, in his Arithmetic of Infinites, feems to have

rft the moderns who drew the attention

“of mathematicians to the doétrine of feries. Lord Brounker,

ir Chriltopher Wren, Mercator, and James Gregory, alfo

purfued the er ge with confiderable fuccefs, exhibiting the

uadrature rectification of different curves under the
of infinite feries.

In 1682, Leibnitz publifhed in the Leipfic A@s a memoir
‘entitled “ De proportione circuli ad quadratum circum-
feriptum, in numeris rationalibus,”’ in which he gave feveral
numerical feries of .a very novel kind, whofe fums were ex-

in finite terms, without, however, accompanying

“ with their demonitrations ; amongit the moft curious
of which we may reckon the following : wiz.

St Ae ee

3 8 15 4 35 48

+ &c. or

1 I I I
ey yt poi wt

The fum of an infinite number of terms of which is equal
to 3; the fum of its odd terms being equal to 4, and the
fum of its even terms equal to 3: that is

Se oh th} Ke. = hand
wee S06 Go7- Fad 9-11 oo
1 1 I I I
a a hs yar lei

~The {um of an infinite number of terms of the fame fe-
omitting every three terms after the rit, the sth, the
&c. as

on Sa a el alah ela
[on Meee Gor Xeols. 7. 19°

} equal to the area of a circle of which the infcribed {quare
if rious # thafernd term, and thence omit every
terms, as above, we hall have

ye tz I I
ante ic-ia * 14.16

Vou. XXXII.

which is equal to the area or ff included between the
curve and alymptote of an equilateral hyperbola, or Z of the
hyp. log. 2.

Leibnitz alfo gave in the fame work for 1683, the fum-
mation of feveral other feries of a more difficult kind, as

1 i I 1 - 20
[i- = _— _- -_-__— = =
2.10 2.10° 2.10’ 2.10' 21

2 20"

Eh es api Set ten, — tee. me)
2210 § 3:10 2.10 2.10 a4

6 10 1 20

as A eae 2) a = —)
S-16) 8,10 8.10° 2.10 21

Thefe, as we have before obferved, were not desmon-
itrated by Leibnitz, but this was foon after done, and many
other feries inveftigated, by the brothers John and James
Bernoulli; the latter in a {mall tra& “ De Seriebus Infinitis,’’
publifhed with the “ Ars Conjeétandi ;” and the former in
vol. iv. of his “ Opera Omnia.”

From the preface to the former tra& we learn, that James,
having turned hris attention to the doétrine of feries, had
difcovered a few which were fummable, and which he pro-
pofed to his brother ; who having quickly demonftrated
them, propofed others to James; this led to other propofi-
tions, and fo on, till in a fhort time they were not only
able to demonttrate all Leibnitz’s feries, but had difcovered
two general principles, which’ applied with great facility
to a variety of new cafes; the ove of which was the
refolution of an infinite feries into an infinite number of
other feries ; and the other, the method commonly called
the fummation by fubtradion. We fee here that fpirit of
emulation and rivalry with which thefe two brothers were
conftantly aétuated, and to which they each probably owe
many of their finelt difcoveries. It is only to be regretted
that it terminated in a manner fo unworthy of their talents
and chara@ter; particularly with regard to John, who was
doubtlefs at firit much indebted to his brother’s iniiruétion,
but who, notwithftanding, indulged his refentment againit
him for many years after his death, feeking every opportu-
nity of afperfing his methods, and of leffening his repu-
tation.

The Bernoullis’ Method of Series ——The principal dif-
ference between the methods of thefe two celebrated mathe-
maticians confifts in this, that James, in his “* TraGtatus de
Seriebus Infinitis,”” proceeds fynthetically ; and John, in his
“ Opera Omnia,” analytically ; but the feries in both cafes
are nearly of the fame kinds, and the fummation of them
depends upon: the fame principles; we fhall, therefore, by
way of illuftration, abitra&t one or two propofitions from
the former work, which will be fufficient er giving the
reader an idea of the fpirit of the two methods above al-
luded to.

Prop.—To find the fum of an infinite number of fraétions,
whofe denominators increafe in any geometrical p ,
but whofe numerators proceed according to the natural num-
bers, or polygonal or figurate numbers, of any denomi-
nation.

Cafe 1.—When the numerators aceording to the
natural numbers, that is, when 2 sis an arithmetical
progreflion.

Let the propofed feries, whofe {um is required, be

a ate ap3e a+ 36
75 TT 3p am
No This

SERIES.

This is obvioufly equal to

Ce a a fetes ad
rhe Se mee Cane caanim Fe
Sse atina ee cd
Pepe nae Bae tS BE
+ c G a Re = Od
bd? + bd3 NS Vina
¢ cad
gs Ce re
+ &c.— &c.

Each of which feries being geometrical, are found by the
known rules for fuch prog'reffions ; and it is obvious that all
thefe fums, except the firit, are alfo in geometrical progref-
fion ; the {um of which, viz. of

cd cd cd cd
— + + Sha
bd—db bd?*—bd' ba?—b a | bd?—bad
cd
+ &c. = CEE,
: : ad ‘ ad
to which therefore adding id aay we have Chay)

cd
+ b@=1) for the {um of the propofed feries.
Cafe 2.—When the numerators of the fractions proceed
according to the triangular numbers. Let

6c

10o¢
+ pb oa

+ &c.

Wiz.

CC ARG c pei ba cd
Spiaap gy And Wi Bidets am GISE
2¢ ZC Ze &e Lee
mere | Les ah ey 7 a

Bison a SKE. Setlld a BiG apc
rely BB cla i ME
ap6 Pree ah AM le
GS GED:
= ROC Co — CCS

which fums, with the exception of the firft, conftitute a
feries agreeing in form with that folved above, and from

which we derive for the fum required.

c dB
b(d—1)3

Cor.—If we make ain the firft feries = 0, the fum of that
feries will be to the fum of the latter, asd — 1: d’; that is,

d cd cd

Sag aay en wee And. when the
numerators proceed according to the figurate numbers of
the firft order, viz. 1, 4, 20, 35, then the fum of this
feries will be to that of the latter, as d: d — 1; that is,

asd—1:d

¢d3 cd3
BO eet tes, Py eee f
asd A deh mae (Saas the fum of the
Rew Typ) NOE. FOO Bye
feries > + 25+ tet bet rat &c.

In a fimilar manner is found the fum of the feries, when
the numerators are f{quares, cubes, &c. from which the
author draws the following refults; viz.

ET ict ene Gh is
Nat. Num. MEP i yaar crn 2
Trian. Num. 2 4
: 1, 4p ito laa aaae
Fig. rit order eur c Rae. do ies = G3

4 viii st 1G ah

Squares Aes Ts er in See 6

Li ee are MY Gy,
bes ae aoe carereils =
Cubes Sid, ede eS ae eS 26

As an illuftration of the fecond method, that is, of
fummation by {ubtraétion, we fhall give an abftraé& of James
Bernoulli’s fifteenth propofition, which is as follows.

Prop.—To find the fum of an infinite feries of fractions,
whofe numerators conftitute a feries of equal numbers, and
denominators, a feries of triangular numbers, or of their
multiples.

From the feries pe slane Wags yn oe
c NG eRe Ae YG
a a a a a a
fubtraé&t ae
par: AGRO ae? a 6c ~ C
a a a a a a
we have reece Ares ees
thie’do ub leo Bw RiSty Se coe ene aan a oa gence
Chic HaOlcmiamoicniey Kote t

which laft is a feries of fraétions of the form propofed, their
denominators forming the feries of triangular numbers, mul-
tiplicd by the conftant quantity c. Thus in numbers; if
from the feries

I t u I
Lo ee hee ft oe
tei e iB}

(without regarding what may be the value of S), we take

I I 1 I I
—~+-+4+—-4+54+7+ & =S—1
Bh eal 3:04 ele
we fhall have
I I I I
= a ecg
ee ALG H meee AI “a7 Ero 15
In the fame way we find
I I i I 3
—— + + —+— s+ &. = ~.
Warne Hauen gaGen L7h6 6 4

On the fame principle, John Bernoulli demonttrated, that
the fum of the reciprocals of the natural numbers is in-
finite. Let

1 Lt gl Ngee ale aaa
= +=—4+—+—+2 + &e.
Pe gee te 80'S

be changed into the equivalent form
apse eraser 20
a 6 a2 tao Eee ih

and

SERIES.

and let this lait be refolved into the infinite feries

1 ! ! 1 1
wha is *aotgr
1 1 ! ! 1
we u's tit
ti todi+ dom —
12 20 «30 3
1 ! 1
cone es
i 1
— + &. = —
i 5
+ &c. = &e.
Whence it follows, that the fum of
1 1 1 1 i s . ;
— + — +H + — +] + Ke. ad infinitum =
wee. 45. 6
pt tte tet Ke. ad infinitum
ely er aaa

_ which equality can only have place when the firft {um is in-
finite.

John Bernoulli afterwards found the fum of the feries of
the reci of the natural fquares, a problem mentioned
by his » in his {cholium to propofition 17, in which
he declared that the folution of it bed cradled his induftry ;
and that whoever folved it fhould receive his warmeit

It thould be obferved, however, that though James had
failed in finding the true fum, he had difcovered feveral cu-
rious properties of this feries ; viz. that thefum of the odd

terms, +5 + Gi + juistothe fum of the even terms,
1 1 |

Sat as 3 tol.
feries of the reciprocals of any powers whatever, as + ~

et ts + &c. the fum of the terms in the odd
beginning at unity, is tothe fum of the terms in the
even places, 2s n* — 1is to 1. Hence,

And generally, if we havea

<-—

I
+ gtk. 33731.

ner x denotes the
t. Montucla

of a circle whofe ra-
by miftake, attributed the firft

furmmation of this feries to Euler, fee page 209, tom, iil.
* Hitloire des Mathematiques,”

We thall only further obferve with regard to thefe au-
thors, that we here find the firlt notice of continued expref-
fions of the form

with the method of fumming them by means of quadratic,
cubic, and biquadratic equations. See our articles du ADKA-
vic, and Sunps.

3. Montmort’s Method of Serics.—The two methods above
illuttrated, by means of which the Bernoullis arrived at the
fummation of various ferics, are both indire@, aud are better
fuited to finding fummable feries, than to the fummation
of any feries propofed ; they are moreover only applicable
to fuch feries as continually decreale ad infinitum.

In 1712 another intereiting corre{pondence took place
on feries of a different kind, Brenner M. Montmort, John
Bernoulli, and his nephew Nicholas Bernoulli, They were
led to thefe confiderations, in confequence of certain pro-
blems relating to the doétrine of probabilities, which at that
time began to excite great iatereh amongit both the Englith
and French mathematicians. The object here was not the
determination of the {um of an infinite number of decreafing
terms, but the fummation of any finite number of terms,
either increafing or decreafing ; and the formula of M.

Montmort, given at page 65 of his « Eflai d’Analy{e fur
at Jeux de Hazard,” fecond edition, for this. purpofe, is as
ollows.

Leta+hb+ct+d+e4+ f+ ke. be the propofed
feries, and m the number of terms whofe {um is required ;
alfo, let D', D", D!", D”, &c. be the firft terms of the firft,
fecond, third, fourth, &c. differences ; then will the fam of
the n terms be expreiled by

ws EM oy MED. y
4 Bisie’=! » (a~g) ees

Se ae
which feries will terminate in all cafes where any of the
order of differences become zero ; but in others it will only
give an approximation. F
Let it be required, for example, to find the fum of «
terms of the natural feries of the {quares

PtrPeet es si... 2

Here a= % Dia 4, Di 2, DD” =o;
therefore
oe B=) (n(n) |
ras 1, a> 8
is the fum required.
If it were the feries of triangular numbers,
1+3+6+10+4 he. cee

2
then we fhould have

é='55 D' = 1, D!=1, D® = 03
therefore the {um of » terms will be exprefled by

E n (n—1) 2 n(n —1) (nm — 2)
m8 1.3.9
. Nna2 From

SERIES.

From this general formula are readily drawn the following particular expreffions for the fums of the different orders
of polygonal and figurate numbers; as-alfo for the {quares, cubes, and higher powers.

Figurate Numbers.

Series. General term. Sum of n terms.
anit om = Soe bear n = a
-2
r+ 3+ 6+ 304 eee et ay eee ee
Toe Tez
Ta} so etuaore a (oh 2) (oh 2)) Nee eae)
itione ona ie Diag
r+ 5 + 15 + 35 + &e. = &e.
where the law of continuation is fufficiently obvious.
Polygonal Numbers.
Series. General. term. Sum of » terms.
rb26- 3+ 4+ , n = n+ —s
m+n be: zn (n—1) n(x— 1) (n— 2)
aie a. pa he Sua.) 7. oi? Sha
2n* — On a(n—1) 2n(n—1) (n—2)
6 eR ee ie Med na, 2 MW Sid aN 2)
List Ay ya cake eat rg) ian Tee if ie Be
3m —n a 4u (v— 1) 3a (x— 1) (n—2)
aot visa eit aaa iz ag 1, rae hoes
: d (m— 2) n*—(m—4)n
univerfally ; the general term being ae
eHiles famureE astern, oie pee eee ie 2) (ee
Tee mAs 2
Powers.
Series. General term. Sum.
2 27 z 2 2 —= a3 we — id
P+ 2+ 3+ 4 + Suis = Ro aes
3 3 3 3 3 nt n nm
Bf 2439+ 4+ n = Selo ks
® 4 2 4
i* + 24 + 3t + 4% + n* = SE ag Ol eae
5 Zeek SS 30
6 5 4 2
5 5 5 5 re 5 — Ci Le ae — ae
Pate 2 te St ate eer i is: Gil tae 12 12
&c. &e. &e. = &e.

A variety of other feries fall under the above general
formula of M. Montmort; viz. feries of which the fum
may be exhibited in a finite form: and in all cafes where
the fucceflive differences decreafe, an approximation may be
obtained by it, and that with a confiderable degree of fa-
cility, when the terms are alternately + and — 1, but
when they are all plus, or all minus, except the firft, little,
if any, advantage is gained by it.

The above method of fummation is commonly called the
differential method, and was firft ufed for interpolation by Briggs,
in the conftrution of his table of logarithms. Newton alfo
applied it to a variety of interefting problems in his “ Me-
thodus Differentialis ;”’? but Montmort, as far as we have been
able to trace, was the firft who employed it in the fumma-
tion of feries.

6

The following formule, all relating to the differential
method, will not be unacceptable to the reader.
Letta+b6+c+d+e+ f+ &e. be any feries ;
make
D' =s,—a
D! =a— 2b+6e
D"'=a— 364+ 3c—d
De =a—4b+4 6c—4d+e

(Gis = —2)d
DO= 7eeae ee ale pe eee 2)

From which laft general formula the firft term of any order
of differences may be found independent of all thofe which

precede it.

+ &e.

Again,

SERIES.
Again, let N reprefent the ath term, and S the fam of # terms; then will

(a—t) ,, (m— 1) (# — 2)
oe Nate egiltoanar Ft teem

N= a+

m(n—1) n(a— b) (w — 2)
Cwne+ Lin S y+ id a3

latter expreffion for the fum is, as we have above
due to M. Montmort. The fame author alfo
in the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1718, fome
the fummation of feries ; but as thefe are
nothing more than particular cafes of the method of incre-
ments, we thall not notice them in this place ; but refer the
reader to the article Incnements, for an illutration of the

method of fummation as depending upon thofe principles,
: firft, publithed by Dr. Brooke Tre, o his « Wiethodue
: Incrementorum,” 171

feries, which is not referred to in the article above
mentioned ; it was firft giveri by him in his “ Mifcellanea
Analytica,” 1730.

Tak thee ell ety Seria, and et liv be siuhipbed
any binomial or trinomial factor, fuch that the refulting
ies fhall have its powers of x recurring again in the fame

; then, by equating the refulting feries to 0, and tranf-

the ive terms, a new numerical feries will arife,
fum of which will be given.
Thus, let there be taken the feries

Et te + f+ fe + 3 2'+ &e. = S.
iplying this by « — 1, we have

1 I
ae teeth sre

making x — 1 = 0, or x = 1, we have
I
263

+ ge the aes.

I 1
— — + &. =).
signe) e-5

I+ ix + fa*° + 32" + &. = S.
ing by x* — 1, we have
1 2 2 3
ep 8 tity Tote sa PM
=(#—1) 8
making again x = 1, we have
2 2 2 2 3
eee 46) s.7 oe
I 1 1 1 3
a to a r= & 7
ey ee 5
another example, let the fame feries

I+4rt+ Gx + ist’ + ist 4 & = S

(2x—1) (32-1) =6x*~5x41,

D’ + (w wait (w — 3) (a — 3) D” + &c.

1.2.3
" a(s—1) (a ~ 2) (mn — 9) ”" -
D" + 3 iS noe DM + ke.
and we have
ae ee ee 57
1.2 1.2.3 3-3-4 Behe 5

= (2x — 1) (g"—1) 58;

where, by making « = 4, and w= 4, we have the two fol-
lowing feries ;

23 1 38 I 57 I 5
1 Soe 8 am fe a et Oe,
EsB.8 64 9828.4 8 | 8.4.5. 16 4
AS VOSS Ey Sy
1.2.3 9 2-3-4 27 3-4-5 8&1 2

The law of both which feries is obvious, the numerators
being in arithmetical rogreffion. This method is not much
different in principle from the fecond method of Bernoulli
above explained.

5. Stirling’s Method of Series. 1n the recurring feries ot

Moivre, each term is conne@ed with a certain number of

the preceding terms, by a conftant and invariable law, but in
the feries confidered by Stirling, in his ““ Methodus Differen-
tialis,’’ 4730, each term is a certain fun@tion of the number of
terms from the beginning, or from fome determinate term of
the feries; which fun@ion may therefore be confidered as
the general term, and the method of fummation depends on
the following principles.

Having fit determined the general term of the feries in
fome funétion of x, its diftance from the beginning, or
fome determinate term of the feries; it follows, that the
fum of all the terms to that place will alfo be fome fun@ion
of x. Therefore, if 2/ is made to denote the diftance of an
other term from the fame point, the fum to that term wi
be the fame funétion of x', as the other fum is of x; and
each term of the feries may be confidered to reprefent the
difference between two confecutive fums, or the difference
between two fimilar funGtions, viz. of x — 1 and x; and
the obje& of the author is to determine what thofe fums or
funétions are from the difference between them bein given.

To be a little more explicit, if there be any ine of
quantities

& bg as .*. so F&F, Ke.

proceeding from the firit a, by auy uniform law, either in-
creafing or decreafing ; and fe as taken to reprefent the
diftance of any term, as ¢, from the be inning of the feries,
or from any term in the fame, then will t be expreflible by
fome function of x; ¢ by the fame funétion of x + 1;
t' by the fame funétion of x + 2, &c.: denoting therefore
this funétion by f (x), we hall have

P=f(x—1), t=f (x), ¢=f (x +1), &e.

Alfo if f°, 4 /', J", &c. denote the fums of all the
terms from the inning to the terms f°, #, #, #’, &c.
refpeGively, thefe fums will alfo be fome funétion
of x — 1, x x + 1, +2, &c. which we may denote by

P=o @— 1) S=¢ (hs (2+ 0):
whence we draw immediately
S—SP sb or O(#)—9(x—1) =F (x).

ow

SERIES.

Now the funtion f (x) is given, being the general term
of the feries, and the object of enquiry 1s, from this given
funétion to determine the two functions ? (~) and ¢ (a — 1),
of which it is the difference ; for the former of thefe, 9 (x),
will then be the fum of the feries to the term ¢ inclufive.

To illuftrate this by a familiar example ; let the propofed
feries be
7+ 9, &c.

the general term of which is 2 — 1; therefore,

1+3+5+

@ (x) —? (# —1) = 24-1;
whence we have obvioufly @ («) = 2°, for
ar («—1)?=2x—13

therefore x? is the fum of x terms of the above feries.
Again, let it be required to find the fum of x terms of
the feries
I; Js 19).375. &ce

of which the general term
HA) SS FSG ae Ts

@x—% (xn—1)=32°—34%+41;5
confequently 9 (x) = 2’, the fum of x terms of the feries.

In thefe two examples, the finding the fum ¢ (x) from
the difference is extremely fimple; but in the generality
of cafes it is far from being fo obvious, and even in fome,
it is impoffible to exhibit the fum of the feries in any other
manner than by another feries ; but as in the latter cafe
the transformed feries may be made to poflefs almoft any
degree of convergency we pleafe, this method of. {umma-
tion is full attended with important advantages, and even
more perhaps in the latter cafe, than in any other ; becaufe
molt, if not all, fummable feries, may be fummed on fome
other principles ; viz. either by the method of recurring feries,
or by the differential method, or by increments; while the
transformation of a flowly converging feries, into another
of rapid convergency, is frequently extremely difficult to
efre& on any other principle than that of Stirling’s, or
fome other tantamount to it.

From what is ftated above it appears, that the principal
obje& of enquiry is, in what manner we are to determine
a funétion from the difference between two ftates of it be-
ing given. In the examples we have chofen for illuftration,
the funtion whence the difference is derived is extremely
obvious; but this in many cafes is, as we have before ob-
ferved, attended with fome difficulty. In this refpe€t the
fummation of feries refembles in a great degree the inverfe
method of fluxions. There is little or no difficulty in any
cafe in finding the fluxions of any propofed quantity ; but
the finding of a fluent of any given fluxion is far from pof-
fefling the fame facility. So alfo in the prefent cafe, if the
queftion was to find the difference between two different
{tates of a given funétion, we fhould find the operation di-
re& and fimple; but the converfe, or the finding the func-
tion from the difference being known, is indireét, and fre-
quently difficult to be determined.

It is obvious alfo, that two different funétions, which
differ from each other only by fome conftant quantity, will
give the fame difference, and, confequently, a given differ-
ence may give rife to different funétions, the fame as happen
in finding fluents, and it will therefore be neceflary in this
cafe, as in that, to have recourfe to a correéion, which will
be found in the fame manner as is pra@ifed in that calculus,

2

therefore,

viz. by finding the value of the feries, when the variable

quantity is made equal to zero, or fome determined magni-

tude.

Of the general Term of a Scries.—With regard to the gene-
ral term of a feries, it is difficult, particularly within our
limits, to lay down any fixed or conttant rule for its deter-
mination ; it is befides feldom neceflary, as the law of the
feries is commonly prefented in the zerms of the feries itfelf 5
we fhall leave this determination, therefore, as in fa&t it
muft be in molt cafes, to the ingenuity of the analylt, and
fhall proceed immediately to the other fubjects of invettiga-
tion.

It may not, however, be amifs to ftate; that in fuch
feries as have any order of their differences vanifh, the gene-
ral term is always of the form

UNG HOON Lye fates ae (Oy er SND) eat te eh,

where m denotes the order of the differences that vanifh,
and n the number of terms from the beginning. The
values of A, B,C, D, &c. being found by making n fuc-
ceffively equal to 1,2, 3, &c., and equating the refults
with the rit, 2d, 3d, &c. terms of the feries.

Of the Transformation of a given Funélion to an equivalent
one of a different Form.—Since we fhall confine our inveftiga-
tion only to thofe feries whofe terms are either integers or
rational fraGtions, it is obvious that the general term mutt
alfo be fome rational funétion either of the form,

@+b6«+exn? + dxi+ &e. or

a+bxe+ cH? 4 dx*+ &e.

a+ bx + cla*> + d'et+ &c.
and our objeét is to transform either of thofe general forms
into others, whence the general funtion from which they
have been derived may be the more readily determined.
Different transformations may be employed for this purpofe ;
but the mofl general, and that, in faét, to which Stirling
principally confines himfelf, is to transform the above gene-
ral terms into other equivalent ones of the form

A+Bx+Cwx(x«x—1) + Da (x—1) («—2) + Ke. or
A ee fie be 0 ONE Bee
w(e+1) x(eti1)(~+2) x» (x+1) (w+ 2) (w+ 3)

from either of which the general funétion whence they have
been derived may be readily determined. For it is obvious
that the firft is equal to the difference between the two
fimilar funétions

Ag+iB(x«+1) a+ +€ (+ 1) « (x —1)

+1D («+ 1) (*—1) (x— 2) + &e.

and 3 :

A(x—1)+4Ba(x¥—1) + 4Cw (#—1) (x — 2)
+1Da(«—1) («#—2) (x—3) + &e.

For by fubtraéting thefe one from the other, we have

A+ Ba+Cx(e—1)4+Dx(x—1) (x—2) + &e

And therefore, from what has been ftated, the firft of the
above formule will be the general fum of that feries of
which the general term is

A+Bx+Cx(x—1) + Dx@—1) (*—2) + &e.

And in a fimilar manner it may be fhewn, that the fecond ©
general form is equal to the difference between the two
fimilar funétions

SEKIES.

» t sath) * sei) 4s) T Ged te ee DS)

A B c
+
and
A OR Aes e.
i+e* a(e + 1) + 2)

For by fubtraAing thefe one from the other, we have
B

5+) +2) @+3) Gates wee)

b ——

> &e

+8)

Cc

wiv +1) + a(x + 1) (x + 2)

x@ti@taery *

and confequeatly the former is the fum of that ferits whofe general term is

A B

Scorn tT cerneTs.

So that the whole difficulty is now reduced to that of tranf-
ion, exprefling the general term

To transform a quantity of the form
atbetex'+dx'+eri+ Ke.
into another of the form

A+ Bx +Cx(a—1) + Dx(x-—1)(x—2) + &e.

A=A

Be=Bxe .

Cx(x— 1) =—Cxs+Cz'

Dx(#—1) (x —2) =Dx—3Dx* + Dx!

‘Whence the values of A, B, C, D, &c. are determined b
iis seme comeaens: 6. & «4, &c.
method obviou employed in
cafe. The following tablet, ee,
the operation; viz.

& 1 3
~ (241) (x +2) +
1 1

# ~ setter aery t XX
pe ming

a ee
yy 2a+ 3h +
6e+ 1264+

mmoonm PS

a into an equivalent funtion of one or other of

Veet

ria!
other
facili-

¥(* +1) (® +2) (#4 3) +

ee ee &e
w(x 1) (w+ 2)(* + 3)
s*=a+ 3a(er—1)4+ «(x —1)(e#—2)
etsaet7e(e4—1) + 6x (2 — 1) (x — 2) +x(#—1)

(= — 2) (¥— 3)
&c. = &e.

As an example, let
I+ 3x +42"

be the propofed general term. Here

Se = 32

42°= 424+ 42(x—1)
therefore,

P+ 3+ 42° =1+ 744+ 4%(x—1)

which latter is of the form required.

To transform any general term of the form
a@+bx+cex*+dxi+ &e.
@+b¢e+4xttd'xi+ &e.

into another of the form
eA.» -= B Cc ad
x(t) © x(t I)(e+2) ” 3@F IFAT 3)
+ &e.

The molt aecneret method of performing this transforma-
tion is, by actual divifion to reduce it firft to the form
+8, +9

a x*

3
et eo oe oh ee
=

2 6

1 pie
a(x+1) a x(#+1) (+2) + x (#+ 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) a w(x +1).... (# + 4) + &

it
w(e+1).... (x +4)

+ &e.

Y
67+ 3

24@+ SOR + 3574+ 1004.
120@ + 2748 + 2257 + Ssd4 ise 48

which

SERIES.

which values fubftituted for A, B, C, &c. will give the
transformation fought, and which will terminate by one of
thofe expreflions becoming zero, when the feries is fum-
mable, but when it is not the expreffion itfelf will become
an infinite feries, but fuch that we may give to it almoft
any degree of convergency at pleafure.

Let us now illuftrate what has been faid by a few ex-
amples, remembering that the fum of a feries, whofe
general term is

A+Ber4Ce(x—1) + De (w—a1) (x — 2), =
Aw+iB(«# + I)e@ + 5C (x+1)a(«—1) + &e.
Let it be propofed to fum the feries of odd numbers,
r+3+54+7+ &.
Here the general term is 2~ — 1, or — 1 + 2; fo that
a= —1 and J=2: whence A = —1, and B= 2, and
C=0; whence Ax + B(x + te = —ae+ 2 — x

= x’, which is the known expreflion for the fum of x terms
of the above feries.

Again, require the fum of the feries,
3+3-4+4.5 + &e.

Here the general term is x(x 4+ 1), or a? +x: by the
preceding tablet,

gD db Be

ae = &¥
Po ws (e= 1) = 2e el — 2).
Therefore A = 0, B = 2, and C =13 whence we have

3B(¢+ 1). +3C(x+1).«(«#-1) =
(x+t)a+%(x+1)¢(@—1)=
3 (x°+ 3x? +22), the fum of x terms, as required.

3

But as there is no advantage gained by the application of
this method to feries of the above kind, nor indeed to any
fummable feries, as thefe are commonly more readily re-
folved by fome one of the preceding methods than by this,
we fhall pafs immediately to feries of the fecond kind, in
which it poffeffes a facility of application, which is perhaps
unattainable by any other principle at prefent known.

Here we mutt obferve, that after the general term of any
feries is reduced to the form,

A B Cc
+ &c.
the fum of that feries is expreffed by
A B Cc

x = 2a (x +1) ar 3a(x +1) (#+2) ie:

I I I
4x(x +1)

ae SS Pee ea ee
iv 8x (% + 1) (x + 2) + 16x (x + 1) (x + 2) (x + 3) +

1. Let it be propofed to find the fum of the infinite
feries,

I I
——— —— &e.
T4097 @a7Ho” ya woD mye
where the general term is
I I

3x (3 +3)(3x+6) 27a(~ 41) (w42)”
x being fucceflively 4, 14, 23, &c.
Now this is of the required form, A being = o, and

I I
B = —;; therefore the required fum is ——-—-———_ =
27” 4 54x (x +1)

rr by taking v = 4, its firft value. If we tookx = 11,

we fhould have the fum of all the terms of the feries, except
the firft ; if « = 2%, we fhould have the fum of all but the
two firft terms, and fo on: and it is by this means that we
are enabled to give fo great a degree of convergency in
thofe feries that are not fummable ; for we may aflume any
one of the values of x, and by that means give almoft any
magnitude to the denominators of our converging fra¢tions ;
obferving only, that fuch of the leading terms of the feries
as are not included muft be fummed by themfelves, and
added to the approximation found as above. Ais this is the
great characteriltic of Stirling’s method, we fhall confine
our future remarks to one or two examples, which are not
fummable, in order to illuftrate the nature of his approxi-
mations.
Let there be propofed the feries,
I I I

fom Far ale 5.6
which is that found by lord Brounker, for the quadrature
of the hyperbola.

Here the general term is

I
at 7.8 4- &c.;

I I I

2% (2%+ 41)’ z 4a(x+4) 7” 42 42x’
taking « = 3, 14, 24, &c. Now

I I I 3 Test) oaks
os = - ~~ —2— — —~— + &e.;
4a +2 x 4x? og a 16 x* 32x° ihe
that is,

I I —1.
A= ee = Ge c=4 = -33, &e. :
whence ue when converted into the required
x

form, is,

oS ads

eer Dw+aw ta era 1 OS

where the law of continuation is obvious, and the fum will be expreffed by

I I I .3

4% u 16.2 («+ 1) if 48x (x +1

in which the law is alfo obvious, the co-efficients in the
denominator being 4 = 27, 16 = 2% x 2, 48 = 2' x 3,
128 = 2° x 4, &c.; but the feries will not terminate, be-

I 3
caufe the original general term yee +5) includes the
fraction 4.

i@2) “ i2iisiGeaer sacra

EP] + &c. 3

The original feries has, therefore, been converted into
another infinite feries, but with this advantage attending the
latter, that we may give it almoft any degree of convergency
at pleafure, according to the value we give tow. If we
aflume « = 134, which is its value in the 14th term, then
the preceding feries will exhibit the fum of the one

eries

SERIES.

feries from that term, to which adding the fam of the fir
13 terms, we have, sonrge ped

13 frit terms a8so61

Q firft terms of the new ferics = ‘otter to

| Whole fum - - = ",693147180

‘This is true to nine places of decimals, which, if we had

led the original feries, would have required the fummation
of at lealt ene Aundred million of its terms.

| Hence the advantage of this transformation, which con-

)

Nowy from what has been faid, it appears that

! 1
Sete te hGETy *
oes) rial hairy

f = ae 1)

in which fubstituting 13 for x, vis. its 13th value, we find,
by fumming 13 terms of the new feries, and adding that
fum = eiges7ys?. to the fum of the firft 12 terms ee the
feries, we. ps Tent ay Abt we have 1.644934065 for

the whole true to nine places of decimals.
Our limits in allen not oa of our entering farther upon
and we fhall therefore conclude our illuftration

of it, by merely giving the author’s formula for the fum-
mation of thofe feries, in which the fucceflive powers of an

ners a? 6—Ax
e* oe eT + (1—x)2(e4+1)

where A, B, C, &e. om, the terms immediately pre-
thofe in which they are found.

aga i wl bal a nite re Bae fh
we may give to it any degree of convergency req

's Method of Series.—In 1743 Simpfon aap tibed
iffertations on a variety of Ph

um of one from that

3 which Aa fum is ex-

as the fuc-

. i of its terms are of definite
or indefinite extent ; thus,

a" + ba®'x + ee + da*~'x' + &e.

SS

oy mae ys mt TLE
pee gee g the terms
the fucceflive orders of differences, will the fum of

a"ptbatr.g fear 4 dat x's + &e.

be expreiled by

ee ete a) ty oe (ot a) MTS infe
D" dx (a+ x)"~’ + &e.;

Riceenhd will obvioufly be finite, if any order of the

‘or. XXXII. - "

1.2
a(*¥ + De+2GF3) *

TL DDIM

¢—2Bx
(1— x)2(z + 1)(% + 2)

fills in our being able, by the fummation of « few of

the leading terms of the original feries, to give any de-

gree of convergency to our transformed feries, and thereby

to perform the fame upon a few terms, as would require the

labour of ages to effe& upon the feries in its original form,
As another example, the feries,

= + &e.
5

be propofed, in which the general term is a
»

1.42.3

+ &c.;
+ 2) (x + 3) (+4)

wy + thie +

sas ‘4
ge (@ +1) (®F2)("43) 7!
indeterminate quantity enter; all thofe which we have at
macy confidered, having been wholly numerical. The
ermula for this purpofe is as follows.

If the terms of any feries be formed by writing any
number, differing by unity, for = in the quantity,

b
w™ts pare
x {2+ Vesa) + epheen te}

then the fum will be expreffed by

d—3Cx :
ter ate tone

differences, D’, D", D", &c. become zero; but, in other
cafes, the new feries will alfo be infinite, the fame as that
from which it is derived.

By giving to a, x, and” different values, and to the fe.

ries p, 9,7, s, &c. different laws, a great variety of parti-
ae ss may be deduced, which our limits, however,
will not admit of detailing.

Again, reprefenting (a + x)", as before, by
tbat! s+ cat? sz + dat? 8 + ke.

if r be 18 ia number, and we make § = (a2 + x)**’
minus its rterms, then will the fum of the feries

a" ba’ x PY itl
Todigeesr agh Hi) Gqg +2)
+ &e.
whether finite or infinite, be expreffed by

Ss

(2 +1) + 2) (2+ 3)--- (RB Hr) e
From which general formula a great variety of particular _
cafes may be drawn, according tS, the different values that
are given to a, x, and n.

Again, let the fum of the feries
eat t batt* peatt® ¢dxtt* + ke. =A

and the terms be refpeétively multiplied by the terms of the
arithmetical p nr +m r+ 2M, will the
fum of the tities thince ariling (B), viz

rant +(r4n) bat?" + (r+ an) ex" + ko.
Oo

SERIES.

be expreffed by the fluxional formula

A
(r—p) A +7>=8;

where, becaufe it is given in finite terms, A will always

likewife be had in finite terms, and confequently, alfo, the

value of B. And inthe fame manner as we have

axt +O xet tec xt 4 ke =H A
rax'+(r 4a) bxt" + (r+ 20)xP7°" + K&S

(r—p)A +> = Bis

fo alfo
rsax +(r+n) (stn) batt" + (e422) (s+ 2n)cx*t"
+ &c.=
(s—p) B + aR ie OE, &e,
«x

The three preceding cafes are the firft, fecond, and third
propofitions in the author’s chapter on feries, which contains
four other propofitions equally general and important ; but
for thefe we mutt refer the reader to the trad itfelf.

Since the publication of Simpfon’s work above referred to,
a variety of other treatifes have appeared either wholly or in
part devoted to this fubje&, befides numerous memoirs in all
the principal academies and learned focieties in Europe. It
will be impoffible to enter upon thefe at any confiderable
length within the limits of this article, and we thall there-
fore merely felet two or three of the principal authors
whofe methods are the moft eligible for the purpofes of ge-
neral f{ummation.

Euler, in this, as in every other branch of analyfis, has
diftinguifhed himfelf by the many new lights he has thrown
upon this theory, and the general and elegant inveftigations
that he has given of many very interefting problems relating
to this doftrine. Thefe inveftigations are found in various
memoirs in the A &a Petrop. and in his Inftitutiones calculi
differentialis,”’ as alfo in the firft volume of his “ Introduc-
tio in Analyfin Infinitorum ;”? many of thefe, however, may
be referred to the Method of IncrEMENTs and REcuRRING
Series, which have been already treated of under thofe ar-
ticles; the theory of circular feries is alfo handled in his
ufually mafterly manner, but for our purpofe we {hall pre-
fer adopting the method employed by Landen in his «* Ma-
thematical Lucubrations,”’ and fhall therefore, in this place,
limit our obfervations to Euler’s differential method.

Luler’s Differential Method of Series.—Let there be pro-
pofed the general feries

Sj=exe+)be64c¢%3+4dx' + &e.

in which a, 4, c, d, &c. are conftant and pofitive quantities,
x being indeterminate. This feries Euler transforms into the
following equivalent feries, viz.

2 3
*”

AED SEER E, a
Sha (ae Sta ea

es Ease 3 th

I— +f (a

x

=x) S
xt

Se ENSUE YN

DTG Weyer a+ &c.

In which Aa, A* a, Ai a, denote the firft terms of the

firft, fecond, third, &c- differences of a, 6, c, &c. obferving

that the leading term is always fuppofed to be taken from

the following, fo that when the terms diminifh, this dif-

ference will be negative. It is obvious here, as in the other

differential feries we have had occafion to notice, that when

5

any order of differences vanifh, the transformed feries will be
finite, but in other cafes infinite, the fame as that whence it
is derived.

Let, for example, the feries

SHe24+22°4+323+4 45+ + &e.

be the one propofed. Here the firft differences are 1, 1, 15
&c. and, confequently, the fecond differences are zero; that
is, we havea = 1, and Aa = 1; fo that we have

. *
wet a Av jy ee
(— sx) G— a)"

Hence, by fubftituting x = 1, 4, 4, &c..we obtain

I
oS ng Sieh chy Bits pant oor algae
pe 2g 2 2 ee Wai josd a 2:
= gi 8 Spt, degen ESE ta
ON Pe mac Yanan ne np ob RAST
Beg = 3 gy © ag Eny ter eGR
&e. &e. &c.
Again, let the propofed feries be
S=r43e4 5084 72+ Kc.
Herea = 1, Aa = 2, A’? a = 0; therefore
x x wt x
o rnert Sta a ik GSE a ee ES ee)
Making therefore, as before, x = 1, 4, 3, &c. we have
aS Boman.
she ae Re LS Gare hy
er ees Pek oie Ee
#5 pi Smecingtlaga a Giesas. (@t=i)3 3
I Lovina 5 7 sts
e#=—3;S=—4+-—4+—4 5-4 & = a=!
3 Zone gene nba (3-3)

Without farther examples, it is obvious, that a moft ex-
tenfive clafs of fummabie feries may be drawn from this one
fimple principle, by merely changing the values of x; and
thofe of a, 4, c, d, &c. being fo aflumed, that a certain or-
der of their difference may vanifh, which will always hap-
pen, if they be made to reprefent any order of polygonal or
figurate numbers, or any order of powers whatever. This
method, however, is not limited to finding f{ummable feries,
it may frequently be employed to great advantage in ap-
proximating towards the real value of flowly converging fe-
ries that are not fummable in any finite form, as for exam-
ple, the feries

I
3
putting this under the form

I I I
Linea he Cinque pee CE 28

Saat let otis ke

we havea =1, Aa= — 4, A’?a@=1, Ma=—k ke,
whence
x 2 ;
Sal rma 4 ——, A’e+ ke.
S wt, GSE oC « a5

will

SERIES.

will become, by making «= — 1,
== § i 1 1 ha.

eobes had x ea Bi

+ —-—+-
2 3 4
wheace, by changing figns, we have

I i I
wet o—- we = + —- — Ac. = hyp. log. 2
het CT
1 1 1 t
LE —; —— + &e.
Teese 5.8" 4. 16 e 5 +32

refults, as

r—-tea- i+ ee ee ee
r—-3a¢3- 4+ 5-6+ &=
1—4+9— 16+ 25 — &e. — ht)
1—3+9-—27 + 81— &e. =}

TL. 2 $162.3 — 162-34 ¢1.62-364-5 — Ke
= 0.5963473621237

F

alfo employed other methods for fummable feriess
we have not referred to either in the above article, or
i CREMENTS or RecuRRinG Series, one of the
general of which is by means of certain fluxional ope-
; but as this has been carried to a greater extent by
i «de Seriebus convergentibus,’”’ we
further mention of it till we come to an ex-
s method.

to give fome account of the differential
and Hutton, but our article having al-
toa extent than is ufual for ma-
fubjeéts, we mutt limit ourfelves to giving merely
the theorems, and leave the application of them to the inge-

nuity of the reader. :
8. Maferes differential Formula for flowly converging Series

Let atbsr+ex + dx + Ke.

ae oy feries, and D', D", D', &c. the firft terms
the fucceflive order of differences of the co-efficients

Ete

i

: (t+) (1 +x)

which is neceflarily converging, provided x be equal to, or
than wait, B ee this fain: ted author

te Tit. from the invice

ealy give two decimals correét. For a further illuftration
this method,

of the reader is referred to the Phil. Tranf. for
1975» or to the author’s Treatife on Converging Series.

9. Hutton’s Method for flowly ing Series. —This me-

i fe feries whofe terms are alternatel

ie pn y
plus and minus, as a — 6 + ¢ — d + &c. the total fum of
which feries is given alternately in excefe and defect,

by the fucceflive quantities . 44> d 7e— 4" zs
7

isa —1ih+3e—d gia— 266+ 16¢—6d+e

16 ? 32 : .

&c.; each of thefe quantities, as we have ftated above, is am
peeecineten towards the whole fum; the firft in excefs,
the fecond in defeét, the third in excefs, and fo on; but
each is a nearer approximation than the preceding. ‘The
general formula form terms is *

x f@ ~1)a— (A a) b—-(B- ——")
ead (c a seen) a ne. }

The method of applying this formula to computatioa,
however, is fuch, that we mult refer the reader for an ex-
reanpiy of it to the author’s Mifcellaneous ‘Traéts, pub-
ifhed in 4to. in 1778, or to the new edition of the fame im
3 vols. 8vo. publifhed in 1812.

10. Lorgna’s Method of Serics.—This confifts in multi-
plying the terms of the propofed feries by {uch powers of
an indeterminate quantity, that the fluxion of the whole
feries raat. taken, and then divided by x, there hall refult
a known feries, from which the fum of the original one
may be readily derived. Thus, let there be propofed
the feries,

I

ete ge Et + ke.

fag Pt tg PS 8"
Multiply each term fucceflively by

iar sate ett &e. ;
and there refults
LH t +s tes
a pol TD ea oT
ee ese HP + 3e

Make the fum of this feries = S, and then taking the
fluxion on both fides, we have
se =«

x

, tts ? +: +s
, ’

+ x + xe + se) + &e.

of ete t tr + ee =

etx
bs
whence S = _*‘*_ ; and confequently,
g(1—*)
» £ +1 +? =
g= [sti = st" és Pe
Taare re” op Tey) UP Sy

which, by making x = 1, becomes the fame as the feries
originally propofed, viz.

: + : + : + : &
— —— + —— —-— c
P¥q pt2g p+3sq pr4g”™
It muft be obferved, however, that in all fuch exprefiions,

the fluent muit be fo taken, as to vanith when x =o, and

to be perfeétly integral when « = 1.
By a fimilar procefs, the author finds the fum of the

I i 1 1

—_—_—_— eee cr
P+? St AG. AT $4. i Pt 4g
Oo2

+ &c.

SERIES.

ie
to be equal to + 3 ©*%*5; the fluent being taken under
qs t+

the fame reftriCtion as before. Avnd in nearly the fame way
he finds the fum of » terms of the former to be

> Ptan

Apsci a
pate eagles I xax —f* 9 x
g 7 a 2 I—w
and the latter,
Pra. ay bake
au J aes ae q x
q I+2n I+e@

In a fimilar manner, M. Lorgna finds for the infinite
fum of

FS

I I I

(p+ )m = (p+ 2q)m* (p + 3.9)m BEN CHE
- ?
$= es Rte, and the fum of » terms,
G4 mte :
fh
Pak (raise 2") 6.0) %, when the figns are all plus;
g m"({ m — ~)
I an on ae)
andz == — f (m*"— 2%") x2 *, when alternately plus
te m*" (m+ »)
and minus.

For a farther illuftration of this method, we refer the
reader to Clarke’s tranflation of Lorgna’s treatife, « De
Seriebus Convergentibus,” 4to. 1779.

11. Circular Series—We have ftated, when illuftrating
the methods of fummation employed by the Bernoullis,
that James, although he had difcovered feveral curious pro-
perties of the feries,

=e tet oe

I 2 3 4

had not been able to find its fum; but this his brother
John afterwards effeGted, and the folution of it is publifhed
in the 4th yolume of his ‘“* Opera Omnia.’”? Bernoulli
found this fum to depend upon the reification of the
circle; fhewing that it is equal to one-fixth of the fquare of
the femi-circumference of a circle, whofe radius = 1. This
refult he drew from the known feries, which exprefles the
fine of an arc in terms of the arc, viz.

x3 x x’ au
== — Ce 5
21.3 2\613)s Ale) Si 2uekB elec

which, when fin. «= 0, becomes, after dividing by x,

I I 1
oti — —x' + xt — ——____ x 4 &e.
Zea ABS ha hy ZiSioly,
sxe I
Or writing x = —3
I I
samen NIE alae Cy GIRS MLE ks?
Again, multiplying by x”,
oo Za ge I PIES a 2 CAIN my fo
AS) Za eAanls

Now the fum of the roots of every equation of this form

being equal to the co-efficient of the fecond term with its
fign changed, we have

gl? a gi? + ogite 4 &e,,

I I I i
or —-- + —. + — ke. = —;

ao! gl? llt® + 6”
I I

I
inp* 13. oMh2 MLD & ==
denoting by 2!?, x!!7, 2", &c., or —, <n? SW? &c. the

a

fucceffive roots of the above equation.

But we know that the values of x, anfwering to the cafe

of fin. x =0, are, 27, 37, 47, &c.3 x denoting the

femi-circumference : fubftituting, therefore, thefe fucceflive
values of w, we have

I I IS: iris oe : seo
= = 2? gt te A a 3 me 40° + &c. = WAR
I I I I %
e0 neat — + — &a = —.

or —; af 383 + 3 rc + &c 6

Landen’s method depends upon exaétly the fame prin-
ciples; but he has rendered it more general, and exhibits
feveral very remarkable feries of this kind. He firft de-
duces the formule for exprefling the fums of the feveral
powers of the roots, a, b,c, &c. of any equation

at Ata! Bata Crime sco a6)

viz. if Si = a@ +b +e + &e
BY ce gf eB ie te een
Sl = at 4+ bi + oh &e.
then ...9) = — AL
S' =—2B—AS
Ss” = — 3C— BS! — AS!
Ss’ = —4D—CS! —BS!’— As
&c. Tec.

Then from the two feries for the fine and cofine of any
arc x, Viz.

op “ ; a

fin. x = x — —— _ + &e.
2iis SECTS aS
x xt the

CO es Ey ere De

he derives the fum of their roots, when fin. «=o, and
cof. « = 03 and then, from the preceding formula for the
fums of the fquares, cubes, &c. of the roots of an equation,
draws the values of the feveral powers of thofe quantities.
Thus in the feries for the cofine, when cof. + = 0, we

. Tr
have for the feveral roots, (denoting the quadrant or Fai

by ¢;)

there being no fecond term, but the fum of thefe {quared,
Vie

I in I ae I
a ge Q ce er 7 ?

PSS

SERIES.

- Sept ” :
etre tap tp T= =
i i 1 A. 24
! 1 3° + 5° + y* z
Tn a fimilar manner we have
| 1 1 1 1 e
mer © et + Be ee

and on the fame principle, the fum of the feries,
t 1 I
— = + -

' * _ + — y bb
| be found, » being any pofitive number whatever.
| Euler's method is fin A om general than Landen’s, but
_ it depends upon principles of very nearly the fame origin:
owe however, limit ourfelves to giving a few of the

pri refults. on yw by © the femi-circumference

+ &e.

to 1, he thews
. I 1 1 ve i dpe
. +a TH +e mal 1S TK wd
1 1 1 2* I
‘Fae eT a = | wane od
1 1 1 Bi 2° x ts
Pee “i507 5”
&c.° &e. = &c.

where the law of the firft multiplier is obvious, but the co-
efficients of =*, x*, &c. are not fo eafily feen: thofe for the

following powers are -* =" —" a &e.

If each of thefe feries be multiplied by their firft fraétion,
they give :
1 = I

eee? Soataies sy
1 ! 1 1 2°
P Tigre 8 Fe Tay
&e. &e. = &e. 3
and fubtraGting thefe from the firft, we have
eae en 2 RAS ne ae
3° s ; fe avg «2
1 1 2*—1 ry 1
7 tS 2 en’ st
Cc. &e. = &e.
ee ee en nee ee oe tk tls
powers under and mi
vimana
Other feries, whofe fums are in nearly the fame
are as follows, viz.
1 1 I x
'——-+—--— &e. —
a a
1 1 1 =
+= — —s &c. = —
3 vm ir + & 7
1 1 I ='
= oro pois
id Ae eee
A 1 1 =
: = — — &e = —
+e ten * >t ¢ =
&e. : &e. &e.

For « great variety of other feries of this kind, fee
Euler’s “ Introduétio in Analyfin Infinitorum,” and his
* Inflitutiones Caleuli Differentalis.” See allo Spence’s
* Effay on the Theory of the various Orders of Logarithmic
Tranfeendents,”” gto. 1809; in which feveral feries, fome-
what fimilar to the above, but which were sot fummable by
Euler's method, are treated of, aad ipveltigated in a very
able manner,

We ought perhaps to apologize to fuch of our readers

are not interelted in mathematical enguiries, for the
length to which we have extended this article; but thole
who are, will not, we prefume, be difpleafed to find in a con-
denfed form a general view of the firft introduétion, and fuc-
ceflive improvements, which haye been made in this import-
ant branch of analyfis, We have, of courfe, been obliged
to pafs over in filence many authors who have written op this
fubjeét ; but we have endeavoured to include all thofe who
have introduced into the do¢irine any methods diftingtly dif-
ferent from thofe who preceded them, at leait, if we except
Mr. Speace’s method, publithed in his « Logarithmic Tranf-
cendents,”’ and that of M. Arbogatt, given in his “Calcul des
Derivations,” We had indeed, in the firft inftance, intended
to give an illuftration of the principles of thefe two authors ;
but the length to which the article ie already extended, and
the nature of their notation, which render necellary a confider-
able degree of previous explanation, put it out of our power
to execute this part of our plan, and we can ore do
nothing more than refer the reader for information to the
works themfelves ; we refer him alfo to the “ Calcul des
Differences Fines,”” by La Croix, and to an ingenious me-
moir by profeffor Vince, in the 72d volume of the Pholofo-
phieal Tr nfa@tions,

As the preceding article is arranged wholly with refer-
ence to the hiftorical order of the fubje¢t, we intend, in con-
clufion, to furnifh the reader with a general fynopfis of the
dotrine of feries for the advantages of practical operations.

12. General Synephs Sor the Summation of Series.—1o the
following tablet, S denotes the fum of a finite number of
terms (mw), and = the fum of an infinite number.

1. To find whether the fum of any propofed feries be
finite or infinite ; let p, g, r, be any three equidiftant terms ;
then, if p (g — r) > r(p—q), the fum is finite ; but if

P(g—r) <r (p—q), it is infinite.

2. The general term of a feries, when any order m of its
differences vanith, is of the form,

T=An* + Bat + Cu®r* + &e.
and its fum of the form,
E = Alatt! + Bat + Ca" + &c.
the values A, B, C, &c. being found as {tated in art. 5, and
thofe of A’, B’, C’, &c. ina fimilar manner.

3- Simple arithmetical Series.
a+ (a+d) + (a+2d) + (a+ 3d)....a4 (a—1)d
(2) Lofinite (S) = > (2a+ (n — 1) d).
If the feries decreafe, then d is negative, and
(S) = “(2a —(n—1)d).

4. Simple geometrical Series.

@+ratwedtra,....r a
»$+@ _ —3
Wyo, > ©) =

SERIES.
5- Powers of Arithmeticals.
on + (m+ 2p)" + (m+ 3p)" +--+ (m+ np)"

nt tt r—t
s) = Pr teas ro 2 ae
(S) = Genet Scuces ae
Gee 9) (r—2) (a3) Fae (r—- ye on Gia) (7 —2)-.+ (r —6) SO
AT IA AVES Y pn 30 26$s-a 8 Be
1 r(r—t) ee cara
ES Nav SNA 99 9) OCC
aa aE IO) be :
mt owe apts meat) (a) gag
(Eee 3-4 2.3-+4- aE
continued till they terminate. The co-efficients are the fame as — &e. Nout.

A? 3
a form includes all the powers of the natural feries, of which we have given the particular forms to the fifth power,
under art. 3.
6. Series of figurate Numbers.

se itt preilemicha n,m Cepcteama G8) m(m+t) (e472) (949 $ ge.
1.2 1-2-3 ago 4

(ya 2h) ot) ne ee
cy 2.3+-4 to m terms.

See particular refults, art. 3.
7. Series of compound Arithmeticals.

(m+e) (pte) + (m+ 2°) (pt2e) +... - (m+n) (6 + 9)
(S) =nmp + =" (m+ ple + oie) Ces) A

8. Series of compound geometrical Numbers.
(8 —m) (e—pyet+ (6 -— 2m) (e— 2p) ety + Gs 3m) (c— 3p) ett + &e.

LP cette bptem mp (t+ +2
i= = {be - Tree (ae
b canine ae mp (i+ ¢)
eS
(S) pn) — aor {
g. Series of compound figurate Numbers.
m(m+1) , m (m+ 1) (m + 2) m (m+'1) (m + 2) (m+ 3)
dah eal GE ane ro 7.0 63 ae page 4 eee
I
) = (r— x)"
10. Series of the Reciprocals of figurate Numbers.
x Wi 1.223 -2.3°4
a a Gea) aoe 1) (m— 2) + ey eee rine
@) ==
11. Reciprocals of the Powers of Arithmeticals.
i I I I I
= + Gea t Gaede * GEs GEG ne
5) = Paes eee (pmtini)md _ (p™tiw1) m(m +1) (m+ 2) 2?
(S) (m — 3) a”— Sop wee 2icAtaue Dialigrsi4l sie aces
ops comin est) (m4+2)---(m+4)d _ go. '

2.3°4-5+0--- Cam"
where

SERIES.

where the law of continuation is obvious, ' being = sot and the values of > ogy Gr Ke. being derived as follows

wis. denoting thefe refpedtively by ~ as > = > &e.
Sal
a” 6
& = Ss — 29>
10

~@ = &c. &e. and generally

ee. St? 5 GtDse—) » (n+1)a 1) 60) O—) o te

2a+4 “it 2.84 tas. <-
12, retina eine te Aroing Form.
(.) e+ ete 4 m(mt+ (m+ 29) | m(m+p) ~~~ (m+ (n—1) p)
: A(R +e) ” B+ NE +2) BG). OF DP)
=e a= m

1 1
@) (+9) cr + Orapteta) * Gtsnetrsy t (p+ 9%) (m+ ar)
, -

I
‘) Gapet oFane * OF30 Se tee

ers (er — a) at 5 ae
Wey Soro WS
Gre ees
a a a
(4) irs) ae ROE in (6+ 2¢) (4+ 3¢) te ibe..0) «i (6+ (n+ 1)¢) (6+ a6)

(8) = Fran -@=%

a+i2e

(5-) . ene ee eT
b(b +c) (b+ 20) * (b+) (6+ 20) (0 + 30) (6 + 20) (6+ 3¢) (6+ 44)
pe OS Otero <5 CE) a
{6+ (n—1) ef (b + nc) {e+ (n+) ef

(S) = zab+ac—be)an+ (ae+ be) a
ar meee Pid (64+ (n+ 1)¢

e a+2b
(6) aa3 7 ayes (a+ 5)(e+1+8)(a+1+2
sate My balk Ot Sat ERS
2 (a+1) (24144)... (a+14 (n—1) 8)
(S)=1— :

(a+1) (a+14+4)...(a+14(m—1) 5)
{7-) @.¢+(a+b)egt (a+2b)eg'+ (a+ 3b)eg'+ &e.
8) = ac(g— 1) +abeg beg(g*—1)
7? an to) bl
(8.)

SER
b 5
gid pried otk 2F oy Bologna
c og Cg eq

Ja(g—1) +8 (¢—1) — #4 (g—1)

Om Ge

For a great variety of other fra¢tional feries, fee Clarke’s
tranflation of Lorgna’s Series; for the feveral differential
formule, our articles 3, 6, 7, 8, and 9 ; for the fummation
of RECURRING Series, fee that article; for the mott ufeful
logarithmic feries, fee Locariruns ; and for various trigo-
nometrical feries, fee the articles Sines, and Tr1GoNno-
METRY.

SERIGNAGC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Finilterre ; 10 miles N. of Carhaix.

SERIGNAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Herault ; 6 miles S. of Beziers.

SERIGNI, a fea-port town of the ifland of Java, in the
{traits of Sunda, belonging to the king of Bantam.

SERIGO. Sce Cerico.

Srrico, a town of Italy, on the lake Como; 27 miles
N. of Como.

SERJIHEYODOUC, a’town of Chinefe Tartary, in
the country of the Monguls. N. lat. 42° 15’. E. long.
102° 34!.

SERIKOTCHE, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Chorafan or Khoraflus ; 195 miles N. of Herat.

SERIMSAH, atown of Egypt; 16 miles S. of Da-
mietta.

SERIN, or Srrain, ariver of France, which runs into
the Yonne, between Auxerre and Joigny.

Sern, or Serinus, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall
bird; a {pecies of the Fringilla in the Linnzan fyitem, com-
mon in Germany and Italy, and called by the Auftrians
haerngril, or hirngryl. ts back is of a reddifh-brown, and
its head yellow ; the colour being deeper in the male, and
paler in the female ; the rump is of a beautiful yellowifh.
green, as is alfo the breaft ; the belly is white, and the fides
have fome oblong blackith {pots ; the tail, and long feathers
of the wings, are black, and a little greenifh at their extre-
mities; the beak is very thick, ftrong, and fhort, and is
very fharp at the point. It is kept in cages, and fings very
{weetly.

Sern of Surinam. See Prera Criflata.

SERIN of the Canaries. See Frincitia Canaria.

SERIN of Jamaica. See FRINGILLA Cana.

SERINDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, the inhabitants of which paid
great refpect to the emperor Julian.

SERINE, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in the province of Macedonia; 44 miles S.E. of Saloniki.

SERINEAH, a town of Bengal, 18 miles S. of Pur-
neah.

SERINETTE, a bird organ, faid in the Encyclopédie
to be an invention of Barbary. The pitch is very high,
being in unifon with the larigot ftop in French organs, and
with our 15th. It is ufed to teach birds little tunes, by
thofe unable to play on the flageolet. Its compafs is only
an oétave, or 13 pipes, as no bafe is ever wanted.

SERINGAPATAM, in Geography, a city of Hindoof-
tan, and capital of Myfore, fituated on an ifland in the Cau-
very, whichis here about five feet deep, and runs over a rocky
channel, about 290 or 300 miles from Madras. The length
of this ifle is zbout four miles, and its breadth about four and
a half miles ; the weftern fide being allotted to the fortrefs,

Sa R :

which occupied 2000 yards, diftinguifhed by regular out.
works, magnificent palaces, and lofty mofks; for Tippoo ~
and his father were both Mahometans, nor were they averfe
from the perfecution of the Hindoos and Chriftians. The
environs were decorated with noble gardens; and among ~
other means of defence was the ‘bound hedge,”’ as it was
called, confilting of every thorny tree and cauttic plant of the
climate, planted to the breadth of from 30 to 50 feet.
Covered on the north and fouth by the river, this fortrefs
was defended till the peace of 1792 by a fingle rampart ;
the eaft and weit faces being much weaker, were ftrengthened
by double walls and ditches, by outworks before the gates,
by acircular work upon the fouth-ealt angle, and by feveral
formidable cavaliers within and upon the fouthern rampart.
The rampart, which is thick and ftrong, varies in height
from 20 to 35 feet and upwards: the whole of the revéte-
ment, except the north-weft baftion, is compofed of granite
cut in large oblong pieces, laid in cement, tranfverfel
in the walls. The ditches are cut out of the folid rock ;
a ftone glacis extends along the north face. But the inte-
rior of the fort has few good buildings, and the town in
general is mean. The old Myfore palace being in a ruined
{tate, has been converted into a military ftorehoufe. The
fultan’s palace is a magnificent edifice, in the Afiatic ftyle,
but much disfigured by a high wall, and a number of un-
finifhed buildings round it. ‘The great mofk is covered with
the fineft chunam (or polifhed cement), and ornamented with
lofty minarets. In the year 1792, lord Cornwallis laid
fiege to this city, and compelled Tippoo, king of Myfore, to
a peace, by which he made a ceffion of great part of his
dominions, and agreed to pay three crores and thirty lacks
of rupees towards the expences of the war. In the year
1799, the Britifh troops, after a fhort fiege of a few days,
took it by affault. The lofs of the befiegers amounted to 22
officers killed, and 45 wounded, 1$1 Europeans rank and file
killed, 622 wounded, and 22 mifling ; 119 natives killed,
420 wounded, and 100 mifling. There were in the fort
13,739 regular infantry ; and without the fort and in the
intrenchments of the ifland 8100. The lofs muft have been
very great, as in the affault only, 24 principal officers were
killed, and feven wounded, befides 'Tippoo himfelf, who re-
ceived a fhot in his head. ‘There were found in the forts
373 brafs guns, 60 mortars, 11 howitzers, 466 iron guns,
and 12 mortars, 424,400 round fhot, 520,000 lbs. of gun-
powder, and 99,000 mufkets, carbines, &c. Within the
fort there were 11 large powder magazines, 72 expence ma-
gazines, 11 armouries, two cannon founderies, three build-
ings with magazines for boring guns and mufkets, four large
arfenals, and 17 other ftorehoufes, containing accoutrements,
{words, and other articles, befides many granaries abundantly
ftored with provifions of all kinds. Of treafure and jewels
the total value was 2,535,804 {tar pagodas, or 1,143,216/.
fterling. The fall of this city put the whole kingdom of
Myfore, with all its refources, into the power of the Britifh
government. Tippoo’s fons furrendered on the fall of
Seringapatam. When the ftrength of the fortifications of
all kinds of this place, and the number of 'Tippoo’s troops
and artillery are confidered, our repeated fuccefles afford
a conyincing proof that no climate or fortrefs can overcome
Britifh courage, conduét, and perfeverance. N. lat. 12° 31!
45". E. long. 76° 46! 45".

SERINGHAM, an ifland of Hindooftan, in the river
Cauvery, on which are two pagodas, much venerated by
the Hindoos, and one peculiarly the objeét of devotion.
In 1751 the French took pofleffion of this pagoda, and in
the following year it was taken by the Englifh under major
Lawrence; 4 miles N.E. of Tritchinopoll.

7 SERINHAEM,

SERINHAEM, a river
Atlantic, S. lat. 1° 50’.

Brafil, which runs into the

by ae Its cap

eS es

1619. Mart. Mil, Dié&. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.
465. Jul apr. Lamarck Iuftr.t. 656. Gert. t. 1 9:
order. S, Polygamia qualis, Nat.

Ord. » Linn. Cichoracce, Jufl.
Gea. Common calyx fimple, compoled of linear, nearly
equal, ereét leaves. Cor. compound, imbricated, uniform,

of numerous, equal, perfe flowers; proper of
Kinser, trunented, tive-tcothed |. Siam, Fi-
five, capillary, very fhort; ant cylindrical,
i ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped, the
i two, reflexed. Peric. none,
calyx. Seeds ree the length of
calyx. Down capillary, feathered, i ten rays hai
‘chaffy, deciduous, as long as wll

Receptacle chaffy. Calyx fimple. Seed-down

i Smooth Seriola. Linn, Sp. Pl. 11
Vv. 2. 237. t. 216. — Herb imoothite

FE
=
|

ee obovate, toothed. Found in’ the fiflures of rock,
and in the ifland of Candia. It flowers, as in-

in July and Augult. Roots perennial,

atthe top. Stem none. Leaves radical,
- {mooth, remotely toothed,
F; erect, flender, a little

Ls ggg ae fimple, almott leaflefs, moftly
powered iw.

2; 5: ethnenfis. Rough Seriola. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1139.
Desfor q: “ Jacq. Obf. v. 4. 3. t. 79.”

rb Leaves o lightly toothed.—Native
oot annual. Stems

erect, hair >
Flowers yellow,

"Linn. Sp. Pl. 1139.
leonis folio leviter den-

Mafear in Barbary.

We
or defcription of this {pecies. It
authorities,
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1139.
Pd
ying. Leaves toothed. Stem ee ph I

i i branched
inowus difco that the fcales of the
P with pungent little prickles, whence indeed

SER

SERIPALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, in the number of thofe which
were fituated to the eait of the river Nomadus, according to
Ptolemy.

SERIPHIUM, io Botany, 2 vame applied to this genus
on account of the analogy, in its habit and foliage, with
Artemifia pontica of Pliny, called by the Greeks Pergucr,
The origin of this name may be traced to Seriphion, or, as
it is now called, Serpho, an land in the A2gean fea, whofe
foil is of fo dry and fterile a nature, as sake to abound in
plants of this rough kind. « This ifland,”” fays De Theis,
* covered with rocks and mountains, has always been re-
garded as a melancholy retreat. A Greck once demanded
of one of its inhabitasts, what crime they punithed with
banifhment? Perjury, was the anfwer. Why then, fays
the Greek, don’t you always perjure yourlelves, in order
that you may efcape from fuch a horrible refidence ?”’
The French name Armofelle, from Armoife, Wormwood, is
exprellive of its natural affinity to that genus.—Linn. Gen.
454 Schreb. 594. Mart. Mill. Dié. vy. 4. Juff. 180.
Lamarck Illuitr. t. 722. Gaertn. t. 167.—Clafs and order,
Syngencfia Polygamia Segregata. Nat. Ord. Compofite Nu-
camentaceea, Linn. Corymbifere, Jul.

Obf. Willdenow and the editor of Hortus
not adopted this genus.
it to Artemifia and Stebe.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth double; outer of five, roundifh,
imbricated, downy leaves ; inner of five, ere&t, acuminated,
awl-fhaped, {mooth, fealy leaves, which are twice as long
as the outer ones, fingle-flowered. Cor. of one petal, fua-
nel-fhaped, fhorter than the inner calyx ; limb five-toothed.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary ; anthers cylindrical. Pi.
Germen between the calyx and the flower; flyle thread-
fhaped ; ftigma rather cloven. Peric. none, except the un-
changed, clofed calyx. Seed folitary, oblong.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double, imbricated. Corolla of one
petal, regular. goed folitary, oblong, below the corolla.

1. S. cinereum. Heath-leaved Seriphium. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1316. (Steebe cinerea; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3- 2406.
Tamarifcus xthiopicus, Coridis folio glabro; Pluk. Mant.
178. t. 297. f. 1.)—Flowers in whorled {pikes. Leaves
{preading.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, as indeed
are all remaining fpecies. They flower frem July to
September. Stem upright, branched. Leaves {preading,
{mall, lanceolate, crowded, recurved, gibbous at the bate
hoary. Flowers in lengthened {pikes, like a fox’s tail, pale
red, interrupted. Scales of the calyx almott briltly.

2. S. plumofum. Feathered Seriphium. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1316. Mant. 481. (Stobe plumofa; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. ce
2407.)—Flowers about fix in a whorl, {piked. Leaves
cluttered, awl-fhaped.— Leaves thread-fhaped, granulated.
Flowers lateral, feffile, imbricated.

3- S. fufum. Brown Seriphium. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1317.
Mant. 481. (Stocbe fufca; Willd. Sp. PL. v. 3. 2407.)—

wers in terminal heads. Leaves linear, awalefs, downy.
- Leaves afh-coloured.. Flower:

4 S. ambiguum. Doubtful Seriphium. Linn. Syt.
Veg. ed. 14. 799. £ Aextaceisn ambigua; Linn. Sp. PI.
1190. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1815.)—Flowers about three
together, fpiked. Leaves linear. | Stem fhrubby,
cumbeut, branched, afh-coloured. Leaves fimple,
cl Flowers in long, terminal {pikes.

The /eed-down of this {peci heing feathered at the tip,
induced Linnzus to make it a Seriphium.

SERIPHUS, or SenivHos, in Ancient Coesrapliys au
ifland in the Archipelago, and one of the Cyclades, ac-

Pp cording

Kewenfis have
They refer the feveral {pecies of

pr o-
linear,

SER
cording to Herodotus, the inhabitants of which took the
part of the Greeks againft Xerxes. Some authors, how-
ever, place Seriphus in the rank of the Sporades. It is
fituated weft of Paros, and fouth of Cythnus. _ It prefents
the appearance of a rock, but is inhabited. The Romans
fent hither certain criminals.

SERIPPO, a town of Hifpania, in Betica. Pliny.

SERI SOMTOU, in Geography, a diftri& of Thibet,
fituated between E. long. 95° and 96°, and between N. lat.

o° and 31°.

SERISSA, in Botany, a genus of Juffieu’s, and by that
author correctly feparated from Lycium. Loureiro calls it
Dyfoda, from sucw::, flinking, becaufe of its remarkably
fetid fmell.—Juff. Gen. 209. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1061.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 376. Lamarck Mluftr. t. 151.
(Dyfoda; Loureir. Cochinch. 145- Buchozia; L’Herit.
Monogr.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Rubiacee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, divided into five,
awl-fhaped, ereét fegments. Cor. of one petal, funnel-
fhaped; tube fhort; limb broad, reflexed, five-cleft ; feg-
ments trifid, acute. Siam. Filaments five, very fhort, be-
Jow the mouth of the tube; anthers oblong, incumbent.
Pf]. Germen inferior, roundifh ;_ttyle thread-fhaped, the
length of the corolla; {tigma oblong, villous, cloven, re-
flexed. Peric. Berry roundifh, {mall, of one cell. Seeds
numerous, (according to L’Heritier and Brown only two,)
ovate, fmall.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped, fringed at the mouth.
Segments of the limb moftly three-lobed. Berry inferior,
with two feeds.

1. S. fetida. Japanefe Seriffa. Willd. n. 1. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 1. 376. (Lycium japonicum; Curt. Mag.
t. 361.)—Native of China and Japan, flowering through-
out the fummer.—Stem fhrubby, much divided, about two
feet high, erect. Branches afcending. Leaves feffile, ob-
long, ovate, entire, flat, {mall, cluftered together. Flowers
folitary or cluftered, generally terminal, white.

This elegant little fhrub produces numerous white
flowers, which have the appearance of thofe of Jafmine,
but are without {cent, as indeed is the whole plant, until it
be {queezed or bruifed, when it emits a highly difguiting
f{mell. A variety with double flowers is not uncommon in
the gardens about London.

SERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of European
Sarmatia, in the vicinity of the Bory{thenes. Ptolemy.

SERKA, in Geography, a town of Nubia; 200 miles S.
of Sennaar.

SERKEISK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Kaluga; 44 miles W.S.W. of Kaluga. N. lat. 54° 16!
E long. 34° 34" ‘

SERKES. See TserKEsH.

SERKIS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania; 50
miles W. of Cogni.

SERLIO, Sepastiano, in Biography, an eminent ar-
chite&, was a native of Bologna, who flourifhed in the
early part of the-fixteenth century, at Venice, in the charac-
ter of an archite&. He afterwards travelled through Italy,
and refided a confiderable time at Rome, where he {tudied
the fine arts, and made many drawings of edifices, ancient
and modern, and he is faid to have been the firft who exa-
mined, with the eye of a man of fcience, the remains of
ancient archite@ure. The knowledge which he acquired
was given to the public in a complete treatife of architec-
ture, of which he planned feveral books, and the firft that
appeared was the fourth in order, comprehending the gene-
ral rules of architeGture, which he printed at Venice in

SER

1537, dedicated to Hercules II. duke of Ferwara. The
other fix books appeared fucceflively at different intervals,
and the different editions made of them prove their popu-
larity. Serlio, in 1541, was invited to France by Francis I.
and was by that fovereign employed in the erections at Fon-
tainebleau, where he thenceforth refided, and where he died,
at an advanced age, in 1578- Though as an author he was
much attached to the principles of Vitruvius in his defigns
as an artift, he very much negleéted them. His fchool of
St. Roch, and palace Grimani at Venice, are built in a
grand and magnificent ftyle. Gen. Biog.

SERMAISE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Marne; 19 miles S. of Menehould.

SERMAISES, a town of France, in the department
of the Loiret ; 7 miles N. of Pithiviers.

SERMAKI, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Tavattland ; 170 miles N. of Tavatthus.

SERMANICOMAGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Gaul, which, according to the tables of Peutinger, was
fituated in Aquitania fecunda. It was on the right of the
Charente, at fome diftance N. of Iculifna, according to M.
d’Anville ; it is the prefent Chermes. "

SERMATIA, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, in
the fubah of Agra; 25 miles N.E. of Kerowly.

SERMATTA, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about
22 miles long, and fix broad. S. lat. 8° g!. E. long. 129° 13’.

SERMESOK, an ifland near the W. coaft of Greenland.
N. lat. 61° so’. W. long..47° 45!.

SERMIA, a river which rifes near Montegio, in the
{tate of Genoa, and after pafling by Serravalle, Tortona,
&c. runs into the Tanaro.

SERMIN, a town of Iftria; 2 miles N.E. of Capo

@’Iftria.

SERMIONE, a town and caltle of Italy, in the Ve-
ronefe, on a neck of land running into lake Gorda, the
harbeur of which may be shut by means of chains, defended
by a caftle. This was the native place of the poet Catullus ;
16 miles W. of Verona.

SERMOCINATION, SrrmocinaT10, in Rhetoric, de-
notes difcourfe in general, whether held by a perfon alone,
or in company, and is the fame with what is otherwife called
dialogifm.

SERMOLOGUS, SeRMOLOGUE, an ecclefiaftical book
compofed of fermons, or homilies of popes, and other per-
fons of eminence and fan&tity, formerly read at the featts
of the Confeflors, the Purification, All Saints, and on every
day from Chriftmas to the o€tave of the Epiphany. See
Homicy.

SERMON, a difcourfe delivered in public, for the pur-
pofe of religious inftru@tion and improvement: or a per-
fuafive oration.

As to the choice of fubjeéts for afermon, they fhould be
fuch as in the judgment of the preacher feem to be the moft
ufeful, and the bett accommodated to the circum{tances of
his audience. ‘The unmeaning applaufe which the ignorant
give to what is above their capacity, common fenfe and
common probity muft teach every man to defpife. Ufeful-
nefs and true eloquence are infeparable, nor can any man be
jultly deemed a good preacher, who is not an ufeful one.
Inafermon, eonfidered as a peculiar fpecies of compofition,
the firft obje@ of attention is its unity 5
that there fhould be fome one main point, to which the whole
{train of afermon fhould refer. This unity, however, does
not require that there fhould be no feparate heads or divifions —
inthe difcourfe, or that one thought fhould again and again
be prefented to the hearer in different lights. Separate divi- _
fions or diftin& heads, provided that they are not too

numerous —

by which we mean, —

‘ SERMON.

and too minute, ferve to aid the compofer and the
In order to render fermons more
C uently more ufeful, the fubject of them
precife and particular. General fubjetts, though
by young preachers, becaufe they offer a more
er, without much labour of thought,
the difplay of thowy talents, are by

i

MITE
th
t

kl

more certain! and fixed, by feizing fome particular
Sielel-o-qeun thier, | lath

fome fingle interelting topic, and

point the whole force of argument and
the execution is more difficult, but
are higher, Moreover, the com-
a fermon thould never ftudy to fay all that can be faid
be greater than this. On the other

the preacher thould felect the mott ufeful, ftriking, and
topics which the text fu ; and with this view

ld confider, that difcourfes for the pulpit are intended
information than perfuafion, and that nothing is more
afion than an nem ma re fulnefs.
fermon, the preacher o' to place

ion of a ferious hearer; melas

materials from thofe views of a fubjeét, and thofe
af ai and reflections which would operate mott favour-

i

i

HI
:

i

5
z

if

this refpe&, much depends on the deli

of adifcourfe, Sas tahill will cbs dapacdl ontthe conspolition
of it. Correct and elegant defcription are but
fecondary inftruments of preaching in an interetting
fecret lies, in bringing home all that 1s
the hearers, fo that every man may be
the preacher is addrefling him in particular.
to fubjoin a caution eas that perfona-
For the attainment of the end now

hyfical
As much as poflible, the difcourfe por Baad
addrefs to the audience ;

to have the vogue.
of mankind, which is fubje¢t to no changi
to poflefs any authority : lad
fanétion to any itrain of preaching
human nature, conneéted with ufe-
is, adapted to the p’ idea of a fermon, as a ferious
oration, to a multitude, in order to make
ter men, Let the preacher form himfelf upon this

plica- riage in Great

; fame force when read as when {poken.

flandard, and he will attain reputation and fuccefs much
more than by a fervile compliance with any popular talte, or
tranfient humour of his hearers.

As to the ityle of fermons, it fhould in the firft place be
very perfpicuous. Plainnefs and fimplicity thould prevail ;
and of courfe all unufual, fwolo, or high-founding words
fhould be avoided ; and efpecially thofe tha are merely poe-
tical, or merely philofophical, ignity of expreflion is in-
deed indifpenfible ; but this dignity is perfeAlly confillent
with fimpliciey, and alfo with a lively and animated ftyle,
dictated by the earneftnels which a preacher ought really to
feel, and not merely to afleét, and juftified by the grandeur
and importance of bis fubjects. He not only may employ
metaphors and comparifons, but, on proper occafions, may
apottrophife the faint or the finner, may perfonify inanimate
objeéts, break out into bold exclamations, and, in general,
command the moft paffionate figures of {peech.

The language of {cripture, properly employed, is a great
ornament to fermons; and it may be employed either in the
way of quotation or allufiou. But the allufions which the
preacher ufesfhould be natural and eafy, for if they feem forced,
they approach to the nature of conccits. In a fermon, no
points or conceits fhould appear, 0 affeGed {martnefs and

uaintnefs of expreflion; which derogate much from the

ignity of the pulpit. It is a ttrong expreflive ityle, rather
than a fparkling one, that ought to be ftudied. Epithets
have often great beauty and force, but it is a great error to
ioagines that we et ftyle itrong and expreflive, by a
conitant and multiplied ufe of epithets.

As tothe queftion, whether it be moft proper to write
fermons fully, and commit them accurately to memory, of
to ftudy only the matter and thoughts, and truft the ex-
preffion, in part at leait, to the delivery, Dr. Blair is of
opinion that no univerfal rule can be given. Preachers mutt
adopt either of thefe methods, according to their different ge-
nius, and we may add according to the fituation where they are
fettled, and the rank or chara¢ter of the aflembly which they
addrefs. It is proper, however, to begin, at leait, aia a
of preaching, with writing as accurately as poflible. Hethinks
it alfo proper to continue, as long as the habits of induitry
lait, in the praétice both of wring and committing to me-
mory. The practice of reading fermons is, as our author
fays, one of the greateft obitacles to the eloquence of the
ritain, where alone this practice prevails.
‘© difcourfe which is defigned to be perfuafive can have the
We are of opinion,
however, that fermons from memory have little advantage,
in point of effect, above thofe thatare read. An extem
rary fermon has this advantage in an eminent degree ; but
few excel, and many difcourfes of this kind are fuch as
would difguit a judicious, though candid, hearer.

The French and Englith writers of fermons proceed upon
very different ideas of the eloquence of the pulpit. A
French fermon is, for the moft part, a warm animated ex-
hortation ; an Englith one, a piece of cool initruétive rea-
foning. ‘The French preachers addrefs themfelves age Ad
the imagination and the paflions : the Englith, almott folely
to the underftanding. The union of thefe two kinds
of fition, of the French earneftnefs and warmth
with the Englifh accuracy and reafoning, would form,
in Dr. Blair’s judgment, the model of a perfect fer-
mon. The cenfure which, in fa@, the French critics
pafs on the Euglith preachers is, that they are philofo-
we and logicians, but not orators. Among the French

roteftant divines, Saurin is the moft diflinguifhed ; and the
late Mr. Robinfon of Cambridge has done a public fervice by
tranflating many of his difcourles into the Englifh language
Pp2z aurin

SER

Saurinis copious, eloquent, and devout, though, in his man-
ner, too oftentatious. Among the Roman Catholics, the two
moft eminent are Bourdaloue and Maffillon. The French cri-
tics differ in their opinion to which of thefe preachers the
preference is due. ‘To Bourdaloue they attribute more foli-
dity and clofe reafoning: to Matftillon, a more pleafing and
engaging manner. The former is a great reafoner, and in-
culcates his do&trines with much zeal, piety, and earnettnefs ;
but his ltyle is verbofe, and abounding with quotations from
the fathers, and he wants imagination. Maffillon has more
grace, more fentiment, and, as Dr. Blairthinks,may have more
genius. He difcovers much knowledge, both of the world
and of the human heart; he is,pathetic and perfuafive, and
is perhaps the moft eloquent writer of fermons which mo-
dern times have produced. During the period that pre-
ceded the reftoration of Charles IJ.,:the fermons of the
Englifh divines abounded with {cholaftic cafuittical theology,
but in their application they adopted more pathetic addrefles
to the confciences of the hearers. Upon the reftoration,
preaching aflumed a more correét and polifhed form.
Whatever was earneft and paffionate, either in the compofi-
tion or delivery of fermons, was reckoned enthufiaftic and
fanatical ; and hence that argumentative manner, bordering
onthe dry and unperfuafive, which is too generally the cha-
raéter of Englifh fermons. Dr. Clark, who excels in a va-
riety of refpeéts, may be efteemed a very inftructive com-
pofer of fermons, but he is deficient in the power of in-
terelting and feizing the heart. Tullotfon’s manner is more
free and warm, and he approaches nearer than moft of the
Englifh divines to the charafter of popular {peaking and
he is, even now, one of the beft models for preaching. Dr.
Barrow is admirable for the prodigious fecundity of his in-
vention, and the concurrence, ftrength, and force of his con-
ceptions; but lefs happy in execution, or compofition.
Atterbury deferves to be particularly mentioned as a model
of correét and beautiful ftyle, befides having the merit of a
warmer and more eloquent ftrain of writing in fome of his
fermons, than is commonly met with. If Buller had given
us more fermons in the ftrain of thofe upon felf-deceit and
the charaGter of Balaam, in the room of abftra& philofophi-
cal effays, he might have been diftinguifhed for that {pecies
of charaéteriftical ferrmons above recommended.

The parts of afermon, difcourfe, or regular formed oration,
are the following fix ; viz. the exordium or introduétion, the
{tate and divifion of the fubjeét, narration, and explication, rea-
foning, or arguments, the pathetic part, andthe conclufion.
(See each under its proper head.) The introdu@tion of an
Englifh fermon is too often ftiff and formal, whereas thofe
of the French preachers are very f{plendid and lively.
Common-place topics fhould be avoided ; variety fhould be
ftudied ; and in fome cafes the difcourfe may commence
without an introduction. Explanatory introductions from
the context are not uncommon, they are appropriate and
inftrutive; but they fhould not be too long. An _ hifto-
rical introduétion has, generally, a happy effect in caufing
attention. To the propofition or enunciation of the fub-
je@t generally fucceeds the divifion ; but it has been quef-
tioned, whether this method of laying down heads, as it is
called, be the beft method of preaching. Archbifhop Cambray
declares ftrongly againit it; allesing, that it is a modern
invention, that it was never pra¢tifed by the fathers of the
church, and that it took its rife from the {choolmen. But
we are of opinion, with Dr. Blair, that it ferves ufeful pur-
pofes, and ought not to be laid afide. (See the preceding
part of this article.) But in any difcourfe or fermon, there
are certain rules which fhould be obferved, e. g. the feveral
parts into which the fubjeé is divided thould be really dif-

SER

tin from one another; the order of nature fhould be fol»
lowed, beginning with the fimple{t points, or thofe that are
mott eafily apprehended and neceflary to be firft difcuffed,
and then proceeding to thofe which are built upon the
former, and which fuppofe them to be known :—the feveral
members of a divifion ought to exhauft the fubje€t :—the
terms in which the partitions are exprefled fhould be as con-
cife as poflible :—and the number of heads fhould not be
needlefsly multiplied. Another part of a difcourfe or fer-
mon is narration. ‘This part mutt be concife, clear, and
difting&t, and in a ftyle correét and elegant, rather than
highly adorned. The argumentative part is fuceeeded by
the pathetic, in which, if any where, eloquence reigns, and
exerts its power. (See Parurric.) In fermons, infe-
rences from what has been faid make a common conclufion.
With regard to thefe care fhould be taken, not only that
they rife naturally, but that they fhould fo much agree with
the ftrain of fentiment throughout the difcourfe, as not to
break the unity of the fermon. The precife time of con-
cluding a difcourfe is an objeét of importance. It fhould
be fo adjufted that our difcourfe is brought to a point;
neither ending abruptly and unexpectedly ; nor difappointing
the expeétation of the hearers, when they look for the
clofe ; and continuing to hover round and round the con-
clufion, till they become heartily tired of us. We fhould
endeavour to go off with a good grace; not to end with a
languifhing and drawling fentence; but to rife with dig-
nity and {pirit, that we may leave the minds of the hearers
warm; and difmifs them with a favourable impreflion of
the fubjeét, and of the fpeaker. Blair’s Leétures, vol. ii.
See ELocution of the Pulpit, and PREACHING.

Sermon, Funeral. See FUNERAL.

SERMONES, the title which Horace gives his Satires.
See SATIRE.

Critics are divided about the reafon of the name; the
opinion of father Boflu feems beft grounded. A mere
obfervance of feet and meafure, fuch as we find in Terence,
Plautus, and in Horace’s Satires, he thinks is not fufficient
to conftitute verfe, to determine the work to be poetical, or
to diftinguifh it from profe; unlefs it have fome farther air,
or character of poetry ; fomewhat of the fable or the fublime.

Hence he judges it is, that Horace calls his Satires pro/e,
or fermons: his Odes have quite another air, and are there-
fore called poems, carmina.

SERMONETTA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Campagna, fituated on a mountain difficult ofaccefs. Some
fay that it occupies the fcite of the ancient Sora; but
others fay that it occupies the fpot on which Sulmo ftood ;
13 miles S. of Veletri.

SERMONIUM, in Old Records, a kind of interlude or
hiftorical play, which the inferior orders of clergy, aflifted
by boys, &c. ufed at times to at in the body of the church,
fuitable to the folemnity of fome feftival or high proceffion
day. i

This is f{uppofed to have been the origin of the modern
drama.

SERMOUNTAIN, in Botany, a fpecies of the lafer-
wort in the Linnzan fy{tem, and, according to others, of
the /efeli, or wild {pignel, which grows wild in fome of the
fouthern parts of Europe, is raifed with us in gardens, and
flowers in June.

The feeds of this plant are the part direGted for ufe in
our pharmacopeeias, and the roots appear to be ufeful
aromatics, though not regarded in practice ; of an agreeable
{mell, and a warm glowing fweetifh tafte; the roots have
the greateft warmth and pungency ; the feeds the greateit
{weetnefs, and the moft pleafant flavour. A {pirituous ie.

tra

SER

tract of the feeds is a very elegant aromatic {weet.

«Bee Srsers Seed.

SERMUR, in Geegrapty, 2 town of France, in the de-

t of the Creufe ; 6 miles §.S.W. of Auzance.

SERNA, La, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon; 24 miles N. of Palencia.

SERNANCHELLA, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira ; 19 miles S.E. of Lamego.

SERNETTY, a town of Bengal; 30 miles E.S.E. of

ta.

SERNICIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
on the route from Milan to Colonne, in pafling through
Picenum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine, in which
it is marked between Aufidena Civit., and Bovianum Civit.

SERNON, in G. » a town of France, in the de-

of the Var; 7 miles N,W. of Gratffe.

SERNST, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Glaris, near a river of the fame name; 3 miles S. of
Glaris. ‘The river runs into the Sundbach at this place.

SEROGLAZOVSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the
“pene of Caucafus, on the Volga; 24 miles N.W.
- SEROLZECK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, at
ae rivers Narew and Bug; 20 miles N. of

we

Lewis.

_ SERON, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ;
7 miles W. of Purchena.
Senon of Almonds, is the quantity of two hundred weight ;
of anife-feed, it is from three to four hundred ;*of Caitile
foap, from two hundred and a half to three hundred and
SER
SERONGE, in Goograply, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Malwa country, ted for its manufa¢ture of printed
cottons and chintzes ; 132 miles N.E. of Ougein. N. lat.
- E. long. 78° 4!
_ SEROOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; 24
miles S.S.W. of Amednagur.
__ SEROS, Los, a town of the’ ifland of Cuba; 38 miles
N. of Trinidad.
SEROSITY, the watery part of the blood, or frum.
| SSEROTA Geography.
; > in Ancient » a town of Pannonia,
between Lentuli and Mariniane:
SEROUGE, in » a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Diarbekir ; 80 miles $.W. of Diarbekir.
SEROWRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 4 miles
N. of Lucknow.
'SERPA, a town on the E. coatt of the ifland of Corfu ;
8 miles N. of Corfu.— Alfo, a town of Portugal, in Alen-

(, SERPA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania, in
Beetica, on the left of the river Anat, and nearly E. of

__SERPEGER, in the Manege, was ufed to denote the
rid Ne tht i er Ea ee
‘waved i ike t ure of a ferpent’s body; but
now become obfolete. i 4

» a {mall ifland near
+ lat. 39° 18’. E. long.

SERPENTARIA, in Botany, a name applied by the

botanical and medical writers, to various p ts, either
m account of the ferpent-like form of their roots, as in
i their {potted ftems, as in Arum Dra-
or other fanciful refemblance. The fame
ame has likewife been given to plants fuppofed to cure the

SER
bites of ferpents, as ila et Serpentaria, or Virginian

Snake-root. For a fimi afon certain {pecies of Plan-
tago have been denominat Serpentina.

SERPENTARIUS, in Aflronomy, a conftellation of
the northern hemifphere, called alfo Ophiuchus, and anciently
AE feulapius,

The ttars in the conftellation Serpentarius, in Ptolemy's
catalogue are 29; in Tycho’s, 15; in Hevelius’s, 40; in
the Britannic catalogue, they are 74. See Consrerra-
TION.

SERPENTES, Senvenrs, in Zoology, the fecond order
in the Linnean clafs Amphibia, which are thus commonly
charaéterized: they are footlefs ; their egge are connected
in a chain; the penis is double, and muricate.

Thefe animals are fufficiently diftinguifhed from reptiles
by their total want of feet, moving by the affiftance of their
feales, and their general powers of contortion. The dif-
tinétion of {pecies in this numerous tribe is, according to
Dr. Shaw, frequently very difficult. Linnwus thought that
an infallible criterion might be found in the number of feal
plates on the abdomen, and beneath the tail; and wceed
Ingly attempted, in the Syftema Nature, to difcriminate
the fpecies by this mark alone. This is now found to be,
by much, too uncertain and variable for a {pecific teft. The
colour is indeed frequently variable, but the pattern, or

eral diftribution of markings in each {pecies, appears to

more conitant ; the relative fize of the head, the length
of the body and tail, the fize, fmoothnefs, or roughnefs of
the feales, as well as their thape in different parts of the
animal, often afford tolerably certain {pecific marks.

The diftinétion of ferpents into poifonous and innoxious,
ean only be known by an accurate examination of their
teeth; the fangs, or poifoning teeth, being always of a tu-
bular ftruéture, and calculated for the conveyance or injec-
tion of the poifonous fluid from a peculiar refervoir, com-
municating with the fang on each fide of the head: the
fangs are always fituated in the anterior and exterior part of
the upper jaw, and are generally, but not always, of much
larger fize than the other teeth; they are alfo frequently
accompanied by fome fmaller or fubfidiary fangs, appzrently
deftined tu fupply the principal ones, when loft either by
age or accident. The fangs are fituated in a peculiar bone,
fo articulated with the reft of the jaw, as to elevate or de-
refs them at the plezfure of the animal. In a quiefcent

ate, they are recumbent, with their points direéted in-
wards or backwards; but when the animal is inclined to ufe
them as weapons of offence, their pofition is altered by the
peculiar mechanifm of the above-mentioned bone, in which
they are rooted, and they become almoft perpendicular.

A general rule for the determination of the exiftence or
non-exiftence of thefe organs, in any {pecies of ferpent, was
ropofed by Dr. Gray, in the Tranfaétions of the Royal

lety for the year 1788. According to this author, the
fangs may be ditinguithed with great eafe, by the following
fimple method. When it is difcovered that there is fome-
thing like teeth in the anterior and exterior part of the upper
jaw, which fituation he confiders as the only one in which
venomous fangs are ever found, let a pin, or other hard
body, be drawn from that part of the jaw to the angle of
the mouth. If no more teeth be felt in that line, it may be
fairly concluded that thofe firft difcovered are fangs, and
that the ferpent confequently is venomous: if, on the con-
trary, the teeth firft difcovered be obferved not to ftand
alone, but to be only part of a complete row, it may as
me be concluded that the ferpent is not venomous,

’

This rule, however, like moft other general rules, may have
its exceptions ; and perhaps the nok legitimate teft of real
9 fangs

SERPENTES.

fangs in a ferpent is their tubular ftruéture, which may al-
ways be eafily deteted by the afliitance of a proper magnifier.
It is to be obferved, that all ferpents, whether poifonous-or
not, have, befides the teeth, whether fangs or fimple teeth,
in the fides of the upper jaw, two additional or interior
rows, which are generally much fmaller than the reft, and
frequently fearcely vifible. The general rule, therefore, is,
that all venomous ferpents have only two rows of true or
proper teeth in the upper jaw, and that all others have
four.

A head entirely covered with {mall fcales is, in fome de-
gree, a charaGer, but by no means an univerfal one, of
poifonous ferpents ; as are alfo carinated fcales on the head
and body, or fuch as are furnifhed with a prominent middle
line. All ferpents caft their fkins at certain periods: in the
temperate regions, annually ; in the warmer climates, per-
haps more frequently. ‘The ferpents of the temperate and
cold climate alfo conceal themfelves, during winter, in
cavities beneath the furface of the ground, or in fome other
convenient places of retirement, and pafs the winter in a
ftate more or lefs approaching, in the different {pecies, to
complete torpidity. Some ferpents are viviparous, as the
rattle-fnake, the viper, and many other of the poifonous
kind ; while the common fnake, and probably the greater
part of the innoxious ferpents, are oviparous, depofiting,
as we have already obferved, their eggs, in a kind of ftring
or chain, in any warm and clofe fituation, where they are
afterwards hatched. The broad undivided laminz, or fealy
plates, on the bellies of ferpents, are termed {euta; and the
{maller or divided plates, beneath the tail, are called fub-
caudal fcales; and from thefe different kinds of lamine,
the Linnzan genera of ferpents are chiefly inftituted. In
the edition of the Syftema Nature by Gmelin, feven genera
are enumerated and defcribed, viz.

Acrochordus, Cecilia,
Amphifbena, Coluber,
Anguis, Crotalus.
Boa,

Having, in our alphabetical arrangement, omitted a de-
{eription of fome of the above genera, and referred to the
fpecies of others which have not yet been given, we fhall
take the opportunity which the order itfelf gives us, of
making up for the defects that have efcaped our notice, be-
ginning with

Acrocuornus, of which the generic character is, that
it has tubercles covering the whole body. Gmelin gives
but a fingle f{pecies, wiz. the javanicus; but Dr. Shaw has
defcribed three

Species.

Javanicus ; or Warted Snake. Brown, beneath paler ;
the fides obfcurely variegated with whitifh.

This, as its fpecific name denotes, inhabits Java, chiefly
among the pepper plantations; it grows fometimes to the
length of feven or eight feet. The warts or prominences
appear, by a magnifying glafs, to be convex carinate {cales,
and the fmaller ones are furnifhed with two {maller promi-
nences, one on each fide the larger. The head is fomewhat
flattened, hardly wider than the neck ; the body is gradu-
ally thicker towards the middle, and fuddenly contra&ting
near the tail, which is fhort and flightly acuminate.

This remarkable {nake, which gave rife to the inftitution
of the genus, was firit defcribed by Mr. Hornfted, in the
Swedifh Tranfaétions for the year 1787. It was found in
a large pepper-ground near Sangafan, in the year 1784, and
meafured eight feet inlength. Its neck was fix inches thick,
that of the largeft part of the body ten inches, and that of

the tail an inch and a half; the colour of the upper part of
the animal was blackifh, and of the under part whitifh; the
fides are marked with dufly fpots; the head is truncated,
deprefled, and fealy; the jaws equal, the fuperior bein
emarginated beneath, the inferior curved; the eyes Ieee
on the fore part of the head, the irides livid; the noftrils
circular, {mall, approximated, and fituated above the tip
of the {nout ; the body was entirely covered, as well as the
tail, with rough tri-carinated warts; the vent is fmall, the
body very fuddenly tapering towards the tail. This animal
was fecured by a Chinefe, by means of a {plit bamboo pafled
over its neck, and thus carried to Batavia, where, on being
fkinned and opened, exclufive of a quantity of undigefted
fruit, were found completely formed five young, meafuring
nine inches each; the flefh of the animal was eaten by the
Chinefe, who affirmed that it was excellent food, and the
fin being preferved in {pirits, was brought over to Europe
by Mr. Hornfted, and depofited in the mufeum of the king
of Sweden.

Dusivs, or Brown Acrochordus, has a carinated abdo-
men, and its fides are {potted with black. In its general
appearance and proportion, this very nearly refembles the
javanicus juft defcribed; but the head of the dubius iis co-
vered with very minute rough or warted fcales, differing in
fize alone from thofe on other parts of the animal. It is not
more than about three feet in length; its colour is of an ob-
{cure brown, with fome ill-defined clouds and patches of a
darker colour, difperfed along the fides and abdomen. The
fpecimen from which this defcription is taken, is in the
Britifh Mufeum ; but its native place is not afcertained.

Fascratus, or Fuliginous Acrochordus, called alfo the
Hydrus granulatus, has a carinated abdomen, with whitifh
afcendant lateral bands. This is fo much allied to the du-
bius, that it may be doubted whether it really differs in any
other refpeGt than age, fize, andin the caft of colours, mea-
furing about eighteen inches in length, and being of a dufky
brown colour, with feveral paler fafcie, which take their
rife from the abdomen, and afcend on the fides; the abdo-
men is carinated as in the former. “ This,” fays Dr. Shaw,
“is certainly the Hydrus granulatus of Mr. Schneider, who,
in his work on the Amphibia, defcribes it as a water-{nake,
though, feemingly, without any other foundation than its
having a carinated abdomen; its other characters by no
means agreeing with thofe of the genuine Hydri.” Its na-
tive place is not known. A fpecimen is preferved in the
Britifh Mufeum.

Ancuts, or Snake. This genus of ferpents was noticed in
its place, and the names of the f{pecies enumerated, with the
intention of defcribing each {pecies in the alphabetical order :-
after this the plan of the work was fomewhat altered, and
the {pecies will now be given with their appropriate defcrip-
tion. The generic character is, fcales on the belly and {cales
under thetail.

Species.

Srriatus. The fcales of the belly are 179 in number 3
thofe of the tail feven; the body is furrounded with tranf-
verfe lines. 5

Me.ragris. The fcales on the belly of this are 165 ;
thofe of the tail 32. It inhabits South America and fome
parts of India. It refembles the Lacerta bipes (fee Lr-
ZARD); it is glaucous, with numerous longitudinal rows of
black dots. There are two varieties, one dotted with
brown, and one chara¢terized by its long tail. ;

Coxusrinus. Scales of the belly 180; of the tail 18.
It inhabits Egypt : is varied with brown and pale ochre.

Miniaris. Scales of the belly i170; of the tail 32.

Found

SERPENTES.

Found near the Cafpian fea: it is 14 inches long, and is
about as thick as one’s finger; black, with numerous pale
feales or dots on the fides, and grey ones on the back ; the
head is grey, {prinkled with black ; the tail is two inches
much thinner than the body, cylindrical, obtufe, va-
with white.

Jacunus. The feales of the belly of this {pecies are

thofe of the tail 24: it inhabits Egypt.
cutatus. ‘There are on this 200 abdominal feales ;
ga fubcaudal ones, It inhabits America ; above it is yellow,
with a brown dorfal ftripe and linear bands. A variety
® decullate with red bands dotted with black. It inhabits

— Rerieunara. Scales on the belly 177; of the tail 37:
‘This is an American fnake, The feales are brown with a

Abdominal fcales 200; fubcaudal 15. It
the belly of this are 218 feales ;

i
q

black

band on the tail, and dots on the tip, all yellow. ‘The fnout
i i teeth ; eyes are on the top of
; the trunk is furrounded with 20 rows

*
u
HE

of 3 the tail not quite half an inch long,

with minute feales, and obtufe, gd at the tip.
Lunanicauis. In this the feales of the belly are 230 ;

thofe of the tail feven ; it inhabits America. In colour it

iti ty Bo yellow.
' TICA he abdominal feales are 200; the fub-
50. oe found at Surinam ; the tail is comprefled,
on ;

pale, brown bands.

Scales of the belly 240; of the tail 13. As Dr.
fpecies of this genus by the Englifh name
, fo he eonemeras this “sd painted flow-worm,

ty ; its general is from eighteen

to two feet, and es aiabeern has ap the Fea

ifh-ferruginous or orange, on which

ifpofed throu: t the whole length of the animal, nu-

‘merous, moderately broad, equidiftant, jet-black tranfverfe

bands, not continued entirely round the body, but alternat-

‘ing with each other, and terminating in rounded extremities ;

the feales on the intermediate parts are generally tipped with

brown, more or lefs of a {peckled appea'
the fkin. When

rance on
is animal has been preferved a confiderable

of time in [pirits, many of its fine colours fade into
on in confequence of which, the fpeci ufually feen

ie
F

?
qe
&
=

i
t

tf

- This fpecies is a native of South America,
the Welt Indian iflands. .
ies

thofe on the tail 136. It inhabits

bove it is cinereous, with black
the whole length, beneath it is lead-colour, with white
It has been thought to be only a variety of the next

*Fracitis; Blind Worm. Scales of the belly 135,
~edyrader eaten the tail. rh i is found ss

parts in ourown iflands, and in Siberia,
woop the common fnake. It is a per-
innoxious animal, living on worms and infeéts; its
eRe fide ti Toewelve inches, 43d foroecimes even
its colour is pale rufous-brown above, with three
longitudinal dorfal ftreaks of a darker caft ; and be-
ith a deep lead-colour. The head is rather fmall, and

covered 4 front with large {cales, as in moft other innoxious
ferpents ; the eyes are very f{mall; the tail meafures more
than half the length of the asimal, and termiestes rather
fuddenly ina flightly acuminated tip. It is a viviparous ani-
mal, and fometimes produces a very numerous offepring ;
like other ferpents, it varies in the intenfity of its eolours
at different periods, and the young are commonly of a deeper
caft than the parent ; the general motions of this animal are
rather flow than otherwife, except when endeavouring to
efeape, and the young feem to move more lowly than thofe
that are full-grown. Slow-werme can, however, exert a con-
fiderable degree of {wiftnefs, and can readily penetrate the
loofe foil, in order to conceal themfelves from purfuit; they
are often found in confiderable numbers, during the winter
feafon, at fome depth beneath the furface, retiring on the
approach of winter, and lying in a ftate of torpidity, and
again emerging from their concealments on the approach of
fpring, when they caft their fkin and recover their former
livelinefs. It has been obferved by fome naturalilts, that
if the individuals of this {pecies, and of fome others likewile,
be ftruck with any degree of violence, the body not only
breaks abruptly on the ftruck part, but even frequently
at different parts; the fkin is remarkably ftrong, and the
animal, when handled or irritated, has a mode of ftiffen-
ing itfelf by ftretching to its utmoft length, in which ftate, if
any part of the fkin be injured, the feparation foon takes

lace in confequence of this rigidity. The fragments will
8 along time after their feparation.

Ventrauis. Abdominal feales 127; fubcaudal 223.
This is an inhabitant of South Carolina. The body is of
an afhy-green, ftriate: lateral band black; belly fhort,
and appearing as if annexed by a hollow future ; the tail is
verticillate, three times as long asthe body. A {mall blow
will caufe the animal to break into feveral pieces, the mufcles
being articulated quite through the vertebrz.

PLATURUS. Tail comprefled, obtufe. It is a native
of the fhores of Pine ifland, in the Pacific ocean. The
body is a foot and a half long; above it is black, and be-
néath it is white; the fcales are minute, fub-orbicular,
not imbricate; head oblong; it is toothlefs, {moothith ;
the back is fubcarinate ; the tail is variegated with black
and white.

Liyeatus. Blackifh, but on the upper part it is white :
a curved line runs down the whole body.

Crrvicus. Cinereous-brown ; the plate of the front is
larger and heart-fhaped. It is found m fome parts of Ger-
many.

ae White, with ftraight brown bands meet-
ing beneath, tail tapering, beneath with a double row of im-
bricate fcales.

Scutratus. This is a very flender fpecies ; waved with
white and black bands; plates of the head broad; tail
i This is found at Surinam. The belly and tail be-
neath with tranfverfe broad fcales, like the boa. Gmtelin
thinks it does not belong to this fpecies.

Cora.iinus. This 1s named by Shaw the pale-red flow-
worm, with blood-red variegations, and by Seba it is called the
red Brafilian ferpent, fo named probably from its colour, it
being red with paler bands ; the f{cales are tipped with black.
This isa very elegant {pecies ; it is about a foot and a half
long, the licked is very confiderable ; the ground-colour
is of a pale-red, with very broad, alternating fafcie, and

i ms of a deep coral red; the fcales are moderately
large, and of F tiseaded form, and the head and tail are re-
markably obtufe. This highly beautiful animal is a native
of the warmer parts of South America, where it is faid to
be found in woods, and to derive its fultenance from the

11

SERPENTES.

larger infe&ts, as {colopendrx, &c.; in colour it fometimes
varies, a mixture of black in different proportions being
blended with the red on the fides, and the bands are alfo
more numerous in fome fpecimens than in others.

Arer. This, as its name denotes, is black with white
bands; fcales tipt with black. This is nearly allied in ge-
neral appearance to the corallinus, but differing in colour ;
being white with black bands; the abdominal {cales are di-
lated according to Seba’s figure, on the authority of which,
a beautiful engraving of it is given by Shaw. | It is a native
of South America.

Rurvus. Tawny, with tranfverfe but interrupted white
lines ; beneath it is variegated. This is found at Surinam.

Heparicus. Line onthe top of the back, anda waved
line on each fide, of liver-colour, the {paces between paler,
with roundifh whitifh {pots. It inhabits Surinam.

TrsseLLatus. This {pecies is of a faffron colour, with
numerous bands, and three ftripes: the head is white, and
{potted with brown. It inhabits Paraguay.

Asus. The individuals of this {pecies are entirely
white ; tapering towards each end.

Boa, another genus of the ferpent race, has been gene-
rally defcribed in the alphabetical arrangement, with refer-
ences to the fpecies, which having been neglected in their
places, muft be noticed now. (See Boa.) The genus, ac-
cording to Gmelin, includes ten fpecies, but Shaw mentions
others ; we hall firft mention thofe given by Gmelin.

Species.

Conrortrix; Hog-nofed Boa. The plates of the
belly are 150 in number, and thofe on the tail 40. It
inhabits Carolina; it is broad, and its back is convex ;
it is cinereous, with lateral round fpots; it has a poi-
fonous bag, but no fangs; the tail is about half the length
of the body.

Canina. This fpecies has 203 plates on the belly, and
77 on the tail. It inhabits America. By Shaw it is named
the Green Boa, with tranfverfe, undulated, white dorfal
bands. It is a highly beautiful fnake, meafuring, when
full-grown, about four feet in length, and of a proportionable
thicknefs ; the head is large, and fhaped like that of a dog ;
the colour of the whole animal on the upper parts 1s a moft
beautiful Saxon green, with feveral fhort, undulatmg, tranf-
verfe white bars down the back, the edges of which are of a
deeper or ftronger green than the ground-colour of the
bedy ; the under or abdominal part is white. There is a
{pecimen of this fpecies in the Britifh Mufeum.

A variety of this {pecies is defcribed by Seba; the ground-
colour is of a bright orange, the dorfal bands are of a pale
yellow, edged with red, and the abdomen is of a pale yellow.
It isa native of the Eaft Indies, differing merely in colour
from the former.

Hipnare. The plates on the belly are 179: thofe on the
tail1z0. It is found at Siam, and is of a yellowifh colour,
with white ocellate {pots on the back.

Constricror. This, by fome naturalifts, is denommated
the yellowifh-grey boa, with a large chefnut-coloured chain-
like pattern down the back, and fubftrigonal {pots on the
fides. Dr. Shaw gives the generic chara¢ter thus: {cuta, or
undivided plates, both on the abdomen and beneath the tail.
But by Gmelin it is chara¢terized fimply by the 240 plates
on the belly, and 60 on the tail.

Of all the box, the moft confpicuous is the B. conftriétor,
which is at once pre-eminent, from fuperiority of fize, and
beauty of colours; in this refpeét it appears to be fubject to
confiderable variation from age, fex, and climate, but may
be diftinguifhed in every flate from the reft of its tribe

by the peculiar pattern or difpofition of its variegations.
The ground-colour of the whole animal in the younger
{pecimens 1s a yellowifh-grey, and fometimes even a bright
yellow; on which is difpofed along the whole length of the
back, a feries of large, chain-like, reddifh-brown, and
fometimes perfectly red variegations, leaving large, open,
oval {paces of the ground-colour at regular intervals: the
largeft or principal marks compofing the chain-like pattern
above-mentioned are of a {quarifh form, accompanied on their
exterior fides by large triangular fpots, with their points
directed downwards; between thefe larger marks are dif-
pofed many fmaller ones of uncertain forms, and more or lefs
numerous in different parts: the ground-colour itfelf is alfo
fcattered over by a great many {mall fpecks of the fame co-
lour with the variegations; the exterior edges of all the
larger {pots and markings are commonly blackifh, or of a
much deeper caft than the middle part, and the ground-
colour immediately accompanying the outward edges of the
{pots is, on the contrary, lighter than on other parts, or
even whitifh, thus con{tituting a general richnefs of pattern,
of which nothing but an aétual view of a highly-coloured
{pecimen of the animal itfelf can convey a complete idea.
In the larger fpecimens, the yellow tinge is often loft in an
uniform grey caft, and the red tinge of the variegations finks
into a deep chefnut: and in fome the general regularity of
the pattern before defcribed is difturbed by a kind of con-
fluent appearance: the head is always marked above by a
large longitudinal dark band, and by a narrower lateral
band pafling acrofs the eye towards the neck.

The boa conftri€tor is a native of Africa, India, the
larger Indian iflands, and South America, where it chiefly
refides in the moft retired fituations in woody and marfhy
regions. ‘

It was, in all probability, an enormous {pecimen of this
very ferpent that once diffufed fo violent a terror amongft the
moft valiant of mankind, and threw a whole Roman army
into difmay. Hiftorians relate this furprifing event in terms
of confiderable luxuriance. Valerius Maximus mentions
it from Livy, in one of the loft books of whofe hittory it
was related more at large, and the learned Frienfhemius, in
his Supplementa Liviana, has attempted a more ample and
circumitantial narrative of the fame event, of which the
following is a quotation.

‘* In the mean time Regulus, every where victorious, led
his army into a region watered by the river Bagrada, near .
which an unlooked-for misfortune awaited them, and at once |
affeéted the Roman camp with confiderable lofs, and with
apprehenfions {till more terrible ; for a ferpent of prodigious
fize attacked the foldiers who were fent for water, and while
they were overwhelmed with terror, and unequal to the con-
flit, engulphed feveral of them in its enormous mouth, and
killed others by writhing round them with its {pires, and
bruifing them with the ttrokes of its tail: and fome were
even deftroyed by the peftilential effluvia proceeding from
its breath: it caufed fo much trouble to Regulus, that he
found it neceflary to conteft the poffeffion of the river with
it, by employing the whole force of his army.; during
which a confiderable number of foldiers were loft, while the
ferpent could neither be vanquifhed nor wounded ; the ftrong
armour of its fcales eafily repelling the force of all the wea-
pons that were direéted againft it ; upon which recourfe was
had to battering engines, with which the animal was attacked
in the manner of a fortified tower, and was thus at length
overpowered. Several difcharges were made againtt it with-
out fuccefs, till its back being broken by an immenfe ftone,
the formidable moniter began to lofe its powers, and was
yet with difficulty deftroyed ; after having diffufed ee aa

orror

SERPEN TES.

horror the army, that they confetiled they would ra-
ther attack Darthage itfelf than fuch another moniter; nor
could the camp continue any longer in the fame flation, but
was obliged to fly ; the water and the whole adjacent region
ing tainted with the peftiferous efluvia. A moit mortifying
iation to human pride! Here at leaft was an inttance
of awhole Roman army, under the command of lus,
and univerfally viGtorious both by fea and land, oppoted by
Pa fingle fnake, which conflied with it when living, and even
when dead obliged it to depart. ‘The proconful, therefore,
thought it no diminution to his dignity to fend the {poils of
fuch an enemy to Rome, and to pare: at once the greatnefs
of his victory and his terror, by this public memorial : for
he caufed the kip of the fnake to be taken off and fent to
; which is faid to have meafured 120 feet: it was
fufpen
>
7

in a temple, and remained ull the time of the Nu-
maatine war.”

Cencunis, the Rufefcent Boa, with large dufky dorfal
rings, and blackish kidney-fhaped lateral {pots with white
centres; it has 265 plates on the belly, and 57 on the tail.
Te inhabits Surinam ; it is greenith, with white ocellate {pots ;

Opunyas, or Brown Boa, has on its belly 281 plates, on
the tail 84; the body is brown, and in appearance it re-
fembles the B. conftrictor.

Enypnis; or Water Boa. This f{pecies is variegated
with different fhades of grey ; the teeth in the lower jaw are

donger than ufual in genus ; the number of minal
feuta is 270, of thofe on the tail 105. It is very like
the hortulana, hereafter to be defcribed

ies has 254 plates on
the belly, and about 65 on the It inhabits America.
Tt is glaucous, with round black {pots. ’
cular {pots, and annulated lateral ones, with
pmo it has 250 plates on the belly, and 70 on the

is {carcely inferior in fize to the B. conftriétor, and

mannersy & like that animal, goats,
deer, &c. ; it is y a or glaucous colour,
with large orbicular black {pots on the back, and

with {maller ones of a fimilar form, but with centres, on the
fides; while on the abdomen are {cattered feveral oblong
fpots, and marks inter{perfed with {maller {pecks and varie-
gations. It is a native of feveral parts of South America,
and like other large {nakes is occafionally eaten by the In-

dians.
-Horrutaya; Garden Boa. This is of a yellowih-
rey, with brown variegations, thofe on the head refembling

fub-comprefled, and the fides marked by
3 it has 290 plates of the belly, of the

of

and patches; the ground-
ometimes of a pale violet, and

1s
dark ifh-brown ; but in all its

embroidered appearance of the pattern, and more particu
larly by that on the top of the head; the head is alfo
broader, and the neck more flender in proportion, than in
molt of the other bom, the body flightly comprefied, and
the tail lender. It is a native of South America.

Such are the Lionwan {pecies given by Gmelia ; the fol-
lowing are additional ones, deferibed by Dr. Shaw iu his
General Zoology.

Rueoia; Royal Boa. With longitudinal flriped neck,
and body variegated either with brown and grey, or orange
and rofe-colour. This {pecies, which is defcribed by Seba,
is, in its general fhape, moft allied to the canina and the
phrygia, It varies very much with refpect to colour, the
ground-work being white, but the variegations fometimes
dufky or chefnut, and fometimes of an elegant orange-red,
accompanied by a tinge of bloflom-colour on the lighter
parts of the pattern; the top of the head is filled by Sates
patch, from which run two long parallel ftripes to a con-
fiderable diftance on each fide the neck, leaving a wider
itripe of the ground-colour along the upper part, and which
afterwards ceafing, forms a part of the general variegation,
which confifts of a large chain-like dorfal band running
down on each fide, at moderately diftant intervals, into ob-
tufe procefles, or fituations regularly bordered by the white
“comogecmnes the intervening lateral {paces being much
ighter, and each is marked by a dufky patch on the upper
‘ad the under parts of the body and tail are white, the

ead is covered in front with large fcales, the tail is ex-
tremely fhort, and tapers rather fu

Puryoia ; Embroidered Boa. White, with a greyits
cait on the back ; the body is moft elegantly marked with
black lace-like variegations.

This is unqueftionably one of the moft elegant {pecies of
the whole ferpent tribe ; its variegations are fo conducted,
as to bear a ftriking refemblance to an embroidery in needle-
work. It is a native of the Eaft Indies, where divine wor-
fhip is paid to it. :

sod meh ; Fafciated Boa. With fubtriangular body an-
nulated with blue; is a native of India, and moft generally
found in the country of Bengal. It is of a yellow colour,
marked with numereus duiky-blue tranfverfe bands, con-
tinued at equal diftances throughout the whole length of the
animal, each band completely invefting the body ; the body
is of a trigonal form, the fides floping very confiderably ;
along the ridge of the back runs a continued feries of hexa-
gon {eales. This {nake is among the number of poifonous
— and its bite is confidered by the Indians as fatal. A
pecimen was brought to Dr. Ruffel in the month of Novem-
ber 1788, in an apparently very weak and languid ftate. Being
fet at liberty, it fhewed no difpofition to bite ; it fuffered a
chicken to get on its back, without noticing it; but the
thigh of the bird being put within its jaws, it fhewed im-
mediate fymptoms of ving been poifoned, and it expired
in the courfe of half an hour. This was the only experiment
which was made, the {nake dying the next day; but from
the languid ftate in which it appeared, and the effeét of its
bite on the chicken, it may be concluded that, when in full
vigour, it muft be an animal of a highly dangerous nature.

IPERINA ; Viperine Boa. Grey, with a black, undu-
lating, dorfal band, edged with white ; and the fides fpotted
with k. It is about a foot and a half in length, and of
a moderately brown colour. It is faid to produce by its
bite a flow wafting of the fingers and toes, fimilar to what
happens in fome leprous cafes. A living {pecimen, however,
was obtained in 1778, and though in good health, yet its
bite was not followed by any deleterious effects.

Liveara, Lineated ae Uy alfo Geedi Paragoedoo,

q be

enly.

SER

is of a lender form, with the general appearance of a
coluber rather than a boa. It is of an extremely dark blue
colour, fo as to. appear almoft black in certain lights, and
is marked throughout the whole length of the upper part
by feveral tranfverfe curved and dotted white lines at
unequal diftances, and varying in number in different indi-
viduals, from about 42 to 50: they are fo difpofed, as
almoft to reprefent fo many large fpotted circles, Dr.
Shaw has given an account of fome experiments on this
animal, to whofe work we refer our readers. See General
Zoology, vol. iii. part ii.

Horarra. This is of a dark brown, with a waving
yellow band on each fide, and a row of dorfal fpots. This
is one of the fmaller f{pecies, meafuring only about fifteen
inches in length. The fangs, or poifoning organs of this
{nake, fhew that it is noxious, but in what degree has never
been afcertained; it is, however, faid to be one of the moft
fatal.

Patpesrosa. Whitifh, obfcurely fafciated with grey ;
with prominent eye-lids; this has 112 abdominal fcuta, and
51 on the tail.

Annutata. Subferruginous, with black, orbicular, dor-
fal {pots included in rings ; reniform, ocellated, lateral {pots,
and abdomen undulated with dufky variegations. This is
about two feet long, and in its general appearance itis allied
to the B. hortularia and enydris. It is a native of South
America.

SERPENTS, in Affronomy, a conftellation in the northern
hemifphere, called more particularly Serpens Ophiuchi. The
ftars in the conftellation Serpens, in Ptolemy’s: catalogue,
are 18; in Tycho’s, 13; in Hevelius’s, 22; and in the
Britannic catalogue, 64. See CONSTELLATION.

SERPENT Cucumber, in Botany. See TRICHOSANTHES.

Serrens Hypnoticus. See Hypnoricus.

Serrens Marinus. See Sea SNAKE.

Serpens Rubefcens, the red ferpent-f/h, in Ichthyology, the
name of a fifh, properly of the tenia kind.

It refembles the common fnake in figure, and is of a fine
{trong red in colour, and marked with oblique lines all down
the fides, and long ones from the gills to the tail, one on each
fide; its mouth is but fmall, and its teeth {harp and ferrated ;
and it has all over its back a number of fine capillaments, fet
at diftances from one another, éven to the tail, and the fame
on the belly ; its tail ends in a fingle fin.

Serpens Terrenus, the earth-/erpent, a name given by
fome of the chemical writers to nitre. It was originally
given to the nitre of the ancients, a {alt very different from
that which we call nitre, but it has fince been applied alfo to
that falt.

SERPENT-Stones. See SNAKE-Stones.

SERPENT’S-Jongue, in Botany, a genus of the cryptogamia
fiices clafs; comprehending five fpecies. See ADpER’s-
songue.

Serpents’ Tongues. The ifland of Malta abounds with
gloflopetrz, or the petrified teeth of. fharks, which, from
their refemblance to a tongue, are by the vulgar fuppofed
te be the tongues of ferpents turned into ftone by fome
miracle of St. Paul, when he wasthere. This ifland abounds
not only with thefe, but with bufonite, and va{t numbers
of other remains of fea produétions.

Auguttino Scilla, who has written at large on the foffils
of this ifland, gives a very rational account of their being the
real remains of animals, which, according to his fyftem, it is
no way wonderful to find there.

In regard to the ifland of Malta, which fo abounds with
them at this time, he fuppofes that long fince the time of the
creation, and even without the affiftance of the general

SER

deluge, it may have been formed out of the fea, and that it
appears plainly to have been at firft no other than a mafs of
foft mud, with an immenfe number of fea-fhells, teeth of
fifhes, and other remains of fea-animals mingled among’ it ;
and that thefe fubfiding as low as they could among’ that
thickening matter, have made the ifland what we now find
it, that is, a heap of earth with thefe things in vaf quan-
tities buried in it, and at different depths. Philof. Tranf.
N° 219, p. 182.

And though there are found among thefe teeth, &c. in
the ifland of Malta, great quantities of hells, of fuch {pecies -
as are not natives of thofe feas, this is no objeGtion to the
opinion ; fince it is well known, that the winds, when violent,
as they probably were about the time of the formation of
that ifland, will bring fuch light bodies as fhells a vaft way
In water.

The mountains of Sicily afford fome few gloflopetre, or
{nakes’ tongues, but they are few in number, and worfe pre-
pared than thofe of the ifland of Malta; which is probably
owing to the high ground of thofe mountains being lefs likely
to receive the refufe of the fea, and its foil, which is fandy,
being lefs fitted to preferve them when there than the marle,
of which the ifland of Malta confilts.

The echini marini, or fea-eggs, and their fpecies, which
are very frequent among the ferpents’ tongues of Malta, all
lie upon the furface of the ground, or near it; whereas the
gloflopetre lie deeper, though at no great depth. This is a '
plain effect of all thefe things having been really animal
bodies, and having floated in the mud, of which that ifland
was formed ; for in this it could not be otherwife, but that
the gloffopetre, or ferpents’ tongues, being heavy, would
fubfide in the water, while the light fhells of thefe other
animals would float on or near the furface.

Whenever the gloffopetr are taken carefully up out of
the earth in Malta, the marle or earth, which ferved for
their bed, is found to contain all their minutett traces and
lineaments, like wax from a feal. This is a proof that the
marle was as foft as melted wax when they were put into
it, and that they were of ‘the full fize and growth when
placed there, not having grown, or had any increafe in that ©
place.

The apophyfes, or procefles in the gloflopetrz, are alfo a
ftrong proof of their being no other than real fharks’ teeth,
fince they exactly anfwer to thofe in the teeth of recent
fharks, by which every tooth is received or inferted into its
neighbour in the jaw. Nay, whereas fharks’ teeth are mor-
tifed into one another in fuch a manner, that a man may
eafily tell which belongs to each fide, which lie near the
throat, and which near the froat of the mouth ; and whereas,
in a fhark’s mouth, the teeth on the left fide will not fit on
the right, nor thofe above ferve below, but that on feeing
a recent tooth, a perfon of judgment will be able to fay
what part of the mouth it belonged to; fo in the foffile
fharks’ teeth, or gloffopetre, there isnot any one which may
not be referred to the particular part of the mouth of the
living animal, and could have belonged to no other. Au-
guitino Scilla, de Petrifac. See GLossoprrRa.

SERPENT, in Mufic, a wind inftrument of the baffoon
kind, blown by a mouth-piece. It has its name from its
ferpentine figure ; and is compofed of two pieces of walnut-
tree-wood, and covered with thin leather or fhagreen.

This inftrument has fix holes, which give it a compals of
twenty-feven notes. The mouth-piece is fixed ina focket of
copper or filver. Its neck is curved, and its mouth-piece
is of wood or ivory.

It is held in fuch a manner, as that the fore-finger, the
middle-finger, and the ring-finger of the left hand, can {top

the

SER

the holes 1, 2, and 35 and the fame fingers of the right
hand, flop the holes 4, 5, and 6,
_ The abbé de Boul, in his Hittory of Auxerre, tom, i.
pe 643, fays that, about the year 1590, Edmond Guillaume,
a canon of Auxerre, found the means of boring and turning
a cornet in the form of a ferpent, which was ufed i con-
certs at his houfe, and the © ssl having been perfected
became common in the great churches. For the feale and
compafs of the ferpent, fee Laborde.
Tn France, the f t ufed to be confined to the military
bands; at prefent, fays M. Laborde, it is confined to the
and proceffions. In cathedrals there is one on each
the choir.
Merfennus, who had ftudied this inftrument, fays, that
if unfolded and itraight, it would be more than fix feet

long. Laborde fays eight feet. The compas of the in-
sep me ~ probably extended, which in the {cale given

in is from double B fiat in the bats,

to F in the firft {pace of the treble.

* Merfennus, who has particularly deferibed this inftro-

ment, mentions fome peculiar properties of it, ¢. g. that

the found of it is ftrong enough to drown twenty robutft

voices, being animated merely by the breath of a boy, and
the found of it may be attempered to the foftnefs of

MM was a common fymbol of
the fun, and he is fepreteoted biting his tail, and wi

luminary ; and under this form it was an

time and eternity.
GEE eke Skbelt OF wanticies,, aba of
over it, as of Apollo and #Efcu-
animal was obje&t of very ancient
ip, under various appellations and cha-
the ancient rites we find fome al-
ie under the feveral titles of Ob, Ops,

idolatry is alluded to by Mofes, Lev. xx. 27. The
the

z
32,
E

Rg z
i
:

:
i;
i

i

Endor, who had a familiar fpirit, is c Oub,
it is interpreted Pythonifla: the place where
fays learned Mr. Bryant, feems to have
been named from the worfhip then initituted ; for Endor is
of En-ador ; and fignifies fons pithonis, the
the oracle of the god Ador; which oracle
sean: 1 opens a ealled of hadir,
u is was alfo d Abbadir,
SUeusecd Ge fodder, sal menting O22
the fame as Adorus.
the perfons who have of

nome three ai ts in their hands, and
call upon Eva! Eva!

i g to the writer juft mentioned, the
or opha, which the Greeks rendered ophis,

HE

i; and likewife in other places. The
A himfelf Python, which is the fame

SER

was looked upon as very facred; and the natives are fad
to have made ufe of it as a royal tisra, with which they
ornamented the ftatues of Ifis. The kings of Egypt wore
high bonnets, terminating in a round ball, and farrounded
with figures of alps; tat the pricits likewife had the repre-
fentation of ferpents upon their bonnets.

Abadon, or Abaddon, mentioned in the Revelations
xx. 2. is fuppofed by Mr. Bryant to have been the name
of the Ophite god, with whofe worlhip the world had
been fo long infeéted. ‘This worfhip began among the

ople of Chaldea, who built the city of Ophis upon the
Tigris, and were greatly addidted to Nita and to the
worthip of the ferpent. From Chaldea the worthip pafled
into > pt where the Ser, deity was called Canoph,
Can-eph, and C’neph; it alfo had the wame of Ob or Oud,
and was the fame as the eae or royal Serpent, lg
fame as the Zhermuthis, and made ule of by way of orn3-
ment to the ftatues of their gods. The chief deity of
Egypt is faid to have been Vokews, who was fhyled Opas ;
he was the fame as Ofris, the Sun, and hence was often
called Ob-cl, or Pytho fol; and there were pillars facred to
him, with curious hieroglyphical infcriptions, bearing the
fame name, whence among the Greeks, who copied from
the Egyptians, every thing gradually tapering to a point
was ftyled obelos, or obelifeus.

As the worfhip of the ferpent jm among the fons of
Chus, Mr. Bryant conjectures, that from thence they were
denominated Ethiopians and Aithicpians, from Ath-ope, or
Ath-opes, the god whom they worfhipped, and not from
their complexion: the Ethiopes brought thefe rites into
Greece, and called the ifland where they firft eftablithed
them, Ellopia, Solis Serpentis infula, the fame with Eubea,
or Oubaia, i.¢. the Serpent-ifland.

The fame learned writer difcovers traces of the fer-
pent worfhip among the Hyperboreans, at Rhodes, named
Ophiufa, in Phrygia, and upon the Hellefpont, in the
ifland Cyprus, in Crete, among the Athenians, in the
name of Cecrops, among the natives of Thebes in Beotia,
among the Lacedemonians, in Italy, in Syria, &c. and in
the names of many places, as well as the people where
the Ophites fettled. One of the moit early herefies intro-
duced into the Chriftian church was that of the Ophitz.
Bryant’s Analyfis of Ancient Myth. vol. i. p. 47, &e.
P- 473» &e. . ;

Serpent J/lands, in Geography, {mall iflands near the N.
coaft of lake Huron. N. lat. 46°2'. W. long. 82%45'.

Serpents, Jfland of. See SZALGEN.

SERPENTINA, in Botany. See SERPENTARIA.

SERPENTINE, in Chemifiry, a worm, or pipe of
copper or pewter, twifted into a {piral, and afcending from
the bottom of the alembic to the capital, and ferving in
the diftillation of reétified {pirit of wine.

Senpentine, in Mineralogy, a ftone, which derives ite
name from the variety of its colours, fuppofed to refemble
thofe of the ferpent. The ancients called this ftone ophites,
from the Greek ofu:, /erpent, as being fpeckled like a fer-

nt’s fkin. ‘The moft prevailing colour is of dif-
aa thades, {potted with red, or with dar

and
alfo clouded and veiny. Some ferpentines are red, varyin
from a In ri

Sg tag to a blood-red or fcarlet.
variety of colours, this ftone far exceeds any other of the
great rock-formations. It will receive a high polifh, and ts
nearly indeftructible by fire or acids, and is tliereve i
fated for ornamental {culpture or architeGture. The
nefs of ferpentine is variable: fome kinds fcarcely yield to
the knife, others are eafily worked. It is infufible by the
blowpipe ; the fraéture is fplintery, pafling into {mall con-
Qq2 choidal ;

SERPENTINE.

ehoidal ; the fragments are tranflucent at the edges; the
luftre is fomewhat refinous, and when powdered, it has an
unctuous foapy feel. The fpecific gravity varies from
about 2.6 to 2.7. Serpentine feems nearly allied to the
mineral called Aornblende, from which it differs in its contti-
tuent parts by containing more magnefia and lefs iron.
Chrome has been found in fome ferpentines. The analyfis
of different ferpentines fhews a confiderable variation in the
proportion of their conitituent parts,

from 45 to 29 Silex,

18 23 Alumine,

23 34 Magnefia,

3 4 Iron,

{I 10 Water and lofs.

Some ferpentines contain 6 per cent. of lime.

The difciples of Werner divide ferpentine into two
fpecies, the one called the noble ferpentine, the other the
common ferpentine ; the former they confider as older, and
having a different geological pofition to the common ferpen-
tine; but for this diftinG@ion there does not appear fuffi-
cient reafon, as the fame beds will furnifh fpecimens of
both kinds. The noble ferpentine has the richeft variety
of colours and the greateft degree of tranflucency. _Ser-
pentine, though not very rare in many alpine diltritts, is
by no means fo common as granite, flate, and limettone.
Serpentine occurs in beds in gneifs and primary limeftone,
and in mica-flate: it alfo covers many rocks in amorphous
maffes, and may be obferved graduating into chlorite or talc-
flate. Serpentine has been remarked to exilt generally at a
low level in alpine diftriéts ; but there are {ome remarkable ex-
ceptions to this, particularly in the fummits which furround
the central parts of mount Rofa, in Switzerland. Thefe
fummits have an elevation of more than 1700 fathoms,
formed of beds of ferpentine lying in a pofition generally
horizontal.

Serpentine is more abundant in Europe, than any other
part of the globe that has been yet explored. The whole
front of the Alps facing Italy contains ferpentine almott in
every part, although there is very little in the fide towards
Switzerland. It extends through Italy, where it is called
gabbio. One of the fineft varieties is at the hills of Im-
pronetta, near Florence: it contains much of that green,
femitran{parent, and fattiny fubftance, which Sauflure calls
fmaragdite, on account of its fine emerald-green colour.
France has fome mountains of ferpentine, efpecially in
Limoufin.

The fineft ferpentines of Spain are from Sierra Nevada ;
two leagues from Grenada, they have a green bafe filled
with gliftening plates of a yellow colour. Superb columns
have been made of it, which decorate the churches and
palaces of Madrid. According to Patrin, ferpentine is
almoft entirely wanting in northern Afia, with the excep-
tion of the eaftern part of the Ural mountains, which fepa-
rate Europe from Afia. There are fome hills of ferpen-
tine, which at great intervals accompany their bafe, follow-
ing their direétion from north to fouth; there are alfo
fome detached branches which appear near Tobolfk, which
is not far from thefe mountains. But from hence to the
river Amur, a {pace of about three thoufand miles, fcarcely
any veftiges are found either in the great chains of Altai,
Sayennes, or the mountains of Daouria. The ferpentines
moft known in Europe are thofe of Saldbergh in Sweden,
and Zeoblitz in Saxony, from which vafes of every kind
are turned and exported to diftant countries. The ferpen-
tine of Bayreuth is filled with garnets of the fize of a pea,
difperfed equally through the mafs. When the ftone is
polifhed, they prefent a pleafing mixture of fine red {pots

in a green bafe. ‘Trinkets and other ornaments are made
of it.

The mountain called Roth Horn, or Red Horn, which

faces mount Rofa towards Italy, is elevated 1506 fathoms ;
it is compofed of immenfe mafles of ferpentine of an irre-
gular fhape. The furface of this ferpentine becomes a
deep red by the action of the atmo{phere, which oxygenates
the iron it contains. It is this colour, and the elongated
form, that have occafioned the mountain to be called Red
Horn. :
The ferpentine of this mountain is covered by a fteatite
of a fea-green colour, mixed with carbonate of lime and
grains of felfpar. On this ferpentine are laid beds of
micaceous {chilt, intermixed with limeftone, compofed of
more than one half of mica. Thefe are again covered by
ferpentine; all the beds are nearly horizontal, rifing a little
towards mount Rofa.

Mount Crevin, another mountain near mount Rofa, is an
inacceflible obelifk of a triangular form, which is elevated
2309 fathoms above the fea. It is compofed of three dif-
tinét mafles ; the uppermoft, which forms the fummit, is of
a yellow ifabella colour. It is compofed of ferpentine
mixed with micaceous {chift, containing limeftone and quartz.
The middle is of gneifs and micaceous {chift, and the lower
one or bafe of the pyramid is ferpentine; but the moft re-
markable hill of ferpentine is in the chain of mountains
that feparates the marggravate of Bayreuth from the Upper
Palatinate. Its elevation above the plain is about 300 feet ;
it extends in a direction from eaft to weft. The rocks
which crown the fummit are of very pure ferpentine,
divided into beds, and repofing on gn@ifs and hornblende.
M. Humboldt having brought his compafs near thefe rocks
of ferpentine, faw with furprife, that the north pole of the
needle flew round to the fouth. He further obferved, that
the rocks on the northern and fouthern dechvities have op-
pofite poles. The eaftern and weitern extremities of the
hill do not exert any action on the magnetic needle, though
the appearance of the ftone is the fame as on the north
and fouth declivities. In the magnetic parts of the hill
certain rocks are alfo obferved, which are not magnetic in
jun@tion with fimilar rocks, that exert a ftrong a¢tion on
the needle, fome of them at the diftance of 22 teet. he
mountain not only exerts its a€tion on the needle in its
whole mafs, like fome other hills, it is manifeft even in
{mall fragments.

Humboldt obferved, that minute fragments are brifkly
moved on prefenting them to the point of a weak magnet ;
but they have not the lealt attraGtion for iron not mag-
netized. Humboldt convinced himfelf that this ferpentine
does not contain an atom of magnetic iron, all which it con-
tains is in the ftate of oxyd. Its fpecific gravity 1s much
lefs than that of other ferpentines, fearcely reaching to
2000, that of common ferpentine being upwards of 2700.
This mountain of ferpentine, taker in the aggregate, may
be regarded as one large natural magnet, having two poles,
the part equidiftant from each difplaying no figns of
magnetic power, as is the cafe with fmall natural and
artificial magnets. Like them too, if a fragment be broken
from the mafs, each fmall piece has its north and fouth
pole, and a central part, which is not magnetic. That par-
ticular kind of foft ferpentine, which is capable of being
turned into veflels that refift the aétion of the fire, is called
pot-ftone, and has been already defcribed. See Por-
Stone.

Steatite and amianthus, a fibrous afbeftus, are almoft
always affociated with ferpentineé. (See Aspestus and
Sreatize.) The fineft amianthus occurs in Corfica form-

2 ing

SER

iful white filky threads of two or more feet in
and is fo abundant, that Dolomicu made ule of
of flax to pack his minerals in when in that

i

ine exifts in various parts of the highlands of

and the Hebrides ; it is found both pure and alter.
mica-flate we ple wane 4

well.charaGterized s of ferpentine are known in

Britain, except in Cornwall and the Ife of Anglefea.

tine of wall is not particularly diltinguithed
uty of its colours. Rocks of this mineral ex-
the Lizard Point.

beautiful variety of ferpentine in Great Bri-

ps in Europe, is that on the weftern fide of

t occurs at a low elevation aflocisted with

The beds are of confiderable fize,

vided by feams of afbeltus. Some of the ferpentine

a vera ry ogee yer ge oma the verde

antique + but articles of white are

rally {maller. Veins of aera fleatite, with brilliant

lamunx of ovo he alfo occur in fome of the beds.

Tt is fufficiently to refit the point of a copper tool,

takes a high polith. The colours are various thades

a one and red, varying from a peach-

bloom to a blood-red fearlet. The colours are intermixed

and diftributed in an infinite variety of {pots and clouds,
the effects of which are heightened by polihing.

Meilrs. Bullock and Co. in Oxford-itreet, have eftablifhed

a manufacture of chimney-pieces, columns, and other or-

articles of this ttone, which has the advantage,

being raifed in vait blocks, fo as to form columns and flabs
one piece, from 12 to 20 feet in length, and of pro-

‘haf ce eee marca nt

» com tine, which we ured

Metirs. Bullock's manufactory, weighed two tons, and

1 no perceptible flaw or blemifh in the whole piece.

This is the moit durable as well as the richelt of Britith

Hones applied to ornamental {culpture, and is not exceeded

the varicty or frethnefs of its colours by any of the
coitly marbles of Italy.

he Mona marble, as this ferpentine is called by the pro-

stors, is not liable to have its colours injured by common
which is the cafe with many marbles, when made into

pieces ; neither are the colours afleéted by acids,

, or moifture,

, With fach a valuable material for ornamental fculpture
our own ifland, it is greatly to be re » that fuch
ge fums fhould be annually paid to foreign nations in

purchafe of ftone for fimilar purpofes, which is lefs

rable and lefs beautiful. It Set te ine
patriot: encourage the proper application of the mine-
: of our own country.
The ftone called verde antique is a mixture of green
tine with white granular limeftone. See VERDE

PENTINE, in the Manege. A horfe is {aid to have a
ntine ton if it is always frifking and moving, and
over the bit, initead of keeping im the
pas ie bate or the tensor.
» in breaking and drefling their horfes, ufed
them in waving Paty, “hay lines, as the praétice
to be, at eek ol ee ae
pen. Greeks and Romans know it by
in Meanders, in allufion to the windings
of the celebrated river which bore that name.
See Corumn.

fet

v2

Flt
1

43
&

‘

=

f

SER
Senrentine Ferfer, are foch as begin and end with
the fame word, As,
* Ambo florentes etatibus, Arcades ambo.”’

SERPHANT, in Geography, a village of Syria, fu
poled to be the ancient Sarepta (which fee) ; 14 miles 8.8,.W.
of Saide.

SERPHO, the ancient Seriphus, an ifland in the Grecian
Archipelago, about 36 miles in circumference. Its moun-

tains are fo rug and fleep that the 8 feigned the
natives to have n transformed into ftone by Perfeus.
Here are mines of iron and loaditone. The inhebicants be-

long to the Greek church: they pay 800 crowns to the
A feignior, for the capitation and land-tax. ‘The pro-

uce is but fi The onions are in high eftimation. It
was made a place of exile by the ancient Romans. N. lat.
37° 10'. E. long. 24° 34'.

Sexruo Pouls, a {mall ifland, five miles N.E. of the
former.

abe we del. See Grorra.

J ULA, in Botany, derived from / to creep,
a name given by Linnus to the prefent a to
its creeping habit and diminutive ftature.—Linn, Mant, 16,
Schreb. 628. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 329. Mart. Mill. Dia,
v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.257. Purthv. 1. 33. Juff. 318.
Lamarck Iluftr. t. 758. (Laurembergia; Berg. Cap. 350.
Elodea; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 20. Clas and order,
ao Tetrandria. Nat. Ord. Jnundate, Linn. Onagre,
Jul.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal, Perianth minute, four-toothed,
ereét, acute, permanent, Cor. Petals four, oblong, acute,
feflile. Stam. Filaments four, very hort ; anthers oblong,
about equal to the petals.

Female, on the fame plant.
nute, in four deep permanent fe

or none. Pift. Ge

Cal. Perianth fuperior, mi-

ents. Cor. Petals three,
rmen inferior, ovate, furrowed ; ftyle
fhort ; ftigmas obtufe. Peric. Nut cylindrical, furrowed,
of one cell, deciduous. Seed ene, or more, oblong.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx four-toothed. Petals four. Fe-
male, Calyx in four deep fegments. Nut.

Obf. The fecond fpecies differs widely from the original
generic characters, being dioecious, with three-cleft flowers,
and feveral feeds. The whole wants revifion.

1.8. <% Cape Serpicula. Linn. Mant. 124. Suppl.
416. Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. 1. (Laurembergia repens;
Berg. Cap. 350. t. 5. f. 10.)—Leaves feattered, lanceolate,
entire—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Sent to Kew,
by Mr. Mailon, in 1789. It is a perennial, herbaceous,
foeee plant, flowering in July and Auguit. Stem

ranched, leafy, creeping by fibrous radicles. Leaves acute,
three-quarters of an inch long. Flowers axillary, two to
four together; the males are defcribed by Bergius and Lin-

nzus as ftalked,
2. S. verticillata. Eaft Indian Serpicula. Linn. Suppl.
16, Willd. n.2. Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 33. t. 164.—
wers three-cleft. Leaves whorled, finely ferrated.—Na-
tive of clear ftanding {weet water in the Eait Indies, fower-

ing during the cold feafon, This is dioecious. The male

flowers are {effile, and without a tube, but the female ones

have a long tube, and a fheath-like ca/ys. Both male and
female are three-cleft. The cra. od guaas an oblong cap-
fule, with four » one over another.

. S. veronicifolia. Bourbon Serpicula. Willd. n. 3.—
“ ves cppole ovate, toothed at the fummit.’’—Native
ifle of Bourbon. Bory de St, Vincent.—Stems
creeping, flender, red. Leaves thickifh, a line, or line ae

SER

half, long, refembling thofe of Veronica agre is. Flowers
monoecious, four-cleft, reddifh, very minute.

4. S. occidentalis. American Serpicula. Purfh n. 1. (Elo-
dea canadenfis; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 1. 20.)—“ Flowers
united. Stigmas ligulate, cloven, reflexed. Leaves ternate,
linear, acute.”?—Frequent in ftagnant waters, from Canada
to Virginia, flowering in July. Perennial. Flowers white,
very {mall and delicate. Leaves when magnified very finely
ferrulated. In the early part of the feafon they are, as Mi-
chaux defcribes, oblong and obtufe, but at the flowering
time long, linear, and acute. Pur/h.

SERPIGO, in Medicine, from /erpere, to creep, is nearly
fynonimous with /erpes, and fignifies, in the language of the
older writers, any {preading tetter, or excoriation of the
fkin. When the tetter is ftationary, according to Foreftus,
it is called impetigo ; but when it {preads and creeps from
one place to another, it is called /erpigo. (See Foreft. Obf.
Chirurg. lib. ii. obf. 11.) It is the property, however, of
many eruptive difeafes to fpread in this manner, though very
different in their nature from each other ; whence in the
more accurate nomenclature of the prefent day, the term
Serpige is not ufed. It would be applicable, in fact, to dif-
eales of every clafs, puftular, fcaly, papular, and veficular ;
to the difeafes called impetigo, lepra, ploriafis, lichen,
herpes, eczema, &c. It is, therefore, juttly exploded.

SERPUCHOV, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in
the government of Mofcow; 40 miles S. of Mofcow. N.
lat. 55°. E. long. 37° 2!.

SERPULA, in Conchology, a genus of the order Tef-
tacea, of which the generic charaGter is, animal a terebella:
fhell univalve, tubular, and generally adhering to other fub-
ftances; often feparated internally by divifions at uncertain
diftances. There are about fifty fpecies included in this
genus, of which feveral are found in our own country.

Species.

Navtitowes. Shell flattifh, minute, confluent, verru-
cofe, fpiral, with very thin femilunar internal divifions. It
is found in the feas about Norway, adhering to the Madre-
pora prolifera, is very minute, brownifh, or white; of an
uncertain figure, fometimes rather oblong, fometimes more
orbicular; the divifions are parallel, the aperture very
narrow.

Semitunum. The fhell of this is regular, loofe, glabrous.
It is found in the Adriatic and Red feas, and fometimes
it is obtained foffile. The hell is fcarcely larger than
a srain of fand, white and yellowifh ; the whorls are
preffed clofe together ; the aperture is narrow, and com-
preffed.

Pranorzis. In this {pecies the fhell is orbicular, regu-
lar, flat, equal. It is found adhering to hells. The fhell
refembles a round fcale, and when broken horizontally it
exhibits the appearance of a {pire in minute concentric
circles.

SpirittuM. Shell regular, fpiral, orbicular, pellucid,
with round gradually decreafing whorls. It inhabits the
ocean, on zoophytes, fertulariz, and other marine fubttances ;
it refembles the next, which is a native of this country, but
is much lefs than it.

* Sprrorsis. Shell regular, fpiral, orbicular, the whorls
flightly caniculate above and inwardly, and growing gra-
dually lefs towards the centre. It inhabits moft feas, ad-
hering to fuci and zoophytes. There is a variety; the
fhell is white, without polifh, not complicated, but difpofed
fingly on the fubftance to which it is attached ; the aperture
is circular.

SER

* TriquetRA. The thell of this is creeping, flexuous,
triangular. It inhabits the ocean, adhering to marine fub-
ftances, {tones, and the bottoms of fhips; is from half an
inch to an inch long. The fhell is white, pellucid, irregu-
larly twifted, carinate on the back, fometimes denticulate,
with a narrow circular aperture.

*Tnrricata. Shell filiform, rough, round, intricately
twifted. It inhabits the European and Indian feas, and
often on our own coafts, upon hells. ‘The fhell is of a
greenifh-white, a little rugged and coarfe.

Firocrana. Shell capillary, fafciculate, in branched
complications, and cancellate. It inhabits the Mediterra-
nean; is four inches long, and forms a beautiful kind of
network.

Granutata. The fhell of this is round, {piral, glo-
merate, with elevated ribs on the upper fide. It inhabits
the North feas, in large mafles, adhering to {tones, fhells,
&e. The fhell is white, and the fize of a coriander
feed.

* ConrorturLicata. The fhell is angular, rugged, and
irregularly entwined. It is found in the European and Ame-
rican feas, and on our own coatts ; is from three to four inches
long ; and fometimes it is as large asa goofe-quill ; the fhell
is white, cinereous, or yellowifh-brown ; within it is {mooth,
tranfverfely ftriate.

Giomerata. The fhell of this fpecies is round, glo-
merate, with decuflate wrinkles. It inhabits the European
and Atlantic feas, in large mafles. The fhell is white, grey,
or brownifh ; within it is {mooth.

Lumpricatis. The fhell of this is round, flexuous, with
a fpiral acute tip.
which are found in the Atlantic and Indian feas, in large
mafles. The fhell is from three to tive inches long, tranf-
verfely ribbed and longitudinally wrinkled.

PotytHaLamiaA. The fhell of this is likewife round,
diaphanous, {mooth, ftraightifh, with numerous internal di-
vifions. It inhabits the Mediterranean and Indian feas,
under the fand. The thell is outwardly white, tranf{verfely
wrinkled, and annulate; the infide is feparated by imperfo-
rated convex and concave divifions, making it appear as if
it confifted of numerous united tubes.

Arenarta. Shell jointed, entire, diftin@, flattifh be-
neath. It is found in India, and divers parts of the coaft

of Africa. It is probably a teredo, hereafter to be de-—

{cribed. The fhell is white, with pale brown undulate rays,

or whitifh ; the outfide cancellate, within it is f{mooth ; {pi- |

rally twitted : there are about a hundred ftriz, which are
fometimes nodulous.

Ancurra. Shell roundifh, fub-fpiral, with a longitu-
dinal jointed cleft. It inhabits the Indian ocean ; varies
much in figure, being fometimes round and fometimes an-
gular ; it is more or lefs

the joints of the cleft often obfolete. There is a variety of |

this {pecies.

* VERMICULARIS.
It inhabits the European feas,
inches long. The fhell is whitifh,
the inhabitant is of a bright fcarlet, with elegantly feathered
tentacula, from the middle of which arifes a trumpet-fhaped
tube, and a leffer fimple one.

Penis. The fhell of this is round, ftraight, taper, with
a dilated radiate larger extremity ; the difk is covered with
cylindrical pores. This is denominated the watering-pol-
It is found chiefly in the Indian ocean. The fhell is white
or cinereous, with a faint fhade of red; fmoothifh, tapering,

Shell round, tapering, curved, wrinkled.
and is from two to three

and open at the {mall end; the dilated margin at the larger

end

There are three varieties of this {pecies, :

ending in an obtule point 5 |

flexuous, glabrous or rough, with

j

f SERPULA.

end terminating in numerous {mall tubes ; the dilk is convex,
and covered with round perforations, with a longitudinal
ove in the middle.

Ecmmara. Shell roundith, flexuous, rofy, with nume-
Tous rows of prickles, obtule at the end. It is the fize of
a crow’s quill ; Se is margined,

Ocnea. The of this is roundith, flriate, brown.
bits the Indian ocean, ufually affixed to corals,

- Shell polithed, f{moothifh, with annulate
a little tapering towards the end. It is found in the
and American feas, and is the fize of a quill, The
is ivory,, whitifh or blvcith, either ttraight or partly

Decussata. Shell round, with decuflate ftrie, flightly
ed, flexuous, red, within {mooth and white.

. ae eet ae See! ae

br part ight tran plait T el]

ip fiom. two.to four inches long, white, or of a dulky

Ye . Shell fub-ftriate, yellowith-brown, round, twifted

mto three whorls, with a central tip, It is found about the
sof the ifland of Goree.

_Crreorus. Shell round, fmooth, yellowith, many

mes twifted. It inhabits America, ‘The thell is long and

Connvucorim. Shell conic, {pirally. twiited, with,

with brown bands; the middle is round and nar the
tureis orbicular. The thell, as to its form, is obtufe at

ye

e tip.
Gonzexsis. The fhell is round, cancellate, yellow,
rithin horny. It is found at Goree, fixed to teftaceous

ces and wood ; is from eight to nine inches long, with
evated ftrix; the longitudinal ones are crowded.
Intest is. Shell triangular, twifted, fragile, tuber-
Biree deh isedici sepeiery eee, nha
7 is whiti in twifted, fub-umbili-
within glabrous. ,
Adxeunpisutum. The hell is round, white, tranfverfely
and thrice twifled ; the firft bend appearing as if

od of five funnels placed on each other.

IpALis. Shell cinereous, above convex, beneath

_pyramidal, hence its fpecific name, and it is many times
‘fed the bends se peretea It is found. in the
dian fea, adhering to teitaceous fubftances about an inch
: = > chal narrower end ; fometimes it is {traightith,

--

JextycuLtaTa. The thell of this is white, round, fubu-

te, ftraight, toothed at the fides, with a longitudinal gla-

4n the middle ; the tip is a little incurved and gia-

It is found adhering to the Lepas tintinnabulum, and
out three-quarters of an inch long.

iss Shell roundith, twilked, umbilicate, with

o

euilate ftrie, and longitudinal nodulous ribs, within
oth, with numerous divifions. It is found foffile in

__ The two firft bends are placed on each other.
) : The fhell of this is round,. fmooth, in-
with a nearly obfolete undulate bafe : the mouth is
dy truncate. It is found, as its f{pecific name de-

round, fmooth, | grey afcending

the fpiral bafe. It inhabits the
the S. fpirillum, but is
, and not rugged; the inhabitant is fhort,
ataea. The thell is round, regular, fpiral, orbicular,
cid, thin: i with a thickened aperture. This
11

peo
.

$%
*

fpecies is found in the Greenland feas, on fertulariz,
uct, flones, and divers marine fubltances. I: refembles
the 5. glomersta; the thell is thick, umbilicate, not a
line in diameter, and fometimes it is of a reddifh colour.

Cancettata. Shell f{piral, glomerate, with three
grooves, the lower groove interrupted by tranfverfe lines,
It inhabits the Greenland feas, and refembles the 8.

granulata, Shell white, grey or greenifh, the aperture is
two-toothed,
Sreccanis, Shell fub-orbicular, umbilicate, convex,

radiate with wrinkles. This alfo is found in the Greenland
feas, on fertularis and ftones. The thell is {carcely larger
than a needle, violet, reddith-brown, or yellowith radiate
with white; beneath it is flat, with a fingle whorl or bead ;
the aperture is very minute.

Gicanrea. The thell of this is fomewhat triangular,
with a little bend, gradually tapering, violet, within
{mooth, pale yellow, the aperture is white, with undulate
ftriz, and armed with a conic tooth. It inhabits Africa
and America, attached to rocks and corals. The is fix
inches high, and as thick as the little finger. The inha-
bitant is whitith.

Cixenea. The fhell is filiform, glabrous, conglomerate,
perforated, It inhabits the fhores of Maflilia; it is gla-
brous, of a greyifh-white, and flexuous.

*Surcara. Shell with two whorls, deeply and fpirally
Tt inhabits the coafts of Pembrokefhire, on the
It is a minute fhell, of a

grooved.

roots of the Fucus digitatus.
ith colour.

* Ovanis. Shell fub-oval, imperforated. It is found at
Tenby. The fhell has two bends, which form an oval; it
is never perforated, and is minute. -

*Rerrexa. The fhell is regular, rounded, with a re-
flected margin at the aperture. This is found on the
Pembrokefhire fands. It is minute; fhell gloily, white,

perforated ; the aperture is above the plane of the {pire.
*Cornea. The thell is regular, rownded, and pellucid,
with three whorls. This alfo is an inhabitant on Pem-

brokefhire coaft. It is brown and horny. -

*Biconnis. Shell femilunar, ventricofe, white, opaque,
gloffy. It is found at Sandwich and Reculver, and is
minute.

* Pernrorara. Shell femilunar, perforated, white, opa ue,

loffy. It inhabits Sandwich, as do all thofe that will be
Reresfier deferibed. This is, however, as well as the next,
rare and minute.

*Lacrea. The thell is ovate, thin, {mooth, pellucid,
with milky veins. “

*Lacena. Shell rounded, ftriate, grooved, with a
narrow neck. This is defcribed, as are all thofe which
are found in this country, in Adams’s work on the Micro-
feope. The theH of this is exaétly thaped like an oil-flafk,

is whitith.

*Rerorta. Shell rounded, margined, with a flender re-
curved neck. The fhell is white, opaque, fhaped fomething
like the retort ufed by chemitts.

Incurvata. The fhell is ftraipht, with three clofe
whorls at the fmaller end. The thell is white and tranfpa-
ae and refembles, in fome refpeéts, the Nautilus femi-

tuus.

SERPYLLUM, in Botany, fometimes written Serpillum,
fo called from its humble creeping mode of growth. See
Tuynus.

SERQUEUK, in lg Fg town ef France, in
the department of the Upper ¢ ; 3 miles N. of Bour-

bonne.
SERRA,

SER

SERRA, Paoto, in Biography, author of an elaborate
treatife on folmifation, publifhed at Rome in 1768, fmall
folio, entitled « Introduzione Armonica Sopra la nuova {e-
rie de’ Suoni modulati oggidi, e modo di rettamente, e piu
facilmente intuonarla;’? or, ‘* Harmonical Introduction to a
new feries of modulated founds, and a method for accu-
rately, and with greater facility, learning to name and pro-
duce them with the voice.’

The author begins, cap. 1, with the origin of mufic, its
utility, and the different modes of naming the notes in fing-
ing. After endeavouring to rob Guido of the invention of
the hexachords and folmifation, and condemning its ufe, he
propofes a new method of naming the notes in learning to
fing ; afligning a f{pecific name to every found in the fecale
ending with the vowels A, E,1; as ca fora flat note, ce for
a natural note, and ci for a fharp note; beginning each
found with the letters now in ufe in the Septenary, by
which means the ftudent is difembarrafled from all mutations,
and every found in the fcale has a f{pecific and invariable name
appropriated to it.

(Gs) D
eee
“BOI DADE DI & EOE FATE FI
G A B
Opbsas peuere—} ===
"GA GEGl AAOAU BA BE BI cian aes

This method had the approbation of feveral of the beft
matters in Rome, who have figned a certificate of its effec
upon the ftudies of a young finger of the name of Bene-
detti, who was rendered capable by it, in lefs than a year,
of finging at fight any vocal mufic that was put before him,
even without accompaniment. Benedetti has fince fung
the firft man’s part in the operas of feveral of the principal
cities of Italy ; and, perhaps, his genius may be fuch, as
would have enabled him to have done the fame by any other
method, with equal ftudy and praétice. Inftrumental per-
formers, at prefent, are not plagued with the ancient names
of the notes and mutations, but learn them by the fimple
letters of the alphabet ; and yet we have never heard of one
that has been able to play at fight in a year’s time.

Upon the whole, the alphabetic names of the notes feem
the moft fimple and ufeful for every purpofe but that of ex-
ercifing the voice, which is beft done by the vowels ; and it
may be faid, that to /y//abize in quick paflages is little more
than to fpeak, but to vocalize is to fing. However, we
were told by a fcholar of the famous Durante, that while
he was in the confervatorio of St. Onofrio, at Naples, when
the boys ufed to be tormenting themfelves about the muta-
tions, and the names of notes in tranfpofed keys, with
double flats and fharps, Durante cried out, “ Quefte note
intonatele, chiamatele poi anche diavole fe volete, ma into-
natele,’’? Meaning, that if they did but.hit the intervals
right, and in tune, he did not care what they were called.
And, perhaps, what Pope fays of different forms of go-
vernment, may be more jultly applied to thefe feveral metheds
of finging.

« Whate’er is beft adminifter’d is beit.’’

As, in the ufe of any of them, whoever has the beft matter,

SER

and feconds his inftruétions with the greatett degree of in-
telligence and induftry, will be the moft likely to fucceed.
And when-we recolleé&t the great abilities and enchanting
powers of many fingers of paft times, who have been
obliged to articulate every note of their /o/feggi in the moft
rapid movements, we may apply to the new fyftems what
M. Rouffeau faid with refpeét to his own: * That the
public has done very wifely to reje& them, and to fend their
authors to the land of vain {peculations.’? For innovators
will always find, that a bad method, already known, will be
preferred to a good method that is to learn.

Serra, in Botany, a genus of plants, fo called in the
llora Peruviana, after a Spanifh botanift of the fame name,
who has ftudied the plants of Minorca. De Theis.

Serra, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftriét of Corté. The canton contains 2171 inhabitants.

SERRA, a town of Corfica; 11 miles S.S.W. of Cer-
vione.

Serra de Axenhao, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
4 miles N.of Monfort.

Serra d’ Alcoba, mountains of Portugal, in the province
of Beira, between Vifeu and Braganca Nova.

Serra de Bouzeno, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
4 miles S. of Portalegre.

Serra de Culdeirao, mountains of Portugal, between
Algarva and Alestejo.

Serra da Efirica, mountains of Portugal, in the province
of Entre Duero e Minho; £8 miles N. of Braganza.

Surra Falperra,atown of Portugal, in Tras los Montes;
15 miles W. of Mirandela. P

Serra de Maram, a mountain of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Tras los Montes; 1o miles S. of Chaves.

Serra de Monchique, mountains of Portugal, between
Alentejo and Algarva.

Serra de Momil, mountains of Portugal, between Miran-
dela and Torre de Moncorvo.

Serra de Querera, a town of Africa, in Lower Guinea,
on the river Camarones.

Serra de Reboardaos, mountains of Portugal, fouth of
Braganza, in Tras los Montes. :

Serra de St. Miguel, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo,
on the fouth fide of the Tagus; 15 miles N.N.W. of Caf-
tello de Vide.

Serra de Salvador, mountains of Portugal, in Alentejo ;
8 miles E. of Arronches.

Serra Pifcis, in Ichthyology, a name given by many au-
thors to the prifis, or faw-fi/h.

Serra is alfo a name given by Pliny to a fpecies of the
balittes, called by the generality of writers /eolopax. It is
diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of the baliftes, with
two {pines in the place of the belly-fins, and one behind the
anus. See TRuMPET-/i/h.

SERRAE, in Geography, a town of European Turkey;
in Macedonia, the fee of a Greek archbifhop; 36 miles.
E.N.E. of Saloniki.

SERRAIN, a town of Arabia, in the province of ©

Hedsjas ; 40 miles S.W. of Mecca. N. lat. 21° 5!.

SERRANA, or Pearl [fland, a {mall ifland in the Carib-
bean fea, fo called from Serrana, the commander of a Spanifh
veffel in the time of Charles V., who was fhipwrecked on
the coaft. N. lat. 14°5’. W.long. 78°so!.

SERRANILLA Isranps, aclufter of {mall iflands in
the bay of Honduras. N. lat. 16° 10!.. W. long. 80° 1o!.

SERRAPETRONA, a town of Italy ; 7 miles S.W..
of Ancona.

SER-

SER

SERRATA, a name given by fome of the Roman av-
thors to the plant which the Gauls, according to Pliny, had
named dvtmica, and which the Greeks “> ad aA ro
trepben and priorites. ‘This was evidently the fame'plant with
our Serta ton folsaiess but befides this cheba was an-
plant called by this name, and which, according to

was the chamiedrys or germander of the Greeks.
fays nothing the chamedrys, but that its
And it is much more probable, that the
take the idea of a {aw from the leaves of the
from thofe of this plant, they being much
ticulated than thofe. So that thofe who fae
Pliny, to fuppofe the germander and fer-
othe rs the * plant, are in the wrong,
have the countenance of this fo generally re

HE
TE

;

ic author for it.
SERRATE Furs, in Natura! Hifory, a name given b
authors to certain flies, diftingui all the other kin
by their having a embling a double faw,

at the hinder part of the body; this ferves feveral Posies
them to make holes in the branches of trees, in which

of this kind that lays its eggs on the yooleberry-
= y forfsee of the gtddle rib oF

bath, depolits them only on the fi
the leaf ; and the ofier-fly, which is one of this genus, pro-

9 gp agent of the ofier, lays its on
intermediate furface of the leaves between vt
= er ag no ufe made of this curious inftru-

at

ment in the ig of thefe fince they are only laid
ec. eeeeeees, bal to them by means of a

uid which covers them. It is a very remarkable
in the of this genus of flies, that they grow
dep. wiciom are laid. This is obfervable in the
gs of common rofe-fiy, which are at firft buried in the
: wth out the furface into tumours
F in thofe of the ofier-fly it is mott
and the whole growth of the fetus in
on examining them at different times of
which may be ‘cally done without difturbing
lie naked on the furface of the leaf.
ger ae ‘that the egg receives fome fort
and a very effential ne to its prefervation,
j lant on which it is depofited, fince,
da rdenwed jab cam and left to dry,
always dry up wi » an ith ; whereas, if
of thefe leaves egar, rere the leaf be
means preferved frefh and juicy, the creature hatches
from it as well as if it was left upon the tree. Reaumur’s
ift. Inf. vol. 9 164.

ich were ornamented by cutting out regular
es on the Tacitus fays, that the Germans pre-
r hefe to Roman coins. But the old forgers imi-
d this kind of incifion, which was intended to prevent
tat ee oe oe. a
in Botany, {fo called by the earl
plants, from hi Edt dlerticenee aff the tenses a
inal fpecies, which ftands firft on our lift.—Bauh.
Linn. Gen. 408. Schreb. 542. Willd. Sp. Pl.
Mart. Di&. v, 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 845.
- Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2.1
Dill. Gil. t. 8. Juff.

Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4,
2. : an Speak 74: Lamarck Tluftr.

666. f.1. - . t. 162? s and order, Syngenefia
on. XXXII —

SER
Pelygamia-aqualiz, Nat. Ord, Compofite capitate, Linn. Ci-

narocphale, Jul,

Gen. Ch, Common Calyx ry nearly cylindrical,

clafely imbricated, with numerous, laoceolae, ere, un-
armed fcaies, Cor, compound, tubular, uniform. Florets
numerous, equal, all perfeét, of one petal, funnel. taped;

the tube inflexed ; limb tumid, five-cleft. Siam. F laments
five, capillary, very thort; anthers united into a cyliodri-
cal tube, i. Germen ebovate ; fyle thread-thaped, the
length of the flamens; ftigmas two, oblong, revolute.

Peri. nove, except the uochan calyx. Seeds foliuary,
obovate. Down feflile, too or feathery. Recepa.
chaff

or hairy.
Ei. Ch. ae chaffy or hairy. Calyx imbricated,
cylindrical, unarmed. Seed-down feathery or toothed.

Obl. Carduus and Caicus are ditinguithed from this ge-
nus by their more {welling, or nearly globofe, calyx, with
fpinous feales. We know not what Gertner has procured

the Carduus cyauvides, which he reprefents with unarmed
feales, and therefore properly refers to Serratula ; but the
true Linnean plant has {pinous {cales. This learned author
would remove to the prefent genus a number of {pecies from
Jnicus, Carduus, and Centaurea, of which he names but two,
Cnicus centauroides, and Centaurea Rhaponticum, certainly
very remarkable plants, and ftriétly akin, but in our opinion
they anfwer very imperfeGtly to the idea of a Serratula.
We content ie! Fae with follivaiaes Willdenow in the main,
though well aware of the ambiguity of fome of the {pecies,
too prone to approach Carduus in their calyx, or Centaurea
occafionally in their marginal florets. We perffit, however,
in excluding S. arvenfis, which is, in chara¢ter and habit, a
moft evident and certain Carduus, or rather Cnicus, as Mr.
Curtis long ago demonftrated. Willdenow could fcarcely
have been acquainted with this common fpecies, for he marks
it as biennial, though no weed is more netorious for its
deeply creeping, almoft indeftruGible, roots. See FI.
Brit, 851, and Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 57.—Two genera,
with a naked receptacle, and other difierences of character,
are properly feparated by Schreber, Willdenow, and others,
from Serratula. See Liarris and Vernonia.

1. S. tin@oria. Common Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1144. Willd.n. r. Fi. Brit.n.1. Ait.n.1. Fi. Dan.
t. 281. Engl. Bot. t. 38. (Serratula; Ger. Em. 713.
Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 295. Camer. Epit. 682.)—Leaves
fharply ferrated, fomewhat ciliated, more or lefs pinnatifid
at the lower part. Corymb level-topped. Florets uniform.
Seed-down fringed.—Native of wes and buthy places,
chiefly in the north of Europe; though the Abbe Seltini
told Dr. Sibthorp he had gathered this plant near Conitan-
tinople, It is perennial, with a brewn woody root, and
flowers in July and Auguft. The fem is upright, ftraight,
itiff, leafy, angular, reddifh, about two feet high, not much
branched. Se ae ne {mooth, of a deep thini

» with ¢ t, » hair-pointed teeth ; the radi
- ec ftalked, wetted, the reft eer or varioufly pinna-
tifid. Flowers corymbofe. Calyx purplith-brown, now and
then downy. Corolla crimfon, occafionally white. This
herb ferves in Sweden to give a yellow colour to coarfe
woollen cloth.

2. S. coronata. Siberian Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1144.
Ait. n. 2. .(S. prealta centauroides montana italica; Boece.
Mul. 45. t.37? Carduus n. 41; Gmel. Sib. v. 2
t. 20.) —Leaves tharply ferrated, fomewhat ciliated,

innatifid. Corymb level-topped. Florets of the circum-

ference female, longer than the re{t.—Native of mott parts
of Siberia, flowering in the end of June. If Boccone’s
fynonym be right, the plant grows alfo on mountains in
Rr Italy.

SERRATULA.

Italy. Gmelin fays it is ufed in the former country for
dyeing yellow, birch-leaves being fuperadded. This {pecies
is thrice as large as the tindoria; the leaves always deeply
pinnatifid ; the fowers much larger, furnifhed with radiating
marginal Horets, which, though deititute of flamens, pro-
duce feed.

3. S. quinguefolia. Five-leaved Saw-wort. Willd. n. 3.
Ait. n. 3.—Leaves ferrated, deeply pinnatifid, five or feven-
lobed. - Flowers fimply corymbofe. Inner {cales of the
calyx elongated and coloured.—Native of the north of Per-
fia. Introduced into the gardens,of England by Mr. Buh,
in 1804. A hardy perennial, flowering in July and Augutt.
Very like the laft, but the eaves have only two or three pair
of lobes; the calyx is rather {maller, and not downy, its
long coloured inner feales vefembling a radiant corolla.
Flowts uniform. Willdenow. The fpecific name 1s excep-
tionabie, for, by this author’s own account, the deaves are
only pinnatifid.

4. S. humilis. Humble Saw-wort. Desfont. Atlant.
v.2. 244. t. 220. Willd. n. 4. (Jacea fupina, carlinz
capitulo acaule, tota incana 5 Bocce. Muf. 146? J. incana
chameleonis capitulo; ibid. t. 109 ?)—Leaves pinnatifid,
with oblong entire fegments ; downy beneath. Flower fo-
litary. Calyx hoary, with {preading-pointed fcales,—Na-
tive of Sicily and Barbary, flowering in fummer. An ele-
gant little perennial plant, with feveral {preading radi-
cal Jeaves, either fimply or interruptedly, but always
very deeply, pinnatifid ; {mooth above. Flower rofe-co-
loured. Its /fa/k appears to vary in length, being fometimes
nearly wanting.

5. S. mollis, Soft-leaved Saw-wort. Cavan. Ic. v. 1.
62. t. go. f. 1. Willd. n. 5.—Leaves pinnatifid, with ob-
long, obtufe, entire fegments ; downy beneath. Flower
folitary. Calyx downy, with ere&t fcales.—Native of hills
in Spain, flowering in June. Cavanilles fays the root 1s an-
nual, but Willdenow thought it feemed perennial. The
latter, who had feen dried fpecimens of this and the laft,
was perfuaded of their being diftiné, and, befides the cha-
ra¢ters given above, he remarks that the /eed-down of the
prefent {pecies is moft feathery.

6. S. pygmea. Dwart Linear Saw-wort. Jacq. Auftr.
v. 5.20. t. 440. Willd. n.6. (Cmicus pygmaeus ; Linn.
Sp. Pl. 1156.)—Leaves nearly linear, revolute, loofely
hairy. Stem leafy, hairy, fingle-flowered. _Calyx-fcales
ovato-lanceolate, ereét.—Found by Jacquin on the celebrated
Auftrian mountain called Schneeberg, in 1761. _Clufius ap-
pears to have gathered the fame in Hungary, and Scopoli in
Carniola. The perennial root, furnifhed with long black
fibres, is crowned with a tuft of numerous {preading /eaves,
each two or three inches long, not half an inch wide, green
on both fides, though clothed with loofe feattered white
hairs; their margin either entire, or diftantly toothed.
Similar, though rather fhorter, /eaves clothe the fimple ffem,
which is from two to five inches high, hollow, hairy,
bearing one upright purplifh flower, with prominent
violet anthers. The feales of the calyx are broad, flat,
purplifh and downy. This is one of the rareft alpine
plants, nearly related to the following, but certainly

diftinet.
7. S. alpina. Alpine Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1145.
Willd.n.7. Fl. Brit. n.2. Engl. Bot. t. 599. Lightf.

Scot. 448. t- 19. (Cirfium montanum humile, cynoglofiz
folio, polyanthemum ; Dill. Elth. 82. t. 70.)

@. §. difcolor. Willd. n. 8. (Cirfium n. 179; Hall.
Hit. v. 1. 77. t. 6. C.n. 525 Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 67. t. 26,
Herb. Linn. from the author. Carduus mollis, foliis la-
pathi; Ger Em. 1184.)

5

covered with denfe, white, cottony down.

Leaves cottony and white beneath, toothed, pointed,
ovato-lanceolate, undivided ; the radical ones fomewhat ovate
or heart-fhaped. Flowers corymbofe. Calyx clothed with
foft hairs,—Native of the higheft mountains of Europe,
particularly Siberia, Wales, Scotland, and Switzerland,
flowering in July and Augutt. There can be no doubt that
all the fynonyms here cited belong to one fpecies, nor is it
eafy to mark the limits of even its varieties. The rootis pe-
rennial, tough, and woody. Stem from three to twelve
inches, or more, in height, fimple, leafy, ftriated, cottony,
crowned with a level-topped tuft of elegant flowers, on
ftalks of various lengths. Calyx of many foft, brown,
hairy feales. Florets pink, with blue or violet anthers.
The /eaves are exceflively variable in fhape, from lanceolate
to broadly heart-fhaped ; their margin toothed, fometimes
wavy; their footfalks long and flender, fhort and thick,
or altogether wanting. The upper furface of each leaf
is green, {mooth, and nearly or quite naked; the under
The nar-
rowett-leaved fpecimens grow in rich ground, amongft other
plants.

8. S. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Saw-wort. Willd.
ng. (S. alpina 3, angultifolia ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1145. Cir-
fium n. 59; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 78.t. 33. Herb. Linn. from
the author.) —Leaves linear, revolute, entire ; rather hairy
beneath. Flowers fomewhat racemofe. Bracteas awl-
fhaped.—Gathered by Steller, on the banks of rivers in the
ealtern part of Siberia. A much more flender plant than
any variety of the preceding, The jfiem is eighteen to
twenty-four inches high, erect, flender, hollow, ftriated,
purplifh, nearly {mooth. Leaves feattered, hardly a line ©
broad, quite entire, paler, and a little hairy, but not
cottony, beneath. Flowers few, on long, fimple, diftant,
rather racemofe than corymbofe, ftalks. Scales of the
caly:: ovate, pointed, purplifh or brown, hairy within.

g. S. falicifolia. Willow-leaved Saw-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1145. Willd. n, to. Ait. n. 5. (Cirfium n. 53 5
Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 59. t. 27.)—Leaves linear-lanceolate, en-
tire; white and cottony beneath. Corymb compound,
leafy. Scales of the calyx elliptical, ribbed, downy.—
Native of Siberia, in dry open rocky places, where it flowers
towards the end of July. Mr. Jofeph Buth is faid to have
brought this fpecies into the Englifh gardens in 1796. It
is an elegant hardy perennial, diftinguifhed by the {nowy |
whitenefs of the backs of its /eaves, whofe edges are _
{carcely, if at all, revolute ; their bafe tapering down into
a bordered footfialk, The flowers rather more refemble
thofe of S. tindoria than of alpina, but the calyx is flightly
cottony.

10. §. indica. Indian Saw-wort.. Willd. n. 11.—‘ Leaves
linear-lanceolate, ferrated, roughifh. Stem panicled. Co-
rymbs level-topped.’”’—Native of the Eaft Indies. Stem
furrowed, {mooth, four feet high. Upper leaves entire.
Corymbs terminating the branches. Calyx cylindrical, with
lanceolate, fcariofe, imbricated {cales. Seed-down chafty,
lanceolate, ciliated. Receptacle clothed with « lanceolate,
acute, ferrated, chaffy fcales. Willdenow.

11, S. multiflora. Many-flowered Saw-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1145. Willd. n. 12. (Cirfium n. 54 Gmel. Sib. v. 2,
71. t. 28 )—Leaves lanceolate, rough, fomewhat decurrent,
nearly entire ;_ woolly beneath. Stem repeatedly corymbofe,
matiy-flowered. Scales of the calyx lanceolate, keeled.—
Gathered by Gmelin in mountainous parts of Siberia. Dr.
Fifcher has fent usa lefs luxuriant {pecimen from mount Cau-
cafus. The /lems are {aid to be decumbent. The /eaves vary —
in breadth, and are fometimes revolute; the radical ones
coarfely toothed, Their green upper furface is rough ge a

file 5

SER
file; the under clothed with loofe white cottony wool.

Flewers more or lels numerous, corymbole, rofe-coloured,
with an elegant, fleader, purplith, fightly downy, calyw.
Gmelin himfelt jully fays that the flewrrs in his plate
| are too large; yet Linnrus on that account doubts the
certainty of his fyoonym, for which there can be no

The feed-down
Willdenow
Desfont.

Root perennial,
Leaves

pele. with an ovate {quarrofe calyx. Seed-down
°

f the receptacle fimple, flender

14. S. amara. Bitter Saw-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1148.
Willd. n. 15. (Cirfium n, 55 ; Gmel. Sib v. 2. 72. t. 29.)
—Leaves rough-edged, naked, fomewhat decur-

rent. Flowerscorymbole, Scales of the calyx dilated and
rounded at the extremity. — Native of dry open fields in Si-
beria, on a faline foil, abundantly. Gmelin, Root as thick as
rite finger, perennial, bitter, with afaline flavour. Stem
P a {pan to one or two cubits high, fimple or branched,
leafy, , and furrowed. eaves four or five inches
one broad, coriaceous, tapering at each end, naked
! -nearly fmooth on both fides, except the edges and mid-
rib: the lower ones ftalked, toothed; the upper generally
re oe. Tete the sped ai the fize of
nigra or Jacea, but in af ue of their
pa moft refembling the latter, except that the round apex
each though jagged, is not fringed.

1 i centauroides. Centaury-like Saw-wort. Linn.
ia 1148. Willd. n.16. Ait.n. 6. (Carduusn. 38;
1 Sib. v. 2. 44. t. 17.)—Leaves ly pinnatifid,
{mooth, unarmed. Stem branched. wers folitary.
pointed ; the inner ones dilated

urple. Calyx ovate, of many ovate acute {cales,

the middlemolt of which bear a fhort {pine, while the inner

‘ones are much elongated into a linear, membranous-tipped
ypendag Rie eta of ihe eet vaiat tee be contidoral

very douh nor can we refer it without feruple to Ser-
or Centaurea ; perhaps we fhould, like Gmelin, remove
Oe Saen Japan 8

japonica. Japan Saw-wort. Thunb. Jap. 305.
gti ie pinnatifi : bork
pound. Scales of the calyx dilated and

is a fearcely branched, leafy, ftrongl
LPs minute al. Late

it to Carduus of Cnicus, the calyx anfwering very nearly to
d, toothed, rough on
com
od at the extremity. Gathered by Thun in Japan.
fomewhat lyrate, three or four inches long. Flowers

SER

numerous, in a compound leveltopped corymb, rather
{maller than thofe of Serratula arvenfis, Calys-/cales tipped
with an elegant, purple, notched, membranous dilatation,
17. 5. ciliata. Fringed Saw-wort. Vahl. Symb. v. 4.
67. Willd. n, 18,—Leaves feflile, lanceolate, undivided,
fringed with minute {pines ; downy underneath.—Gathered
by Forfkall, in gardens at the village of Bujuchtan, near
Contftantinople, Willdenow erroneoully makes this {pecics
anativeof Egypt. Forfkall took it for the Linngan $8, ar-
venfis. Vahl, who had examined his original fpecimeus, de-
feribes the fem as herbaceous, branched, ftriated ; 1m
the upper part. Leaves feffile, an inch and a half long,
tapering at the bafe, obtufe, finely ferrated, with {pinous
teeth; the upper fide n, thaggy ; the under hoary and
downy. Flowers { r than a hazel-nut, flalked, two or
three at the end of each branch. Calyw-/eales {mooth; the

outermolt ovate, keeled at the fummit, and pointed; the
inner ones lanceolate. Sred-down feathery. is may pofli-
bly, like the following, belong to Cricus.

18. S. fetofa. Briftly Bete Willd. ». 19.—

“ Leaves oblong, {mooth, finely ferrated, fringed with
briftles, obtufe, pointed. Stem corymbofe.’’—Native of
Silefia; obferved by the Rev. Mr. Seeliger. Root bien-
nial. Stem furrowed, {mooth, corymbofe and level-topped.
Leaves copious, alternate, an inch long (or broad?) green
on both fides, {mooth, undivided, very minutely ferrated, each
“ferrature tipped with a briftly point. Flowerflalks hoary.
Calyx flightly downy, with ovate, acute, ebfcurely-pointed
fea. Willdenow, from whom we borrow this defcri
tion, fays the plant is like Caicus ie Serratula) arvenfiu,
except in the form of its aves, and {mallnefs of the fowers.
If fo, it perhaps is likewife areal Cnicus, and perennial ; fee
our obfervations under the generic charafter.

SERRATULA, in Gardening, contains plants of the tall,
hardy, herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies
cultivated are ; the long-leaved faw-wort (S. noveboracen-
fis) ; the tall faw-wort (S. prealta) ; the glaucous-leaved
faw-wort (S. glauca); the rough-headed faw-wort (S.
{quarrofa) ; the ragged-cupped faw-wort (5. feariofa) ; and
the {piked faw-wort (S. {picata).

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may all be increafed by
parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn, when
the ftems decay, or in the {pring ; but the former is the
better feafon. The old plants fhould not be parted oftener
than every third year, and then not too fmall.

ty Me likewife all capable of being increafed by feeds,
whea they can be had good, which fhould be fown in the au-
tumn or early {pring, in a border to the eaft, in flight drills.
When the plants are a few inches high, they fhould be
pricked out in nurfery-rows to remam till the following
autumn, and then planted out where they are te remain.

They afford ornament in the borders, clumps, &c. being
planted to the middle or the back parts.

SERRATUM, and Serrutatum, Folium, in Botany, fo
called from ferra, a faw, the teeth of which are imitated in

i ins. See Lear.

SERRATUS, in Anatomy, a name given to different
mufcles attached to the ribs, and arifing by feveral diftin&
portions, fo as to have a ferrated edge. In French they are
called dentélé.

Serratus Anticus, the name under which Albinus de-
{eribes the peCtoralis minor. It is alfo called ferratus mi-
% anticus. "

ERRATUS Magnus, (ferratus major anticus; le grand
dentélé ; Eide tonic.) a large par ih of the fhoulder,
broad and flat, lying between the {capula and the cheft, and

Rr2 extending

SER

extending from the nine upper ribs to the bafis of the fea-
pula. It is irregularly four-fided, broader below and in
front than above and behind. It arifes from the eight or
nine upper ribs by as many diftin@ pointed portions, which
are firft tendinous, then flefhy. The firit, which is broad,
very thick, fhort, axd diftinét from the reft, arifes from the
outer edge of the firft rib, towards its back part, from the
fecond, and from an intermediate aponeurofis, The fecond,
third, and fourth, broad and thin, arife from the external
furfaces of the fecond, third, and fourth ribs, in oblique
lines dire@&ed from above and behind, downwards and for-
wards. The four or five laft, narrower and increafing in
Jensth downwards, arife from the upper edge and external
furface of the correfponding ribs, and are placed between
the digitations of the obliquus externus abdominis. From
the origins juit enumerated, the fibres of the mufcle proceed,
divided, particularly below, into fafciculi correfpending to
each digitation, feparated by cellular lines, and foon form-
ing three diftin® portions. The fuperior divifion is thick,
narrow, and fhort, extends from the two firft ribs to the fu-
perior angle of the fcapula, afcending a little, and covering
the upper edge of the fecond portion, to which it is united.
The middle divifion, broad and thin, goes from the fecond,
third, and fourth ribs to the upper three-fourths of the bafis
of the feapula; its fibres proceed horizontally from before
backwards, exeept the inferior ones, which defcend a little.
The inferior portion of the mufcle pafles from the fifth, fixth,
feventh, and eighth ribs to the inferior fourth of the bafis of
the feapula, and the inferior angle of the bone. This part
is thick, radiated, broad in front, and narrow behind. The
fuperior fibres of this portion go nearly. horizontally from
before backwards; the inferior ones are direéted at the
fame time from below upwards, and are more oblique in
proportion as they are lower: they are united towards the
inferior angle of the bone.

The external furface of the ferratus is covered, towards
its lower and anterior part, by the fkin, at the lower and
pofterior part by the latiffimus dorfi. Above and towards
the front it is covered by the peGtoral mufcles, by the axil-
lary veflels, and the brachial plexus. In the reft of its ex-
tent it is in conta@ with the fub-fcapularis. The external
furface covers the feven or eight fuperior ribs, the external
intercoftal mufcles, and behind a portion of the ferratus
fuperior pofticus. The upper edge of the mufcle is the
fhorteit, extending from the margin of the firit rib to the
fuperior angle of the fcapula: the inferior, much longer,
reaches from the eighth or ninth rib, or about two inches
from its cartilage, obliquely to the inferior angle of the fca-
pula. The anterior edge is the longeft, and fixed to the ex-
ternal furface of the eight or nine firft ribs, by the diftinét
pointed ferre or digitated portions, from which the name of
the mufcle has been derived: the pofterior is fixed to the
front edge of the bafis of the fcapula, and of the fuperior
and inferior angles of the bone.

The a€tion of the ferratus anticus produces two different
effeGts, according as the fcapula or the ribs are the fixed
point. In the firft cafe, the fcapula being fixed by the tra-
pezius, rhomboid and levator mufcles, it draws the ribs out-
wards, elevating thofe to which it is fixed by its lower digi-
tations: in this refpect it is a powerful agent of infpitation,
concurring with the peétoral mufcles. In the fecond cafe,
it carries the {capula forwards, antagonizing the rhomboid,
trapezius, &c. But it moreover draws the inferior angle
forwards, and confequently moves the upper and anterior
angle of the bone, forming the fhoulder, upwards. Thus
the ferratus anticus is an important mufcle in fupporting

SER
burdens carried on the fhoulders. In this cafe the diaphragm

and abdominal mufcles are put in aétion to draw down the
ribs, fix them, and prevent them from yielding to the efforts
of the ferratus.

Serratus Major Anticus. See SERRATUS Anticus.

Serratus Poflicus Inferior, (dentélé pottérieur inférieur ¢
lombocoftien,) is a broad, thin, and flat mufcle, fituated at
the lower part of the back, and extending from the {pinous
Bore of the vertebrz to the ribs. It arifes from the

pinous proceffes of the two laft dorfal vertebre, of the
three firft lumbar, and the intervening inter{pinal ligaments,
by a broad aponeurofis, compofing one half of the mufcle,
common to it and the latiffimus dorfi, compofed of parallel
fibres, directed obliquely upwards and outwards. This
aponeurofis is conneéted in front to that of the tranfverfus
abdominis, and by its lower edge to the obliquus internus.
The mufcular fibres, pafling with the fame obliquity as thofe
of the aponeurofis, form four fafciculi or pointed ferrated
portions, of which the firft and broadeft is fixed to the lower
edge, and near the angle of the fecond falfe rib ; and the three
others, which are fucceffively {maller, are alfo attached, by
apeneurotic fibres, to the lower edge of the three fucceeding
ribs, farther from the angle. The pofterior furface of this
muf{cle is covered by the latiffimus dorfi. The anterior fur-
face covers the three laft falfe ribs, the external intercoftal
mufcles, the longiffimus dorfi and facrolumbalis, and the
tranfverfus abdominis. ‘The upper edge is continuous with
the thin aponeurofis, which sinedidtehe covers the longifli-
mus dorfi and facrolumbalis.

By drawing downwards the lower ribs, this mufcle affifts
in expiration. It cannot produce any effe& on the fpine: -
it will confine the mufcles lying at the fide of the {pine, and
thus has the fame effe@ as the ferratus pofticus fuperior and
the fafcia extended between them.

Serratus Pofficus Superior, (dentélé poftérieur fupérieur 5
dorfocoftien,) is a very fmall and thin mufcle, flat and four-
fided, placed at the upper part of the back. It arifes from the
ligamentum nuchz, the laft cervical {pious procefs, and
the two or three upper dorfal ones, by a thin aponeurolis,
compofed of parallel fibres, directed obliquely downwards
and outwards. The flefhy fibres follow the fame dire€tion,
forming a thin ftratum, which terminates in four {mall fafci-
culi or ferrated portions, ending in aponeurotic fibres,
which are inferted in the upper edges of the fecond, third,
fourth, and fifth ribs, near their angles. It is covered ex-
ternally by the rhomboideus: and it covers the fplenius,
tranfverfalis colli, the vertebral mufcles, the ribs, and the
correfponding intercoftal mufcles.

It will have the effeét of elevating the ribs, and thereby
of enlarging the cheft, or affifting in infpiration.

SERRAVALLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of Marengo, on the Serinia; 12 miles S. of
Tortona.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of
the Sefia; 18 miles N. of Vercelli Alfo, a town of Italy,
in the duchy of Mantua; 24 miles S.E. of Mantua.—Alfo,
a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, 25 miles in circumference,
partly on a plain between two mountains, and partly on the
mountains near the river Mafchic, which runs through the
middle of the town, and has its fource in a fmall lake in the
higher part of thetown. At the extremity of the market-
place is the public palace, and at the lower end the cathedral
church, containing fome good paintings. ‘The town and its
fuburbs comprehend two parifhes, and 30 churches, that of
St. Augufta attracting notice by its noble architeGture, and
its long noble ftaircafes. Here are alfo two monatteries, and
two nunneries. The inhabitants are induftrious, and trade

d particularly

SER

i y in cloth, woollen and filk manufaétures, and

} on au extenfive commerce in wine, corn, and honey,

both with the adjacent provinces and with Germapy; 2
Ceneda.

miles N. of ; &
SERRE, 1. A., in Biegrapty, a miniature painter of
Geneva, who had been in England, and feemed well ac-

with Gemiviani, and the thate of mufie in our
in the middle of the lat ceatury, He has analyfed
* Guida Armonica” of Geminiani, the * Bafle fon-
: * of Rameau, and the Treatifes of ‘Tartini, with
any led the * Terzo Suono.”” Thele celebrated
works M. has critically examined in two ingenious
ellays, publithed in 1753 and 1763, in which there are like-
wife curious remarks on difputable points in the ety
and eer See harmony, which will both amufe and iaftru
mufical fludents.
~ Seané, Fr., clofe intervals in mufic, fuch as the enhar-
in the ancient Greek mufic; and in

$
‘1
e
i

7 F
3.
4
22
e*
53
re
e

» a Proteftant minifter,
beer “ae the fouth of France, and op vet at ramen

im in 1572, ferving acountry church in the neigh-
bourhood of Gaon. Having tmade himmfelf known by va-

RRES, Joun pe, 1n Biography

TV.; that having afked
a perfon to be faved in the com-
he anfwered in the affirma-

ers

lics, and made a very

inft the Cai
the Jeluite, entitled * Doétrine Jefuitice

%

_—

Atyle of thofe which Serres compofed is unequal
‘tot scfhy of th ‘mal. io ecthoruk a aaaie:

mifreprefentations. The princip ’

3 “ Commentariorum de ftatu Religionis et Rei-

‘publice in Regno Francie,” comprifing the e from
53 OE en oi be cre ee age fous

, 3”? “ Recueil des Chofe memorable avenues en
france fous Henri II., Francois II., Charles IX., et
lenri 111. ;”” and “ Inventaire General de )’Hittoire de

ce.” Serres, towards the end of his life, engaged i
opelefs defign of uniting the Catholic and
s, which brought on him the contempt of one party

d amity of the other. Hedied in 1598.

Serres, Orivier pe, an eminent agriculturift, was
m ip 1539, at Villeneuve . in the Vivarais.
airing the civil tumults of his time, his property was pil-

ed, and his houfe demolifhed, and after it had been
was again deftroyed by fire. He is fxd to have

efe misfortunes with imity, and to have

otter cra ly + it a mind in ftudy and rural oc-

ations. By his talents he became fo advantageoufly

wa to Henry IV., that he fent for him to Paris, and
eyed himfelfin feveral improvements about his domains.
‘wrote works

Pal as

which rendered him the oracle of the
s in thatage, and many of his ideas have been co-

SER

pied by later writers without acknowledgment. ‘The chief
of thefe, in which he colleéted the refults of long experienee,
is entitled “ Theatre d’Agriculture, et Menage des
Champs,”’ 1600, and has been feveral times reprinted. I[¢
has been deferibed by Haller as * a great and vilushle work,
written by an experienced man, fond of fimplicity, and pot
at all attached to expenfive methods.’’ Some of the econo-
mical precepts of Mr, Serres have been thrown into verfe, in
order that they might be more eafily remembered. He pub-
lithed treaufes on the management of filk-worms, the col-
leétion of the filk, and the culture of the white mulberry-
tree, which he introduced oto France. Thre eftimable nan
died in 1619, at the age of four-feore, after having had the
fatisfaction of witnelling the happy effeéts of the mprove-
meats fuggefted by him.

Sennes, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrit of Gap; 24 miles W.S.W. of Gap. The
place contains 1219, and the canton 4249 inhabitants, on a
territory of 170 kiliometres, in 10 communes. N, lat. 44°
26’. E. long. 5° 8’.

SERRET, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 30
miles W. of Caltamena.

SERRIERES, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardéche, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of
Tournon; 15 miles N. of Tournon. The place contains
1924, and the canton 9416 inhabitants, on a territory of
115 kiliometres, in 17 communes,

SERRIS, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar; 15 miles
S.E. of Saferam, N. lat. 24°51’. E. long. 84° 24.

SERRO, a {mall ifland belonging to the clufter of
Papuan ifles. See Papua.

SERROPALPUS, in Entomology, a genus of infe&s,
of the order Coleoptera, whofe generic character is as fol-
lows: antennz fetaceous; four unequal feelers; the an-
terior ones are the longer, and deeply ferrate, compofed of
four joints, the lait very large, truncate, compreiled, pa-
telliform ; the pofterior ones are fubclavate; thorax mar-
— concealing the head, with a prominent angle on each

ide ; the head is defleted ; and the feet formed for digging.
There are two

Species.

Srriatus. The body of this infeét is brown; the fhells
ftriate. It inhabits the rland Runfale, and is defcribed in
the Stockholm Tranfactions for the year 1786; where it is
faid to be found chiefly on old wooden buildings, in the
evening in autumn, and is about the fize of the Elater
aterrimus.

Lavicatus. This fpecies is chara¢terized by 2 black
body, and fmooth fhells. It inhabits different parts ef
Europe, and is likewife deferibed in the volume of the
Stockholm Tranfaétions already referred to.

SERRURIA, in Botany, a name rightly altered by Mr.
Salifbury and Mr. Brown, from the Serraria of profeflor
John Burmann, who, in his Plante Africane, 266, elta-
blithes the latter appellation, in honour of Dr. Jofeph Ser-
rurier, Profeflor of Botany at Utrecht; but it is not ealy
to difcover the above author’s .neaning in thus perverting
the word; for Serrurier is a lock{mith, and has no reference
to a faw, or fawyer.— Brown. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 112.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 198.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord, Aggregate, Linn. Proteacee, Jull.
Brown.

Eff. Ch. Corolla in four dep fegments, Stamens in the
concave tips of the fegments. Nettary four {cales —

t

SERRURIA.

the germen. Stigma vertical, fmooth. Nut fuperior,
fomewhat ftalked. Common receptacle convex, many-
flowered, with chaffy deciduous {cales.

A genus of rigid Cape fhrubs, of which Mr. Brown de-
{cribes thirty-nine {pecies, eight of which find a place in the
Hortus Kewenfis. The /eaves are thread-fhaped, pinnatifid
or three-cleft, rarely undivided. Heads of flowers cither
terminal, or, from the bofoms of the uppermott leaves,
either fimple and folitary, or compofed of feveral feffile
partial heads, or corymbofe. Bradeas imbricated, mem-
branous, moft commonly fhorter than the flowers, in a few
initances longer, in fome wanting. Yowers always feflile,
purple. Piffil the length of the corolla, with a club-fhaped,
rarely cylindrical, ftigma. ue oval, finely downy, fome-
times bearded, fometimes nearly f{mooth. We fele& the
following examples, among which are included all the {pecies
known in the gardens of England.

Se. 1. Heads fimple; the flower-falks undivided or
wanting. 5

S. pinnata. Wing-leaved Serruria. Brown. n. 8. Ait.
n. 1. (Protea pinnata; Andr. Repof. t. 512.)—Heads
italked, fomewhat aggregate. BraCteas lanceolate, villous,
nearly as long as the flowers. Corolla bearded. Leaves
pinnatifid or three-cleft, longer than the heads. Stem pro-
cumbent, hairy.—Gathered by Mr. Niven, on dry hills at
the Cape of Good Hope, particularly in afcending Paarl-
berg. It flowered in Mr. Hibbert’s garden, in the f{ummer
of 1807. Ina natural ftate the /em is faid to be perfectly
proftrate, dividing from the bafe into branches about a foot
long, round, downy, leafy. Leaves above an inch long,
turned upwards, confifting of three or five awl-fhaped feg-
ments. Heads of flowers red, about as big as a walnut,
either folitary and terminal, or partly axillary; the young
buds enveloped in the white filky hairs, which clothe the
tips of the corolla externally.

S. cyansides. Trifid-leaved Serruria. Brown. :n. 10.
Ait. n. 2. (Protea cyanoides; Linn. Mant. 188. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 507. Cyanus zxthiopicus, rigidis capillaceis
tenuiffimis foliis trifidis; Pluk. Mant. 61. Phyt. t. 345.
f. 6.)—Heads terminal, longer than their ftalks. Bracteas
roundifh, pointed, villous. One fegment of the corolla
nearly {mooth. Leaves fpreading ; the lower ones three-
cleft ; upper fubdivided. Stem nearly upright.—Native of
hills about the Cape. Mr. Brown gathered it on the fides
of mountains, near Simon’s bay. A fhrub cf humble
growth, flowering with us in June or July. The branches
are fcarcely pubefcent. Leaves not an inch long, rather
hairy while young. lower-/lalks folitary, downy, gene-
rally but half the length of the heads of flowers, which are
the fize of a large cherry, rifing above the upper leaves, and
accompanied by membranous filky dradeas.

S. pedunculata. Woolly-headed Serruria. Brown. n. 13.
Ait. n. 3. (Protea glomerata; Andr. Repof. t. 264.)—
Heads terminal, ftalked. Braéteas ovate, downy. Corolla
curved, feathery ; its inner fegment filky. Leaves twice
or thrice pinnatifid, hairy, as well as the upright ftem.—
Found in various hilly fituations at the Cape of Good Hope,
where the foil is rather fertile. Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy
are recorded as having firft raifed this fpecies, in 1789, from
feeds obtained from Vienna. It flowers in fummer, and
makes a handfome appearance, with its copious many-cleft
leaves, and large heads of light reddifh-brown flowers,
clothed with fine white plumy down. The anthers are
yellow. Stigma blackihh.

8. hirfuta. Hairy Serruria. Brown n. 15. (Protea
phylicoides; Thunb. Diff. n.g9. Prodr. 25. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v.1. 510, excluding the reference to Bergius.) —

Heads terminal, longer than their ftalks. Bracteas lineare
lanceolate, hairy, Corolla feathery. Leaves doubly pin-
nate, about as long as the heads. Branches hairy. Stem
ereét.—Native of flony hills at the Cape. Mr. Brown ob-«
ferved it near Simon’s bay. It feems unknown in our gar-
dens. This /bru/ is two or three feet high, with ftraight
umbellate branches, rough with fpreading permanent hairs.
Leaves copious, moderately {preading, an inch, or fome-
times an inch and half, long, hairy when young only ; their
fegments very fharp-pointed. F/ower-fla/ks often more than
one at the top of each branch, half the length of the Aeads,
with lanceolate-awl-fhaped, {preading dradeas. Heads as
big as a walnut, rifing above the upper leaves. Corolla
flizhtly curved; the hairs on its inner fegment fhorter than
thofe of the other three. Ségma cylindrical, fomewhat
club-fhaped.

S. Niveni. Niven’s Serruria. Brown. n 17. Ait. n. 4.
(Protea decumbens; Andr. Repof. t. 349.)—Heads tere
minal, feflile. _ Braéteas lanceolate; the inner ones filky.
Corolla bearded. Leaves doubly pinnatifid; the uppermott
longer than the head, and {mooth like the branches. Stem
decumbent.—Difcovered by Mr. James Niven, on Swart
berg, a rocky mountain at the Cape of Good Hope, and
fent by him to Mr. G. Hibbert in 1800. It blooms in the
fummer, and is of a {mall ftature, and decumbent habit.
The flowers are of a dull red, clothed externally with white
filky hairs; and each folitary head, {maller than a hazel-nut,
is encompafled with numerous, crowded, radiating /eaves.
Each éeaf of the general foliage is about an inch long.
Stigma hardly thicker than the ftyle. Mr. Andrews’s plate
reprefents the branches as fomewhat downy. }

S. phylicoides. Phylica-flowered Serruria. Brown. n. 24,
Ait. n. 5. (Leucadendron phylicoides; Berg. Cap. 29.
Protea {fpherocephala; Linn. Mant. 188. P. abrotani-
folia; Andr. Repof. t. 507.)—Heads terminal or axillary,
on fcaly ftalks. Bra€teas half as long again as the head,
lanceolate, fmooth ; the outer ones narrowelt. ‘Tips of the
corolla bearded. Leaves twice compound, longer than the
flower-ftalks.—Native of the Cape, from whence it was fent
to Kew, by Mr. Maffon, in 1788; flowering there in July
and Augutt, This is a {mooth upright /arub, with reddifh
leafy branches. Leaves generally bipinnatifid, an inch or
two long, moderately {preading. The flower-/alks, clothed
with feveral lanceolate fcales, and either folitary, or aggre-
gate in a corymbofe manner, are longer than the heads, but
ufually fhorter than the foliage. Heads above half an inch
in diameter, fubtended by many longifh, deflexed, green,
red-pointed braceas. Corolla whitifh and {mooth, except
the ends of the fegments, which are red, and denfely bearded.
Stigma red, cylindrical.

S. florida. Large-flowered Serruria. Brown. n. 26.
(Protea florida; Thunb. Diff. n.2. t. 1. Prodr. 25.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 506.)—Braéteas longer than the
ftalked heads; the outer ones elliptic-oblong, pointed,
f{mooth ; inner concealed, linear-lanceolate, fringed. Leaves
once or twice pinnatifid.—Thunberg and Maflon gathered
this {pecies on the mountains of Franche Hoek at the Cape.
It has not as yet found its way into our green-houfes, which
is much to be regretted, no other Serruria being comparable
to it in beauty. The /eaves are three or four inches longs
fmooth, as well as the Jranches, which are of a purple hue.
Flowers many together, on corymbofe fecaly ftalks at the
ends of the branches, large, remarkable for their beautiful
red external draéeas, which are each an inch or inch and
half long, attended by {maller ones, of the fame kind, fcat-
tered down the ftalk, while the innermoft braéeas, coming
into view by the {preading of the former, are linear, gi

wit

SER
bec Om whairs. ‘This is a very rare plant, even in dried

Set. 2. Heads compound ; partial ones crowded.

S. decumbens. ‘Trailing Serruria, Brown, 0. 27. (Protea
decumbens; Thunb, Dill n. 1, t.4. Prods. 2g. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v.1. 506. P. procumbens; Linn, Suppl. 116.)—
Stem itrate, {mooth, as well as the three-cleft leaves,

tsare undivided, Each partial head of about
four flowers.— Native of the ftony fides of mountains, at the
oT of Good Hope ; not as yet known as a garden plant.
Te is fmooth, dividin

g from the root into feveral proilrate,

—————<—<—« -

E

wavy branches. Leaves afcending, about two inches
long, in two or three fimple, thickith, linear fegments.
Flower-flalks axillary and terminal, fleader, fealy, each
bearing a {mall roundifh Acad, enveloped in ovate, pointed,
rather filky éradeas, and compofed of from four to fix
fmaller heads. Corclla filky, very flghtly curved. Mr.
_ Brown remarks that fome of the Arads are, apparently from
_ ftarvation or abortion, fimple.
’ n. ; :
Willd.

J
4
b
;

n

. glomerata. Many-headed Berruria. Brown.
ta; Linn. Mant. 187.
- 1. $09. eratum; Linn. Sp.
ivilis, capitibus tomen-
t 9 f. 2.)—Stem ereét, imooth

i ves. Partial heads of many
fealy. Stigma club-fhaped ain Rony billy

. Stigma —Found in ttony hi

at the Ca Mr. Maffon is faid to have feat if,
the year 178 to Kew, where it flowers in July and
humble firs, with reddifh branches.

Leaves from one to two inches long, flender, quite {mvoth.

aed ape downy ; the common ones often aggregate and

clothed with broad, {mooth, loofely imbricated,

bre&eas; partial ones fhorter than their refpective
Corolla externally filky.

Se&. 3. Flowerflalks divided. Heads fimple, corymbofe

S. Burmanni. Burmann’s Serruria. Brown. n. 36. Ait.
7- (Protea Serraria; Linn. Mant. 188. illd. Sp.
v. 1. 508. Leucadendron Serraria « ; Linn. Sp. Pl.
137. Serraria foliis tenuiflime divifis, floribus rubris apetalis ;
. Afr. 264. t. f. 1. Abrotanoides arboreum,
&c.; Pluk. Mant. 1. Phyt. t. 329. f 1.)—Heads corym-
each of about ten flowers. Corollas level-topped,

a
PF
fl

ati

or lefs filky, fhorter than the partial ftalks. Leaves
a” P i briftle-fhaped, longer than the flower-
—Native of low barren {pots, about the fides of hills

atthe Cape, very frequent. Mr. Mation feat it in 1786
Kew garden, where it blofloms from May to July. A

romineut ftyles. Mr. Brown men-
y diltinG f{pecies, whole aves are
, heads more obtufe at their bafe, and dradeas,
well as flowers, altogether filky. — «
S. triternata. Silvery-Aowered Serruria. Brown, n. 37-
. n.8. (Proteatriternata; Thunb. Diff. n. 7, Prodr.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 509. P. argentiflora; Andr.
tL. 44 = —Corymbs compound. Heads globofe,
t Bracteas and partial flower-ftalks filky.
thrice ternate, fmooth as well as the ‘tem.—Ga-
by Mr. Niven, near the river at Roode Zant, Cape
Good 1 Meffrs, Lee and Kennedy are faid to have
railed clegaut fpecies, sbout the year 1802. It
loffome from June to Auguit. The ‘eaves are four or live
long, and as thick asa crow’s quill, being larger, as
a8 more compound, than in mott other fpecies. Heads

SER

of flowers of a filvery white, filky, numerous, each rather
above half an inch diameter. Stigma obovate, yellow,

SERSALISIA, fo named after a Neapolitan ecclefi-
aftic, much commended by Fabius Columna, (tough m
what part of his writings we are not informed,) is a genus
feparated by Mr. Brown, in bis Prodr, Noy. Holl. v. 1. 529,
from the Linuwan Sidere long; but the chara&ler does not
feem to us very clear, One {pecies of this new genus is
Sideroxylon jericeum, Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 1. 262.
ed. 2, ¥. 2. 135 another is called by Mr. Brown Serjalifia
obovata. Both are natives of the tropical parts of New
Holland. See Saror# and SipeRoxyvon.

SERSEY, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in
Oude ; 25 miles E. of Baraitch.

SERTA, Ganrtanps, among the Ancients.

LAND.

SERTAM, in Geography, a town of Portugal, on the
river Pera, in Eltremadura; 24 miles N.E. of Thomar.

SERTINO, a river of Sicily, which runs into the fea,
on the ealt coatt.

SERTORIUS, Quintus, in Biography, a diftinguithed
Roman commander, was a native of Nuria, in the Picentine
regions of Italy. His father died in his infaney, but by
the care of his mother he received a moit excellent educa-
tion; and even in his youth he gained a confiderable re-
putation as a pleader at Rome. He had, however, a
decided turn for the duties and glory attached to a military
life, and made his firft campaign under Servilius Cepio,
againft the Cimbrians and Teutones in Gaul. In an earl
engagement he was feverely wounded, and would have lott
his lite, if he had not poffefled fufficient vigour to {wim
acrofs the Rhone, when encumbered with his armour. He
next ferved under Marius, and exhibited proofs of valour
and talents, which much ingratiated him with that general.
Spain was the uext great theatre of his exertions, where he
ferved under Didius, and acquired much reputation in the
campaign. On his return to Rome, he was made queftor
in Cifalpine Gaul; and when the focial war broke out, he
brought a well-timed reinforcement to the Roman army.
In a battle that enfued, he loft an eye, a mark of bravery
in which he always gloried, and which pointed him out to
the plaudits of the people, whenever he appeared in the
theatre, and other public places. He was candidate for
the tribunefhip, but was difappointed in his hopes by the
overbearing intereft of Sylia: he accordingly joined the
party of Marius in the fuccceding civil war. He com-
manded one of the three armies which invefted Rome, and
honourably diltinguilhed himf<lf by abftaining from all
thofe aéts of cruelty which difgraced the arms of Cions and
Merius. When Sylla gained the afcendancy in Italy, Ser-
torius withdrew to Spain, of which country he had been
appointed pretor. Here he hoped to be able to revive his
caufe, and with this view he detached a body of troops to
feize the pafics of the Pyrences; but the murder of their
commander induced them to abandon their poit, and confe-
quently laid Spain open to Sylla’s officers. After fome
various adventures, chiefly of the difaftrous kind, Sertorius
went inte Africa, and allilted the Mauritanians to throw
off the yoke of a tyrannical king ; defeating one of Sylla’s
generals, by whom he was fupported. His reputation now
caufed him to be invited to Lufitanja; and failing thither
with a {mall body of Romans and Africans, he obtained
fuch an afcendancy over the natives, that he foon had the
command of the whole Lufitanian nation. He exercifed
them in the arts of warfare, and introduced a ong wa
among them; but Roman taétics being unfuitable to ,
he adopted a fervice better fuited to the nature and tel

ancee

See Gan-

SER

ftances of the country. He defeated, with his new-trained
armies, feveral Roman generals, who were fent againft him,
and initituted a. fenate in competition with that of Rome,
and imitated all the forms of the republic. He foiled the
attempts of that eminent commander, Metellus, to reduce
him ; continually haraffing his troops by fudden attacks and
fkirmifhes, and intercepting his convoys. He adopted the
liberal policy of civilizing the Lufitanians and neighbouring
Spaniards, and familiarizing them with Roman letters and
cuftoms. For this purpofe he eftablifhed a great {chool in
the city of Ofca, at which the fons of men of diftinétion
were gratuitoufly educated, and at the fame time kept as
hottages for the fidelity of their parents. Feeling that his
power was not fufliciently firm, without the aid of fuper-
ftition, which ever captivates the ignorant and uncivilized,
he trained a white fawn, that had been prefented to him, to
fuch a degree of tamenefs, that it followed him whitherfo-
ever he went, and was his conftant companion ; and he en-
couraged the belief that the animal was the gift of Diana,
and intended by that goddefs to convey him information of
the defigns of his enemies. At length the famous Pompey
was nominated to the command again{t him ; and when he
arrived, he found that all the Roman troops, which, after
the death of Lepidus, had been carried to Spain by Per-
fenna, with the defign of fetting up there for himfelf, had
joined Sertorius, who was now at the head of a confiderable
army. Pompey proceeded againft him with a fuperior
force; but Sertorius took a town in his prefence, and after-
wards defeated him at the battle of Sucro. He gave hima
fecond defeat ; but Metellus routed a feparate divifion, and
Sertorius was glad to take to the mountains. He then of-
fered to lay down his arms, provided the profcription againtt
him might be taken off, and he were permitted to return to
Rome. Soon after he received an embafly from Mithri-
dates, the formidable foe of the Romans, offering him an
advantageous alliance, provided he were fuffered to re-
poflefs the provinces from which he had been expelled by
Sylla. But Sertorius would not agree to more than his re-
covery of Bithynia and Cappadocia, without touching upon
the Roman province of Afia; and upon thefe terms the
treaty was concluded. A confpiracy was formed againit
Sertorius by the Roman patricians in his army, and they
fucceeded in exciting a revolt in feveral Lufitanian towns.
Incenfed at this defeGtion, he caufed feveral of the children,
whom he kept as hoftages at Ofca, to be flain, and others
to be fold as laves. This is faid to have been the only a&
of cruelty by which his memory is tarnifhed. In revenge
for the lofs of their fons, the confpirators formed a plot.
againit the life of Sertorius; in confequence of which he
was bafely affaffinated, while he was at a feaft. This event
took place in the year 73 B.C. “ The great qualities and
military talents of this eminent perfon would undoubtedly
have raifed him to the firft rank among the chiefs ‘of his
“country, had he not been a leader of a party, inftead of a
commander for the ftate. With nothing to fupport him
but the refources of his own mind, he created a powerful
kingdom among ftrangers, and defended it a long time
againft the arms of Rome, although wielded by the ableft
generals of his time; and he difplayed public and private
virtues, which would have rendered a people happy under
his rule at a lefs turbulent period.?? Univer. Hitt.

SERTULA Camfana, in Botany, a name given by
fome authors to melilot.

SERTULARIA, in Natural Hiflory, a genus of the
clafs Vermes, and order Zoophytes. “The generic cha-
rater is this: the animal grows in the form of a plant ; the
{tem is branched, producing polypes from cup-fhaped den-

9

SER

ticles,-or minute cells. There are nearly four-fcore {pecies,
divided into two fe€tions, A and B, of which the following
is the defcription.

AA. Stem horny, tubular, fixed to the bafe, befet with cup-Shaped
denticles, and furnifbed with veficles, or ovaries, containing
polypes, exes, or living young.

Species.

* Rosacra. This fpecies is panicled, with oppofite,
tubular, truncate denticles, and alternate branches ; the ve-
ficles are crowned with {pines. It inhabits the European
feas, and our own coalts, growing on fhells, or creeping
up other corallines ; it is white; the veficles refemble the
bloffom of the pomegranate.

*PuminA. The denticles of this {pecies are oppofite,
pointed, and recurved; the veficles are obovate; the
branches Joofe and irregular. It is found in the ocean, on
fuci, particularly on the ferratus.

* OprrcuLatTa. Denticles oppofite, pointed, and nearly
erect; the veficles are obovate, covered with a lid; the
branches are alternate. It inhabits the European and
American feas, on fuci and fhells. -The twigs are about
five inches long ; the denticles are bicufpidate, with a fhort
briftle on each fide. -

* Tamanisca. Denticles nearly oppofite, truncate,
three-toothed ; veficles ovate, two-toothed, with a fhort
tube in the centre; the branches are alternate. This is
found in moft of the European feas, and is the largeft of its
kind. It is about four inches long, and is found adhering
to fhells.

* ApieTINA. Denticles nearly oppofite, tubular, oval ;
the veficles are oval, and the branches alternate. It is
found in the Britifh and other European feas, and the Medi-
terranean, growing to fheils. It is five inches long, and
often covered with {mall ferpule; the branches are fre-
quently pinnate. :

* Nicra. Denticles nearly oppofite, minute; veficles
large, placed all on one fide, oval, quadrangular ; the
branches are pinnate. This is found on the Cornith coatt,
adhering to the Mytilus margaritiferus. It is four inches
long, blackifh.

* Fuscescens. Denticles nearly oppofite, tubular; the
veficles are numerous, placed all on one fide, minute, with
three tubercles on each; the branches are pinnate. ‘This is
alfo an inhabitant of the Cornifh coaft. It refembles the
laft, but is of a greyifh-brown colour.

Oxzsoreta. Denticles generally placed in eight rows,
ovate, flightly heart-fhaped, and difpofed in a quincunx
form; the branches are alternate and pinnate. It is an in-
habitant of the Frozen ocean, is about five inches high, and
of a horn colour, with the joints becoming more and more
obfolete towards the top. :

Pinus. Denticles fub-fpinous, generally difpofed in fix
rows; the veficles are bottle-fhaped, turgid, fubdiaphanous,
with a fimple mouth; the branches are pinnate, nearly al-
ternate. It inhabits the White fea, fixed to fhells.

Cupressomwrs. Denticles fimple, obliquely truncate,
with a flightly protuberant mouth; the veficles are ovate,
with a fubtubular mouth; the branches are dichotomous,
loofe, and with the trunk joined with two rings at the
junétures. This is found in the White fea; is fubdia-
phanous, yellowifh, and nearly half a foot long. ;

* Cupressina. Denticles nearly oppofite, obliquely
truncate, and a little pointed; veficles obovate, two-
toothed ; branches panicled, and very long. It is common
in all the European feas, and is found in a long pointed

loofe panicle.
* ARGENTEA,

SERTULARIA.

* Ancentra. Denticles nearly oppofite, pointed; ve-
ficles oval; branches alternate, panicled, This is an in-
habitant of the European and American feas; very much
refembles the lait, but the branches are thorter and loofer,
and the panicle is more obtufe.

* Rucosa. Denticles nearly oppofite, obfolete ; velicles
much wrinkled, and three-toothed ; the branches are {cat-
tered, This {pecies inhabits the European feas, and is
found growing on the Fluftra foliacea, and other fer-

* Hacecina. Denticles alternate, tubular, and two-

inted ; the veficles oval, each united along the fide to a

tubular ftalk; the ftem is alternately branched and

innate. ‘This is found in the European and Mediterranean

ot is horny, and of a yellowifh-grey ; the denticles
are nearly obfolete,

*Tuusa. The denticles in this {pecies are arranged in
two rows, clofely adhering to the ftem; the veficles obo-
vate, margined ; ftem waved and ftiff, with a tuft of dicho-
tomous branches near the tip. It is found on the northern
coatts of England, and in the Mediterrancan, and is about
half a foot long. ;

* Myniornytiun. The denticles are truncate, all leaning
one way on the ftem ; the ftem itfelf is gibbous on the fide
hy Se OT pe the branches lean all one way. This
is in moft European feas, and in the Mediterranean ;
eapeene saree sates long, pele sad horny 5 the ftem is
rather angular, with protuberances oppofite the
branches ; the denticles are feated in a focket furnifhed with
_a fhort {pine on the lower part.

i inti ig one way, campanulzte,
toothed, and beaked ; items with b and very
ivifions. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is fix
inches high; in colour it is brown, with yellowifh imbricate
radicles.

Speciosa. Denticles campanulate, effule, toothed, and
Mtipulate ; the ftem is pinnate, rigid, with incurved branches,
inti It is found in the Indian ocean,

branches are pi There is a
ao deferibed by Ellis, in his work on
It inhabits the European and Indian feas, and

In this the denticles point one way, they are
ibbous and
ed; the b are pinnate, alternate, and lanceolate.
found on moft European coaits, climbing up fuci ; the
ches are jointed ; the denticles are ferrate at the margin,
fupported in front by a {mall hollow {pine ; the vefi-
have a denticulate margin, and y five oblique
ribs.

wata. Denticles oppofite, pointing one way, cam-
F eels een ech’ 4 the branches pinnate, al-
and lanceolate. It inhabits chiefly the fhores of

\ n, on fuci,

-* Ayvenyina. The denticles are verticillate, in fours,
faceous ; velicles ian ge truncate, verticillate; the
ms are generally fimple. There is a variety which is
nC ee rn me an ane Deis cosa, often
a 3 it is w, wi capillary
i icles ; the eee war fol in-
fetaceous branches, on the upper fides of which are
ee wep Gaped st alg ime cn are placed

on pedicles obtanely open towards the flem, and placed
round it at the infertion of the branches,

* Venricittata, The denticles in this are obfolete ;
the veficles campanulate, toothed round the rim, on long
twilted pedicles, and placed in fours round the tlem ; the
branches are alternate, It is found on the Brituth coatts ;
flem ribbed, very loofely branched ; the denticles are not
vifible; the veficles are nearly erect, and glutinous; the
ovaries are oval, ending in a re mouth,

Getatinosa, Velicles campanulate ; ftem with nu-
merous decompofite {preading branches. It is found on the
coafts of the Netherlands ; is half a foot long, and of a grey-
ih-brown colour,

* Votunicis. The denticles in this are obfolete ; the
veficles are alternate, campanulate, toothed round the rim,
on long, twifted pedicles ; the branches are alternate. It
inhabits European feas, climbing up other fertularia ; it is
whitifh and minute; the flem is loofely branched; the
ovaries are egg-fhaped and {mooth, or tran{verfely wrinkled,

* Syninca. Denticles obfolete ; veficles cylindrical,
moftly alternate, and placed on fhort twilted pedicles.

* Cuscata. Denticles obfolete; veficles oval, axil-
lary ; branches oppofite and fimple. It is found in the
European teas, adhering to fuci,

* Pusrutosa. Stem with alternate dichotomous branches,
obfoletely denticulate on the upper part. It inhabits the
fhores of the Ifle of Wight, it 1s four inches long. The
ftem is feen rifing into alternate dichotomous joints, with
{mall denticles, having a circular rim, with a point in the
middle of each ‘acai 5 the upper part of each joint.

* Frurescens. Denticles cylindrical, campanulate,

laced in a fingle row on the infide of the branches; the
sa are alternate, and pinnate. This is chiefly found
on the Britifh fhores; rather hard, blackifh with brown
branches ; the ftem is compofed of {mall united tubes.

Pivaster. In this fpecies the denticles are oppofite,
feffile, with an incurved tubular tip ; the veficles are large,
ovate, quadrangular ; the angles terminating in a {pine, and
furnifhed with atubular mouth in the centre, placed in a row
along the branches ; the branches are alternate.

Pennatuta. The denticles in this are in a fingle row,
crenate on the rim, and fupported by a flender, truncate, in-
curved horn ; the branches are oppofite. It is found in the
Indfan ocean ; is five or fix inches long; yellowifh-brown ;
the denticles have two oppofite {pines on the rim.

* Fizicuta. Denticles oppofite, ovate, with a fingle
ereé&t one at the junctures of the branches ; veficles obovate,
with a tubular mouth in the centre ; the {tem is zig-zag, with
alternate branches. It inhabits the Britith fhores, is very
tender, and the ftem is much branched.

Quapripentata. Denticles in fours, oppofite, at the
joints of the item ; the ftem is fimple, with the joints taper-
ing and twilted towards the bafe. It inhabits the Afmcan
fhores on the Fucus lendigerus.

Spicata. Denticles in three, cylindrical, terminal, and
nearly clofed at the mouth; veficles ovate, axillary ; item
tubular, panicled, annulate, with trichotomous branches dif-
pofed in whorls round the rin

* Evansu. The denticles are fhort and oppofite ; the
veficles are lobed, arifing from the branches which are op-
polite. It inhabits the British coafts, and is found on fuci:
it is two inches high, very flender, and yellow, with fulvous
velicles.

* Muricata. The denticles of this fpecies are pedi-
cled, proceeding alternately from the joints of the branches ;
veficles oval, {pinous ; the flem is jointed. It is found
on the fhores of Scotland; the velicles are nearly globular,

sf placed

SERTULARIA.

placed on pedicles, and full of pointed {pines from crefted
ribs.

SecunDARIA. Denticles in a fingle row, campanulate ;
the veficles are axillary ; the flem is minute, white, and in-
curved. This fpecies is found in the Mediterranean :
it is {carcely three lines high, and not thicker than a fine
briftle.

Misenensis. The denticles are alternate, very thin,
f{preading ; the veficles are oval, peduncles axillary ; ttem
much branched, dichotomous. It inhabits the Mediter-
ranean, is very flender, pellucid towards the tip, and fome-
times covered with.the Cancer linearis.

Racemosa. Denticles fcattered, pellucid; veficles
cluttered ; ftem ftraight, round ; opaque, horny, with flightly
curved branches. It inhabits the Mediterranean.

* Uva. Denticles obfolete ; veticles ovate, cluftered ;
ftem flightly branched, with alternate fubdivifions. It in-
habits the fhores of this country and Holland, adhering
to other zoophytes ; veficles tranfparent, with a white
nucleus.

* Lenpicera. Denticles obfolete ; veficles cylindrical,
arranged in a fingle row along the branches, and growing
gradually lefs towards the top: the ftem and branches are
jointed. This is found on the European coafts, on other
zoophytes. The branches are fubdivided and irregularly
interwoven ; the velicles are placed in parallel ranks along
the infide of the branches, and growing gradually fhorter to-
wards the top of the joints. ’

* GenicuLaTaA. Denticles alternate, twifted; veficles
obovate, with a tubular mouth in the centre; the {tem is
branched, jointed, flexuous. It inhabits the European
coalts, adhering to fuct.

* Dicnotoma. Denticles obfolete ; veficles obovate and
axillary, on twifted pedicles ; the item is dichotomous, with
twifted joints. It inhabits the Britifh and Dutch coats, and
is nearly a foot long; it is white, but becomes teftaceous
with age.

* SpinosA. Denticles obfolete ; veficles ovate, fubulate ;
the branches are dichotomous and fpinous. It is found on
moft European coafts, as well as on thofe of this country,
and is about eight inches long. The ftem is compofed of
interwoven tubular fibres ; the branches are flexuous, loofe,
forked, with pointed tips.

* Pinnata. The denticles of this {pecies are obfolete ;

the veficles are oblong, and furrounded with a coronet of ,

tubercles at the rim; item fimple, pinnate, and lanceolate.
It is found in Europe and in India, and is about three inches
high. The item is fimple, with alternate fubdivifions ; the
velicles are placed in clufters round the ftem.

* Sreracea. Denticles obfolete, remote, placed mm a
row on the upper fide of the branches; veficles oblong, ax-
illary ; the ftem is fimple, with alternate bent divifions. It
inhabits the European coalts, and is about an inch and
half high.

* Poryzontas. Denticles alternate, flightly toothed ;
velicles obovate, tranfverfely wrinkled ; the {tem is loofe,

branched. It inhabits moft feas, adhering to marine fub-
ftances.
PennariA. ‘The denticles are placed in a row on one

fide the branches ; the veficles are oval ; the ftem is twifted,
and doubly pinnate. It inhabits the Mediterranean fea,
growing in tufts on rocks; the {tem is ftraight, afcending,
flexile, horny, brown with whitifh branches.

* LicHENASTRUM. Denticles alternate, obtufe, in two
imbricate rows along the ftem ; the veficles are ovate, in two
parallel rows along the branches; the item is fimple, alter-
nately pinnate. It is found in the Irifh, Indian, Afiatic, and

Armenian feas. The ftem is ereét, jointed, compreffed, ard
denticulate ; the branches are alternate, denticulate, and
{traight.

Creprina. Denticles fubcylindrical, tubular, in four
imbricate rows ; the branches are irregular, quadrangular,
and thicker upwards. Inhabits the feas of Kamtfchatka ;
the branches are dichotomous, obtufe, with four rows of
veficles.

* Impricara. The veficles of this fpectes are fubcla-
vate, irregularly imbricate upwards; the {tem is flightly
branched. ‘This {pecies is deferibed and figured in the 5th
vol. of the Linnean TranrfaGtions. It inhabits the weftern
coaft of Britain, on the Fucus uodofus; it very much re-
fembles the laft, but the veficles are not placed in any re-
gular feries; it is about three inches high; the {maller
branches have the veficles placed bifarioufly, but towards
the tip they become imbricate.

Purpurea. Denticles fubovate, tubular, in four im-
bricate rows ; the veficles are ereét and campanulate ; the
branches are dichotomous and fquare. It inhabits the fea
round Kamtfchatka, and is of a blackifh-purple.

ArricuLtara. Denticles preffed together ; the veficles
are ovate, rather large, covered with alid, and placed in a
fingle row ; the ftem is jointed and pinnate. It is found
in the Atlantic ocean, creeping on fhells, and is about two
inches long ; pale yellow.

Fizicina. Denticles imbricate, placed on one fide only ;
veficles jointed ; ftem granulate, branched and pinnate, the
fubdivifions alternate. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is pale,
and about three inches long.

Fruticans. The denticles of this fpecies are in a fingle «
row on one fide; femi-campanulate ; the {tem is granulate,
woody, witb alternate fetaceous fubdivifions. It inhabits
the American feas in tufts, on fhells: it is fix inches long,
and or a yellowifh-grey.

B. The fpecies of this divifion have a cruftaceous fiem, inclining
to flone, and compofed of rows of cells ; they have no veficles,
but in the place of thefe there are fmall globules.

* Bursaria. Denticles oppofite, comprefled and trun-
cate; the ftem is branched, and dichotomous. It is found
on the Britifh coafts, adhering to fuci; it is minute, flexile,
hyaline ; the denticles are carinate, with a {mall clavate tube
at the top. |

* Loricutata. Denticles oppofite, obliquely truncate,
and nearly obfolete ; the branches are erect and dichotomous.
It inhabits the Britifh coafts, on old fertulariz.

* FastieiaTa. Denticles alternate, pointed ; branches
dichotomous, ere€t. This is found in the Britifh feas; the
denticles are marked with a black fpot im the middle.

* AricuLarRtA. The denticles all point one way, nearly
oppofite, and furnifhed with two mucronate appendages ;

the globules appendaged ; the ftem is branched and dicho-

tomous. It is found in the European feas ; is from one to ~
two inches long ; in colour it is of adirty grey. Itisvery —
brittle. I

*Neritina. The denticles are alternate, acute, and ©
pointing one way ; the branches are dichotomous, unequal, —
and ftraight. It is foundin the European and American
feas. Itisfoft; the globules have an opening furrounded
by a dark-coloured margin.

* Scruposa. Denticles alternate, angular, fpinous ; the
branches are dichotomous and creeping. It inhabits moft —
feas ; is very brittle, linear, and pale, with a double row of —
cells. .

Pizrosa. ‘The denticles are alternate, oblique, with a
long mouth ; the branches are dichotomous, fattigiate, and

ftrong.

=

SER
ey It is found in the Mediterranean, and is not half
an inch lon

arta This {pecies is very much branched, dichoto-
mous, clongated, and crifp, with deprefled ovate joints,
furnithed with cells on one fide. It inhabits the Eatt, is
’ flexile, and of a pale-grey colour.
: Loccosa. This is very much branched, “aye tg
falligiate, with wedge-fha joints, having cells on one fide.
This is found shied in appre ocean ; is large, whitith,
with greyith flexile joints.
-*Rerrans. Denticles alternate, two-toothed; the
branches are dichotomous and creeping. ‘This is found inthe

E feas, ing to the Fluttra foliacea ; it is not an
obione 3 white or . ; ; !
PARASITICA. denticles of this {pecies are verti-

- cillate, turbinate, ciliate, and parafitical, It is foundin the
- Mediterranean and North feas, adhering to other fertu-
Jari and corallines ; in colour it is dull red, with terminal

*Ciztata. Denticles alternate, ciliate, funnel-form ;
ha dichotomous and ereét. It inhabits the European
; on marine fubltances ; not half an ch high; it is
whitith ; the cells have wide mouths.
wa ee etin Wm omega «appa ooh
r i 3t are gibbous, with a tubular
— on one fide ; the branches pam This inhabits
_ the European and Mediterranean feas, and 1s found growin
Uf other fertulariz and fuci; is about an inch high, an

" “* Connura. The denticles are alternate and truncate,
with a fingle hair on the top of each; the veficles are

“a

a tubular beak ; the branches are alternate.
his inhabits, like the lait and two following, the Euro-
. and Mediterranean feas, on fuci; it is ftony, clear
white, and not halfaninchlong. The denticles are curved,
pering towards the bafe, and placed on each other.
Loricata. Denticles in a concatenate row, pointing
> way, with a margined mouth, horned beneath; the
ranches are alternate. Itis foundon fuci. The denticles
are like inverted horns placed on each other, with a fhort
on

the
: ema ‘The ftem is very fimple, without denticles,
but befet with very fimple, obtufe, clavate arms, each with
“a lateral opening. ‘This is found climbing up marine fub-
—ftances; it is white, foft, flexile, varying in form, and
appears to connect the fertularie and hydre ; the arms are
Cereoiwes. Denticles imbricate, with fomewhat pro-
i mouths; the ftem is branched, jointed, and cylindri-
al. It inhabits the coaft of Africa ; is three inches high ;

a with fhort joints.
\ Sells ih threes on the upper part of the

+

+

ells on one
two inches high, white, growing in tufts ; the joints
Ne i poten oes Rie tee ctaom we doe with

row of cells.

5 .
|
:

dichotomous, jointed, creep-
the joints are angular at their fides, with three cells in
front of each, 1t inhabits the fhores of Scotland ; it

C Stony, jointed, flat, dichotomous, incurved,

SER

the joints are fubciliate, ovate, truncate, flat, and bavieg
cells on one fide. It inhabits the Indian ocean, is about
two inches high, and is white; the joints are convex, and
flriate on one furface; the other is flattened, with » double
row of cells,

Orunriowwes. Branches in threes, with cylindrical
joints, covered with flightly prominent pores. It inhabits the
Eattern ocean; is about half an inch high, ere¢t, very
much branched, white, ftony, with the pores difpofed in a
quincunx form.

SERVA, in Geography, » town of Perfia, in Segettan ;
180 miles S.S5,W. from Zareng.

SERVAGE. See Senvice.

SERVAL, in Zoology. Sce Fucus Serval.

SERVAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the [lle and Vilaine, and chief place of a
canton, in the diltriét of St. Malo. The place contains 8836,
and the canton 10,617 inhabitants, ona territory of 50 kuli-
ometres, in 4 communes,

SERVANDONI, Joun Nicuoxas, in Biography, an
eminent architeét, was born at Florence in 1695. He
was employed by feveral of the fovereigns in Europe on
occafions of magnificent public {petacles, in which he
difplayed a very fertile invention, with noblenefs of ideas,
anda correét tafte. At Paris he had the direétion of the
theatre during 18 years, and was architeét, painter, and
decorator to the king; and was admitted member of the
feveral academies of arts. He gave a number of defigns
for the theatres of Drefden and London, and was fent for
to the latter capital on the rejoicings for peace in 1749. He
prefided at the grand feltivals exhibited at the court of
Vienna, on the marriage of the archduke Jofeph and the
princefs of Parma, The king of Portugal frequently em-

loyed him, and honoured him with the order of Chrift,
He died at Paris in 1766, having acquired the reputation
of being the firit artift of the period in which he flourithed.
As an archite& he has left a fine {pecimen of his tafte in the
portico and front of the church * 3 St. Sulpice.

SERVANT, Servus, a term of relation, fignifying a
perfon who owes and pays a limited obedience for a certain
time to another, in quality of matter; in contradiitinétion to
Slave, over whofe lif. and fortune the matter claims an abfo-
lute and unlimited power. See SLave.

The firft fort of fervants, acknowledged by the laws of
England, comprehends menial fervants ; {fo called from being
intra menia, or domeflics. The contra& between them and
their mafters arifes upon the hiring : if the hiring be general,
without any particular time limited, the law pa it to be
hiring for a year (Co. Litt. 42. F.N. B. 168.); but the
contrat may be made for any larger or fmaller term.
All fingle men between twelve years of age and fixty, and
coat ones under thirty years of age; and all fingle
women between twelve and forty, not having any vifible
livelihood, are compellable by two juttices to go eut to fervice
in hufbandry, or certain {pecific trades, for the promotion
of honeit induttry : and no matter can put away his fervant,
or fervant leave his matter after being fo retained, either
before or at the end of his term, without a quarter’s warn-
in unlefs upon reafonable caufe, to be allowed by a juitice
of the peace 9 Eliz. c. 4.) but they may part by

confent, or make a .

Another fpecies of fervants includes thofe called
tices (which fee): a third fort belongs to that clafs denomi-
nated labourers. See Lasour and Lagousers.

And there is a fourth {pecies, if may be called fer-
vants, being rather in a fuperior capacity of fervice ; fuch
as itewards, faétors, and bailiffs, whom, however, the law

S{2 confiders

SERVANT.

eonfiders as fervants pro zempore, with regard to fuch of their
acts as affe& their mafter’s or employer’s property. The
treatment of fervants, ftrictly fo called, as to diet, dif-
cipline, and accommodation, the kind and quantity of work
to be required of them, the intermiflion, liberty, and in-
dulgence to be allowed them, muft in a great meafure be
determined by cuftom ; for the contraét between them and
their maiters exprefles only a few of a confiderable variety
of particulars which it is fuppofed to comprehend. A fer-
vant is not bound to obey the unlawful commands of his
matter; e.g. to minifter to his unlawful pleafures; or to affilt
him by unlawful practices in his profeflion. For the fervant
is bound by nothing but his own promife ; and the obliga-
tion of a promife extends not to things unlawful. For the
fame reafons, the maiter’s authority is no ju/lification of the
fervant in doing wrong ; for the fervant’s own promife, upon
which that authority 1s founded, would be none. A matter
may by law corre¢t his apprentice for negligence, or other
mifbehaviour, provided it be done with moderation ; though
if the mafter or mailter’s wife beat any other fervant of full
age, 1t is good caufe of departure: but if any fervant,
workman, or labourer, affaults his mafter or dame, he fhall
fuffer one year’s imprifonment, and other open corporal
punifhment, not extending to life or limb. (5 Eliz. c. 4.)
By fervice, all fervants and labourers, except apprentices,
become intitled to wages; according to their agreement, if
menial fervants ; or according to the appointment of the
fheriff or feffions, if labourers or fervants in hufbandry.
For to them only the ftatutes for regulation of wages
extend.

A matter may maintain, i.e. abet or affift his fervant in
any action at law againft a ftranger ; he may alfo bring an
action againft any man for beating or maiming his fervant,
affigning his damage by the lofs of fervice, and proving the
lofs upon the trial: he may likewife juftify an aflault in de-
fence of his fervant, and a fervant in defence of his matter
(2 Roll. Abr. 546.): and if any perfon hire or retain my
fervant, being in my fervice, I may have an aétion for da-
mages again{t both the new matter and the fervant, or either
of them; but if the mafter did not know that he is my
fervant, no aétion lies, unlefs he afterwards refufe to
reltore him upon information and demand. F. N. B.
167, 168.

As for thofe things which a fervant may do in behalf of bis
matter, they feem to be grounded on this principle, that the
matter is anfwerable for the a€&t of his fervant, if done by
his command, either exprefsly given or implied ; therefore,
if the fervant commit a trefpafs by the command or en-
couragement of his mafter, the matter fhall be guilty of it :
if any inn-keeper’s fervants rob his guefts, the matter is
bound to reftitution (Noy’s Max. c. 43.); and if the
drawer at a tavern fells a man bad wine, by which his health
is injured, he may bring an action againit the matter.
(4 Roll. Abr. 95.) In the fame manner, whatever a fervant
is permitted to do inthe ufual courfe of his bufinefs, is
equivalent to a general command ; if I pay money to a
banker’s fervant, the banker is anfwerable for it ; if a fteward
lets leafe of a farm without the owner’s knowledge, the
owner mutt ftand to the bargain: a wife, friend, or relation,
that ufed to tranfa& bufinefs for a man, are quoad hoc his
fervants, and the principal mutt anfwer for their condudt.
Farther, if a fervant, by his negligence, does any damage
toa ftranger, the matter fhall anfwer for his negle&t: if a
{mith’s fervant lames a horfe while he is fhoeing him, an
aGion lies againft the mafter and not againft the fervant.
A mafter is chargeable if any of his family layeth or car-
rieth any thing out of his houfe into the ftreet, or common

7

high way, to the damage of an individual, or the common
nufance of his majefty’s liege people. In cafe of fire the
fervant is accountable. Blackft. Comm. book i. See
Larceny.

Much depends upon the fobriety, integrity, and diligence
of fervants ; and the eafe with which they obtain characters,
or procure employment with fuch characters, real or ficti-
tious, as they gain, is very injurious both to their employers
and to themfelves. Charaters are given with fo little re-
ferve and veracity, ‘that I fhould as foon depend,”’ fays
the author of the Rambler, “ upon an acquittal at the Old
Bailey, by way of recommendation of a fervant’s honetty,
as upon one of thefe charaéters.”? At the fame time an-
other extreme fhould be avoided, which is that of obftrué-
ing the advancement of a faithful and deferving fervant,
either from refentment, caprice, or felf-intereft. In order
to form good fervants, attention fhould be paid to their
domeftic conduét, and that kind of difcipline fhould be
exercifed at home which may contribute to prevent their
corruption and mifery.

What the Chriftian feriptures have delivered concerning
the relation and reciprocal duties of mafters and iervants,
breathes a fpirit of liberality, very little known in ages
when fervitude was flavery ; and which flowed from a habit
of contemplating mankind under the common relation in
which they ftand to their Creator, and with refpeé to their
intereft in another exiltence. (Ephef. vi. 5—9.) ‘ Servants
be obedient to them that are your matters, according to the
flefh, with fear and trembling ; in finglenefs of your heart,
as unto Chrift ; not with eye-fervice, as men-pleafers, but as
the fervants of Chritt, doing the will of God fromthe heart ; ~
with good will, doing fervice as ¢o the Lord, and not to men:
knowing that whatfoever good thing amy man doth, the
fame fhall he receive of the Lord, whether he be bond or
free. And ye mafters do the fame thing unto them, for-
bearing threatening; knowing that your mafter alfo is in
heaven; neither is there refpeét of perfons with him.’?
The idea of referring their fervice to God, of confidering
him as having appointed them their tafk, that they were
doing is will, and were to look to Aim for their reward,
was new; and affords a greater fecurity to the mafter than
any inferior principle, becaufe it tends to produce a fteady
and cordial obedience in the place of that conftrained fervice,
which can never be truited out of fight, and which is juttly
enough called eye-fervice. The exhortation to matters, to
keep in view their own fubjeétion and accountablenefs, was
no lefs feafonable.

The Romans, befides their flaves, whom they alfo called
Jervi, had another kind of fervants, whom they called nexs
and addiéi, who were fuch as being in debt, were delivered
up to their creditors by the pretor, to work out the debt,
after which they were again at liberty.

The pope, out of his wonderful humility, calls himfelf in
his bulls, the fervant of the fervants of God, fervus fer-
vorum Dei. The firft who ufed the appellation, as Dia-
conus tells, were pope Damafus, and Gregory the Great,
which laft is faid to have ufed it to check, by his modetty,
the arrogance of John, patriarch of Conftantinople, who
took the title of ecumenical. Du-Cange adds, that the title
fervant has been affumed by fome bifhops, by fome kings,
and fome monks.

SERVANT, in Agriculture, a perfon employed in the
performing of fome part of the bufinefs of a farm, of
whatever kind it may be. On this fubjeét, the following
judicious hints have been thrown out by the author of the
“«¢ Landed Property of England,” for the direction of thofe
fervants who have the condu€ting of the management of

farming

SERVANT.

| farming bufinefs. Nothing, he contends, contributes more
to facity and fatisfaction in this fort of bufinefs, than a
forecaft toward works to be done. A mifcarriage is ever
to be dreaded as a miichief ; and when it is brought on by
a want of forethought, it brings with it a degree of difcredit,
and a train of unpleafant reflections, which four every enjoy-
’ ment. This kind of fervant thould, he thinks, have a Rial
‘eait towards crops for three or four years ; toward team-
abour for as many months ; and fhould look forward with
a view to labour for fome weeks, according to the
feafon of the year. And to bring it to a degree of certainty, it
‘is neceflary to make out a lift of the fields, or parcels of land,
of which farm confilts ; with the crops which each bas
borne for fome years back; together with the manurings
awhich they have feverally received, in order that the future
treatment of each may be decided upon with fufficient ac-
. And to prepare every autumn, by the afliitance
Br feck lift, an arrangement of the crops that are intended
~ for the enfuing year ; clafling the fields, or pieces, accord-
ing to the purpofes for which they fhall be intended: thus
ining the quantity of each crop, whether arable or
as well as the quantity of ground intended for patture ;
‘in order that the quantity of team-labour may be diftinétly
forefeen,—the required itrength be eltimated from time to
,—and the feveral crops be fown in due feafon ; and in
order that the ftock of the enfuing fummer may, in due
time, be properly apportioned to the intended quantity of
ture ground ; as well as that the works of fummer and
t may be conftantly before the eye ; and proper hands
be engaged, iu time, to perform them in feafon, and with
the neceflary difpatch and certainty. And he further
dvifes a fort of memorandum lift to be kept of bufinefs to
be done,—immediately,—or in immediate fucceflion ; whether
r to crops or to any other concerns of the farm ; that
‘nothing may efcape the memory; and that the moft re-
ifite may be brought forward firlt; or another which is
fuitable to the ftate of the weather, or other circum-
nC In this, as well as other bufinefs, the great object
be aimed at is that of enfuring fuccefs; which is not
profitable to an employer, but {atisfaGtory to the perfon
nployed. Whereas a mifcarriage injures at once the pro-
erty of the onc, and the charater, as well as peace of mind,
pf the other. Hence a farm manager ought to engage in
‘a work, whether of improvement or ordinary practice, with
caution; and to p in it with attention and frmnefs. A
ding rule, refpecting this main obje& of management, is
hot to attempt too cook, and never to begin a sack waet
moral certainty of being able to finifh it in due feafon.
Further ; but befides the common work of a farm, as
the culture and harveiting of crops, the rearing and fatten-
x of live-ftock, and the bufinefs of markets; there are
rious other objects of attention which ought to be
ftantly kept in the mind, or in the mind’s way, of
| Manager; as on them the difference between and
ad, between correct and flovenly management, very
ch depends; fuch as keeping the homettall in repair,
und free from impediments; attending to private roads
id driftways; keeping up fences, every where, in
rough repair; attending particularly to young hed,
ind to the rearing of hedge-row timber; the feeing that
tes {wing clear, and catch with certainty; equally to
referve them from injury, and to prevent loofe {tock
Tom going aftray ; the attending to drains and water-courfes ;
@ fee that fuperfluous waters have free pallages to their
roper outlets, and be readily difcharged. And it is ad-
fifed, that in fummer ftri& attention be paid to drinking-

pools and other watering places of flock, as well as to the
itace of patturing, and the fhifting of paituring flock.
Likewife to weeds, as well in grafs grounds as w arable
lands, to fee that not a thiltle blows, nor any other weed
manures its feed, either in the areas, or on the borders of
fields, as great injury is done by their thedding their feeds.

Alfo in winter, much care is neceflary to the cattle-flock,
not only to fee that they are regularly fupplied with proper
fodder; but that fuflicient thelter and comfortable relting-
places are affigned them, fo that they may be kept m a
proper thriving ftate. At this feafon alfo the watering of
grals-lands thould be attended to as much as the nature of
the fituation will admit. And to the accumulation of
manure an unremitted care fhould be beftowed the year
round, as upon it much depends. And on the whole, to
perform thefe and other obje¢ts with propriety, repeated
examinations of every part and particular under his care ;
and committing to his memory whatever requires his more
immediate attention ; fo that whether he is on the fpot, or
arranging his plan of operation, in the hour of leifure, it
may be prefent to his mind, and take its proper courfe in
the routine of work which is to be carried forward.

It may be noticed, that in the time of work the bufinefs
of a managing fervant lies in the field, in executing the
plans he has formed, in pafling from one fet of work
people to another: not more to fee that the different
operations are nightly executed, with proper difpatch, than
to order any required affiftance, (to the teams moft efpe-
cially,) in order that every part of the machine may be
kept in profitable motion. And that in the ordinary ope-
rations of hufbandry, and on common occafions, a fteady
even pace be recommended ; equally for the good of work-
ing animals, and the work which they are performing.
Neverthelefs, there are times when quick difpatch is necef-
fary: and then it is his duty to encourage good {peed; by
his example, and by promifes of reward, if the occafion re-
quire it. That at all times, and on every occafion, idlenefe
is a crime which ought not to be fuffered to pafs with im-
punity. It is a direct fraud; and a manager fhould guard
againit it with the fame care and affiduity as againit pilfer-
ing. A day labourer who idles away an hour, robs his
employer of an hour’s wages; and thereby injures him as
much as if he were to fteal a faggot of equal value. This
truth requires to be deeply imprinted on the minds of la-
bourers. He has known the impreffion to have a good
effet. But he properly remarks, that the right orderin
of fervants and work-people is a difficult branch of ae
duty ; and forms an important part of that of the managing
fervant. They require to be treated according to their
re{pedtive merits ; encouraging good ones by extra wages,
or other rewards. Some men are worth double the wages
of others, as day labourers. Yet cuftom makes no difting-
tion between them in this refpe&! Hence the propriety
of engaging the beft workmen the country affords; and
retaining them, by civil treatment, and fuitable encourage-
ments. The managing fervant fhould keep his work-people
at a proper diftance, without deftroying that free commu-
nication of opinion refpecting the work in hand, which, on
ordinary occafions, every intelligent workman fhould be
allowed. And a ftanding rule of condu@, in the ordering
of workmen, is never to find fault without occafion: nor to
commend, without reafon. Guvod fellows will not brook
the former, nor will bad ones be mended by the latter,
But it is right to habituate workmen in general to be told
of their faults; firft, in the mildeft terms the occafion will
admit of ; referving the warmth of temper for extraordinary

ons 5

SERVANT.

occafions ; and then it is prudent to fting them with keen,
rather than to load-them with heavy, words: to endeavour
to ftir up their pride, rather than their malice or refentment.
Ana much of the fmoothnefs and uniform fuccefs of bufinefs
depends on the manner of communicating orders to work-
men. If orders are inaccurately or loofely given, it is un-
reafonable to expe that the execution of them fhould be
faultlefs. It is difficult to explain bufinefs in words with
fufficient accuracy to ruftic workmen ; and if a third perfon
is fuffered to intervene, errors are inevitable. The fervant
who has the management ought therefore to make a point
of giving orders, in perfon, and if poflible on the fpot, to
the men whom he means {hall execute them. There he
can explain himfelf to them intelligibly and fully ; or affift
them in marking out their work. ‘There is always danger
in merely verbal orders ; and, in a meflage, certain mifchief.
It fhould be an invariable rule for him to fet his men to a
frefh work, in perfon; and if it is out of the common way
of hufbandry, to ftay by them, or direct them with his own
hands; and return to them, again and again, until he finds
them completely in their work. In this view, this fort of
fervant, as well as for various other reafons, ought to be
matter of every implement, tool, and operation belonging
to his profeflion ; and if he find himfelf deficient m any par-
ticular, he fhould pra¢tife it day by day, until he make it
familiar to him; or how is he to correét a bad workman ;
or to know when to be fatisfied with a good one; who,
knowing when he is right, will not bear. the reproaches of
ignorance? He has no other way of fecuring the etteem
and attachment of good workmen, and of finifhing in a
workman-like manner every thing he undertakes, than by
making himfelf mafter of his bufinefs; without which
little fatisfaGtion will arife from it to himfelf, or’ profit to
his employer. And in the general principles of condu&, in
his dealings and intercourfe with other men, punétuality is
one of the moft eflential. - Method is the beft affittant of
punctuality ; and clear accounts are one of the beft refults
of method. Thefe fhould always be kept with exa€inefs,
and be fent, when required, to the proprietor, in weekly,
monthly, and annual periods, fo as to fhew the daily ftate
of the work ; the monthly ftate of receipts and payments ;
and, laftly, the whole ftate of accounts and balances.
Befides, it is extremely neceflary for the farmer to be care-
ful in providing his fervants, not only to fee that they are pro-
per for the work, but that there be not more than are necef-
fary for executing it, as the expence of them is now become
extremely great. It has long fince been recorded by the
above writer, in his “ Minutes of Agriculture,”’ that on the
matureft calculation he found the yearly expence of a man
fervant in the houfe to be 35/, and that of a boy 23/.,
fuppofing the man’s yearly wages to be ro/. and the boy’s
3/. Now the expence of a day-labouring man for a whole
year (if he works every day) is but 27/. tos., which is
41. tos. difference againft keeping a man inthe houfe by the
year, and hiring one by the day. But that of a boy is ftill
more in proportion, viz. the expence of a day-labouring
boy for a whole year, if he works every day, is but 13/.,
which makes a difference of 1o/., or more than three-fourths
of.a boy’s day-wages. In the above account, no deduétion
in the daily pay is made for rainy days. The impropriety,
therefore, of keeping plough-boys in the houfe is very
vifible: and though it may be convenient to .have the
carters about the houfe, the conveniency is not worth 7/. tos.
a-year. He therefore recommends putting a woman into
a cottage, within about two hundred paces of the farm-
yard, to take in lodgers ; and to keep in the houfe no more

4

farming fervants than a buftler and a yardman.
fays it is abfolutely neceflary to have fomebody about a
farm-yard in cafes of emergency; but the above two are
fufficient, as the carters in the adjoining cottage will be
nearly as handy as if they were in the houfe. This meafure,
it is obferved, like many others, is merely local, but the
hint is univerfal.

But perhaps the farmer, who keeps no accounts, imagines
he faves money by boarding his fervantsin the Soufe ; how-

ever, if he keeps them in the luxurious manner which farm-.

ing-fervants in general expect to be kept, he will be mif-
taken. A farmer, indeed, who fits at the head of his
kitchen-table, may no doubt feed his men confiderably
cheaper, than a perfon who eats in a feparate apartment.
It is a juft obfervation, that one fed by his matter cotts
the community as much as two who provide for themfelves ;
for difcharge a grumbler, one who pretends to be diffatisfied,
though in faé only fatiated, and he will return to his bread

and cheefe with perhaps equal health and equal happinefs.

He fits down to his mafter’s table with a refolution to eat
voracioufly of the beft, to do himfelf juftice ; but at his
own table eats {paringly of the meaneft, to fave his money.
His motive in both cafes is the fame; felf-intereft. The

plan here inculcated is at this time {till more neceflary than.

it was at a former period.
And it is added, that in fome counties, particularly in
Surrey, it is an eftablifhed cuftom for every man, in harveft,

-to work by the acre, or by the month, not by the day. If

a labourer be conttantly employed through the year, he
expects during harvelt to be conftantly employed in mow-

ing, reaping, &c. by the acre, or to have his harveft-month ; ~

that 1s, to have an advance of wages certain, wet or dry,
during one month; which menth commences when it belt
fuits his employer. This is very convenient; they are
always at command in cafes of emergency; and nothing
but a continuance of rains while the barns are empty can
make them burdenfome. He ftrongly recommends the-em-
ploying of aétive young men; for one invalid or fluggifh
fellow will {poil the whole fet; and this holds generally.
Mix two or three old women, or two or three boys, with
a company of men, and the effect will be very foon vifible;
for the men will foon conform to the ways of either the
old women, or the playfulnefs of the boys. It is not pru-
dent to employ many women with the men; and nothing
but neceflity can excufe it. Two women after the firlt or
fecond day, will do as much work as half a dozen, alone.
If it be neceflary or convenient to employ a number of
both men and women, it is but common good management
to keep them feparate; with this exception, which may be
laid down as a maxim, viz. one man among women, and
one woman among men. AQ crufty conceited old fellow
will check the goflipping of the women, and it has been re-
marked that raking after a young wench has animated more
than a gallon of ale. Two are dangerous; they breed
contention, and rather retard than accelerate. The mott
valuable fervant in harveft is a good carter. It is neceflary
to common management that he fhould be able, willing, and
careful.
pafles twice through his hands; he loads and unloads,
which are the two moft laborious tafks of harveft; he
drives the team backwards and forwards; if he loiters by
the way, the field-men or ftack-men muft ftand idle; if he
{pill or overturn his load, or if he break his waggon, or fet
his horfes, the arrangement of the day is broken; and,
perhaps, the damage done by the lofs of time rendered irre-
parable by the next day’s rain. A good carter ant ae

utter

Indeed he

Every pitch of hay and corn, generally {peaking, _

See ee ae ee ee

a

ee eC

SERVANT.

fuffer his waggon to be overloaded. The field-men, too,
‘that is, the pitcher and afliftant-loader, fhould be young
and active, and well matched with the carter.
2 But fince the above was written, the prices of fervants
have confiderably increafed in every dillriét of the kingdom,
and the expences of Eeteiog them been very greatly aug-
mented. his has led to tewer being kept, and efpecially
ip the houfe. It is tated, that in Hertfordthire the annual
wages of a carter or ploughman was formerly from fix to
ae guineas; boys from two to four guineas; and maid-
ts about five guineas; but they — fince rifen to
: double thefe fums. And formerly in Norfolk farm-
_ work was particularly diftinguifhed by the cheapnefs as well
expedition with which it was performed; which, it is
id, arofe not merely from the cheapnefs of labour, but the
exertions of fervants and labourers than in moft other
3 but this is confiderably diminifhed at prefent. In
parts of that diitrict the cuitom of allowing board-
wages to farm-fervants, inftead of the old plan of feeding
: in the houfe, is coming into ufe ; and 8s. a-week are
given. This is a bad, immoral regulation, which fhould be
difeontinued. In Yorkshire the wages of fervants have alfo
been greatly increafed. In the Weit Riding the wages of a
fervant (of which kind mott of the ploughmen are)
may be eftimated from 25/. to 30/. yearly, including mainte-
mance. There is a practice sebich prevails over a confider-
able part of this diftri&, of giving them drink both forenoon
nd afternoon, be the work what it will; which is a ridi-
eulous cuftom, and ought to be abolifhed without lofs of
time. What can be more abfurd than to fee a ploughman
| oping: his horfes half an hour, in a cold winter day, to
drink ale? But the practice is fo deep rooted, that it will
be eafily removed without a compenfation. It is fug-
_geited that proper remedy is to let the value of the ale
_be paid to the fervant in money, which probably would be as
much for his intereft, and certainly more advantageous to
the farmer. In thofe places where long yokings are taken,
_ fay feven or eight hours, it may be neceflary to feed both
men and horfes on the ground ; but this practice cannot be
_ recommended ualefs in urgent cafes, it being very injurious
totheir health. In the beit regulated agricultural counties,
five hours labour in the morning and four hours in the after-
noon, when the feafon allows, and five hours, or five hours
and a half, in fhort days, is confidered to be as much as
_ horfes are capable of {uftaining, and yokings of this duration
_ require uo refrefhment on the ground. And it is added, that
the hours of labour for men are generally in fammer from
fix to fix, with the ufual time for reft and refrefhment, which
gives betwixt nine and ten hours labour each day, and in
winter from light to dark. Much of the farm-labour, fuch
. as ditching, hedging, threfhing, &c. is done by the piece,
_ but the prices vary greatly in different places. And it may
be added that when the farmer is a proper judge of his
bufinefs, piece-work is not only moft to his advantage, but
_ the only way by which an active diligent fervantycan be
“properly rewarded for his labour.
Te Berkfhire, and many other counties, great care is taken
to beep no more fervants in the houfe, by the farmers, than
are juft fufficient for performing the ordinary bufinefs to be
do The pay of a carter 1s there from nine to twelve
neas the year ; an under carter from four to feven guineas
for the fame length of time; a fhepherd from eight to ten
and the run of a few fheep; a boy from two to
three guineas ; and a dairy-maid from five to ten guineas, in
proportion as fhe may be qualified.
_ _ Inthe manufaéturing diftrifts of Chefhire and Lancafhire,
the wages of houfe-farming fervants run in this way.

“+
gruin

«

In the firft,

7 z £
Man to follow the team - from 10 to 12 per annum,
Lad of,from 15 to 20, for the 8
fame purpofe - - I Ye == 5e
Cow boy, or man, as the flock i 8
— 12
may be - = -
Home-work fervant, for
hedging, mowing, neh — 10— 12
ing, &e. - - -
Head dairy woman, in pro-
portion to the fize of farm i seo, 4
Women fervants of other
kinds - - ao Vite f er
Girls : - - - —- 2— 4
In the latter,
Men fervants - - - from 10 to 25
Lads - - - - —- 6—I10
Women - ~ - - —- 5— 8
Girls - - - - — 2— 4

They have lately been confiderably on the increafe in both
of thefe diftri¢ts.

In the county of Effex, and many other diftriés which
are principally agricultural, the work of the farms is in a
great meafure executed by hired daily or weekly labourers,
very few yearly fervants being kept by the farmers. This
is f{uppofed, in many initances, to be not only the cheapett,
but the moft convenient method of having fuch forts of work
peated and the farmers are, at the fame time, the moft
ree from trouble in their houfes and families. In the very
fouthern agricultural diitriéts of Devonthire and Cornwall,
the wages of the farm fervants, kept in the houfe, with wath-
ing and lodging, are, in the former, for a carter or head
man ten pounds the year, the inferior forts of farm bufinefs
being often accomplifhed by parifh apprentices ; and in the
latter, from eight to tweive guineas, with their board, for
men, and from three to four pounds, with the fame; for maid
fervants during the year. Thefe rates, however, vary alittle,
according to the qualifications of the fervants, and the nature
of the fituations and farms.

In the county of Herefordfhire, where the hours of
labour are from light to dark in the winter, and from fix in
the morning to the fame hour in the afternoon, in fummer,
the following are the average prices of wages now given to
fervants kept in the houfe by the farmers.

Waggoner, - Io to 12 guineas per annum.
Bailiff or cattleman, 8 — 10 ditto. ;
Dairy-maid, © - 6— 7 ditto.
Under-maid, —- 2— 3 ditto.

Likewife in Ea{t Lothian, in Scotland, the wages are
mottly from ten to fourteen pounds per anaum ; but this clafs
of fervants is but fmall. The female fervants have from
four pounds to four pounds ten fhillings, or five pounds.
And in Clydefdale, the greater part of the agricultural
labour is performed by fervants hired by the half year, and
living in the farm-houfes. In many parts of the county the
women fervants work along with the men, at almoft all kinds
of out-work, But as more hands than ordinary are needed
for cutting down the corn in harveit, many hufbandmen, to
fecure a fixed number for that purpofe, when they can be
got, contract with villagers to affift during the time of reap-
ing. All thefe labourers have no fixed hours, but continue
their labour while light and weather admit, and circum-
{tances require. The poor girls, when light is gone and the
men fit down by the fire, refume their houfhold labours.

SERVANT.

The labourers, both men and women, are fometimes hired
by the day, particularly in the time of planting, fowing, and
hoeing turnips and potatoes, hay-making, and harvelt, when
a fixed number is not provided. Thefe work only ten
hours in the day, beginning at fix in the morning and ftop-
ping at fix at night, and taking an hour to reft at break fait,
and another at dinner. Hired labourers, in winter, take
breakfaft before they go out in the morning, make a fhort
paufe to eat a little at mid-day, and quit when hight fails in
the evening. The following are the prices of wages.

Former. Prefent. ,

Wagesof menfervants,
befides bed, bard rom 13/. to 16/. from 20/. to 25/.

and wafhing, per-ann.

Wages of a maid fer-
befides bea | a

vant, ‘
hemasand wathing( sl. to 7/. or 8/. to gl. tos.
per ann. S

But in Perthfhire, a man fervant, who is matter of all the
operations in farming, only receives, in the corn country,
between eight and twelve pounds, for twelve months. In
the grazing diftrifts, more remote from the feat of manu-
faGtures, their wages, and the price of all kinds of labour,
are about one-fourth lower. But in many cafes the fervants
are maintained in the farmer’s family ; but the practice of
giving them fix and a half bolls of meal, together with a
houfe, garden, and a cow’s gra{s, free of rent, and fome
fuel, is daily becoming more general. Thefe farmers, who
keep any married fervants, have them all on this eftablifh-
ment of livery meal. The maid fervants live all in their
matter’s family, and are engaged for betwixt three and four
pounds, and in fome cafes five pounds of yearly wages, ac-
cording to their expertnefs, and the nature of their work.
But common labourers earn between one fhilling and one
fhilling and three-pence a day; and if able-bodied and
handy, they demand one fhilling and fixpence, without
vidtuals. The various denominations of artificers charge
according to the nicety of their art. The hours of labour
from the vernal to the autumnal equinox, are from fix to fix,
allowing an hour for breakfaft and another for dinner ; and
during the other half year, from the dawn of day till the light
fails at night, with an allowance of one hour for breakfaft.
Houfhold fervants are not fo exaét with refpe& to hours ;
in the long days, they continue to work after fix at night ;
and in fhort days they get out of bed before day light,
where there is much grain to thrafh. But in many of the
large farms, thrafhing machines have been erected ; and they
are fuch a great faving, by the abridgment of labour, that
more of them are fet up every year, in different parts of the
county.

And in Argylefhire, within thefe 30 years, the price of
labour is fomewhat more than doubled. It {till varies in
different parts af the county, but may be eftimated in general
at the following rates. A man fervant’s wages, per annum,
with viduals, from 6/. to 82 A maid fervant’s, from 50s.
to 4). And that fince 1795 the wages and the price of
labour have been advanced more than one fourth, or from
25 to 30 per cents and are {till rifing. :

Further, in regard to the regulating the rate of wages, it
has been fuggefted in the Agricultural Survey of the Welt
Riding of Yorkthire, that the only mode of making them
proportional to the rife or fall on the value of money and
provifions, is to pay the labourer in kind, that is, with a
certain quantity of corn, as parties fhall agree, which infures
him, at all hazards, a comfortable fubfiftence, and prevents
him from a daily or weekly vilitation of the markets. When

the labourer is paid in money, it expofes the thoughtlefs
and inattentive to many temptations; whereas, when paid
in kind, he cannot raife money to gratify the whim of the
moment. In thofe counties where this mode of payment-
has been long eftablifhed, we believe the ploughmen and
labourers are, on the whole, better fed, live more comfort-
ably, and rear healthier children than in thofe parts where,
from being paid in money, the currency of the article facili-
tates the expenditure, and prevents him from laying by a
{tock of provifions for his fupport, when laid off work by
cafualties or diftrefs. In the part of the kingdom where
the writer refides, nearly all farm-fervants are paid in this
manner. They have a certain quantity of grain, mainte.
nance for a cow fummer and winter, a piece of ground for

. planting potatoes and raifing flax, and whatever fuel they re-

quire, given gratis. Thefe, with the privilege of keeping a
hog anda few hens, enables them to live, and bring up their
families in a comfortable manner ; and, while their income is
confiderably lefs than people of their ftation in other parts,
they are, on the whole, better fed, better dreffed, and enabled
to give a better education to their children. Placed under
thefe circumiftances, they are a refpectable fet of men; and,
for frugality, faithfulnefs, and induttry, they will bear a
comparifon with their brethren in any quarter. The intro-
duGtion of a fimilar mode of paying farm-fervants into the
Wett Riding, is therefore recommended, which, although it
might at firlt be attended with fome difficulties, would con-
tribute to the public good, and to the advantage of the la-
bouring peafantry in many refpe@ts. And it is remarked in
the Herefordfhire Agricultural Survey, that if a certain pro-
portion between the price of labour and the average price of .
wheat could be fixed by law, fo as to render the applications
for parochial aid neceflary only in cafes of very large families,
of unufual illnefs, of feanty feafons, or any other real emer-
gency; the meafure, it is prefumed, would ftimulate in-
duftry and fidelity, would check difhonefty, and endear to a
numerous clafs their native foil.

The advance in the rate of farm-fervants’? wages who live
in the houfes of the farmers, has, within the laft twenty-five
years, been probably not lefs than from a third to a fourth
of the whole, according to the nature and fituation of the
dittri@, over the whole country ; but how far the agricul-
tural and manufacturing ftate of the nation may thereby be
affected, is difficult to determine.

It is a matter of very great confequence to farmers, to
have good, tractable, intelligent, able, and honelt fervants, as
no fort of good farm-work, or improvements, can be pro-
perly carried on without them. }

SERv ants’ Rooms, in Rural Economy, the lodging places
for farm-fervants, which fhould always, if poffible, be dif-
tinét from the houfe upon farms of confiderable fize. And
in cafes of very extenfive farms, and of courfe where many
fervants are required, efpecially if they be unmarried, pro-
per and convenient accommodations for fleeping, and where
they find their own provifions, for preparing and drefling
them in, are not only requifite, but highly advantageous,
both to the farmer and the men, as faving much time,
which would otherwife be Joft in going to their meals, and
keeping them together fober, fleady, and ready for their
different employments. And in this way the fervants are
much more comfortable, and live confiderably cheaper than
where it is the cuftom to go to public houfes, or other fuch
places for their meals, which is too much the cafe in many
of the more fouthern diftri€ts of the kingdom, by which
their manners often become depraved, and their conttitu-
tions enfeebled by the great ufe of fpirits, and other intoxi-
cating liquors, which they are almoft neceflitated to ee

é under

SER

fuch cireumftances. But thefe inconveniences are
the moft effectually guarded againft by fuch fer-

provided for, where it can done, from the
tables of be farmers. But where this laft method is fol-

| iol parts of their conduct. It has been ad-
, that whatever fituation may be fixed upon for thefe
conveniences, the d-floors thould — be of ftone

brick, per ones made with - er, as is done
counties, or brick, which is more

the
age kyr See PLasrzr we
kinds of farm labour may, however, probably at
more

is To ferve a rope, is
rope-yarn, fennit, a leather, a piece of
like upon it, which is rolled round
to keep it from fretting or galling in any

in Geography, a town of France, in
“the department of the Lozere ; ‘12 miles N.N.W.. of

~ Mende.

in Ecclefiaftical Hi » a fe& faid to
_ be the difciples or followers of 1 Servetus, the ring-
Meader of the Anti-Trinitarians of thefe laft ages. See his

net to efface, but to dimini
i eafy matter for him to diveit
himfelf at once of that perfecuting fpirit, which had been
fo long nourifhed or ftrengthened by the popifh religion in
was educated.

iven

to fome of the modern Anti-Trinitarians, becaufe chee fel.

low the footiteps he had marked out.

- yep en brite eeutts, tiie
theological writers o' teenth century,

1 Ries Garvetusin ‘eany paint of dnasins,

widely from him in his do¢trine of the Tri-

Sixtus Senenfis calls the Anabaptifts Servetifts, and feems
ufe the two terms indifferently. The truth is, in many
gs, the ancient Anabaptifts of Switzerland, &c. coin-

with
books that he wrote againft the Trinity are
fentiments are but ‘Lttle known : ML. Simon,
of the firit edition, delivers them at large

f difcovered, the imp

SER

fyftem of religion, at leaft not in the fir edition of his
book againit the Trinity, publithed in i¢31, under the
title “ De Trinitatis Seabee Libri feptem, per Mi-
chaclem Servetum, alias Reves, ab Arragonia Hiufpasum,”’

The year following he publithed his dislogucs on the
myltery of the Trinity. In the preface te which lait work
he declares himfelf diffatisfied with it, It was on this
account he undertook another on the fame fubjedt, of
much gréater extent, which did not appear ull the year
1553, a little before his death, under the title of “ Chrifti-
anilmi Reftivutio.”’

Thofe of Geneva, having feized the copies of this
edition, had it barnt; nor were there above two or three
that efcaped; one of which was kept at Bafil, where the
book was printed, but is now in the college library at
Dublin.

It was put to the prefs {ecretly in England, but being
=! a was feized and deitroyed.

Servetus, according to Mofheim’s account, conceived
that the genuine doétrine of Chrift had been entirely lott,
even before the council of Nice; and he was moreover
opinion, that it had never been delivered with a fufficient
degree of precifion in any period of the church. To thefe
extravagant affertions he added another {till more fo, even
that he himfelf had received a commiflion from above to
reveal anew this divine do¢trine, and to explain it to man-
kind. His notions with refpect to the Supreme Being,
and a Trinity of perfons in the godhead, were very ob
and chimerical, and amounted in general to the following pro-

ofitions: that the Deity, before the creation of the world,
had produced within himfelf two perfonal reprefentations
or manners of exiftence, which were to be the medium of
intercourfe between him and mortals, and by whom, con-
fequently, he was to reveal his will, and to difplay his

and beneficence to the children of men: that thefe
two reprefentatives were the Word and the Holy Ghoit:
that the former was united to the man Chriit, who was
born of the Virgin Mary, by an omnipotent ad of the
Divine Will ; and that, on this account, Chrift might be
properly called God: that the 3 | Spirit direéted the
courfe, and animated the whole fyitem of nature, and
more efpecially produced in the minds of men wife coun-
fels, virtuous propeniities, and divine feelings ; and, finally,
that thefe two reprefentations were to ceafe after the de-
ftruétion of this terreftrial globe, and to be abforbed into
the fubftance of the Deity, from whence they had been
formed.

Servetus, however, did not always explain his fyftem in
the fame manner, nor avoid inconfiitencies, contradiGtions,
and ambiguities; fo that it is extremely difficult to learn
his true fentiments. His fyftem of morality agreed in
many circumftances with that of the Anabaptilts, whom
he alfo imitated in cenfuring with the utmoft feverity the
cuftom of infant-baptifm. Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. 1768.

SERVETUS, Micuaet, in Biography, was born at Villa-
nueva, in Arragon, in 1509. His father was a notary-
pe ic, and he himfelf was fent to the academy of Tou-

ufe, where he ftudied the law during the {pace of three
years. About this period his attention was turned to the ftudy
of the facred {criptures, to which he was probably excited
by the reformers of that day. He foon difcovered many
errors and abufes in the church of Rome, in the tenets of
which he had been brought up, and laid then the found- -
ation of his opinions concerning the doétrine of the Trinity.
It is known, that at this period, many learned men w
Italy and other parts, among whom were fome pcasene

Te

SERVETOS.

of the church, condemned in private the reigning fuper-
ftitions, to which, however, they readily conformed in
public. Whether Servetus was initru@ted by any of thefe,
or whether his-own opinions were the refult of inveftigation,
cannot be afcertained: it is certain, that he did not think
it prudent to divulge them in France, and therefore re-
tired te Germany, where a much greater liberty of con-
feiencé was allowed and afferted, and where feveral princes
fecretly favoured the bold attacks on the popedom. He
went through Lyons and Geneva to Switzerland, and fixed
his refidence at Bafil in the year 1530. Here he was on
a footing of friendly intimacy with C&colampadius, with
whom he often converfed about various religious topics, but
to whofe peculiar opinions he would not yield, in the
{malleft degree, any notions which he had _previoufly
adopted. The unbending difpofition with regard to mat-
ters of {mall moment, alienated many perfons from Servetus
who had formed a high opinion of his talents and integrity.
While he was at Bafil, he put into the hands of a book-
feller a manufcript, “ De Trinitatis Erroribus,’? which
was printed in the year 1531. Seryetus now went to
Strafburg, in which city he became acquainted with two
reformers, viz. Capito and Bucerus. Here he fearched
for opportunities to communicate his religious tenets to his
new acquaintances, and here he learned that his work had
excited a confiderable ferfation among people of all clafles.
He was aware that he had, in many refpeéts, treated the
fubject too imperfectly ; and had made ufe of expreflions
that were liable to give offence; he accordingly, in the fol-
lowing year, endeavoured to foften the unfavourable im-
preflion, and to avert a ftorm that feemed threatening to
fall upon him, by publifhing a work entitled « Dialogorum
de Trinitate Libri duo,”? in which he explained and de-
fended his opinions. The confequences of this fecond piece
was, that many were exafperated againft the author, while
a few adopted his doGtrines and {pread them abroad. CEco-
lampadius requefted his friend Bucer to inform Luther,
that Servetus’s book had been publifhed without their
knowledge, in order that it might not be fuppofed they
had given any countenance to the propagation of the offen-
five tenets. And Melanchthon, in {peaking at this time of
Servetus, fays, ‘* He wants neither acutenefs nor cunning
in difputing, but I cannot allow him energy. He has,
moreover, as it appears to me, confufed imaginations,
neither is he able fufficiently to explain his thoughts with
precifion. He unqueftionably {peaks like a madman about
jultification ; about the Trinity, regs rs reiadoc, you know
that I have been always apprehenfive that fimilar things
fooner or later would break out. Good God! what trage-
dies will this queftion excite among potterity.”’

The circumitances of Servetus being low, he engaged
for fome time with the Frellons, eminent bookfellers at
Lyons, as corre¢tor of the prefs. From Lyons he went
to Paris, where he ftudied phyfic under the celebrated
Sylvius, Fernelius, and other profeflors; and, as we fhall
have occafion to remark hereafter, he carried into that
{cience the fame penetrating {pirit and love of improvement
which diftinguifhed him in theology. He graduated at
Paris, and being invefted with this honour, he delivered
public le€tures in geography and fome branches of mathe-

matics, while he followed the profeffion of a phyfician.

At Paris he quarrelled with the faculty, and wrote an

“« Apology,” which was fupprefled by the parliament.

After quitting that capital he praétifed phyfic at Charlieu,

near Lyons, whence, at the invitation of the archbifhop of

Vienne, he removed to that city, and had apartments near
3

the palace. He had, previoufly to this, wz. in 1542,
fuperintended the printing of a Latin Bible at Lyons, to
which he added marginal notes, under the name of Villas
novanus,

During this time, Servetus was in conftant correfpond»
ence with Calvin, with whom he difcuffed various points of
controverfy, and te whom he opened himfelf freely and
without referve concerning his particular notions, and con-
fulted him refpeCting his writings. Calvin afterwards made
a bafe ufe of this confidence, by aétually producing his let-
ters and manu{cripts as matter of accufation againft him on his
trial. It muft not, however, be concealed, that Calvin does
not appear to have encouraged Servetus to this expofition of
his fentiments, for he frequently fent him in reply angry
and fevere letters. In 1553, Servetus publifhed his matured
theological fyftem under the title of ‘* Chriftianifmi Reftitu-
tio.” Confcious of the danger to the author of fuch a
work in a Catholic country he concealed his name, but
Calvin took care that the magiftrates of Vienne fhould be
informed of it. He was in confequence thrown into prifon,
and his death would have added an example to the num-
berlefs cruelties of Roman Catholic perfecutions, had he:
not made his efcape. His effigy and his books were con-
demned to the flames. Servetus, purpofing to go to Naples
to practife in his profeffion, imprudently went through
Geneva. Calvin, who was acquainted with the plans of the
traveller, and who was on the watch to entrap him, gave
information to the magiftrates the moment he arrived within
the gates of the city. He was accordingly feized, thrown
into prifon, and a charge of blafphemy and herefy was
preferred againft him by Calvin’s own fervant. In order
to enfure conviétion and condemnation, no lefs than thirty-
eight articles of accufation were breught againft him, for
which not only his laft work, but all his other writings were
ranfacked. As a proof of the malice and unfairnefs with
which he was treated, it is mentioned that one of the charges
was extracted from his preface to an edition of Ptolemy’s
Geography, publifhed twenty years before, in which he
had aflerted, that Judea had been falfely extolled for its
beauty and fertility, fince modern travellers had found it
to be fterile and unfightly. That no doubt might be left
whence the profecution camé, one of the main articles
again{t the prifoner was, that in the perfon of Mr. Calvin,
minifter of the word of God in the church of Geneva, he
had defamed the dotrine preached in it, uttering all ima-
ginable injurious and blafphemous words againtt it.

Servetus, in the firft examination, repelled with firmnefs
every accufation, though he avowed that he publifhed in
Germany his book ‘ De Trinitatis Erroribus ;’’ in France
his “ Reftitutio Chriftianifmi,”’ together with Ptolemzus,
and the edition of Pagnini’s bible. At the fecond examin-
ation, he acknowledged, when urged to confefs the truth,
fome of the articles brought againft him in regard to his
publications, denied others, and hefitated to explain him-
felf more plainly upon others. But when he was again
queftioned, ‘¢ why he had flandered Calvin, and lacerated
the Chriftian doétrine ?”? he protefted that Calvin had been
the aggreflor, and that if he had recriminated it was done in
felf-defence; which plea was deemed by his judges as an
aggravation of his offence. :

The magiftrates of Geneva were, however, fenfible that
many eyes were upon them in this extraordinary proceed-
ing, with re{pe& to one who was no fubject of their’s, nor
a refident in their city, nor could he be accufed of having
committed any offence in their territory, and within their
jurifdiétion. He was, in truth, kidnapped in his paflage.

Moreover,

SER

Moreover, it could not but appear itrange, that men fhould
be aflociates in perfecution, with thofe ver ple who
would infallibly burn them as heretics, fhould they fall into
their hands. They therefore thought it advifeable to con-
fult the magillrates of the Proteitant cantons of Switaerland,
to whom t fent Servetus’s book, with Calvin's reply.
The Helvetic divines, to whom the matter was referred,
unanimoufly declared for his punifhment: they faid that
Servetus’s errors ought to be detelted, and that yreat care

aoe,

exc fecond he complained that a fair
trial had not been allowed him. As he refufed to retract
his opinions, he was, notwithftanding his pleas, condemned
to the flames as an obttinate heretic, which cruel fentence

carried into execution on the 27th of Oober 1553,

he was in forty-fourth year of his age. tins
fufferings were particularly fevere, and the fire was fo

Seaae that the unfortunate man lingered in excruciating
pain more hours.

That bloody perfecution was difapproved by many
at the time, is rendered probable by the apology for
the Genevan magiltrates, ‘publithed by Calvin, in which he
_ undertook to prove that it was lawful to punifh heretics

with death. The mild and otherwife moderate and benevolent
Melanchthon fanétioned the deed by a congratulatory letter
addrefled to the iftrates of Geneva. The conduct of
Calvin in this 8, as inftigated not only by bigotry,
perfonal hatred, has imprefled an indelible ftain on his
3 and the only le excufe now offered for it
the provocation given by Servetus, “ whofe ex-
- eeffive arrogance,” according to Mofheim, “ was accompa-
nied with a malignant and contemptuous fpirit, and an in-
vincible obftinacy of temper.”
The ical fyftem of Servetus is defcribed as fingular
in the higheit degree. The greateft part of it was a

neceflary confequence of his peculiar notions concerning the
univerfe, the nature of and the nature of things,

_ which were equally ftrange and chimerical. See the article

is numbered among thofe anatomifts who made
app h to the Toarine of the circulation of

the
the penpeeagy-cned tp this effe@ is contained in
his lateft and work, “ De Reftitutione Chriftianifmi.”’

<>

EF
3
Fr

z

his talents and for his difcoveries in the profeflion

of medicine. Whatever might have been his errors as a

ian, it is certain he never preached them to the vulgar,

but communicated them freely to Calvin, CEcolampadius,

: Bucerus, and other reformers, with an eagernefs to
truth which has never been furpafled.

The atrocious murder committed on him will not ad-

Pore age gies OD.

SER

mit of a fingle excufe, His imprifonment was feandalous
and unjuft, The fenate of Geneva bad wo right to lay
violent hands upon a traveller, who had no intestion of
remaining in their city, and who probably never uttered
within the precinéts of their dominions one fyllable of his
obnoxious opinions. Here Geneva ftands condemned by all
civilians.

The aflability of the manners of Servetus, and his vaft
learning, had procured him numerous friends in France, ia
Germany, and in Italy ; and his name will be handed down
to the lateft poiterity with commiferation and refpe¢t. See
a life of Servetus, in a feries of letters to Jedidiah Morfe,
D. D., by Fr. Adrian Vanderkemp; inferted in vol. v. of
the Monthly Repofitory.

SERUG, in Geography, » town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir ; 12 miles S. of Ourfa.

SERUGNANO, a town of Italy, in the Veronefe ;
8 miles E.N.E. of Verona.

SERVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe, part of the
ancient Pannonia, or of ‘Turkith Illyria, deriving its name
from its inhabitants, is bounded on the N, {nia and
Sclavonia, on the E. by Walachia and Bulgaria, on the 8.
by Macedonia and Albania, and on the W. by Bofnia and
Dalmatia. It was formerly divided into Proper Servia, or
Serbia, and Rafcia, and the inhabitants were diftingui
into Servians, and Rafcians or Reitzes; and the former,
which conititutes the upper part, towards the Danube, be-
longs to the bannat of Mafovia. The capital of Servia is
Belgrade, (which fee). The Turks call it Lafs Vilayeti,
or Tire land, becaufe in the year 1365, when they
fubdued it, Lazarus was prince of Serbia. See Sen-
VLANS.

SERVIAN, a town of France, in the department of the
Herault, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Beziers; 6 miles N.E. of Beziers. The place contains
2200, and the canton 7319 inhabitants, on a territory of
1174 kiliometres, in 9 communes.

SERVIANS, or Senses, a branch of the Illyrian Slavi,
who gave name tothe province called Servia or Serbia. In
the Ruffian empire the Servians and Reitzes are colonifts, to
whom, in the year 1754, 2 confiderable diftri& was allotted
on the Dnieper near and upon the pofleffions of the Zaporagian
Coffacks. This country, which got the name of New Servia,
was for the moit part an uninhabited defert, ex ing to
what were then the POlifh borders, by which it was fur-
rounded on three fides. The Serbians, who voluntarily
fettled here in great numbers, were formed into a military
affociatisn, to be a check upon the diffentions and excefice
of the Zaporagians. In the year 1764, the whole of this
traét of country was ereéted into the government of New
Rufflia, and at prefent forms a confiderable part of the pro-
vince of Ekaterinoflaf.

SERVICE, or Servace, Servitium, in Law, a duty
which the tenant, by reafon of his fee, owes to the lord.

This, in pure, proper, and original feuds, was only two-
fold: to follow, or to do fuit to, the lord in his courts in
time of peace ; and in his armies, or warlike retinue, when
neceflity called him to the field.

Ancient law-books make feveral divifions ef f{ervice, viz.
into perfonal, real, and mixt ; military and baje, intrinfic and
extrinfic, &c. But, fince the ftatute 12 Car. L., by which
all tenures are turned into free and comman focage, much
of that learning is fet afide. Yet it may not be amifs to
mention how the feveral kinds of fervice are defcribed ia
our ancient law-books.

Ssxvice, Perfonal, is that to be performed by the per-
fon. Such is that due frem a flave to his mafter.

po Perfonal

SER

Perfonal fervice is a difgraceful fort of tenure, under
which lands were formerly held, and in which the tenant
did various forts of work for the lord, and provided him
with a variety of different articles. It is a cuftom which
has long been abolifhed in this part of the kingdom, as being
highly injudicious and improper; but which, Mr. Donaldfon
remarks, is not wholly difcarded in Scotland. “ In the
north of Scotland,”’ fays he, ‘the rents are to a certain ex-
tent paid in perfonal {fervices; the tenants being bound to
plow and harrow a certain proportion of the proprietor’s
farm; to reap, carry home, thrafh, drefs, and mill a cer-
tain quantity of his crop at their own charges; and that
they are alfo bound to pay poultry, eggs, cheefe, fheep,
fwire, fifh, linen, yarn, &c.’? It might, continues he,
have been unavoidably neceflary, from the want of a cir-
culating medium in the early periods of the hiftory of this
country, to oblige the tenants to pay their rents in perfonal
fervices, and in the various articles of produce which their
farms afforded; but it muft be confidered a fingular cir-
cumfttance in the hiftory of Great Britain, that in the end
of the eighteenth century, and at a period when the intro-
duétion of improvements in agriculture is the chief topic of
converfation, there fhould exift proprietors, who are fo loft
to every fentiment regarding what is due to the community
of which they are members, to the people whom Providence
has placed under their protection, and to the improvement
of their native country, as to perfift in demanding from
their tenants a fpecies of rent, which no farmer, who 1s en-
titled to the name, would fubmit to pay, nor any pro-
prietor, who regarded the good of his country, or his own
intereft, think of requiring. Thefe difgraceful fervices
fhould of courfe be done away with in every fituation, as
being incompatible with all forts of improvements in huf-
bandry, or the introduétion of {pirited agriculture into any

art.
i This fort of fervice is not only hoftile to all kinds of
farming improvements, but highly diftrefling and ruinous
to tenants at particular feafons, as during the feed-time, the
harveft, and the time of getting in the hay, by being often
under the neceffity of negleGting their own operations and
bufineffes, in order to perform the various works of their
lords, or fuperiors. The fooner thefe fervices are wholly
abolifhed in every part of the kingdom, the better it will be
for the interefts of agriculture.

Service, Real, is either urbane or ruflic; which two
kinds differ, not in the place, but the thing. The firft is
that due from a building or houfe, in whatever place fituate,
whether in city or in country, as keeping a drain, a viita,
or the like.

Services, Ruffic, are thofe due for grounds, where
there is no building ; fuch is the right of paflage through
ways, &c.

Service, Mizxt, is that due from the perfon, by reafon
of the thing, as an ufufruit, &c. x

Our ancient law-books tell us of lands held of the king,
by the tenant’s letting a fart before the king on New Year’s
Day; others, by furnifhing the king with whores, when-
ever he travelled that way; others, by bringing the king
a mefs of pottage at his coronation-feaft, &c.

There are alfo zatural fervices. For inftance, if a man
cannot gather the produce of his lands, without pafling
through his neighbour’s_grounds, the neighbour is obliged
to allow a paflage, as a natural fervice.

Service, Forenfic or Extrinfic, Servitium forenficum, &c.
was a fervice which did not belong to the chief lord, but to
the king.

It = called forenfic and extrinfic, becaufe done foris,

SER

out of doors; and extra fervitium. We meet with feveral
grants, in the Monatticon, of all liberties, with the appur-
tenances, falvo forenft fervitio.

Service, Intrinfic, Servitium intrinficum, that due to the
chief lord alone, from his vaflals within his manor.

Servicr, Frank, Servitium liberum, a fervice done by
the feudatory tenants, who were called /iberi homines, and
diftin& from vaflals: as was likewife their fervice ; for the
were not bound to any bafe fervices, as to plow the lord’s
lands, &c. but only to find a man and horfe to attend the
lord into the army or court.

Service, Bafe. See VILLENAGE.

SeRvicE, Bord. See BorDAGE.

ServicE, foreign, Honorary, Knights, Rent.
adjectives.

SERVICE,

SERVICE,

See the

Fleriet. See Hrrior.
Ovelty of. See Overty.

SERVICE, Suit of. See Surr.

Service, Choral, in Church Hiflory, denotes that part
of religious worfhip which confifts in chanting and finging.
The advocates for the high antiquity of finging, as a part of
church mufic, urge the authority of St. Paul in its favour ;
Ephef. chap. v. ver. g. and Coloff. chap. tii. ver, 16. On
the authority of which pailages it is afferted, that fongs and
hymns were, from the eftablifhment of the church, fung in
the aflemblies of the faithful; and it appears, from un-
doubted teftimony, that finging, which was practifed as a
facred rite among the Egyptians and Hebrews, at a very
early period, and which likewife conftituted a confiderable
part of the religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans,
made a part of the religious worfhip of Chriftians, not only
before churches were built, and their religion eftablifhed by
law, but from the firft profeflion of Chnitianity. How-
ever, the era from whence others have dated the introduc-
tion of mufic into the fervice of the church, is that period,
during which Leontius governed the church of Antioch,
z.e. between the year of Chrift 347 and 356. See An‘i-
PHONY.

From Antioch the praétice foon fpread through the other
churches of the Eaft ; and in a few ages after its firft intro-
duétion into the divine fervice, it not only received the
fanétion of public authority, but thofe were forbid to. join
in it who were ignorant of mufic. A canon to this purpole
was made by the council of Laodicea, which was held
about the year 372; and Zonaras informs us, that thefe
canonical fingers were reckoned a part of the clergy. Sing-
ing was introduced into the weftern churches by St. Am-
brofe, about the year 374, who was the inftitutor of the
Ambrofian chant, eftablifhed at Milan about the year 386 ;
and Eufebius (lib. 1. cap. 17.) tells us, that a regular
choir, and method of finging the fervice, were firft efta-
blifthed, and hymns ufed in the church at Antioch, during
the reign of Conftantine; and that St. Ambrofe, who had
long refided there, had his melodies thence. This was,
about two hundred and thirty years afterwards, amended by
pope Gregory the Great, who eltablifhed the Gregorian
chant; a plain, unifonous kind of melody, which he
thought confiftent with the gravity and dignity of the fer-
vice to which it was to be applied. This prevails in the
Roman church even at this day; it is known in Italy by the
name of canto fermo; in France, by that of plain chant ;
and in Germany, and moft other countries, by that of
the cantus Gregorianus. spa no fatisfaétory account
has been given of the fpecific difference between the Am-
brofian and Gregorian chants, yet all writers on this fubjeé&
agree in faying, that St. Ambrofe only ufed the four au-
thentic modes, and that the four plagal were afterwards
9 added

SER
added by St. G Each of thefe had the fame final,
or key-note, as its relative authentic; from which there is

no other difference than that the melodies in the four au-

Ecclefiaftical writers feem unanimous in allowing, that

| G » who bages his pontificate in colleéted
iad Scents of fuch aces ota hymns as
the firft fathers of the church had et and recom-
mended to the firft Chriftians; and that he felected, me-
thodized, and arranged them in the order which was lon
_ continued at Rome, and foon meres be tht Ot pee ©
the weltern church. nea ct daaging

with thofe of Ptolemy in the fingle inttance of key, but
‘ with thofe of antiquity. From the time of Gregory
to that of Guido, there was no other diftinétion of keys
than that of authentic and plagal; nor were any femi-
- tones ufed but thofe from E to F, B to C, and occationally
Ato Bs
be
§

ways ; fometimes the pfalms were fung by one perfon alone
whut the ret attended : :
_ by the whole affembly ; fometimes alternately, the congre-

Of the four different methods of finging now recited, the
~ fecond and third were properly diftinguifhed by the names
and antiphony ; and the Fioter was fometimes
efponfaria, in which women were allowed to join.
who, caro to Socrates Soot pas

is generally fuppofed to have
to the ean La Chriftians in

dialogue ;
where Chriitianity was eftablifhed; though
| heodoret, in his Hittory (lib. ii. c. 24.), tells us, that this
‘manner of finging was firft praGtifed at Antioch. It like-
wife from the time when mufic was
rit introduced into the fervice of the church, it was of two

; confifted in a gentle infleGtion of the voice, which
in fong, and a more elaborate and artificial
alaated to the b ns and folemn offices eon-
ed in its ritual; and this diftin@ion has been maintained
n to the prefent day. ,

f vice was firft introduced into the cathe

SER

muGc in parts, as it does not appear, in thefe ear! :
that either the Greeks or Renae were in polle oot
harmony or counterpoint, which has been ally elenbed
to Guide, a monk of Arezzo, in Tuleany, about the
year 1022; though others have traced the origin of it
to the cighth century, it is in vain to feck it in the
church, The choral mufic, which had its rife in the
church of Antioch, and from thence fpread through
Greece, Italy, France, Spain, and Germany, was brought
into Britain by the fingers who accompanied Aultin the
monk, when he came over, in the year 596, charged with
a commiffion to convert the inhabitants of this country to
Chriftianity. Bede tells us, that when Auttin and the com-
anions of his miffion, had their firit audience of king Ethel-
rt, in the ifle of Thanet, they approached him in pro-
ceflion, finging litanies ; and that afterwards, when they en-
tered the city of Canterbury, they fung a litany, and at
the end of it, Allelujah. But though this was the firit
time the Anglo-Saxons had heard the Gregorian chant, yet
Bede likewife tells us, that our Britifh anceftors had been
inftruéted in the rites and ceremonies of the Gallican church
by St. Germanus, and heard him fing Allelujah many years
before the arrival of St. Auftin. In 680, John, precentor
of St. Peter’s in Rome, was fent over by pope Agatho to
inftru& the monks of Weremouth in the art of finging ; and
he was prevailed upon to open {chools for teaching mufic in
other places of Northumberland. Benediét i the
preceptor of Bede, Adrian the monk, and many others,
contributed to difleminate the knowledge of the Roman
chant. At length the fucceflors of St. Gregory, and of
St. Auftin his miffionary, having eftablifhed a fchool for
ecclefiaitical mufic at Canterbury, the reft of the ifland was
furnifhed with mafters from that feminary. The choral fer-
del church of Can-
terbury, and, till the arrival of Theodore, and his fettle-
ment in that fee, the practice of it feems to have been con-
fined to the churches of Kent; but after that, it {pread
over the whole kingdom ; and we meet with records of very
ample endowments for the fupport of this part of public
worfhip. This mode of religious worfhip prevailed in all
the Euro churches till the time of the Reformation:
the firit deviation from it is that which followed the re-
formation by Luther, who being himfelf a lover of mufic,
formed a liturgy, which was a mufical fervice, contained in
a work, entitled, «* Pfalmodia, h. e. Cantica facra Veteris Ec-
clefiz fele&a,” printed at Norimberg in 1553, and at Wit-
temberg in 1561. But Calvin, in his eltablifhment of a
church at Geneva, reduced the whole of divine fervice to
yer, preaching, and finging ; the latter of which he re-
ined. He excluded the office of the antiphon, hymn,
and motet, of the Romifh fervice, with that artificial and
elaborate mufic to which they were fung ; and adopted onl
that plain metrical pfalmody, which is now in general wd
among the reformed churches, and in the parochial churches
of our own sah For this purpofe he made ufe of
Marot’s verfion of the Pfalms, and employed a mufician to
fet them to eafy tunes only of one part. In 1553, he di-
vided the Pfalms into paufes or fall portions, and ap-
panies them to be fung in churches. Soon after they were
und up with the Geneva catechifm, from which time the
Catholics, who had been accultomed to fing them, were
forbid the ufe of them, under a fevere penalty. Soon after
the reformation commenced in England, complaints were
made by many of the dignified clergy, and others, of the
intricacy and difficulty of the church mufic of thofe times :
in confequence of which it was once propofed, that ome
and curious finging fhould be removed a our -_ ches.
timer,

SER

Latimer, in his diocefe of Worceller, went ftill further,
and iffued injunGtions to the prior and convent of St. Mary,
forbidding in their fervice all manner of finging. In the
reign of Edward VI. a commiflion was granted to eight
bifhops, eight divines, eight civilians, and eight common
lawyers, to compile a body ‘of fuch ecclefiaftical laws as
fhould in future be obferved throughout the realm. The
refult of this compilation was a work, firft publifhed by
Fox the Martyrologitt, in 1571, and afterwards in 1640,
under the title of “ Reformatio Lezum Ecclefiafticarum.”
Thefe thirty-two commiffioners,, inftead of reprobating
church mufic, merely condemned figurative and operofe
mufic, or that kind of finging which abounded with fugues,
refponfive paflages, and a commixture of various and intri-
cate proportions; which, whether extemporary or written,
is by muficians termed defcant. However, notwithitanding
the objections againit choral mufic, and the practice of
fome of the reformed churches, the compilers of the Eng-
lifh liturgy, in 1548, and the king himlelf, determined to
retain mufical fervice. Accordingly the ftatute 2 & 3
Edw. VI. cap. 1. though it contains no formal obligation
on the clergy, or others, to ufe or join in either vocal or in-
ftrumental mufic in the common prayer, does clearly recog-
nize the prattice of finging; and in lefs than two years
after the compiling of king Edward’s liturgy, a formula
was compofed, which continues, with fcarcely any variation,
to be the rule for choral fervice even at this day. The au-
thor of this work was John Marbecke, or Marbeike; and
it was printed by Richard Grafton, in 1550, under the title
of the Book of Common Prayer, noted. Queen Mary la-
boured to re-eftablifh the Romith choral fervice; but the
aceeffion of Elizabeth was followed by the a& of uni-
formity ; in confequence of which, and of the queen’s in-
junctions, the Book of Common Prayer, noted by Mar-
becke, was confidered as the general formula of choral fer-
vice. In 1560, another mufical fervice, with fome addi-
tions and improvements, was printed by John Day ; and in
1565, another collection of Offices, with mufical notes.
Many obje€tions were urged by Cartwright, and other Puri-
tans, again{t the form and manner of cathedral fervice, to
which Hooker replied, in his Ecclefiaftical Polity. In
1664, the ftatutes of Edward VI. and Elizabeth, for uni-
formity in the common prayer, were repealed; and the di-
rectory for public worfhip, which allows only of the fing-
ing of pfalms, eftablifhed. But upon the reftoration of
Charles II. choral fervice was again revived, and has fince
uniformly continued. The Quakers objeé& to finging as a
part of public worfhip, and accordingly it is never practifed
in their meetings. To this refpe€table body we here make
an apology for a jeu d’efprit of our learned coadjutor, Dr.
B., who compiled part of the article Lirurcy, which
efcaped him, notwithitanding his well-known liberality and
candour, and which was undoubtedly unfeafonably intro-
duced, in an account of their public worfhip. Religious
{cruples, though in fome refpe€ts unfounded and unwar-
rantable, when feriou!ly avowed, are not fit fubjeés of ridi-
cule. See on this fubjeét Hawkins’s Hilt. of Mutfic, vol. i.
p- 404. vol. ii. p. 254. vol. iii. p. 58—468, &c. vol. iv.
Pp: 44—347- Burney’s Hift. Muf. vol. ii. ch. i. paffim.

Services of the Church. (See CATHEDRAL Services.)
Thefe have been colle¢ted, and fplendidly and accurately
publifhed in fcore, by-do€tors Green, Boyce, and Arnold.
Thefe valuable publications appeared in the following order,
and are reputable monuments of the abilities of our old
maiters in the ecclefiaftical ftyle of compofition, equal, at
jeaft, to contemporary produétions by the greateft contra-
puntifts on the continent.

SER

Caturprat Music; being a colleGtion in fcore of the’
mott valuable and ufeful compofitions for the fervice by tlie
feveral Englifh matters of the laft 200 years, the whole fe-
leed and carefully revifed by Dr. William Boyce, organift
and compofer to the royal chapels, and matter of his ma-
jefty’s band of muficians. Vol. i. 1760. :

The fecond volume was publifhed in 1768, and the third
in 1773. Thefe were both dedicated to his majefty.

In 1780, Dr. Samuel Arnold, organift and compofer to
his majelty’s royal chapels, publifhed, in the fame fplendid
manner, a firft volume, in continuation of this colle@ion
of fervices and full and verfe anthems of old mafters; and
in 1790 a fecond and third volume, all dedicated to the
king,

There is likewife, in the Britifh Mufeum, Bibl. Har.
7337) Plut. VI. B. a collection of Englifh church mufic,
in fix vols. 4to. all tranferibed for and dedicated to the right
hon. Edward lord Harley, by Dr. Thomas Tudway, mufic
profeflor of Cambridge. In thefe volumes, among fome
compofitions of no great merit, there are many valuable pro-
ductions by Tye, Tallis, Bird, Morley, Gibbons, Child,
Blow, Purcell and Crofts, that have never yet been pub-
lifhed.

SERVICE, Cathedral. See CATHEDRAL Service.

Servics-7ree, in Botany, acorruption of the Latin Sor-
sus; fee that article, as well as Pyrus and Mrspitus.

Service-Tree, Wild. See CRATEGUS.

SERVIENTES Vireatorgs. See VirGATORES.

SERVIERE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lozere; 15 miles N.W. of Mende,

SERVIERES, a town of France, inthe department of ©
the Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Tulle; 13 miles S.E. of Tulle. The place contains 1115,
and the canton 8567 inhabitants, ona territory of 265 kilio-
metres, in 10 communes.

SERVILE, in Hebrew Grammar, the denomination of
a clafs of letters ufed in contradiftinG@ion to radical. The
latter conftitute roots (which fee), and the former confti-
tute derivatives, or branches from thefe roots, -and are em-
ployed in all the different flexions. Of all the twenty-two
letters of the alphabet, any of which may be radicals, there
are properly only eleven letters that can claim this title, be-
caufe they never can be ferviles. The ferviles are the other
eleven letters, by means of which the whole bufinefs of
flexion, derivation, numbers, genders, perfons, and tenfes, is
accomplifhed. But eyen thefe letters are fomewhat limited
in their fervile power. For only two of them, viz. } and? _
can be inferted or ingrafted between radical letters; the
others mutt be either prefixed or poltfixed to the root. The
eleven fervile letters are the following ; &, 3 TM» > % D> J»
D> 3 tw Fe : j

SERVIN, Louts, in Biography, a celebrated lawyer in
France, who flourifhed at the fixteenth and beginning of
the feventeenth centuries, was defcended of a good family
in the Vendomois. He cultivated polite literature with fuc-
cefs while he was young, and at an early period became the
corre{pondent of feveral eminent men of letters in different
parts of Europe. In 1589 he was appointed advocate-
general to the parliament of Paris, being then, according to
Vendome, ‘a young man of great learning, and much at-
tached to the interefts of his majefty Henry III.”” He dif-
tinguifhed himfelf in that ftation by hie zealous fupport of
the liberties of the Gallican church, and his oppofition to
the pretenfions of the court of Rome. His printed plead-
ings were honoured with the cenfure of the Sorbonne, and
with avirulent attack bya Jefuit of Provence. The title
of his work was ‘ Aétions notables et Plaidoyers.””? In

1590

SER

4 he publifhed a work in favour of Henry 1V., who
oT denuded to the crown, entitled * Vindicie fecundum
Libertatem Ecclefix Gallicane, et Defenfio Regii Status
Gallo-Francorum {ub Henrico IV. Rege."’ Lo i598, being
joined in a commiffion for the reformation of the univerfit
of Paris, he delivered “a remonftrance’’ on the fubject, which
1 Teo him alfo is attributed a work in favour
of republic of Venice in the affairs of the Interdi¢t.
In the reign of Lewis XILL., at a bed of juitice holden in
earl rome and animated remonttrances in favour
parliament to regilter royal ediéts. On an-
other ine eceafion, for atecect st compelling the
iltry of financial edi&s, as he was firmly but re-
making freth remonftrances to his majetty, be fud-
and expired at the king's feet, a memorable death,
and fuch, fays his biographer, as may in a meafure entitle
him to be earolled among the martyrs to liberty. ‘The pri-
vate character of this excellent magiftrate was worthy his
high public reputation, and few men of his time ftood in
more

- Ricorne,
Plate a fhort board with {cores in it, is ufed for
— on fervice.
SERVISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
vince of Farfiftan ; 25 miles S.E. of Schiras.
SERVITES, an order of religious, fo denominated from
their vowing a peculiar attachment to the fervice of the

Vv .

The order was founded by feven Florentine merchants,
‘who, about the year 1233, to live in community
on mount » two leagues from Florence. In 1239,

. cen received from the bifhop the rule of St. Auguttine,
a black habit, in lieu of a grey one, a

sworn before. In 1251, Bonfilio Monaldi, one of the feven,

i ple prior of mount Senar, was named

Hi

_ This order was approved of by the council of Lateran,
in by cardinal n= he legate of pope In-
+» who put it u the protection of the holy
cceeding have granted it a great many
t is become famous in Italy, by the hiftory of
of Trent, of F. Paolo, a Venetian, who was a
jous Servite. M. Hermant gives this order the name
| eet myo me — Fae aner oe this ee that in
4 cities 0 are religious of the Annunciate,
in thofe Cains their church is dedicated under that
F. oe Giani derives the name Servites, fer-
irgin, from hence ; that when they ap-
ince cnet hess habit given them by
mere ucklin i » as + cried out,
Bebold the fervants of ihe Virgin. ‘There are al nuns ef
| SERVITIA, Per Qee. See Per Qu.
— SERVITIIS Acguictandis, a writ judicial that lies fora
diftrained for fervices to one, when he owes and per-
them to another, for the acquittal of fuch fervices.
‘Servitis Con/fuctudinibus. See ConsueTuDINIBUS.
SERVITOR, in the univerfity of Oxford, a fcholar or
who attends and waits on another for his main-

ETTHL
aie

of

SER

Senvirons of Bills, devote fuch fervants or mefleagers
of the marfhal of the king’s bench, as were fent abroad
with bills or writs, to fummon men to that court, ‘They
are now commonly called sip- faves.

SERVITUDE, the condition of » fervant, or rather
flave. Under the declenfion of the Roman empire, a new
kind of fervitude was introduced, different from that of the
ancient Romans; it confifted in leaving the lands of fub-
jugated nations to the firft owners, upon condition of certain
rents, and fervile offices, to be paid in acknowledgment.
Hence the names of ferwi confiti, aferiptitii, and addidis gleba ;
fome of which were taxable at the reafonable diferetion of
the lord; others at a certain rate agreed on; and others
were mainmortable, who, having no legitimate children,
could not make a will to above the value of five-pence, the
lord being heir of all the reft; and others were prohibited
marrying, or going to live out of the lordfhip. Moft of
which ae, fill fubfift in one province or other of
France; though they are all abolifhed in England. Such,
however, was the original of our tenures, &c. 6ee SLAVE.

SERVIUS, Mavnus-Hononarus, in Biography, a

marian and critic, who flourifhed in the reigns of
rcadius and Honorius, is principally known by his Com-
mentaries on Virgil, which, however, are confidered rather
as a colleétion of ancient remarks and criticifms on that
poet than as made by himfelf. They contain many valuable
notices of the geography and arts of antiquity. ‘The Com-
mentaries of Servius were firft printed feparately at Venice
in 1471, and have frequently been reprinted fince. In
1532 they were annexed to Stephens’s Virgil, but they are
moit correétly given in Burman’s edition in 1756. A tra&
on profody by this author, entitled “ Centimetrum,’”’ is
printed in the collections of the ancient grammarians. Ser-
vius is mentioned with refpect and honour by Macrobius,
who makes him one of the fpeakers in his Saturnalia.
Gen. Biog.

Servius, Sutricius Rurus, an eminent Roman jurift
and ftatefman, was defcended from the illuitrious patrician
family of Sulpicii. He was contemporary with Cicero,
and — probably about a century before the birth of
Chrift. He cultivated polite literature from a very early
period, efpecially philofophy and poctry, and wrote fome
pieces in the latter clafs, which were marked with the licen-
tioufnefs of the time. He bore arms in the Marfic war;
but finding himfelf better pleafed with the arts of peace, he
- agai a pleader at the bar in the 25th year of his age.

he profeffions of advocate and lawyer were then fo diitinét,
that the former were accuftomed to confult jurifts upon all
difficult points. Servius having osce applied for that pur-
pofe to Quintus Mucius, a very eminent lawyer, the latter
perceiving that Servius did not comprehend his explanations,
afked him if it were not a fhame that he, a patrician and

leader, fhould be ignorant of the law upon which he was
quently called to fpeak. This reproof is {aid to have
had fuch an effet upon him, that Servius quitted the bar,
and all his attention to legal ftudies; and fuch was
his fuccefs, that Cicero faid of him, “ Ifall, in every age,
who in this city have acquired a knowledge of the law, were
brought tegether, they would not be to be compared with
Servius Sulpicius.;’? and he farther adds, that “ he was
not lefs the oracle of juftice than of the law: he always
referred to princi equity and obvious interpretation
what he chee sa ee code, and was lefs defirous
of finding grounds for aétions than of fettling difputes.”
There was a great intimacy formed between thefe two
perfonages, and there are feveral letters extant from Cicero
to Sulpitius, and twe from Sulpitius te Cicero, of which
eur

SER

one is a well-known confolatory epiftle on the death of
Tullia.

Servius paffed through the ufual gradations of honour
among Romans of rank. He was firft quettor, then edile
and pretor. When the troubles of the republic were im-
pending, he was created inferrex, in which quality he nomi-
nated Pompey fole conful. He was himfelf conful with
Marcellus, in the year 51 B. C., and oppofed the motion
of his colleasue to remove Cefar from his command, left it
fhould immediately bring on a civil war. After the battle
of Pharfalia he declared for Czfar, and was appointed
governor of Achaia. When that chief was taken off he
returned to Rome, and aéted with the party who aimed at
the reftoration of public liberty. During the fiege of
Modena by Mark Antony, he was urged by the fenate to
undertake a legation to him, which, after pleading his age
and infirmities, he accepted: but he forefaw it would be
fatal to him, and he died in Antony’s camp in the year
43 B.C. Cicero’s ninth Philippic is entirely employed in
pleading for a brafs ftatue to the memory of this excellent
man, as for one who had loft his life in the fervice of the
republic, which was voted by the fenate. Servius was
author of a great number of volumes on legal topics, none
of which have been preferved ; but quotations from fome
ef them are extant in A. Gellius.

Servius Tutttus, the fixth king of Rome, was the fon
of Ocrifia, a native of Corniculum, who was made a captive
when the Romans took that place. Tarquin the Elder
prefented Ocrifia to his queen Tanaquil, and having a fon
born while fhe was in a ftate of fervitude, he was named
Servius. It is not at all known who the father of this
king was, and it was probably not till after his elevation to
the regal dignity that he was reprefented as having been a
perfon of rank who was killed in the defence of his country.
Young Servius was brought up in the palace, and became
a great favourite of the king and queen. He diftinguifhed
himfelf both in a civil and military capacity ; was raifed
to the patrician order; had an important command in the
army given him; and was at length united in marriage to
Tarquinia, the king’s daughter. On the affaffination of
Tarquin, Servius took pofleffion of the throne, which event
is dated in the year 577 B. C. As the fons of Ancus Mar-
tius, who were the authors of the confpiracy again{ft Tar-
quin, had a {trong party among the patricians, Servius pur-
fued the policy of attaching the people to his iatereft, by
paying off their debts, and making feveral regulations in
their favour ; and having added to his reputation by a defeat
of the revolted Etrufcans, he ftrengthened his title to the
crown by procuring a legal eleftion from the curiz. He
then applied himfelf to the improvement of the public
police, and feveral of the moft ufeful inftitutions of the
Roman ftate took their origin in his reign. Servius en-
larged the city by taking two more hills into its limits: he
added a fourth tribe to the three old cnes: he divided the
whole Roman territory into tribes, with a pagus, or fortified
poft to each, and inftituted a cenfus, by which all the
Roman citizens were diftributed into fix claffes, according
totheir property. He alfo gave to the freedmen the pri-
villages of citizens; and finding the duties of the regal
office under the augmented population too numerous, he
committed to the fenate the determination of ordinary
caufes, referving to himfelf only the cognizable crimes
again{t the ftate. Aware that he was ftill looked upon
by the nobles as an intruder on the throne, he endeavoured
to add confequence to his family by marrying his two
daughters to the grandfon of the late king. He now created
a clofer conneétion between the Romans and their allies, the

SER

Latins and Sabines, by the ereftion of a temple of Diana
at Rome, at their common expence, in which they were to
join in annual facrifices, and in the amicable decifion of all
difputes among them. Servius, in many refpeéts, was for-
tunate as aman and a monarch; but his greateft calamity
was in his youngeft daughter, who was continually urging
her hufband Arunx to criminal attempts againft her father,
but he nobly rejeéting her infamous folicitations, fhe at-
tached herfelf to the other brother, her fifter’s hufband,
Tarquin, a prince of a character and difpofition very fimilar
to her own. They got rid of their partners by poifon,
and then, having formed an inceftuous union, they boldly
and openly declared Servius an ufurper, and Tarquin laid
claim to the throne before the fenate. The patricians
generally came over to his intereft ; but the great mafs of
the people were determined to fupport their king, who,
whatever might have been his defcent, had fhewn himfelf
worthy of the crown which his infamous relations wifhed to
tear from his head. ‘Tarquin, however, continued to in-
trigue with his party, and at length took the daring ftep
of afluming the royal robes and infignia, and feated himfelf
on the throne at the temple in which the feffate aflembled.
He there pronounced a violent inveétive againit the perfon
and government of Servius, who arrived while he was fpeak-
ing, and approached to pull down his fon-in-law from the
throne ; but Tarquin feized the venerable monarch by the
waift, and threw him down the fteps of the temple. He
rofe with difficulty, and was moving away by the help of
fome by-ftanders, when his unnatural daughter Tullia ar-
rived, who, having faluted her hufband as king, fuggetfted
to him the neceflity of difpatching her own father. Tar-
quin fent perfons to perpetrate the foul deed, and Tullia
fealed her cruelty and impiety by driving her chariot over
the dead body. Servius was murdered in his 74th year,
after a reign of forty-four years, during which he had done
enough to merit the title and charaéter of one of the belt
kings of Rome.

SERULA, in Ornithology, the name of a web-footed fea-
bird, a kind of mergus, very common about Venice, and
called by Mr. Ray mergus cirratus fufcus, the brown-crefted,
or lefler-toothed diver, and fuppofed to be the anas longi-
roftva, or long-beaked duck of Gefner. This is the red-
breafted merganfer of Pennant.

It is very nearly of the fize of the duck; its head and
throat are of a fine changeable black and green ; on the firft
there is along pendent creft of the fame colour ; the upper
part of the neck and of the breaft, and the whole belly,
white; the lower part of the breaft ferruginous, {potted
with black; the upper part of the back black; near the
fetting on of the wings fome white feathers, edged and tipt
with black ; the exterior feapular black ; the interior white ;
lower part of the back, the coverts of the tail, and feathers
on the fides, under the wings, and over the thighs, grey,
marked with waving lines of black; covers on the ridges of
the wings dufky, fucceeded by a broad bar of white; the
quill-feathers dufky, the tail is fhort and brown, and the
legs orange-coloured ; the head and upper part of the neck
of the female are of a deep ruft colour; the creft fhort, the
throat white, and diftinguifhed by fome other varieties of
colour from the male. Thefe birds breed in the northern
parts of Great Britain. Pennant.

SERUM. See Broop.

SERUM Aluminofum, Alum-whey, a form of medicine pre-
{cribed in the late London Pharmacopeia, made of a pint of
milk boiled to whey with a quarter of an ounce of alum.

SERVONG, in Geography, a town on the N. coait of
Sumatra. N. lat. 5° 3’. W. long. 96° 18!.
SERUSKUI,

SES

SERUSKUI, a town of European Turkey, in Romania;
go miles N. of Gallipoli
SERWEEZ, a town of Ruffian Lithuania; 64 miles
E. of Wilna.
_ SERWEL, a province of the Cuttore country.
SERWOY, iw Naeteral Hifory, a name given by
de Bry, and others, costhe animal called by us

wo C7 by the natives of ae the cariyueya.
, in tewn indooftan, wm Oude
a aon a ea

~_SESA, atown of Nubia, on the Nile; 210 miles S.S.W.

IN, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs a
the in. It was a cake

.
J
'

genus of Refeda.

an ancient Latin name, cyzaucr in Greek,
derivations have been propofed, but
Martyn obferves, to have been
ian name of the fame plant,

of which, as has been, from the moit
n in the Eaft. Thofe who have
will not magic power of

138. Lamarck Iluitr. t. 528.
ae ga Angiofpermia.

98. t. 100. §. five Sifamum ;
wes ovate-oblong, undivided; the
. ferrated.—Native of the Eait Indies.

SES

A tender annual, occafionally railed, for the fake ef curi-
ofity, in the floves of Europe. The oil of ite feeds is
much ufed in Egypt and the Ea, being preferred to that
of the olive. The feeds themfelves are allo a great article
ef food. An external application of the herb, cither im
the form of a fomentation or cataplafm, is fuppoled to be
ufeful in cutaneous, and various other, diforders. ‘The row
is fibrous. Siem ereét, near two feet high, branched,
round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves oppofite, flalked, more of
lefs ovate, one avd a half to three inches long, finely downy ;
paler beneath; the upper ones entire; the lower often
coarfely toothed, but not lobed or divided. Flowers ax-
illary, thalked, white, about an inch long. Calyx and ¢o-
rolla hairy. Capfule ere&t, beaked, an inch long, trant-
verfely furrowed, rough with minute clofe-pretled

2. S. luteum. Yellow-flowered Sefamum. Retz. Obf.
fafe. 6. 31. Willd. n. 2.—* Leaves lanceolate, on long
ftalks. Corolla externally hifpid.’’—Found by Koenig,
in groves at Nidrapur, in the Eaft Indies. ‘The fem 1s
upright, leafy, very little zig-zag. Leaves alternate, acute,
rough at the edges, as well as the mbs beneath, with very
fhort hairs. Fi s axillary, folitary, each on a fhort
ftalk, which proceeds from the bafe of the footitalk it-
felf. Calyx and capfule hifpid. Corolla deep yellow. Ret-
zius.
. S. indicum. Indian Sefamum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 884-
Willd. n. 3. Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 204. t. 76. f 1.
(S. alterum, foliis trifidis, orientale, femine obfeuro; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 109. f. 4.)—Lower leaves ternate, or three-lobed,
ferrated ; upper undivided. Stem ereét-—Native of the
Eatt Sodiee? bfaeritius, &c. Differs from the firft {pecies
cra cA | in the divifion of its lower leaves. The flowers
are whitith, compared by Rumphius to thofe of Henbane.
Both calys and corolla are externally hairy, asin S. orientale.
There is a variety with black, and another with brown or
greyith, feeds. Both are ufed in Amboyna, but the latter
1s preferred.

4- S. Jaciniatum. Jagged Sefamum. Willd. n. 4.—
“ All the leaves deeply three-cleft, jagged. Stem prof-
trate, hifpid.’’—Gathered by Klein, in the Eaft Indies,
near Hydrabad.—The fem is branched, the extremities
of its branches only afcending. Leaves oppofite, on fhort
ftalks, rough on both fides; whitifh beneath; their feg-
ments blunt, deeply toothed. Flowers axillary, folitary, on
very fhort flalks. Cap/ule obtufe at each end, tipped with
the broad permanent ftyle. Willdenow.

Both this and the preceding may poflibly be mere va-
rieties of the firft {pecies. S§. duteum appears to be

difting.
5- S. profiratum. Dwarf Hoary Sefamum, Retz.
Obf. fafe. 4.28. (Euphrafie affinis pufilla planta, peri-

carpio lignofo oblongo quadrato bivalvi; Pluk. Amalth. 85.
t. 373- f. 2-)—Leaves roundifh, toothed, hifpid; hoary
beneath. Stem proftrate, villous.—Native of loofe fands
near Madras; very rare elfewhete. Keeniz, Rottlr. Root
» thick and itrong, evidently ene Stems
woody at the befe, about a {pan long, much
leafy, villous, fpreading flat on the nd in
every dire€tion. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, {mall, from one
quarter to three quarters of an inch long, obtufe or abrupt,
coarfely toothed, often wedge-fhaped at the bafe; the upper
furface hairy ; lower white and cottony ; the upper ones,
beyond the flowers, often alternate. Flowers axillary, foli-
tary, thrice as long as the leaves, very handfome.
Corolla externally thaggy and hoary; internally yellow,
beautifully ftained and dotted with blood-red. C
ovate, quadrangular, hard, weody, hairy, fcarcely more than
Un half

SES

half the length of the: corolla.
angular, black.

Linnzus has erroneoufly referred the above fynonym of
Plukenet, to his Yorenia afiatica, a very different plant.
Hence Willdenow was led to omit the prefent fpecies of
Sefamum, as very uncertain. S. javanicum, Burm. Ind. 133.
Retz. Obf. fafc. 4. 28, is Columnea longifolia, Linn. Mant.
90. <Achimenes fefamoides, Vahl. Symb. v. 2. 71. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 357-_ :

Sesamum is alfo a name given by fome authors to the
myagrum, or gold of pleafure.

SESBAN, a barbarous and inadmiflible generic name,
even when altered by Mr. Purfh into Se/bania, in his Flora
of North America, v. 2. 460, 485. This name is given by
Poiret in Lamarck’s Dictionary, v. 7. 126, to a genus fe-
le&ed by him out of /EscHYNoMENE, fee that article ; and
confifting of the Linnean . grandiflora, coccinea, and Sefban,
with feveral others more recently difcovered. Thefe plants
are moftly referred by Willdenow to Coronilla, with which
they do not ill accord. They certainly cannot remain with
the original fpecies of A/chynomene, which fcarcely differ
from Smiruia, fee that article.

SESEL, Poiret in Lam. Dia. v. 7. 130, the Amboyna
name of a tree, which, according to Rumphius, affumes a
very different appearance on the coaft to what is ufual in the
adjacent plains ; the eaves, always {trongly three-ribbed and
entire, lanceolate in the latter fituation, being roundifh-ovate,
and much fhortened, inthe former. He fpeaks of this plant
as allied to Metrofideros, the wood being fo hard as to fpoil
the tools ufed in cutting it down. Nothing is known of the
fruGtification, except that the flowers form fmall whitifh
heads, fubfequently brown, and the fruit feems a globofe
yellow berry, or drupa. See Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 64.
t. 36, 37.

SESELT, an old Latin name for fome plants of the um.
belliferous family, which may poflibly be included in the
prefent genus. It is cece: alfo in Greek; but no perfon
has been able to give a plaufible Greek etymology of the
word, which Ray judges to be barbarous, like fome other
names ending ins. De Theis accordingly, on the authority
of James Golius, deduces it from an Arabic word which he
writes Seycélyows.—Linn. Gen. 143. Schreb. 193. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1.1458. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 2.154. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. v. 1. 199.
Purfh v. 1.197. Jufl. 220. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 202.—
Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbelli-
ere.
fi Gen. Ch. General Umbel rigid; partial very fhort, of
many rays, globofe. General Involucrum of very few leaves,
or none ; partial of feveral pointed leaves, about the length
of the partial umbel. Perianth {carcely difcernible. Cor.
Univerfal uniform ; florets all fertile ; partial nearly flat, of
five petals, whofe inflexed points render them heart-fhaped.
Stam. Filaments five, awl-fhaped; anthers fimple. Pi/.
Germen inferior ; ftyles two, diftant; ftigmas obtute.
Peric. Fruit ovate, fmall, ftriated, feparable into two parts.
Seeds two, ovate, convex and {triated at the outer fide, flat
on the inner.

Eff. Ch. Umbels globofe, rather rigid. Flowers regular,
all fertile. General involucrum of one or two leaves; par-
tial of feveral. Fruit ovate, ftriated.

Obf. S. Hippomarathrum offers a remarkable exception to
the above generic chara@ter, having a partial involucrum of
one leaf, orbicular and toothed, like the wheel of a clock.
That of S. gummiferum is nearly fimilar.

1. S. fiifolium. Thread-leaved Meadow-faxifrage.
Thunb. Prodr. 51. Willd. n, 1—lLeaves linear-thread-

Seeds numerous, oblong,

SES

fhaped. Stem zigzag, ereét. Perianth awl-fhaped.—
Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, from which we have
an authentic fpecimen. The fem is a foot high, flightly
branched, round, furrowed, {mooth. Leaves two or three,
one of which only remains perfeét, an inch long, undivided,
very narrow, acute, ribbed, {mooth, fomewhat channelled.
Umbel terminal, of four rigid flriated rays, with a general
involucrum of as many unequal, lanceolate, ribbed, fmooth
leaves, the longeft but half the length of the rays. Partial
umbels level-topped rather than globofe, of ten or more fhort
ftout angulav rays, and feveral lanceolate partial involucral
leaves, of the fame length. The half-ripe fruit is oblong,
about as long as the italks which fupport it, furrowed,
crowned with a very evident calyx, of five awl-fhaped, fharp,
permanent, fomewhat fpinous, teeth, finally recurved at the
points. We have been the more particular in our defcrip-
tion, as there is no figure of this plant extant, and few
botanifts would recognize it for a Se/é/i.

2. S. pimpinelloides. Nodding Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 372. Willd. n. 2.—Stem declining, and umbels
drooping, before flowering. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets doubly
pinatifid, with alternate, flat, linear, decurrent fegments.—
Native of the fouth of Europe. Cultivated by Linnzus at
Upfal. Perennial. Stem a foot high, flightly leafy, round,
finely ftriated, fmooth, decumbent at firft, but firmly ere€t as
the flowers come to perfeGion, and bearing about three
rather large wmbels, which ina young ftate droop, like thofe
of Pimpinella Saxifraga. Radical leaves ttalked, a fpan
long, fmooth, of a light glaucous green; their fegments
fpreading, acute, entire, veiny, very uniform.
white. Partial zvolucrum of one or two, almoft capillary,
leaves. Seeds a quarter of an inch long, nearly oval, with
five elevated ribs, three of which are central, two marginal,
and dark intermediate furrows.

3. S. montanum. Mountain Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 372. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 1, (S. multicaule ;
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 59. t. 129. Carvifolia; Vaill.
Paris. t. 5. f. 2.)—Footftalks under the branches oblong,
entire, with a membranous edge. Stem-leayes with linear
very narrow fegments. Seeds downy.—Native of hillocks
in Italy and France. Cultivated at Oxford in the middle of
the 17th century. A hardy plant, flowering in fummer.
Root perennial, tapering, crowned with the fibres of decayed
footftalks. Stems erect, from one to three feet high, round,
ftriated, {mooth, branched, leafy. Leaves doubly pinnate,
three-cleft ; the fegments of the upper ones longeit, nar-
roweft, and moit glaucous; their footflalks fheathing, clofe,
ftriated, with more or lefs of a membranous border, entire
at the fummit. Uzibels {maller than in the preceding, erect,
white, of many rays, fometimes accompanied by a general
involucral leaf. Seeds obovate, one-fourth the length of the
former, ribbed, minutely downy.

4. S. friatum. Furrowed Meadow-faxifrage. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 4.—* Footitalks under the branches
with a membranous edge, emarginate. Stem ftriated.
Leaflets awl-fhaped, channelled.”?—Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. Thunberg. r

. S. glaucum. Glaucous Meadow-faxifrage. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 372. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Auftr. t. 144.
—Footftalks under the branches oblong, entire, with a mem-
branous edge. Branches f{preading. Leaflets linear, chan-
nelled, {mooth, glaucous, longer than their footftalks. Seeds
ovate, downy. Umbels lax.—Native of France. To de-
fine the difference between this plant and §. montanum is very
difficult. The glaucum has longer /eaflets, and the primary
divifions of its radical leaves feem to be always ftalked, not
fitting clofe to the mid-rib. The éranches are more divari-

cated,

Flowers -

SESELI,.

Seeds rather fhorter. In Jac~
appear very different, but the
Jacquin does

cated, and umbels more lax.
quin’s figures thefe plants
of moft authors is merely montanum.
not notice the hairy —
6. 5. ariflatum. arded-leaved Meadow-faxifrage. Ait.
a. 3. Willd. ». 6. (Ligutticum lucidum ; Mill. Dié.
ed. 8. n. 4.)—* Footftalks under the branches lax, entire,
fomewhat membranous. Leaves repeatedly compound ;
leaflets lanceolate, briltle-pointed, Fruit ovate.’’—Native
of the Pyrenean mountains. Cultivated by Miller at Chelfea,
A hardy perennial, flowering in June and July. iton.
Miller fays the root is biennial. Leaves doubly pinnate ;
lobes narrow, and finely divided. Stems ttrong, a foot
and half high, furnithed with fhining winged leaves, and ter-
_ minated by pretty large wmbels of whitith flowers. A {pe-
cimen fent be Gouan for S. annuum, which it certainly is
not, feems to be the plant under confideration. The feg-
ments of its eaves have callous tips. The leaves of the
partial involucrum are ovate, with broad white membranous
edges, their points extending bepend the flowers.
7. S. annuum. Caraway-leave Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 373. Willd. n.7. Jacq. Autftr. t.55. (S. carvi-
‘ Siem y Villars Dauph. v. 2. 586, fromthe author. S. co-
loratum ; Ehrh. Herb. n. 113. Beitr. v. 5.179. Pimpi-
nella tenuifolia; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 83. f. 1. Foeni-
culum fylveftre annuum, tragofelini odore, umbella alba ;
Vaill. Parif. 54. t. 9. f. 4.)—Footftalks of the upper leaves
lax, membranous, emarginate. Stem and branches ere&.
Leaves doubly pinnate, cut; their primary divifions feflile.
~ Seeds fmooth.—Native of France, Germany, and Switzer-
land. Roof tapering, y, crowned with fibres of de-
' cayed leaves, and having all the appearance of being peren-
nial. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, ere¢t, {tiff, fome-
what zigzag, round, Striated, leafy, often purplifh ; its
branches very little fpreading. Leaves ftalked, varying
_ greatly in the length of the leaflets and their divifions, green
_ rather than glaucous; occafionally purplith ; their fegments
linear-oblong, narrow, keeled. Umbels white or purplith,
“ef many general as well as partial rays, all more or lefs
downy. Partial involucrum of many lanceolate membranous-
edged leaves, whofe taper points reach beyond the flowers.
Seeds elliptic-oblong, very convex, with three dorfal ribs,
deftitute of pubefcence in every part. We have this {pecies
from M. Du Cros as Haller’s n. 762, to which it feems well
enough to anfwer, but if fo, Gouan miltakes Haller’s plant.
8. S.¢ Iloides. Chervil Meadow-faxifrage. Thunb.
Prodr. 51. Willd. n. 8.—* Footitalks under the branches
membranous, tumid, entire. Stem forked, panicled. Leaves
repeatedly compound, {mooth,””—Gathered by Thunberg,
at the Cape of Good a
9. S. Ammoides. Milfoil Meadow-faxifrage. Linn. Sp.
PL 373. Willd. a. 9. Ait. n. 4. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
y. 1. 20. t. 52. (Ammoides; Bauh. Pin. 159. Ammi;
Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 120. A. Matthioli; Dalech. Hitt.
5-) — Leaflets of the radical leaves imbricated; thofe
the upper ones almoft capillary. Stem f{preading.
Rays of the umbel capillary, very unequal. 8
-fmooth.—Native of Greece, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, and the
fouth of France. A flender painel cleats about a foot high,
its flem y branched from the very bottom, Lower
teaves on long lender ftalks, pinnate, their leaflets in man
narrow-lanceolate, channelled fegments, lying over oun 4
other ; upper ufually twice ternate, with much longer, and
very flender, undivided leaflets ; their footftalks fhort, fheath-
, furrowed, and membranous. Unmibels terminal, very
- and lax, of about feven or eight extremely unequal
rays; the partial ones of more numerous, but like.

wife “unequal, much fhorter, {preading rays. Jnvelucral
leaves briftle-thaped. Flowers white. Fruit minute, roundith-
ovate, flriated, {mooth.

10. S. tortuofum. Crooked Meadow-faxifrage. Linn,
Sp. Pl. 373. Willd. n. 10. Ait. n.5. (5S. maflilicafe,
feeniculi folio, quod Diofcoridis cenfetur; Bauh. Pin. 161,
Feeniculum tortuofum; Bauh. Hitt. v. ;: p- 2. 16.)—
Stem much branched, divaricated, rigid, furrowed and an-
gular. Leaves of the partial involucrum ovate, membranous
at the edges, fomewhat combined at the bafe.—Native of
the fouth of Europe. Root biennial, rather than perennial.
This {pecies is known by its remarkably rigid, repeatedly
branched, ftraggling /lem, bearing great numbers of rigid,
clumfy, {preading umbels, each frequently accompanied by a
general involucrum of one leaf. The flem-leaves are com-
monly very {mall, with a large, broad, abrupt, membranous-
edged footflalk. Whether the leaflets of the radical leaves
ss greatly in length and breadth, or whether Linnzus has,
under this, confounded feveral diftin&t fpecies, we have not
fufficient information to decide. The whole herbage is
glaucous, of a thick rigid habit.

11. S. gummiferum. Gummy Meadow-faxifrage. Sm.
Exot, Bot. v. 2.121. t.120. Ait. Epit. 374.—Stem fur-
rowed, rigid, leafy. Partial involucrum of many linear
leaves, united by a broad bafe. Flowers almott {effile.
Leaflets wedge-fhaped.—Gathered by profeflor Pallas in the
Crimea. It was obferved by Mr. Lambert in the Oxford

arden, about the year 1803, and communicated by him to

is friends. The plant is biennial, hardy, flowering in
fummer and autumn. Stem three or four feet high, ere&,
branched, leafy, very ftout and rigid, furrowed, minutely
downy ; when wounded exuding a copious, yellow, fetid
refinous gum. Leaves a {pan long or more, triply pinnate,
pateans, fomewhat downy ; their leaflets oblong or wedge-

aped, flat, decurrent, acute. Umbels terminal, ere, finely
downy, flattifh, from three to fix inches broad, of very nu-
merous rays. General involucrum ufually of one fhort ftrap-
fhaped leaf; but in the large primary umbel of ace
partial with a broad, fimple, difk-like bafe, fringed with co-
pious, horizontal, linear, acute leaflets, nearly equal to the
flowers. Each partial umbel is flat when young, parti-
coloured with purple and white, but afterwards convex, con-
fiiting of innumerable almoft feflile fowers, powdered over,
as it were, with the white anthers. Petals red and white, in-
flexed, nearly regular. Germen furrowed, {mooth. Fruit
elliptical. The flowers have a faint {mell, not unlike thofe
of the Barberry. In Haller’s letters, v. 2. 318, is one from
Dillenius, dated Dec. 1746, in which he {peaks of an um-
belliferous plant, fent under the name of Sefeli from Siberia,
which, being fown in the {pring, flowered, but perifhed on
the ae of winter, without producing feed. He con-
ceived it to be allied to the Hippomarathrum of Rivinus, (fee
our next fpecies,) on account of the fimple-leaved partial in-
volucrum, cut into fix or eight teeth. The general umbel
had a flender ftrap-like leaf to each ray. The feeds refembled
thofe of Caraway, and were not winged. Might not this
be our S. gummiferum? If fo, Dillenius ought to be re-
corded as its original introducer.

12. S. ere: Cupped Meadow-faxifrage.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 374. Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 6. Jacq.
Auftr. t. 143. (Hippomarathrum; Rivin. Pentap. Irr.
t. 67. Saxifraga pannonica; Cluf. Hift. v. 2.196. Ger.
Em. 1047.)—Stem nearly leaflefs. Partial involucrum of
one cup-fhaped many-toothed leaf.— Native of {tony ground
in Auttria, Carniola, Hun , &e. flowering in July and
Auguft. The root is woody and perennial, crowned with
the {caly or fibrous remains of old footftalks. Stems a foot

Uuz high,

SESELI.

high, nearly upright, rigid, round, fmooth, rufhy, fomewhat
branched above, bearing feveral oblong, fheathing, mem-
branous-edged feotfalks, with only very fhort or abortive
faves. The proper /eaves are radical, pretty numerous,
ftalked, two or three inches long, doubly pinnate and cut,
linear, glaucous and fmooth like the reft of the herbage.
Umibels terminal, folitary, {mall and clofe, rigid, minutely
downy, with feveral principal rays, and fometimes a fheath-
like leaf at the bafe ; the partial ones of many white, nearly
feffile, flowers, chiefly remarkable for the fimple, cup-like,
partial inwolucrum, whofe membranous downy edge is va-
rioufly jagged and toothed. Dillenius rightly obferves, in
the letter to Haller, quoted under our laft {pecies, that this
fingular part is not fhewn in the figure of Clufius and Ge-
rarde. - It indicates an affinity to our gummiferum,. which
obliges us to place thefe two fpecies together, next to foriuo-
Jum, with which they accord greatly as to habit.

13. 8. Zurbith. Turbith Meadow-faxifrage. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 374. Amoen. Acad. v. 4.310. Willd. n. 11. (S. que
ferule facie, Thapfia, five Turbith, gallorum; Bauh. Hitt.
v. 3. p- 2. 45. Boerh. Lugd. Bat. v. 1. 50. Thapfia
Diofc; Lob. Ic. 779. T. tenuifolia; Ger. Em. 1030.)
—Leaves repeatedly three-cleft, divaricated, awl-fhaped.
General involucrum of one or two awl-fhaped leaves ;
partial of many fhort, pointed, membranous ones. Seeds
villous, the length of the permanent ityles.—Native of Spain,
and the fouth of France. The roof is perennial, thick, dif-
charging a milky juice, which, according to John Bauhin,
to whom it was pointed out by his preceptor Rondelet, pof-
fefles a valuable purgative quality. Stem ereét, branched,
round, {mooth, not fo clumfy as in Bauhin’s figure. Leaves
chiefly oppofite, with broad fheathing foosfalks, {preading,
repeatedly fubdivided into divaricated, flender, awl-fhaped
fegments, crofling each other, and much refembling fennel.
Umbels terminal, large, of many flender, downy, fpreading,
general as well as partial, rays. General involucrum of very
ew and fhort, tapering, {carcely membranous-edged leaves ;
thofe of the partial ones more membranous, lanceolate,
fringed, half the length of the flower-ftalks, quite diftinG at
their bafe. Petals white. Frui¢ ovate, covered with fine
hoary denfe briftly hairs, and crowned with the long fpread-
ing flyles, very tumid at their bafe. Stigmas obtufe, but
hardly capitate.

14. 8. pyreneum. Pyrenean Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 374. Willd. n.13. Ait. n. 7. (Selinum pyre-
neum; Gouan Illuftr. 11. t. 5. Carvi alpinum; Bauh.
Prodr. 84. Lachenal A&. Helvet. v. 7. 332. t. 12.)—
Leaves doubly pinnate, with many linear, acute, decurrent,
flat fesments. Partial involucrum fetaceous, equal’ to the
flowers. Seeds {mooth, nearly orbicular, with three clofe
central ribs.—Native of the Pyrenées. Miller appears to
have cultivated it in 1731. The root is perennial, the fize
of the finger. Stem a foot high, ere€t, furrowed, {fmooth,
{carcely branched, moft leafy at the lower part. oot/talks
long, dilated and fheathing at the bafe. Leaves three or
four inches in length, light green, fmooth, their leaflets
uniform, with linear, alternate, pointed, decurrent, veiny
fegments. Umébels of fix or eight unequal rays, without any
general involucrum; the partial ones convex, denfe, many-
flowered, with a partial involucrum of many {mooth, flender
leaves, almoft capillary, diftin@& at the bottom. Petals yel-
lowifh, with a purple tinge externally. Seeds with a broad,
flat, even margin, their centre marked with three clofe pro-
minent ribs.

15. S. faxifragum. Slender Meadow-faxifrage. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 374. Willd. n. 14. (Pimpinella faxifragia tenui-
folia; Bauh. Prodr. 84.)—“ Stem thread-fhaped, divari-

cated. Leaves doubly ternate, linear. Umbels of about
fix rays.’?—Plentiful about the lake of Geneva, according to
C. Bauhin, who defcribes it with an oblong root. Stem a
foot high, green, {mooth, ftriated, bent, divided from the
bafe, and fubdivided into flender branches. Leaves in flender,
afterwards almoft capillary, fegments. /owers few, minute,
whitifh, in a {mall umbel. It is not poffible to determine
any thing from this defcription, nor have we feen an authentic
f{pecimen. Linnzus faw this {pecies in Burfer’s herbarium
only. His account agrees with the above, only adding that
the partial involucral leaves are briftle-fhaped.

16. 5S. elatum. Tall Meadow-faxifrage. Linn. Sp. Pl.
375. Mant.357. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 8. Gouan IL
luitr. 16. t. 8.—Stem much branched, round, rigid, very
{mooth. Leaves twice ternate, with linear, flefhy, diftant
leaflets. Fruit fmooth, ovate, with diftant obtufe ribs.
Partial involucrum awl-fhaped, fhorter than the flowers.—
Native of Italy and the fouth of France. Specimens are in
the Linnzan colleétion from Arduins and Gouan, as well as
the garden plant alluded to in the letter of Linnzus, cited by
Gouan. Thefe, as well as Gouan’s figure, prove the prefent
{pecies to vary greatly in luxuriance. The ffem is from
eighteen inches to five feet high, much branched from top to
bottom, very fmooth, pale at the joints, leafy, the upper
part greatly divaricated. Lower leaves twice ternate ; upper
quite fimple; all linear, very narrow, flefhy, fmooth ; each
leaf, or leaflet, from one to two inches long. Footfalks
linear, channelled, fheathing, clofe, with an evident, though
narrow, membranous edge. Umbe/s numerous, terminal, of
from two or three to ten rays, {mooth, without an invo-
lucrum ; partial ones of many fhortifh unequal rays, their .
involucral leaves flender, but membranous, rarely equal to the
flowers. Petals white. Szeds ovate, gibbous, fmooth, by
no means tuberculated, though Gouan defcribes them
dotted ; each is marked with three flightly prominent ribs,
but not bordered. The fynonym of Magnol, quoted in Sp.
Pl. was afterwards referred by Linnzus to his Pimpinella
glauca.

17. S. ¢riternatum. Yellow Meadow-faxifrage. Purfh
v. I. 197.—** Leaves triply ternate; leaflets linear, elon-
gated. Umbels hemifpherical. Partial involucrum of many
linear leaves, as long as the flowers.’’—A bout the waters of
Columbia river, where it was found by governor Lewis,
flowering in April and May. The fpindle-fhaped perennial
root is one of the grateful vegetables of the Indians, who ufe
it baked or reatted. Flowers deep yellow. Pur/h. -

18. S.junceum. Rufhy Meadow-faxifrage. “Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 698.—Stem much branched, divari-
cated. Footftalks of the ftem-leaves very fhort, and fpread-
ing. Umbels folitary, fimple, of few flowers.—Found in

the Greek herbarium colleGed by Dr. Sibthorp, but with-*

out any name, or mention of the place where it was gathered.
The root appears to be perennial. Herb a {pan high, rigid,
{mooth, rather glaucous. Radical leaves twice ternate, with
keeled three-pointed leaflets ; thofe of the ftem very {mall,
and as if abortive. . Umbels fmall, white.

19. S. cae/pitofum. Tufted Meadow-faxifrage. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 699.— Stem fimple, nearly
naked. Radical leaves tufted, flat, pinnate, cut; the ter-
minal leaflet three-cleft, decurrent.—Gathered by Dr. Sib-
thorp, and his companion Borone, on the fummit of the Bi-
thynian Olympus. The root is thick, perennial, dividing at
the crown into many heads. Stems from four to eight inches
high, fimple, fearcely ever divided, ere&t, ftraight, ftiff and

:
|

f{mooth, bearing a folitary leafonly. Radical leaves forming —

a denfe tuft, {mooth, rigid, of various fizes, The foot/falk
of the ftem-leaf has a membranous edge. General sani
Il oO

| =
pi sbest five rays. Freie cylindrical, obfeurely thriated,

Swsnii-Seed, in the Materia Medica, the name of the food
of a plant, called alfo by fome hbanotis, and growing three
feet high, with leaves like fennel, moras
It isa native of warm climates, The feed ought to
ely large, of a longith thape, heavy, clean,
freth, and of a grateful {mell. It
by diflillation, a very quantity of an cflential
is hot and dry. It in opens, and difcufles,
' » and nephritic. It is
igos, and all diforders
Lemery’s Diet. of Drugs.
reticum, or hart-wort of Crete, are
i good in all diforders of the breaft and
iven in fuppreffions of urine, and of the
of flatulencies ; and are, among the
& common ingredient in medicines, in-

ai

E
.

E

He
i

xtes,
y's

i

ile
i

d

1
|
i
|

‘Rerves,

? It is alfo given in againit all

di the and lungs, in coughs, catarrhs, and

alt so yo a nae Some have recom-

mended as a medicine efficacy againit
wer Sabanisiahdagaan’- ddebteder galle-detehee

F

the credit of being an antidote to the poifon of hem-

is of the fame fort of
but its feed is more warm and
them. i

F;
:
Fr
i
E

Geography, a river of the N.W.
United States of America, which runs

SESE) or Sesem, a town of the principality of
ol abuttle 5 oe tile epee

. Images of Naga, or

Tew onetabe

opriate ceremonies, according to the sut
Hindoo Pantheon, poe sree

p idea of the medicinal virtues rs to be of
old date. A Hindoo, attacked by 2 fever, or other

makes an image of Naga in brafs, clay, or wax, and
appropriate ceremonies in furtherance of hi

» Such ceremonies are particularly efficacious when

a

neal fticifs in
ne poral pre degheatrapehr tine Roy
ofed virtues, or life-prefervin tes,
contributed to the fabled "of
Tn the
» thefe coinei
attribute this uni
s)

SES
the early and all-pervading prevalence of fin, ite firtt thape

on earth, For fome notice of fabulous relations conne@ed
herewith, fee Kusa and Sureuwa. With the Himdoos,
ferpents are vot always of ill omen. A day in the
a tm kalendar, called * nagapanchami, is facred to the
demi-gods in the form of ferpents, who are enumerated in
the Padma and Garuda Puranas.” Cities, towos, moun.
tains, rivers, men, women, &e. are commonly, among the
Hindoos, named after m thological onages, Naygpour,
the ne of the rajah of Berar, eaay pln Eker
one ef the common names of Sctha, as is alfo a town in My-
fore, Naugmungalam, properly Naga-mangala. See Maw-
GALA.

One of the fables moft commonly alluded to in Hindoo
writings, is Vithnu repofing on Sefha, and it is a favourite
fubjeét with painters. Io a beautiful ode, by fir W. Jones,
addrefled to Lakthmi, the Magna mater of her feGtaries,
(fee Laxsnan,) her union with Vithuu is introduced. On
this oceafion the bride rofe from the churned fea, like our
Venus, and choofing Vithnu for her hufband, the fubje@ of
this article formed a wuptial couch for her reception : thus
poetically detcribed.

bd Love bade the bridegroom rife :—

Straight o’er the deep, then dimpling {mooth, he rufh’d,

And towr’d th’unmeafur’d {nake — ftupendous bed !—

The world’s great mother, not relu¢taut, led :

All nature glow’d whene’er fhe {miled or bluth’d :

e king of ferpents hufh’d
His thoufand heads, where diamond mirrors blaz’d,
That multiplied her image as he gaz’d,””

The operation of churning the ocean, alluded to above, is
deferibed under the article KurMAVATARA of this work,
and a poetical allufion to the reflecting gems or mirrors on
the heads of Sefha, will be found under SuiraKoonTHA.
See alfo Loros. :

SESHNAGA, a name of 2 mighty mythological fer-
eet among the Hindoos, otherwife called Seba; which

SESHTI-MATRIYA, 2 name of Kartikya, the my-
thological commander of the celeftial armies of Hindoo
fable. The name means having fix mothers. Shan-matriya
has the fame meaning, and is another of his names, and Shan-
matura. Shanmuka is another, and means with fix faces or
mouths. For the origin of thefe appellations, and for fome
particulars of the hero fo diftinguifhed, fee Karrieya, and
SKANDA, another of his names.

SESIA, in Geography, a river of Italy, which rifes in
the Alps, on the borders of the Valais, and runs into the
Po, a Tittle below Cafal.

Sesia, one of the fix departments of France, into which
Piedmont was divided, when it was united to the French re-
oe Avg: 26; 1802 ; it is compofed of Verceil and Maf-

» in N. lat. 45° 25’, E. of Doire; and contains 140
leagues, and 204,445 inhabitants; it was divided
into three circles, viz. Verceil, comprehending 79,391 in-
habitants; Santhia, with 36,014; and Bielle, having 89,040
inhabitants. The climate of this department is ‘unhealthy ;
the eminences and hills are favourable for the culture of
vine; and the cultivated plains yield abundance of grains,
fruits, and ures.

SESIAL, atown on the N.W. coaft of Timor. S. lat.
8? po long. 125° 26".

ESKAR, a fmall ifland in the N. part of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 38’. E. long. 23° 39'.—Alfo, a
{mall ifland in the gulf of Finland. N. int. 59° 57. E.

long. 28° 14/.
SESLERIA,

SES

SESLERIA, in Botany, received that appellation from
Scopeli, who in the firft edition of his excellent Flora Car-
niolica, fays, he could never forget the delightful garden, fo
rich in fearce plants, which he often ufed to vifit, while at
Venice, in the year 1745. It was formed in the ifland of
St. Helen, by Dr. Leonard Sefler, whofe great diligence in
obferving and cultivating plants juitly entitled him, in Sco-
poli’s opinion, to this botanical commemoration. A letter
of his, defcribing a fuppofed new genus, under the name of
Vitaliana, is fubjoined to Donati’s Storia Naturale del Adri-
atico, but Linneus reduced the plant to Primula.—Scop.
Carn. ed. 1. 189. Sm. Fl. Brit. 93. Prodr. Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 1. 52. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1.153. Juff. 31.
Lamarck Dict. v. 7. 138. Illuftr. t. 47.—Clafs and
order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Glume of two, nearly equal, ovato-lan-
ceolate, concave, pointed valves, containing about three
flowers. Cor. of two unequal, ereét, parallel, acute, valves ;
the inner folded, two-ribbed, cloven; outer rather the
longett, entire or three-cleft. Stam. Filaments three, capil-
lary, longer than the flower; anthers pendulous, oblong,
cloven at each end. Ps. Germen fuperior, ovate ; i{tyles
two, various in length, capillary, more or lefs combined;
ftigmas oblong, cylindrical, feathery. Peric. none, except
the corolla, which embraces the feed, but is not attached to
it. Seed folitary, ovate, f{mooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, containing about three
florets. Corolla of two valves ; the inner cloven ; the outer
varioufly pointed. Styles united at their bafe.

1. S. cerulea. Blue Moor-grafs. Scop. Carn. ed. 2.
v. 1.63. Fl. Brit. n. r, Engl. Bot. t. 1613... Knapp
Gram. t. 43. Ait. n.1. Arduin. Spec. 2. 18. t. 6.
f.3—5. FPoiret in Lam. Di@.n.1. Hoft Gram. Auttr.
v. 2. 69. t.98. (Cynofurusczruleus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 106.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.414. Ehrh. Calam.14. Mart. Rutt.
t. 20. Jacq. Ic. Rar. v.1. t.21. Gramen glumis variis ;
Bauh. Pin. 10. Prodr. 21. Theatr. 158.
Agr. 83. t. 11. f. 9. A, B.)—Spike ovate-oblong, im-
bricated. Braéteas alternate. Outer petals with three
teeth.—Native of mountainous pattures, or calcareous rocks,
in various parts of Europe, flowering in the early part of
fummer. It occurs in Weltmoreland and Scotland, but not
frequently. The root is perennial, tufted, deeply defcending,
with long firm fibres. Svems a {pan or more in height,
fimple, round, without joints, fmooth, naked, except at the
bafe. Leaves linear, obtufe, recurved, broadith, keeled,
tough-edged ; each with a fhort, tubular, comprefled /heath,
and a yery minute /lipula. Spike terminal, folitary, ereé&t, an
inch or inch and half long, of a fhining purplifh-grey, with
folitary, jagged, membranous braéeas, of the fame colour, at
the bafe of fome of the lowermoft fpikelets. The /pikelets
are rather numerous, ufually turned one way, and moftly in
pairs, each of two or three flowers. Calyx with fhort awns.
Petals ribbed; the outer with three teeth, the middle tooth
flightly awned; inner petal with two equal teeth; all the
ribs fringed. Styles joined at the lower part only.

2. S. alba. White Moor-grafs. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
vy. I. 56. t. 72. ve z- 2. (Carex dubia; Sibth. MSS.)—
Spike ovate-oblong, imbricated. Bra¢teas alternate. Outer
petals lanceolate, acute, undivided. — Difcovered by Dr.
Sibthorp, in woods about the village of Belgrad, near Con-
ftantinople. The general afpeét of this grafs, fo like fome
of our common fpecies of Carex, with compound andro-
gynous {pikes, eafily led its learned difcoyerer to refer it to
that genus. He was, at the fame time, too accurate to over-
look the differences of its generic charaéter; though not
fufficiently acquainted with Se/eria, to perceive its agreement

Scheuchz. -

SES

herewith. This fpecies is fomewhat larger in every part
than the foregoing, and has a creeping roof, fheathed with
the wrinkled bafes of old leaves. The flems are twelve or
eighteen inches high, and the foliage nearly as tall. Spike of
a greenifh-white, rather fhining, fcarcely branched. Spikelets
two or three together, ftalked. Calyx three or four-
flowered, membranous, taper-pointed; the middle florets
ftalked. Petals membranous, whitifh, with green roughifh
keels ; the outer one lanceolate, pointed, undivided ; inner
cloven a little way down into two fharp-pointed lobes, each
of which has its own folded rib or keel. Stamens white,
confiderably longer than the flowers; anthers pale yellow,
drooping. Styles {mooth, united throughout, the length of
the corolla; /ligmas divaricated, awl-fhaped, clothed with
fhort pubefcence. This Sefleria ferves greatly to confirm
the genus, and to indicate its true effential character.

3. S. fpharocephala. Round-headed Moor-grafs.
duin. Spec. 2.20. t. 7. Poiret in Lam. Di&. n. 2. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 47. f. 2. (Cynofurus fpherocephalus ;
Jacq. Mifc. v.2. 71. Ic. Rar. t. 20. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1.414. C.microcephalus; Hoffm. Germ. 49.)—Spike
capitate, globofe, braéteated at the bafe. Outer petals with
three teeth; the middle tooth awned.— Native of the loftieft
alps of Carinthia, Auftria, the Tyrol, &c. A very much
more flender plant than either of the former. The root is
fibrous. S¥em four or five inches high, fomewhat quadran-
gular, bearing one leaf only, at the lower part, which is flat,
fhort and broad, witha long ftriated /heath, and a more elon-
pee Jtipula than that of the other {pecies. Radical leaves
arger and narrower, folded, numerous. Spike almoft glo-
bular, the fize of a common currant, fubtended by two or

Ar-

three oppofite, broad, concave, notched, membranous, co-

loured bra&eas, not half its own length. Spikelets imbri-
cated every way, of a blueifh-purple, nearly feffile. Each
calyx contains two or three florets. The petals are divided as
in §. cerulea, but the middle fegment of the outer one is

lengthened out into an awn, of a dark hue, twice or thrice °

as long as the reft. Wulfen, who communicated this fpecies,
and its defcription, to Jacquin, obferved what he fuppofed a
variety, with white flowers, in rather larger /pikes, four or
five florets in each calyx, and a fhorter central awn to the
corolla. This feems to be reprefented in Jacquin’s plate,
and Hoffmann, after Hank and Hopp, has made it a dif-
tiné&t {pecies, by the name of Cynofurus /pherocephalus, calling
our’s microcephalus. We do not fee {ufficiently permanent
charaéters to authorize this. Haller makes another Se/leriay

at his n. 1447, which is Poa diflicha, Jacq. Mifc. v. 2. 74.

Ic. Rar. t. 19. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 400. Allioni_has
given it the barbarous appellation of P. /e/lerioides. This
plant is unqueftionably a true Poa, fee that article.
SESOSTRIS, in Biography, king of Egypt, of whom
the accounts are fo much mixed with fable, and fo obfcured
by antiquity, that it has been found extremely difficult to

form a conliftent and probable ftory. Hiftorians are even ~
divided as to the identity of the name Sefoftris with that of

fome other refembling names in the Egyptian hiftory, and
feveral hold him to be the fame with the Sefac or Shefhac of
the Hebrew fcriptures.
moft probable account of this monarch. He is generally
placed by chronologers in the 15th century B.C., and is by
fome thought to have been the fon of Amenophis. Edu-
cated in manly exercifes with a number of companions, he is

faid to have been fent, by his father, at an early age, upon an —

expedition into Arabia; and after fubduing that country,
into Africa. While engaged in the conqueit of the latter,
his father died; and his fucceffes having inflamed his am-
bition, he refolved to grafp at univerfal empire. Before

his

The following is regarded as the —

SES

hie departure from Egypt, he ingratiated himfelf with the
people by many ads of Lincinefs and made a divifion of the
country into thirty-fix departments, to each of which he
alli a governor, Then having conftituted his brother
Armais t, he marched with a numerous army into
Ethiopia, which he rendered tributary, penetrating near to
the itraits of Babelmandeb. As he now wraatved Unst he
could not carry on his great defigns without a navy, he
fitted out two fleets, notwith{tanding the averfion of the
Egyptians to maritime occupations, one in the Mediter-
ranean and the other in the Red fea. By means of the
former he reduced the courts of Pheenicia,
feveral of the Cyclades, and with the latter he failed into the
Indian gulf, and made himfelf matter of its coalts. Then,
purfuing his conqueits by land, he is reprefented as having
over-run all Afia, and even as having crofled the Ganges.
On his return, he invaded the country of the Scythians and
Thracians, in which, however, he loft a great part of bis
army. It is commonly thought that he {eft an Egyptian
colony at Colchos, but Thrace was his fartheft progrefs
weltward. On his arrival at Pelufium, after an abfence of

nine er laden with {poils, and attended with a va(t num-
__ ber of captives, he was received by his brother Armais with

4 t, to protect it from the incurfions of the Arabians,
_ and he dug a number of canals, branching from the Nile in all
_ direétions, for the purpofe both of commerce and naviga-
tion. He is faid, in the height of his pride, to have har-
_ nefled tributary kings to his chariot, till one of them, point-
ing out to him the rotation of the wheels, by which each
a {ucceflively at top and bottom, brought him to re-
ion. Becoming blind in his advanced years, he finifhed
his courfe by a voluntary death.

___ Iemay be obferved that fir Ifaac Newton has endeavoured
_to prove that Sefoitris is the Ofiris of the Egyptians, and
Bacchus of the Greeks, as well as the Sefac of {crip-

ture. Univer. Hift.
___ SESQUI, a particle often ufed by old mafters and
_ theorifts, in Mufic, in the compofition of words to exprefs
- different kinds of meafure. They called fefquialter meafures
thofe which contain notes equal to one-third more than their
-ufual value ; that is, when equal to three notes of lefs value,
_inftead of two. This happened in what was called perfea
before the ufe of points or dots, when the breve was
equal to three femibreves, the femibreve to three minims, &c.
__ In Italian treatifes by old theorifts, fefqui is much ufed to
exprefs a kind of ratio, particularly in different fpecies of
iples; that is, when the ter term contains the lefs
nce, and fome fmal! quantity more ; as 3 : 2, when the
' term contains the fecond, and unity over, which is the half
#2. So that if the part remaining be jutt half the lefs
rm, as 4: 3, the ratio is called /é/gui terza, or tertia; if a
fourth, or 5 : 4, the ratio is /é/gui quarta, and fo on to in-
finity ; ftill adding to fefqui the ordinal number of the lefs

\SESQUIALTER is a {top in the organ, implying a
whole and a half. In large organs this Rop bisa Gee
fe ranks of pipes, each note having one found in unifon wit
on, one with the principal, one with the twelfth,
one with the fifteenth,
7

Cyprus, and /

SES
SESQUI-ALTERATE, s+ grea perf, which ies

triple where the breve is three meafures, or femi-breves, and
that without having any point or dot annexed to it.

SEsQUI-ALTERATE, greater imperfe8, which is where the
breve, when pointed, contains three meafures, and without
any point, two,

SESQUI-ALTERATE, /effer perfe@, which is where the
femibreve contains three meafures, and that without any
point.

SesQui-aALTenare, lefer imperfed, a triple, where the
femibreve, with a point, contains three meafures, and two
without.

According to Buontempi, one may likewife call the
triples ¢ and 4", fefqui-alterates.

SESQUI-ALTERATE, in Geometry and Arithmetic, isa ratio .
between two lines, two numbers, or the like, where one
of them contains the other once, with the addition of a

alf.

Thus 6 and 9 are in a fefqui-alterate ratio; fince 9 con-
tains 6 once, and 3, which is the half of fix, over ; and 20
and 30 are in the fame ; as 30 contains 20, and half 200r 10.

SESQUIDITONE, in Mufic, a concord, refulting
from the founds of two {trings, whofe vibrations, in equal
times, are’to each other in the ratio of 5to6. See Dirons
and INTERVAL.

SESQUIDUPLICATE Rario, is when of two terms,
the greater contains the le{s twice, and half the lefs remains 3
as 15 and 6; soand 20.

SESQUI-OCTAVE, is a kind of triple, marked C2,
called by the Italians nonupla di crome, where there are
9 quavers in every meafure or bar, in lieu of 8.

SESQUIQUADRATE, an afpeét, or pofition of the
planets, when at the diftance of four figns and a half, or 135
degrees, frem each other.

SESQUI-QUARTA, Dupra, is a kind of triple,
marked C3, called by the Italians nonupla di /ememinime,
where there are g crotchets in each meafure, inftead of 43
that is, three crotchets to each time.

SESQUIQUINTILE, an afpe& of the planets, when
108 degrees diftant from each other.

SESQUITERTIONAL Proportion. When any
number or quantity contains another once and one-third, they
are fefquitertional proportions.

SESSA, in Biography, an Indian philofopher and mathe-
matician, and the inventor of the game of chefs, which he
communicated to his fovereign Scheram, who was fo pleafed
with it, that he ordered him to demand what he pleafed as
areward for his ingenuity. Sefla afked only for a fingle
grain of wheat to be laid on the firft fquare, two on the fe-
cond, four on the third, and fo on in progreffion through
the fixty-four fquares. The king, offended that he fhould
demand fo mean a gift, direted that he fhould have juit what
he afked, and no more ; but upon coming oraically to the
bufinefs, it was, in a very fhort time, found that all the gra-
naries in the kingdom would not {upply the demand. Sche-
ram, aftonifhed at the fa&, crowned Sefla with very high
honours. He lived about the eleventh century.

Sessa, in Geegraphy, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra ; 23 miles S.W. of Cangiano.

Sessa. See Srzza.

SESSEA, in Botany, a Peruvian genus of plants, dedi-
cated by the authors of the fplendid Flora Peruviana, to the
honour of a Spanifh botanift, named Martin Sefleo, to whom
the care of the botanic garden at Mexice was entrufted.
—Poiret in Lamarck Dié. v. 7. 139. “ Ruiz and Pavon,
FI. Peruy. v. 2. 9.”"—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Luride, Linn. Solance, Jufl. *

Gen.

SES

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
with five angles, each angle terminating in an oval tooth,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube as long
again as the calyx; throat globular ; limb plaited, in five
deep, itraight, oval fegments, revolute at their margin.
Stam. Filaments five, inferted towards the middle of the tube,
curved and downy at their bafe, as long as the tube ;° an-
thers oval, of two cells. if’. Germen fuperior, {mall, ob-
long; ftyle terminal, thread-fhaped, the length of the
{tamens ; ftizma of two unequal lobes. eric. Capfule
cylindrical, flightly curved, as long again as the calyx, of
one cell, and two cloven valves. Szeds numerous, imbricated,
oblong, comprefled, each encompafled with a membranous
border.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Calyx tubular, with
five angles, and five teeth. Stamens fimple. Stigma of
two unequal lobes. Capfule of one cell and two cloven
valves. Seeds numerous, bordered.

1. S. flipulata. ‘Fl. Peruy. v. 2. 9. t. 115. £. B.??—
‘* Leaves lanceolate, or heart-fhaped. Clufters panicled.”
—Native of cool fituations, on the mountains of Peru,
flowering in June and July. A fetid /Brud, five or fix feet
high, having the afpect of a Ceffrum. The branches are
ftraight, leafy, alternate. Leaves alternate, ftalked, moftly
lanceolate, heart-fhaped at the bafe ; others, efpecially the
upper ones, narrower, oval, oblong, entire, pointed, from
three to five inches long, and one or two broad, {fmooth
above, white and downy beneath. S#pulas at the bafe of
the footitalks, equal to them in length, oppofite, large, oval,
obtufe, feflile, a little heart-fhaped at the bottom, deflexed
at the fides, deciduous. Panicles terminal, compofed of
ftraight, downy clufters, with corymbofe /falks, of yellow
downy flowers, accompanied by {mall, awl-fhaped, deciduous
braéeas.

2. S. dependens. ‘FI. Peruv. v. 2. 9. t. 116.”’—* Leaves
oblong, heart-fhaped. Cluiters very long, pendulous.”—
Native of the banks of rivers in Peru, flowering in Novem-
ber, December, and January. A ree, twenty-five or thirty
feet high, agreeing in many refpects with the foregoing, but
the /eaves are very powdery at the back, and the clufers
very long, fimple, and pendulous, flightly zigzag. The
flowers are ufually placed three together, in alternate feffile
tufts. Calyx powdery. Corolla with a black tube, and
yellowifh limb, externally downy. Capfules black.

_ Both fpecies are efteemed emollient anodyne. Peiret.

SESSEI, in Geography, atown of Bengal ; 5 miles N.W.
of Doefa. N. lat. 23° 4!. . E. long. 84° 58.

SESSENREUTH, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 10 miles N. of Bayreuth.

SESSERRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 13 miles
S. of Lucknow.

SESSILE, in Botany, a term applied to any part of the
herbage or flowers of a plant, that is not elevated on any kind
of flalk ; from the Latin /efilis, fitting clofe. Many plants
bear flores Jeffiles, feffile lowers, on the branches; very few
at the root, like Crocus, Colchicum, and Aphyteia. It is not
unufual for the fru@tification, though feflile at the flowering
period, to become ftalked as the fruit advances toward ma-
turity. The germen is fo ufually feffile, as feldom to require
to be fo defcribed, it being fufficient to notice a ftalked
germen, whenever fuch occurs, as affording moftly an im-
portant generic charaéter. For folia /effilia, {effile leaves,
fee Lear.

SEssite Roots, fuch tuberous roots as adhere to the bafe
of the ftalk. See Roor.

_ SESSION, Szssio, denotes each fitting, or aflembly, of

a council. ®

SES

Tn quoting councils, we fay, in fuch a feffion, fuch a ca-
non, &c,

Sxssion of Parliament, is a feafon, or fpace, from its meet-
ing to its prorogation, or diflolution. See PARLIAMENT:

SeEsston, in Law, denotes a fitting of juttices in court,
upon their commiffion, As the feffion of yer and terminer,
of gaol-delivery, &c. See Assisns, Justices of Affife, Jus-
tices of Gaol-delivery, Justices of Oyer, &c. 2

Sussions of Wales, Great, See Courts of Wales.

Quarter-feffions, called general feffions, or open feffions, ttand
oppolite to e/pecial, otherwile called petty feffions, which are
procured upon fome fpecial occafion, for the more fpeedy
difpatch of juitice. See QuarvEr-/é/fions.

Statute-Jeffions, ave thofe kept by a high-conftable of a

hundred, for the placing of fervants, &c. See SraTurE. —

Sessions for Weights and Meafures. In London, four
juttices from among the mayor, recorder, and aldermen, (of
whom the mayor or recorder is to be one), may hold a
feflions to enquire into offences of felling by falfe weights
and meafures, contrary to the ftatutes ; and to receive indiét-
ments, punifh offenders, &c. Char. K. Cha. I.

Session, The Court of, otherwife called the college of ju/=
tices, is the {upreme court in Scotland for all civil caufes.
It confilts of one conftant prefident, who has an annual falary
of 1300/. and fourteen other judges, at 700/. per annum each,
who are lords by their office, which they hold by patent
quamdiu Je bene gefferint. ‘The lord high chancellor prefides
here when prefent. The king names feveral other extra-
ordinary lords, who fit,.but are not obliged to give at-
tendanee, becaufe they have no falaries ; but they may vote
among the reft.

The court fits from the firft of November, old ftyle, to

the laft of February, and from the firft of June to the lait of
July, all inclufive ; which holds of all the inferior courts or
judicatories in Scotland. In time of feffion, or term, they
fit from nine o’clock to twelve in the forenoon, every day
in the week but Sunday and Monday ; fometimes they fit
in the afternoon, to end concluded caufes, or to hear {uch
long debates as the forenoon was too fhort te hear, which

ives a great difpatch to caufes that come before them.
The lords, both ordinary and extraordinary, when in the
inner houfe, fit on a femicircular bench in their robes ; where
the advocates debate their clients’ caufes before them, There
are fix principal clerks belonging to this court. Nine of
the lords make a quorum in the inner houfe, otherwife they.
cannot vote in any cale, except fuch as are referred to one or

more of the whole lords ; and one of the ordinary lords (the -

prefident being always excepted) is weekly appointed judge
in the outer houfe, for difeufling of ordinary actions, and
has fix under clerks to attend him. He meddles with no

extraordinary cafes, except where it is remitted to him by all

the lords, to be difcuffed in the outer houfe for difpatch.
That the lords may have time to read informations, pe-

titions, &e. and the {uitors be eafed of the trouble of going

with them to their houfes, every lord has a box ftanding
upon a table in the waiting room in the inner houfe, from twe
to four o’clock in the afternoon, every day ; wherein all who
haye papers to offer, may put them by a flit in the cover.
Each of the principal clerks have alfo a box, and parties
muft put in their bills, anfwers, or informations of caufes to
be reported, into the clerk of the procefs’s box.

The rolls of the court bring in all caufes in their due i

order.

vifed by the whole lords in the inner houfe. Other caufes

are called of courfe before an ordinary in the outer houfe, —

who decides the controverfy, if clear, without farther trouble

or expence; and, in cafe of difficulty, takes fome little time —
to |

Caufes of the greateft confequence are at firlt ad- —

SES
to advife it himfelf, or to advife with the whole lords upon
it. And if any of the parties think themfelves wronged by
the fentence of the ordinary, they may complain to the lords,
and get their anfwer upon a bill,

An appeal lies from this court to the houfe of lords,
par of Sifow were firfl appointed by James 1. of
who feleied, among the eftates of parliament, a
certain number of perfons, and diltinguifhed them by this
appellation. ‘They were empowered to hold courts for de-
termining civil caufes three times a-year, and forty days at a
time, in whatever place he pleafed to name. James 1V. on
exgaded remedying the inconveniences petey from the

terms of the court o; fear appointed other judges,
called lords of dai pouch Be “he tefllca was an aoc rw
court, and met feldom ; the daily council was fixed, and {at
conftantly at Edinburgh; and though not compofed of
of parliament, the fame powers which the lords of

enjoyed, were velted in it. At lait, James V. erected

the new court that itill fubfifts, and which he called the co/-

juflice, the judges or fenators of which were called /ords
and heffon
4°.

aha Robertfon’s Hitt. of Scotland, 1776,
vel. i. p.

Sessions, Kirf. See Kink.
_SESSLACH, in » a town in the duchy of
Wurz 3 50 miles N.1. of Wurzburg.

SESSOAH, a town of Bengal ; 21 miles S. of Doefa.
i oie a town of the Ligurian republic ; 5 miles N.W.

Sesra, Ital. the interval and confonant of the fixth, in

See Hexacnorp, and Hexacnorpon.
_SESTERCE, Sesrertivs, a filver cvin, in ufe among
the ancient Romans, called alfo fimply nummus, and fome-
The fetterce was the fourth part of the denarius, and ori-
ginally contained two aifles and a half.
_ The feiterce was at firft denoted by LLS; the two L’s
ing two libra, and the S half. But the librarii, after-

wards converting the two L’s into an H, expreffed the fef-
terce by HS.

The word /efertius was firlt introduced by way of abbre-
viation for /emiffertius, which fignifies two, and a half of a
third, or, literally, only half a third 5 for in exprefiing half
a third, it was anderftood that there were two before. Hence
feftertius came to he the great eftimate of Roman money.
_. Some authors make two kinds of fefterces : the lefs, called
¢Aertius, in the mafculine gender ; and the great one, called
in the neuter: the firlt, that which we have al-

F

'
i
qi

Jeflertia, it was only by way of abbreviation, and there was
lerftood fag

centena, millia, &c.
is matter has been accurately {tated by Mr. Raper, in
tive to which feitertius
tius as is two affes
anda half, or two

ten afles, the fefterce of two afles and a half
it; and the Romans continued to their accounts in
fetterces long after the denarius p for fixteen afles ;
ll, growing rich, they found it more convenient to reckon
Ny quarters of the denarius, which they called nummi, and
d the words nummus and [fertiue indifferently, as fynoni-
mous terms, and fometimes both together, me gtensior num-
nus ; in which cafe, the word feftertius having loft its original
~ Vou. XXXII.

SES

fignification, was ufed asa fubftantive ; for /flertivs mummws
was not two nummi and a half, but a fiogle nummus of four
alles. They called any fum under two thoufand (citerces fo
fo many /c/lertii in the mafeuline gender ; two thoufand fef-
terces they called duo or bina feflertia, in the neuter ; fo many
quarters making five hundred denarii, which was twice the
feftertium ; at is {aid dena, vicena, &c. /eflertia, vill the
fum amounted to a thoufand feftertia, which was a million of
felterces. But, to avoid ambiguity, they did not ufe the
neuter /e/lertium in the fingular number, when the whole fum
amounted to no more than a thoufand felterces, or one fef-
tertium. They called a million of felterces, decies nummim,
or decies feflertiim, for decies centena millia nummorum, or
feflertiorum (in the mafculine gender), omitting centena
millia, for the fake of brevity. ‘They likewife called the fame
fum decies fellertium (in the neuter gender) for decies centies
feftertium, omitting centies for the fame reafon ; or fimply
decies, omitting centena millia feflertiiim, or centics feflertium ;
and with the numeral adverbs, decies, vicies, centies, millies,
and the like, either centena millia, or centies, was always under-
ftood. Thefe were their moft ufual forms of expreffion;
though for dina, dena, vicena /cflertia, they frequently {aid
bina, dena, vicena millia nummim, If the coafular denarius
contained fixty troy grains of fine filver, it was worth fome-
what more than eight-pence farthing and a half fterling ; and
the as, of fixteen to the denarius, a little more than a half-

enny- ‘To reduce the ancient feflerces of two afles and a
half, when the denarius paffed for fixteen, to pounds fterling,
multiply the given number by 5454, and cut off fix figures
on the right hand for decimals. ‘To reduce nummi /eflertii,
or quarters of the denarius, to pounds fterling ; if the given
fum be confular money, multiply it by 8727, and cut off fix
figures on the right hand for decimals; but for imperial
money, diminifh the faid product by one-eighth of itfelf.
Phil. Tranf. vol. lxi. part ii. art. 48. See Denarius and
Dracun.

To be qualified for a Roman knight, an eftate of four
hundred thoufand fefterces was required ; and for a fenator,
of eight hundred thoufand.

Authors alfo mention a copper fefterce, worth about one-
third of a penny Englith.

Sesrerce, Sefertivs, was alfo ufed, in Antiquity, for a
thing containing two wholes and a half of another ; as as was
taken for any whole, or integer.

SESTINI, La Sicwora, in Biography, engaged as a prima
buffa in the comic epera, arrived in England from Lifbon in
17743 and her firft performance was in Aufofli’s comic opera,
entitled «* La Marchefa Giardinierz.’’ Her face was beautiful,
her figure elegant, and her a¢tion graceful. Her voice,
thoogt by nature not perfe@tly clear and {weetly toned, had
been well direéted in her ftudies, and fhe fung with con-
fiderable agility, as well as taite and expreflion.

She was married to a young man of family at Lifbon, by
which imprudent itep he had totally lott all parental favour,
and even f{upport ; fo that, inftead of being an aufpicious
match for herfelf, fhe had him and a large family: to maintain
by her talents ; which not being of the firit clafs, were foon
difregarded by the public. nd after languifhing fome
years unemployed, fhe went with her helodale indeed and
family to Italy, where, it is to be feared, they fuffered all
the melancholy mortifications of extreme indigence.

SESTO, ae known by the name of Cefare Mi-
lanefe, was a native of Milan, and flourifhed about the year
1500. He is one of thofe painters by whom probably were
executed fome of the many pictures attributed to Lionardo
da Vinci; and in the Ambrofian library was a head by him
often attributed to Lionardo. In fome of his works he alfo

Box imitated

SES

imitated Raphael, to whom he was known.
Milan in 1524.

Srsto, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Milanefe ;
28 miles W.N.W. of Milan.—Alfo, a town of Italy, in
Friuli; 5 miles N. of Concordia.

SESTOLA, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Panaro; 17 miles S. of Modena.

SESTOS, a fortrefs of European Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Romania, oppofite to Abydos; 24 miles 5.S.W.
of Gallipoli. .N. lat. 40° 6!. E. long. 26° 25’. dbydos
(which fee) and Sees were two towns, oppolite one another
at the moft narrow part of the Hellefpont: they were
famous for the love-adventures of Leander, who lived at
Abydos, and Hero, a prieftefs of Venus, at Seftos. _Lean-
der {wam acrofs the Hellefpont to vilit his miftrets, guided
by atorch, which fhe lighted on the top of a tower; but,
in a tempeftuous night, Leander, having too imprudently
committed himfelf to the waves, could not reach the other
fhore, and was unfortunately {wallowed up by the agitated
waters. Hero, in true defpair, threw herfelf into the fea,
in order to fhare the fate of her lover. Procopins places
Seftos in the cove the neareit to Abydos; and he adds,
that the emperor Juftinian caufed a citadel to be built near
that city: the remains of this citadel are ftill to be feen
clofe to the fea-fhore. On the declivity of the hill, the
walls of the ancient city may very eafily be traced. Four
miles from Seftos, on afcending the channel, is another har-
bour, near which is feen only a fingle habitation of dervifes,
occupied by three or four Muffulman monks.

Sestos, a river which rifes in the mountains of Sierra
Leone, traverfes the Grain Coaft, and runs into the Atlantic,
N. lat. 5° 30!.

SESTRE, Grand, or Great Paris, a town of Africa, on
the Grain Coaft, being one of the largeft commercial towns
of the country. N. lat. 4° 16’. W. long. 8° 20!.

SestreE, Petit, or Little Paris, a town of Africa, on
the Grain Coaft, near Grand Seftre.

SESTRE-KRO, or Serrra-Kroo, a town of Africa,
being the chief town of the Kroo country, which extends
along the Grain Coa{t, between Cape Mount and Cape
Palmas, from 5° 54! to 5° 7! N.lat. The chief town is
in long. 7° 48!. This diftrict, though f{mall, is extremely
populous, and the natives are of a migratory difpofition.
Above 800 are employed as labourers at Sierra Leone;
and they are to be found at every factory and town along
the coa{t for a fpace of 350 miles. They are employed
as fa€tors or intermediate merchants, boatmen and failors ;
and while the flave trade was carried on upon this coatt,
they had their fhare of its occupations. After the age of
forty, they return and fettle at home. Their country
produces grain, particularly fine rice, pepper, and cattle ;
but their ftaple article is their own labour, with which
they purchafe goods, and return to their homes with the
produce. Wars are rare among this people; they never
fell one another, nor kill their capTives ; nor do they punifh
any offence by flavery, though witchcraft among them is
a capital offence, and the only one that is invariably fo
among them. One of the moit fingular parts of the cha-
racter of the Kroomee, is their extreme love for their own
country, and their confident belief in its vait fuperiority
over all others. Every a¢tion of their lives bears a re-
ference to it. With regard to their talents and acquire-
ments, they are fufficiently acute and obfervant, where the
occafion calls their minds into aétion. ‘They have not the
ufe of letters, nor will they permit their children to learn;
their language in converfation is very bad; and as they
live by daily labour, which is paid for in European goods,

He died at

SE T

they have no occafion for manufactures of their own, and:
of courfe no opportunity for difplaying their talents.
They make their own canoes, fome implements of agri~
culture, and a few mufical inftruments.

SESTRI di Levante, a town of the Ligurian republic ;
12 miles W. of Brugnetto.

Sesrri di Ponente, a town of the Ligurian republic ;
4 miles W. of Genoa.

SESTUPLA, Ital. in Mufic. See Sexrurba.

SESVAH, or Rameur, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doottan, in Bahar ; 22 miles E.S.E. of Bettiah.

SESUVIUM, in Botany, a Linnean name, whofe de-
rivation we are unable to trace. Loefling originally called
it Halimum.—Linn. Gen. 250. Schreb. 338. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 2. 1009. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
Vv. 3-205. Jacq. Amer. 155. Swartz Obf. 204. Juil. 316.
Lamarck Dié. v. 7. 141. LIlluftr. t. 434.—Clafs and order,
tedentiie Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Succulente, Linn. Licoidee,
Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,.
deeply cloven into five, ovate, aeute, withering fegments,.
coloured on the infide. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments nu-
merous, awl!-fhaped, fhorter than the calyx and inferted at
its bafe; anthers roundifh. Pi. Germen fuperior, oblong,
at the bottom of the calyx, triangular at the upper part ;
{tyles moftly three, capillary, -ereét, the length of the fta-
mens; ftigmas fimple. Peric. Capfule ovate, of three cells, °
burfting all round. Seeds rounded, flattifh, with a beak at
the margin.

Eff. Ch. Calyx deeply five-cleft, coloured. Petals
none. Capfule ovate, three-celled, burfting all round,
many-feeded.

1. S. Portulacaffrum. Purflane-leaved Sefuviam. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 684. Jacq. Amer. t. 95. (Portulaca aizoides ma-
ritima procumbens, flore purpureo; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 204.
Crithmus indicus; Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 165. t. 72. f. 1.)
—Stem round. Leaves oppofite, oblong. Flower-ttalks
folitary, much fhorter than the leaves.—Native of the Wett
Indies, in maritime fituations; flowering in July and Au-
guft.— Root perennial. Stems fucculent, four or five inches
long, round, thick, diffufe, branched, at firlt procumbent,
then ere&. Leaves on fhort ftalks, fleflhy, bright green ;
their ftalks fheathing, with membranous edges. //owers
folitary, axillary, green on the outfide, white and blood-red
or purple on the infide, inodcrous. Seeds black.—The
whole plant is very fucculent, and abounds with a neutral-
alcalefcent falt, which is eafily extracted, and would probably
ferve as a fub{titute for Kali.

2.S. revolutifolium. Revolute-leaved Sefuvium. ‘ Orteg.
Pl. Decad 2. 19.”? Lamarck Illuftr. t. 434. f. 2.—Stems
fquare. Leaves obovate-oblong, reflexed at the fides.
Flowers feffile—Native of the ifle of Cuba, flowering in
Auguit. Stems herbaceous, fucculent, much branched,
forked. Leaves oppofite, ftulked, entire, revolute at their
edges ; ftalks flightly embracing the ftem, furnifhed on each »
fide with a whitifh membrane, like a wing. Flowers {oli-
tary, the upper ones perfectly feffile, of a purple colour.
Seeds kidney-fhaped, black. 5

SET, a term ufed for a pole or fhaft, ufed to fhove boats
along a canal, &c.

Ser is alfo.a term fignifying to let, as land.

Spr, in Agriculture and Gardening, a term ufed in Ireland
to fignify a fort of ridge. It alfo fignifies a cutting of
any fort of flefhy root, fhrub, or tree of the fruit kind.
Likewife ayy fort of young plant from the feed-bed to be
planted out.

Srr-of, in Law, is an act, by which the defendant ac-

' knowledges

SET

knowledges the juitice of the plaintiff’s demand oa the one
hand ; but, on the other, fets up a demand of his own, to
gounterbalauce that of the plaintiff, either in the whole, or
in part: as, if the plaintiff fues for ten pounds due on a
note of hand, the defendant may fet-off nine pounds due
te himfelf for merchandize fold to the plaintiff; and, in
ale he pleads fuch fet-off, mult pay the remaining balance
into court. This anfwers very al to the compen/atio, or
Roppage, of the civil law, and depends upon the flatutes
2 II. cap. 22. and 8 Geo. II. cap. 24.
Sxr-of, in /nland Navigation, is a recefs, as 1 K ( Plate I.
» Ags. 3 and 6.), on the bank of a canal, and has the
meaning with bench or berm.
Ser-Bolts, in a Ship. Sce Bovrs.
To Ser fail. See Sau, and Serrina.
SETACEUS Vermis, in Natural Hiflory, a name
given ,4 Dr. Lifter to that long and flender water-worm,
i much refembles a horfe-hair, that it has been fup-
; by the vulgar to be an animated hair of that crea-
ture. Thefe creatures, fuppofed to be living hairs, are a
fort of infeés, which are bred and nourifhed within
he bodies of other infe&ts, as the worms of the ichneumon-
are in the bodies of the caterpillars. See AmpHisBa#NA

mate, :
ETAH, in Botany, a name ufed by the oldeft writers
for the acacia. It is an original Hebrew word, and is ex-

peed ined by the lexicographers, by a thorn growing in the
fert. ik is amet be Theodotion ce ad of the

names of the acacia.
SETAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in
~ Golconda ; Fe miles N.N.W. of Rachore.
SETARIA, in Botany, from feta, a briftle, a name

iven by Acharius, in his Prodromus Lichenographie
uecicr, to the 27th tribe of the great genus Lichen.
It comprehends feven fpecies, of what have ufually been
termed filamentous,lichens, as jubatus, chalybeiformis, Kc.
See Licnenes.
SE-TCHEOJU, in Geography, a city of China, of the
firft rank, in Koei-tcheou, in a mountainous country, yield-
cinnabar and qriektibeerj 982 miles S.S.W. of Peking.
- lat. 27° ro!. E. long. 108°.
SE-TCHIN, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in
g-fi; 1167 miles S.S.W. of Peking. S. lat. 22°48’.
I Gonh 136° 31'.
SE- CHING, or Se-rcenin, a city of China, of the
-firft rank, in Quang-fi 3 1100 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N.
lat. 24° 17'. E. long. 105° 54’.
_ SE-TCHUEN, a province of China, bounded on the
+ by Chen-fi, on the E. by Hou-quang, on the S. by
-tcheou, and on the W. by the kingdom of Thibet and
other neighbouring countries. This province compre-
bends, befides a great number of forts and {trong places,
cities of the firft clafs, and 88 of the fecond and third.
great river Yang-tfe-kiang traverfes Se-tchuen, which
‘Asopulent, not only on account ‘of the abundance of filk it
uces, but alfo for its mines of iron, tin, and lead; its
amber, fugar-canes, load{tone, lapis lazuli, mufk, and horfes,
rhich are in requeit ; alfo for its rhubarb, and the
oot fou-lin, which the Chinefe phyficians introduce into all
their prefcriptions ; and for a thoufand other ufeful produc-
ns, which it would be tedious to mention. This province,
ich is at a great diftance from the fea, obtains the falt
which it confumes from its mountains, where the inhabitants
dig pits, that furnifh them with it in great abundance. Its
eapital is Tching-tou; which fee. The population of this
Province ing to fir John Staunton, is eftimated at

SET

SETEEF, s town of Africa, anciently called Siipha,
and capital of a part of Mauritania, which made a flout
refittance again(t the Saracens. ‘There is fearcely one frag-
ment left, either of the ancient walls, pillars, or cilterns of
the Romans; the few remaining ftracturee beiog obvioufly
the work of the later inhabitants. The fountains, which
continue to flow very plentifully near the centre of the city,
are equally delightful and convenient ; and without doubt
gave ome tes formerly for many ingenious and ufeful con-
trivances in the diltribution of the water; 50 miles S.W. of
Conitantina.. N. lat. 35° 58’. E. long. 5° 36’.

SETERRA, .or Serres, a town of Africa, on the
Grain Coalt,

SETHIANS, Seruepians, Sethiani, or Sethiniani, in
Ecelefiafical Hiflory, a braoch of the ancient Gnottics ;
thus called, becaufe of their pretending to deduce their
origin from Seth, fon of Adam, whom they called Jefus
and Chrilt; from an opinion, that Seth and Jefus were the
fame perfon, who came down from heaven at two feveral
times.

As the Sethians had the fame philofophy with the ether
Gnoltics, they had numerous other fables in their fyftem.
They pretended to have feveral books of the ancient patri-
archs; particularly, feven of their great maiter Seth; be-
fides one of Abraham, which was full of manifelt falfities,
which yet they called Apocalyp/e, or Revelation. The book
called the Little Genefis,”? anciently very common in the
churches of the Eaft, was borrowed from them. From
this book they learned the name of Seth’s wife, who, they
fay, was called Horea. Some imagine, they borrowed a
great many of their fictions from the Hellenift Jews.

SETHRON, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
S. coaft of the lake Menzaleh ; 16 miles W. of Tineh.

SETICAUDA, in Natural Hiflory, a term ufed to
exprefs fuch flies as have one or more hairs growing out at
their tails. ‘There are many fpecies of chef diflinguifhed
by their having one, two, or three hairs.

SETIER. See Seprier.

SETINES, in Geography. See ATHENS.

SETIO, a mountain in the E, part of the Tyrolefe.

SETLANA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sirowy ; 35 miles N. W. of Sirowy.

SETLE’, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 30 miles S.W.
of Akalziké.

SETLEDGE, a river of Hindooftan, which rifes in the
mountains of Thibet, and runs into the Indus, near Veh,
anciently called He/udrus.

' SETON, a river of Spain, which runs into the Gallego,
in the province of Aragon.

Seron, Setaceum, denotes, in Surgery, a fkein of filk
or thread, introduced through a part of the flefh by means
of a needle, and left there fo as to keep up a continual dif-
charge of matter, and a degree of counter-irritation, with a
view of relieving or curing a variety of difeafes. In a few
cafes, fetons are employed on another principle. When fiaufes
and fiftulz have loft all difpofition to heal, in confequence
of a want of aétion in the parts affeéted, a feton, pafled
through the track of the difeafe, will fometimes excite
a falutary kind of inflammation, which brings on the
healing procefs. Great judgment, however, is necefli
in the application of a feton to this purpofe; for, unlefs
the finus be prevented from healing merely by the caufe
above {pecified, namely, a want of a¢tion in the parts, no
fuccefs can be expected to attend the practice, and the
patient will be put to much unneceflary pain and incon-
venience.

A feton is alfo fometimes employed as a means of dif-

Xx 2 charging

SET

charging the contents of large chronic abfcefles. It is
thought by fome practitioners that this method has the
advantage of letting the matter efcape very gradually, a
circumitance, by which the dangerous effects, often arifing
from emptying the abfcefs all at once, are in a great
meafure avoided. Many furgeons even fuppofe that fetons
hinder the external air from getting into the cavity of the
abfeefs, and, as prejudice and exaggeration have filled their
minds with ferious apprehenfions upon this fubjeét, they
are perhaps more attached to the practice than any recom-
mendations which it really poflefles would juttify.

Formerly, fetons were frequently ufed for accomplifhin
the radical cure of the hydrocele. The celebrated Mr.
Pott was an advocate for this method, which he certainly
brought to great perfeGtion. It is fearcely neceflary for us
to remark here, that the feton excited the requifite degree
of inflammation in the cavity of the tunica vaginalis teltis,
and the adhefion of its oppofite furfaces to each other. See
Hyproce.e.

The common mode of making a feton is with a flat
broadifh needle, which is fomewhat curved towards the
point, and furnifhed with cutting edges. This form enables
the furgeon to bring the needle out of the part again
without any difficulty. The integuments are pinched up
into a fold, of which the operator raifes one end with the
fore-finger and thumb of his left hand, while an affiftant
railes the other. The needle, armed with the filk or thread
dipped ia fweet oil, is then to be pufhed through the fin
thus lifted up. It is only neceflary to draw the end of the
filk or thread a little way out of the fecond aperture: the
needle may now be removed. The next object is to fix the
ends of the filk, which is ufually done with adhefive plafter.
‘The wounds are then to be covered with pledgets, and a re-
tentive bandage. The oil prevents the filk from adhering
to the flefh, and facilitates its paflage through the wound ;
for, as foon as fuppuration has taken place, that part of the
filk which is in the wound 1s to be drawn out and cut off.
The fame method is to be repeated every day, and the fame
plan of drefling continued. When the fkein of filk is ex-
haufted, a new one, oiled in the above manner, is to be
introduced by means of an eye-probe.

Setons, unlefs kept exceedingly clean, and drefled with
much tendernefs, fometimes excite a great deal of irritation,
and prove very troublefome to the patient. The thread is
alfo apt, with the leaft negle@, to cut its way out, and
leave an ugly fore.

When a feton is made in a cafe of large chronic abfcefs,
a puncture is firft made in the upper part of the tumour ;
an eye-probe, armed with a fkein of filk, is introduced down-
ward; and the end of the inftrument being felt againft
the infide of the lower part of the fwelling, an incifion
is made upon it, fo that the end of the filk can then be
drawn out.

The manner of making a feton for the cure of hydro-
celes has been defcribed in a former volume. See Hy-
DROCELE.

The like operation is frequently praGtifed on horfes, &c.
and called, by the farriers, rowelling.

SETOSCH, in Geegraphy, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim; 8 miles S.S.W. of Chrudim.

SETRA-JETA, the name, in Hindoo romance, of the
father of one of the favourite wives of the popular deity
Krifhna. Her name was Satyavama; and fhe is fometimes
faid to have been an incarnation of Lakfhmi, confort of the
god Vifhnu. See thofe articles.

SETS, in Agriculture and Gardening, a term applied to
6

SE T

the cuttings or planted parts of potatoes, hops, liquorice,
lavender, &c.

It has lately been found to be of material confequence
for the fets which produce the plants, in fome cafes, to have
a large fubftance for their early nourifhment and fupport, as
in thofe of the potatoe; as though the {mall parts, called
eyes or buds, will grow and produce crops, they are far from
being equal to thofe where the fets are of a large fize. In
fhort, the refult of various experiments has fhewn that crops
of this fort prove, ceteris paribus, abundant or otherwife,
nearly in proportion to the fize of the fets. Therefore, as
there is no material faving produced by the ufe of {mall fets
or cuttings of thisroot, while the difference in the quantity
of produce is from one hundred to one hundred and
fifty bufhels the acre, the prattice of employing fuch {mall
fetsin planting fhould be difcontinued in all fituations ; and
for the very fame reafon that heavy well-fed corn, when
otherwife in good condition, fhould, in all cafes and circum-
ftances, be preferred to that which is light. See Poraror
and Srep.

SETSE, in Botany, the name of a Chinefe tree, called » |

alfo chit/é, and much efteemed by the people of that country
for its beauty, and for the goodnefs of its fruit. In the pro-
vinces of Cantong and Honan there are whole plains covered
with thefe trees, many of which grow to the fize of our
walnut-tree. The fruit ripens every where in the Fatt,
where the tree grows, but it is of a much more delicious
flavour in fome places thanin others. The leaves are of the
colour and fhape of thofe of the walnut-tree, only that they
are more round at the ends. The fruit is fometimes round,

fometimes pointed at one end, fometimes oval, fometimes «

flat, and not unfrequentky compofed of two pieces, as it
were, and refembling two apples, cut and joined together.
The rind is always green, never changing yellow or red, and
the fruit keeps its frefhnefs all the winter. They are about
the fize of the orange, and the fkin is very tender and thin,
and the fruit has a mixed tafte of the fharp and the lufcious.
It is very wholefome and good.

SETTE!, in Geography, a town of Africa, and capital
of a country of the fame name, fubje& to Loango, on the
river Setté ; 160 miles north of Loango.—Alfo, a country
of Africa, fouth of cape Lopez Gonfalvo, watered by a
river of the fame name. ‘This country is governed by a
mani, who is {ubjeét to the king of Loango.—Alfo, a river
of Africa, which runs into the Atlantic, S. lat. 2° 15/.

SETTEE, in Sea Language, a veflel, very common in
the Mediterranean, with one deck, and a very long and fharp
prow. They carry, fome two mafts, fome three, without
top-mafts. ‘They have generally two mafts, and are rigged
and navigated like xebecs or galleys, with fettee fails inftead
of lateen fails. The leaft of them are of fixty tons burden.
They ferve to tranfport cannon, and provifions for fhips of
war, and the like. Thefe veffels are peculiar to the Medi-
terranean fea, and are ufually navigated by Italians, Greeks,
or Mahometans.

SETTEFRATRI, in Geography, a town of Naples,
in Abruzzo Ultra, 10 miles N. E. of Teremo.

SETTENIL, a town of Spain, in the province of Gre-
nada; 8 miles N. of Ronda.

SETTER, among Farmers. To fetter, is to cut the

~ dew-lap of an ox, or cow, and into the wound to put the root

of the helleborafter; by which an iflue is made, for ill
humours to vent themfelves.

Serrer-Wort, in Botany. See HELLEBORE.

SETTIA, in Geography, a province of the ifland of
Candia, occupying the whole eaftern part of the ifland; it
is the moft extenfive, but the leaft peopled, “and the leaft

productive,

=

SET

produAive, though in a great meafure fufceptible of eul-
ture, and though moft of its lands are very fertile. But
diftance from the capital, want of harbours, and the incon-
- fiderate injutice of the agas, and almoft every other circum-
ftance, contribute to render the inhabitants of this part of
the ifland more indolent than the others. Contented with
gethering corn and fruit for their fubfiftence, oil for paying
ir taxes, and procuring for themfelves a few Anton,
and the utenfils neceflary for their family, they are not eager
to feize from the earth a furplus of productions, which
would render them more fubject to the oppreflion and

ogee of the agas. ‘I'he town is fituated on a flat thore,

with a cape not much advanced, and three iflets
at

wag he

wards of a league’s diftance, proteét it feebly

- and N.E. hrs When the Venetians were

matters of the ifland, it was tolerably well fortified, and
fufficiently led. They conftruéted a mole, in order to
fhelter the veffels which came thither to load with the pro-
duétions of the province, or which brought thofe that were
neceflary to fupply the wants of the aahabtacts: At this
day none but (wall boats may be {een at Settia. The po-
tion has diminifhed confiderably, and the fortifications

are in the teft diforder. It is the fee of a Greek bithop;
miles E.S.E. of Candia. N. lat. 35° 3'. E. long.

SETTIAVERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Cicacole; 30 miles §.W. of Coflimcotta.

SETTIMA, Ital., in Mu/ic, the interval of the /eventh ;
which fee. ,

SETTIMANA Santa, Ital., paffion-week, durin
which holy time, the facred mufic of the highett clafs fed
to be in the moft perfe& and impreflive manner
in the pontifical chapel. See Miserere an

SETTIMO, in Geography, a town

angel of the Po; 8 miles N. of Turin.—Alfo, a town
4 Italy, in the department of the Tefino; 5 miles N.N.E.
of Pavia.

SETTING, in Afronomy, the withdrawing of a ftar or
planet ; or its finking below the horizon.

Aftronomers and poets make three different kinds of
fetting of the ftars: cofmical, acronichal, and heliacal.

To find the times of the fetting of the fun and ftars, fee
Grose.

Sertinc, in Seaman/bip.. To fet the land, or the fun,
by the compafs, is to obferve how the land bears on any
7 of the ena or on what point of the compafs the
fun is; likewife the act of obferving the fituation of any
7 objeé& by the compafs, in order to difcover the angle

lich it makes with the neareft meridian: as at feven pof
meridian, we fet the tower of Arabia near the port of

ia, and it bore S.S.E. diftant four leagues by
eftimation. (See Bearrnc.) Alfo, when two thips fail
‘in fight of one another, Ae Set oy what point the chafed
bears, is termed /etting the cha the compafs.

Serine alfo tot the ce ee of 4 wind, current,
or fea, but particularly the two latter; as, the tide, which
fets to the fouth, is oppofed to a {welling fea, fetting to
the north-wett.

_Sertinxe, when applied to the fails, is the loofing and
kpanding them, fo as to give the fhip motion, or to acce-
tate her velocity, when fhe is already moving, and perhaps

> anew direction to her motion. It is ufed in contra-
: tinétion to taking-in the fails, as loofing or heaving-out
i sai to furling or {towing them.

§ ING, in the me jee of Sport/men, a term ufed
to exprefs a manner of attacking partridges, in order

) the taking of them by means of a dog peculiarly

ALLEGRI.
France, in the

SET

trained to that purpofe. The fetting-dog generally ufed is
along land-{paniel, taught by mature to hunt partridges
more than any other game, and in his untaughe tate
running over the fields in fearch of them, with an alacrity
that is truly wonderful; yet by art this creature is brought
under fuch excellent command, that he will, in the midit
of his higheft career, attend to the leaft hem from his
matter, and ftand ftill to look in his face, and take his
orders by the flighteft fignals; and when he is fo near his
poses that it is almoft in his mouth, he will fland fill, or
te down on his belly till his matter arrive, and he receives
his direétions.

The fetting-dog being taken to the haunt of the
‘tole is to be catt off and fent to range; but he mult

e¢ made to keep near the fportiman, and not to run
wildly on, but to beat all the ground regularly. On being
reproved for ranging too widely and too far, he will keep
clofe the whole i, and at times look up in his matter’s
face, to know if he does right or wrong. If in the dog’s
ranging he ftop of a fudden, the fportiman is to make up
to him, and as there is certainly game before him, he mutt
be ordered to advance; if he refufes this and look back
and fhake his tail, it is a fignal that they are clofe before
him, and the fportfman is then to take a circumference,
and look with a carelefs eye before the dog’s nofe to fee where
they are, and how they lie; then going up, and flaking
down one end of the net, he isto command the dog to lie
ftill, and to draw the net gently over the birds; then making
in with a noife, he is to {pring them, and they will be en-
tangled and taken as they rife. It is arule with fair fportf-
men, when they take a covey in this manner, always to let
the cock and hen go.

Serrinc, among Cock-Maflers, is the placing a cock
that has fought fo that he cannot ftand, beak to beak
againtt the other cock, and if he does not itrike, the battle
is won,

Sertinc-down, in Falconry, is when a hawk is put into
mew.

SETTING-dog, one trained up to find out and difcover to
the fportfman whereabout fowls are. See Spanrer and
Dos.

iM in Ship-Building, is raifing a fhip by shores
and wedges from her blocks, the act of extending the
fhrouds, ftays, and back-ftays, to fecure the mafts, by the
application of tackles, &c.

SerrinG, or Setting-to, the at of making the planks,
&c. fay or fet clofe to the timbers, by driving wedges
between the plank, &c. and wrain-ftaff. Hence “ fet, or
fet away,’’ means to exert more ftrength. The power or
engine ufed for this purpofe is fimple, and called a /e#, and
is compofed of two ring-bolts, aud a wrain-ftaff, cleats and
lafhing, or fhores.

SerrinG, in Agriculture and Gardening, the bufinefs of
putting fets of Sitherent kinds into the ground, as thofe of
the potatoe, hop, madder, liquorice, lavender, and many
other kinds.

SertinG out Plants, the practice of thinning and reducing
them ; in the former, to their proper diftances, in order to
ftand for crops, as in the turnip, cabbage, and many other
forts of plants; and, in the latter, the bufinefs of putting
them into the ground as crops; it being practifed for a

t many different forts of plants that are raifed on feed-

ds, as all the cabbage kind, lettuces, endives, beets, and
many other plants of a fimilar nature. Iv is ufually per-
formed as foon as the plants have acquired a proper ftate of
growth in the feed-beds, and moftly when the weather is
cloudy and rather moift, as it can then be done to the

greateit

SET

greateft advantage, in fo far as the plants are concerned. |

They are commonly put out in this way to the proper dif-
tances for growing as crops, and the work is for the moft
part done by means of a line and dibble. See TrinnineG
out Crops, and TRANSPLANTING.

Settine of Wheat, is a method of cultivating wheat,
which was probably firft fuggelted by planting grains in a
garden from mere curiofity, and firft attempted on a larger
{cale by a farmer near Norwich, about the year 1768. His
example was followed by fome of his neighbours, and par-
ticularly by one of the largeft occupiers of land in the county
of Norfolk, who fet fifty-feven acres in one year. His fuc-
cefs, from the vifible fuperiority in his crop both in quantity
and quality, was fo great, that the following autumn he
fet three hundred acres, and afterwards continued the prac-
tice. The method of fetting was generally introduced, in
confequence of this experiment, among the intelligent
farmers, in a very large diftri€& of land. And it has been
obferved, in recommendation of it, that, although the fet
crops appear very thin during the autumn and winter, the
plants tiller and {pread prodigioufly in the fpring. The ears
are indifputably larger, without any dwarfifh or {mall corn ;
the grain is of a larger fathom, and {pecifically heavier fer
bufhel than when fown. It furnifhes employment for aged
perfons and children, at a feafon when they have little elfe
to do; it faves to the farmer fix pecks of feed-wheat in
every acre; the expence is already reduced to about fix fhil-
lings an acre; and a drill-plough has been invented, by
which one man may fet an acre a day.

The lands on which this method particularly fucceeds,
are either after a clover ftubble, or thofe on which trefoil
and grafs-feed were fown the {pring before the laft, and on
which cattle have occafionally paftured during the f{ummer.
Thefe grounds, after the ufual manuring, are once turned
over by the plough in an extended flag or turf, at ten inches
wide ; along which a man, who is called a dibbler, with two
fetting-irons, fomewhat bigger than ram-rods, but con-
fiderably bigger at the lower end, and pointed at the ex-
tremity, fteps backwards along the turf, and makes the
holes about four inches afunder every way, and an inch deep.
Into thefe holes, the droppers (women and children) drop
two grains, which are quite fuflicient. After this, a gate,
bufhed with thorns, is drawn by one horfe over the land,
and clofes up the holes. By this mode, three pecks of
grain are fufficient for an acre; and being immediately
buried, it is equally removed from vermin, or the power of
froft. The regularity of its rifing affords the beft oppor-
tunity of keeping clear from weeds, by weeding or hand-
hoeing.

SErTinG, aterm ufed in fheep-management, which fig-
nifies the picking, choofing, and fele€ting thofe which are
the beft formed, and moft perfeét for the purpofes of breed-
ing, forming the flock, and keeping as itock; the others,
or the refufe ill-formed fheep, being fold off, or fent to be
fattened in the proper paftures. The praétice is extremely
ufeful and neceflary, where good ftock of this kind is aimed
at, as it cannot be well obtained without it. See SuEEp,
and SortinG Sheep-Stock.

SertinG Lamb-Stock, a term made ufe of to fignify the
practice of culling and removing thofe lambs, which are any
way improper for being kept as ftock. It is an excellent
cuftom in fheep-management, which fhould be as feldom as
poffible negleGed.

SeTtine of Farms, the bufinefs of letting them to
tenants of different kinds. Much care and attention are ne-
ceflary in the management of this bufinefs. See Lerrine
Farms.

SET

SEertinG of Bricks. See Bricks.

SertinG-Pin, the name of a dibble or fetting-tool.

SerTinG-Stick, the flick ufed in fetting out plants or
cuttings as field crops, and in putting in and planting out
thofe ufed for garden culture.

SETTLE, in Geography, a market-town in the parifh
of Gigglefwick, weft divifion of the wapentake of Stain-
cliffe and Ewcrofs, Weft Riding of Yorkshire, is fituated
at the diftance of 58 miles W. by N. from York, and 232
miles N.W. by N. from London. The pofition of this
town, though fingular, is pleafant, ftanding clofe to the
bafe of an aagte perpendicular lime-ftone rock, about
300 feet high; from the fummit of which is a fine profpect
of an expantive vale, bounded on all fides by craggy moun-
tains. This vale, whichis watered by the river Ribble, and
hence has acquired the appellation of Ribblefdale, is not
furpafled by any in England in richnefs of verdure. As the
prevalence of fogs and rains prevents the ripening of corn, it
is almo{t wholly appropriated to pafturage ; and fuch is its
fertility, that the greater part of it rents as high as fix
pounds an acre. According to the parliamentary returns
of 1811, Settle townfhip contains 274 houfes, and 1153
inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in the cotton manu-
facture, and in the purfuits of hufbandry. Like moft of
the other towns and villages in this diltri€t, it is principally
built of ftone, brick being ufed only for the chimnies..
The market day here is Friday, weekly ; and the fairs are
on Tuefday before Palm Sunday, Thurfday before Good
Friday, and every alternate Friday till Whitfunday, 26th
April, 2d June, 18th and 21{ft Auguft, firit Tuefday after
27th Otober, and every other Monday throughout the
year. Thefe fairs are generally well attended, and are
noted for large fupplies of cattle.

About a mile to the N.W. of Settle is the village of
Gigglefwick, which gives name to the parifh, and where
the church is accordingly fituated. This village is re-
markable for an excellent free grammar-{chool, founded in
the reign of Edward VI., and fupported by rich endow-
ments in land. At prefent the falary of the mafter is 500/.
per annum, that of the ufher 200/., and that of the writing-
mafter 150/.; and each has a good houfe, garden, and
every convenience for a comfortable dwelling. Near
Gigglefwick is a fpring, which exhibits the fingular phe-
nomenon of a conftant influx and reflux of its waters at ir-
regular periods, fometimes thrice or oftener in an hour.
No fatisfaGtory explanation of this fingularity has yet been
offered to public notice.

At the diftance of feveral miles further to the N.W.
from Settle, on the road to Kendle in Weftmoreland, {lands
Ingleton, a large village, the vicinity of which prefents
many obje¢ts worthy the attention cf the admirers of ro-
mantic fcenery.. Among thefe are Thornton-Scar, Yordas
Cave, and Weathercote Cave, and the mountains of Ingle-
borough, Pennigant, and Wharnfide. Thornton-Scar is a
tremendous chafm, above 300 feet in depth, which extends
a confiderable way into the mountains, and is fo narrow to-
wards the bottom, that the fides in fome places approach
within a few feet of each other. - Yordas Cave is fituated,
under a mountain, called Greg-roof. It is entered through
a rude arched opening, refembling the gateway of an an-
cient caftle, and extends about 170 feet in length, 4o in
breadth, and 48 in height. On one fide are feyeral re-
ceffes, and the roof and walls exhibit a variety of petrifac-
tions. Weathercote Cave difplays fcenery itill more ro-
mantic and fublime. It is of a lozenge form, and divided
into two by a grotefque arch of pate lee rock; the total
length about 200, and the breadth about go feet. at ee

~ lout

SET

fouth end is an entrance down into a {mall cave, which com-
municates with the larger one by a fubterraneous pallage,
where the altonifhed vifitant fees, ifuing from a large
aperture in the rock, an immenfe cataraét, falling above
20 yards in an unbroken theet, with a noife that fluns the
éar. The water difappears as it falls from the rocks and
pebbles, and runs about a mile under ground. The whole
eave is filled with the {pray that arifes from the cataract,
and fometimes a finall vivid rainbow appears, which for
eet roe and fituation, is fearcely any where elfe to be
»

But the moft fublime features of this romantic dittric
are the mountains of Ingleborough, Pennigant, and Wharn-
fide. The fummit of Ingleborough is level and horizontal,
and, from its t elevation, commands extenfive profpects
on all fides. ‘T’o the ealt, the picturefque country of Craven

ts a confufed aflemblage of hills, gradually diminith-
ing in height till they vanifh in the horizon. Pennigant, at
the diftance of four miles, appears to be almoit within a
leap; as do alfo the rocks oF Settle and Pendlehill. The
northern and north-weltern profpe& exhibits a mafs of
mountains. Wharnfide is within the diltance of fix miles,
and Snowdon and Crosfell are clearly vifible in the back

und, ‘Towards the weft the flat country of Lancafhire

as inamap, and the profpect extends far into the Irifh

the neareft which is 24 miles from Ingle-
only Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi. by
John Bigland, 8vo. 1813.

See Right of Crown.
ent, Marriage. See MARRIAGE.
_ Serriement ef the Poor. See Poor.
_ SETTLING a Deck, at Sea, a term for taking a deck
lower than it was at firft.
Serruine the Land, denotes finking it lower, by failing
farther out to feaward, and is ufed in the fame fenfe with

SETTOREE f Be

t » in G » a town o ngal; 56
miles N.W. of ‘iran ae ru

| SETTOVITONE, a town of France, in the depart-
ent of the Dora; 4 miles N. of Ivrea.

_ SETTS, powers made ufe of, where force is required,
D bring or unite two or more pieces together. The opera-
on is performed by {fcrews, fhores, crofs-fetts, or cleets.
‘Serrs, Crof/s, are made by two fhort pieces of {pars,
about four or fix feet in length: one is laid acrofs on the
pper fide, and the other on the under fide, of any two
Neces that are to be brought together, and their ends lathed
her on each fide with feveral turns of rope, taken
nd each end alternately : wedges are then driven in be-
n the upper crofs-piece, the fide or part of the

Serrs for Saws, initruments for fetting their teeth,
her out of order.
SETUNA, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the

SETUVAL, or St. Ubes, a ftrong fea-port town of
tugal, in the province of Eftremadura, fituated in a bay
f the Atlantic, at the mouth of the river Sandao, with a
god harbour, capable of receiving any fhips of burden.
few was founded on the ruins of the ancient Cedo-

.

SEV

briga, which was deltroyed by the Moors. The environs
abound in corn, wine, and oil. Befides the old walls and
towers, 1t is ftrengthened with eleven whole and two demi-
baftions, with feveral other out-works, It has likewife a
ttrong citadel, called “ St. Philip,’”’ in which is a {pring of
excellent water; and the {trong fort of Outao, near the
harbour, which alfo ferves for a light-houle, exclufive of
which it has two (maller forts. It contains four churches,
two hofpitals, ten converts, an academia problematica,
founded by John V., and about 10,000 fouls. In 1796,
the number of vellels which entered this harbour was 558 ;
and the fame number failed from it; 15 miles S.S.E. of
Lifbon. NN. lat. 38° 29'. E. long. 8° 53'.

SETWELL, in Botany, a name fometimes ufed for a
{pecies of valerian.

SETZINI, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Sandomirz: near it are fome filver mines, and
fome lapis-lazuli; 16 miles W. of Malogocz.

Vv. a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Defna, near
Trubchevik, inthe government of Orlov.

SEU, ariver of Malacca, which runs into the Chinefe
fea, N. lat. 6° 45'. E. long. 10° 19).

SEVAJEE, in Biography, a diftinguithed perfon in the
hiftory of Hindoottan, the Pini of the modern Mahratta
empire, was the fon of Shawjee, who, from an humble fitua-
tion, had raifed himfelf by his talents to be guardian to a
minor of the houfe of Nizam Shah. On a Mogul invafien
of the country, being clofely purfued by the troops of his
father-in-law, Jadoo Row, with whom he was at enmity,
Shawjee efcaped with au infant fon, and left his pregnant
wife to fall into the hands of her father. She was kindly
received, and was delivered of her fecond fon, Sevajee, the
fubje& of this article, in the month of May 1626, and
finally feparated from her hufband.

Sevajee, at the age of 17, placed himfelf at the head of a
body of banditti, who pillaged all the neighbouring dif-
triéts, which fo affected the perfon who had been entrufted
with the care of his education, that he put an end to his
life. Upon this, Sevajee took poffeffion of the property
accumulated from his father’s eftate, and increafed the
number of his followers, fo as to become a molt formidable
free-booter. His exploits foon rendered him dangerous to
the government of Vifiapour, which fent a powerful army
againit him, and brought him to fubmiflion. Sevajee aiked
pardon for his offences, and, by the humility of his deport-
ment, threw the general, fent againit him, off his guard,
till he found an opportunity to ftab him to the heart with a
concealed dagger: in confequence of which the army dif-
perfed. Shawjee, the father of this defperate young man,
was now high in office at Vifiapour, and though he pre-
tended entirely to have renounced his fon, a correfpondence
between them was fufpeéted, and a plan was formed for
feizing his perfon, and putting him to death. He was,
however, faved by the interceflion of a patron, and at length
reftored to office. But he was refolved to have ample re-
venge for the affront, and caufed Sevajee to murder the
chief who had feized him, and his whole family. After
this Shawjee paid a vifit to his fon at Poona in great ftate,
and manifefted much affection and refpe& for him.

Sevajee now proceeded in a career of fuccefsful predatory
war, and in 1664 pillaged the rich city of Surat. Having,
in 1672, laid the king of Golconda under a heavy contni-
bution, he afterwards entered into an alliance with a poten-
tate againit the Mogul and the king of Vifiapour, the
object of which was the expulfion of all the Mahometan
powers from the Deccan; and marching with a great army,
in 1677, towards Golconda, he took poileflion of many

4 fortrefles,

SEV

fortreffes, and pillaged the whole country. His half-
brother, Eccojee, was now king of Tanjore ; and the dif-
ferent branches of the family were poflefled of a large
portion of the fouth of India.

The principal dominions of Sevajee were in the tract
called Conear, extending from the fouth of Surat to the
fouth of Goa, which rendered him completely matter of
the weftern Gauts; from which he was, at all times, able
to iffue and ravage the plain country, while it was impof-
fible to force him from his faftnefles; hence he was deno-
minated by Aurungzebe the mountain rat. Sevajee con-
tinued this courfe of ation till his death in 1680, when he
was fucceeded in his conquetts by his fon Sambajee.

SEVANI, in Geography, a town of Perfian Armenia,
ona lake; 4omiles E. of Erivan.

SEVASTOPOL, a fea-port town of Ruffia, in the
province of Tauris, on the coatt of the Black fea, with an
excellent harbour for men of war; So miles S. of Pereltop.
N. lat. 44° 45!. E. long. 33° 24!.

SEUBELSDORF, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach; 6 miles N. of Culmbach.

SEUBITZ, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Bayreuth.

SEUCKENDORYF, a town of Germany, in the marg-

avate of Anfpach; 4 miles E. of Langenzen.

SEUDRE, a river of France, which runs into the fea,
oppofite the ifle of Oleron, N. lat. 45° 49! W. long.
Bogie
SEVE, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Oife, celebrated for its manufa€ture of china;
1Z poft S.W. of Paris.

SEVEKTEN, or Sevexorr, a town of France, in the
department of the Lys; 10 miles S.W. of Bruges.

SEVEN, a river of Yorkfhire, which runs into the
Derwent.

Seven Acss, rocks in the Caribbean fea, near the S.E.
coaft of the ifland of Blanca.

Seven Broruers, a clufter of {mall iflands near the
north coaft of Hifpaniola. N. lat. 19° 53'. W. long.
72° 35!

SEvEeN Capes. See Sessa Rous.

Seven Heaps, a promontory of the county of Cork,
Treland, weft of Courtmafherry bay, and 6 miles W.S.W.
ef the old head of Kinfale. N. lat. 51° 34’. W. long.
8° 41!.

Seven IsLanps, a clufter of {mall iflands in the Eait
Indian fea. S. lat. 1°.9!. E. long. 105° 21".

SrvVEN IsLAnps, a clutter of iflands near the weft coaft
of Sumatra, lying off Padang.

Seven Istanps, a clutter of {mall iflands in the Englifh
Channel, near the coaft of France. N. lat. 48° 54'. W.
long. 3° 23'.

SEVEN IsLANDs, a republic fo named, lately formed by
the union of the iflands of Zante, Cephalonia, Corfu, Ce-
rigo, Curzola, St. Maura or Leucadia, and Teaki, contti-
tuted about the year 1799, acknowledged by the Ottoman
Porte, and by the French and Great Britain, at the peace
of Amiens, 1802.

SEveEN Istanps, {mall iflands of Virginia, in James river.
N. lat. 37° 40! W. long. 78° 32!.

Seven IsLanps, a clufter of {mall iflands near the coaft
ef Canada, in the gulf of St. Lawrence. N. lat. 50° 10!.
W. long. 66° 5!.

Seven Istanps’ Bay, a bay of Canada, on the north
fide of the river St. Lawrence. N. lat. 50° 5. W. long.
66° 25’.

SEV

Seven Pacopas, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ¢
30 miles S. of Madras.

Seven Rocks’ Port, a cape in the Englifh Channel,
on the coaft of Dorfetfhire; 3 miles S.W. of Lyme
Regis.

SEVENAER, or Zevenarr, a town of Germany, in
the duchy of Cleves; 10 miles N. of Cleves.

SEVENBERGEN, atown of Dutch Brabant; 8 miles
N.W. of Breda.

SEVENNES, or Crvennrs, mountains of France,
crofling the department of the Lozere, particularly me-
morable as being the {trong hold of the Proteftants in the
17th century, and beginning of the 18th.

SEVENOAKS, or Srevenoxr, a market-town, in a
parifh of the fame name, hundred of Codsheath, lathe of
Sutten at Hone, and county of Kent, England, is fituated
on high ground at the diftance of 16 miles W. by N. from
Maiditone, and 33 miles S.E. from London. In the

. Textus Roffenfis the name is written Seauanacca, and is

faid to have been fuggefted by the circumftance of a clutter
of feven large oaks growing on the fcite of the town, at the
time of its foundation. ‘The principal building here is the
church, which forms a confpicuous object for feveral miles
round the country. It formerly contained a chantry chapel,
founded by fir Henry Gawdy, who was buried within it.
The only monument of note is that of William Lambarde,
the celebrated Kentifh antiquary, whofe family had a feat
in this parifh. Here are an alms-houfe and free-{chool,
originally built and endowed by fir William de Seyenoke,
in the beginning of the 15th century. They were fubfe-

quently incorporated under the title of the free grammar- .

{chool of queen Elizabeth, and now poflefs a revenue of
nearly tooo/. a-year. The f{chool-honfe was rebuilt in
1727, at which time the alms-houfe was fubitantially re-
paired. The former has fix exhibitions to either univerfity,
and the latter affords an afylum to thirty-two elderly
trades-people, who have a weekly allowance in money.
This town confilts chiefly of two wide ftreets, in one of
which ftands the ancient market-houfe, where the aflizes
were frequently held during the reign of queen Elizabeth,
and where the petty feffions for the lathe of Sutton at Hone
are {till held. Many of the houfes are large and refpectable
manfions, inhabited by independent families. "The market-
day here is Saturday, weekly ; and there are two annual
fairs on the roth of July and the 22d of Odtober. Seven-
oaks town and parifh conititute a liberty, governed by a
warden or bailiff and four affiftants, who are not, however,
empowered to hold any court of record for pleas. Ac-
cording to the parliamentary returns of 1811, this liberty
contains 638 houfes and 3444 inhabitants, of whom about
1500 refide in the town. Hiftory and Topographical
Survey of Kent, by Edward Hatted, 8vo. 1797, vol. i.

Beauties of England and Wales, vol. viii. by E. W. Bray- —

ley, 8vo. 1805.
SEVENTH, Srprima, in Mufic, an interval, called by
the Greeks heptachordon ; of which there are four kinds. |

The firft, the defective or diminifhed feventh, confifting of ;

three tones, and three greater femitones, as from wu fharp
to fi flat: its ratio is 128 to 75.

The fecond, called by Zarlini, and the Italians, /emiditone
con diapente, or feltimo minore, is compofed diatonically of
feven degrees, and fix intervals, four of which are tones,
and the reft greater femitones, as from de to uf; and chro-
matically of ten femitones, fix of which are greater, and
four lefs; it takes its form from the ratio guadripartiens
quintas, g to 5.

The third, called by the Italians a ditono con diapente, or

Settime

|

|

SEV
” ftime jer, is compofed diatonically, like the former,
of feven » and "Gs intervals, fix of which are full

tones, and a fingle one a greater femitone ; fo that only
one greater femitone is wanting of the o@tave ; as from ut
to Ai and chromatically of eleven femitones, fix of which
are greater, and five teller, It takes its origin from the
ratio of 15 to 8.

» The fourth is the redundant feventh, compofed of five
tones, a greater femitone and a leffer, as from f flat to /a
tharp: fo that it only wants a comma of an otave ; that is,
fo much as it wants to render its fecond femitone a greater.
Hence many confound it with the oétave itfelf; maintain-
ing, with good reafon, that only the three firit fevenths
can be of any ule.
Ia baffles the feventh, whether double, fimple,
major, or minor, is marked by a figure of 7; but if it be
accidentally flat, or minor, he 7,0r 7b. If up
major, thus, & 7, or 7 a. Aga, if when it is nat mals
minor, it be marked with a flat, it muft be diminifhed.
See FunpAMENTAL.
SEVERAC & Chateau, in Gagoapiny town of France,
the t of the Aveyron, ief place of a canton,
in the diitri€ of Milhau; 21 miles E. of Rodés. The place
contains 2113, and the canton 6051 inhabitants, on a terri-

of 2124 kiliometres, in 7 communes. N. lat. 46°

ag’. E. long. 3°9/. 2
_ SEVERAL, in Agriculture, the fame as dole. See

E.
~ Severar Tail, or Inheritance, in Law. See Innenit-

Tenancy, Tenura, Separalis, a plea, or exception
aken to a writ that is laid againit two perfons as joint te-
aants, who are /everal.

SEVERALTY, L£flates in. He that holds lands or
tenements in feveralty, or is fole tenant of them, is he who
olds them in his own right enly, without any other perfon
eing conneGted with him in point of intereft, during his
Land, in Agriculture, fuch as is in an o

‘Severatty i
d ftate, and divided ven many. It isa bad fituation
or tenure of land, and ought to be done away as foon as

SEVERANCE, in Law, the or fevering two

br more that join, or arc ert J Ph be or

SMa if two joio in a writ, de Ghertate probanda, and the
spine nonfuited ; here rious is permitted, fo

M, notwithitanding the nonfuit of the one, the other may
reTal

_ There is alfo of the tenants in affife ; when one,
Be Rea peers APce: TipDe, he Wet and not the

y in debt, w two executors are
i and the one refufes to profecute. We

, meet

"An elftate in joint tenancy may be fevered and deftroyed b

eftrc PS of its unities. 1. That of time, aged
ts commencement of the joint eftate,

i gg, ered or aind by any fubfe-
pet ttranfaction. But, 2. joint-tenant’s eltate may

d, without any alienation, by merely difuniting
ee ees
x + unit
Fra Sr ; i ying y

_ Suverance of Corn. The cutting and carrying it from
Von XXXL. ° ad

with feverance of Summons, feverance in attaints,

SEV

off the ground; and fometimes the fetting out the tythes
from the relt of the corn, is called feverance.

SEVERIA, or Ssewxsuz, in Geography, a town of
Auttrian Poland, in Galicia, capital of a duchy fold by the
duke of Tefchen to the bifhops of Cracow ; 4 miles N.W.
of Cracow.

Seveuta, a town of European Turkey, in the Morea; 14
miles N.E, of Mifitra.

SEVERIANS, Seveaiant, in Ecelcfaflical Hiflory.
There were two feéts of heretics thus called: the firit, who
are as old as the beginning of the third century, were ao
impure branch of the Gaottics; thus called,from their chief,
Severus.

The fecond, by fome called Severites, were a fe& of Mo-
nophyfites, or Eutychians ; their leader, Severus, was pre-
ferred to the fee of Antioch in 513, where he did his utmoft
to fet afide the council of Chalcedon.

SEVERIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in og government of Diar kir; 50 miles W, of Diar-
bekir.

SEVERIN, or Szorneny, a town of Walachia, on
the Danube, founded by the emperor Severus; 12 miles E.
of Orfova.

SEVERINUS, pope, in Biography, a Roman, was
ele&ted foon after the death of Honorius, in 638, but was not
confecrated till May 640, when the papal fee had been va-
cant nearly two years. This delay was owing to the refu-
fal of the emperor to confirm the election tll the cler
of Rome had promifed that their bifhop fhould fign the de-
claration of faith relative to the one will of Chrift, drawn up
by Sergius, the patriarch of Conftantinople, and publifhed
by Heraclius. During the vacancy of the fee, the Lateran

alace was plundered of all its treafures by the exarch of
pay At length the confirmation of the ele€tion of
Severinus arrived, but he enjoyed his elevation only about
two months, which afforded opportunity for no remarkable
a&t, except that he refufed to receive the declaration, and
even publifhed a decree condemning it.

Severinus, Marcus Aure.ivus, a diftinguifhed phyfi-
cian, was born at Tarfia, in Calabria, in the year 1580.
His early inclination led him to the itudy of the law; but
he fubfequently abandoned that purfuit Z the profeffion of
medicine, and received the de of door in the univerfity
of Naples. He became ultimately one of the moft cele-
brated profeflors of that {chool, and taught anatomy and
furgery with fuch reputation, as to attract a crowd of ftu-
dents to the univerfity. His method of treating furgical
fubjeéts in his writings was highly commended by Bartholin.
He was, however, a harfh practitioner, and cenfured the
inertnefs of his contemperaries, for neglecting the cautery
and the knife, as employed by the ancients, and himfelf car-
ried the ufe of the ssh eantooy toagreatextent. Hedied
at Naples, on the 15th of July, 1656, at the age of feventy-
fix. € was a man of bold and original mind, but fome-
what attached to paradox; and was the author of feveral
publications, of which we have the following :
« Hiftoria Anatomica, Obfervatioque medica evifcerati ho-
minis ;” 1629. ‘* De recondita abfcefluum natura Libri
oo ;” 1630, which pafled through many editions. «“ Vi-
pera Pythiz, id eft, de Vipera natura, veneno, et medicina ;’’
1643. ‘ Zootonica Democritea, id eft, Anatome ra-
lis totius animantium opificii, Lib. v.’’ 1645, contaming the
refult of his difleGtion of a great many ammals. “ De efhi-
‘caci Medicina, Libri iii.”’ 1646. In this work he extols the
advantages of fire and fteel in the cure of difeafes. .«* De
Lapide fungifero, de —_ fungimappa, Epiitolz =

y 1649.

SEV

1649. “ Therapeuta Neapolitanus, five curandarum Fe-
brium et Morborum internorum Methodus ;” 1653. “ Tri-
membris Chirurgia ;”’ 1653. ‘ Seilo-Phlebotome caftigata,
five de Vene. Salvatelle ufu et abufu cenfura ;”’ 1654.
De Aqua Pericardii, cordis adipe, poris choledocis ;”?
1654. At the time of his death, Severini was pre-
paring for publication fome papers, which he meant to
illuftrate by engravings; they were publifhed together,
and entitled, «« Antiperipatias, hoc eft, adverfus Arilto-
teleos de refpiratione pifcium Diatriba.’? ‘ Commenta-
rius, in Theophraitum de pifcibus in ficco viventibus.”’
«« Phoca anatomicé {pectatus ;” 1661. A fort of extra&
or abridgment of his writings on furgery was alfo publifhed
in 1664, with the title of «* Synopfeos Chirurgics Libri vi.”
See Eloy Di&. Hitt.

SEVERN, in Geography, the fecond moft important
river in England, is fuppofed by fome antiquaries to de-
rive its name from the Britifh word /abrin, fandy, or
muddy; but others, with greater probability, confider it as
a corruption of the Saxon term /eferne, which fignifies fea~
flowing. This river has its fource from a large bog on the
top of Plinlimmon-hill, in Montgomery fhire, North Wales,
whence running down with a {wift current, and being joined
by many leffer torrents, it prefently appears confiderable ;
and pafling by Lilanydlos and Newtown, becomes navigable
near Welfh-Pool, where the river Vernew joins it witha
{tream little inferior to its own. From thence proceeding
gently to Shrewfbury, which it almoit furrounds, it flows
on through arich vale, with many extenfive windings, to
Benthall Edge ; by the way receiving into it the river Tern,
which waters all the north of Shropfhire. Here the Severn
begins to be rapid, being pent up from thence, to Bridge-
north and Bewdley, by high woody banks and rocky cliffs,
which afford a variety of beautiful profpeéts. Afterwards
it again glides pleafantly on through the fertile plains of
Worcelterfhire, vifiting in its courfe the city of Worcetter
itfelf, near which it receives the waters of the Teme. At
‘Lewkefbury it forms a juntion with the Avon, and there-
after purfues its courfe to Gloucefter, about fifty miles be-
low which city the name of Severn is loft in that of the
Briftol channel.

The Severn is a river of great importance, being navi-
gated by veflels of large burthen for more than 160 miles
from its mouth, without the affiftance of any lock. Up-
wards of 100,000 tons of coal are annually fhipped by the
collieries about Madeley and Brofeley, for the cities and
towns fituated on its banks, and thence conveyed into the
adjacent counties. Great quantities of grain, pig and bar
iron, iron manufactures, and earthen-ware, as alfo wool,
hops, cider and provifions, are likéwife fent to Briftol and
other places, whence various kinds of goods are brougit in
return. This traffic is carried on with veflels of two forts,
the larger ones being called trows, and the leffer ones barges,
or frigates. In May 1756, the number of thefe veflels navi-
gating from Welfh-Pool, in Montgomeryfhire, to Briftol,
amounted to 3763 but in confequence of the addition of the
inland canals from the Trent, the Merfey, and the Thames,
into the Stroud navigation, it may be fairly calculated that
more than double that number are now employed. This
river is peculiarly remarkable for its tide, which rolls in
with a head of three or four feet high, foaming and roaring
in its courfe, as if enraged by the oppofition it meets with
from the {trong defcending current of frefh water, which
feems to contend with it for the fuperiority. They clath in
fach a manner as to dafh the waters to a confiderable height.
This conteft is called the Aygre, or eager, as Rudder fup-

SEV

pofes, from the French eau-guerre, ¢. e. water-war.

aie Draya!
ton, in his Poly-Albion, defcribes it in thefe words.

“¢ With whofe tumultuous waves,

Shut up in narrow bounds, the Hygre wildly raves,

And hehe the ftraggling flocks, the neighbouring fhore
to

Afar, sean the main it comes with hideous cry,

And on the angry front the hideous foam doth bring.

The billows ’gainft the banks when fiercely it doth fling,

Hurles up the flimy ooze, and makes the {caly brood

Leap madding to the land, affrighted from the flood ;

O’erturns the toiling barge, whofe fteerfman doth not
launch,

And thrutts the furrowing beake into her treful paunch.”

Rudder, in his « Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire,”’ remarks that
the bailiwick of the Severn is velted in the crown; that
John Arnold obtained a leafe of it in 1669 for 3¥ years, at
ro/. a-year, and that the bailiff in 1779 was a Mr. Ed-
ward Baylis. From the rapid and boilterous character of
this river, its waters are extremely muddy, a circumftance
which renders it unfavourable as an abode for fifh. It is,
however, well furnifhed with falmon in fome of the calmer
fpots, and is particularly famous for lampreys. For anac-
count of the local circumftances of this river, and the
{cenery on its banks, fee the articles MonrGoMERYSHIRE,
SuHRoesHIRE, WORCESTERSHIRE, and GLOUCESTERSHIRE,
alfo Wrtsu-Poot, SHRreEwsBury, and WorcrsTEr.
Skrine’s Hiftory of Rivers, 8vo. Atkyns’s Ancient and
prefent State of Gloucefterfhire, folio, 1768. Rudder’s —
New Hittory of Gloucetterfhire, fol. 1779. Fofbrooke’s |
Abftra&s of Records and Manufcripts refpecting the
County of Gloucefter, 4to. 1807. Nafh’s Hiftory of Wor-
cefterfhire, fol. 1782. Alfo Tours in Wales by Pennant,
Bingley, Hutton, Skrine, Warner, and Wyndham.

SEVERN, a river of America, in Maryland, which runs
into the Chefapeak, a little below Annapolis.—Alfo, a river
of North America, which runs into Hudfon’s bay, with
a fettlement at its mouth, called «* Severn Houfe.”? N. lat.
56°. W. long. 88°.—Alfo, a river of North America,
which runs from lake Simcoe to lake Huron.—Alfo, a river
of Virginia, which runs into the Chefapeak bay, N. lat.

° 23! W. long. 76° 27!.

SEVERNDROOG, a fea-port town and fortrefs of
Hindooftan, in Concan, taken by the Enghith in 1756; 68
miles S. of Bombay. N. lat.17°55'. E. long. 72° 50.

SEVERUS, Luetus-Serrimius, in Biography, a Ro-
man emperor, was born at Leptis, in Africa, in the year 146
of the Chriftian era. His father, Septimius Geta, was of
a Roman equettrian family, and his two paternal uncles were
raifed to the confular dignity. Severus was liberally edu-
cated, and made a proficiency in rhetorical ftudies. He
came to Rome in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, by whom
he was raifed to the offices of advocate of the treafury, and
fenator. His youth was licentious ; he however pafled with
credit through the offices of quettor, tribune of the people,
and pretor, in confequence of his aétive and regular perform-
ance of his public duties. After his quzftorflip, he went
into Africa, as lieutenant of the proconful, where he fhewed
his fenfe of the dignity of office, and the importance of ftri&
difcipline, by caufing an old acquaintance of ordinary rank
to be fcourged for greeting him familiarly, as he was walking,
preceded by liétors. After he had completed the pretorian
year, he was fent to Spain with the command of a legion.
He pafled fome time in retirement at Athens, at the beginning
of the reign of Commodus; after this, however, he wae

sraifed

SEVERUS.

raifed to the higheft honours, being fucceflively appointed
: governor of the diltri&t of Lyons, conful, aod commander
ef the legions pofted on the banks of the Danube.

At the death of Commodus, Severus acquiefced in the
elevation of Pertinax to the throne; but when, after the
murder of that prince, the empire was purchaled by Didius
Julianus, he procured himfelf to be Mes ks emperor by his
Pannonian legions, in the year 193. Senfible that nothing
was fo eflential to his fuccefs as celerity, after preparing his
troops, he immediately commenced his march, which he per-
formed on foot, at the head of a {elect body of guards,
fharing with the meangit foldier all the hardfhips of his rapid
advance. He entered Italy without meeting with any re-
fiftance, Julianus being incapable of any confiltent and
effective meafures. On his approach to Rome, his competitor
was depofed and put to death, and Severus received the de-
cree of his election to the empire. His firft at of power
was to infli a jult punifhment on thole of the pretorian

ards who were immediately concerned in the murder of
Sorted which was the only blood that his elevation
hitherto colt. Though he {pared the lives of the reft of that
mutinous and diffolute y, he determined to difband
them, and with this view he fummoned them on a plain near
the city, ordering them to come without arms. He now re-

them + their want of difcipline, itripped them of
their ornaments, and ordered them, on pain of inftant death,
to depart to the diftance of one hundred miles from the
capit Severus was not fecure on his throne, having to
contend with two formidable rivals, Pefcennius Niger, go-
vernor of Syria, and Clodius Albinus, commander in Britain.
Niger being the more powerful, Severus made the firit attack
upon him; and in the mean time, to fecure himfelf againft
the attacks of Albinus, he flattered his vanity, conferring
upon him the title of Czfar; and in a letter conceived in
_ terms of apparent refpect and friendfhip, he requefted him to
partake with himfelf the toils of government, which age and
infirmity rendered him unable to underge without an aflo-
ciate. In this manner he difarmed the unfufpe@ing foldier.
Severus now marched out to encounter Niger, whom he
defeated in feveral battles, of which the laft was at Iffus, in
Cilicia. Severus was now freed from further conteft by the
death of his rival, who was flain in his flight to the
Euphrates, but he ufed his victory with great rigour; he
banifhed and afterwards put to death the fons of Niger,
feverely fined all the towns which had taken his part, and
executed all the fenators who had been officers in his army.
Taking Byzantium after a long fiege, he difmantled and
_ reduced it to the condition of a village, confifcating all the
“property of the inhabitants. He remained in Afia fome
_ time after the viCtery over Niger, and made an expedition
into Mefopotamia, where he obliged the Parthians to raife
the fiege of Nifibis, and gained other advantages over the
Barbarians on the frontiers.
____ Severus was now too great to think of fharing his power
with a partner; he accordingly deprived Albinus of the
, peg attaching to the utle of Czxfar, while Albinus
- hi im to the rank of Auguftus. An open rupture
_ enfued, and each prepared to decide the conteft. They met
at Lyons, each at the head of 150,000 men, equal in valour
and difcipline. Severus was the conqueror, and his rival
deftroyed himfelf. This event took place in 197. Severus
being now undifputed mafter of the empire, indul
_ without reftraint his difpofition to cruelty. After putting
_ to death the family of Albinus, and all the prifoners of ran
_ taken in the battle, together with many citizens in the towns
- of Gaul, which had favoured his rival, he extended his
‘ feverity to the Roman fenate, which had difplayed an

inclination towards the caufe of Albinus. By way of infule
to that body, he conferred divine honours on the tyrant Com-
modus, whofe memory they had declared to be deteflable and
infamous ; and when he returned to Rome, he made a
A! sara and menacing fpeech to the allembled fenate,
followed by the execution, without. trial, of twenty-nine, or,
as another account fays, of forty-one of the molt diflinguithed
members, whom of his own accord he pronounced guilty of
favouring the enemy. Confcious of having thus made
himfelf odious to the fuperior clafles, he endeavoured, by
all the means in his power, to ingratiate himfelf with the
people at large by public exhibitions, and by exemptions from
certain duties ; and it has been affirmed that, notwithflanding
his tyranny, peace and profperity were generally prevalent
throughout the empire during the reign of this emperor.
Severus ftudioufly cultivated the affeétion of the foldiery,
by the augmentation of their pay, and by privileges and in-
dulgences which he granted them, and which have been con-
fidered as materially tending to introduce that relaxation of
military difcipline which in the end put a period to the
Roman empire.

He fupplied the place of the prxtorian guards, whom he
had difbanded, by a more numerous body, feleéted from all
the legions, and confifting, in great part, of the natives of
barbarous nations; and he conferred unufual authority on
their commander Plautianus. To his reign is chiefly attri-
buted the introduGion of thofe maxims of tniperial preroga-
tive which entirely put an end to all ideas of a republic, and
placed the government upon the footing of an abfolute and
unlimited monarchy. The indolence of the capital did not
fuit the difpofition of Severus. Learning that, while he was
ongaged with Albinus, the Parthians had made an irruption
into Mefopotamia, and threatened Nifibis, he haftened into
the Eaft, and not only relieved that city, but took Seleucia
and Ctefiphon. He then marched towards Armenia, the
king of which country fued for peace, and obtained it.
Some fuccefsful incurfions into Arabia concluded hiseaftern
expedition, from which he returned in the year 203, after an
abfence of five or fix by He celebrated his victories by
many {plendid fpe@tacles ; and in the fame year he married his
fon Caracalla, whom he had fome years before created Au-
guitus, to the daughter of Plautianus; his fecond, Geta,
had been elevated to the rank of Czxfar, and both thefe
princes had received their honours at a very early age.
This union, which feemed likely to exalt the favourite
miniiter Plautianus to the fummit of fortune, was the caufe
of his deftrution, for Caracalla, who had acquired a great
afcendancy over his father, {corned his bride, and hated her
father, and procuring an accufation againft him of having
formed a confpiracy to take away the emperor’s life, he
caufed him to be killed in the prefence of Severus. His
death drew after it that of many of his relations and ad-
herents, and the cruelty of the emperor increafed with his
years. The reciprocal hatred between his two fons, and
the ferocious character of the eldelt, were fources of the
utmoft difquietude to him in the midift of his external pro-
rabag b He in vain employed every argument to reconcile
them, and at length he placed them on a perfe& equality, by
raifing Geta, as well as his brother, to the rank of Augutftus.
It was chiefly with a view of removing thefe princes from
the licentioufnefs of the capital, and keeping them under
his own eye, that in the year 208 he undertook an ex-
pedition to the northern part of Britain, the uncivilized
tribes of which had made incurfions into the Roman pro-
vinces. He took his fons with him, and at the head of a
powerful army proceeded beyond the walls of Adrian and
Antonisus, and penetrated to the northern extremity of the

Ty s ifland.

SEV

iland. He was haraffed by the natives, who did not dare to
meet him in the field, and he fuffered much from the feverity
of the climate. At length the Caledonians purchafed peace
by furrendering all the country fouth of the Clyde and Forth,
which he fecured by raifing a rampart between thefe firths.
The attempts againft his life by his fon Caracalla, joined to
age and a declining {tate of health, fo reduced him, that he
died at York in the year 209, in the 66th year of his age.
In his laft moments he recommended concord to his fons, and
his fons he recommended to the prote¢tion of the army.
Gibbon {peaks of Severus ending a glorious and fuccefsful
reign, but other hiftorians have doubted whether Severus
ought to be reckoned among the good or the bad emperors ;
for while his perfidy towards his competitors, his cruelty to
vanquifhed enemies, and the general feverity of his admi-
niftration, juftify a very unfavourable view of his moral cha-
racter, it is not denied that he poffefled in a high degree the
virtues of induftry and vigour, the love of order, attention
to correct abufes, ftri€t and impartial adminiftration of juf-
tice, and fimple and frugal habits of life. He wasa good
judge of the characters of men, and the empire was in ge-
neral well adminiftered and profperous during his reign.

He is fuppofed to have been favourable, in the early part
of his reign, to Chriftians, but the rapid increafe of their
number feems to have alarmed him, and he is reckoned the
author of the fifth perfecution, which took place in the tenth
year of his reign, and which lafted with more or lefs violence,
according to Dodwell, two years, and according to Baf-
nage, fix years and upwards. See Lardner’s Works,
vol. viii. ed. 1790. ch. 23.

SEVERUS, CORNELIUS, a Roman poet, who lived in
the reign of Auguftus, was author of a poem entitled
«« /Etna,”’ which has fometimes been attributed to Virgil.
He is reported by Quintilian to have given a relation in
verfe of the Sicilian war, and fome lines of his on the
death of Cicero are quoted by Seneca the orator. It is
to him that Ovid is fuppofed to have addrefled one of his
Pontic elegies, in which he is termed “ Vates magnorum
maxime regum.”? An elegant edition of the remains of
this writer, was publifhed with notes at Amfterdam in
1703, by Le Clerc: and they are printed in Mattaire’s
*¢ Corpus Poetarum.”

Severus, Sanctus, a Chriftian rhetorician and poet,
was a native of Aquitaine, and flourifhed in the fourth cen-
tury. He wrote an eclogue, which is ftill extant, where,
in a dialogue between a Pagan and a Chriftian, he treats
of the mortality of cattle. It was firft printed in-the
s¢ Poemata Vetera’’ of Pithzus, and has been feveral times
republifhed. Gronovius gave an edition of it, with a pre-
face, under the title “ Severi Sanéti five Endeleichii Rhetoris
de mortibus Boum Carmen, ab Elia Vinetto et Petro
Pethzo fervatum, cum notis John Weitzii et Wolffgang.
Lug. Bat. 1715.’? Another edition was publifhed by
D. Richtern, with a preface, in 1747. ,

SEVESE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Mila-
nefe ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Milan.

SEVIAMALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic; 19 miles W. of Tritchinopoly.

SEVIER, a county of Tenneflee, Hamilton diftrié,
containing 3419 inhabitants, of whom 162 are flaves.

SEVIERVILLE, a poft-town and capital of the above
county ; 555 miles from Wafhington.

SEVIGNAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Pyrenées; 9 miles N. of Morlaas.

SEVIGNE’, Marie Rasurin, Marguife de, in Bio-
graphy, a diltinguifhed lady, was born in 1626. Her
father, baron of Chantal and Bourbilly, died while fhe was

6

SEV
very young: leaving her heirefs of the houfe of Buffy Ra-

butin. er rank, and the graces of her perfon and con-
verfation, procured her many admirers, and in 1644. the
married the marquis de Sevigné, who in 1651 was killed in
a duel. She from this time devoted herfelf to her children,
and to the cultivation of her own mind. She had an ex-
traordinary affection for her daughter, who, in 1669, mar-
ried the count de Grignan, and accompanied him to his
government of Provence, and this feparation gave rife to
the greater part of the letters which have gained her fo
high a reputation, though fhe had many other correfpond-
ents. Many of M. de Sevigné’s letters are of a domettic
nature, but others are enlivened with court anecdotes, re-
marks on men and books, and topics of the period in
which they were written, which render them very amufing ;
and in point of ftyle, they are models of epiftolary writing,
which, perhaps, have never been furpaffed. In her letters
to her daughter, the reader fometimes is hurt with the ex-
cefs of flattery on her talents and beauty, which latter quality
appears to have been a principal fource of her maternal
tendernefs, and the prefervation of it the great objed of
her anxiety. This lady died in 1696, at the age of 70.
Though endowed with much penetration, and, to a certain
degree, with a cultivated underftanding, fhe did not rife
much above the level of her age and fex in tafte and prin-
ciples. She was attached to rank and {plendour, loved ad-
miration, and was apt to be taken with frivolous accom-
plifhments in preference to folid worth. She had a deep
fenfe of religion, but wifhed to conciliate it with the polite
world, the manners and maxims of which, according to the
rigid fyftem of the Catholics, were entirely at variance with .
it. She has been cenfured for want of tafte in her infen-
fibility to the poetical merit of Racine, but this has been
imputed to her prepoffeffions in favour of Corneille. The
beit editions of her letters are that in 8 vols. 1775 ; and
that in 10 vols. 1801. :

SEVIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardennes; 12 miles N.W. of Rethel.

SEVIL, in the Manege. The fevil of the branches of
a bridle is a nail turned round like a ring, with a large head,
made faft in the lower part of the branch, called gargouille.
See Banquet.

SEUIL, in Geography, atown of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ardennes, on the Aifne; 12 miles S.E. of
Rethel.

SEVILLE, a province of Spain, commonly called the
kingdom of Seville, is now exclufively, but improperly,
denominated Andalufia, and occupies the weftern part of
ancient Beetica. Its figure is irregular, 58 leagues long
from E. to W., and 27 broad from N. to S.; a point of
it bending towards the Straits of Gibraltar, 14 leagues
from N. to S. and g from E. to W. It is bounded to
the E. by Cordova; to the E. and S.E. by Grenada; to
the S. by the Atlantic and the Straits of Gibraltar ; to the
W. by the kingdom of Algarva, &c.; and to the N. by
Eltramadura. There are two fea-ports in this province,
the one in the Mediterranean at Algeziras, the other on
the Atlantic at Cadiz: the latter-is {pacious and beautiful,
the beft known, and the moft frequented in Spain ; its
bay is eight leagues round. ‘The principal towns of the
kingdom of Seville are its own capital, Seville, an archi-
epifcopal fee; Cadiz, an epifcopal fee, fortrefs, and fea.
port ; Santa-Maria, a fea-port; Xeres, Ecija, and Offuna,
inland towns. Its rivers are, the Saltes, Guadiana, Tinto,
Odiel, Chanca, Verde, Barbate, Guadalette, Guadalquivir, —
Xenil, Guadianar, Guadayra, Las Feguas, Camdon, and

San-Pedro.
SEVILLE)

SEVILLE.

Sevinre, in Spanith Sevilla, and in Latin Mipals,
the capital of the above kingdom, is a large handfome
city, one of the firft in Spain, and fo ancient, that it is

_ mentioned by Strabo, Pomponius Mela, Pliny, and Pto-

» as being ancient even in their time. Fable aferibes

to Hercules, Bacchus, to the Hebrews, to the

and to the Pheenicians ; but its real founder is
unknown. From the Romans it obtained the privilege of

a Roman colony, and it was called “ Julia Romula,” or
Little Rome. ‘This town has often changed its fovereign
and its form of government. It was formerly fubjeét to
the Gothic who made it the place of their refidence ;
and in 582 it took in the rebellion of Ermenegild, fon
of king Lendivigild. In 711, it opened its gates to the
Moors; and in 1027 it fupported the rebellion of the

Moor, who was its governor, in favour of the king of

Cordova, whom it proclaimed king of Seville. Reitored

to the empire of the fovereigns of | Sore it again raifed

the ftandard of rebellion in 1144, and chofe itfelf a king,
Whole defcendants united Cordova to their new dominions,
Aben-hut, the lafl of thofe kings, being aflaflinated at Al-

_ meria, and Ferdinand If., king of Caitile and Leon, hav-
ing feized upon Cordova and Jaen in 1236, it threw off all

’ itfelf into a republic, and was governed

its own laws. In its turn, however, it experienced the

7 ad aconqueror. Ferdinand II. aflembled his forces

‘ Seville in 1247, and compelled it, after a year’s re-

_ fiftance, to furrender 23d of Nov. 1248. From the period

of this memorable Seville has always made a part of

of Caitile.

fituated on a beautiful and extenfive plain, on

the Guadalquivir. Its fhape is circular, and

umference, as it was left by the Romans, is fur-
by a wall more than a league in circuit, flanked
towers: the number of gates is 12, that of Triana

‘ing of Doric archite¢ture, and ornamented with columns

ues. Over one of the gates is the following in-

n:

Condidit Alcides, renovavit Julius Urbem,
Reitituit Chrifto Fernandus Tertius, Heros.”

The town is badly planned, the ftreets being narrow, crook-
_ ed, and ill-paved: the houfes, however, are tolerably well
and, including thofe of the fuburbs, amount to
11,820 in number. Whe number of inhabitants is ftated
. Mr. Townfend at 80,268, contained in 30 parifhes,

| convents, and *4 hofpitals. Laborde binstes the
nce the decline of its commerce, at

4]

af
i
g

Fe
Ef

:

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Te

Alameda, having three walks planted witb trees, and orna-

ated with feats and fountains. This city is the fee of
an archbifhop ; and of the public ecclefiaftical edifices, the
rit that demands attention is the cathedral, chiefly ad-
ed for its tower, conftructed by Guever the Moor;
ginally, viz. A.D. ap 250 feet high, and afterwards
fed t00 feet. It is fo eafy of afcent, and at the fame
¢ fo fpacious, that, two shorfemen inay ride up abreatt ;
id on the top is the or brazen image, which, with

its palm-brauch, weighs near 14 ton, and yet turns with
the flighteft variation of the wind.

The dimenfions of the cathedral are 420 feet, by 263;
and the height is 126 feet. It was built A.D. i401. It re-
ceives light by fourfeore windows with painted glais, the work
of Arnao of Flanders, each of which colt 1000 ducats,

The treafures of this church are ineftimable: one altar
is wholly filver, with all its ornaments, as are the images,
large as life, of S. Ifidore and S. Leander, and a cultodia
or tabernacle for the hoft more than four yards high,
adorned with forty-eight columns; yet thefe are trifling in
value, when compared with the gold and precious flones
depofited by the piety and zeal of Catholics, during the
ae in which at the wealth of a newly-difeovered world

owed into this city. ‘The profufion of gold, of filver,
and of gems, would be more {triking, were not the atten-
tion occupied and loft in admiration of innumerable pic-
tures, the works of thofe Spanifh matters who flourifhed
immediately after the revival of the art in Seville. Ever

chapel preferves fome monuments of their fuperior fkill.
OF thefe, the moft confpicuous are of Luis de Vargas,
and of Fr. Zurbaran, but chiefly of Murillo. By the lait
is a Nativity in the chapel of the Conception, and, near
the baptifmal font, S. Anthony of Padua, with the Bap-
tifm of Chrift. In the rincipal facrifty, are his much
admired pi@tures of S. Ifidore with his brother S. Lean-
der ; and in another facrifty his Holy Family, and an Ecce
Homo by Morales. The chapter-houfe is wholly devoted
to Murillo, and the chapel of S. Peter is given up to Zur-
baran. The works of Luis de Vargas are difperfed in
various places; but his famous piture called de la Gamba,
is in a chapel near the gate of S. Chriitopher, and merits
particular attention.

To the cathedral belongs a library of 20,000 volumes,
colleéted by Hernando, fon to Chriitobal Colon, the fir
difcoverer of America, a man of tatte, and much admired
in his day for learning. It is to be lamented, that modern
publications have not been added to complete what was
fo well begun by him.

The conttruétion of the organ is peculiar; it contains
5300 pipes, with 110 ftops, being, as it is faid, 50 more
than thofe of the famous one at Haerlem, yet, fo ample
are the bellows, that when ftretched they fupply the full
organ fifteen minutes. The mode of filling them with air
is fingular ; for inftead of working with his hands, a man
walks backwards and forwards along an inclined plane of
about fifteen feet in length, which is balanced in the middle
on its axis; under each end is a pairof bellows of about
fix feet by three anda half. Thefe communicate with five
other pair united by a bar ; and the latter are fo contrived,
that when they are in danger of being overitrained, a valve
is lifted up, and gives them relief. Pafling ten times along
the inclined plane fills all thefe veffels.

In the cathedral are eighty-two altars, at which are faid
daily five hundred mafles. The annual confumption is
fifteen hundred arrobas of wine, eight hundred of oil, and
of wax about one thoufand. :

The wealth belonging to this chapter may be eftimated
by the numbers that are fupported by it.

The archbifhop, with a revenue of three hundred thou-
fand ducats; or, in fterling, nearly thirty-three thoufand
pounds a-year.

Eleven dignitaries, who wear the mitre on high feitivals,
amply, but not equally, provided for.

Forty canons, of forty thoufand reals, or about four

hundred pounds each per annum.
Twenty

SEVILLE.

Twenty prebendaries, with an income of thirty thoufand
reals each.

Twenty-one minor canons, at twenty thoufand reals
each,

Befide thefe, they have twenty chanters, called Veinte-
neros, with three afliftants, called Sochantrés, two beadles,
one matter of the ceremonies, with a deputy, three attend-
ants to call the roll and mark the abfentees, thirty-fix
boys for finging and for the fervice of the altar, with their
rector, vice-rector, and mufic-mafters ; nineteen chaplains,
four curates, four confeflors, twenty-three muficians, and
four fupernumeraries ; in all, two hundred and thirty-five.

Many of the convents are remarkable for the beauty of
their architecture; but, in Seville, the eye covets only
pictures, and amidit the profufion of thefe, it overlooks
works, which in other fituations would rivet the attention,
and every where fixes on the pencil of Murillo. His mott
famous performances are in the Hofpital de la Caridad, and,
fuited to the inftitution, exprefs fome aéts of charity ; fuch
as the Miracle of the Loaves and Fithes; the {miting of
the Rock in Horeb; the Pool of Bethefda; the Reception
of the returning Prodigal; Abraham addreffing the three
Angels, and preffing them to enter his habitation; the
Deliverance of Peter from the Prifon; and Charity, in the
perfon of Elizabeth, wafhing the wounds and curing the
difeafes of the poor. Befide thefe, in the fame hofpital,
is the Annunciation of the blefled Virgin; and two little
pictures, the one of the infant Jefus, the other of John.

The church of the Capuchins is richly furnifhed with
his works; and although in thefe the compofition is more
fimple than in the former, yet they may be confidered as
fome of the belt of his produtions. Eleven of his pic-
tures are to be feen in a chapel called de la Vera Cruz,
belonging to the Francifcans. Thefe do much credit to
his pencil; and not inferior to them, are many preferved
in other convents; fuch as, an Ecce Homo, and the bleffed
Virgin, with the infant Jefus, in the church of the Car-
melites; the Flight into Egypt, in that of La Merced Cal-
zada; a rich variety of fubjects in S. Maria de la Blanca;
and S. Auguftin writing, with S. Thomas of Villanueva,
ftripping himfelf to clothe the poor, in the convent of the
Auguftin friars, near the gate of Carmona. In the opinion
of Mr. Townfend, the moft mafterly of all his works is in
the refe€tory of an hofpital defigned for the reception of
fuperannuated priefts. It reprefents an angel holding a
bafket to the infant Jefus, who, {tanding on his mother’s
lap, takes bread from it to feed three venerable priefts.
No reprefentation ever approached nearer to real life, nor
is it poffible to fee more expreffion, than glows upon that
¢anvas. In the parochial church of Santa Cruz are two
pictures in a fuperior ftyle, a Stabat Mater Dolorofa,
which excels in grace and foftnefs; and the famous De-
{cent from the Crofs, of Pedro de Campana, which Murillo
was accu{ftomed daily to admire, and oppofite to which,
by his own direCtions, he was buried.

This great painter was born A.D. 1618, and died in
1682.

His name ftands high in Europe; but to form an ade-
quate idea of his excellence, every convent fhould be vifited,
where he depofited the monuments of his fuperior fkill.

In exaétnefs of imitation he was equalled; in claro ob-
f{curo, and in refleGted lights, he was furpafled by Velaz-
quez; but not one-of all the Spanifh artilts went beyond
him in tendernefs and foftnefs.

Of the convents, that which is upon the moft extenfive
feale belongs to the Francifcans. It contains fifteen cloif-

ters, many of which are elegant and f{pacious, with apart-
ments for two hundred monks; but at prefent they have
only one hundred and forty in their community, Thefe,
like all their order, are fed by charity, and are much
favoured by the people. Their annual expenditure is more
than four hundred thoufand reals, or in fterling about four
thoufand pounds, amounting to twenty-eight pounds eleven
fhillings and five-pence foreach. But then out of this muft
be deduéted the expence of wine, oil, and wax, with the
alms diftributed daily to the poor, which altogether is con-
fiderable.

Among all the hofpitals, Mr. Townfend was moft pleafed
with that of La Sangre, defigned for the reception of female
patients. The front is elegant, and the fculpture is much
to be admired, more efpecially the three figures of Faith,
Hope, and Charity. The wards are {pacious, and the
whole is remarkable for neatnefs. '

Our limits will not allow our introducing particular de-
{criptions of other public buildings ; fuch as the Torre del
Oro, the Plaza de Toros, the Aqueduét with its four
hundred and ten arches, and efpecially the Exchange. The
latter, planned by Herrera (A.D. 1598), and worthy of
its great architect, is a quadrangle of two hundred feet,
with a corridor or fpacious gallery round it, adorned with
Ionic columns, and fupported by an equal number of
Doric.

The univerfity was founded in the year 1502, and foon
rofe into confideration. The name of Arias Montanus,
who lies buried at the convent of S. Jago, is alone fuffi-
cient to give celebrity to this feminary. His tranflation of
the holy fcriptures will be valued by the learned, as long
as the fcriptures themfelves fhall be the objects of venera-
tion to mankind. The number of under-graduates here is
about five hundred.

We meet at Seville with the favourite inftitutions of
count Campomanes, his academy for the three noble arts
of painting, fculpture, and archite€ture, and his economi-
cal fociety of the friends of their country. Both thefe
have been attended with fuccefs, and have given affiftance
not only to the arts, but to agriculture, to manufaCtures,
and to commerce. About two hundred pupils attend the
former, i

The alcazar, or royal palace, built by the Moors, is very
fpacious. The principal article of manufaéture in Seville is
{nuff ; and it furnifhes alfo cigars to a very confiderable
amount. The filk manufaGture was alfo formerly very
flourifhing in this place ; fo that in the year 1248 it em-
ployed 16,000 looms, and 130,000 perfons; and’ fuch was
then the population of the city, that the Moors who left
it, when it was furrendered to the Chriftians, were 400,000,
befides multitudes who died during a fixteen months’ fiege,
and many who remained after their fellow-citizens were
gone. But in confequence of the accumulation of taxes
and other circumftances, the number of looms has been
very much diminifhed; fo that A.D. 1740, the looms
for wide filks amounted to 462, and for other purpofes
to 1856.

The country round the city to a confiderable diftance lies
fo low, that it is frequently overflowed, and upon fome
occafions the water has been eight feet high, even in their
habitations. The foil is rich, and being at the fame time
very deep, its fertility is inexhauftible. The produce is
corn, leguminous plants, hemp, flax, lemons, oranges and
liquorice. The quantity of this exported from Spain is
faid to be atte not lefs than four thoufand quintals,
or nearly two hundred tons, a confiderable part af which

9 is

SEV

bs fu to be purchafed by the porter-brewers in
In confequence of vapours and miafmata, occafioned by

t water, and by frequent floods, the inhabitants of

and its ueighbourhood are fubjeét to tertians, to

putrid fevers, and to hyiterical diforders. The predifpofi-
tion to fuch difeafes may be likewife fought for in the
wantity of cucumbers and melons confumed by them all
the » in confequence of which they are likewife in-
felled with worms, accompanied with epilepfies, efpecially
in the more youthful fubjedts. Other difeafes arife from
heat, whenever they have the Solano wind, that is, when-
ever the wind blows from Africa, they become liable to
pin, and alfo a very pernicious irritability of nerves.

+ lat. 37° 12’. W.long. 6° 8'.

Sevitta delOro. See Macas.

Srvitux Plantation, a place on the N. coaft of Jamaica,
W. of Mammec bay, where are the ruins of an ancient town,
called “ Sevilla Nueva,’’ founded by Efquival on the fpot
where Columbus refided after his fhipwreck in the year

1503.
SSEVILLETA, a town of New Mexico; 100 miles S.
of Santa Fé.

SEVIN, Francis, in Biography, a man of letters, born
in the diocefe of Sens, was educated at Paris, w he
purfued, with great ardour, the ftudy of the learned lan-

in i sl with the abbe Fourmont the elder.
ae an affociate of the Academy of Belles Lettres in
Paris in 1714. He was fent in 1728, by the king’s com-
mand, with the abbe Fourmont the younger, to Conftan-
tinople, in fearch of MSS., of which he brought back a
great number, and was, in 1737, prefented with the place
of keeper of MSS. in the king’s library. His letters, de-
{criptive of this journey, were publifhed in 1801, in one vol.
8vo. Thefe contain feveral interefting details concerning
Turkey, Egypt, &c. Sevin died in 1741. Several of his
are publifhed in the “ Memoires de l’Acad. des

iptions.””

SEVION, in Geography, a river of North Wales, which
runs into the Clyde ; N.W. of St. Afaph.

SEVIR, among the Romans, an officer who, accordin

_ to Pitifcus, commanded a whole wing of horfe ; though
others make him only the commander of a troop, /urmis, a
divifion an{wering to our regiments. ©
. idipirates in the colonies, fo called,

from their being fix in number.

: i » a town of Hindooftan, in

Bundelcund ; 18 miles N. of Callinger.

SEVRE, or Sevre Nantoife, a river of France, which

_ rifes about eight miles W. from Parthenay, pafles by Mor-

tagne, Tiffauges, Cliffon, &c. and runs into the Loire,

: fite to Nantes.
SEvRE Nereis a river of France, which rifes near

_ St. Maixent, pafles by Niort, Marance, &c. and runs into

the fea ; 7 miles W. of Marance.

__ SEVRES, a town of France, in the department of the

ine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftric&

f Verfailles. The place contains 2643, and the canton

5 inhabitants, on a territory of 50 kiliometres, in eight

_ Sevres, Two, one of the nine departments of the weftern
gion of France, formerly Lower Poitou, between Vendée
Vienne, in N. lat. 46° 30!, containing 63374 kiliometres,
305 {quare leagues, and 242,658 inhabitants. This

tt comprehends 4 diftricts, 30 cantons, and
3 communes. The diltricts or circles are, Thouars, in-
43543 5 Parthenay, 53,020; Niort, 84,923; and

SEW

Melle, 61,167 inhabitants. Its capital is Niort. Aceord-
ing to Hallenfratz, the extent is 32 French leagues in
length, and 12 in breadth: the number of circles is 6, and
of cantons 50, and the population is oh da The con-
tributions in the 11th year of the French era amounted to
2,556,115 francs; and the expences for adminittration,
juttice, and public inftruétion, to 233,694 francs 66 cents.
The foil of this department, in general, 1s fertile, yielding
grain, wine, fruits, and paflures, The S.W. diftrit is
marfhy.

SEVRI, a river of Natolia, which runs into the Sa-
karia, near Sevribifar.

SEVRIHISAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia,
at the conflux of the Sevri and Sakaria; 60 miles W. of
Angora. N. lat. 39° 53'. E. long. 32° 2’.

SEURRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Céte d’Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri& of
Beaune ; 21 miles S. of Dijon. ‘The place contains 2777,
and the canton 11,546 inhabitants, on a territory of 280
kiliometres, in 23 communes. N. lat. 46° 58’. E. long.

18.

SEVSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Orel,
on the Sev; 56 miles S.W. of Orel. N. lat. 52° 15’. E.
long. 34° 44!.

SEUTZACH, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Zurich ; 17 miles N.N.E. of Zurich.

SEVYNVEY, a river of South Wales, which runs into
the Clethy, in Pembrokefhire.

SEW, in Sea Language, the fituation of a fhip when the
water firft leaves her refting on the ground, or blocks in a
dock. Thus, if a fhip runs a-ground on the tide of ebb,
or by the reflux of the tide fhe reits on her blocks; and if
it be required to know fhe has fewed, or how much fhe has
fewed, the mark the water-line has made on her bottom
when afloat is examined, and as much as is the -difference
above the furface of the water and this mark, fo much fhe
is faid to have fewed.

Sew is alfo a term applied to a cow, fignifying to go dry.

SEWAD, or Sownan, in Geography, a province of
Candahar, fituated on the W. fide of the Imdus, which
feparates it from Puckholi; 40 coffes lang and 15 broad.

his province, as well as Bijore, is very mountainous, and
abounds with pafles and ftrong fituations; fo that their
inhabitants have not only held themfelves generally inde-
pendent of the Mogul emperors, but have occafionally made
very furious inroads into their territories. The country
of the Affaceni, or Aflacani, anfwers to Sewad ; Athenagur
being the ancient name of Sewad; or rather Sewad was one
of the fubdivifions of Afhenagur. At prefent Sewad in-
cludes the three provinces of Sewad proper, Bijore, and
Beneer.

Swap, the eafternmoft and largeft of the four rivers
that unite fucceflively with the river Cabul, before it falls
into the Indus; the other three being that which pailes by
the town of Bijore, the Penjakoreh river, feparating Bijore
on the W. from Sewad on the E., and the Chendoul river,
which is a branch of the Bijore river.

SEWALICK, or Sewa-tuck, a chain of mountains
forming the northern boundary of Hindooitan, and fepa-
rating the country of Lahore from Thibet.

SEWAN, or ALLicuNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Chuprah. N. lat. 26° 11/,
E. long 84° 32!

SEWARD, Tuomas, in Biography, an Englith divine
of the church of England, was born in 1708. He became
rector of Eyam, in Derbyshire, and prebendary of Litchfield,
where he died in 1790. He was a man of tafte and learn-

ing,

SEW

ing, and of confiderable talents for poetry and polite lite-
rature. He publifhed an edition of Beaumont and Fletcher’s
works, and was author of a treatife on the ‘ Conformity
between Popery and Paganifm.”? Some of his poems are in
Dodifley’s collection.

Sewarp, ANNA, daughter of the preceding, a
poetefs of diftinguifhed elegance, was born about the year
1745. Her infant mind was nourifhed by her father with
the vivid and fublime imagery of Milton, and her early
education amidit the wild and alpine {cenery of the Peak,
enhanced the enthufiafm of feeling to which fhe was natu-
rally difpofed. In her feventh year, her father being
appointed canon refidentiary of Litchfield, fhe removed
with the family to that city, which thenceforth became
her refidence during the whole of her life. The fruit of
her father’s inftructions appeared in fome early efforts at
poetical compofition, which, however, met with difcqurage-
ment from her mother; and Mr. Seward was afterwards
induced to withdraw the countenance he had given to her
literary purfuits ; fo that feveral years of her youth elapfed
with only ftolen and interrupted attempts to cultivate an
art of which fhe had fo ftrongly imbibed the rudiments.
As fhe advanced in life, fhe of courfe followed more freely
the bent of her genius, and in 1780 fhe publifhed an
&¢ Elegy on Captain Cook,’’ a performance of great merit,
as well from the harmony of its verfification, as the beau-
tiful and appropriate imagery with which it abounds, and
the force and delicacy of its fentiments. The contraft be-
tween the different mourners on this event, queen Oberea,
and the wife of the great navigator, is peculiarly ftriking.
In the following year fhe gave the world a “ Monody on
Major Andre.”? With this lamented young officer fhe was
intimately acquainted: fhe accordingly wrote with pecu-
liar pathos on the occafion, and expreffed a glowing, and
we {cruple not to fay, a juft indignation againft the ators
in that tragedy: the laws of what are called civilized war
do not and ought not to fupprefs the feelings of humanity.
Mifs Seward made herfelf known as a writer on many other
topics: in 1790 fhe publifhed “ Llangollen Vale,’’ with
other poems; and in 1804 fhe gave the public ‘ Memoirs
of the Life of Dr. Darwin.’? This is a defultory per-
formance, but it contains much entertaining matter, en-
riched with fome judicious criticifm on Dr. Darwin’s poeti-
cal chara@ter. ifs Seward died in March 1809. A col-
leGtion of her letters has been publifhed fince her deceafe, in
fix vols. 1zmo. Atheneum. Monthly Mag.

Srwarp, WILLIAM, was the fon of a brewer in London,
and bornin 1797. He received his education at the Charter
Houfe, which he completed at Oxford; this place he left
without taking a degree. Having a good fortune, he de-
voted his life to literary eafe, and antiquarian refearches.
He is known as an author by five volumes of ‘ Anecdotes
ef diftinguifhed Perfons,”’ extraéted from curious books,
to which he added a fupplement, in two volumes, under the
title of « Biographiana.”’? Europ. Mag.

SEWARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Surgooja; 22 miles E. of Surgooja.

SEWEE, a country of Afia, between Perfia and Hin-
dooftan, on the W. fide of the Indus.

Sewer Bay, or Bull’s Harbour, a bay of the Atlantic,
on the coaft of South Carolina. N. lat. 32° 58!.

SEWEESTAN, a country of Hindoottan, between
Sewee and the Indus, about 110 miles long and 50 broad.

SEWEL, among Sort/men, denotes any thing that is
fet or hung up, to keep a deer out of any place.

Srwet-Coronde, a name given by the natives of Ceylon
to a fpecies of cinnamon, which, when chewed, is of a

SEX

mucilaginous nature, like the caflia: this dries well, and is
very firm and hard, and has the appearance of a very fine
cinnamon ; but it has very little tafte, and a difagreeable
{mell. The natiyes take advantage of the handfome ap-
pearance of this kind of cinnamon, and are very apt to mix
it with the good kind, to the great detriment of the buyer.
Phil. Tranf. N° 409.

SEWER, formed from the French ¢efcuyer, e/quire, gentle
man, or ufber, in the Houfehold, an officer who comes in before
the meat of a king, or nobleman, to place and range it on
the table. Of thefe officers there are four in the king’s
houfehold, and eight, called fewers of the great chamber.

Sewers, in Building, are fhores, conduits, or conveyances,
for the fuillage and filth of a houfe.

Sewers, Clerk of the. See CLERK.

Sewers, Commiffion of. » See CoMMIssION.

SEWIN, in Ichthyology. See Grey.

SEWL, in Agriculture, provincially a plough.
fometimes written /ule. See PLoucu.

SEWNADY, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in
the circar of Ruttunpour; 35 miles N. of Ruttunpour.

SEWNY, a town of Hindoottan, in Goondwanah ; 60
miles N.N.E. of Nagpour.

Tt is

SEX, Srxus, fomething in the body, which diftinguifhes

male from female. See GENERATION.

The number of perfons, of the two fexes, are exceedingly
well balanced ; fo that every man may have his wife,\ and
every woman her hufband.

Hermaphrodites have the apparent marks of both fexes.

It is exprefsly forbidden by the law of Mofes, to difguife
the fex.

SEXAGENARY, Srxacenarius, fomething relating
to the number fixty: more particularly a perfon arrived at
the age of fixty years.

Some cafuifts difpenfe with fexagenarians for not fafting =
the Papian law prohibits fexagenarii from marriage; be-
caufe at that age the blood and Rumours are frozen.

SEXAGENARY Arithmetic. See SEXAGESIMAL.

SEXAGENARY Tables, are tables of proportional parts,
fhewing the produé of two fexagenaries that are to be mul-
tiplied ; or the quotient of two to be divided.

SEXAGESIMA, the fecond Sunday before Lent, or
the next to Shrove Sunday; fo called, as being about the
fixtieth day before Eatfter.

Sexagefima is that which follows Septuagefima, and pre-
cedes Quinquagefima. :

SEXAGESIMAL, or SexaGenary Arithmetic, a me-
thod of computation, procéeding by fixties.

Such is that ufed in the divifion of a degree into fixty
minutes; of the minute, into fixty feconds; of the fecond,
into fixty thirds, &c. See ARITHMETIC. :

SEXAGESIMALS, or SrexaGEsIMAL Fradions, are
fraGtions, whofe denominators proceed in a fexagecuple
ratio; that is, a prime, or the firft minute = 33,3 a fecond
a) Sg mudora) ay

Anciently there were no other than fexagefimals ufed in
aftronomical operations, and they are ftill retained in man
cafes ; though decimal arithmetic is now much ufed in altro-
nomical calculations.

In thefe fraGtions, which fome alfo call afronomical frac-
tions, the denominator being always 60, or a multiple of it,
is ufually omitted, and the numerator only written down ;
thus, 4°, 59', 32", 50!, 16!", is to be read, 4 degrees,
59 minutes, 32 feconds of a degree, or 60th parts of a minute,
50 thirds, 16 fourths, Sc.

SEXANGLE, in Geomeiry, a figure having fix fides,

and confequently fix angles.
SEXDRAGA,

SEX

SEXDRAGA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Welt Gothland; 38 mile of Gotheborg.

SEXES of Plants, in Vegetable Phyfiolegy. See Fecun-
DATION, and Froucrivicarion,
_ SEXT, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Blanc; 2 miles S.E. of St. Maurice, ;

SEXTA Pans, Lat. a fixth vocal part in the motetti
and madrigals of old matters.

SEXTANS, Sexrayr, a fixth part of certain things.
" The Romans divided their as, which was a pound of

into twelve ounces: the ounce was called uncia, from

unum ; and two ounces festants, as being the /ixth part of
apound, See As.

Sextans was alfo a meafure which contained two ounces
of liquor, or two cyathi. Hence, -

« Sextantes, Califte, duos infundi Falerni.’’

Sexrans, the Sextant, in Aflronomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern 25 ame made by Hevelius out of un-
formed ftars. In Hevelius’s catalogue it contains 11, but
in the Britannic catalogue 41 ftars. See ConsTELLLATION.
_ SEXTANT, in Mathematics, denotes the fixth part of
acircle, or an arc comprehending fixty :

_ Sexrant is more particularly ufed for an aftronomical
inftrument, made like a quadrant ; excepting that its limb

only comprehends fixty d
The ufe and applicatio: Sra dle fextant is the fame with
that of the quadrant.

In the obfervatories of Greenwich and Pekin, there are

by! Po and fine fextants.
_ SEXTARIUS, an ancient Roman meafure, containing
two cotyle, ortwo hemine. See Coryza.
SEXTERY-Lands, are lands given to a church, &c.
for maintenance of the fexton.
SEXTILE, Sesxtixis, the pofition or afpe& of two
planets, when at fixty degrees diitance ; or at the diltance
of two figns from one another. It is marked thus (*).
See Aspgcr.
_ SEXTILIS, in Chronology. See Aucust.
SEXTON, a church-officer, thus called by corruption of
the Latin facrifa, or Saxon fegerflane, which denotes the
fame. i take care of the veflels, veftments,
ing to the church; and to attend the minifter,
» &c. at church. He is appointed by the
ives his falary according to the

ARIS ep Barker
% ay aay al en priated to
apelin ard cali Bet gel
Riveter pe ac,
ee rene eke oe

s xtox’s River, in Geography, a river of America, in
‘ermon’ which runs into the ConneCticut, N. lat. 43°
i long. 2 25°.

SEX

SEXTULA, a word ufed by fome pharmaceutic writers
to exprefs the fixth part of an ounce, that is, four fcruples,
or one drachm and one feruple.

SEXTUPLA, Ital. Sextuple, Fr. and Eng. in Afu/ic, im-

plies a compound time of triplets mixed with bivary time.
Sextuple time is never properly ufed but in the (araband,
confifling of fix even crotchets, or quavers, exprefled by ?

or 2, where triplets are out of the queftioa. All other indi-
cations of compound meafure, or, as formerly called, jig
time, are at prefent the following; $, {, 2) fy ‘i
which meafures confilt of triplets.

Old authors mention five different f{pecies ef fextuple time :
as,
Sextur.e of the Semibreve, by the French called triple of
6 for 1, a8 being denoted by thofe two numbers ¢ ; or be-
caufe here are required fix femibreves to a meafure, in liew of
one, viz. three nfing, and three falling.

Sextupe of the Minim, called by the French triple of
6 for 2, as being denoted by § ; which thew, that fix minims
are here required to a meafure, inftead of two.

Sexturte of the Crotchet, called by the French triple of
6 for 4, becaule denoted by C%, or +, which thew, that there
mutt be fix crotghets to a meafure, in lieu of four.

Sextupce of the Chroma, by the French called triple of
6 for 8, as being denoted by § ; which fhew, that fix quavers
here make the meafure, or femibreve, inftead of eight.

SextTurLe of the Semichroma, or triple of 6 for 16, fo
called, becaufe denoted by ,*, ; which fhew, that fix quavers
are here required to a meafure, inftead of fixteen.

SEXTUS, Srxtu; in the Canon Law, denotes a collec-
tion of decretals, made by pope Boniface VIII. ufually thus
called from the title, which is ** Liber Sextus ;’’ as if it
were a fixth book added to the five books of decretals, col-
le&ted by Gregory IX.

The Sextus is a colleGtion of papal conftitutions, publifhed
after the collections of Gregory IX. containing thofe of the
fame Gregory, Innocent IV., Alexander 1V., Urban IV.,
Clement [V., Gregory X., Nicholas III.,and Boniface VIIL.,
by whofe order om compilation was made. The perfons
employed in makigg of it were Will. de Mandegot, arch-
bifhop of Ambrun; and Berenger, bifhop of Beziers; and
Richard of Sienna. See Canon Law.

Sextus, in Biography, an ancient philofopher of the ito-
ical fe&t, was a native of Cheronea, and the nephew of Plu-
tarch. He is celebrated as the preceptor of the emperors
Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius.

Sextus, Empiricus, in Medical Hiflory, a Roman phy-
fician, of the empiric fet, who followed Heraclides and others
in the adoption of that fyftem which Serapion and Philinus
begun. e is faid to have been the pupil of Herodotus, the
phyfician, and the preceptor of Saturninus. There are two
works extant, with the name of Sextus attached to them ;
but Le Clerc believes, that they are not both the produétion
of this phyfician, who only compofed that which is entitled
© Sexti Placiti ;”? and that the other work, which contains
fix books, treating of the doétrines of Pyrrhonifm, and ten
books relative to all the {ciences, was the production of
another Sextus, of Cheronea, who was of the Platonic
{chool, a nephew of Plutarch, and preceptor of the emperor

- Marcus Aurelius. See Le Clerc, Hilt. de la Méd. p, ii.

chap. 8.

Sextus Oculi, in Anatomy, a name given by Fallopius to
one of the mufcles of the eye, called by Albinus, and others,
the obliquus oculi inferior, and by fome, the obliquus oculi -

Sextus Thoracis, a name - by Fallopius, and others,
z to

SEX

toa mufcle, now generally known by the name of the tri-
angularis {terni.

SEXUAL System, in Botany, denotes that fyftem,
which is founded on a difcovery, that there is in vegetables,
as well as in animals, a diftinGtion of the fexes ; or that plants
propagate themfelves by means of male and female organs,
either growing upon the fame tree, or upon different trees
of the fame fpecies. This fyitem is fuggetted and confirmed
by the analogy obfervable between the eggs of animals and
the feeds of plants, both ferving equally to the fame end ;
viz. that of propagating a fimilar race ; and by the remarks
which have been made, that when the feed of the female plant
is not impregnated with the prolific powder of the male, it
bears no fruit ; infomuch that as often as the communication
between the fexual parts of plants has been intercepted, which
is thecaufe of their fecundity, they have always proved barren.
The authors of this fyftem, after exaétly anatomizing all the
parts of the plant, aflign to each a name, founded on its ufe
and analogy to the parts of an animal. Thus, as to the
male organs, the filaments are the fpermatic veffels, the an-
there the tefticles, and the duft of the antherx correfpond
to the {perm and feminal animalcules ; and as to the female,
the itigma is the external part of the female organ, which
receives the duft ; the ftyle anfwers to the vagina; the germ
to the ovary ; and the pericarpium, or fecundated ovary,
to the womb. See VEGETATION.

_ The fexual fyftem was not wholly unknown to the an-
cients, though their knowledge of it was very imperfect.
Accordingly we find in the account given by Herodotus
(lib. i.) of the country about Babylon, where palm-trees
abounded, that it was a cuftom with the natives, in their
culture of thefe plants, to aflift the operations of nature, by
gathering the flowers of the male trees, and carrying them
to the female. By this means they fecured the ripening of
the fruit; which might elfe, on account of unfavourable
feafons, or the want of a proper intermixture of the trees of
each fex, have been precarious, or at leaft not to have been
expected in equal quantities. The ancients had alfo fimilar
notions concerning the fig. Theophraftus (Hift. Plant.
lib. iii. cap. 9.) obferves, that the charaéteriftic and univerfal
difference among trees is that of their gender, whether male
or female. And Ariftotle (De Plantis, lib.i. cap. 2.) fays,
that we ought not to fancy, that the intermingling of fexes
in plants is the fame as among animals. However, there
feems to have been a difference of opinion among the an-
cients as to the manner in which plants fhould be allowed to
have a difference of fex. Some apprehended that the two
fexes exifted feparately ; and others thought that they were
united in the fame individual. EEmpedocles thought, that
plants were androgynous or hermaphroditical, or that they
were a compofition of both fexes. Ariitotle expreffes his
doubt upon this head. Empedocles (vide Arift. de Generat.
Anim. lib. 1. c. 23.) called plants oviparous ; for the feed or
egg, according to his account, is the fruit of the generative
faculty, one part of which ferves to form the plant, and
the other to nourifh the germ and root ; and in animals of
different fexes, we fee that nature, when they would pro-
create, impels them to unite, and like plants to become one ;
that from this combination ef two, there may {pring up
another animal.

As to the manner in which fruits were impregnated, the
ancients were not ignorant that it was by means of the pro-
lifie duft contained in the flower of the male ; and they re-
marked, that the fruits of trees never come to maturity till
they had been cherifhed with that duft. Upon this fubje&
Ariftotle fays (De Plant. lib. i. cap. 6.) that if one fhakes
the duit of a branch of the male palm-tree over the female,

SE xX

her fruits will quickly ripen; and that when the wind flieds
this duft of the male upon the female, her fruits ripen apace,
jatt as if a branch of the male had been fufpended over
her. And Theophraftus (Hilt. Plant. lib. ii. cap. 9.) ob-
ferves, that they bring the male to the female palm, in order
to make her produce fruit. The manner in which they pro-
ceed, fays he, is this: when the male is in flower, they
fele& a branch abounding with that downy dult which re-
fides in the flower, and fhake this over the fruit of the fe-
male. This operation prevents the fruit from becoming
abortive, and brings it foon to perfe€&t maturity. Pliny alfo
informs us (Nat. Hitt. tom. 1. lib. xiii. c,7.) that naturalifts
admit the diftinGtion of fex, not only in trees, but in herbs,
and in all plants. Yet this is no where more obfervable,
he adds, than in palms, the females of which never pro-
pagate, but when they are fecundated by the duft of the
male. He calls the female palms, deprived of male affiftance,
barren widows. He compares the conjunétion of thefe
plants to that of animals; and fays, that to generate fruit,
the female needs only the afperfion of the duft or down of
the flowers of the male.

Zaluzianfki feems to have been the firft among the mo-
derns who clearly diftinguifhed from one another the male,
the female, and the hermaphroditical plants. About a
hundred years after him, fir Thomas Millington, and Dr.
Grew, communicated to the Royal Society their obferva-
tions on the impregnating duft of the ftamina. Grew’s
Anatomy of Plants, publifhed in 1682.

Camerarius, towards the end of the laft century, obferved,
that upon plucking off the ftamina of fome male plants,

the buds that ought to have produced fruit came not to .

maturity. Malpighi, Geoffroy, and Vaillant, have alfo
carefully confidered the fecundating duft ; the latter of whom
feems to have been the firft eye-witnefs of this fecret of
nature, the admirable operation that pafles in the flowers of
plants, between the organs of different fexes. Many authors
afterwards applied themfelves to improve this fy{tem ; the
principal of whom were Morland, Logan, Van Royen,
Bradley, Ludwig, Blair, Wolfius, &c. But Linneus had
the honour of applying this fyftem to praétice, by reducing
all trees and plants to particular clafles, diftinguifhed by the
number of their ftamina, or male organs. See Dutens’ Inquiry
into the Origin of the Difcoveries attributed to the Moderns,
1769, chap. vii. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii. art. 25.

The fexual hypothefis, on its firft appearance, was re-
ceived with all that caution which becomes an enlightened
age ; and nature was traced experimentally through all her
variations, before it was univerfally aflented to. Tourne-
fort refufed to give it a place in his fyftem ; and Pontedera,
though he had carefully examined it, treated it as chimerical.
The learned Dr. Alfton, profeffor of botany in the univerfity
of Edinburgh, violently oppofed it ; but the proofs which
Linnzushas givenamonett the aphorifms of his “ Fundamenta
Botanica,’’ and farther illuftrated in his “* Philofophia Bota-
nica,’”’ are fo clear, that the mind does not hefitate a moment in
pronouncing animal and vegetable conception to be the fame;
but with this difference, that in animals fruition is voluntary,
but in vegetables necefiary and mechanical. The impregna-
tion of the female palm by the farina of the male, related by
Mylius, in his letter to Dr. Watfon (Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvit.
art. 25.) eftablifhes the fact attefted by the ancients con-
cerning the palm-tree; and as the fructification in other
vegetables, though it may differ in particular circumftances,
has neverthelefs a general conformity to that of the palm-tree,
with refpe& to the parts fuppofed to be the pene of ge-
neration, which are difcoverable either on the fame or in a

feparate flower, we may, from this fingle experiment, deduce —

an

—

ee ee

SEY
t by analogy for the confirmation of the whole
fexual hypothetis. fides, a very ftriking proof of the
analogy ions plants and animals may be drawn from
oblervations made in their infant ttates, at which early pe-
riod they feem nourifhed and protected in a fimilar manner,
Thole who defire farther fatisfaction, may fee the feveral
demonitrations colledied, and methodically connected, in
the “ Sponfalia Plantarum’? of J. Guftavus Walhbom,
publith in the “ Amanitates Academice,”’ at Leyden, in
1749. See Borany, Crassiricarion, Faucrivication,
rs, and VeGrraTion.

SEXUALISTS, perng Botanical Authors.
many, Faveripicarion, and Sexuar Sy/em. +

SEXUNKX, in Pharmacy, the weight of fix ounces, or half
a pound troy.

SEYBO, or Syvo, in Geography, a fettlement in the
fouthern part of Hifpaniola; 70 miles N.E. of St. Do-

SEYBORSDORF, a town of Praffia, in the province
of Oberland; 6 miles S. of Liebitat.
SEYCHELLES, an ifland in the Indian ocean, N.E. of

See Bo-

i ty ; and in the harbour abundance of good
Pa ia well theltered from the fouth-eait wind.

tide rifes about fix feet, and fets about S.S.W. High
mange thirty minutes palit five. S. lat.
,
YDA, me 2 a town of Saxony; 10 miles E. of
Wi - N. lat. 51°55’. E. long. 12° 59.
SEYDE. Save.

ng, and hardly one broad; about tive
Zealand. N. lat. 55°53’. E. long.
aru.

_ SEYFFERSDORF, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Grotkau ; 3 miles N.N.E. of Grotkau.
POEYFORTESV LT, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Ermeland ; g miles S. of Heilfberg.

_ SEYGAR, in the Materia Medica, a name uled by fome

thors for the nu! ;
s EYGERSWALD, in G

, a town of Pruffia, in

vince of Oberland; 4 miles N.E. of Salfeldt.
SEYLONE, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude, feated on
a river which runs into the Goomty; 15 miles S.E. of

s SE » an ifland in the Red fea. N. lat. 15° 20’.
E. long. 57° 30’. :

SEYMOUR, Epwarp, in Biography, brother of lady
ae Seymour, wife of Henry Vill

ecuto ient foundation for
high ly affumed by the influence
j his relationfhip to the _ gave him, he procured a
atent from Edward, by which he overfet the meaning and

SEY

intent of the late king’s will, In this patent he named him-
felf protector, with full regal power, and appointed a council
entirely of thofe perfons whom he thought he could truft.
The protector became the warm friend of the reformation,
and confulted Cranmer on the belt means of promoting the
object he had at heart. He appointed a general vifitation to
be made in all the diocefes in England, the vifitors confiftin
of a certain number of the clergy and laity, and they had
their different circuits afligned them. The chief purport of
their initructions was, befides correéting the immoralities
and irregularities of the clergy, to abolifh, but with a very
lenient hand, ancient fuperititions, and to bring difcipline and
worfhip fomewhat nearer the pratice of the reformed
churches. Somerfet made war upon Scotland, and upon his
return in Nov, 1547, he called a parliament, and being elated
with the fuccefles which he obtained over the Scots, he pro-
cured from the young prince a patent, appointing him to fit
on the throne, upon a ftool at the right hand of the king,
and to enjoy the fame honours and privileges that had ufu-
ally been poflefled by any prince of the blood, or uncle of
the kings of England. In this patent the king employed
his difpenfing power, by fetting afide the ilatute of pre-
cedency enacted during the reign of his father. If, however,
the protector gave offence by afluming too much ftate, he de-
ferves high praife on account of the laws which were palled
during this feffion, by which the rigour of former ftatutes
was much mitigated, and fome fecurity given to thofe prin-
ciples of freedom which feem to make a part of the conititu-
tion. All laws were repealed which extended the crime of
treafon beyond the ftatute of the twenty-fifth of Edward IIL.:
all crimes enaéted during the late reign extending the crime
of felony ; all the former laws againit herefy, together with
the ftatute of the fix articles. None, in future, were to be
accufed for words, but within a month after they were {poken.
“ By thefe repeals,”’ fays Hume, “ feveral of the moft rigor-
ous . that were ever paffed in England were annulled, and
fome dawn, both of civil and religious liberty, began to appear
to the people.”

About this time, molt violent differences fubfifted between
the protector and his brother, Thomas Seymour, admiral of
England. ‘The ambition of the latter was infatiable: he was
belies arrogant, afluming, and implacable; and though
efteemed of f{uperior capacity to the proteétor, he did not
poflefs the fame degree of confidence and regard of the people.
By his flattery and addrefs, he had fo far infinuated himfelf
into the favour of the queen-dowager, that fhe married him
almoft immediately upon the demife of the King. The credit
of this alliance {apported the ambition of the admiral, and
gave great offence to the duchefs of Somerfet, who, unealy
that the younger brother’s wife fhould have the precedency,
employed all the credit fhe had with her hufband, firft to
create, and then to widen the breach between the two bro-
thers.. Matters, at length, were carried fo far, that the ad-
miral was attainted of high treafon, and executed by a war-
rant, which was figned by the hand of his brother, whofe
own difgrace was at no great diftance.

After the duke of Somerfet had obtained the patent, in-
velting him, as it were, with full regal authority, he thought
every one was in duty bound to yield to his fentiments. Be
fides his general hauteur, he gave great offence to the higher
ranks of fociety, by the attention with which he evidently
courted the applaufe of the people at large. For the relief
of the latter iS had ereGed a court of requefts in his own
houfe, and he interpofed with the judges in their behalf, a
circumitance that could not but be deemed illegal. Though
the protector had thus courted the people, to 1 difpleafure
and difguft of the nobles, whom Hume reprefents as “ the

Zz2 fureft

SEY

fureft fupport of monarchical authority,’’ the intereft which
he had formed with them was in no degree anfwerable to his
expectations. The Catholic party, who retained influence
with the lower ranks, as might be expected, were his de-
clared enemies, and took advantage of every opportunity to
decry his condu&. The attainder and execution of his bro-
ther bore an odious afpe&t: the introduétion of foreign
troops into the kingdom was reprefented in invidious co-
lours: the great eftate which he had fuddenly acquired at
the expence of the church, and of the crown, rendered him
obnoxious ; and the palace which he was building in the
Strand ferved, by its magnificence, and {till more by other
circumftances attending it, to expofe him to the cenfure of
the public. The. parifh church of St. Mary, with three
bifhops’ houfes, were pulled down, in order to furnifh ground
and materials for this ftruGture. Not content even with this,
which, at that period, was regarded as great facrilege, an
attempt was made to demolifh St. Margaret’s church, Wett-
min{ter, and to employ the ftones for the fame purpofe, but
the parifhioners rofe in a tumult, and chafed away the pro-
teétor’s tradefmen. He then laid his hands on a chapel in
St. Paul’s church-yard, with a cloifter and charnel-houfe
belonging to it, and thefe edifices, together with the church
called the St. John of Jerufalem, were made ufe of to raife
his palace. All thefe imprudences were remarked by Somer-
fet’s enemies, who refolved, when an opportunity offered, to
take advantage of them to his ruin. A confpiracy was foon
formed againit him, and he refigned his office, hoping that
with this conceffion his foes might be fatisfied, but he was
miftaken, they determined to purfue him even to the {caf-
fold. He was committed to the Tower, with fome of his
adherents, and articles of indi€tment were exhibited againft
him, of which the chief was his ufurpation of the govern-
ment, and his taking into his own hands the whole adminiftra-
tion of affairs. The claufe of his patent, which invefted him
with abfolute power, unlimited by any law, was never ob-
jected to him, becaufe, fays Mr. Hume, <“ according to the
fentiments of thofe times, that power was, in fome degree,
involved in the very idea of regal authority.”” Somerfet was
prevailed upon to confefs on his knees, before the council,
all the articles laid to his charge, and he imputed thefe mif-
demeanors to his own rafhnefs and indifcretion, not to any
malignity of intention. He even fubf{cribed a paper which
contained a full confeffion of his guilt ; he was accordingly
fined two thoufand pounds a-year in land, and deprived of
all his offices, and here the matter for the prefent ended ; the
fine was remitted, and he recovered his liberty. After this,
he was re-admitted into the council, and foon obtained a
confiderable portion of popularity, which rendered him an
object of jealoufy to the duke of Northumberland, who
planned his deftru€tion. Under pretence of an intended
infurretion, he had him feized, with his friends, and com-
mitted to the Tower. He was now brought to trial before
a jury of twenty-feven peers, fome of whom were his avowed
enemies, and was of courfe found guilty, and condemned to
death. Care was taken to prepoffefs the young king againtt
his uncle, and left he fhould relent, no accefs was allowed to
the duke of Somerfet’s friends, and the prince was, by a
continued feries of occupations and amufements, kept from
refleGtion. The prifoner was executed on Tower-hill, much
to the regret of the great body of people, who entertained
the hopes of pardon to the laft. A vaft multitude of thofe
friendly to him were the witnefles of his death. Many of
them dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, which they
preferved as a precious relic; and fome of them, when Nor-
thumberland, his great enemy and one of his jurors, met with

a like doom, upbraided him with this aé&t of his cruelty, and

SEY

difplayed to him thefe fymbols of his crime. Somerfet,
indeed,’’ fays Hume, *¢ though many actions of his life were
exceptionable, feems in general to have merited a better fate,
and the faults which he committed were owing to weaknefs,
not to any bad intention. His virtues were better calculated
for private than for public life; and by his want of penetra-
tion and firmnefs, he was ill-fitted to extricate himfelf from
thofe cabals and violences to which that age was fo much
addiéted.’’

Somerfet left three daughters, Anne, Margaret, and
Jane, who were diltinguifhed for their poetical talents.
They compofed Latin diftichs on the death of Margaret de
Valois, queen of France, which were tranflated into the
French, Greek, and Italian languages, and printed in Paris
in 1551. Anne, the eldeft of thefe ladies, married firft the
earl of Warwick, the fon of the duke of Northumberland,
already mentioned, and afterwards fir Edward Hunton. The
other two died fingle. Jane was maid of honour to queen
Elizabeth.

Szymoor, ARABELLA, better known in hiftory by the
name of the lady Arabella, was daughter of Charles Stuart,
earl of Lennox, youngeft brother of Henry Darnley, hufband
to Mary queen of Scots. Her mother was daughter of fir
William Cavendifh of Chatf{worth, in Derbyfhire. Her
affinity to the crown was the caufe of her misfortunes. Se-
veral projects were formed for placing her on the Englifh
throne, fo that fhe was kept under confinement in the reign
of queen Elizabeth. At the beginning of that of James, a
con{piracy, or rather a proje& of a con{pricacy, was formed
to raife her to the crown. She was firft coufin to the king,

being the daughter of a younger brother, which fhews how .

rafh the project was, fuppofing it to have been real; becaufe
James did not afcend the throne of England by the right of
his father but that of his mother, confequently Arabella,
though of the Stuart family, ftood in a very remote degree of
relation to the late queen Mary, had no claim to the crown
of England, and the more fo, as James had three children.
The authors of this confpiracy were lords Grey, Cobham, fir
Walter Raleigh, and others, who were tried, convicted, and
condemned, but none were executed at the time, except a
brother of lord Cobham, and two priefts. The others
were remanded to the Tower. (See RatricH). Ara-
bella died in the year 1615, in prifon, to which place fhe
had been committed fome time before, for having contrafted
marriage, without the knowledge of the crown, with William
Seymour, grandfon to the earl of Hertford. Hume. Ada
Regia. :

Sauugents Canal, in Geography, an inlet on the S.E.
coaft of Admiralty Ifiand, extending from Point Hugh,
about 28 miles N.N.W. of the entrance between Point
Hugh and Point Gambier.

SEYMS, among Farriers. See SEAMS.

SEYNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri& of Digne; 15 miles N. of Digne. The
place contains 2557, and the canton 5227 inhabitants, on
a territory of 3074 kiliometres, in 8 communes.

SEYNEY, atown of Lithuania; 38 mles N.N.W. of
Grodno. ;

SEY POUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 40 miles
N.E. of Fyzabad.

SEYSSEL, Ciaupse bE, in Biography, an hiftorical and
political writer, who flourifhed in the beginning of the
fixteenth century, was brought up to the law, which he
practifed with great applaufe at Turin. He obtained the
places of matter of requeits and counfellor under Lewis XII.
of France. He attended inthe name of that prince at the

4 council

|
:
|
4

ant GS

SFO

council of Lateran, and was promoted to the bifhopric of

Marleilles in 1510, and to the archbifhopric of Turin in

3s17. He died in 1520, leaving behind him a great number

I works, on theological, juridical, and hiftorical fubjedts.

He alfo tranflated into the French language Eufebius's Ec-

clefiaitical Hiitory, Thucydides, Appian, Diodorus, Xeno-

phon, Juitin, and Seneca. He te ford to have been the firft

alleged the Salic law as influencing the fucceflion to

the crown of France. His * Grand Monarchie de France,’’

ited in 1519, and tranflated by Sleidan into the Latin

: maintains that the French conititution is a mixed

» and that the king is dependent on the parliament.

his “ Hittoire de Louis XI. Pere du Peuple,”’ he is

it of that prince, but gives fome

curious faéts refpecting the reign of Lewis XI., whofe
vices are expofed by way of contraft.

Seysszx, in G. , a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Ain, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrigt
of Belley, feated on the Rhone, which here becomes navi-

and divides it into two parts; 13 miles N. of Belley.
_ The place contains 2260, and the canton 6032 inhabitants,
i of 1224 kiliometres, in 5 communes.
_ SEZA or Cezane, a town of France, in the depart-
ane er Po, onthe Dora; 7 miles E. of Briangon.
&

J

ANNES, a town of France, in the department of
Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Epernay ; 45 miles W. of Vitry le Francais. The place
contains 4149, and the canton 12,203 inhabitants, on a ter-
_Fitory = ee kiliometres, in 27 communes, N. lat. 48°

42’. 3 © 48!
5 SEZARNIR, a town of Hungary; 4 miles W. of

SEZENEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Viatka ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Glazov.

SEZULFE, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Tras los Montes ; 7 miles N.E. of Mirandela,

SEZZA, a town of the Campagna di Roma; 35 miles
_E.S.E. of Roma.—Alfo, a town of Naples, in Lavora,
the fee of a bithop, fuffragan of Capua ; 29 miles N.N.W.
of Naples. N. lat. 41° cf E. long. 13° 34!.

SFACCIA, a town of European Turkey, in Albania ;
$ miles N. of Dulcigno.

SFACHIA. See Spuacnia.

_ SFALASSA, a river of Naples, which runs into the
fea ; 4 miles E. of Cape Sciglio.
SFASACA, a town of Japan, on the S.W. coalt of
are 18 miles E. of Amanguchi.

FAX, or E/ Sfakufe, atown of Africa, in the king-
dom of Tunis, furrounded with walls. The trade of oe
Anhabitants in oil and cloth is confiderable; 45 miles S.E.
of Cairoan. N, lat. 34° 49'. _ E. long. 10° 56.

SFORZA, Gracomuzzo, in Biography, named alfo At-
tendolo, founder of the illuttrious houfe of Sforza, was born
in 1369 at Cotignola, in Romagna. He is faid to have been
originally a pecieer, and, according to a traditionary report,
being one day at work, he was {olicited to enlift for a foldier,
when throwing his {pade on a tree, he faid he would enter
if the fpade did not fall down again, which proving to be
the cafe, he peeeteiely comand in that military life which

e

rendered him famous. ferved under general Alberic
de Barbiano, and had for his comrade in arms the celebrated
- Thefe, in the part of their career, were as

nate as brothers, but as they advanced in the profeffion,
ealoufy intervened, and they became at length fuch deter-
ed enemies, that when one engaged in the fervice of a
nee or ftate, it was a fufficient motive for the other to
on the oppofite fide. Sforza was foon diitinguifhed

SFO

for his bravery, and for a difpofition to feize by force what-
ever booty fell in hisway. Braccio and he perfeétly agreed
in felling their fervices as dearly as poffible, and in coufidering
war as a trade which was to be kept up for their benefit.
From the command of 100 men he rofe to that of 7000; he
obtained the office of gonfalonier to the holy fee, and by
pope John XXIII. he was created count Cotiynola, an ho-
nour that was given by way of payment of a fum of money
due to him. He commanded in the kingdom of Naples
pth Alphonfo of Aragon, and was made conttable of
the kingdom, In marching to the relief of Aquila, he was
drowned in the paflage of the river Aterno or Pefeara, in the
year 1424. He is reprefented to have been robult in body,
and when elevated to his higheft rank, that he preferved the
peafant’s difregard of luxury, and franknefs of manners.
Srorza, Francesco, firlt duke of Milan of that family,
natural fon of the preceding, was born in 1401. In 1421 he
was viceroy to Louis, duke of Anjou, who had been adopted
by queen te? Il. of Naples, and in 1424 he defeated the
troops of Braccio; but his father, as we have feen, bein
drowned, he could make no advantage of his fuceefs. Al-
though an illegitimate fon, Joan conferred upon him all his
father’s eftates, and he ferved fuccefsfully againft the Arago-
nefe commanders. He afterwards entered into the fervice
of the duke of Milan, and defeated a fleet of the Venetians
in the Po, in1431. After the death of the queen, in 1435,
he attached himfelf to her heir, ReȎ, duke of Anjou, and
made himfelf mafter of feveral places in the Marche of
Ancona. He even feized fome of the pope’s pofleffions,
which brought on him an excommunication from Euge-
nius IV. whom he had formerly ferved. He had long
wifhed to marry Bianga, the natural daughter of Philip-Maria
Vifconti, duke of Milan, and being in the Venetian fervice
againft that prince, he gained fuch advantages as induced
Philip, who had often deceived him, to enter into a treaty

‘in 1441, by which he made peace with the Venetians, and

gave his daughter to Sforza, with Cremona and its territory
or her portion.

The Aske and fon-in-law did not long continue united,
and Sforza commanded, as general, the troops of the pope,
Venetians, and Florentines, in a war againft Philip. He was,
however, at length, induced to go over to the party of
the duke of Milan, who, in 1447, died without legitimate
ifue. Sforza was now ambitious of fucceeding him, and
took a commiffion, as general of the troops of ae againft
the Venetians. But he foon made a treaty with the latter,
and then led an allied army to the gates of Milan, to which
he laid fiege. The dittrefs of the city occafioned a popular
commotion, the leaders of which propofed the electing of
Sforza for their duke. The majority concurred in the pro-
pofal, and in February 1450 he was received with great ac-
clamations in that quality. Sforza remained in pofleffion of
the duchy, and in 1464 made himfelf matter of Genoa,
Lewis XI. of France having made over to him all the right
of France tothat city. Sforza died in 1466, and tranfmitted
the fovereignty to his fon. He had fhewn himfelf a brave
and fkilful commander ; but with feveral traits of grandeur
in his charaGter, he was not a man of principle, and was
sendy to change fides as fuited his interett, Mod. Univ,

ift.

Srorza, CATHERINE, an heroine of the fame family,
the natural daughter of Galeazzo Sforza, duke of Milan,
who was aflaffinated in 1476. She married Jerome Riario,
lord of Forli and of Imola, which was her own dowry;
but fhe was left a widow at the age of twenty-two, with
feveral children. In 1500 Forli was befieged by the duke
of Valentinois, fonof pope Alexander VI. but fhe es

SHA

the fortrefs with the greateft bravery, though the befiegers
threatened to put her children to death, who were in their
hands. At length the place was taken, and Catherine fent
prifoner to Rome, but fhe foon recovered her liberty, and
was married to John de Medicis, to whofe family fhe ren-
dered very eminent fervices.

SrorzA, IsaseLia, an ingenious lady of the fame family
in the fixteenthcentury. Her letters were printed at Wenice
in 1549, by Hortenfio Laudo.

SFRONDATI, Francis, a fenator of Milan, and coun-
fellor of ftate to the emperor Charles V. On the death of
his wife he entered into orders, and was elevated to the car-
dinalfhip. He died in1550, aged 56. A poem of his, on
the “ Rape of Helen,” was printed at Venicein1559. His
fon Nicholas became pope by the name of Gregory XIV:
there was another cardinal of this name and family, who
wrote feveral works again{t the liberties of the Gallican
church. He died in 1696.

SFUGGITO, Ital. in MWuj/ic, to fhun, avoid, go out at
the common way: as cadenza sfuggita, a difappointed ca-
dence. This happens when the bafe feems preparing for
a full clofe ; inftead of falling a sth or rifing a 4th, it rifes
only one tone or femitone, or falls a 3d; or in other
words, when all the parts avoid their natural and expected
conclufion.

SFUMBERG, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Chrudim; 5 miles S.S.E. of Chrudim.

SGIGATA, Sazcara, or Stora, a town of Africa, in
the country of Algiers, anciently called Ruficada; fituated
near the coaft of the Mediterranean. A few cifterns are
the only remains of its ancient {plendour; 30 miles W. of
Bona. N. lat. 36°48. E. long. 6° gol.

SGIGATCHEE, or Suicatcuee Jeung, a town of
Thibet, fituated in a narrow valley, on aridge of rock, fo as
to command the road near the river Painom-tchieu; 130
miles W.S.W. of Lafla. N.lat.29°5'. E. long. 88° 52!.

SGRAFFIT, Serarriara,in Painting. See SCRATCH-
WORK.

SHAAB al Yadayn, in Geography, a dry {helf inthe Red
fea, extending from N.E. by E., deriving its name. from
its fuppofed refemblance to two arms wide open with
their hands, fituated at the end of a great bay, far out
to fea. There is a fecure harbour on the fide towards the
land.

SHAAL Srong, in Mineralogy. See TABULAR SPAR.

SHAB, in Agriculture, a difeafe of fheep. See Scaz.

Suas, or Sheb, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
county of Nubia; .400 miles S.S.W. of Cairo. N. lat.
22° ar he Heulong. 30720".

SHABADPOUR, atown of Hindooftan, in Oude; 50
miles W. of Kairabad.

SHABALA, a name of a wonderful boon-granting cow,
often {poken of in Hindoo romance ; but more commonly
under the name of Surabhi; which fee.

SHABALEG, in Geography, a mountain of Turkeftan ;
70 miles N.N.E. of Toncat.

SHABAMOUSHWAN Lakg, a lake of Canada;
219 miles N.N.W. of Quebec. N. lat. 49° 10’, W.
long. 75°.

SHABAT, a town of the kingdom of Charafm; 95
miles S.S.E. of Urgheuz.

SHABAYAGAN, ariverof Canada, which runs into
lake Michigan, N. lat. 48° 30’. W.long. 86° 45!.

SHABAZPOUR, atown of Hindooftan, in Allahabad ;
16 miles S.E. of Corah.

SHABRAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schir-
van; 40 miles N.E. of Schamachie.

SHA

SHABUR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Trak ¢
6 miles S.W. of Cafbin.—Alfo, atown of Egypt, on the
weit branch of the Nile, thought to be the ancient Andro-
polis; 50 miles N.N.W. of Cairo, N. lat. 30° 47!. E.
long. 31°.

SHACK, in Ancient Cuffoms, a liberty of winter-paf-
turage. In the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, the lord
of the manor has fhack, 2. e. a liberty of feeding his fheeps
at pleafure, in his tenants’ lands, during the fix winter
months.

In Norfolk, fhack alfo extends to the common for hogs,
in all men’s grounds, from the end of harveft till feed-
ing-time. Whence to go a fhack, is to feed at large.

SHACK, in Agriculture, provincially to fhed as grain at
harveit. See Harvestine Grain.

Suacxk, or Shack-corn, a provincial term applied to the
waite corn left in the fields at harveft : alfothe ftock turned
upon the ftubble after harvett, and likewife to fuch grounds
as lie open to common fields. Pigs are the ftock ufually
employed in gathering this, and in fome parts flocks of
geefe and turkies. Where pigs are clovered through the
fummer, they are finifhed with the fhacks and the acorns ;
but fome farmers are fo improvident, as neither to feed
their clovers in that advantageous way, nor even keep pigs
enough to pick up the wafte corn, which is fometimes ab-
folutely fuffered to rot in the fields. Young pigs anfwer
well in this ufe, as they thrive greatly, efpecially when bred
upon the farm.

Suack-Fork, provincially a wooden fork for fhaking
ftraw off the barn-floor, made of forked willaw, &c.

SHACKLEFORD, in Geography, a polt-town of
America, in Virginia; 143 miles W.S.W. of Wafhing-
ton.

SHACKLES, in Ship-Building, the {mall ring-bolts
driven through the ports, or {fcuttles, and through which
the lafhings or an iron hook paffes when the ports are
barredin. There are alfo fhackles put upon billow-bolts,
for confining feamen, &c. who have deferved corporal
punifhment.

SHACORA, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
coaft of the Red tea; 65 miles S. of El Cofeir.

SHAD, Atausa, in Ichthyology, the name of a fea-fifh,
called alfo the mother of herrings, and by {ome authors clupea
and triffa, by the ancients ¢richis, or trichias, and the clupee
alofa of Linneus, See CLupEA.

It very much refembles the herring in its general form,
but it is flatter and broader, and grows to a cubit long, and
four inches broad. The head flopes down confiderably
from the back, which at the beginning is very convex, and
rather fharp ; the body from thence grows gradually lefs
towards the tail; the under jaw is rather longer than the
upper; the teeth very minute; the dorfal fin is placed very
near the centre, is {mall, and the middle rays are the longeft ;
the pectoral and ventral fins are {mall; the tail very forked ;
the belly extremely fharp, and ftrongly ferrated; the back
is of a dufky blue; above the gills begins a line of dark
{pots, which mark the upper part of the back on each lide ;
the number of thefe fpots is different in different fifh, from
four to ten. ;

It is very common in many feas, and in fome of our large
rivers which lie near the fea. They run up thefe in great
numbers, and are then very fat; they afterwards become
lean, and then go down to the fea again. They ufually
{wim in large fhoals together.

In Great Britain the Severn affords the fhad in higher
perfe€tion than any other river; where it firfl appears im
May, but in very warm feafons in April, and cong

about

SHA .

about two months. ‘The thad at its firlt appearance, efpe-
cially near Gloucefter, is efteemed a very delicate filh, and
fells dearer than falmon. The London fithmongers diftin-
guith it from that of the Thames, by the French name of

Whether they {pawn in the Severn or Wye is not
determined, as their fry has not yet been afcertained. The
old fith come from the fea in fall roe. The eyaebarn erro-
feoully imagine that the bleak, which appears in multitudes
near Gloucelter in July and Augutt, are the fry of the
fhad. Many of thefe are taken in thofe months enly, but
‘none of the emaciated fhads are ever caught in their return.
The Thames fhad does not frequent that river till the month
of July, and is efteemed a very infipid coarfe fih, About
the fame time, the ¢waife, a variety of the thad, makes its
appearance near Gloucetter, and is taken in great numbers
in the Severn, but held in as great difrepute as the fhad of
the Thames. The true fhad weighs fometimes eight pounds,
but their general fize is from four to five. ‘The twaite, on
the contrary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds, The twaite differs from a {mall
fhad only in having one or more round black {pots on
the fides; if only one, it is always near the gill, but com-
monly there are three or four, placed one under the other.

Pennant.
No thad is to be taken in the Thames or Medway, except
from May 10 to June 30. 39 Geo. IT. cap. 21.
SHADDOCK, in Botany. See Cirrus. :
SHADE, in Agriculture, any fort of protection em-
yed for Spaeerne Lae heat, cold, and rain, from affe&-
and injuring any kind of ftock, whether of the nature
building or plantation, of the woody kind, &c. See
Screen ion, and SHELTER.
Snape, in Gardening, any thing that intervenes to ob-
feure or protect plants from the rays of the fun. It
is effected in various ways by the gardener; as by mats,

covers, &c.
Suaps, vincially a fhed for fuel, or houfe for fhelter-
ing live-flock, &e.; it alfo fignifies to thed as grain, as ufed
in fome places.
Suave Mountain, in Geography, a mountain of Pennfyl-
wania, N.E. of Lewiftown. :
SHADENDORYFF, a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.E.

of Brugg.

SHADING of Plants, in Gardening, the art of pro-
te&ting plauts of young and tender growths in feed-beds,
&c. from the fun. It isa neceflary work on many occafions,
in warm, dry, funny weather in {pring and fummer, &c. in
“pricking out various forts of {mall young plants from feed-
ds, into nurfery-beds, pots, &c. as well as {mall cuttings,
flips, above-ground off-fets, pipings, &c. as likewife occa-
Gionally in tranfplanting any kind of more advanced plants,
flowers, &c. into beds, or pots, in a hot, dry feafon; and
fometimes to feed-beds of particular forts of {mall or curi-
‘ous feeds, in hot funny days; alfo to plants im hot-beds,
suunder frames and glaffes, both of young and more advanced
wths. It is the moft commodionfly and effectually per-

by garden mats in a fort of awning over the beds,
plants in the full ground, or to thofe in pots placed clofe
> or fometimes to feed-beds, either in that way, or
on the furface ; in the latter method, being
y watered over the mats: or fometimes, in hot
weather, by fome loofe ftraw litter ftrewed over feed-
which by fereening thefurface from the parching fun,
ing the moifture in the earth, promotes a more
k, regular, and free germination in the feed; and when
ants are come up, the covering is foon drawn off
with a wooden or other rake. To plants under
5

SHA
glaffes in frames, &c. the oceafional thading is efledted

either by mats fpread thinly over the glafles, or fometimes
by a little loofe, long litter, fhaken lightly over them, juft
during the fierce heat of the fun. fa all cafes the thade
fhould not be made too thick, fo as to darken the plants too
much,

Alfo in the bufinefs of occafional thading, it is in general
only to be continued ia the warmelt time of funny days, ge-
nerally longer to plants, cuttings, &c. which have not ftruck
root, than thofe that are in a growing ftate ; and in common
with all plants in the full ground, or others defigned for
placing in the open air, where occafional fhading 1s necef-
fary, it fhould be difcontinued on evenings, mornings, and
nights, that they may enjoy the benefit or the full freth air
at thefe times; as alfo the tender forts, ftriking or advanc-
ing in growth under glaffes, having occafional Radice when
the fun oF Stet in the warmer part of the day, fhould
remain unfhaded before and after that time, that they may
receive the neceffary beneficial influence of light and air in
a re degree. But in plants, cuttings, flips, &c. that
have had occafional fhading till they have ftruck good root,
and begin to advance a Fietle in a renewed growth, the
thading fhould be moftly difcontinued gradually, efpecially
for thofe in beds, pots, &c. in the open ground, or ‘others
defigned for tranfplantation, or for placing in pots, in the
full air for the fummer, according to their kinds: but in
fome {mall tender plants of flender growth, the eccafional
fhading may probably be neceflary in longer continuation, as
till they acquire more ftrength; and to plants remaining all
fummer in hot-beds, or under frames and glafles, the con-
tinuance of occafional moderate fhading in hot funny days
will be proper; but in moft young plants, cuttings, &c.
pricked out or planted as above, and defigned for the full
ground or open air, not continued under glaffes, the having
the benefit @f occafional fhade till well itruck is all they
require.

The forts of plants which require this kind of manage-
ment are very numerous ; but it is con{tantly mentioned in
their culture where neceflarv.

SHADMAN, 1n Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia;
36 miles N.N.E. of ‘Termed.

SHADOW, Suapke, in Optics, a certain {pace deprived
of light, or where the light is weakened by the interpofition
of fome opaque body before the fuminary.

The doétrine of fhadows makes a confiderable article in
optics, altrosomy, and geography ; and is the general found-
ation of dialling.

As nothing is feen but by light, a mere shadow is invifi-
ble: when, therefore, we fay, we fee a fhadow, we mean
partly, that we fee bodies placed in the fhadow, and illu-
minated by light reflected from collateral bodies; and
partly, that we fee the confines of the light.

If the opaque body, that projets the thadow, be per-
pendicular to the horizon, and the plane it is projected on
be horizontal, the thadow is called a right {hadow. Such
are the fhadows of men, trees, buildings, mountains, &c.
If the opaque body be placed parallel to the horizon, the
thadow is called a ver/ed fhadow; as the arms of a map
itretched out, &c,

Suapows from ue Bodies, Laws of the ProjeGion of.
1. Eve: ae oa projects a thadlont in the june dine
tion with the rays of light ; that is, towards the part oppo-
fite to the light. Hence, as either the Juminary or the body
changes place, the fhadow likewife changes its place.

2. Every opaque body projects as many fhadows, as there
are luminaries to enlighten it.

3- As the light of the luminary is more intenfe, the fha-

dow

SHADOW.

dow is the deeper. Hence, the intenfity of the fhadow is
meafured by the degrees of light that {pace is deprived of.
In reality, the fhadow itfelf is not deeper, but it appears
fe, becaufe the furrounding bodies are more intenfely illu-
minated.

4. If a luminous {phere be equal to an opaque one, which
it illumines, the fhadow thie latter projeéts will be a cylin-
der; and, of confequence, will be propagated ftill equal to
itfelf, at whatever diftance it extends; fo that, if it be cut
in any place, the plane of the fe&tion will be a circle equal
to a great circle of the opaque {phere.

. If the luminous {phere be greater than the opaque one,
the fhadow will be conical. If, therefore, the fhadow be
cut by a plane parallel to the bafe, the plane of the feétion
will be a circle ; and that fo much the lefs as it is at a greater
diftance from the bafe,

6. If the luminous {phere be lefs than the opaque one, the
fhadow will be a truncated cone: confequently it grows ftill
wider and wider ; and therefore, if cut by a plane parallel
to its bafe, that plane will be a circle fo much the greater
as it is farther from the bafe.

7. To find the length of the fhadow, or the axis of the
fhady cone, projected by a lefs opaque {phere, illumined by
a larger; the femidiameters of the two, as CG and IM,
( Plate XX. Optics, fig. 1.) and the diftances between their
centres G M, being given:

Draw F M parallel to CH; then will I M = CF; and
therefore F G will be the difference of the femidiameters
GC and IM. Confequently, as F G, the difference of the
femidiameters, is to GM, the diftance of the centres; fo
is C F, or IM, the diameter of the opaque {phere, to M H,
the diftance of the vertex of the fhady cone, from the cen-
tre of the opaque {phere. If then, the ratioof PMto MH
be very {mall, fo that MH and PH do not differ very con-
fiderably, H M-may be taken for the axis of the fhadowy
cone: otherwife the part P M mutt be fubtra&ted from it,
to find which, feek the are LK, which is the meafure of
the angle L M K, or MH J, and this angle is one of the
angles of the right-angled triangle M HI, the fides of
which, MI and M H, are known; for this, fubtracted from
a quadrant, leaves the arc 1Q, which is the meafure of
the angle IMP. _ Since then, in the triangle MIP, which
is reCtangular at P, befides the angle IMQ, we have the
fide IM; the fide M P is eafily found by plain trigono-
metry.

£.g. If the femidiameter of the earth be MI = 1; the
femidiameter of the fun will be = 117; and therefore GF
= 111; and of confequence MH = 217; fince then MP
is found by calculation to bear a very fmall ratio to MH;
for the angle MI P= K ML, may be taken equal to the
apparent femidiameter of the fun, becaufe of the fun’s
great dittance, and its confiderable magnitude, in propor-

‘tion to the globe M; and therefore, MP: MI :: fine of
16! : radius, i.e. :: 217: 1, uearly; and as M H is about
217 times M I, P M may be neglected, and P H may be
taken to be 217 femidiameters of the earth. See Ecripsz
of the Moon.

Hence, as the ratio of the diftance of the opaque body,
from the luminous body G M, to the length of the fhadow
MH, is conftant ; if the diftance be diminifhed, the length
of the fhadow mutt be diminifhed likewife. Confequently,
the fhadow continually decreafes as the opaque body ap-
proaches the luminary:

8. To find the length of the fhadow projected by an
opaque body TS (fig. 2.) ; the altitude of the luminary,
e. gr. of the fun above the horizon, viz. the angle S V T,
and that of the body, being given. Since, in the reétangled

triangle S TV, which is reGtangular at T, we have given
the angle V, and the fide T'S; the length of the fhadow
T V is had by trigonometry.

Thus, fuppofe the altitude of the fun 37° 45!, and the .

altitude of a tower 178 feet; T V will be found 230 feet
nearly.

9. The length of the fhadow T V, and the height of the
opaque body TS, being given ; to find the altitude of the
fun above the horizon.

Since, in the reGangled triangle S T V, reCtangular at
T, the fides T V and T'S are given; the angle V is found
thus: as the length of the fhadow T V, is to the altitude
of the opaque body T'S, fo is the whole fine to the tangent
of the fun’s altitude above the horizon. ‘Thus, if TS be
30 feet, and T V 45, TVS will be found 41° 4o!.

ro. If the altitude of the luminary, e. gr. the fun above
the horizon T V S, be 45°, the length of the fhadow T V
is equal to the height of the opaque body, the triangle in
this cafe being ifofceles.

11. The length of the fhadows T Z and T V of the fame
opaque body TI’ S, in different altitudes of the luminary, are
as the co-tangents of thefe altitudes.

Hence, as the co-tangent of a greater angle is lefs than
that of alefs angle ; as the luminary rifes higher, the fhadow
decreafes ; whence it is, that the meridian fhadows are longer
in winter than in fummer.

12. To meafure the altitude of any objet, e. gr..a tower
A B (fg. 3.) by means of its fhadow projected on an hori-
zontal plane.

At the extremity of the fhadow of the tower C, fix a

flick, and meafure the length of the fhadow AC; fix an- .

other ftick in the ground of a known altitude D E, and
meafure the length of the fhadow thereof EF. Then as
EFisto AC, foisDEto AB. If, therefore, AC be
45 yards, ED 5 yards, and E F 7 yards; A B will be
32+ yards.

13. The right fhadow is to the height of the opaque
body, as the cofine of the height of the luminary to the
fine.

14. The altitude of the luminary being the fame in both
cafes, the opaque body A C ( fiz. 4.) will be to the verfed
fhadow A D, as the right fhadow E B to its opaque body
DB. Hence, 1. The opaque body is to its verfed fhadow,
as the cofine of the altitude of the luminary to its fine;
confequently the verfed fhadow A D is to its opaque body
AC, as the fine of the altitude of the luminary to its cofine.
2. 1fD B=AC;; then will D B be a mean proportional
between E B and A D; that is, the length of the opaque
body is a mean proportional between its right fhadow and
verfed fhadow, under the fame altitude of the luminary.
3. When the angle C is 45°, the fine and cofine are equal ;
and, therefore, the verfed fhadow is equal to the length of
the opaque body.

15. A right fine is to a verfed fine of the fame opaque
body, under the fame altitude of the luminary, in a dupli-
cate ratio of the cofine to the fine of the altitude of the
luminary.

Right and verfed fhadows are of confiderable ufe in mea-
furing: as by their means we can commodioufly enough

meafure altitudes, both acceffible and inacceffible, and that ~

too when the body does not proje&t any fhadow. The
right fhadows we ufe, when the fhadow does not exceed.
the altitude; and the verfed fhadows, when the fhadow is
greater than the altitude. On this footing is made an in-
{trument called the guadrat, or line of foadows ; by means
of which the ratios of the right and verfed fhadow of any
object, at any altitude, are determined. This inftrument 1s

ufually —

SHADOW.

wfually added on the face of the quadrat. Its defcription
and ule, fee under QuapRAT, and ALtirupeE.

Suavows, Thy Dodvirine of, in Perfpedive, is the theory
and practice of reprefenting thadows, as projected from a

iven point at a finite diltance, fuch asa candle, or as pro-

rom the fun, where the diflance, though not infinite,

for the fake of fimplicity, confidered as fuch, in order

the rays may be all parallel ; or otherwife, for this pur-

rays may be fuppofed as proceeding from all points

of {pace in parallel lines.

A line of thade is the line deprived of light by an opaque
point to the luminary,

A Bon of thade is an opaque or dark plane, occafioned
the privation of light from the interpofition of a ftraight
oppofed to the luminary ; and hence it is evident, that

of thade will ali through the luminary.
. To find the thadows upon the furfaces of bodies occa-
fioned by the privation of the fun’s rays.
Given the vanifhing line of a plane, the vanifhing point
2g the fun’s rays, the vanifhing point of the feat of a ray
on the plane, the reprefentation of a pone ds fpace, and the
gh ta of the feat of the point in the plane whofe
ifhing line is given; to find the reprefentation of the fha-
dow upon the plane of the picture.
., Join the vanifhing point of the line to the vanifhing
is

“<

t of lines perpendicular to the plane, whofe vanifhing
is given, and you will thus obtain the vanifhing line of
another plane, in which is the original of the feat of the

int, and the original of the line in proje¢tion ; and there-

fore the interfection of the vanifhing line given of the plane

on which the feat of the line required to be drawn and the
ifhing line found is the vanifhing point of the feat of the

li re, draw a itraight line through the feat of
int given in projection to the vanifhing point found,

an No} line thus drawn will be the whole reprefentation of

through the vanifhing point of lines per-
. eet of the orignal

of the fhadows of lines upon
ht firft to be acquired; but as
e relation and planes to the horizon is generally
given, it will be neceffary to find the relation of thele lines
es to one another; and here it will be proper to ob-
\ be the number of planes, the vanithing

<

my
Y
Dp
r
t

ferv that

fun’s rays will remain geable, or in the
tion in of the firft vanifhing line, and will
mon to all t different

cor different planes; but Hy’

lane will have its own vanifhing point for the feat of the
an’s rays in that plane, and that vanifhing point will
in the vanifhing line of that plane. As vertical and ho-
rontal planes occur molt frequently in practice, thefe will

attention,
eae pease fe Yor gil ple, nad
both bei i to the original plane, and
feat an inclination of a ftraight line in the hee of the
‘izon; to d ine the vanifhing point of the feat of the
ne on the vertical plait, and the vanithing point of the line.
You. XXXII...

e
&
> fe

Let the fcheme, N° 1, ( Plate 1. Shadows, fry. 1, ,
fent the vanifhing plane, and N® 2. the plone Hf) aoe

In the vanithing plane, N°1, let vl be the vanithing
line, ¢ the point of fight or place of the eye, 4 FB the in.
terfeétion of the original vertical plane, inclined to the plene
of the picture in the angle Al, Let A D be the feat of
the line, as given in pofition, to the horizon: make the sugle
D A F equal to the inclination of the line to the plane of the
horizon ; draw D F perpendicular to 4 D, and D B per-
pendicular to 4B; produce D BR to K; make BK equal
to D F, and join 4 K, which is the feat of the line on the
vertical plane. Draw e¢1 parallel to 4B, and draw th per-
pendicolar to vl: in v1, make 1m equal to le, and make
the angle lmh equal to BA X, and h will be the vanifh-
ing point of the feat of the line. Draw ¢ y parallel to
DA, and vi perpendicular to v1; make wn, in the vanith-
ing line, equal to ve; make the angle vni equal to the
angle D A F, which the original line makes with the plane
of the horizon. Draw e © perpendicular to v1, meeting
vlin®.

In the plane of the piéture N° z, let V L be the vanith-
ing line anfwering to v1, N° 1: in V L make choice of any
convenient point, ©, for the centre of the picture: make
© L equal to ol, N° 1, and © V equal to ov, N°1: draw
LH and V1 perpendicular to V L, then H is the vanifh-
ing gy of the feat of the line, and I the vanifhing point
of the line itfelf.

The points H and I will be both on the fame fide of the
vanifhing line of the horizontal planes.

This problem is the fame when the feat and altitude of a
ray of the fun are given, and the inclination of a vertical
plane to the plane of the picture; to find the vanifhing point
of a ray of light, and the vanifhing point of the feat of the
fun’s rays.

When the fun is on the fame fide of the picture with the
f{peétator, the vanifhing point ef the feat of the rays, and
the vanifhing point of the rays, will be below the vanifhing
line V L; but when on the other fide of the picture, the
vanifhing point of the rays and the vanifhing point of their
feat will be above V L.

The following problem unites that of finding the vanifh-
ing points of the feat of a line, and the vanifhing point of
the line itfelf, with the vanifhing point of the feat of the
fun’s rays and the vanifhing point of the rays, as relating
to the plane given.

Given the inclination of a plane to the plane of the pic-
ture, both being perpendicular to the original plane, the
feat and inclination of a ftraight line, and the feat and: in-
clination of the fun’s rays, both to the plane of the horizon;
to determine the vanifhing point of the feat of the fun’s
rays, the vanifhing point of the feat of the line on the ver-
tical plane, as alfo the ani | point of the fun’s rays and
vanifhing point of the line itfelf.

It is evident, that the vanifhing point of the feat of the
fun’s rays, and the vanifhing point és the feat of the line,
are both in the vanifhing line of the plane, which is a flraight
line perpendicular to the vanifhing line of the horizon ; fince
the original of the feat of a ray, and the original of the
feat of the line, are both in the original plane: and if the
line be parallel to the original plane, the vanifhing point of
the feat of the line will be in the interfeGtion of the vanifh-
ing line of the vertical plane with that of the horizon.

Join VS, (fig. 2.) and let it meet A B ins; draw 6s and
a §, cutting each other in ¢, and é ¢ isthe fhadow of the live

Be oe

or the vanifhing point of the line that projects the

fhadow and the vanifhing point of the fun’s rays, are in the
3A vanifhing

SHADOW.

vanifhing line of the plane of fhade; and becaufe the plane
of fhade is fuppofed to cut the original plane, the interfec-
tion, which is the fhadow, will be a line in the original plane,
and therefore the vanifhing point of the fhadow will be in
the vanifhing line of the original plane; .and as it has been
fhewn that it is alfo in the plane of fhade, it will therefore
be in the interfeGtion of the plane of fhade, and the vanifh-
ing line of the plane on which the fhadow is thrown.

This problem is general for planes and lines in all fitua-
tions, but in the following examples the centre and diftance
of the picture are fuppofed to be given, and the pofition of
the pidture is that of being perpendicular to the primary
plane or firit original plane: the objects themfelves are
folids, whofe edges or planes are fuppofed to be perpen-
dicular to the plane on which they ftand. As oblique pofi-
tions very feldom occur in praétice, we fhall fuppofe the
vanifhing line of the original plane, on which the obje& is
placed, to be given.

To find the fhadow of a prifm placed on the primary

lane.

‘ Let AB (figs. 3, 4, and 5.) be the vanifhing line of the
plane of the bafe, and fince the pi€ture is f{uppofed to be per-
pendicular tothe primary plane, the vanifhing line of the plane
of fhade, occafioned by the vertical lines which form the
concourte of the fides of the objeét, will be perpendicular
to the vanifhing line A B. Let Ss, therefore, be the va-
nifhing line of a plane of fhade, occafioned by any line of
concourfe, S being the vanifhing point of the fun’s rays,
and s the interfeGtion of the vanifhing line of the plane of
fhade, with that of the plane on which the fhadow is to be
thrown.

Let ¢d, ba, mn, be the edges of the folid; join 4s and
aS, cutting each other in c; and dc is the fhadow, occa-
fioned by the edge or line of concourfe 4a. Draw c B and
“ dS, cutting each other in e; or, if neceflary, produce them
to cut ine, and ce is the fhadow, occafioned by the edge ad,
parallel to the plane of the original plane; alfo draw eA
and $f, cutting each other in 7; or, if neceflary, produce
them to cut each ether in z, then ez will be the fhadow of
the edge df. Laftly, draw is, which will complete the
fhadow of the prifm, as required.

Fig. 3. fhews the fhadows of the objet when the fun
is before the picture ; fig. 4. fhews the fhadow when the fun
is behind the pi€ture; and jig. 5. when the fun is in the
plane of the picture.

To find the fhadow of a building witha break. Let VL
(fig: 6.) be the vanifhing line of the horizon, V the vanifhing
point of the horizontal lines, reprefented by ac and é d,
that form the end of the building, alfo of ef, ¢ 4, which
reprefent the horizontal lines forming the fides of the break.
Let the fun be fuppofed to be in the plane of the picture,
or its rays parallel thereto, and let the planes abdc and
eghf be in fhade, and the plane e g hf will throw a
fhadow upon the plane a4/ké, and the plane ade upon
the horizon. As the fun’s rays are parallel to the picture,
they will have no vanifhing point, but {till the rule will hold
in this cafe alfo. Through the vanifhing point L, draw
LM perpendicular to V L, then L M is the vanifhing lme
of the plane 24/2, on which the fhadow is to be thrown ;
through V draw VM parallel to the fun’s rays, or make
the angle LV M equal to the angle which the fun’s rays
make with the plane of the horizon. Thus M is the va-
nifhing point of the thadow of all lines vanifhing in V,
upon the plane a4/£: therefore, to find the fhadow of the
line 4g, join M 4, and produce it to m; and draw gm paral-
lel to MV, then m will be the fhadow of the point g, and
bmofhs. Draw mn parallel to ge, and ma will be the

fhadow of ge: therefore 4 maf will be the whole fhadow of
the plane /gef, upon the plane ab/é.

To find the fhadow of the end a4cd upon the plane of .

the horizon: draw ao parallel to LV, and bo parallel to
MV; then aoa is the fhadow of the vertical line A B: join
oV, and draw dp parallel to MV, and of is the fhadow of
6d: join pL, and draw rq parallel to M V, and pq will be
the fhadow of the line dr, not feen: join sg, or draw it pa-
rallel to LV, then aofq-s will be the fhadow of the build-
ing upon the plane of the horizon. \

Many more examples of fhadows might be given, but if j

the principles here fhewn are underftood, the artift will not
be at a lofs to find the fhadow of any right-lined objec&
whatever: for to find the fhadow of an objeé conftituted by
planes, and confequently terminated by ftraight lines, is no
more than to find the fhadow of thefe lines. If a circle be
given, the circumference may be divided by parallel lines
into parts, and the fhadows of the points of divifion may
be found by finding the fhadows of the intercepted lines,
and drawing a curve round the extremities.

If it were required to find the fhadows upon feveral planes,
firft find the fhadow in the plane on which the objet {tands,
and obferve where the fhadow meets the next plane; then
having the vanifhing line of this fecond plane, obierve where
the vanifhing line of the plane of fhade cuts the vanifhing line
of this fecond plane, then the point of interfeCtion is the
vanifhing point of the fhadow on the fecond plane.

The principles fhewn under the article Prosecrion, will
apply equally to the reprefentation of objeéts in per{peétive,
particularly where the planes which throw the fhadow inter-

fe& the plane on which the fhadow is to be thrown; for by |

continuing the line that throws the fhadow, and the inter-
fection of the plane to meet each other, you have the point
where the fhadow terminates; and therefore, \if a point be
given in the fhadow, the dire€tion of the fhadow will be
known. Thus in the laft example, fuppofe the line ao ob-
tained; and fince the point o is the beginning of the fhadow
of the line 6d, produce ac and bd to meet in V: join oV,
and draw the ray of the fun df, then op is the fhadow of
bd: produce dr and cs to meet in 1, and join p/; draw
the ray rg from r, then fq is the fhadow of dr, not feen.
To find the vanifhing line of a pole upon feveral planes.
Let ABCDEFGHIK, (Plate IL. Shadows, jig. 1.)
be the outline of a building, with a lean-to or pent-houfe
DENPQ: V is the vanifhing point of all horizontal lines,
in the gable A BLIK of the main houfe, and alfo of the
gable D MQC of the pent-houfe; L' is the vanifhing point
of all the horizontal lines in the parallel fronts BF GL and
DENM,; and as all vertical planes have vertical -vanifhing
lines, V R is the vanifhing line of the parallel gables ABLIK
and CD MQ; LU the vanifhing line of the fronts BF GL

-and DENM; ILGH is the reprefentation of the roof of

the main buildmg, and QMN P that of the pent-houfe.

Produce LI to meet VR, its vanifhing point, in S: draw
SL’, which will be the vanifhing line of the inclined plane
LGHYI, for Sand L are the vanifhing points of two lines
in that plane: produce MQ to meet V Rin T, and draw
TL; then TL is the vanifhing line of the inclined plane
MN PQ of the roof of the pent-houfe, becaufe T and L
are the vanifhing points of two lines in that plane.

Let W X be a pole, relting upon the end of the houfe in
the fame plane with the gable AB LIK; and let © be the
vanifhing point of the fun’s rays: produce the pole XK W
to meet VR in R, then R is the vanifhing point of the poles

or of the line that throws the fhadow: therefore by drawing

© R, © R will be the vanifhing line of the plane of. fhade,
which let cut V I, the vanifhing line of the horizon, in Y; and
LU;

SHADOW.

LU, the vanithing line of the vertical planes BF GI and
DEMN of the walls, in U; VR, the vanifhing line of the
in R; SL, the vanithing line of the main roof, in Z ;
and T L', the vanithing line of the pent-houfe, in Z*. We
are now prepared for drawing the igre of the pole W X

» wpon the horizontal plane and upon the building.

Produce A B to meet W X in X, then X will be the point
where the pole reits upon the ground or horizontal = ies
draw X Y, cutting D E in a; draw Ua, cutting DM in
4; draw 4 R, cutting M 9 ine; draw eZ’, cutting PQ in
4; draw U d, cutting G I at 1; and draw IZ, cutting the

> oe Hat f; then Xabedef will be the whole thadow

For, fince the fhadow firft begins at the foot of the pole
line in the plane of the horizon, and fince the interfe¢tion
oie colin)

eS e—

p or the

of the vanifhing line of a plane on which the fhadow is to
be thrown, auth the iatetfettion of the vanithing line of the
_ plane of thade, gives the vanithing line of the fhadow u

plane; now Y is the interfection of the vanifhing li
of the plane of fhade with the es of the horizon ;

therefore Y is the vanithing point of the thadow of the line
W X upon the plane of the horizon. The next plane on
aera Sqr shar aetetion DENM; now L U is the

is
Le a oak ge! DENM, and U is the point
where the vanifhing line of the plane of fhade cuts L' U ;
therefore U is the vanifhing point of the fhadow upon the
plane DENM. next plane on which the fhadow is

ee en nN : now V R is the vanifhing
of the CDMQ, and it interfeéts the vanithing
upon the plane CD MQ. The next
‘thadow is projeGted is the plane,

roof of the pent-houfe: now Z' is the
ine of the plane of fhade

is the plane B F GI of the wall ; but U has already
1 fhewn to be the vanifhing point of the fhadow. The
plane of the roof is the lait furface on which the thadow
‘As projected ; now S L is its vanifhing line, and it meets the
i line of the plane of thade in Z, therefore Z is the
f the fhadow upon the roof.
fhadow of a line acrofs feveral A at
ifing if fome little inaccuracy takes place
me uity of interfe€tions: it might be a great
n the part of the fhadow a I, which falls
plane B FG L, is drawn from the vanifhing point
» through the point d, that it will meet the pole at ae
oughttodo, Toremedy this, begin with the fhadow I d,
in the reverfe order, until it meets the line W X
which it mutt in principle, and will not be liable to
much in practice.
points which dire& the fhadows upon the feveral
might alfo be found by the methods fhewn in the

icle Prosection.
The following obfervations will be ufeful in the pra¢tice
ftraight line that throws a fhadow is parallel to

"expan it is then ted parallel to the original.
a this cafe it has no vanifhing point ; or, in other words,
being joined to

‘a ftraight line from the vanithing point of the
jeGtion of the line which throws
vanifhing line of the plane of

PQ. The next furface on which the fhadow is pro-

fhade; and therefore the interfeétion of the vanifhing line
of the plane of thade with the vanifhing live of the plane on
which the thadow is to be thrown, will give the vanifhing
point of the thadow on that plane, after tlie fame analog
as lines which are inclined to the pi€@lure. This’ cafe is
fimilar to that’ of the fun’s rays Tbelal parallel to the
picture: for here alfo the vanifhing point of the rays is at
an infinite diftance ; but as the plane of fhade will {till have
a vanifhing line, this line will be found by drawing a firaight
line through the vanifhing point of the Tine that throws the
fhadow parallel to the fun’s rays, a5 already thewo in a
former example.

merpien Neh orga rom a given Point ; as by the Light of a
Candle or Lamp.—lIt is evident, if the reprefentation of the
luminous point be given, and its feat upon any plane, dlfo
the reprefentation of any point in {pace, and its reprefenta~
tion upon that plane, the fhadow of the point will be found
by drawing a ftraight line from the luminous point through
the point in {pace, and by drawing another ftraight line
from the feat of the luminous point through the feat of
the point in fpace; and the interfeétion of the two lines thus
drawn will reprefent the fhadow of the point upon the plane.
But when the relation of feveral planes reprefented in a
picture, the reprefentation of the fight with its feat, and
the reprefentation of a point in {pace with its feat, are
given, to project the fhadow of the point on the other planes,
other confiderations become neceilary.

For this purpofe, let A BC D (fig. 2.) be the infide of
a room, confifting internally of the vertical planes, A H, EI,
FK, GC, and of the horizontal planes A E F G B and
DHIKC: alfo, let L be the luminous point, and M its
feat in the plane AEF GB. In order to form an idea of
the point L, in refpe@ of the other planes, it is neceflary
to have the interfection of a line drawn through L, ina
given pofition with one of the planes. ‘Thus, if it is known
that the ftraight line La, parallel to the pi€ture, cuts the
plane of the wall B K, in the point a; the pofition of the
point L to any of the other planes may be eafily deter-
mined, as follows.

Through a draw ab parallel to the vanifhing line NO,
of the plane BK, cutting BG, the interfeétion of the
planes B K and A G, in 4; through 4 draw 4 M parallel to
PQ, the vanifhing line of the floor, cutting A E, the inter-
feétion of the planes A G and AH, in c; alfo F E, the in-
terfe€tion of the planes A G and EJ, ind. Drawce pa-
rallel to N O, the vanifhing line of the plane AH; and df
parallel to RS, the vanifhing line of the plane EI, Then,
becaufe the interfe€ting and vanifhing linés of any plane are
parallel to each other, and becaufe a line drawn parallel to
the interfe&ting line is parallel to the piture ; therefore the
reprefentations of all the lines, ab, bc, or bd, ce, andef,
are all parallel to the pi€ture, and in a plane pafling through
the luminous point L.

Given the reprefentation of any {traight line TU, and
the points V and W, where the lines TV and UW,
drawn ear: to the picture and to each other, meet the
plane A G, whofe vanifhing line, PQ, is given, to find
the vanifhing point, X, of the line T U.

Draw W V, cutting PQ, the vanifhing line of the plane
AG, in Y; and draw Y X parallel to T V or U W, meet-
ing the line UT, produced in X, the vanifhing point re-
quired,

To make this appear, it is evident that the vanifhing line
of a plane paffing through W and V, mutt alfo BD nx
through Y ; and likewife the vanifhing line of a plane p
through UW, mutt be parallel to it: wherefore Y X is
the vanifhing line of the A sty which pafles through U W.

3A 2 Now

SHADOW.

Now let WY cut the plane A X in Z; and in this ex-
ample the vanifhing line, Y X, is parallel to the vanifhing
line of the plane EI: therefore the planes, reprefented by
EI and X UWY, interfe& each other in a line parallel
to the picture; and, therefore, the reprefentation of fuch
an interfeGtion is parallel to X Y, or to R S, the vanifhing
line of the plane EI.

Given the yanifhing lines, A B, CD, Bubs (jie, Se)
of three planes, GHIK, L MNO, and MNIQR,
the common interfe&ion, NO, of the planes GH1I K
and LMNO;; alfo the interfeGtions, NI and MN,
of the planes GHIK and LMNO, with the plane
MNIQR;; the reprefentation, ad, of a line in the plane
LMNO; the point of light, c; cd, a line parallel to
the piture ; and d, the point where it interfe&ts the plane
MNIQR: to find the fhadow of the line on the plane
GHIK.

Firft, find the reprefentation of a ray of light parallel to
the piture, thus: draw de parallel to AB, cutting MN
at e; draw ef parallel to EF: then if a be not parallel
to ef, produce ba to f, and join fc, which is the ray
required. Secondly, find the vanifhing line of a plane of
fhade pafling through the line a4, and the ray fc, thus:
produce a 6 to meet CD in D, which is the vamifhing
point of ad; through D draw DF parallel to fc, and
D F will be the vanifhing line of the plane required. And,
laftly, find the fhadow of AB upon the plane GHIK,
thus: produce O N and 2é to meet in g; from F, through
g, draw the line F 4; and from the point of light, c, draw
cbh and cai; then 4i will be the fhadow of the line, as
required.

For de being parallel to A B, the vanifhing line of the
plane MNIQR, de will be parallel to the picture ; and
fince ef is drawn parallel to EF, the vanifhing line of the
plane LMNO, ef will be parallel to the piéture; and
becaufe ba meets ef in f, fc is a ray of light parallel to
the picture, meeting the line a; and becaufe C D is the
vanifhing line of the plane LMNO, and aé is in the
plane L MNO, therefore the vanifhing point of a!) is in
CD, and confequently at D, where a4 produced meets
CD: and becaufe D is the vanifhing point of aé, the
vanifhing line of the plane of fhade will pafs through D
parallel to fc: but F is the interfeétion of the vanifhing
line of the plane of fhade, with the vanifhing line EF of
the plane GHIK, on which the fhadow is projected,
therefore F is the vanifhing point of the fhadow on the
plane GHIK;; and becaufe g is the interfection of ab
with the plane GHIK, the fhadow will commence at g,
and confequently drawing F g hi gives the direction of the
fhadow ; and laftly, becaufe ¢ is the luminous point, the
rays caiand cbh will terminate the fhadow.

As D would be the vanifhing point of all lines parallel
to the original of ad in the plane reprefented by LMNO;
and as different reprefentations could not meet the line ef
in the fame point, the ray cf will have different poti-
tions, and confequently DF, which is drawn parallel
thereto ; and as the point D is ftationary, the point F will
be variable.

Given the reprefentation of three reétangular planes,
forming a folid angle, the reprefentation of a point of
light or candle, and the feat of the light on one of the
planes; to find the feat of the light on the other two
planes. %

Let the three planes be ABCD, ABGF, AFED,
( fig- 4.) it is evident that every two adjoining planes have three
edges parallel to each other, one common to both, which is
their line of concourfe ; thefe edges will therefore vanifh in

a point or be parallel to each other, according as the origi«
nal planes are oblique or parallel to the picture :. let the ori-

inal planes be obliquely fituated; therefore produce the
fides CD, BA, GF, of the two adjoining planes A BCD,
A BGF, and they will all meet in V, their vanifhing point 5

alfo produce the fides DE, AF, BG, of the two ad- °

joining planes D AT E, FA BG, and they will meet in
W, their vanifhing point ; likewife produce the fides C B,
DA, EF, and they will meet in X, their vanifhing- point,

Let L be a luminous point, and S its feat in the plane
ABCD: draw SX, cutting A Bina; draw aW, and
draw L X, cutting a W in S*, then S' is the feat of the
luminous point in the plane ABGF: draw SV, cutting
ADin3d; draw 6W, and LV, cutting each other in S*,
then S* is the feat of the luminous point in the plane
AVD Fob:

Becaufe the plane A BC D reprefents a reftangle, and V
is the vanifhing point of the one fide, and X that of the other ;
all the lines drawn to X will reprefent right angles with the
lines which vanifh in V ; therefore Sa and A B reprefent a
right anglein the plane ABCD. For the fame reafon, 2S
reprefents a right angle in the plane A BG F, and fince the
planes A BG F and ABCD are at right angles, the angle
Sa@St will reprefent a right angle; and becaufe aS repre-
fents a perpendicular to AB, @8* and SL will reprefent
parallel lines ; and fince LS‘ and S@ have the fame vanifh-
ing point X, the original of L.S' is parallel to the original
of Sa; but Sa reprefents a perpendicular to the plane
ABGF, therefore LS‘ alfo reprefents a perpendicular to
the plane A B G F; and becaufe the point S‘ is in the plane

ABGF, S" is the feat of the luminous point L, in the .

plane ABGF. Inthe fame manner it may be fhewn that
S? is the feat of the luminous point in the plane A D E F.

Given the reprefentation cd of a line perpendicular to the
original of the plane A BCD, and the vanifhing point W
of the line, and the point d, where the line meets the plane
ABCD, a luminous point L, with its feat S, alfo upon
the plane A BC D; to find the fhadow of the line CD upon
the faid plane.

Draw Sd and Lz to meet each other in e, then de will be
the fhadow of the line cd, as required. In the fame manner,
if fg reprefent a line perpendicular to the plane A BG F,
and g the point where it meets the plane ABGF, ¢gA will
be the fhadow of the line, by drawing Lf and S*g to meet
in A. ;

This method is general for any pofition of the original
planes, with refpeét to the picture; and this pofition of the
planes, in refpeét of each other, is that which moft fre-
quently occurs in pra¢tice.

Let ABCD (jg. 5.) be the infide of a room, fhewing
five fides, one, E F G H, being parallel to the picture, and
the other four perpendicular to it; C‘ is the centre of the

icture.

Let L be the light of a candle, S its feat upon the floor ;
then to find the feat of the light on all the other four fides.
Through S draw ad parallel to V L', the vanifhing line of
the horizon, cutting B Fat a, and CG at d; draw aS‘ and
4S? parallel to Y Z, the vanifhing line of the two. vertical
planes; through L, the point of light, draw S*S*, then S*
is the feat of the light in the plane A BFE, and S? the
feat of the light inthe plane CDHG. Produce CS to
meet BC in c; drawed parallel to ZY, and join dC’;
draw S S3 parallel to YZ; then Sis the feat of the light
inthe plane AE HD; let CS cutthe lme FG ine; draw
eS?* parallel to Z Y, cutting LC’ in S4, then S* will be the
feat of the light on the plane EF GH. Then to proje&a
prifm ftanding perpendicular to any of thefe planes, fuppofe

that

SHA

that which flands en the floor. From the feat S draw Si,
mecting CG in o; draw er parallel to ZY, and draw the
ray L. mr, and r will be the thadow of the point #5 draw SA,
eutting C Ging; draw ps parallel to Y Z, and draw Ln,
cutting py ats; then s ts the thadow of the point #; alfo
draw § » meeting C G in g; draw g¢ parallel to ZY, and
draw Li meeting g/ at ¢, then ¢ is the thadow of the point £ ;
Joie ra and 24, which complete the whole fhadow of the
prifm upon the floor, and on the wall.
The

ether

are divided, with refpect to their fhadows, into Afcii, Am-
phifcii, Heterofeii, and Perifeii.

Snapow, in Painting, denotes an imitation of a real fha-
dow, efiected by gradually heightening and darkening the
colours of fuch figures as b Their difpofition cannot re-

ceive any direct rays from luminary fuppofed to en-

lighten the piece. ‘The management of the thadows and

} _— what the elair-obfeure: the laws
which fee under the article CLarm-onscune.

Snapows, Genefis of Curves by. See Curve.
Snapows, Blue. See Brueness. ‘
SHADUAN, in Gapranty, a {mall ifland in the Red
fea. N. lat. * 28’. FE. long. 33° 58’.
SHADWELL, Tuomas, in Biography, a dramatic
writer, and poet-laureat to king Wailham III., was de-
ded of an ancient family in Stafford{hire, and was born
about the year — at Lauton-hall, in Norfolk, a feat
belonging to his » who was bred to the law, but hav-
ing an ample fortune did not pradtife, choofing rather to
ferve his country as a wn ate He was in the commiffion
for three counties, wiz. Middlefex, Norfolk, and Suffolk,
and difeharged the duties of the office with diftinguifhed
, and the moft perfect integrity. In the civil wars
he had been a confiderable fufferer for the royal caufe,
fo that having a numerous family, he was reduced to the
neceflity of felling and {pending a confiderable part of his
eftate to fu it. In thefe circumitances he refolved
© educate his fon to his own profeffion. He was fent
or preparatory ftudies to Caius college, Cambridge, and
yas 2fterwards entered at the Temple, but becoming ac-
inted with fome of the wits of that time, he deferted his
srofeffion arid devoted himfelf to literature. It was not.
ong before be became eminent in dramatic > and he
ppeared before the public as the writer of a comedy en-
ed «The fullen Lovers,” or “ The Impertinents,” which
aéted in the duke of York’s theatre, and in 1668 it was
ted. The fuccefs of this piece encouraged the author
oceed, and he from this period rapidly brought out
i} chiefly of the comic kind, till he had reached the
umber of feventeen. His model was Ben Jonfon, whom
imitated ir drawing humorous characters, rather from his
“ jons than from nature; and though his name
s not been tran{mitted to pofterity with much encomium,

seroma danas ta.topclo upon true comedy,
But hafty Shadwell, and flow Wycherly.” -

ryden. Hence
diflike between them, and upon the

SHA

porate of Dryden’s tragedy, entitled the « Dukesof
uife,”” in 1683, Shadwell was charged with having the
principal hand in writing a piece, entitled + Some Reflections
on the pretended Parallel in the Play called the Duke of
Guife, in a Letter to a Friend,’”’ which was printed the fame
year. Dryden wrote a vindication of the Par@lel, and a
confiderable ftorm was raifed both againft Shadwell and his
friend Hunt, who afliited him in it, and who on this ocea-
fion was forced to fly into Holland. Dryden, by way of
revenge upon Shadwell, wrote the bitterett fatire avainit
him that ever was penved; this was the celebrated Mac-
Flecknoe.

In 1688 Shadwell was appointed to fucceed his rival
Dryden in the laureatthip, an honour which he did not enjoy
many years. He died fuddenly in the year 1692, in the
fifty-fecond year of his age, at Chelfea, and was interred in
the church there. Dr. Nicholas Brady preached his funeral
fermon, in which he affures us, “ that the fubjeét of his dif-
courfe was a man of great honetty and integrity, and had
a real love of truth and fincerity ; an, inviolable fidelity and
{triétnefs to his word ; an unalterable friendship wherever he
profefled it; and a much deeper fenfe of religion, than
many others have who pretend to it more openly.” The
titles of Shadwell’s plays wre given in the Biographia Dra-
matica. An edition of his works, confitting of thofe pla
and mifcellaneous poems, was printed in 1720, in four vols.
8vo. The earl of Rochetter, in {peaking of Shadwell, fays,
“Tf he had burnt all he had written, and printed all he
{poke, he would have had more wit and humour than any
other poet.”

SHADWELL, in Geography, a parith in the Tower divifion
of the hundred of Offulfton, and county of Middlefex, Eng-
land, is fituated about two miles and a half E. by S. from
St. Paul’s cathedral. It was formerly called Chadwell, as
is fuppofed from a {pring dedicated to St. Chad, and con-
ftityted a hamlet in the parith of Stepney, till feparated
from it, and made parochial, in 1669. The extent of this
parith is very f{mall, being only 910 yards in length, and
760 in breadth, and is wholly covered with houfes, except a
few acres, called Sun T’avern fields, which are appropriated
as rope-walks. That portion of it which adjoins the Thames,
and is called Lower Shadwell, is chiefly inhabited by
tradefmen, and manufaéturers conneéted with the fhipping ;
fuch as thip-chandlers, bifcuit-bakers, wholefale butchers,
mait-makers, fail-makers, anchor-{miths, coopers, ke. A
market which had been formerly held at Shadwell under
the authority of a charter of king Charles II., but which
was long dilufed, has been revived within the lait few years.
The church, dedicated to St. Paul, is a modern {truéture of
brick. The living is a reétory in the gift ef the dean of
St. Paul’s. In Shakfpeare’s walk is « meeting-houfe for
Prefbyterian diflenters, opened only on Sunday evenings,
when fermons are delivered by diffenting minifters of different
denominations, for the fupport of a charity-fchool, in which
50 boys and 20 girls are clothed and educated. Here are
alfo a Calvinift meeting-houfe, and a chapel for Wefleyan
Methodifts, who have a Sunday-fchool attended by above
100 children. A third charity-fchool, founded in 1712,
and partly endowed by queen Anne, provides clothes and
education for 80 boys and girls.

The Shadwell water-works, which were eftablifhed in
1669, and ferved a dittri@ containing 8000 houfes, have
been lately difufed ; the premifes having been purchafed by
the Eaft London Water-works’ company, by whom this

ifh and its neighbourhood are now fupplied with water,
n Sun Tavern fields is a mineral {pring, called the Shadwell
Spa, which long fuftained a high character for its medicinal

qualities,

SH A

qualities, but it has lately fallen into difrepute. Barracks
for the accommodation ‘of the Chinefe and Lafcar failors,
during their {tay in England, have been recently erected
here, and frequently lodge upwards of a thoufand perfons.
According to the parliamentary returns of 1811, Shadwell
parifh contains 1694 houfes, and 9855 inhabitants. Lyfons’
Environs of London, 4to. 1795. Supplement, 1811. Stow’s
Hiftory of London, folio.

SHADWICKS, a town of America, in North Caro-
lina; ro miles W.S.W. of Hillfborough.

SHAFEITES, in the Hiffory of Mahometanifm, the
followers of Mohammed Ebn Edris al Shafei, the author
of the third orthodox fe&, who were formerly fpread into
Mawara’lnabr, and other parts eaftward, but are now
chiefly of Arabia. Al Shafei was born either at Gaza or
Afealon, in Paleltine, in the year of the Hegira 150, on
the fame day in which, as fome fay, Abu Hanifa, the
founder of the Hanefites, the firft of the four orthodox
fe&s, died ; and was carried to Mecca at two years of age,
where he was educated. He died in 204, in Egypt,
whither he went about five years before, though Abulfeda
fays he lived 58 years. This dogtor was very highly
efteemed for his excellency in all parts of learning, infomuch
that his contemporary, Ebn Henbel, ufed to fay that he
was as the fun to the world, and as health to the body.
Al Shafei-is faid to have been the firft who difcourfed of
jurifprudence, and methodized that {cience; and accord-
ingly it was wittily faid of him, that the relators of the
traditions of Mahomet were afleep, till Al Shafei came and
awoke them. He was a great enemy to the fcholaltic
divines. It is faid of him, that he ufed to divide the night
into three parts; one for ftudy, another for prayer, and the
third for fleep. It is alfo related of him, that he never fo
much as once fwore by God, either to confirm a truth, or
to aflert a falfehood; and that being ence afked his opinion,
he remained filent for fome time ; and when the meaning of
his filence was demanded, he anfwered, «* I am confidering
firft whether it be better to {peak or to hold my tongue.”
The following faying is alfo recorded of him, ** Whoever
pretends to love the world and its creator at the fame time
is a liar.”? Sale’s Koran, Int.

SHAFERS, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania ;
48 miles N.E. of Eafton.

SHAFT, in Building. The jhaft of a column is the
body of it; thus called from its ftraightnefs; but by ar-
chiteéts more frequently the fu/. See the dimenfions under
CotuMn. ;

Sarr is alfo ufed for the {pire of a church-fteeple ; and
for the fhank or tunnel of a chimney.

Swart, or Zunnel-Pit, is the well through which the
ftuff, excavated from a tunnel, is drawn up to the fur-
face.

Suarr of a Mine, is the hollow entrance or paflage into
amine, funk or dug to come at the ore.

In the tin-mines, after this is funk about a fathom,
they leave a little, long, fquare place, which is called a
fhamble.

Shafts are funk fome ten, fome twenty fathoms deep into
the earth, more or lefs. Of thefe fhafts, there is the land-
ing or working-fhaft, where they bring up the work or ore
to the furface; but if it be worked by a-horfe engine or
whim, it is called a whim-fhaft; and where the water is
drawn out of the mine, it is indifferently named an engine-
fhaft, or the rod-fhaft. See Mryz and Quarry.

Suart, in Agriculture, a name provincially applied to a
handle of a tool; as a fpade, fork, &c.

SuHarts of Carts and Waggons, the parts or poles be-

SHA

tween which the thill-horfes draw. ‘The manner in whicle
the fore-horfes are attached to thefe fhafts, when there are
more than the thill-horfes in the teams, is a matter of great
confequence ; as the*weight or preflure on them is more or
lefs, according to its nature, and the way in which it is
performed. See Tuini-Hor/es and Waacon.
Suart-Drain, that fort which is effected by carrying a
fort of fhaft or pit down to the porous ftratum below, and
which is in ufe where a fuperficial defcent cannot be had
for the collected waters, and an open ftratum lies beneath
the fubfoil, ready to receive it. A communication between
them becomes here of high advantage, as the coft and at-
tention of raifing the water by machinery may thereby be
avoided. In cafes of this kind, Mr. Marfhall advifes the
drainer to afcertain the lowelt point of the fcite to be im-
proved; and there, fays he, fink a fhatt down, and into,
the receiving ftratum, and fill it up to within a few fect of
the furface, with rough ftones, the roots of trees, or other
open materials; and, on the top of thefe, form a filter,
with heath and gravel, or other fubftances, that will pre-
vent earthy matter, or water in a foul {tate, from entering
the fhaft: and to this filter lead the colleéted waters. And
that where the water is collected by the means of covered
drains, and where the filter alfo has a covering placed over
it, the entire procefs will be free from external injury ; and
a work of this kind may remain unimpaired for ages. But
even if the waters were colleéted by open drains, and the
filter were fuffered to remain in a tate of negleét, until the -
fhaft, in procefs of time, fhould become defeétive, the re-
medy would be eafy. Embrace, fays he, a dry feafon to
re-open the fhaft, and to cleanfe it, and the materials with
which it may be filled, from their impurities; and thus —
reftore it, at a {mall expence, to its original ftate of per-
feétion. It is further ftated alfo, that if the fcite of im-
provement be liable to any other furface-water, than what
falls on its own area, fuch water ought to be conduéted
away from it fuperficially, by cutting it off at fuch a height
as will gain a fufficient fall. And that where the quantity
of water, which defcends into it fubterraneoufly, (or would
defcend, if a free paflage were opened for it,) fhould be
found to be too copious to be readily difcharged by a
{haft-drain, in the manner here propofed, proper efforts
fhould be ufed to cut off the fupply, or as much of it as
may be, by a perforated trench or otherwife, at a fufficient
height to be able to convey it away fuperficially ; and with
a fufficient fall, to prevent its entering the area to be im-
proved; which will thus have only its own fuperfluous
waters to difcharge by the fhaft. He is defirous to clear
the way which leads to this valuable improvement, as he is
convinced that there are many initances in which it might
be applied with great profit. Many of the low, flat-lying,
moory vallies of Norfolk, from whofe bafes fuperficial
drains would be difficult to make, have for their fubftruc-
tures, it is probable, he fays, infatiable depths of fand;
and that, in every diftri& of the ifland, fuch objects as are
proper for this praétice may be found. __
SHAFTESBURY, Earl of, in Biography. See Cooprr. *
SHAFTSBURY, or Suarrespury, in Geography, a
borough and market-town in the hundred of Upwimborne, |
Shatton divifion of the county of Dorfet, England, is
fituated at the diftance of 28 miles N.N.E. from Dor-
chefter, and ro1 miles W.S.W. from London. Concern- —
ing the origin of this town much difference of opinion —
prevails. While fome authors aferibe its foundation to
Cicuber, Lud, or Caffibelan, fuppofed kings of the Bri- —
tons, many years previous to the birth of Chrift; others
limit its antiquity to the reign of Alfred. This la{t opinion”
ig

SHA

ia fupparted by Camden, upon the evidence of an inferi
tion mentioned by William Of Malmfbury, which feems >
point ovt Al himfelf as the founder, and is certainly
_ much more probable than thofe which rett on the fanciful
fpeculations of Jeflrey of Monmouth. There are circum-

ffances, however, indicating Roman habitation on the {cite
of Shaftfbury; and afluming this as a fad, fome later
fiters coutend that the words of the infcription, « Acl-
dus rex fecit hanc urbem,”’ are only intended to denote
‘that Alfred renewed or repaired this city. But whatever
may been its condition previous to that monarch’s
it was only that it firft attained any authenti-
degree of celebrity, by the foundation of a monattery
uns of the icti

order.

.

dubitably the work of the great prince above-mentioned,
the charter of foundation, appointing his daughter
the i Foes originally dedi-

eda abbefs, is pet extant.
ary
' ’.
Ser
precinéts.

quota of men into the field,
her knight’s fees. On the tranflation of the
Martyr hither, from Wareham, this
name of that faint, which it retained
miracles are faid to have been

“ that if
‘than the king

the abbot of Glaitonbury
ury, their heir would
of E ” At the dif.

1 the nuns amounted » fifty-four a number, au
yoyed a revenue valued at 1320/. 1s. 3d. The
uit abbefs was Elizabeth pet a ph

in allizned to her of 133/.

ancient borough by prefcription,

epifcopal dignity

wo members to

are

. by the
aturday
to the parliamentary
Seat asdn napoleon

he town of Shaftibury is moit pleafant'y Geuated, being
Stover the three adjoining counties of Dorfet, So-

; From the wregularity and narrowne{s of
of the itr: the mean character of the buildings,
ev 1 tiga an indifferent appearance. In an-

was more f and important than at

( ?

+. os

SHA

prefent; containing, befides the abbey-church, twelve
others, feveral chantries and fraternities, and a pri or
hofpital of St. John the Baptilt. Of thefe public ttru@iures
only four churches remain, refpectively dedicated to St.
Peter, the Holy Trinity, St. James, and St. Rumbald. The
principal of them is St, Peter’s, which is a building of con-
liderable antiquity, and difcovering much elegance in its
fymmetrical proportions aad ornaments ; but the greater part
of it is defaced by modern alterations. Of the abbey
fearcely a veitige is vifible, the whole having been demolithed
foon after the diflolution, except the high embattled wall,
fupported by buttreffes, which formerly inclofed the park,
and is {till in part ftanding on the fide next the towa. The
other principal buildings of Shaftfbury are the town-hall, a
free-fchool, two alms-houle tenements, and three meeting.
houfes, for Prefbyterians, Methodifts, and Quakers.

The manor of Shaftfbury appears from Domefday Book
to have been very anciently divided into two moieties, one of
which belonged to the crown, and the other to the abbey.
The abbey manor was furrendered in tbe 30th year of
Henry VIII., whofe fucceffor granted it to Thomas
Wriothefley, earl of Southampton, together with the town,
borough, {cite, and precinéts of the monaitery. From him
it palled to fir Thomas Arundel, and afterwards to the earls
of Pembroke, by one of whom, Philip, the royalty of the
manor, and borough mauor, were fold to Anthony A thle
Cooper, earl of Shaftfbury, in whofe family they ait
continue.

Welt from the town is an eminence called Caftle Green,
which is fuppofed to have received that appellation from its
having been the {cite of an ancient caftle, though hiftory is
filent refpecting any fuch ftruéture belonging to Shaftfbury.

“On the brow of this hill is a fmall mount, furrounded bya
fhallow folie, which may have belonged to it, but it is com.
monly regarded as a Roman intrenchment. ‘Tradition re-
ports that the old town ftood here, and it is certain that it
occupied fomewhat different ground from the {cite of the pre-
fent buildings. The immediate vicinity of Shafcfbury is
noted as the birth-place of the Rev. James Granger, au-
thor of the celebrated Biographical Hittory of England.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. by John Britton
and E. W. Brayley, 8vo. 1803. Hutchins’s Hiftory of
Dorfetthire, fol. 1776, 2d. edit. 1797. Hittory of the
Ancient Town of Shaftibury, 12mo. 1808.

Suartssury, a confiderable and flourithing poft-town
of America, in the county of Bennington, Vermont, having
Arlington on the north, and Bennington on the fouth, and
containing 1973 inhabitants.

SHAG Isranp, an ifland near the entrance into. Chrift-
mas found, on the S. coaft of the ifland of Terra del Fuego;
4 miles N.E. of York Miniter.

SHAGGE, or Sua, in Ornithology, a name by which
we call a water-fowi common on the northern coatts, and
called by Mr. Ray corvus aquaticus minor, or the leffer
cormorant, being properly a bird of the cormorant kind, or
the pelicanus graculus of Linnzus.

It is fomewhat larger than the common duck, and weighs
about four pounds; its beak is itraight and flender, and
is not flattened, but roundith; it is four inches long, and is
hooked at the end; its mouth opens very wide, and its eyes
are {mall ; the head is adorned with a creit, two inches long,
pointing backward; the whole plumage of the upper part
of this bird is of a fing and very thinng green, the edges of
the feathers a purplith-black ; but the lower part of the
back, head, and neck, wholly green; the belly duiky, and
the black. It builds in trees as the common cermo-
rant, {wims with the head ered, and is very ee

5 v5

SHA

(hot ; becaufe, when it fees the flath of a gun, it pops under
water, and does not rife but at a confiderable diltance.

SHAGR, in Geography, a town of Syria, in the pa-
chalic of Aleppo; 40 miles W. of Aleppo. N. lat. 35° 45’.
E. long. 36° 25!.

SHAGREEN, or Cuacreen, derived from the Tartar
fegbré, a kind of grained leather, prepared in A{ftrachan,
chiefly by Tartars and Armenians, and moftly ufed in the
covers of cafes, books, &c. It is very clofe and folid, and
covered over with little roundifh grains, or papille. It
is brought from Contftantinople, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers,
and fome parts of Poland.

There has been a difpute among authors, what the animal
is from which the fhagreen is prepared? Rauwolf affures
us it is the onager, which, according to him and Bellonius,
is a kind of wild afs. Vide Ray, Synopf. An. Quad.

2163.

3 It is added, that it is only the hard part of the fkin which
is ufed for this purpofe. Or, it is that part of the fikin
that grows about the rump: that of horfes is faid‘to be
equally good. There are large manufactures of it at Aftra-
chan, and in all Perfia. Borel fays, it is the fkin of a fea-
calf; others, of a kind of fifh, called by the Turks /hagrain,
whofe fkin is covered with grains; and thofe fo hard, that
they will rafp and polifh wood.

There is alfo a fort of fhagreen, which was formerly made
of the fkin of the fquatina: in Englifh, the monk or angel-
fifh, but now of that of the greater dog-fifh. Vide Wil-
lughby Ichth. p. 80.

Suacresn, Manner of preparing. The procefs for
making fhagreen is as follows: of horfe-hides and afs-hides
the hinder back-piece, cut off immediately above the tail in

nearly a femi-circular form about an arfhine and a half upon

the crupper, and rather lefs than an arfhine along the back,
is feleGted as the only part that is ufeful, and the reft is
thrown away. The back pieces thus cut out are laid in a
vat filled with clean water, and left in it feveral days fuc-
ceflively, till they are thoroughly foaked, and the hair comes
freely off. Then the hides are taken one by one out of the
vat, fpread againft a board fet flanting againft the wall, one
corner of it reaching over the edge of the board where it is
faftened ; and in this pofition the hair is feraped off with a
blunt {craper, urak, and with the hair the upper pellicle; and
the cleanfed fkin is laid again in clean water to foften. This
done, they take it a fecond time out, {pread one piece after
another in the manner before deferibed, ferape now the flefh-
fide with the fame {craping-iron, and the whole fin cleaned
again on the hair-fide with great care, fo that nothing now
remains of the foftened {kin but the clean finewy web which
ferves for parchment, confifting of thick fafciculi of mellow
fibres, refembling a hog’s bladder foftened in water. . After
this preparation they immediately take in hand certain
frames, pzltzi, eompofed of a ftraight piece and a femi-
circular bow, forming therefore nearly the fhape of the
fkin, which is ftretched init with {trings as even and uniform
as poflible; and during this operation is fprinkled between
whiles with fair water, that no part of it can dry and occa-
fion an unequal extenfion. In like manner they finally wet
them when the whole ftock of fkins is {tretched, and carry all
the thoroughly wetted fkins into the work-room. There
the frames are one by one laid flat on the floor, fo that the
fleth-fide of the ftretched fkins is turned undermoft. “The
other fide is now thick ftrewed over with the black, very
fmooth, and hard feeds of a fpecies of the herb goofe-foot,
or the greater orach (chenopodimm album), which the
Tartars call alabuta, and which grows in great abundance,
and almoft to man’s height, about the fo uthern Volga in farm-

SH A

yards and gardens; and that thefe may make a ftrong im-
preffion on the fkin, a felt is fpread over them, and the feeds
trod in with the feet, by which means they ate imprefled
deeply into the very yielding fkins. Then, without fhaking
off thefe feeds, the frames are carried again into the open
air, and fet leaning againft a fence or a wall to ‘dry, in
fuch manner that the fides covered with the feeds face the
wall and cannot be fhone on by the fun. In this fituation
the ftretched fkins mutt dry for feveral days fucceflively in
the fun, till no trace of moilture is perceptible in them, and
they may be taken out of the frames. ''Then, when ‘the im-
prefled feeds are beaten off from the hair-fide, it appears full
of little pits and roughneffes, and has got that impreffion
which the grain of the fhagreen ought to produce when the
true polifh has been given to the {kin by art, and the ley
now to be mentioned has been ufed previous to the ftaining.

The polifh is done on a ftretching-bench, or a board on
treflels, furnifhed with a {mall iron hook, and covered with
fome thick felts or voiloks of fheep’s wool, on which the
dried fhagreen-fkin may lie foft. “This is hung in the
middle, by a hole which has been occafioned by the ttring
in the ftretching, to the hook, and faftened at the end by a
{tring with a weight or a ftone, by means of which the flcin
is allowed to move to and fro, but cannot eafily be fhoved
out of its proper fituation. This done, the polifhing or
rafpihg is performed by two feveral inftruments ; the firlt is
called by the Tartars tokar, being an iron, crooked at one
end like a hook and fharpened. With this the furface of the
fhagreen is feraped pretty fharply, in order to remove the
moft prominent rugofities, which from the horny hardnefs
of the dried fin is no eafy matter, and in which great care
mult be taken not to fhave away too deeply the impreflions
of the alabuta-feeds, of which there is imminent danger if

the iron be kept too fharp. As the blade of this iron is —
very narrow, it will make the fhagreen rather uneven, and —

therefore after it, muft be ufed the other feraper, or urak, by

which the whole furface acquires a perfe&t equality, and _
only a flight impreflion remains of the feeds, exa@ly as it |

ought to be. After all thefe operations the thagreen is laid
again in water, partly for rendering it fupple and partly to
make the elevated grain appear ; for the feeds having caufed
pits in the furface of the fkin, the interftices of thefe pits
have loft their prominent fubftance by the polifhing or

fhaving, and now the points that were prefled down, having —

loft nothing of their fubftance, {pring up above the fhaved —

places, and thus form the grain of the fhagreen. To this —
end the pieces of fhagreen are left to foften twice 24 hours —
in water, and are floated feveral times afterwards in a ftrong —

and hot ley, which is obtained by boiling from an alkalefcent
faline earth, {chora, found about Aftrachan. From this ley
the {kins are bundled warm one on another, and thus fuffered
to lie fome hours, by which they fwell up and are foftened

in an extraordinary manner. Again, they are left to lie

24 hours in a moderately ftrong brine of common falt, by
which they aré rendered ‘fine and white, and excellently

adapted to receive any agreeable colour, which the work- |
man haftens to give them as foon as they are come out of |

the pickle. The colour moft commonly communicated to
the fine fhagreen is the fea-green, as the moft beautiful.
But the expert fhagreen-makers have the art of making alfo
black, red, blue, and even white fhagreen.

For the green dye, nothing more is neceflary than fie
copper-filings and fal-ammontac. As much of the latter
is melted in hot water as the water will admit. With this
{al-ammoniac water the fhagreen fkins, ftill moift from the
brine, are brufhed over on the ungrained flefh-fide, and when
they are thoroughly wetted, a thick layer of copper-filings

6 1§

SHA

} fs flrewed over them, the tkins doubled grok fo that
the ftrewed fide lies inwards, and then each, being rolled
apart in a little felt or voilok, they lay all thefe rolls orderly
on one another, and prefs them equally by a confidersble
“and uniformly prefling weight, tg which ther mutt lie
twenty-four hours. Ip this time the fal-ammoniac water
wes enough of the cupreous particles for penetrating
he han with an agreeable fea-green colour i and Steg 4
not ft enough the firlt time, yet a fecond layer o
- a canal with fal-ammonisze water, with which
the fkins muft lie again twenty-four hours, will be quite
ficient for ftaining them thoroughly ; eeatet may

, cleaned, fpread out, and dried. or givin
ee tlour to earesd, they ule only indigo, which
to this end is not fo prepared as for the filk and cotton-
but entirely without bones, only by {lrenuous fric-
is 9 oe and diffolved with the other ingredients.
put about two pounds of finely grated indigo in the

» pour cold water on it, and ftir it till the dye begins
diffolve. They next diffolve in it five pounds of pounded

» which is a fort of barilla, or raw foda-falt, burnt by
Armenians of Kitzliar, and a worfe kind oy the Kal-
ks, adding two pounds of lime and une pound of virgin

Bea

honey, all thorou ftirred, and fet in t'e fun for feveral
days, during whi the ftirring is frequently repeated. The

agreen Okins which are to be made blue mutt be put only
the natrous ley, fchora, but not in the brine made of
common falt, are again folded up wet, and fewed
clofe together round the edges, with the flefh-fide turned
ds, and the fhagreened hair-fide outwards, upon which

they are three times dipped in fucceffion in an old ftore-dye
cettle, at time prefling out the fuperfluous dye ; laftly,
all roughit into frefh dye, which mutt not be
fed out, and with which the fkin is hung up in the fhade
3 they are, for the lait time, cleaned, ornamented on
and reduced to order. For the black fhagreen
out-galls and vitriol in the following manner :
ins, flill mort with the brine, are thick ftrewed with
powdered sty e0e folded together, and laid one on

q

om

er twenty-four hours. In the mean time a new ley

of bitter earth-falts or fchora is boiled and poured hot in
¢ troughs or trays. In this ley each fkin.is waved to

id fro feveral times, is again ftrewed with pulverized nut-

lls, and again laid in s for fome time, that the virtue
the may y penetrate the fkins, which are
fi to dry, are beat out to clear them from
galls. When this is done, the fkin is {meared on the
green-f ith mu fuet, and laid a little in the fun,

m as the fkins are dry, are gently {meared over with
n melte¢ oa) low lage ee feey sapien
| are worked and prefled with the hands to promote this
tkins are faftened one by one on

ges of Sirhind.—Alfo, a town of Hindoottan,

J

SHA
the shove-mentioned ftretching-bench, warm water is
over it, and the fuperfluous fat {craped off with obtufe
wooden inftruments, to which the warm wate: jut poured

on has much aflifted. By this procefs the thagreen receives
a fine white colour, iat needs only, in conclufion, to be
drefled and rubbed. This whitenefs, however, is given to
the fhagreen, not fo much that it may continue in that
itate, but in order to impart to it a beautiful high red hue,
as this end could not be obtained to fuch perfeGtion without
that preparation. But the thagreens intended to be ftained
red muft not be brought out of the natrous bitter falt ley
into the brine, but mult be made white, in the manoer above-
deferibed, and afterwards fupplied with the brine, in which
they are left to lie about twenty-four hours, or lefs, from
the dye. The dye is made with cochenille or kirmifs, as
the Tartars call it.* The operation is begun by boiling
for a full hour about a pound of the dried herb tfchagan,
which grows plentifully on the falt fteppes about POR ay
and is a fort of kali, in a kettle large enough to contain
about four common vedros of water, by which the water
acquires a grvenifh colour, The herb is then taken out,
sel about half a pound of grated cochenille put into the
kettle, with which the above deco¢tion mutt boil another
full hour, diligently ttirring it on the fire, that the kettle
may not boil over. Lait y,» to this are added fifteen or
twenty grains of the material which the dyers call lutter
(perhaps orpiment), let the dye boil a little more, and then
take the fire from under the kettle. Then the fkins taken
out of the brine are laid feparately in trays, pouring the dye
upon them four times, rubbing it in with the hands, that
it may be equally {pread and imbibed, prefling it out every
time, which done, they are ready for drying and ornament-
ing, and fell much dearer than the others.

The bett thagreen is that brought from Conftantinople, of
a brownifh colour ; the white is the worft. It is extremely
hard; yet, when {teeped in water, it becomes very foft and
pliable ; whence it is of great ufe among cafe-makers. It
takes any colour that is given it, red, green, yellow, or
black. It is frequently counterfeited by morocco, formed
like fhagreen : but this laft is diftinguifhed by its peeling
off, which the firft does not.

SHAGUM, in Geography, a river of America, which
runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 49’. W. long. 81° 21’.

SHAH, the Perfian title correfponding to king, and
equivalent to khan. (See Cuam.) Neverthelefs, the
moft abfolute Perfian monarchs, who have never aflumed
any other title than that of fhah, have permitted the go-
vernors of provinces in their empire to take that of khan,
which is its equivalent, and which they have ever affected.
Even in our time, the governors of the provinces of Ghilan,
Mazanderan, &c. who have no more authority in Perfia,
than the pachas in Turkey, take the title of khan, the
reafon of which it is not eafy to aflign.

SHAHABAD, in Geography, a town of the kingdom
of Candahar; 40 miles S.W. ‘of Cabul.—Alfo, a town
of Hindooitan, in the circar of Sirhind ; 42 miles E.S.E.
in Oude; 45
miles W. of Kairabad. N. lat. 27°40!. E. long. 80° 20’.
—Alfo, a town of Hindooitan, in Oude; 25 miles S.W.
of Mahomdy, ,

SHAHAMA, a name given to acoloffal ftatue, cut in a
mountain in the neighbourhood of the ancient city of Bami-
yan, in the Eaft a ag This city, (which is deferibed in our
article Bamaian,) is eight days’ journey north-welterly from
Cabul, and is rarely vifited by Europeans, though highly
deferving of examination. The ftatue in queftion is ace
compamied by another, called a Native travellers

3 cr

SHA

differ as to their height; from fifty cubits to eighty ells.
Their origin, age, and fex, are alfo yarioufly related... The
few Hindoos who live in the neighbourhood, fay, they are the
ftatues of one of their heroes named Bhim, and his confort.
Bhim is one of the five famous Pandus. - (See Panpu.)
The followers of Budha call them by the names firlt men-
tioned. [he Mahommedans fay, they are of Adam and
Eve ; and a third ftatue, half a mile diftant, about twenty
feet high, they fay is of Seth, their fon. The author of a
celebrated Perfian dictionary, entitled“ Farhang Jehangiry,””
fays they exilted in the time of Noah; but gives them
other names. There can be little doubt but thefe ftatues,
and the wonderful excavations of the city of Bamian,
{cooped, like Thebes, out of a mountain, were executed
by the fame indefatigable race of workmen, who in the
more fouthern parts of India conftruéted the gigantic
ftatues in the fimilar caverns at Kenera, on the ifland of
Salfette, near Bombay, in the province of Kanara, and
at Karly; all believed to be of Jaina or Budhaic origin,
See Jaina, Karzy, and KEenera.

SHAHBUNDER, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the province of Tatta; 45 miles S.S.W. of
Tatta.

SHAHDOURAS, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Sirhind; ro miles N. of Tannafar.

SHAHG, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 18 miles
S. of Vencatighery.

SHAHJEHAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
18 miles N.W. of Bahar.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan,
in Rohileund; 45 miles S. of Pillibeat.

SHAHJEHANPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in
Malwa; 20 miles N-E. of Ougein. N. lat. 23° 26!. E.
long. 76° 18'.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude; 30
miles S.E. of Fyzabad. N. lat. 26° 26! E. long. 82°
40'.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Mewat; 20 miles
W.. of Alvar.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
z4 miles $.S.E. of Patna. N. lat. 25° 24!. E. long.
85° 30.

SHAHICIAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khorafan, near Maru, which fince is called Maru Sha-
bigtan.

SHAHJOLE, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the
north by Raujefhy, on the eaft by Mahmudhhi, on the fouth
by Jeffore, and on the weft by Kifhenagur ; about 30 miles
long, and from 5 to 10 broad.

SHAHISABI, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khorafan, on the borders of Bucharia; 80 miles N. of
Maru.

SHAHI-SHAK, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Khorafan, on the borders of Bucharia; 5 miles N. of
Maru.

ee ee emeete

In our didaétic and elementary articles, we fhould not
wifh to confine ourfelyes to mere diy definitions of terms
of art; but, having had fome little experience, we wonld
gladly affift ftudents, by pointing out the means of acquir-
ing the practical ufe of what we defcribe.

With regard to a vocal thake, we can do young fingers no
greater kindnefs, than in referring them to the 3d chap.
of Tofi’s “ Obfervations on florid Song,’’ as admirably
tranflated by Galliard, and illuftrated with the notes of
that able and experienced matter.

10F

SHA

SHAHPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 30
miles W, of Nagorcote.—Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore; 27 miles E. of Sealcot.

SHAHR and Van, the ancient follonia, a town of
the pachalic of Bagdad, 27 miles from Bacouba, which
is nine furfungs from Bagdad, peopled by about 4000
Turks and Kurds, and is, upon the whole, a handfome
little town, watered by two canals drawn from the Diala.
At the diftance of 18 miles is Kuzil Roobat, not fo large
as the former, fituated in a fandy plain, about one mile
from the river Diala. Khanakie is alfo a handfome little
town, built on that branch of the Diala, which has its
fource in the mountains of Kurzend, 18 miles from Kuzil
Roobat ; it occupies both banks of the river, over which
is a handfome bridge, and is furrounded by numerous gar-
dens and plantations. Mendeli, about the fame fize as
Solymania, is fituated in one of the roads leading to Ker-
manfhaw ; and four furfungs on the Bagdad fide is a foun-
tain of naphtha. Thirteen leagues from Mendeli, and four
from the foot of the mountains, is Bedri, the frontier town,
in this quarter of the Turkifh empire.

SHAIGI, a town ef Nubia, on an ifland in the Nile;
130 miles E. of Dongala. N. lat. 20° 20!. E. long.

°° (}. y

SHAIGOL, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
rafan; 10 miles S.W. of Maru.

SHAIMA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Me.
cran, on the fea-coaft ; 200 miles W.S.W. of Kidge.

SHAINT, or Hoxy, Istus, three fmall iflands of
the Hebrides, or Weftern ifles, are fituated in the chan-

nel between the ifles, of Lewis and Skye, in the parifh .—

of Lochs and diftriét of Lewis. Thefe iflands are well
known to mariners, and are remarkable for their fine fheep
pafturage. One of them, called St. Mary’s ifland, has a
{mall chapel upon it; dedicated to the Virgin, and bears
marks of having been formerly better inhabited than at
prefent. Sinclair’s Statiltical Account of Scotland, vol. xix.
8vo.

SHAINYMALY, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbe-
tore; 12 miles S.of Erroad.

SHAIZAR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Da-
mafcus, on the Orontes; 20 miles.N.of Hamah,

SHAK, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schirvan ;
20 miles N.W. of Schamachie.

SHAKE, in Mufic, is a grace, an embellifhment of
melody, of which the indication is a #4, or fometimes
only #, the initial of the Italian term /riJ/o, which im-
plies the fame thing. There are two kinds of fhakes, the
continued, and the tranfient. ‘The continued fhake, upon
along note, muft be praétifed at firft by incipients, flow,
and accelerated by degrees. The effet of a fhake is a

rapid motion of two adjoining notes: as de, bc, Kc.

Tofi, after informing the ftudent of the importance of
the fhake to fingers, fays, ‘* Let the mafter ftrive to enable
his {cholar to attain a fhake that is equal, diftm@ly marked,
eafy, and moderately quick, which are its moft beautiful
requifites,”?

This excellent author defcribeg the different kinds of

fhakes, and their preparation, that are worth cultivating, —

as well as thofe that are to be avoided. The free and open
fhake on the whole tone and the /emitone, are certainly the

principal.
The

SHA

The two tones or femitones that conttitute the fheke
major or minor, fhould be equally loud and dittinet + but
above all, perfeétly in tune with the notes of the general
feale and particular key in which the performer ts finging.
"The Italians call a bad fhake, or no thake at all, but a

| ng upon the fame note, tof? da eapra, a gont’s
ove aT the finger is not potletled of a true and good

am
ee ee

he or the had beft refrain from ever atrempring it ;
and if accuftomed to elegant melody, and pofletled of
tatte and ttiiniedeat embellifhments, the fhake in

of expreffion and pathos may be avoided with advan-
hy the acquiring of a good thake in finging is a work of

inftruments are beft praétifed at firft
with the fecond and third fingers ; holding down at the fame
; below with the thumb, to keep the hand
and os wrift a And we recommend, sy ering “4
the ufual practice and precepts, beginning the fhake wit
the lowelt note ; ober wife, in canal eran eit fhakes on
femiquavers, there is not time for returning to the upper
mote; fo that the fhake is reduced to a mere appoggiatura.
See Gruppo and Tritr.
_ SHAKER-PicEon, in Ornithology, a kind of pigeons, of
oaeeed there are two forts, the trond tallies and the narrow-

"The firft is the fineft, and moft valued. It has a beau-
tiful long thin neck, which bends like the neck of a fwan,
ing towards the back. It has a full breaft, a very
deg and a tail confifting of a great number of fea-
Lonat ae than four-and-twenty, which it {preads
s like the tail of a turkey-cock, and
up fo, that it meets the head. It is commonl

white, fometimes is red, yellow, or blue- ied.
neck of this bird is, the more it is

fecond, or narrow-tailed fhaker, has a fhorter and
thieke and a longer back. It is efteemed by man
different fpecies, but feems only a mixed breed wit
fome other pigeon. They are called thakers, from a tre-
mulous motion which they have with their necks when

SHAKERS, in Ecclefiaflical Hiftory, a {et which ori-
_ginated in Lancafhire, with fome deferters from the fociet
oO! Quakers, er Friends, about the 1747, and whic
eontinued for fome time unco with every denomina-
tion of Chriftians. During this period, their teftimony,
derived, as they fancied and Sree ag from what they faw
‘by vifion and revelation from God, was, “ that the fecoud
appeariog of Chrift was at hand, and that the church was
fing in her full and tranfcendant glo » which would effeé
inal downfall of Antichritt.’ pee the fhaking of
__ their bodies in religious exercifes, they were denominated
_ Shakers, na, fome perfons they were called obabieg

fect feems to have made no great progres

ity

;

o
ec
we

«

atl
F

am

until the year 1770, when the teflimony originally announced
| was fully opened, according to the {pecial gift and revelation

"7

SHA

time, difficulty, and uncertainty of fuccels, feveral ingeni-
ous and elegant cadences have been invented in order to

evade the thake. A good thake well applicd is certainly
a great ornaments but it is a matter of briliancy more
than expreflion ; mom disé niente, it Jays nothing according

to modern Italian crities, and is feldom wamed except at
the end of a formal clofe, Thofe who have a good flake,
like perfons with a fine fet of teeth, are too ambitious of
letting you know it. The different kinds of fhakes are
exprefled in notes on the mofic-plates. The plain note
and trill are at prefent thought more elegaut, and are more
frequently ufed than the fudden and long continued rapid
motion of the common fhake.

of God through Ann Lee, who was, born of obfcure pa-
rentage, at Shastehes about the year 1736; and who,
having joined the fociety in 1758, became afterwards a dif-
tinguifhed leader among them. Her exercifes, both of
body and of mind, were fingularly trying and fevere for
about the term of nine years; but fhe was thus prepared for
receiving the teftimony of God, againit the ft te corrup-
tion of man, in its root and every branch. Accordingly,
her teftimony was in the power of God, attended with
the word of prophecy, and fuch energy of the Spirit,
as etrated into the fecrets of the heart, and was irre-
fittible, efpecially in thofe with whom fhe was united.

And from the light and power of God which attended
her miniftry, and 23 certain power of falvation tranfmitted
to thofe who received her teitimony, fhe was received and
acknowledged as the jir// Mother, or {piritual parent in the
line of the female, and the fecond heir in the covenant
of life, according to the prefent difplay of the gofpel.
Hence among believers, fhe hath been diftinguifhed by
no other name or title than that of Mother, from that
period to the prefent day. To fuch as addrefled her with
the cuftomary titles ufed by the world, fhe would reply,
ri, = Ann the Word ;” fignifying that in her dwelt the

ord.

In 1774, Ann Lee, with fome of her followers, having
been thought mad, and forely perfecuted, fettled their tem-
poral affairs in England, and fet fail from Liverpool for New
York. James Wardley and his wife remaining behind, were
removed into an alms-houfe, and there died. The others,
we are told, “‘ being without lead or prote¢tion, loft their
power, and fell into the common courfe and praCtice of the
world !”? Ann Lee and the brethren reached New York,
after working a fort of miracle, for the fhip fprung a leak on
the voyage, and it is more thanhinted, that had it not been
for their exertions at the pump, the veffel would have gone
down to the bottom of the ocean! She, however, left
New York, and fixed her refidence up the Hudfon river,
eight miles from the city of Albany? In this retired fpot,
her followers greatly multiplied, but fhe was not without
bitter reproaches and manifold perfecutions. She and the
elders would delight in miffionary jourmies, being ont for
two or three years, and returning with wonderful accounts
of their fuccefs.

3B2 Aftor

SHA

After Mother and the elders were releafed from prifon, they
again colleted together at Water-Vliet, where they were
vifited by great numbers from diftant parts of the itate of
New York, Maflachufetts, Connecticut, New Hampfhire,
and the diftriG of Maine, who received faith; and through
the power and gifts of God, which were abundantly mani-
fefted for the dettruGion of fin, and the falvation of fouls,
many were filled with joy unfpeakable and full of glory, and
increafed in their underftanding of the way and work of God.

Ann Lee died on the eighth day of the ninth month
1784. From the year 1780 to 1787 the credit of this fe&
revived in America, and the number of its adherents confi-
derably increafed.

The creed of the Shakers is very obfcurely and myttically
exprefled. They feem to be believers neither of the Trinity
nor of the Satisfaction. They deny alfo the imputation of
Adam’s fin to his pofterity, as well as the eternity of future
punifhment. The tenets on which they moft dwell are
thofe of human depravity, and of the miraculous effufion
of the Holy Ghoft! Their leading praGtical tenet is the
abolition of marriage, or indeed the fotal feparation of the
fexes.’ This circumftance of courfe attra&ts great attention,
and they pride themfelves on their fuperior purity. The
eflence of their argument is, that the re/urredion {poken
of in the New Teftament means nothing more than conver-
fron ; our Saviour declares that in the refurredlion they neither
marry nor are given in marriage, therefore, on converfion or
the refurredion of the individual, marriage ceafes!!! To
fpeak more plainly, the fingle muift continue Jingle, and the
married mutt feparate. Every paflage in the gofpel and in
the epiftles is interpreted according to this flrange and unna-
tural hypothefis.

The fyttem of the Shakers is thus pretty plainly defcribed.
s¢ In the fulnefs of time, according to the unchangeable
purpole of God, that fame Spirit and Word of power,
which created man at the beginning—which {pake by all the
prophets—which dwelt in the man Jefus—which was given
to the apoftles and true witnefles as the Holy Spirit and
Word of promife, which groaned in them waiting for the
day of redemption—and which was {poken of in the lan-
guage of prophecy as a woman travailing with child, and
pained to be delivered, was revealed in a woman.

* And that woman, in whom was manifetted that Spirit
and. Word of power, who was anointed and chofen of
God, to reveal the my(tery of iniquity, to ftand as the firft in
her order, to accomplifh the purpofe of God, in the reftora-
tion of that which was loit by the tranfgreffion of the firft
woman, and to finifh the work of man’s final redemption,
was Ann Lee.

* Asa chofen veilel, appointed by divine Wifdom, fhe,
by her faithful obedience to that fame anointing, became the
temple of the Holy Ghott, and the fecond heir with Jefus,
her lord and head, in the covenant and promife of eternal

life. And by her fufferings and travail for a loft world, and
’ her union and fubjeétion to Chriit Jefus, her lord and head,
fhe became the fix? Lorn of many filers, and the true mother
of all living in the new creation.

« Thus the perfection of the revelation of God in this
Jatter day, excels, particularly, in that which refpetts the
moft glorious part in the creation of man, namely, the
woman. And herein is the moft condefcending goodnefs
and mercy of God difplayed, not only in redeeming that
mott amiable part of the creation from the curfe, and all the
forrows of the fall, but alfo in condefcending to the loweft
eftate of the lofs of mankind.

“« So that by the firlt and fecond appearing of Chrift,
the foundation of God is laid and completed, for the full

SHA

reftoration of both the man and the woman in Chrift, ac-
cording to the order of the new covenant, which God hath
eftablifhed in them for his own glory, and the mutual good
and happinefs of each other. B

‘* And in this covenant, both male and female, as brethren
and filters in the family of Chrilt, jointly united by the bond
of love, find each their correfpondent relation to the firft
caufe of their exiftence, through the joint parentage of their
redemption.

«© Then the man who was called Jefus, and the woman
who was called Ann, are verily the two firft foundation
pillars of the church of Chrift—the two anointed ones—
the two firft Aeirs of promife, between whom the covenant
of eternal life is eftablifhed—the firft father and mother of
all the children of regeneration—the two firit vifible
parents in the work of redemption—and the invifible joint
parentage in the new creation, for the increafe of that feed
through which all the families of the earth fhall be bleffed.’’

The Shakers record feveral cafes which they pretend to be
miraculous, but it is needlefs to enlarge on a fyttem that is
wholly founded in delufion. i

SHAKERTOWN, in Geography, a town of Kentucky,
in Mercer county, containing 298 inhabitants. Sik

SHAKES, in Ship-Buwding, a name given to the cracks
or rents in a plank, &c. occafioned by the fun or weather.

SHAKING, a difeafe in fheep, confifting of a weaknefs
in their hind quarters, fo that they cannot rife up when they
are down.
for this difeafe. It is probably of the nature of pally, and
to be removed by itrong nervous ftimulant remedies.

SHAKLES, on board Ship. See SHACKLES.

SHAKRA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Nedsjed; 120 miles N.E. of Faid.

SHAKSPEARE, Wiitiam, in Biography, an Englith
dramatic poet, is juftly efteemed the molt eminent and moft
interefting author of the ancient or modern world. His
writings have progreflively rifen in popular eftimation in pro-
portion as they have been ftudied and analyfed. Some of
his dramas are continually a€ted on the London and pro-
vincial ftages ; many critics and commentators, both Englifh
and foreign, have employed their pens, and exerted their fa-
culties, in differtations on the merits and defects of his pro-
duétions. From the moft trying and faftidious ordeal of in-
veltigation he has rifen in glory and greatnefs ; and may, at
the prefent time, be jultly pronounced pre-eminent and un-
rivalled as a dramatic poet.

To Englifhmen his writings are fingularly eftimable; for

they have conferred on the country a literary immortality, © /

which nothing lefs than the diffolution of ‘the great globe
itfelf?? can annihilate. Nor is he exclufively endeared and
valuable to the man of letters; but all claffes of artifts, and
even many artizans, have derived both fame and emolument
through the medium of his works. It has been often re-
marked, that the prophet is never honoured in his) own
country, or appreciated by his contemporaries. Although
this maxim is now merely confidered as figurative, and the
age of, and confidence in, prophecy is palt, yet it may be
fully and ftri@ly applied to the meritorious author. After
deceafe, his whole merits are gradually unfolded; his talents
and genius command admiration, and each reader and com-
mentator feem eager to difcover new beauties, and to point
out hidden excellencies. Among the literary, ‘* worthies’?
of the world, from the days of Homer to Milton, no one has
attamed equal celebrity with Shakfpeare. He now fhines as
the fun of the intelleétual hemifphere, and every other poet
feems to derive a reflected light from him, or moves in a lefs
circum{cribed orbit. Like divine nature, which was at once

his

There has not hitherto been found any remedy

SHAKSPEARE.

his guide and goddefs, his writings excite admiration and

ight, the more intenfely they are ttudied, Prompted by

infpiration, and imprefl with rofound knowledge, with

the keen ute * poet's eye,”* he commanded every re-

gion of the terreftrial globe, penetrated the hidden thoughts

of man, gave to “airy nothing a local habitation and a
- a afligned to every paliion and fenument “ its true
and feature.””

f
4

————— 'Tis wonderful,
ae an invifible inftin& thould frame him
© poetry unlearned ; honour untaught ;
Civility 28 feen in other ; Iagwledee
That wildly grew in him, yet yielded crops
As though it had been fown: for he could find
“ Tongues in-trees, books in the running brooke,
Pe. in ftones, and good in every thing.”—
Do not {mile at me that I boatt him o ;
For ye thal find he will outitrip all praile,
And make it halt behind him. Dovaston.
Heaven has him now: let our idolatrous fanc therefore
fandtify his reliques. ses to te his e it letus
ete by his precepts; fee

to acquire his wifdom ; emu-
his gentlenefs, talents, atid honours. Confcious of the

comparative frigidnefs of our own faculties, let us warm our
hearts at his celeitial fire, and kindle our fouls at his unex.

flame! If eathufiafm be juttifiable on any fub-
in giving this latitude to his feelings and expreifions. He has
to regret, with thoufands of others, that the {ubie@ of this
memoir is only known in his writings, and that his perfonal
hiitory is as obfeure as that of Homer or Archimedes, In-

Pe it is neceflary to premife,
hat a fingular avd unaccountable m ilery is attached to
flrange fatality, almoft

him has either been deitroyed, or
The firft publifhed memoir of him

ponfcious of the high merit of his own writings ; and that,
died in com-
affluence, his private life and chara@er were feareely
pores or critic. ‘T'o the man of taite

fined fenfibility, however, bequeathed an ex-
Jefs treafure in his dramatic productions ; and as thele

a

ial to record every fa&, and inveltigate every
oblematic itatement, relating to the ineftimable author.
That he was born at Stratford-u n-Avon, in Warwick-
ire, on the 23d of April 1564, is well afcertained ; and
tat he was baptized on the 26th of the fame month, ap
y Ei regifter. He is there defcribed as the fon of
fpeare, who, according to Rowe, and molt fub-
z i ers, was “a confiderable dealer in wool,”
hofe ** family were of figure and fafhion.”” Op-
d to this ftatement is that of John Aubrey, who entered
elf as a ftudent in the univerfity of Oxford, 1642, only
yyears after our poet’s death, who derived Ais information
om “fome of the neighbours” of Shakfpeare, and who
pears to have made a practice of writing down every fact
@ tradition that he heard relating to public characters,

aa

|
|
|
|

a

ot, the writer of the’prefent article hopes to ftand excufed -

tute an effential part of the well-ftored library, it is M

His account is entitled not only to recital, but to cautious
confideration,

“Mr, William Shakefpear was borne at Stratford-upon-
Avon, in the county of Warwick ; his father was a bute ier 5
and I have been told heretofore by Some of the neighbours, that
when he was a boy he exercifed his father’s trade, but when
he kill’d a calfe, he would doe it in a high ityle, and make
afpeech. ‘There was at that time another butcher’s fon in
this towne that was held not at all inferior to him for a
naturall witt, his acquaintance and coetanean, but dyed
young. ‘This Wm. being inclined naturally to poetry and
acting came to London, J ueffe about 18, and was an ator
at one of the play-houfes, and did aé& exceedingly well.
Now B. Jonfon was never a good actor, but an excellent
inftruétor. He began carly to make effayes at dramatique
poctry, which .at-that time was very lowe, and his playes
tooke well. ..He was a handfome well-fhap’d man, very
good company, and of a very readie and pleafant fmooth
witt. The humour of the conftable in A Midfummer
Night's Dreame he happened to take at Grendon in ucks,
which is.the.roade from London to Stratford, and there
was living that conitable about 16 2, when I firft came to
Oxon. r. Jos, Howe is of that parith, and knew him.”
(See Warton’s Life of Sir Thomas Pope.) “ Ben Jonfon
and he did gather humours of men dayly wherever they
came, One time, as he was at the tavern at Stratford-upon-
Avon, one Combes, an old rich ufurer, was to be buryed ;
he makes there this extemporary epitaph :

© Ten inthe hundred the devill allowes
But Combes will have twelve, he {weares and vowes: .
If any oné afkes who lies in this tombe,
‘Hoh! quoth the devill, «tis my John o’Combe.’

“ He was wont to goe to his native country once a yeare,
I thinke I have been told that he left 2 or 30o lib. per annum
there and there-about to a fifter. {[ have heard fir Wm.
Davenant and Mr. Thomas Shadwell (who is counted the
{t comeedian we have now) fay, that he had a moft pro.
digious witt, and did admire his naturall parts beyond all
other dramaticall writers. He was wont to fay that he
never blotted out a line in his life: fayd Ben Joufon “Tt
with he had plotted out a thoufand.’ “His comedies will
remain witt as long as the Englith tonguetis underftood, for
that he handles mores hominum ; now our prefent writers re-
fle& fo much upon particular perfons and coxcombeities,
that twenty yeares hence they will not be underitood.
“Though, as Ben Jonfon fayes of him, that he had but
little Latine and lefle Greek, he underftood Latine pretty
well, for he had been in his younger yeares a {choolmafter
in the country.” The latter fact’was communicated by
r, Beefton,
In another memorandum Aubrey ftates, that
“Mr, William Shakefpeare was wont to goe into War-
wickthire once a yeare and did comonly in his journey lye
at this houfe in Oxon” (i.e. the Crown tavern, kept by the
father of fir William Davenant,) where he was exceed-
ingly refpected. * * * * * Now fir Wm. would fome.
times, when he was pleafant over a glaffe of wine with his
molt intimate friends, —e. g- Sam. Butler (author of Hu-
dibras) &c. fay, that it {eemed to him that he writt with
the very {pirit that Shekefpeare, and feemed contented
enough to be thought his fon * * * *_Thefe anecdotes
are now publithed in « Letters written by eminent Perfons
in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries,” three vols,
8vo. 1813.
his account is truly curious and interelting ; a in
|pite

SHAKSPEARE.

{pite of the {cepticifm of Dr. Farmer, in his “ Effay on the
Learning: of Shak{peare,’’? and of fome other writers, the
impartial reader muit admit that it aflumes the air of pro-
bability, candour, and truth. Aubrey might have erred in
fome points ; particularly in faying, Shak{peare vifited Lon-
don at the age of eighteen, when the regiftry of his own
baptifm, and that of his twin-children, fhew that he mutt have
remained at home till the age of twenty. Again, it is very
probable that he met witha conttable at Grendon, or Long-
Crendon, in Buckinghamfhire, whofe charaéter he dra-
matifed, not in “ A Midfummer Night’s Dream,”’ but in
« Much ado about Nothing,” or in “¢ Love’s Labour’s Lott.”
The extempore epitaph on John o’Combe is reprefented
by Rowe, who gives it different to the above, as having been
made during the life-time, and in the prefence of the perfon
commemorated, who is alfo faid never to have forgiven the
poet. In Aubrey’s relation there is nothing improbable,
nor unreafonable, in a poet producing fuch lines {portively
over his cups, and among convivial friends: it is a {mart
epigram on an ufurious character. Inftead of leaving 300.
per annum to a fifter, he bequeathed as much to his daughter,
as will be fhewn in the fequel. If there be any lurking
prejudice againft the profeflion of a butcher, let it be re-
membered, that the proud and oftentatious cardinal Wolfey
was the fon of a butcher; and that the parentage of a
Homer, a Milton, and a Shakfpeare, cannot be honoured
or degraded by their ancetftors.

«¢ Honour and fame from no condition rife ;
A& well your part, there all the honour lies.”

The houfe in which our poet was born has been occupied
by a fucceffion of butchers from time immemorial. Befides,
it is not at all improbable that the butcher and the wool-
ftapler were united in one perfon, Admitting this, we
fhall find Rowe and Aubrey in harmony, and one great
difficulty removed.

The early education of Shakfpeare, as well as his pa-
rentage, is not afcertained : on this topic all the biographers
and commentators have fupplied us with conjectures and
opinions. Chalmers, in his “ Apology,” is at once inge-
nious, intelligent, and learned on this fubje&t. Rowe! ob-
ferves, and moft of his followers repeat the fame, that he
« was bred for fome time at a free {chool, where it is
probable he acquired what Latin he was matter of.”
They proceed to remark, that “on leaving {chool, he
feems to have given entirely into that way of living which
his father propofed to him.”? About the age of eighteen he
married Anne Hathaway, daughter of a fubitantial yeoman,
then refiding at Shottory, a hamlet to Stratford. In the
parifh regifter we find that « Sufanna, daughter of William
Shakfpeare, was baptifed May 26, 1583.” By the fame
record we learn that his wife produced him twins in 1584-5 5
as on the 2d of February in that year, the names of Judith
and Hamnet are entered in the regifter. Tt muft have been
foon after this event that our poet vilited the metropolis 5
but the caufe of leaving his native place, as well as his
obje&t, connection, and profpects 11 London, are alike un-
known. Rowe relates, and others have adopted the opinion,
with fome variation as to fentiment and inference, that,
« falling into ill company,” he was induced, “‘ more than
oncé,” to affift his aflociates in {tealing deer from a park
belonging “ to fir Thomas Lucy, of Charlcote, near
Stratiord. For this he was profecuted by that gentleman
fo feverely,”? that he was firft impelled‘to. write a fatirical
ballad on him, and afterwards fly from his home to avoid
arreft and imprifonment. This ftory, however, is not

entitled to full credence; for though our young poet
might have affociated with fome idle youths, and have ac-
companied them to the neighbouring park, either for the
fake of catching deer, or for fome lefs difficult and lefs
hazardous enterprife, yet the circumftance {eems impro-
bable, and comes in fuch “a quettionable fhape,”” that
before it be admitted as hiftorical evidence againft an
amiable man and fuper-eminent author, it fhould be fup-
ported by ‘ confirmations ftrong as proofs of holy writ.’”
Without refting on this circumftance, or crediting another
abfurd ftory, of his holding horfes at the door of atheatre for
his livelihood, we fhall find a rational motive for his vifiting
London, and reforting to the theatre, by knowing that he
hada relative and town{man already eftablifhed there, and in
fome eftimation. ‘This was Thomas Green, “a celebrated
comedian,”’

We now come to that era in the life of Shak{peare,
when he began to write his immortal dramas, and to de-
velope thofe powers which have rendered him the delight
and wonder of fucceffive ages. At the time of his be-
coming, in fome degree, a public charaéter, we naturally
expected to find many anecdotes recorded of his literary
hiftory : but, ftrange to fay, the fame deftitution of au-
thentic incidents marks every ftage of his life. Even the
date at which his firft play appeared is unknown ; and the
greateft uncertainty prevails with refpeét to the chronological
order in which the whole feries were written, exhibited, or
publifhed. As this fubje& was juftly confidered by Ma-
lone to be both curious and interefting, he has appropriated
to its examination a long and laborious eflay. Chalmers,
however, in his “ Supplemental Apology,” and in a recent -
pamphlet, 1815, endeavours to controvert fome of Malone’s
dates, and afligns them to other eras; as {pecified in the
fecond column, below. Malone fays, the “ Firft Part’ of
King Henry VI.” publifhed in 1589, and commonly at-
tributed to Shak{peare, was not written by him, though it
might receive fome correétions from his pen at a fubfequent
period, in order to fit it for reprefentation. ‘The “ Second
Part of King Henry. VI.” this writer contends, ought there-
fore to be confidered as Shakf{peare’s firft dramatic piece ;
and he thinks that it might have been compofed about the
year 1591, but certainly not earlier than 1590. The other
dramas are placed in the following order of time by him ‘and
by Mr. George Chalmers.

According to According to

hae ae - Malone. Chalmers.
The Third Part of Henry VI.

was written in - it ot 1595
A Midfummer Night’s Dream - 1592 1598
Comedy of Errors - - - 1593 159t
Taming of the Shrew - - 1594 1598
Love’s Labour’s Loft - - 1594 1592
Two Gentlemen of Verona - 1595 1595
Romeo and Juliet - - - 1595 1592
Hamlet = - - - - - 1596 1597
King John - - - - 1596 1598
King Richard II. - - - 1507 1596
King Richard HI. - - 1597 1595
Firft Part of Henty IV. - = =.) 1597 1596
Second Part of Henry IV. - 1598 1597
Merchant of Venice — - - - 1598 1597
All’s Well that ends Well - - 1598 1599
King Henry V- - - - 1599 1597
Much ado about Nothing = - 1600 1599
As you like it —- - Loe 1600 1599
Merry Wives of Windfor - — = 1601 1596
King Henry VIII. - - - 160 1613

Troilus |

SHAKSPEARE.

Acconting to According to

Malone, Chelmers.
Troilusand Crefida - - .- 1602 1600
Meafure for ure - = - 1603 1604
The Wint Yi ee ia 1604 1601
° - - - 1605 i6os
: - : - 1605" 1606
wt. ° - . : 1606 1606
Cefr” - - += + § 1607 1607
‘ony and Cleopatra . . 1608 1608
Timon of Athens ti 1609 1601
us Po : - - 1610 1609
= = ° . - - 1611 a
g°7. - - - 1612 1613
Twelfth Night USAR 1613

the above thirty-five plays, Shak{peare wrote fome
postical pisces, which were at firft publifhed feparately, vie.
Venus and Adonis,” printed in 15 3; “ The Rape of
Luecrece,” 1594; “ The Paffionate ilgrim,”? printed in
15933 “ A Lover’s Complaint,” eee A veo : cS
of Sonnets, printed in 1 rit and fecon
poems ot so Fake ge “the firit heir of my
ion,” to Henry Wriothefley, earl of Southampton ;
according to fir William d’Avenant’s ftatement, pre-
with the fum of 100o/. to make fome pur-
this it is honourable to the liberality
good tafte of the nobleman, and thews that the “ poor
arwickshire lad’? met with a munificent patron in au early
his literary career. Other circum{tances tend to
his merits were known to, and ae by, fome
Alluftriou on ueen Elizabeth, whofe ear was
perpetu: Petikel by Riltome panegyric, and who en-
couraged all forts of filly fhows, May-games, and buf-
fooneries, was not infenfible of Shak{peare’s talents; for the
nmanded feveral of his plays to be acted before her: and
paving pene sete delighted with the chara@ter of Falltaff,
1 pated in the firlt and fecond parts of « H

h,’’ recommended, or perhaps commanded, thet bard
ortray the fat knight in love. Hence originated
Merry Wives of

may bave pleafed the daughter of Henry VIII, although
e) uitly ve to modern tafte and delicacy.
attended the reprefentation of many of

“ an
t ry for the cempliment contained

Sook fpearen py already hinted, wea ator, as well as
plays, and fome @f the characters in
sown dramas. As as the year 1603, only 13 years
efore his death, hi name appears among the players of
*n Jonfon’s tragedy of Sejanus. Thus it is evident that
’e continued to | many years; but of his hiftrionic
we have no fatisfactory evidence. Hence on this
there is much diverfity of opinion ; fome contending

was an excellent actor, sonal that he was only

-=
vet

oat to the ification of his own charater of the
oft in Some paffages in his own writings prove
at he was well qualified to appreciate and to defcribe the
tials of good a¢ting. See Fianiet's mcwivehle sence
players ; the {cene Hamlet and his mother ; and
e defcription of a tragedian in “ King Richard III.”
ates that i is native town

vifited
cally ; but we do not learn when he finally returned
t. From a document in the pofleflion of Mr. R. B.
Wheler, the hiftorian of Stratford, it appears that he was
London in November, 1614. At that time Mr. Thomas

Green, a profeflional geutleman of that town, and a relative
of Shak{peare’s, vifited the metropolis, to obtain an a& of
parliament, or te fettle fome bufinefs relating to the ineloe
fure of an open field, in which our poet was a party com
cerned. His memorandums are ;

* Rec, 16, No. 1614, at 4 o'clock afr, noon,’a Ire
from Mr. Bayly & Mr. Alderman, bee bailiff and chief
alderman of Stratford-upon-Avon } ated 12, No. 1614,
touchyng the inclofure bufynes. ” Jovis 17. No. [1614]
my cofen Shakfpeare comyng yelterdy to town, I went to
fee him how he did. He told’me that they”’ [the parties
withing to inclofe] “ aflured him they ment to inclofe no
further than to Gofpel buth, & fo upp ftraight (leavyng
out pt. of the Dyngles to the field) to the gate in Clopton
hedg & take in Salifbury’s peece; & that they mean in
a to fvey. the land & then to gyve fatisfaccion & not
before: & he & Mr. Hall’’ (Shak{peare’s fon-in-law, pro-
bably prefent] « fay they think yr, [there] will be no.
thyng done at all.”” It appears that Mr. Green, after his
return to Stratford, made the following entry, which is
partly illegible. 23. Dec. (1614 ] « Hall. Lres. wryt.
ten, one to Mr. Manyring—another to Mr. Shakf .
with almoft all the company’s hands to eyther. I alfo

wrytte myfelf to my cin. [eoufin] Shak{pear, the
coppyes of all cur... .... then alfo a note of the incon:
venyences wold... ... by the inclofure.””’ Another part

of the memorandum ftates, that the town of Stratford wae
then « lying in the afhes of defolation.’?

We find that Shakfpeare had purchafed a houfe, called
“« New-place,” at Stratford, about three years before his
death, where he refided in the flyle and charaéter of a pri-
vate gentleman. Here he died on the anniverfary of his
birth-day, April 2 3, 1616, and was interred on the fecond
day after his death, in the chancel of Stratford church,
where a monument ittill remains to his memory. It is con-
ftructed partly of marble and partly of tone, and confitte
ofa half-length buft of the deceafed, with a cuthion before
him, placed under an ornamental canopy, between two co-
lumns of the Corinthian order, fupporting an entablature,
Attached to the latter is the Shakipeare arms and creft,
feulptured in bold relief. Beneath the but are the fol-
lowing lines :

Judicio Pylivm, genio Socratem, arte Maronem,

Terra tegit, popvlvys meret, olympus habet. ;

Stay, pailenger, why goeft thov by fo fait,

Read, if thov canit, whom enviovs death hath platt
Within this monvment, Shakfpeare: with whome
Qvick natvre dide ; whofe name doth deck ys tombe
Far more than cofte ; fieh all yt he hath writt
Leaves living art, byt page to ferve his witt,

Obiit Ano. Doi. 1616, tatis 53, dic 23 Ap.

On a flat ftone, covering the grave, is this curious in-
{eription :

Good frend for Jefvs’ fake forbeare,
To digg the dvit eucloafed heare ;

B man yt {pares thefe {tones,
And evrit be he yt moves my bones,

The common tradition is, that the four laft lines were
written by Shakfpeare himfelf; but this notion has perhaps
igi folely trom the ufe of the word “ my,’’ in the latt
line. The imprecation, fays Mr. Malone, was probably fug-

"neat by an apprebenfion ‘* that our author’s ins mi
the fame fate with thofe of the reft of his countrymen,

and be added to the immenfe pile of human bones depofited
in the charnel-houfe at Stratford,” ies
rs.

SHAKSPEARE.

Mrs. Shakfpeare, who furvived her hufband eight years,
was buried between his grave and the north wall of the
chancel, under.a ftone inlaid with brafs, and infcribed thus:
« Heere lyeth interred the bodye of Anne, wife of Mr. Wil-
liam Shakefpeare, who depted. this life the 6th day of Avgvit,
1623, being of the age of 67 yeares,”’

Vbera, tv Mater, tv lac vitamq. dedifti,

Vez mihi; pro tanto mvnere faxa dabo!

Qvam Mallem, amoveat lapidem, bonys angel’ore’
Exeat vt Chrifti Corpvs, imago tva,

Sed nil vota valent, venias cito Chrifte refvrget,
Clavfa licet tvmvlo mater, et aftra petet.

The family of Shak{peare, as already mentioned, confifted
only of one fon and two daughters. ‘The fon died in 1596;
but both the daughters furvived their father. The eldeft,
Sufanna, married Dr. John Hall, a phyfician of Stratford,
who is faid to have obtained much reputation and praétice.
She brought her hufband an only child, Elizabeth, who was
married, firlt to Thomas Nafhe, efq. and afterwards to fir
John Barnard, of Abingdon, in Northamptonfhire ; but had
no iffue by either of them. Judith, Shakfpeare’s fecond
daughter, married Thomas Quiney, a gentleman of good
family, by whom fhe had three children; but as none of
them reached their twentieth year, they left no pofterity.
Hence our poet’s laft defcendant was lady Barnard, who was
buried at Abingdon, Feb. 17, 1669-70. Dr. Hall, her father,
died Nov. 25, 1635, and her mother July 11, 1649; and both
were interred in Stratford church under flat ftones, bearing
inf{criptions to their refpe€tive memories.

Shakfpeare, by his wi//, yet extant in the office of the
prerogative court in London, and bearing date the 25th day
of March, 1616, made the following bequetts.

To his daughter Judith he gave 150/. of lawful Englith
money ; one hundred to be paid in difcharge of her marriage
portion, within one year after his deceafe, and the remaining
fifty upon her giving up, in favour of her elder fitter, Sufanna
Hall, all her right in a copyhold tenement and appurtenances,
parcel of the manor of Rowington. To the faid Judith he alfo
bequeathed 150/. more, if fhe, or any of her iflue, were living
three years from the date of his will; but in the contrary
event, then he direéted that 100/, of the fum fhould be paid
to his niece, Elizabeth Hall, and the proceeds of the fifty to
his filter, Joan, or Jone Hart, for life, with refidue to her
children. He further gave to the faid Judith a broad filver
gilt bowl.

To his fifter Joan, befides the contingent bequeft above-
mentioned, he gave twenty pounds and all his wearing ap-
parel; alfo the houfe in Stratford, in which fhe was to
refide for her natural life, under the yearly rent of twelve
pence. To her three fons, William Hart, Hart, and
Michael Hart, he gave five pounds a-piece; to be paid
within one year after his deceafe. To his grand-daughter,
Elizabeth Hall, he bequeathed all his plate, the filver bowl
above excepted.

To the poor of Stratford he bequeathed ten pounds ; to
Mr. Thomas Combe, his fword; to Thomas Ruflel five
pounds ; to Francis Collins, efq. thirteen pounds fix fhillings
and eight-pence; to Hamlet (Hamnet) Sadler twenty-fix
fillings and eight-pence, to buy aring ; anda like fum, for
the fame purpofe, to William Reynolds, gent., Anthony
Nah, gent., John Hemynge, Richard Burbage, and Henry
Cundell, his « fellows ;”? alfo twenty shillings in gold to his
godfon, William Walker.

To his daughter, Sufanna Hall, he bequeathed New-place,
with its appurtenances; two mefluages or tenements, with
their appurtenances, fituated in Henley-ftreet ; alfo all his
“* barns, ftables, orchards, gardens, lands, tenements, and

sb)

hereditaments whatfoever, fituate, lying, and being, or to
be had, received, perceived, or taken within the towns,
hamlets, villages, fields, and grounds of Stratford-upon-
Avon, Old Stratford, Bifhopton, and Welcombe, or in any
of them, in the faid county of Warwick ; and alfo all that
mefluage or tenement, with the appurtenances, wherein one
John Robinfon dwelleth, fituated, lying, and being in the
Blackfriars, London, near the Wardrobe; and all my other
lands, tenements, and hereditaments whatfoever: to have
and to hold all and fingular the faid premifes, with their ap-
purtenances, unto the faid Sufanna Hall, for and during the
term of her natural life ; and after her deceafe, to the firft
fon of her body lawfully iffuing, and to the heirs male of the
body of the faid firft fon, lee fall ifluing ; and for default
of fuch iffue, to the fecond fon of her body lawfully iffuing,
and to the heirs male of the body of the faid fecond fon law-
fully ifluing ;”’ and fo forth, as to the third, fourth, fifth,
fixth, and feventh fons of her body, and their heirs male :
«and for default of fuch iflue, the faid premifes to be and
remain to my faid niece Hall, and the heirs male of her body
lawfully iffluing ; and for default of fuch iffue, to my daugh-
ter Judith, and the heirs male of her body lawfully iffuing ;
and for default of fuch iflue, to the right heirs of me the faid
William Shakfpeare.”’ ‘i

To the faid Sufanna Hall and her hufband, whom he ap-
pointed executors of his will, under the dire€tion of Francis
Collins and Thomas Ruffel, efqrs. he further bequeathed
all the reft of his ‘* goods, chattels, leafes, plate, jewels,
and houfehold ftuff whatfoever,” after the payment of his
debts, legacies, and funeral expences ; with the exception

of his « fecond beft bed with the furniture,’? which con- -

ftitnted the only bequeft he made to his wife, and that by
infertion after the will was written out.

Among the myfteries conneGted with our poet’s private

life and aGtions is one, which has hitherto efcaped the in-
veterate refearches and countlefs opinions of his biographers
and commentators. We have already feen, that his wife
bore him three children in lefs than two years after mar-
riage. Inthe Stratford regifter is an entry of “* Thomas
Greene, alias Shakfpeare,” in 1589-90, which excites
fome fufpicion refpecting the fidelity of our bard’s wife:
and it may be inferred from his will, that his lady could
not have enjoyed much of his affe€tion, to have been put
off with only the bequeft of a “ fecond beft bed :’? be-
fides, we do not hear of any other children by the poet.

The firft colle&ion of Shak{peare’s plays was publifhed
in 1623, with the following title: « Mr. William Shak-
fpeare’s Comedies, Hiftories, and Tragedies. Publifhed
according to the true original copies. London, printed by
Ifaac Jaggard and Ed. Blount, 1623, folio.” This volume
was edited by John Hemynge and Henry Condell, and was
dedicated to “ the moft noble and incomparable pair of
brethren,”? William, earl of Pembroke, and Philip, earl of
Montgomery. In the title page is a portrait, faid to be a
likenefs of the author, with the engraver’s name, “¢ Martin
Droefhout, feulpfit, London ;?? and on the oppofite page
are thefe lines by Ben Jonfon, addrefled to the reader :

« This figure that thou here feeft put,
It was for gentle Shakefpeare cut,
Wherein the graver had a ftrife
With nature to outdoo the life :
O, could he but have drawne his wit
As well in brafle, as he hath hit
His face ; the print would then furpaffe
All that was ever writ in braffe.
But, fince he cannot, Reader, looke

Not on his pitture, but his Booke.” B. I.

Ther is

“The above volume was carefully reprinted, in clofe imi-
tation of the original, a few years back, by J. Wright,
for Wernor and Hood, London. A fecond edition of

re’s
in » and
are ufually denominated ancient editions,’? becaufe pub-
lied within the firil century after the death of the poet,

\ ys was publithed, in folio, in 1632, a third
"
'
:
and before any comments or elucidations were employed
»

fourth in 1685. Thefe feveral impreffions

eer the original text. Some of his dramas were
publithed, in.gto., during his own lite.

_ Of thofe editions which are diftinguifhed by the title
_ modern,”’ the earlieit was publithed by Nicholas Rowe,
ins in 7 vols. 8vo. This was followed by an edition
in pw tzmo. by the fame author, in 1714; and to both
were a biographical memoir of the illuitrious hard.

In 1725, who firit introduced critical and emendatory
notes, i his edition in 6 vols. 4to. with a preface,
which fon characterizes as valuable alike for compoti-

itions, in 8 vols. r2mo. in 740.
next turned his attention to the illuitra

by the Rev. Mr. Ayfcough.
a in 1788, in 20 vols. 18mo.; and in 1790
”s was ufhered into the world in 10 vols. crown 8vo.
In 1793, 2 fourth edition, “ revifed and augmented,” in
vols. 8vo. was produced by Mr. Steevens. A fifth edi-
in 21 vols. 8vo. was publifhed in 1803, from the
text and with the notes of Johnfon, Steevens, and Reed ;
and another edition of 21 vols. with correétions, &c. ap-
“peared'in 1813. uy
Many other impreflions of our author’s plays have been
publithed by different bookfellers, in different fizes, and of
various degrees of typographic merit. Mott of them, how-
wer, are unauthenticated reprints : but many have the popu-
attra¢tion of embellifhments, ‘The moft {plendid of this
¢lafs was publithed by Boydell, in 9 vols. folio, embellifhed
with 100 engravings, executed by and from artifts of the
frit eminence. "The fame work was alfo printed in 4to.
‘In 1805 was publithed an edition of Shakfpeare’s plays in
10 vols. 8vo., with a préfatory effay by Alexander Chal-
mers, F.S.A. and. a print to each play from a defign by
“Henry Pufeli, efg. R.A. The laft edition of this kind
~ Vor. XXXII.

_ SHAKSPEARE.

has jult appeared in 7 vols. 18mo. with 240 engravings ov
wood, from the tafteful prefsof Whittingham,

Steevens eftimated, at the time he publifhed his notes on
Shak{peare, that “ not lefs than 35,000 copies of our au.
thor’s works’’ had been then difperfed ; and it may now be
confidently faid, that nearly 100,c09 of them have been
printed and fold,

From what has been already ftated, it is evident that
the writings of Shak{peare have progreffively acquired con-
fiderable publicity ; and that they now rank as chief, or
in the firit lift, of Britith claffies. ‘This high celebrity is
to be attributed to various fecondary caufes, as well as to
their own intrinfic merits. To players, critics, biogra hers,
and artifts, a large portion of this popularity is to be af-
cribed; for had the plays been reprefented by Garrick,
Kemble, &c. a8 originally publifhed by Condell and He-
mynge, or reprinted verbatim from that text, the f
tors to the one, and readers of the other, would have been
comparatively limited. It is talent only that can properly

refent and appreciate talent. ‘The birth and productions
of one man of brilliant genius, will ttimulate the emulation,
and call into aétion the full powers of a correlative mind.
Hence the Britifh theatrical hemifphere has been repeatedly
illumined by the corrufcations of Garrick, Henderfon,
Pritchard, Kemble, Siddons, Cooke, Young, and Kean ;
and thefe performers have derived no {mall portion of their
jultly acquired fame from the exquifite and powerful writ-
ings of the bard of Avon. Whillt the one may be con-
fidered as the creator of thought and inventor of charaéter,
the others have perfonified and given ¢ local habitation’’
and exiitence to the poetical vifion, The painter has alfo
been ufefully and honourably employed in delineating in-
cidents, and portraying characters from the poet : while the
a. bet has tranflated thefe defigns into a new language,
and given them extenfive circulation and permanent record.

The confummate aéting of Garrick tended, in a great de-
gree, mot only to revive the fame of Shak{fpeare, but to
augment and extend it. The peculiar powers of Betterton,
and of his other dramatic predeceilors, have not been fuf-
ficiently defined to enable us to eftimate their real talents ;
but thofe of the Englifh Rofcius have been commented on
and defcribed hy fo many able critics, that we are certain
they were of the moit accomplifhed kind. He was there-
fore amply qualified to perfonify, and give life and effeé
to the characters of Macbeth, Hamlet, Lear, Richard the
Third, Romeo, &c. ; and by his exquifite reprefentation of
thefe hittrionic perfonages, the public were additionally de-
lighted and aftonifhed with the amazing gemius of the
author. Since Garrick’s time other ators have judicioufly
chofen fome of Shakfpeare’s chara€ters, as beit calculated
to fhew their own talents; and as the moft certain touch-
ftone of paflion. A Kemble and a Siddons have en-
wreathed their brows with never-fading laurel by dili-
gently ftudying and fuccefsfully perionating many of
our poet’s great charaéters. As the former has acquired
a well-earned fame in portraying Macbeth, Lear, Co-
riolanus, Profpero, Cardinal Wolfey, Richard, Hamlet,
and Othello; the latter has aftonifhed and gratified many
thoufand {peGtators by her horrifying reprefentation of
lady Macbeth, ber dignified playing of the queen in
Henry VIII., and the queen in Hamlet; by ber com-
manding powers in Portia ; and in her pathetic eloquence
of Defdemona. Cooke difplayed the charaGers of Richard
the Third, Iago, and Shylock, with great ikill and exeel-
lence : and in the prefent day, Kean has perfonated thefe
charaGters, with that of Richard II. and Hamlet, fo as
to command the approbation of the moft acute and intelli-

gent critics.
3c The

SHAKSPEARE.

The number, variety, and verfatility of commentaries
that have been fucceflively publifhed on the text of Shak-
{peare’s plays almoft exceed credibility ; and a foreigner, or
{tranger to the fubje€&t, would be more than aftonifhed, were
the whole brought in one mafs before him. It is true, that
many of them are unimportant and nfelefs, but it is equally
true, that feveral of his critical annotators have difplayed
much refearch, learning, and acutenefs; and to fuch the
philologift and. poetical antiquary are much indebted.
It was our intention to have given a concife account of
thefe; becaufe the whole coniftitute the Shakfpearian library ;
and all may be regarded as fatellites to the vaft and refplendent
poetical planet. The chief editors of his plays have been al-
ready noticed, as well as the refpedtive eras of their different
writings. Rowe was the firft to add any thing to the ori-
ginal text, by prefixing a memoir of the author. This
memoir has been reprinted with almoft every fucceeding
edition, and without any alteration or comment, till Ma-
lone accompanied it with notes to his edition of 1790. Mr.
Alexander Chalmers, in an edition of 1805, has prefixed a
*¢ Sketch of the Life of Shak{peare,?? in which he has
adopted moft of the ftatements of Rowe, with the addi-
tional and correGtive remarks of Malone and Steevens.
** The whole, however,’? he remarks, “is unfatisfaGory.
Shakfpeare in his private character, in his friendfhips, in
his amufements, in his clofet, in his family, is no where
before us.”

The plays of Shakfpeare are divided into three clafles,
and called in the firft edition ** comedies, hiftories, and tra-
gedies.”” Each is of a diftiné charafter; but in fome of
them there is a mixture of the three in one. “ The Merry
Wives of Windfor,’?? ‘ The Comedy of Errors,’? and
“The Taming of the Shrew,”’ are all comedies; the reft have
fomething of both kinds. It is not eafy to determine in
which way of writing he molt excelled. His Falftaff is
univerfally allowed to be a mafter-piece: the character is
always well fuftained, though drawn out into three plays;
and even the account of his death, given by his landlady,
Mrs. Quickly, in the firft aét of Henry V. is as natural and
diverting as any part of hislife. ‘If there be any fault,”
fays the critic, “in the draught he has made of this lewd
old fellow, it is, that though he has made him a thief, a
liar, and a coward, and, in fhort, every way vicious, yet
he has given him fo much wit, as to make him almoft. too
agreeable ; and I do not know whether fome people have
not, in remembrance of the amufement which he had for-
merly afforded them, been forry to fee his friend Hal ufe
him fo feurvily when he comes to the crown, in the end
of the fecond part of Henry IV. Among other extrava-
gancies in the ‘ Merry Wives of Windfor,’ he has made
him a deer-ftealer, that he might have the opportunity of
remembering his Warwickthire profecutor under the name
of Juftice Shaliow.”? The whole play is admirable, the
humours are various and wel! oppofed; the main defign,
which is to cure Ford of his unreafonable jealoufy, is ex-
tremely well conducted.

Another of the characters which has been fixed on as
ene of Shakfpeare’s fine delineations, is that of Shylock,
the Jew, in “ Tne Merchant of Venice,” in which there
appears fuch a deadly fpirit of revenge, fuch a favage
fiercenefs, and fuch a bloody defignation of cruelty and
mifchief, as cannot agree either with the flyle or character
of comedy, though ufually ranked as fuch. Taken alto-
gether, it is perhaps one of the moft finifhed of Shak-
{peare’s pieces; the tale indeed is improbable in fome of its
parts; but taking the facts for granted, the ftory is beauti-
fully written. There is fomething in the friendfhip of An-
tonio and Baflanio very great and generous. The whole

fourth a& is extremely fine, but there are two patlages
that are univerfally known and applauded, the one is in
praife of mercy, and the other is on the power of mufic.

The melancholy of Jaques in the comedy of « As you
like it,”’ is as fingular and odd, as it is amufing, and if, ac-
cording to the maxim of Horace,

‘ Difficile eft proprie communia dicere,’?

it will be a hard tafk for any one to go beyond him in the
defcription of the feveral degrees and ages of a man’s life.
See the article AGr.

His images are indeed every where fo lively, that the
thing he would reprefent ftands full before you, and you
poflefs every part of it. Rowe mentions his image of
Patience, in the perfon of a young woman in love, as one
of the fineft and moft uncommon things ever written ; it is
as follows :

a

mo She never told her love ;

But let concealment, like a worm i’th’ bud,
Feed onher damafk cheek: fhe pin’d in thought,
And fat like Pariancr on a monument

Smiling at grief.”

The ftyle of his comedy is, in general, natural to the
charaéters, and eafy in itfelf; and the wit moft commonly
fprightly and plealing, except in thofe places where he
runs into doggrel rhimes. But the greatnefs of this au-
thor’s- genius does no where fo much appear, as where he
gives his imagination the entire loofe, and raifes his fancy to
a flight above mankind, and beyond the limits of the vifible
world. Such are his attempts in the Tempeit, Midfummer
Night’s Dream, Macbeth, and Hamlet. Of thefe, the
Tempett is thought by able critics to be the moft perfeé
in its kind of any thing that Shakfpeare has left behind
him. His magic hath fomething in it very folemn, and
very poetical: and that extravagant charafter of Caliban
is extremely well fultained, and fhews a wonderful inven-
tion in the author, who could ftrike out fuch a particular
wild image, and it is certainly one of the fineft that was
ever exhibited to the human imagination. It has been faid
by able judges, that ‘* Shakfpeare had not only found out
a new charaéter in his Caliban, but had alfo devifed and
adapted a new manner of language for that character.’

It is the fame magic that raifes the fairies in the Mid-
fummer Night’s Dream, the witches in Macbeth, and the
ghoft in Hamlet, with thoughts and language fo proper
to the parts they fuftain, and fo peculiar to the talent of
this writer. If,”? fays the author whom we have fo often
quoted, ‘* one undertook to examine the greate‘t part of his
tragedies by thofe rules which are eftablifhed by Ariftotle,
and taken from the model of the Grecian flage, it would
be no difficult tafk to find a great many faults ; but as Shak-
{peare lived under a kind of mere light of nature, and had
never been made acquainted with the regularity of thofe
written precepts, fo it would be hard to judge him by a
law of which he was ignorant. We are to confider him as
aman, that lived in a ftate of almoft univerfal licence and
ignorance; there was no eltablifhed judge, but every one
took the liberty to write according to the difates of his
own fancy. When one confiders, that there is not one
play before him of a reputation good enough to entitle it
to an appearance on the prefent ftage, it cannot but bea

matter of great wonder, that he fhould have advanced |

dramatic poetry as far as he did.

«It is now a received article of literary faith in Eng-
land, that notwith{tanding the faults and defeéts with
which Shakfpeare abounds, and which were chiefly thofe
of his age, no dramatitt in any country has difplayed fuch

intimate

}

i

SHAKSPEARE.

intimate knowledge of the human heart; fuch extentive
acquaiotance with nature in its various forms, an imagina-
tion fo powerful and poetical, and fuch a copioufoels of
moral fentiment exprefled in the molt forcible language."
Dryden fays, “ he was a man, who, of all modern and,
P% ancient 8, had the largett and moft comprehen-
foul, All the images of nature were fill prefent to
him, and he drew them not laborioufly, but luckily. When
he deferibes any thing, you more than fee it, you feel it
too. He needed not the {pectacles of books to read nature ;
looked inwards, and found her there. I cannot fay he
every where alike; were he fo, I fhould do him injury
to com him with the greateft of mankind. e is
many times flat and infipid: his comic wit degenerating
ae clenches, his — {welling into bombalt. But he
at, when fome t oceafion is prefented to
pag a ean ever he ever had a fit fubjee for
his wit, and did not then raife himfelf as high above the
reft of the poets,

Quantum lenta folent inter viburna cuprelfli.””

Shakf » like moft men of pre-eminent talents, is faid
to have much aflailed by the attacks of envious rivals,
notwithftanding, that gentlenefs and good nature were the
peculiar iftics of his perfonal deportment. Among
thofe who are faid to have treated him with hoftility was the
celebrated Ben Jonfon ; but Dr. Farmer departs from the
received ppinions on this fubje€t, and thinks that, though
Jonfon was arrogant of his {cholarfhip, and publicly pro-
feffed a rivalfhip of Shakfpeare, he was in private his friend
and affociate.

Pope, in his preface, fays, that Jonfon “ loved” Shak-

““ as well as honoured his memory; celebrates the
honefty, opennefs, and franknefs of his temper ; and only
diftinguithes, as he reafonably ought, between the real merit
of the author, and the filly and derogatory applaufes of the

” Mr. Gilchriit, whofe dramatic criticifms are ge-
nerally profound and acute, has publifhed a pamphlet, to prove
that paras oye a my an envious = He Shak-

F po opinion on this fubje& is

in error. The Relowne Bory refpeing en
great dramatilts is related by Rowe, and has been generally
credited by fubfequent biographers. “ Mr. Jonfon, who
was at that time alto: unknown to the world, had
offered one of his plays to the players, in order to have it
ated ;

of Shakfpeare and Jonfon
, ng sone much contention,

, eco. | their relative merits, between their ref{peétive
i admirers ; and it is not a little remarkable, that
_Jonfon feems to have maintained a hi

rset tee Sec

the principle that literature and collegiate learning

were in thofe days as the chief criteria of merit.
Becordiesty, Jonfon’s charge againft Shak{fpeare was the

want of that {pecies of knowledge ; and upon his own pro-
ficiency in it, he arrogated to himlelf a fuperiority over him,
That all claflical {cholars, however, did not fanAion Jon-
fon’s pretenfions, is certain; for among the preateft ad-
mirers of Shakf{peare, was one of the moft learned men of
his age, the ever-memorable Hales. On one oceafion, the
latter, after liftening in filence to a warm debate between fir
John Suckling and Jonfon, is reported to have interpofed by
obferving, “ That if Shak{peare had not read the ancients,
he had hkewife not ftolen any thing from them ; and that if
he (Jonfon) would produce any one topic finely treated by
any one of them, he would undertake to thew fomething
on the fame fubjeét, at leatt as well written, by Shak{peare.’’
A trial, it is added, being in confequeuce agreed to, judges
were appointed to rer. the aifute, who unanmoully
voted in favour of the Englith poet, after s candid examina-
tion and comparifon of the paflages produced by the con-
tending parties.

In Bepteriber, 1769, was celebrated the Shakfpeare ju-
bilee, at Stratford, under the direétion of Garrick.

In pointing out the authorities for the preceding article,
and noticing a few of the moft interefting works that have
been publifhed in illuftration of the writings of the “ bard of
Avon,” we mult conclude this effay, which may be deemed
too prolix by fome, and too brief by others. Some Ac-
count of Shakfpeare,”” by N. Rowe. Malone’s, Steevens’s,
and Reed’s “* Prolegomena.’’ Remarks on the Life and
Whitings of W. Shakfpeare,”” by John Britton, F.S.A. pre-
fixed to Whittingham’s edition of his plays, with wood-cuts,
1814. “A Guide to Stratford-upon-Avon,” by R. B.
Wheler, 12mo. 1814. Critical, hiftorical, and explanatory
Notes on Shakfpeare ; with Emendations of the Text and
Metre,” by Zachary Grey, LL.D. two vols. 8vo. 1755.
« Obfervations and Conjectures on fome Paflages of Shak.
{peare,”” by Thomas Tyrwhitt, efq. 8vo. 1764. “An Effay
on the Learning of Shak{peare,’’ by the Rev. Dr. Rich.
Farmer, 8vo. ‘Three editions of this were publifhed by the
author, and it has, fince 1789, been reprinted in different edi-
tions of Shak{peare’s plays. ‘* An Effay on the Writings and
Genius of Shakf{peare, compared with the Greek and French
dramatic Poets; with fome Remarks upon the Mifrepre-
fentations of Monf. de Voltaire,’’? by Mrs. Montagu, 8vo.
A fixth edition of this elognent and interetting volume was
printed in 1810. ‘ Effays on Shak{peare’s Dramatic Cha-
racters,” by W. Richardfon, M.D. 8vo. 1812, are replete
with judicious criticifm and appofite comment. ‘ Remarks,
critical and illuftrative, on the Text and Notes of the laft
Edition of Shak{peare,”’ (:778,) by Mr. Ritfon, 8vo. 1783.
« An Inquiry into the Authenticity of certain mifcellaneous
Papers, pablifhed Dec. 24, 1795,’’ &c. by Edmond Ma-
lone, Efq. 8vo. 1796. This inquiry called forth two
vols. called “* An Apology for the Believers in the Shak-
{peare Papers,’’ by G, Chalmers, 8vo. 1797: and a “ Sup-
plemental Apology for the Believers, &c.’’ by the fame au-
thor, 8vo. 1799. ‘ Liluttrations of Shak{peare, and of
ancient Manners, &c.”’ by Francis Douce, 2 vols. 8vo.
1807, is a work of very confiderable merit.

Shakfpeare was fond of mufic, and not wholly ignorant
of the art. He not only frequently introduces ma/gues for

od =mufic in his plays, but finging in almoft all his fourteen

comedies; and even in moit of his tragedies, where this
wonderful and exquifite dramatift has manifetted the fame
predilection for mufic as poetry.

In the ** Tempeit,”’ the ufe that he has made of it is ad-
mirable, as well as the defcription of its effects. AG i.
aa 5. Ariel, invifible, playing and finging to Ferdinand,
ays,

. 3C 2 “« Where

SHAKSPEARE.

«© Where fhould this mufic be, i’ th’ air or earth?
It founds no more: and fure it waits upon
Some god o’ th’ ifland.””

And afterwards:

«© This is no mortal bufinefs, nor no found
That the earth owns: I hear it now above me.’

Indeed, the ferious part of this moft fanciful play is very
fortunately calculated for an opera. Shadwell, in the lait
century, made one of it, in the manner of what were then
called operas on our ftage. It has been performed of late
years more as a mufical mafque, than opera or play, at
Drury-lane, to the mufic of the late Mr. T. Linley, as it ufed
to be to that of Dr. Arne, and others. The fongs in this
play, Dr. Wilfon, who refet and publifhed two of them,
tells us, in his “Court Ayres, or Ballads,’ publifhed at
Oxford, 1660, that ‘* Full fathom five,”? and ‘¢ Where the
bee fucks,” had been firft fet by Robert Johnfon, a com-
pofer contemporary with Shak{peare.

A@ ii. fc. 1. Enter Ariel playing folemn mufic.”’
We never could underftand this indication: no mufic feems
to be heard by the charaGters on the ftage, nor do they take
any notice of it through the whole feene. Afterwards,
when with mufic and a fong he acquaints Gonzalo of the
danger he is in, his miffion has meaning. ‘¢ While you here
do {noring lie,”? &c.

Even Caliban talks well about mufic :

the ifle is full of noifes,
Sounds and {weet airs, that give delight and hurt not.”

«

Ariel never appears or is employed without mufic, which
is {weetly defcribed, and introduced with perfe&t propriety,
Profpero calls for medicinal mufic :

«¢ A folemn air, and the beft comforter
To an unfettled fancy, cure thy brains.”

« Midfummer Night’s Dream.”

AG ii. fe. 5.“ Come now a roundel, and a fairy fong.”’
If, as Dr. Gray fays, a roundel is “ a dance ina ring,” a
roundelay was the fong and tune to fuch dance; as ballad,
from ballata, Italian ; {0 roundelay, from rondelet, old French,
rondeau, modern.

The ideas and language of fairyifm are wonderfully
imagined and fupported in this play ; and the ufe afligned to
mufic happy and fertile.

AG iv. fc. 1. “ Rural mufic, tongs, &c.”? Poker and
tongs, marrow-bones and cleavers, falt-box, hurdy-gurdy,
&c. are the old national inftruments of mufic on our
ifland.

Queen. “ Mufic, ho! mufic: fuch as charmeth fleep.””

Siill mufic, meaning fuch foft and gentle mufic as tran-
quillizes, foothes, and lulls to mufic.

A& v. fc. 1. In the lift of fports ready for the nuptial
featt of Thefeus, is “ the battle with the Centaurs; to be
fung by an Athenian eunuch to the harp.”” This feems to
imply a more aucient practice of caftration for the voice than
can be found in opera annals.

Speaking of Quince, in the clown’s prologue, Hippolita
fays, “ indeed, he hath play’d on his prologue, like a child
on a recorder; a found, but not in government.””

aa fongs alluded to in the laft fcene of this play are
loft.

Oberon. “ And this ditty after me

Sing and dance it trippingly.””

Queen. “ Firft rehearfe this fong by rote,
To each word a warbling note ;
Hand in hand, with fairy grace,

Will we fing, and blefs this place.’

« Two Gentlemen of Verona.’’

Though this comedy furnifhes fewer occafions for mufic
than the two preceding dramas, yet muficians are employed
in it as well as mufical allufions. As Ben Jonfon, in his
mafque of ‘ Cynthia’s Revels,’’ fpeaks of the gamut or
fyllables of folmifation, wt, re, mi, fa, fol, la, which pfalm-
fingers had made well known to his audience; fo Shak-
fpeare, in this play, acti. fc. 3. introduces all the mufical
terms then in ufe: as, a tune, a note, a light, a heavy tune,
burden, melodious, to reach high, keep in tune, fing out, too
Sharp, too flat, concord, harfb defcant, the mean bafe, &c.

Act iv. fe. lait, there is a laboured defcription of the
powers of poetry and mufic ; Orpheus’s lute, concert, fpelt
as now:

“ to their inftruments
Tune a deploring dump,”

or lament (/amentatione), fung by a wretched and forrowing
lover in the dumps.
Se. 2. A ferenata, or notturno, is introduced :

73

now mutt I to her window,
And give fome evening mufic to her ear.”’

Enter Muficians.

ce

now, gentlemen,
Let’s tune, and to it luitily.”

Song. “ Who is Sylvia? what is fhe ?? &c.

ss Meafure for Meafure.”’

Though this play has lefs mufic in it than the three pre-
ceding, yet at the beginning of aét iv. a fong, from his own
Paffionate Pilgrim: “¢ Take, oh, take thofe lips away,’ is
{ung to Mariana by a boy, who is fent away on the arrival
of the duke, in the character of a friar; when apologizing
for the feeming levity of littening to mufic, fhe fays:

«: T cry you mercy, fir, and well could with
You had not found me here fo mufical.’’

To which the duke anfwers :

. & ?Tis good; though mufic oft hath fuch a charm,
To make bad good; and good provoke to harm.”

This is a heavy charge, which it would not have been
eafy for Shakfpeare to fubftantiate, and does not very well
agree with what he fays in the << Tempett,”’ of the innoxious
efficacy of mufic. ‘ Sounds and {weet airs, that give de-
light, and hurt not.”? Maufic may be applied to licentious
poetry ; but the poetry then corrupts the mufic, not the
mufic the poetry. It has often regulated the movements
of lafcivious dances; but fuch airs heard, for the firlt time,
without the fong or dance, could convey no impure ideas to
an innocent imagination ; fo that Montefquieu’s aflertion is
ftill in force: that ‘¢ mufic is the only one of all the arts,
which does not corrupt the mind.”

«¢ Merchant of Venice.’’

A flourifh of cornets when the Moorifh
prince comes in.

AG ii. fc. 1.

AG ii. fc. 6. The vile fqueaking of the wry-neck’d

fife.??
A&

SHAKSPEARE.

| ABili, fe 2. Let mufic found, while he doth make « Twelfth Night.”
8 choice ; ‘ i. fe. 1. This pla h a beautiful eulogi
Then, if he lofe, he makes a {wan-like Pr penne e ghee A sl sae es nu
Fading in mufic. ** If mufic be the food of love, play on,” &e,
w= he may win ; The ufe of Evirati, in the fame manner as at prefent,
And what is mufic then? then mufic is

feems to have been well known at this time (about 1600).
As are thofe dulcet founds at break of For Viola fays :

I'll ferve the duke ;

“

y
That ‘creep into the dreaming bride-

, Thou halt prefent me as a eunuch to him,
Phy oe mercy SE bs wndeetons It may be worth thy pains, for I can fing,
ms age. And {peak to him in many forts of mufic,
* Matic within. That will allow me very worth his fervice.”’

A fong while Baffanio examines the calkets ; And the duke’s fenfibility to the power of mutic is dif-

“ Tell me where is fancy bred,” &c. clofed in the firft interview, when he {ays to Viola :
: “ge : “ thy fmall pipe
Mik season iim 00 06 thin mparofhing play are _ Is asthe maiden’s organ, thrill and found,
: Bein; ry as And all its femblative—a woman’s part.
“ And bring your mufic forth into the air,” &c. 1 know thy conttellation is right apt
“« —— foft ftillnefs and the night For this affair 77—

Become the touches of fweet harmony.” fuppofing her to be a eunuch.

Jeflica. I am never when I hear fweet mufic.”” AG i. fc. 3. The clown is alked for a love-fong, and
This is the initial of a Titcows, and now proverbial, fings:
um on modulated found: “The man that has no * O mitrefs mine, where are you roaming?” &c. And
mulic in his foul,” &c. What is love ; ’tis not hereafter,” &c.
“ As you like it.”

AG ii. fe. 1. A fong: « Hold thy peace,””

“ Under the green-wood tree,’ é&c. Sc. 4. Scraps of fongs and catches are roared out by
Remarks on mufic by Jacques. Then another fong : fir Toby, fir Andrew, and clown, as “ Three merry men

Ibid. They fing a catch, beginning,

. ad? be we.”?—« Tilly, valley, lady !”’— There dwelt a man

a * Blow, blow, thou winter’s wind. ro in Babylon, lady, lady.”—« © the twelfth day of De-

: oo Song: “ What thall he have that kill’d the cember.’’—“ Farewel, dear heart, fince I muft needs be-

oem m gone.’’—* His eyes do thew his days are almoft done.”?—

Rete, en mene sn keav'n. >» “Shall I bid him go? what, an’ if you do?”—« Shall 1
iE: there mirth in heav’n,

‘Another fong: « Welling is preat Juao"s ret gor bid him go and {pare not? O no, no, no, you dare not.”

All thefe, probably, were well known in Shak{peare’s
“ Love’s Labour’s loit.’? time.
a = 259 Se. 5. The duke, who is as conftant in his paffion for
AA» seal “Warble child; make paffionate mufic, as for Olivia, [ays :
his is a molt beautiful and comprehenfive requeft : none give me fome mufic now—
of the fine arts can fubfift, or give rapture, without pa/ion. Now, good Cefario, but that piece of fong,
Hence mediocrity is more intolerable in them than in other That old and antique fong, we heard laft night ;
inventions. - without paffion is as monotonous as the Methought, it did revive my paflion much ;
tolling of a bell. More than light airs, and recelleéted terms
? But no fong is rinted : Peete author tells us there Of thefe mof brifk and giddy-paced times :
is finging. Dr. Toacion fays, « is apparently a fong —— how doft thou like this tune 2—
5 It gives a very echo to the feat
Mufic as for a mafquerad Where love is thron’d.””
Boos Se Soticueecd re Ibid. “ —— the fong we had laft night—
gs — ge o} it is old and plain;
“ When daifies pied.””—And, « When icicles hang The fpinfters and the knitters in the fun,
on the wall.’

And the free maids that weave their thread with

“ Winter's Tale.” Mess kata en aT as
= Oo we to chaunt it: it is ooth,
_ Two nonfenfical fongs, by the rogue Autolychus : And dallies with the aides of love,
_ “ When daffodils begin to peere.””— Jog on, jog on, Like the old age.”
, the footpath way.”

; Song: “ Come away, come away, death.”
_* He’s main mufical.”” This Autolychus is the true an-

A i : AG iv. fe. 4. The clown, as elfewhere, is much ad-
Mute ste yg) meh cle pblisus, +: SeeiGes: diéted to fiuging. Song, by the clown:

catch, ready planned by the poet, and “* When that I was a little tiny boy,” &c.
8 fong ; “ Will you buy any tape?” ferves as an epilogue to this entertaining play.
- t In

SHAKSPEARE.

In “ The Taming of the Shrew,’’ no other ufe is made
of mufic than to introduce minitrels at the wedding, and
difguife Hortenfio in the charaGer of a man well /een in
mufic, to facilitate his admiflion to the prefence and court-
fhip of Bianca; an expedient, however, which was unfuc-
cefsful.

More fragments of old ballads are here quoted than in any
other of Shak{peare’s plays; though, as Dr. Warburton
faid, «¢ he feemed to bear the ballad-makers a very parti-
cular grudge, and often ridicules them with exquifite hu-
mour,.’’

Ia The Comedy of Errors,’’ mufic has no admiflion or
concern.

« Much ado about Nothing.”

Mufic at the mafquerade, aft ii. fc. 2. And in Bene-
di&’s dainty defcription of fuch an all-accomplifhed woman
as could ever incline him to wed, he adds to her qualifica-
tions, mufic: **—of good difcourfe, an excellent mufician,
and her hair of what colour it fhall pleafe God.” Sc. 8.

AG ii. fe. 9. The fong, “ Sigh no more, ladies, figh
no more,’’ is introduced by feveral refleGtions on mufic, and
the affeGtation of fingers. Baltazar, the mufician and fer-
vant to Don Pedro, was perhaps thus named from the cele-
brated Baltazarini, called «* De Beaujoyeaux,”? an Italian
performer on the violin, who was in the higheft fame and
favour at the court of Henry IIL. of France, 1577. in
the lait a&, fc. 8, the epitaph and fong are beautiful, and
well calculated for mufic.

ce All’s Well that ends Well.”’

A@i. fe. 5. Flourith of cornets for the king of
France’s entrance and exit.

AG iii. fe 8. A tucket afar off. bid. A march afar
off.

A& vy. fc. 3. Sound trumpets.

Hittorical plays. <«¢ King John.”
No mufic but trumpets and the din of war.
“ King Richard II.”

Ai. {c. 4. Military inflruments are admirably de-
fcribed :

“ec

rous’d up with boift’rous untun’d drums,
And harfh refounding trumpets dreadful bray.’’

Ibid. Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, on being ordered
into banifhment, fays:

«© My native Englith, now I mutt forego ;
And now my tongue’s ufe is to me no more,
Than an unftringed viol, or a harp ;

Or, like a cunning initrument cas’d up,
Or being open, put into his hands
That knows no touch to tune the harmony.”’

INGE BAC Aen mce the tongues of dying men
Inforce attention, like deep harmony :
more are men’s ends mark’d, than their lives
before ;
The fetting fun, and mujic in the clofe,
As the laft tafte of {weets, is {weeteft laft a

Ibid. {c. 3. Speaking of John of Gaunt’s death:

all is faid,
His tongue is now a ftringlefs inftrument.”

ac

A& y. {c. 10, Richard, in his prifon, fays;
Mufic do I hear?

Ha, ha! keep time: how fow’r {weet mufic is,
Where time is broke, and no proportion kept ?””

“

Here he plays on mufical terms for feveral lines.

All initruments played with the bow, in Shakfpeare’s
time, were fretted, except violins.

In “ The Taming of the Shrew,” act ii. fc. 3, he could
not refiit the temptation of quibbling on the term fret.

“ Frets call you them? quoth fhe: Vl fume with
them.’”

then call’d me rafcal, fidler,
And twangling Jack ;”’

ee

alluding to a famous {treet mufician of the time.

« Firlt Part of Henry 1V.”

AG i. fc. 2. Falftaff fays he’s as melancholy ae the
‘¢ drone of a Lincolnfhire bagpipe.”

A& iu. fe. 3. “ An I have not ballads made on you
all, and fung to filthy tunes, let a cup of fack be my
poifon.””

TGR Weoley GC thy tongue

Makes Welch as {weet as ditties highly penn’d,
Sung by a fair queen in a f{ummer’s bower,
With ravifbing divifion to her lute.”’

** Second Part of Henry IV.’’

Induétion. * Rumour is a pipe,
Blown by furmifes, jealoufies, conjectures ;
And of fo eafy and {fo plain a ftop,
That the blunt monfter with uncounted heads,
The ftill difcordant wavering multitude, x
Can play upon it.’

We advanced no farther in hunting through the pleafane
wilds of Shak{peare ; but in dipping accidentally, the fol-
lowing paflages ttruck us as worthy of notice. .

« Henry V.” Ai. fe. 2. There is a manifeft allu-
fion to the different parts of mufic.

‘© For government, though high, and Joqw, and lower,
Put into parts, doth keep in one con/ent,
Congreeing in a full and natural clofe,

Like mufic.”’

In * Othello,” a@ iv. fc. 13. Defdemona fays :

«© My mother had a maid, called Barbara ;
She was in love; and he, fhe lov’d, prov’d mad (falfe),
And did forfake her: fhe had a fong of wilfw,
An old thing ’twas, but it exprefs’d her fortune,
And fhe died finging it. That fong, to-night,
Will not go from my mind; I’ve much ado,
Not to go hang my head all 0? one fide,
And fing it like poor Barbara.”

« King Lear,” aéti. fe. 7.
thefe divifions! fa, fol, la, mi.”?
None of the commentators have hitherto been fufficiently
{killed in mufic to fee the meaning of thefe fyllables in fol-
mifation, which imply a feries of founds fo unnatural, that
ancient muficians prohibited their ufe. * Mi contra fa eft
diabolus.”? Shakfpeare, -however, fhews by the context,
that he was well acquainted with the property of the mufical
intervals contained in the tritonus, or fharp 4th, which
confifting of three tones, without the intervention of a
femitone, is extremely difficult to fing, and Biaerer Di
when

‘‘ O, thefe eclipfes portend

SHA
when fung, if mi, or fa, is the lait note of the phrafe or

Suaxsreane’s Clif, or High Cliff, in Geography, a lofty
cliff on the E. coatt wv En Nandy oe county of Kent;
fo called from the beautiful defeription of it given by
— poet in the tragedy of King Lear; 2 miles S. of

ver.

SHAKY, or Suaxen, a natural defeét in timber when
it is full of {plits or clefts, and will not bear the fattening,
or when into plank the caulking.

SHAL, in Geography, a dittri& of Perfia, in Balouchiltan,
the country of the Balouches, which is confidered by fome as
a province diftin& from Mekran (the ancient Gedrofia), and
whisk aanemisie at Koohince (the hilly road), 25 miles
N.E. of Bayla, or in N. lat. 26° 35', and extends to
Noofhky, 79 miles N.W. of Kelat, or in N. lat. 30°. This
a," a confufled mafs of mountains, through which
the road generally leads in water-courfes. Flocks of th
and cattle in every part of this country, and it alfo
produces great quantities of wheat. It is divided into the
two mountainous provinces of Jhalawan and Sarawan, the
low of Cutch Gandava to the E., and the pro-
vinces of Zuhree and Anund Dijel; and to thefe may be
added the {mall diftricts of Shal and Muttung, lying N.
of Shalawan is the moft fouthern province a Ba-
louchiftan, and Sarawan (which fee) is the moft northern

i Cutch Gandava, fituated at the bottom of the
moun’ lying S.E. of Kelat, is ae 1 ¥ miles long,
and 40 or 50 broad. Its foil is rich, black, and loamy,
and produces every {pecies of

f grain, as well as cotton, in-
» madder, &c. Cutch Gandava exports great quan-
tities of grain to the fea-ports of Curachee and Sonmeany,
whence it is thipped to Mufeat, the coait of Mekran, &c.
Anund Dijel lies N. of Cutch Gandava: its climate is
» the foil excellent, and the produtions abundant ;
that the khan of Kelat derives se revenue from this
{mall diftri&. Shal and Muttung are r than Anund
Dijel, but they are remarkable for their fruits, which are
excellent and cheap. ‘The climate is warmer than that
of Kelat ; the foil 1s more fandy ; but the grain and other
pe are the fame. (See Zunnree.) The capital of
uchiltan is Kelat, a tewn furrounded by a mud-wall,
and containing 4000 houfes, and about 7000 inhabitants, of
whom about s00 are Hindoos. The bazar of Kelat is
well fupplied, and the town appears opulent, being fre-
quented by merchants, and carrying on a confiderable

_ trade. N, lat. 29° 6’. E. long. 67° 57’.
SHALBERG, a mountain of Switzerland; 4 miles N.

Ss BERIS, a circar of Hindooftan, bounded on
the N. by Goragot and Bettooriah, on the E. and S. by
Bettooriah, and on the W. by Bettooriah and Dinagepour ;

_about 18 miles from N. to S, and nearly as much frem E.
to W. The chief town feems to be Cartee.

Ss LDEAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 7
miles S.W. of Rotafgur,

SHALE, in Natural Hiflory, a variety of {chiftofe clay:
the firft is denominated flate clay, the {chiefer Thon
of Werner. (See Cray.) The fecond variety is bituminous
Mate, the brand fchiefer of Werner, of a brownith-black,
or blackith-brown, colour, appearing like bad coal; it is

in confiderable {tratified mafles ; luitre, o or 13 tranf-
opeidy o; fracture Py fragments tabular ; hardnefs, 5;
P- gT-
ing,

about 2,000;
though very flowly, with the mizeral acids: feeling

weak flame and fulphureous {mell, the refiduum being light-

SHA

grey; it feems to differ from the former variety, in con-
taining bitumen, Kirwan. See TasuLan Sran,

The acid emitted from thale, during its calcination, unit-
ing itfelf to the argillaceous earth of the thale, forms alum.
About a hundred and twenty tons of calcined thale will
make one ton of alum, The thale, after being calcined, is
{teeped in water, by which means the alum, which is formed
during the calcination of the thale, is diflolved : this diflolved
alum undergoes various operations, before it is formed into
the alum of the fhops. Watfon’s Chem, Eff, vol. ii. p. 315-
See ALuM.

This kind of flate forms large flrata in Derbyfhire ; aod
that which lies near the furface of the earth is of a fofter
and more fhivery texture than that which lies deeper. Jt 1s
alfo found in i {trata, generally above the coal, in moft
coal counties of thiskingdom. Dr. Short informs us, that
the fhale waltes the lead ore near it, by its ftrong acid; and
that it corrodes and deftroys all minerals near it, except iron
or coal, of whofe vitriol it partakes. See SLATE.

SHALG, in Geography, a town of Turkeftan ; 10 miles
S. of Turkettan.

SHALLOP, Snaccoop, or Sloop, is a {mall light veffel,
with only a {mall main-mait, and fore-maft, and lug-fails, to
hale up, and let down, on occafion.

Shallops are commonly good failers, and are therefore
often ufed as tenders upon men of war.

The French fhallop is a large-decked floop of burden,
ufed in Holland and Flanders, having one maft, carrying a

aff-mainfail. On the fore-fide of the maft, above the gall
is a fhort {par projeting forwards; to which is bent a ong
narrow fail, the tack of which is made faft to the ftem, an
the fheet to the fide near the fhrouds. On the bowfprit are
fet two or three jibs, and a {mall mait is often fixed abaft
that carries a mizen.

SHALLOT, in Gardening, the common name of a very
ufeful culinary plant. See ALLIuM.

To what has been faid under the above head, it may here
be neceflary to add fome improvements, which have fince
been made, in the culture of thefe {mall bulbous roots. As
the habits of growth in roots of this nature differ greatly in
the different forts, fome requiring to be nearly or quite on
the furface of the ground, while others ftand in need of
being a confiderable depth below it, which has not been
well attended to in the garden culture of fuch roots; it
may be readily fuppofed that thefe have confiderable in-
fluence and effe& on the growth of fuch root crops. In
confequence of finding that crops of this root generally be-
came mouldy and perifhed, and that they were ufually
planted, from the dire€tions of garden cultivators, at the
depth of two or three inches from the furface ; the injury,
failure, and deftru€tion of {uch crops, were naturally afcribed
to this caufe. A few bulbs er bunches of this root were
confequently divided, as far as poflible, into fingle buds or
bulbs, and planted upon or rather above the furface of the
ground, fome very rich foil being placed underneath them,
and the mould on each fide raifed to fupport them, until
they became firmly rooted. This mould was then removed
by means of a hoe, and the ufe of the watering-pot, and
the bulbs of courfe left wholly out of the ground. The
growth of the plants had now fo near a refemblance to that
of the common onion, as not readily to be diftinguithed
from it, until their irregularity of form, the confequence
of the numerous germs within each bulb, became evident.
The forms of the bulbs, however, continued conftantly
different from all thofe raifed in the ordinary method, being
much more broad, but of lefs length. “The crop was 3
great deal better in quality, and at the fame time much

2 more

SHA
more abundant in quantity. It may confequently not be
unworthy of the gardener’s attention, See the Tranfactions
of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. 11. p..97.

SHaxxor Creek, in Geography, a river of North Carolina,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 33° 53’. W. long.
78° 28!.

SHALLOW. See Suoat. .

SHALTOCH Cairn, in Geography, a mountain of
Scotland, in Ayrfhire; 12 miles E. of Girvan.

SHAM, Er. See Damascus.

SHAMADE, in War. See CuoamMane.

SHAMALAPALEAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
doftan, in Coimbetore; 15 miles N.E. of Coimbetore.

SHAMARASHUP, atown of Hindooftan, in Coim-
betore ; 18 miles S.W. of Erroad.

SHAMBE, a river of Welt Florida, which runs into
Penfacola bay.

SHAMBLE, or SHammet, in Mining, a term ufed to
exprefs a fort of nich, or landing place, left at certain dif-
tances in the adits of mines, and formed by a itage of
boards. The method of digging the tin-mines in Devon-
fhire, and fome parts of Cornwall, is this; they fink their
way in fuch a breadth as is fufficient for them to ftand and
work, and at every fathom they leave a fquare place vacant,
to which the ore is to be thrown up with fhovels as it 1s
dug. This they do from caft to caft; that is, as far as a
man can conyeniently throw up the ore with his fhovel.
Thus the ore, as it is dug by the beelmen, is thrown up by
the fhovellers, who follow them from fhamble to fhamble,
till it comes to the top of the mine. This, however, is but
an inconvenient way, and the ufe of thefe fhambles is gene-
rally fupplied by a winder at the opening of the mine,
which manages two buckets, the one of which is fent down
empty, while the other is fent up full; and one man em-
ployed below to load, and another toempty. Phil. Tranf.
N° 60. See Minine.

SHAMBLES, or Sutnetes, in Geography, a bank of
fand in the Englifh Channel, near the coatt of Dorfetfhire,
about four miles E. by S. from Portland Bill, with 14
feet at low water.

SHAMBRIER, in the Manege, is a long thong of
leather, made faft to the end of a cane, in order to animate
a horfe, and punifh him, if he refufes to obey the rider.

SHAMBYPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Carnatic ; 36 miles S. of Tanjore.

SHAMDARA, a town of Affam, on the Burhampoo-
ter ; 65 miles N.W. of Gerghonge.

SHAME, in £thics. See Passton.

SHAMERAN, in Geography, a town of Curdiftan ; 18
miles S. of Sherezur.

SHAMMY, Cuammy, or Chamois, a kind of leather,
either dreffed in oil, or tanned ; much efteemed-for its foft-
nefs, pliancy, &c.

It is prepared from the flkin of the chamois, or fhamois, a
kind of rupicapra, or wild goat, called alfo ¢/ard, inhabiting
the mountains of Dauphiny, Savoy, Piedmont, and the
Pyrenées. See CHAMoIs.

Befides the foftnefs and warmth of the leather, it has the
faculty of bearing foap without damage ; which renders it
very ufeful on many accounts.

In France, &c. fome wear the flin raw, without any
preparation. Shammy leather is ufed for the purifying of
mercury ; which is done by pafling it through the pores of
the fin, which are very clofe.

The true chamois leather is counterfeited with common
goat, kid, and even with fheep-fkins ; the pra¢tice of which
makes a particular profeflion, called by the French chamoi-

Printed bv A. Strahan.

SHA
fure. The laft, though the leaft efteemed, is yet fo popular,
and fuch vaft quantities of it are prepared, efpecially about
Orleans, Marteilles, and Touloufe, that it may not be amifs
to give the method of preparation.

Manner of Shamoifing, or of preparing Sheep, Goat, or
KidJkins in Oil, in imitation of Shammy.—The fkins, being
wafhed, drained, and {meared over with quick-lime on the
flefhy fide, are folded in two lengthwife, the wool outwards,
and laid in:heaps, and fo left to ferment eight days; or, if
they had been left to dry after laying, then fifteen days.

Then they are wafhed out, drained, and half dried ; laid
on a wooden leg, or horfe, the wool {tripped off with a
round ftaff for that purpofe, and laid in a weak pit, the lime
of which had been ufed before, and has loft the greateft part
of its force. :

After twenty-four hours they are taken out, and left to
drain twenty-four more; they are then put in another
ftronger pit. This done, they are taken out, drained, and
put in again, by turns; which begins to difpofe them to
take oil; and this practice they continue for fix weeks in
fummer, or three months in winter: at the end of which
they are wafhed out, laid on the wooden leg, and the fur-
face of the {kin on the wool-fide peeled off, to render them
the fofter; then made into parcels, fteeped a night in the
river, jn winter more, ftretched fix or feven over one another,
on the wooden leg, and the knife pafled ftrongly on the flefh-
fide, to take off any thing fuperfluous, and render the {kin
fmooth. aj

Then they are fteeped, as before, in the river, and the
{ame operation is repeated on the wool-fide ; they are then
thrown into a tub of water, with bran init, which is brewed
among the fkins till the greateft part fticks to them, and
then feparated into diftin€t tubs, till they {well, and rife of
themfelves above the water.

By this means the remains of the lime are cleared out ;
they are then wrung out, hung up to dry on ropes, and fent
to the mill, with the quantity of oil neceflary to {cour them :
the beft oil is that of ftock-fith.

Here they are firft thrown in bundles into the river, for
twelve hours, then laid in the mill-trough, and fulled with-
out oil till they be well foftened; then oiled with the hand,
one by one, and thus formed into parcels of four flkins each ;
which are milled and dried on cords a fecond time ; then a
third; and then oiled again, and dried.

This procefs is repeated as often as neceflity requires ;
when done, if there be any moifture remaining, they are
dried in a ftove, and made up into parcels wrapped up in ©
wool: after fome time they are opened to the air, but
wrapped up again as before, till fuch time as the oil feems
to have loft allits force, which it ordinarily does in twenty-
four hours.

The {kins are then returned from the mill to the cha-
moifer, to be feoured ; which is done by putting them in a
lixivium ef wood-afhes, working and beating them in it
with poles, and leaving them to fteep, till the ley hath
had its effeét; then they are wrung out, fteeped in an-
other lixivium, wrung again; and this is repeated till all
the greafe and oil be purged out. When this is done,
they are half dried, and pafled over a fharp-edged iron

- inftrument, placed perpendicular in a block, which opens,

foftens, and makes them gentle; laftly, they are tho-
roughly dried, and pafled over the fame inftrument again 5
which finifhes the preparation, and leaves them in form of
fhammy.

Kid and goat-fkins are fhamoifed in the fame manner —
as thofe of fheep, excepting that the hair is taken off
without the ufe of any lime; and that when brought ant

tne

SHA
mill, | a particular called
_ Ba fe ; and difficult of all the others.

his, that, as foon as brought from the mill,
a fit lixivium, taken out, ttretched

leg, and the hair is feraped off with
knife; this makes them fmooth, and, in working, to
ft a kind of fine kuap. The difficulty is in feraping them

, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania,
county, containing 2027 inhabitants.
Creck, a river of Penafylvania, which runs
— 19 N. lat. go? gi'. W. long. 76° 53'.

Gl, atownof Perfia, in the provinee of

4 NCORI, a town of Perfian Armenia; 12 miles

of Kanja. —
DECAN, Bio, a town of New York, in the
of Uliter, 14 miles N.W. of Kingtton.
NDBCAN, Lith, a town in the fame county ; 12 miles
4 YN LUM, a town of Hindooltan, in
1; 8 miles E. of Namacul.
IANEDI, a town of Nubia, on the right bank of the
miles S.W. of Nubia. ¢

\NGOLDEN, a {mall polt-town of Ireland, in the
imerick ; 119 miles W.S.W. from Dublin.
GRA, a country of Africa, W. of Mocaranga.
GRAPOY, a town of Hindooftan, in Marawar ;
.S.E. of Trumian,

K, in Conchology, the Shanfcrit name of that
cies of thell, which gives its name in Europe to this
nch of natural hiftory. French and other foreign writers
ell th ken 7 fubititution of a hard
to a fu Beg mn that conch may
been eaken 1 m the fame fource as
it. The thank, or chank, or
, and is often feen beautifully
breaft. With the Hindoos, the

-
oe)
=

the article Kuraavatrara of this work, where
thank is faid to be “a thell conferring victory on
. 30 fhould found it.” In the diftribution of the
icle the fhell feems to have fallen to the fhare of

oufing implements, were much ufed in early
as trumpets and drums are with us. In the
i wars between the Pandus, and their kinfmen
as ptt defcribed in the Mahabarat,
fhell Panchajanya, obtained in the

t our article Kasya, from a fea-
onit 5 which fee. Each chief in the
alluded to (Steere manne oe:
valrous kni in@ and fignificant names are given.
) the porti OF the Maheborst ‘ucllhad by Mr. Wilkins,
ad it Gita, the following paflage occurs. “ The

ient chief, and brother of the grand tire of the Kurus,
outing with a voice like a roaring lion, blew his fhell
au pirit of the Kuru chief ; inftantly ianumer-
is, and other warlike inftruments, refounded on all

—t ceffive. Krifhna and Arjun,
id chariot drawn by white horfes,

Printed by A. Strahan,
New-Sueet Square, Loudon.

“by mytftics a

SHA
founded their thells of celeftial form ; that blown . Krifns
hum, of

was named Panchajanyas Arjun’s, Devadata,
dreadful deeds, blew hie capacious the HH] Powndra; and
Yudithtira, the royal fon of Koonti, founded A anta- Vij i.
Nakal and Sahadeva blew their thells alfo, the abe oiled
Sugufha, the other Manipufbpaka; fo that their (orill
founding voices pierced the hearts of the Kurus, and re.
echoed with «dreadful noife from heaven te carth.”” P. 29,
The thells in queftion are articles of commerce in India,
to no ivconfidersble extent. A chank fithery on the Mand
of Ceylon is noticed by Mr, Cordiner, It is in the neigh.
bourhood of Manaar, (fee Manaan,), and yields, Mr. Cor-
diner fays, a confiderable revenue to government. The
thells, he fays, are brought from the depth of two fathoms
by divers, who in a va day can, from a boat, fee them
crawling at the bottom. Such as are of a fpiral form are
chiefly exported to Bengal, where they are fawed into rings
of various fizes, and worn on the arms, legs, fin; and
toes of coiling “atin. both _— and female, chank
opening to the right, that is with its {piral line to
its pre dete ak cocky met por gn e biably selosd
zealots. They always fell, Mr. Condiess
er for their weight in gold. Hiltory of Ceylon, vol. u.

P Univalves of the fort here alluded to, called heteroftrophous
by conchologitts, are veFy rarely of any {pecies, and are looked
on with admiration in all countries; but with the enthe-
fiaftic Hindoo in a degree unequalled. A Yogi, or Saniafii
of the Vaifhnayva fe&, deems himfelf extremely a y in fuch
an acquifition. The hell in queftion is frequently feen in the
hands of itinerant holy beggars, and it is founded in fome
of the temples and religious ceremonies of the Hindoos,

SHANK of an Anchor, on board a Ship. See Ancuor,

Suank of a Hor/2, inthe Manege, the name of that part
of the fore-leg which is between the knee and the fetlock,
or paftern joint. The larger and broader the fhank is the
better. It is known to be fo, by the back finew being at a
diftance from the bone, or well feparated from it, hav-
ing no kind of {welling betwixt it and the bone, which may
caufe the leg to appear round. *

Swank, or Shank-painter, in a Ship, is a fhort chain faf-
tened under the foremait-fhrouds, by a bolt, to the fhip’s
fides, having at the other end a rope faitened to it. Os
this fhank-painter the whole weight of the aft-part ef the
anchor refts, when it lies by the fhip’s fide. The rope by
which it is hauled up, is made faft about a timber-head. See
Painter.

Swank, Sheep, a fort of knot made on backftays, &c. to
fhorten them,

SHANKER, in Medicine. See CHANKRE.

SHANKLIN Cuarxg, in G, » 2 ledge of rocks op
the E. coaft of the [fle of wae . of Ludcomb Chine.

SHANMUKA, a name of a celebrated hero in Hindoo
Mythology, more commonly called Kartilya ; which fee.
The name Shanmuka means with fix mouths or faces, he
being fo reprefented; the reafon of which is given under
the article referred to. See alfo Sesnti-maraiya, another
of his names,

SHANNON, in Geography, the chief river of Ireland,
and the largeit in any ifland in the world. The name is fup-
pofed to be derived from the Irith words /ban, old, and
avon, ariver. Other derivations, however, are given, all of
which feem equally fanciful and uncertain ; as the names of
rivers are in general more ancient than even the names
the countries through which they flow. Ptolemy
the Shannon Senus; Orofius, Scena; and /Ethicus, Seana.
It is called by Giraldus Cambrenfis Flumen Sencufe; who

3D alfo

SHANNON.

alfé dignifies it, as Virgil did the Po, with the’ title of

Fluviorum Rex. Spenter too celebrates
« The {pacious Shenan {preading like a fea.”

And other poets have been eloquent in defcribing its ma-
jeftic courfe, holy iflands, and fublime feenery ; but geo-
graphers are, in general, very brief, and fometimes con-
tradi€tory in their accounts of this river.’ They do not
even agree as to its fources According to Camden and
Ware it rifes in Slieve-en-eron, (i. é. the mountain of iron
mines,) in the county of Leitrim ; but Gough and Ferrar
make it {pring from the plains of Quilka, in the county of
Cavan. Again, Dr. Beaufort fays, Lough Clean is the
fountain-head; while Boade, Pinkerton, and moft other
writers on the fubje&, make it Lough Allen. Thefe dif-
ferences, however, may be in fome meafure reconciled by
obferving, that Lough Allen receives the waters of the other
fources above-mentioned, and that the Shannon does not
take its name until it has pafled this lake. Ass it is likewife
the receptacle of moft of the other current waters of the fur-
rounding country, every ftream that falls into it may claim
fome fhare in the difputed honour; but Lough Clean has the
higheft title, as contributing moft largely by means of the
river Duff. Lough Allen is nearly in the centre of the
county of Leitrim; it is about twenty fquare miles in ex-
tent, and in fome parts is faid to be unfathomable. From
this grand refervoir and copious fpring, the Shannon iffues
in great force at a place called Balatnara. The direétion, at
firft, is fouth and fouth-weft, dividing the provinces of
Leinfter and Munfter from Connaught. It pafles Limerick,
where it turns nearly to the weit, and, fixty miles below this
city, falls into the Atlantic ocean, between Kerry Head and
Cape Lean, after a courfe of two hundred miles. _It is na-
vigable nearly to Limerick for fhips of the greateft burden,
and for fmaller veflels throughout the whole extent of its
courfe. ‘

This noble river traverfes feveral large lakes, and forms
many extenfive bays and eftuaries, interfperfed with beau-
tiful iflands. It receives above thirty other rivers in its
eourfe, and diffufes verdure and fertility over the banks
of ten counties; namely, Leitrim, Rofcommon, Gal-
way, and Clare, on the right ; and on the left, Longford,
png aed King’s County, Tipperary, Limerick, and

erry.

The principal towns fituated on its banks are Leitrim,
Carrick, Jameftown, Lanefborouzh, Athlone, Banagher,
Portumna, Killaloe, Caftleconnel, Tarbert, and Kilruth; be-
fides the city of Limerick, which it encompafles by different
branches, and in fome meafure infulates.

The largeft lakes which it pafles through are, Lough
Boffin, Lough Ree or Regith, and Lough Derg or Derg-
art. ‘The firit; which is about ten fquare miles in extent, is
fituated at the confines of the counties of Leitrim, Long-
ford, and Rofcommon. Lough Ree extends nearly from
Panefborough to Athlone, a diftance of about fixteen miles,
and is from two to five miles in breadth. It contains above
fifty iflands, many of which are covered with wood and good
_ patturage. Lough Derg is eighteen miles long, and from

two'to feven broad. Itis diverfified with about fixty iflands,
one of which, called Innifmore, contains above a hundred
acres of good land ; and on another, called the Holy Ifland,
are the ruins of feven churches, and a round tower. This
lake extends nearly from Portumna to Killaloe. There is
alfo below Limerick, at the confluence of the Fergus
river, an immenfe eftuary, or firth, of many fquare miles
= 2 Yin interfperfed with feveral rich and romantic

ands.

The principal rivers that fall in froth’ the right bank, vor
Connaught ‘fide, are the Key, Suck, Seariff, and“Férgus.
The confluence of the’ Key is at Carrick, and the*Suck,
which divides the! counties of Rofcommon ‘and ‘Galway,
flows in at Clonfert above Banagher. Several fmaller rivers
fall in from the county of Galway; and from ‘Clare flow
the Scariff and Fergus; but ‘tle -preat weight -6f' water
comes from the other fide by rivers ranning= from’ ealt to
welt, which, it may be remarked, is different to* the ‘ofual
courfe in other parts of the world. ~The Inny isthe firtt
great river on the left bank: it is the boundary between
the counties of Longford and Weftmeath, ‘and ‘falls into
Lough Ree, where it forms a large eltuary. ‘The’ fecond
river on this fide is the Great Brofna, which forms. a ‘fine
confluence with the Shannon above Banagher ; and the Leffler
Brofna, united with the Birr river, falls in a few miles below
that town. From hence to Limerick many {mallet rivers
flow in on the Ormond fide, and below that city there are
fome larger ones : the principal are the Maig, Deel, Ovan,
Cummage, Feale, Gale, and Cafhin. Several of the above
are navigable to a cenfiderable diftance from the Shannon.

From fuch an accumulation of rivers, lakes, and {prings,
the mouth of the Shannon is increafed to an immenfe magni-
tude, being nearly ten miles in breadth, for the laft fifteen miles,
and from twenty to thirty fathoms deep. It is not only larger
than any other infular river, but difcharges much more water
into the ocean than any continental ftream whatever, running
fo fhort a diftance as two hundred miles. Camden feems to
credit a tradition, commonly believed in his time, of a gradual
increafe in the number and fize of the lakes and: rivers of

Ireland. The fuppofition is curious, and may not be wholly ,

unfounded.

As the Shannon from Limerick to the ocean is of great
and increafing importance to the commercial world, we
fhall here give fome patticulars of its navigation from an
hydrographical furvey lately made. ‘Theidiitance is above
fixty Englith miles, and the bearing nearly W, by S.:°The
breadth of the river is various. If the length be divided
into three parts, the firft will be found to’ meafure from one
to three miles broad ; the middle divifion-inereafes to‘about
fix, and the third to ten miles in breadth. The foundings of
the mouth have been already mentioned: they. decreafe to-
wards Limerick ; but in all parts the river-is‘of confiderable
depth, and is remarkable for its tranfparency.

The tides in the mouth of the Shannon rife from nine to |
fourteen feet perpendicular height; and they increafe as the

river becomes narrower, infomuch that at the pool of Li-
merick, they are from: twelve to twenty feet high. . The
current of the tide varies confiderably in different parts of
the ftream, running at the rate of from two to five miles
an hour. It is not, ‘however, perceptible far above the
city, owing to feveral cataracts.

There are many fine bays on the-Clare fide, which afford |

fafe anchorage and good fhelter for fhipping. The principal
are Kilbahan, Carigahault, Clonderlaw, and Labifheda, be-

fides the commodions ‘harbour of Poolanifhary, near Kalrufh, —

and Tarbert bay on the Kerry fide. It may
tioned, that Kerry Head, alfo called Ballyheigh Point, is a
long and narrow promontory 5 and that Cape Lean, or Loop
Head, on the other fide, is {till narrower ; haying at its ex-
tremity a light-houfe, in N. lat. 52° 30!. W. long. ‘10 °20!.

The navigation between the Upper and Lower Shannon

was formerly impeded by the noted cataraét near Caltlecon- —

nel, called the Salmon’s Leap, but of late years canals have
been drawn round this rock as well as others called the Falls,
An important communication has been likewife opened’ be-

tween the Shannon and Dublin by means of the grand canal,
which

be men- |

SHA

which forms its junction above Bavagher, (See our article
u.) Ty be obferved, that. the non acarly

infulates Cognayght. with the county of ; and that

jf.a.canal,of about four milea in length, were cut

gh Clean to the river Bonnet, which falls into Sligo
day. the jadular boundary would be complete, and the Shan-
nen rendered aavigable trom fea to fea.
» Mbebndges over this river are chiefly at the forementioned
owns, but thereyare none below Limerick. In this city
there are three, one of which, called Thomond bridge,
contains fourteen arches; and about ten miles higher is
O'Brien's bridge, which has nineteen arches.
. ."The fitherics on the Shannon are numerous and produGive,
i y for falmon, which is of the fineit favour.
Young, his Tour through Ireland, p. 359,
. of this river, that * befides affording all forts of
the quantity and fize of its fifh are amazing.
and rife to the weight of solbs. each. Trout,
i &c, are large and abundant, and perch
that, in fome years, the poor almott live
upon ? tm a oe a eg lg
but even fuch as are generally denominated pond and lake
fith, abound here ; fo that what Spenfer fays of the Trent
_amay be. truly applied to the bounteous Shannon, which
+" Within itfelf enfeames
~ Both thirty forts of fifh, and thirty furdry ftreames.””
_ The Shannon forms a very important fubje@ in the an-
i reland. y mentions three large cities
banks, Regia, Macolicum, and Regia Altera.
his editors,, Mercator and Ortellius, do not exa¢tly
gree in their maps as to the fituations, and no veitiges re-
, in to fettle the queftion. The general opinion is, that
Regia was on the eaft fide of Lough Ree, and the names

pond, as Ree fignifies a Aing, in the Lrifh lan :
olict Pena a ym pap ae -
dick aera county of Galway, and Regia Altera

oes eo eae

ove

not unfrequently was made the fcene

particularly Limerick, The
curious inftance is recorded in the Anuals of
ery and quoted by Archdall. “ This rome (3905 ,
V’ Ru: oO wi

of Chriftianity in ;

oa
“the pious and hofpitable {chool
that period many of thofe iflands were
dicate religion, and numerous veltiges
are, feen in the remains of churches, abbeys, and
“monattic .inftitutions. The holy ifland in Lough

“Ito as a barrier between the territories of —

. feas, fays

SHA
from the ocean, and which i» thus defcribed by Archdall

+ 49-

“ On the rich and beautiful ifland of Scattery, are the
ruins of a me ed to &t. Senan, who founded
here an epifcopal fee about the time of St, Patrick. There
are likewile the ruins of feven churches, out of eleven which
were here in queen Elizabeth's time. An ancient round
tower of one hundred and twenty feet in height, aud in com-
plete repair, graces the feeve.”” For a more particular ac-
count of thele “ Jnfule facre Seni,” fee Gough’s Camdes ;
alfo Ware, Wilfon, Archdall, &c.

e views of the Shannon are in many parts highly pic-
turefque aod {ublime. We fhall bricfly notice three, YS .
firlt is from a beautiful hill in Lower Ormond, called Knock-
the gowna, i, ¢. Oonagh’s hill, fo named as being the fabled

nce of Oonagh, Spenfer’s Fairie Queen, From. this
eminence the river is feen to an extent of pearly twenty miles,
apparently afcending in its courle. The {econd is from the
pr ruing of Carrick O’Gunnel, beyond Limerick 5 and
the third from Knockpatrick, a lofty hill ip the fame
county, and much nearer to the fea. It is celebrated by fe-
veral writers as commanding the molt grand and interelting
profpeé that can be imagined both of the river and the

. Among thefe authors may be mentioned Necham,
an Englith poet and divine of the twelfth century ; whofe
verfes on the Shannon are thought worthy of quotation by
Camden, and which we fhall here tranfcribe, annexing a free
tranflation.

« Fluminibus magnis letatur Hibernia, Sinews
‘Inter Connatiam, Momoniamque’ fiuit.
Tranfit per muros Limerici, Knoc Patric illum
Oceani claufum fub ditione vider.”

* Amid majeftic ftreams, Hibernia’s. pride,
The noble Shannon bids her plains divide:
Leinfter and Munfter to the eaftward bear,
With Connaught tothe right, and lofty Clare;
By Lim’rick’s walls he bends his lordly way,
While tributary flreams their homage pays '
» Till proud Knockpatrick views, from Defmond’s coatt,
This world of waters in the ocean loft.”

SHANNON, a river of Canada, which runs into the N.E.
part of lake Ontario.

SHANSCRIT, Sanscniz, Sam/crit, Sam/cretam, or
Hanferit language, is the original language of the Hindoos
or toos, in which their Shaflah, or Shafter, is writ-
ten, &c. n

The grand fource of Indian literature, the parent.of
almoft every diale&t, from the Perfian gulf to the China

the learned Halhed, in the Preface to his Gram-

mar of the Bengal Language, is the Shanferit; a lan
of the moft venerable and unfathomable antiquity, which,
although at prefent fhut up in the libraries of Bramins, and
priated folely to the records of their religion, appears

and to have been current over moft part of the oriental world ;

and traces of its original extent may ftill be difcovered in
almott every diftri& of Afia. It is aftonifhing to find the
fimilitude of Shanfcrit words with thofe of Perfian and
Arabic, and even of Latin and Greek; and thofe not in
technical and metaphorical terms, which the fluétuation of
refined arts and improved manners might have occafionally

introduced ; but in the main work of | in
monofyllables, in the names of numbers, and in $
Tations of fuch things as would be firft difcriminated in
immediate dawn of civilization. The coins of Na-
paul, Cafhmire,

ire, and many other kingdoms, are all
3D2

SHANSCRIT.

with Shanfcrit letters, and moftly contain allufions to the old
Shanferit mythology: the fame conformity is alfo obferv-
able in the imprellions of feals from Bootan and Thibet.
Befides, the arrangement of the Shanfcrit alphabet is very
different from that of any other quarter of the world.
This extraordinary mode of combination {till exifts in the
greateit part of the Eait, from the Indus to Pegu, in dialects
now apparently unconneéted, and in chara¢ters completely
diffimilar ; and affords a forcible argument that they are
all derived from the fame fource. Moreover, the names of
perfons and places, of titles and dignities, which are open to

eneral notice, and which are found even to the furtheft
imits of Afia, prefent manifeft traces of the Shanfcrit.
Another circumitance deferves to be mentioned, and that is,
that the raja of Kifhenagur, a very learned and able anti-
quary of Bengal, affirmed, that he had in his own potleffion
books which give an account of a communication formerly
fubfifting between India and Egypt, in which the Egyptians
are defcribed as difciples, and not as in{tructors ; and as
feeking that liberal education and thofe feiences at Hin-
dooftan, which none of their own countrymen had fufficient
knowledge to impart. But though thefe feveral proofs of
the former prevalence of the Shanfcrit are now thinly fcat-
tered over an immenfe continent, and interfperfed with an
infinite variety of extraneous matter, arifing from every
poflible reyolution in the manners and principles of the
nations who have by turns cultivated or deftroyed it; that
part of Afia, between the Indus and the Ganges, {till pre-
ferves the. whole language pure and inviolate ; ftill offers a
thoufand books to the perufal of the curious, many of
which have been religioufly handed down from the earlieft
periods of human exiftence.

H. T. Colebrooke, efg. has given us in the Afiatic Re-
fearches (vol. vii. p. 199, &c-), a literal tranflation of two
paflages cited from a treatife on rhetoric, compiled for the
ufe of Manicya Chandra, raja of Tirabhu&ti, er Tirhut, in
which are enumerated the languages ufed by Hindoo poets.
The firft is as follows: ‘ Sanfcrita, Pracrita, Paifachi,
and Magad’hi, are in fhort the four paths of poetry. The
gods, &c. {peak Sanfcrita ; benevolent genii, Pracrita ;
wicked demons, Paifachi; and men of low tribes and the
reft, Magad’hi. But fages deem Sanferita the chief of
thefe four languages. It is ufed three ways 5 in profe, in
verfe, and in a mixture of both.’ Again, “ Language,
the virtuous have declared to be fourfold, Sanferita, or
the polifhed diale&; Pracrita, or the vulgar diale& 5
Apabhranfa, or jargon; and Mifra, or mixed. Sanfcrita
js the fpeech of the celeftials, framed in grammatical in-
flitutes; Praerita is fimilar to it, but manifold as a pro-
vincial diale@, and otherwife; and thofe languages which
are ungrammatical, are fpoken in their refpective diftriéts.”?
The Paifachi, fays Mr. Colebrooke, feems to be gibberifh,
which dramatic poets make the demons fpeak, when they
bring thefe fantaftic beings on the flage. The mixture of
languages, noticed in the fecond quotation, is that which
is employed in dramas, as is exprefsly faid by the fame
author in a fubfequent verfe. It is not then a compound
language, but a mixed dialogue, in which different perfons
of the drama employ different idioms. Both the paflages
above quoted are therefore eafily reconciled. They, in
fa&t, notice only three tongues. 1. Shanferit, a polifhed
diale@, the inflexions of which, with all its numerous
anomalies, are taught in grammatical inftitutes. ‘This the
dramatic poets put into the mouths of gods and of holy per-
fonages. 2. Pracrit, confifting of provincial dialeé&ts, which
are lefe refined, and have a more imperfe& grammar. In
dramas it ie Ap by women, benevolent genu, &c.

i

3. Magad’hi, or Apabhranfa, a jargon deftitute of regular
grammar. It is ufed by the Ph

diftri€ts : the poets accordingly introduce into the dialogue
of plays a provincial jargon, fpoken by the loweft perfons.
of the drama.

Sanfcriia is the paflive particle of a compound verb,
formed by prefixing the prepofition /am to the crude verb
cri, and by interpofing the letter s, when this compound
is ufed in the fenfe of embellifhment. Its literal meaning
then is © adorned ;’? and when applied to a language, it
fignifies ‘ polifhed.”? Pracrita is a fimilar derivative from
the fame crude verb, with pra prefixed: the moft common
acceptation of this word is ‘¢ outeaft, or man of the loweft
clafs:”? as applied to a language, it fignifies vulgar.’
Apabhranfa is derived from bhras, to fall down it fignifies
a word, or diale€&t, which falls off from correét etymology.
Grammarians ufe the San/erita as fignifying “ duly f>rmed
or regularly infleGted ;”” and Apabhranfa for falfe grainimar.

The languages of India are all comprehended in thefe
three claffes. The firft contains Shanfcrit, a moft polifhed
tongue, which was gradually refined until’ it became fixed
in the claflic writings of many elegant poets, moft of whom
are fuppofed to have flourifhed in the century preceding
the Chriftian era. Tt is cultivated by learned Hindoos
throughout India, as the language of {cience and of litera-
ture, and as the repofitory of their law, civil and religious.
It evidently draws its origin (and fome fteps of its pro-
grefs may even now be traced) from a primeval tongue,
which was gradually yefined in various climates, and be-
came Shanferit in India; Pahlavi in Perfia; and Greek on
the fhores of the Mediterranean.
languages, Shanfcrit abounds in inflexions, which are, how-
ever, more anomalous in this, than in the’ other languages
here alluded to; and which are even more fo in the obfolete
diale& of the Vedas, than in the polifhed’ fpeech of the
claflic poets. It has nearly fhared the fate of all ancient
tongues, and is now become almoft a dead language ; but
there feems no good reafon for doubting, that it was once
univerfally fpoken in India. Its name, and the reputed dif-
ficulty of its grammar, have led many perfons to imagine,
that it has been refined by the concerted efforts of a few
priefts, who fet themfelves about inventing a new languages
not like all other tongues, by the gradually improved practice
of good writers and polite fpeakers. The exquifitely re-
fined fyf{tem by which the grammar of Shanferit is taught,
has been miftaken for the refinement of the language itielf.
The rules have been fuppofed to be anterior to the prac-
tice, but this fuppofition is gratuitous. In Shanferit, as in
every other known tongue, grammarians have not invented
etymology, but have only contrived rules to teach what was
already eftablifhed by approved pratice.

There is one peculiarity of Shanferit compofitions which
may alfo have fuggefted the opinion, that it could’never be a
fpoken language. Mr. Colebrooke alludes to what might be

termed the euphonical orthography of Shanferit. Tt confifts

gar, and varies in different ,

Like other very ancient .

in extending to fyntax the rules for the permutation of let- ’

ters in etymology. Similar rules for avoiding incompatible
founds in compound terms exift in all languages ; this is
fometimes effe@ed by a deviation from orthography in the
pronunciation of words, fometimes by altering one or more
letters to make the fpelling correfpond with the pronunci-
ation. ‘Thefe rules have been more profoundly inveftigated
by Hindoo grammarians than by thofe of any other nation,
and they have completed a fyltem of orthography, which
may be juitly termed euphonical. They require all com-
pound terms to be reduced to this ftandard, and Shanferit
authors, it may be obferved, delight m compounds of in-
ordinate

,

SHANSERIT.

F

ordioate length; the whole fentence too, or even whole
jods, may, at the pleafure of the author, be combined
the elements of a word, and good writers gree

do fo. In common ime this could never have been
ohiicd. None but well-known nye ereld be
ufed. reine who wifhed to be underitood, an
each le be diftinéily articulated, independently of
the terms

which precede and follow it, Such indeed is the

ice of thofe who {till {peak the Shanferit lan-

3 and they deliver themfelves with fuch fluency as is

to prove, that Shanfcrit may have been {poken

in former times with as much facility as the contemporary

dialeéts of the Greek language, or the more modern dia-
leéts of the Arabic tonguc.

‘Thefather of Shanfert grammar, who firft compofed thofe

anttitutes in which this language is formed, or

_words are corre@tly pA or -infle&ted, was

lived in fo remote an age, that he ranks among
whofe fabulous hiftory occupies a con-

i 3 but whatever may be
utras, or fuccinét aphorifms of
univerfal t.

on a profound inveftigation of
the regular and the anomalous in-
the Shanfcrit language. He has combined thofe
t very artificial manner; and has thus com-
| a moit copious into a yery narrow com-
~~ His are 1 tt Thay 9 they have
ved with the utmoit concifenefs ; and this
brevity is the refult of i

at

ious methods ‘ehich “have

been contrived Fer Sa for the purpofe of aflifting
> ftudent’s memory. In

Panini’s fyftem the: mutual re-
of all the parts marks that it muit have been com-
its author; it certainly beats internal evidence
ing been accomplithed by a fingle effort, and even
needed, cannot be interwoven

= iation from a general rule, often for a
ical canon which has univerfal cogency. has
employed fome technical terms without defining them,
paufe, as his commentators remark, thofe terms were
ady introduced by earlier grammarians. None of the
> ancient works, however, feem to be now extant;

mmar were corrected
giver, whole hiftory
impenetrable darknefs of mythology.

hari, whofe. metrical aphorifms,
* have almoft equal authority with the
nd emendations of Catyayanz. Bhar-
* aggre ted io the century preceding’ the
- The text of Panini being concife and am-
ies were compofed to elucidate
Colebrooke has given an ac-
at." i concife commentary now extant,
entitled the «‘Cafica vritti,”” or commentary compoled at
va | Within a few centuries paft, a grammar, well
lapted for aiding the fludent in acquiring a critical know-
edge of the Shanfcrit tongue, has been compiled by Rama-
entitled 7 ; 2?

hand ed ‘© Pracriyacaumudi.
Whea Shanferit was the language of Indian courts, and
vas cultivated not only by soles who devoted themfelves

-

to religion and literature, but alfo by princes, la
foldiers, phyficians, and [cribes; in fhort, by the firlt
tribes, aod by many claffes included in the fosirch 5 an ealy
and popular grammar mutt have been needed by perfons
who could not walte the beft years of their lives ip the fludy
of words, Such grammars mutt always have been in ufe;
thofe, however, which are now ftudied are not, we believe,
of very ancient date. The molt efteemed is the “ Saraf.
wata,’’ together with its commentary named “ Chandrica,”’
It feems to have been formed on one of the Caumudis, by
tranflating Panini’s rules into lan that is intelligible,
independently of the glofs, and without the neceflity of ad-
verting to a different coutext.

Another popular grammar, which is in high repute in
Bengal, is entitled ‘* Mugd’habod’ha,” and is accompanied
by acommentary. It is the work of Vopadeva, and pro-
ceeds upon a plan grounded on that of the Caumudis; but
the author has not been content to tranflate the rules of
Panini, and to adopt his technical terms, He has, on the
contrary, invented new terms, and contrived new abbre-
viations. ‘The fame author likewife compofed a metrical
catalogue of verbs alphabetically arranged. It ig named
* Cavicalpadruma,’’ and is intended as a fubfticute for the
* D’hatupata.””

The beft and moft efteemed vocabulary of the Shanferit
is the “*Amera coftia,” which, like moft other Shanferit
diGionaries, is arranged in verfe to aid the memory. Nu-
merous commentaries have been written on this vocabulary 5
the chief obje& of which is to explain the derivations of the
nouns, and to fupply the principal deficiencies of the text.
Shanfcrit etymologilts {carcely acknowledge a fingle pri-
mitive amongit the nouns. When unable to trace an ety-
mology ich may be confiftent with the acceptation of the
word, they are content to derive it according to grammatical
rules from fome root to which the word has no affinity in
fenfe. At other times they adopt fanciful etymologies from
Puranas or from Tantras. But in general the derivations
are accurate and inftructive.

Amera’s diGtionary does not contain more than ten thou-
fand different words. Yet the Shanferjt language is very
copious. The infertion of derivatives, that donot at all de-
viate from their regular and obvious import, has been very
properly deemed fuperfluous. Compound epithets, and
other compound terms, in which the Shanferit lan age is
peculiarly rich, are likewife omitted ; excepting fith as are
efpecially appropriated, by a limited acceptation, either as
titles of deities, or as names of plants, animals, &c. In faét,
compound terms are formed at pleafure, according to the
rules of grammar; and muit generally be interpreted in
firi& conformity with thofe rules. Technical terms too
are moftly excluded from general diftionaries, and configned
to feparate nomenclatures, The * Ameracofh” then is lefs
defe&tive than might be inferred from the {mall number of
words explained init. Still, however, it needs a fapplement.
The remaining deficiencies of the Ameracoth ure {upplied by
confulting other diGtionaries and vocabularies, which «are

very numerous.
The Shanferit language is very copious and nervous ; but
the Bo by of the beit authors wonderfully concife. It. far
exceeds the Greek and Arabic in the wariety of its etymo-
logy, and, like them, has a prodigious number of derivatives
from each pri root. The grammatical rules are«alfo
numerous Pra difficult, though there are not many ano-
malies, _*¢ The Shanfcrit language,” {ays fir William Jones,
(Afiat. Ref. yo}. i. p, 422.) “ whatever be its antiquity, is of
a won ‘ftru€ture, more perfeét than the Greek, more
ro than the Latin, and more exquifitely refined than
either; yet bearing to both of them a ftronger ——
oth

SHANSCRIT.

bothinthe roots of verbs; and in the forms of grammar, than
could ‘poflibly have been:produced by accident ; fo. ftrong,
indeed, that rio philologer could examine them all three
without: believing them to have fprung from fome common
fource, which, perhaps, no longer exifts... There is.afimilar
reafon, though»not quite fo forcible, for fuppofing that
both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very
different idiom, had the fame origin with the.Shanfcrit, and
the old Perfian might be added: to the fame family.”

The fundamental partof the Shanferit language is divided
into three clafles ; viz. dhaat; or roots of verbs, /hubd, or
original nouns, andevya; or particles. The latter are always
indeéclinable, as in other nations ; but the words compre-
hended: in the two former clafles muft be prepared by cer-
tain additions and inflexions to fit them for a place in com-
pofition. Here the art of the grammarian interpofes, as not
a fyllable, nor a letter, can be added or altered but by regi-
men, nor the moft trifling vatiation of the fenfe in the minutett
fubdivifion of declenfion or conjugation can be effeéted with-
out the application of feveral rules ; and all the different forms
for every change of gender, number, cafe, perfon, tenfe,
mood or degree, are methodically arranged for the afliftance
of the»memory ; refembling, though on an infinitely more
extenfive feale, the compilations of propria gue maribus and
as in prajfenti.

In the Shanfcrit language, the three diltinétions of genders,
vix. ma{culine, feminine, and neuter, are preferved in their
common number and order. A Shanferit. noun, in its firlt
formation from the general root, exilts equally independent
of cafe as of gender. It is neither nominative, nor geni-
tive, nor accufative, novis imprefled with any of thofe mo-
difications, which mark the relation and conneétion between
the feveral members of a fentence. \In this ftate it is called
am imperfed, or crude noun. ‘Fo makea nominative any noun,
the termination muit be changed, and a new form {upplied.
Thus we fee that, in the Shanferit-at lea{t, the nominative has
an equal right with any other inflexion to be called a cafe.
The Shanfcrit has feven declenfions of nouns, which are all
ufedin the fingular, dual, and plural number, and differently
formed, as they terminate with a confonant, and with a long
or fhort. yowel ; and alfo.as they are of different genders,
The feven changes of inflexion are exclufive of the vocative,
and therefore the Shanfcrit comprehends two more than even
thofe of the Latin: they are as follow, viz. 1. The nomina-
tive) or agent ina fentence ; 2. The paflive cafe, or /ubjed of
the aGtion; 3. The cau/al cafe, pointing out the caule dy
which a thing is done; or the inftrument qwith which it is
done; or the -fubje&- iz or 4y which it is fuffered; 4. The
dative, with the fign fo or for; 5. The ablative, implying
the fubjeé&t from whence any thing proceeds; 6. The. po/-
JSeffive cafe, ‘called by us, the genitive ;7.-The /ocative cafe,
definitive of fituation, and generally known by the fign im.
The vocative is excluded from the-number of cafes,.as no
inflexion is employed in its formation.

The Shanfcrit, the Arabic, the Greek, and the Latin
verbs are furnifhed with a fet of inflexions and terminations
fo comprehenfive, and fo complete, that by them form
alone they can exprefs all the different diftin¢tions both of
perfon and time. ‘Three feparate qualities are in them per-
feétly blended and united. Thus by their root, they denote
a particular a&t; and by their inflexion, both point outthe
time when it takes place, and number of the agents. . Every
Shanfecrit verb has a form equivalent tothe middle voice,of
the Greek, ufed through all the tenfes. with a refletive
fenfe; and the former is even the molt extenfive of the two
in its-ufe and offices: for in Greek the refleGtive ideacan
only be adopted intranfitively, when the aétion of the verb
defcends to no extraneous fubje&t; but in Shanfcrit the

12T

verb is both reciprocal and. tranfitive at the. fame times.
The verb fubftantive of the Shanferit very nearly. refembles
thofe of the Greek and Latin; but perhaps it would net
be fufpected that all, the verbs,in. mi sare formed exactly,
upon the fame principle with the Shanfcrit conjugations,
even in, the, minutett particulars, ..All the. terms which
ferve to qualify, to. diltinguifh, or to augment either jub-
Slance or aéiion, are clalled by, the Shanfcrit: grammarians
undera head, literally fignifying inerea/e or. addition. ...vcs
cording to this arrangement, a fimple fentence,confifts of
three numbers: the agent; the aétion, andthe fubje&;
which, in a grammatical fenfe, are, reduced .to;two, viz
the noun (whether agent or {ubjeGt),.and the; verb. All
fuch words as tend to {pecificate or to amplify,the.noun,
are. denominated. by 2 term).which fignifies ;adjedlives. or
epithets ;-and {uch as are applied to denote relation or, con-
nection, are called connedives of nouns, and by European
grammarians, prepo/itions : thofe particles which in any, man-
nep affect the verb are denominated attributes of verbs.

The Shanfcrit alphabet contains fifty letters; and it is
one-boatt of the Bramins, that it exceeds all other alphabets
in this refpe&t. But when we confider that of their thirty-
four confonants, nearly half are combined founds, and that
fix of theix, vowels are merely the correfpondent long ones
to as many which are fhorf, the advantage feems to be little
more than imaginary. The Shanferit charafter, ufed in
Upper Huidooltan, is faid to be the fame original letter
that was firlt, delivered tothe people by Brihma, and is
called Diewnagur, .or the language of angels; whereas the
charaéter ufed by. the Bramins of Bengalis by no means fo
ancient, and is evidently.a-corruption of the former. In
the four beids, or vedas, which conttitute the original and —
facred text of the great Hindoo. creator and. legiflator
Brihma, the length of the vowels is exprefled by a mufical
note or fign placed over every word; and in reading the
beids, thefe diftinGtions of tone and time) mult be nicely, ob-
ferved.;, fo that they produce all the effet of a laboured
recitative. It is remarkable, that. the Jews in their fyna=
gogues chant the Pentateuch in the fame kindof melody,
and it is fuppofed that this ufage has defcended\to them
from the remoteft ages. Some writers. have. erroneoufly
aflerted, that the four beids are in verfe ;, whereas they are
written in a kind of meafured profe; and they.are now
{carcely. intelligible to the moft learned pundits or lawyers ;
they are alfo fcarce, and diificult to. be found. .However,
comments have been written upon them from the earlieft
periods ; of which one of ,the moft ancient, and_approved
was compofed by. Bifetht Mahamomé, or the.Moft Wife,
a great writer and prophet, whois faid to have,lived in the
futtee jogue, or firft age,of the world, See Halhed’s Pre-
face tovhis tranflation of the Code of Gentoo Laws, printed
in 1776. t vill

Dr. Leyden, in his account of the languages and litera-
ture of the Indo-Chinefe nations, (Afiatic Refearches,
vol. x.) has fhewn, that the .‘¢ Pali,”? as it is generally
written, or ‘¢ Bali?’ language, as it 1s. commonly pro-
nounced, occupies the fame place among the Indo-Chinefe —
nations, which Shanfcrit holds. among the .Hindoos, or
Arabic.among the followers of Iflam. Throughout the —
greater part of the maritime countries, which lie between
India and China, ‘it is the language of religion, law, itera- _
ture, and fcience, and has had an extenfive influence in
modifying the vernacular language of thofe regions. . La —
Loubere, on the authority of @’Herbelot, has {tated that —
the ancient Perfic language was termed. Pahaleyi (Pahlavi),
and that the Perfians do not diftinguifh in ‘writing between
Pahali and Bahali.. P.. Paulinus, howeyer,.applies this
term Bali inaccurately to the {quare Bali character, inte |

o

of the Paifruage. "This tangoaye; notwithftanding its ex-
tenfive ule aniony (6 many nations, and the degree of culti-
vation ‘which’ it has Wed from the different tribes by
whom’ it is emploped, ‘has hitherto actra@ted litele attention
oe “The? Bali ——— according to Dr.
eat sit it¢ origin, to be a derivative from the
Hf thGugh ‘it has not only acquired confiderable

fom, ‘but hav been alfo moditied to a certain

degree, fH the power OF the letters, by the monofyllabic
pronunciation

SOF ‘the “Tndo-Chinefe nations. The form of
the’ Bali chafaéter varies eflentially among the different na-
tions by whom ft is ufed.

’ The Bati is’anancient diale&t of Shanferit, which fome-
times fear the original. © When allowance
imate fr the rel intorclibage of ‘certain letters, the
elifion' of hart fonants, atid the contraction of fimilar
‘all the vocables which occur in its ancient books,
pofitiond tardieve Some waipettie papier pe

i wever, fome ds a
of the cou fometimes infinwate theanibel ce, ‘in the fone
manner at 1, and Canara vocables occafi
occur, ih “the! later it compofitions of the Dekhin.
The Bali,’ while it retains almoft the whole extent of

Soe ae aoe in Senin tire ——ae
empleys ‘variety rather {pari in compofition, an
affe&ts the frequent Naercetiinn OT assnnticae partici-
ple, and thevufe ‘of imperfonal verbs. It ‘alfo ufes the
cafes ‘of ‘néuns in a more indeterminate manner than the
Shanferit, and often confounds the aétive, neuter, and paf-
five'tenfes ‘of verbs. Like other derivative diale€ts, it oc-

rit ‘hours and particles in an oblique
fenfe ; but ‘notwithitanding alt thefe circamitances, it ap-

D mveh nearer the pore Shanfcrit, than any other
) and exhibits a clofe affinity to the Prakrit, and the
Zeadiive: a Dam idaow ora “0 povtlg
- Thefe three diale@&ts, the Prakrit, the Bali, and«the

; ‘the moft ancient derivatives from the
Phe it mafs of vocables in all the three, and
‘even = i emir both in verbs aah are are
ae a ’ ing to ar laws “of

rsteesiarais poceeah fake os
times, ‘in perfain ‘thefe analogies; they nearly coincide,
fometimes ‘they differ con y, fometimes one, and
netimes another 6f them’a neareft to the origi-

n ‘Shanferit. Their con ith this parent ‘
was perctived iotoby Serato ane Jones, and has

O ‘been alluded to’ by P. Paulinus, who derives his infor-

tion, ‘coficérning the’ Bali, from Carpanius and Mante-
us. The fate of thefe three fs alfo, in fome
ilar. The Prakrit is ‘the which con-

Ong enjc oO ypacr ee eng ber Ayia erie
pand been'the depofitary of the facred books of Zo-
er. vis perhaps, however, more accurate to confider

“by the Jainas, as the language of religion
ac 2 i P'iahides! and refpeétable
mre , Sometimes it
x all the dialeéts derived from the Shan-

trit,"whether denominated Prakrit, Mogad’hi, Surafeni

’ SHANSCRIT.

Paifachi, or Apabhranfa p and fometimes it is even extend
ed to the Defa-b*hahhas, or popular tongues of lodia, ae
Mahraiht or Mahratea, Canara, ‘Pelinga, Udia and! Bens
gall, According to the extended ule of the term Prakrt, it
may certainly include both Bali and Zend ; and sf more ex.
tenfive refearch fhould jultify the idea denwed from an ims
perfect invefligation, Dr. Leyden a hends that the Bali
may be identified with the Magad’ha, and the Zend with
the Surafeni, of Shanferit authors,

Thefe three dialeéts, the Prakrit, Beh, and Zend,
have been revularly cultivatedvand fixed by compofition,
The'fame laws of derivation are applicable to the forma-
tion of all the three; but yet there is often confiderable
diverfity in the forms which particular words aflume, as
appears from the comparative {pecimen gwen by Dr.

den. ;

he learned Mr. Colebrooke has publifhed in. the roth
volume of the Afiatic Refearches, an elaborate effay,-on
Shanfcrit and Prakrit poetry. He obferves, that the profody
of Shanferit will be found, from the examples winch he has
adduced, to be richer thaw that of any other known lan
in variations of metre, regulated either by quastity or by
number of fyllables, both with and without rhyme, and
fubje& to laws impofing in fome inttances riyid reltri€tions,
in others allowing ample latitude. The rules relative to
Prakrit profody, are applicable, forthe moft part, to Shan-
ferit profody alfo; fince the laws of verfification im both
languages are nearly the fame.

hanferit profody admits of two forts of metre; one
governed by the number of fyllables ; and which is moftly
uniform or monofchematic in ‘profane poetry, but altogether
arbitrary in various metrical paflages of the Vedas. The
other is in faét meafured by feet, like the hexameters of
the’ Greek and Latin: but only one fort of this metre,
which is denominated Arya, is acknowledged to be fo >
lated ; while another fort is governed by the number of fyle
labic initants or matras.

The moftcommon Shanferit metre is the ftanza of four
verfes, containing eight fyllables each; and denominated
from the name of the clafs «¢ Anufhtubh,” for an account of
which, and of other kinds of metres, we refer ubi Lepra-

The Shanfcrit writers notice different {pecies of profe.
They difcriminate three aud even four forts, under diftingt
names: 1. Simple profe, admitting no compound terms.
It isdenominated “ Muétaca.”’ This is little ufed in polithed
compofitions ; unlefs in the familiar dialogue of dramas.
Tt muft undoubtedly have been the colloquial ftyle, atthe
period when Shan{erit was a {poken language. 2. Profe,
in which compound terms are fparingly admitted. It is
called’ Culaca.’” ‘This and the preceding fort are by fome
confidered as varieties of a fingle {pecies named Churnica.
It is of courfe a common ftyle of compofition: and, when
polithed, is the moft elegant as it is the chatteit. But it
does not command the aduuration of Hindoo readers.
3 Profe abounding in compound words.” It bears the
! of * Utcalica praya.”’” Examples of it exhibit
compounds of the moft inordinate length: and a fingle

exceeding» a hundred fyllebles is not unprecedented.
This extra t ftile of compofition, being {uitable to
the taite of Indian learned, is common in the moit ela-
borate works of their favourite authors. 4. Profe modu-
lated fo as“frequéntly to exhibit portions of verfe., Ina
named’ ‘Viittagand’hi.”” It will occur without ftudy, and
even inft defign, in clevated compofitions; and may be

Geciterdiaetsdaneeact bay ght works

- ‘mott elegant and highly wrought works in
profe are reckoned among pocms, as already intimated, i

in
4

SHA

like manner as the ‘* Telemache’”? of Fenelon and “ Tod
Abels”? of Gefner. The molt celebrated are the ‘* Vafava-
datta’’? of Suband’hu, the « Dafa Cumara’’? of Dandi, and
the ** Cadambari?? of Vana.

For a further account of the Shanferit, fee Language of
BENGAL, or BENGALESE. ;

Exclufive of the Shanfcrit, there are three different dia-
jJe@s in the kingdom of Bengal, viz. the Perfian, the Hin-
dooftanic, and the proper Bengalefe. See Persra and Per-
stan Language, HinpoosTanneez, and BENGALESE.

SHAN-SI, in Geography. See Cnan-st.

SHAONA, atown of Egypt, on the W. coatt of the
Red fea; go miles S.S.E. of Coffeir.

SHAOSUMRE, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Hedsjas ; 25 miles from Calaat el Moilah.

SHAOUN, a town of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
; 45 miles S. of Jambo.

SHAPARY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gangpour; 30 miles S.W. of Pada.

SHAPE, Inflammation of, among neat cattle, an affeGtion
in cows, arifing in hot weather after taking the bull; and
which is fhewn by a {welling of the parts with boils or
eruptions. It is obfervable by the animal rubbing her hind
parts in the hedges, &c. In the cure Mr. Downing ad-
wifes, after free bleeding, the following: Nitre in powder,
two ounces; cream of tartar, three ounces; Caftile foap,
one ounce; ard anifeed powder, one ounce; which are to
be mixed for a dofe, and to be given in a quart of warm
whey, repeating them as there may be occafion.

To Suape the Courfe, in Sea Language, is to dire&
or appoint the track of a fhip, in order to profecute a
voyage. :

SHAPINSAY, in Geography, one of the Orkney iflands,
Scotland, is fituated to the N. of the Mainland of Orkney,
at the diftance of three miles from Kirkwall, the capital of
all the iflands.. It meafures about feven miles in length and
five in breadth, and formerly conftituted part of the tem-
poralities of the bithopric of Orkney. Almoft the whole
of it is capable of cultivation; but a great part yet re-
mains in a neglected ftate, to the detriment, as well as the
difgrace of the proprietors. Neverthelefs, fufficient grain
is raifed for the fupply of the inhabitants. Kelp is pro-
duced in great abundance, and is much ufed as a manure.
Lead ore is likewife abundant in the fouth-weft corner of
this ifland, and was for fome time wrought, but the work is
now entirely abandoned.

In common with moft of the Orkney iflands, Shapinfay
exhibits fome monuments of antiquity: among thefe may

- be reckoned, befides feveral Popifh chapels, a numerous
colleGtion of Pi€s-houfes ranged along the fhores, like fo
many forts, together with tumuli, or barrows, in various
fituations. A monumental ftone of large dimenfions raifes
its venerable head in a plain near its eaftern extremity ; and
on the northern fhore is the ftone Odin.

To the fouth of Shapinfay, at the diftance of a furlong,
is fituated the beautiful iflet of Elgar or Ellerholm, which
bears evident traces of former habitation, and of having
been, at no very diftant period, attached to the principal ifland.
At prefent it furnifhes pafture for a number of fheep and
young cattle during fummer, and ferves to give, by its
favourable pofition, the utmoft fecurity to the harbour of
Elwick, which is one-of the fineft inthe Orkneys. Barry’s
Hiftory of the Orkney Iflands, ad edit. by J. Headrick,
Lond. 4to. 1808.

SHAPLEIGH, a poft-town of America, in Maflachu-
fetts, in the province of Maine, incorporated in 1785 3 108
miles N. of Bofton.

jas

SHA

SHAPOOTA Hits, a mountainous ridge of Hindoa-
ane between the Nerbuddah and Taptee; 60 miles E. of
urat.
SHAPORA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rantampour ; 45 miles W. of Rantampour.
SHAPOUR, a city of Perfia, in the province of Farfif-
tan, is faid to have been originally founded by Taimuras

-Devebund, who called it Deen Dar; it was dettroyed by

Alexander the Great, and fubfequently built by Sapor, the
fon of Artaxerxes Babegan, who named it after himfelf.
The ruins of this ancient city are diftant about 16 miles
from Kazeroon: and if we may form an idea from the
breadth and circumference of the ramparts, and the remains
of fome other public buildings, it mutt have been a city of
great extent and magnificence. It is fituated immediately
under the ea{tern range of mountains, on the banks of a
{mall but rapid river, and in a wild, romantic fpot, amidft
rocks and precipices, many of which are decorated with
pieces of {culpture fimilar to thofe near Perfepolis, for
a defeription of which we refer to Kinneir’s Memoir of the
Perfian Empire, p. 66. The hills in the immediate vici-
nity of thefe ruins appear to have been formerly fortified 5
and an extraordinary cavern, further up the river, has given
rife to many fabulous ftories.

SHAPS, anifland in the Chefapeak ; 247 miles S.S.E. of
Annapolis. N. lat. 38° 46!. W. long. 76° 25!.

SHAR, or SHEaRr-Hog, in Agriculture, a term fignifying
a yearling fheep, which has been once fhorn, ‘The fame as
lamb-hog. See SHEEP.

SHARAF Brnr Garter, in Geography, a town of

Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas; 25 miles N. of |

Madian.

SHARBASHI, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 18 miles
S.E. of Mouth.

SHARBIN, a town of Egypt; 16 miles S.S.W. of
Damietta.

SHARD, in Agriculture, a term applied to a fragment
of an earthen vellel, or the gap in a hedge.

SHARE of a Plough, that part which enters, cuts, and
breaks up the ground, the extremity forward being formed
with a fharp-pointed iron, called the point of the fhare ; and
the end towards the wood behind, the tail of the fhare.
This part conftitutes a portion of what is ufually denomi-
nated the ¢hroat, which is of very great importance in the

conftruétion of this implement. (See PLoucH.) The dimen- _

fions are thefe: the length of the whole fhare from point to
tail, according to Tull, fhould be three feet nine inches,
but in modern ploughs much fhorter ; at the top of the iron
it hath fometimes an upright piece called the fin; and near
the iron, at the other end, there is an oblong-fquared hollow

called the focket ; the ufe of which is to receive the bottom

of the fheat. Near the tail there is a thin plate of iron,

well rivetted to the wood; by means of this plate, the tail

of the fhare is held firmly to the hinder fheat of the plough
by a {mall iron-pin, with a ferew at the end, and a nut
{crewed on it, onthe inner or right fide of the fheat. But
fhares are made in different forms.

The point of the fare is that part in which it does not run
up to the fin ;
a half in length, and fhould be flat underneath, and round
at the top, and the lower part of it muft be of hard feel.
The edge of the fin fhould alfo be well fteeled, and fhould
make an acute angle with the fhare. The focket is a fort
of mortife: it fhould be a foot long and about two inches
deep: the é
oblique, conformable to the end of the fheat which en-
ters into it. The upper edge of the fore-part mutt be

always

fore-end of it mutt not be perpendicular, but —

this point is generally made three inches and —

SHA

al made to bear up againtt the theat ; but if this end

| Hof the fceket thould not be quite fo oblique as the theat,

t it may be helped by paring offs {mall part of the wood at

the point.

nf wever, in modern ploughs, the fhares, as has been feen,

are very t, according to their conttruétions and the
ules for which they are intended.

Lately, improved catt-iron plough-thares have been made

? R. of Ipiwich, Suffolk, for which he has ob-

a patent. Thefe thares are made hard on one fide

and foft on the other, which affords the great advantage of

\ gure thin, as it is found by farmers that thofe made in

common way wear thick, with a bafil on the under fide,

i their entering into hard or ftrong foils, and

time increafe the labour of the team, as well as

weeds without cutting oreradicating them. ‘The

alfo makes -grounds, which are fo con-

as that by turning a {crew the plough is made to work

or lefs to the tail with the greateft eafe and facility.

both thefe contrivances are faid to be capable of being

rut

in

i

:

cf

all forts of. ploughs which have been already con-
ftru@led, and are in ufe farms.
2 The bread foare, which is led in Suflex, is faid to be a

:

AL
i

wide, fixed to the ftock or
an iron fhank in the middle, and occafionally bolted te the

rowed, raked, and burnt, the

On catt-iron a very fimple and beneficial
! been made by a perfon of the name

land, in Berkthire. It is known that when the

of wrou
of being

The cheapnefs and durability of caft-

them highly defirable in all farm-

Y Sper Biouahing to be done:

; bak hole is accomplifhed by the ~ having a fort of
at, and the top part taking mimiod, asd-by 5 Git

at goes th eae the lepe-et the plovgh, which raifes or

a » provincially a fort of fedge.
SHAREMAN’S . , ariver of Penn-
ae Lee a river o

gr

racte! which are thefe ; the body is flender, and
eis towards the tail ; it
ough ikin ;. five apert

he upper par of the tail longer than the lower. We

» N. lat. 40° 20’. the

SHA
The blue thark is that f{pecies of mew called plaweus,
and pane slawews, by authors, and diflinguithed by Artedi
i

by the name of the fqualus with a triangular dent, or furrow,
in the extremity of the back, and with no foramina about
the eyes. It is of a fine deep blue colour on the back, and
of a bright filver white on the belly; the tkin is (moother
than that of the white thark, and the nofe long pointed, and
fomewhat flattened, and extending far beyond the mouth ;
the noftrils are long, and olaasd tepnfecticly the tal is
bifid, and one portion of it is much than the other ;
it is very voracious of human fleth, and will follow clofe
under the fhore if there be depth enough, and a man is walk-
ing there. It is fometimes found on the Englith thores, and
has been caught on the Cornwall coalt, during the pilchard
feafon, with large iron hooks, made on purpofe. lian in-
forms us, that this fith will permit the foal brood, when in
danger, to fwim down its throat, and take fhelter in its
belly; and the faét has been confirmed by Rondeletius.
Mr. Pennant apprehends that this care of their young is
not peculiar to this {pecies, but common to the whole genus
of fhark.

The other is the Jamia, or canis carcharias of authors, the
Squalus carcharias of Linneus, commonly called by us fimply
the fhark. This is diftinguifhed by Artedi by the name of
the fqualus with a flat back, and with numerous teeth, fer-
rated at the edges.

The white fhark, or /amia, is a very dreadful and voracious
fith, the largeft of all the tharks. They have been feen of
four thoufand weight, with throats capable of {wallowing
a lufty man whole; nay, men have been found whole in
them when opened. Some have, for this reafon, imagined
this, and not the whale, to have been the fith in whofe belly
the prophet Jonah lay. Swimmers very often perith by
them ; fometimes lofing an arm or leg, and fometimes being
bit quite afunder, and ferving only E. two morfels for this
ravenous animal. Its teeth are very fharp and terrible ;
they are difpofed in fix rows, and are all triangular, and
notched like a faw on their edges ; thefe are, in the whole,
a hundred and forty-four in number, and are placed in va-
rious directions ; their number is not exaétly determinate ;
thefe teeth, when the fith is in a ftate of repofe, lie quite
flat in the mouth, but when he feizes his prey, he has power
of erecting them, by the help of a fet of mufcles that join
them to the jaw; the mouth is placed far beneath ; on
which account thefe fithes, as well as the reft of the kind,
are faid to be obliged to turn on their backs to feize their

rey ; which is an obfervation as ancient as the days of
iny: its back is fhort and broad, in comparifon of the
other fifh of this kind, and its tail, which is of a femi-
lunar form, compofed of two fins of a cubit in length each.
This fith has furprifing ftrength in its tail, and can ftrike
with great force ; fo = the failors inftantly cut it off with
an ax, as foon as they draw one on board. The peétoral fins
are very large, which enable it to fwim with great {wiftoefs ;
the colour of the whole body and fins is a light ath ; its fkin
is rough, and its eyes large and round. It is found both in
ocean and in the Mediterranean, and is of all fith the moft
voracious of human fleth. :

It has its name from the Greek ramos, a voracious feeder,
or glutton. The foffile bodies, called loffopetrx, or fer-
pents’ ton and fuppofed to be eeticace are the teeth
of this if

Suarx, Bafking,® Squalus maximus of Linneus, the
name given by Mr. Pennant to a fith which inhabits the
northern feas, as high as the artic circle, and which was
taken for a {pecies of whale, till he pointed owt the branchial
orifices in the fides, and the dicular fite of the tail.

3 This

SHA

This {pecies has been long known to the inhabitants of the
fouth and weft of Ireland and Scotland, and thofe of Caer-
narvonfhire and Anglefea; they quit the bays of thefe
Welth countiés about Michaelmas, and the frith of Clyde,
and the Hebrides, about the latterend of July. They have
nothing of the fierce and voracious nature of the fhark
kind, but are fo tame as to fuffer themfelves to be ftroked ;
lying motionlefs on the furface of the water, commonly on
their bellies, but fometimes on their backs, as if to fun
themfelves ; whence they are called bafking fharks. Their
food feems to confift entirely of fea-plants. Linnzus fays
they feed on medufx. At certain times they are {een {port-
ing on the waves, and leaping with great agility feveral feet
out of the water; they {wim deliberately, with the dorfal
fins above water ; their length is from three to twelve yards,
and they are fometimes longer; their form is flender ; the
upper jaw much longer than the lower, and blunt at the
end; the mouth placed beneath, and each jaw furnifhed
with numbers of {mall teeth; thofe before being much bent,
and thofe more remote in the jaws being conic, and fharp-
pointed ; on the fides of the neck there are five large
tran{verfe apertures to the gills ; on the back two fins; the
firft very large, nearer the head than the middle ; the other
{mall, and fituated near the tail ; on the lower part there are
five others; viz. two pectoral fins, two ventral fins, and a
{mall anal fin; near thefe, the male has two genitals, as in
other fharks; and between thefe fins was fituated the
pudendum of the female; the tail very large, having the
upper part much longer than the lower; the colour of the
upper part of the body a deep leaden, and the belly white ;
the fkin rough, like fhagreen, but lefs fo on the belly than
on the back ; withinfide the mouth, towards the throat,
was a very fhort fort of whalebone ; the liver is of a great
fize, that of the female being the largeft, and is melted into
a pure and {weet oil, fit for lamps, and much ufed by the
people, who take it to cure bruifes, burns, and rheumatic
complaints. A large fifh will yield eight barrels of oil,
Thefe fifhes are viviparous, a young one, a foot in length,
having been found in the belly of one of them. When
they are ftruck with a harpoon, and wounded, they fling
up their tails, and plunge headlong to the bottom, coiling
the rope round them, and attempting to difengage them-
felyes from the harpoon, by rolling on the ground. They
{wim away with fuch rapidity and violence, that there has
been an inftance of a veflel of feventy tons having been
towed away againft a frefh gale; and they will employ the
fifhers for twelve, and fometimes twenty-four hours, be-
fore they are fubdued. Pennant’s Britifh Zoology, vol. i.
p- 101, &c.

Suark, Hammer-headed, Squalus xygana, a fith of the
fhark kind, called alfo the ba/ance-fi/h. .

It is an extremely fingular and remarkable fifh, and differs
not only from all the other fharks, but from all the fifh in
the world, in the figure of its head: this is not placed, as
in all other fifhes, longitudinally, or in a line with the body,
but is fet on tranfverfely, as the head of a hammer or mallet
upon the handle. This is femicircular at the front, and
runs to fo thin and fharp an edge, that as the fifh fwims for-
ward with violence, it may cut other fifhes, and is terminated
at each end by an eye; thefe are very large, and fo placed,
that they more conyeniently look down than either upward
or fideway. In the farther part of the forehead alfo, near
the eyes, on each fide, there is a large oblong foramen,
ferving either for hearing or {melling, or perhaps for both;
the mouth is very large, and placed under the head, and
armed with four rows of extremely fharp and itrong teeth,
flat, and ferrated at their edges; the tail is compofed of

SHA

two fins, one vaftly larger than the other; the body is
rounded and very long, and is not covered with feales, but
a thick fikin; the back is afh-coloured, and the belly white.
Rondelet. de Aquat. p. 549.

It is caught in the Mediterranean, and fometimes in dif-
ferent parts of the ocean. Some authors have called it
zygena, and others /ibella ; which latt anfwers to the Englifh
name of the balance-fifh.

Suark, Picked. See Acantuias and Squatus.

SHark, Long-tailed. See Sea-Fox and SeQuanus
Vulpes.

SuArK, Spotted, Squalus Canicula of Linnzus.
SauaLus Catulus.

Snark, Leffér /potted, called the morgay, or rough
houndjifh, Squalus Catulus of Linneus. See Squatys Ca-
tulus.

SHARK, Smooth, Squalus Muflelus of Linnzus.
SquaLus Mujflelus.

SHARK, Called the tope, Squalus Galeus of Linnzus. See
Squatus Galeus.

Suark, called the angel or monkji/h, Squalus Squatina of
Linnzus. See SquaLus Squatina.

Suark River, in Geography, a river of New Jerfey,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 40° ro!. W. long.

o 4!

SHARKIND, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland ;
g miles §.S.W. of Nordkioping.

SHARKSTOWN, a town of Maryland, on the ifland
of Kent; 28 miles S.E. of Baltimore.

SHARM el Kiman, or Sharm el Kaman, a port on the
Red fea, on the coaft of Egypt. N. lat. 24° 44!.
SHARMA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hadra-

maut ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Sahar.

SHARMAGOL, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Chorafan ; 12 miles S. of Nefa. i

SHARMAK, a fea-port of Africa, on the Gold Coatt ;
13 miles W. of Commendo.

SHARMALIK, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
province of Diarbekir; 15 miles S.W. of Ourfa.

SHAROKIE. See Scuon.

SHARON, a town of the province of Maine; 40 miles
N. of Portland.—Alfo, a town of Conneticut ; 12 miles
N.W. of Litchfield.—Alfo, a poft-town of the {tate of
New York; 25 miles W. of Albany.—Alfo, a townfhip
of Maflachufetts; to miles S.W. of: Bofton. — Alfo, a
townfhip of Vermont, on White river; 6 miles N.W.
of Norwich.

SHARP, Asrauam, in Biography, an eminent mathe-
matician, mechani{t, and altronomer, was defcended from a
family of Little Horton, near Bradford, in Yorkfhire,
where he was born about 1651. After he had received a
good education, he was put apprentice at Manchefter, bu
being fteadily attached to mathematical purfuits, he ariel
bufinefs and removed to Liverpool. Here he applied with
great diligence to his favourite {tudy, and to procure a fub-
fiftence he opened a f{chool, where he taught writing and the
elements of arithmetic. He next went to London, with
the view of aflociating with Mr. Flamftead, by whofe in-
tereft he obtained a profitable employment in the dock-yard
at Chatham, where he remained till he was invited to become
the affiftant of Flamftead at the Royal Obferyatory at Green-
wich. In this fituation he continued to make obfervations,
and had a large fhare in forming a catalogue of 3000 fixed
ftars, with their longitudes and magnitudes ; their right af-
cenfion and polar diftance, and the variations of the fame,
while they change their longitude by one degree. In this
employment he injured his health, and was obliged to retire

to

See

See

SHARP.

to his native air, at Horton, where he fitted up an obfervatory

He manu-

ts.

_ He next materially affited Mr. Flamftead in calculating
moft of the tables in the fecond volume of his “ Hiltoria
Celeftis,”” and made curious drawings of the conftellauions,
which were fent to Amiterdam to be engraved, and though
sera By y hand, the originals were faid to have
exceeded vings in beauty and accuracy. In 1689
Flamftead his mural arc at Greenwich, in
greatly aflifted by his friend Mr. Sharp,
time in the o pester as Me —
Lg, Slip r publi in the Philofo-
ical Tranfaétions for eee 786, {peaking of this

arc, fays, it may be confidered as the firft good i
kind, and that Mr. Sharp was the fir
accurate and delicate divifions upon aftro-

inftruments.

In 1717, Mr. Sharp publithed a work entitled “ Geo-
”” in which he engraved the figures as well
the work. This treatife contains Ree large
table of fegments of circles, with the method
contlruction, and various ufes in the folution of diffi-
rere se ed ah
and i ones,
twelve new ones, with various methods
and their exaét dimenfions in words or
in numbers. In the 1699 he under-
own private amufement, > ta at of the
1g ewrmmpe different feries, by:which the truth
to 72 places of figures. Mr. Sharp
i correfpondence with the moft emi-

LLz
;
H

;

i

}

j

i

if
ty

an
iB

|

efts of real fcience. Beiag ull reckoned one of the
eft calculators of his time, hi was required by,
freely given to Flamftead re, Dr. Halle

Gubethers: Je all difficult caloulsilie. When he quitted
‘Mr. Flamitead, be retired to Little Horton, in Yorkshire,
where he fpent the remainder of his days, and where he
‘died 1 in the gtit year of his age. He was of
abit, and admitted few Mocs, excepting
i one a mathematician and the

+ Many of his fingularities
, and alfo in Hutton’s
reader is referred.

‘ at
1644. He was admitted of Chrift’s college, Cambridge,
1660, and in 1667 he commenced matter of arts, and
as ordained. He was now appointed private tutor to the
arr Simmer Which be ctcaead
ut years, when he obtained, through his patron’s
‘commendation, the - of Berkthire. When
of of the great
|fuch confidence in the fidelity and judg-

l, as to commit to him the {crutiny of
of plics for church livings in the gift
A fermon which he preached in 1674, re-

a celebrated divine th

fleéting upon thofe who diffented from the church, gave
rife to a controverfy, in which Dodwell, Baxter, and A 200
engaged. In 1677 he was inflituted to the rectory of
St. Giles-in-the-Fields, in which parifh he refided ten years.
Among his parifhioners was Richard Baxter, who, though
he was himfelf a preacher on Sunday evenings, was @ con-
ftant hearer of the rector in the mornihgs; acd thefe two
exeellent men, potwithftanding their differences in fome
pots, lived together upon the moll friendly terme. In
1679 Mr. Sharp commenced D.D., and in 1681 he was
promoted to the deanery of Norwich. On the death of
Charles II., to whom he had been a chaplain, he drew up
the addrefs of the grand-jury of London @o his {uccetlor,
to whom he was alfo nominally chaplain. After this he
preached againit popery, and thus exciting the royal dif-
pleafure, he was obliged to quit the metropolis, and refide
altogether at his deanery. He employed Pim clf in form-
ing a cabinet of coins, chiefly Britith, Saxon, and Englifh.
Being wearied with his exclufion from his funétion in Lon-
don, he prefented a very humble petition to the king, in
confequence of which, he was allowed to return to his
duty in the metropolis, and he was extremely careful never
after to give offence, as he had done before. After the
abdication of the monarch, Dr. Sharp irritated the ad-
herents to William, by fome offenfive pailages in a prayer
and fermon, which he delivered before the houfe of ome
mons, who at firit refufed him their accultomed thanks,
which, however, were voted afterwards. In 1689, Dr.
Sharp was appointed the fucceflor to Dr. Tillotfon in the
deanery of Canterbury, and he was nominated one of the
commiffioners for revifing the liturgy. At this period
feveral bifhops had been deprived of their fees for refuting
to take the oaths to William and Mary, and Dr. Sharp
sigh have fucceeded to almoft any of them, but he re-
fufed, not through any fcruple of confcience, but on ac-
count of his friendfhip for the perfons deprived. When,
however, the archbifhopric of York became vacant in a dif-

t way, he readily accepted the high office, and he was
confecrated in July 1691. He filled this exalted ftation in
a manner, which has caufed him to be reprefented as a
model of prelatical virtues, and which procured him gene-
ral refpeét and efteem. He died at Bath in 1714, in the
69th year of his age. His only writings were fermons, of
which were publifhed two volumes, confifting of fuch oc-
cafional difcourfes as he had printed during his life-time,
and five others, that were feleGed after his deceafe. He
was reckoned an excellent preacher, and his ftyle and doc-
~~ are faid to be equally of the ftandard purity. Biog.

t.

Swarr, Tuomas, younger fon of the preceding, was
born in Yorkfhire, and admitted of Trinity college, Cam-
bridge, about 1703, when he was of the age of 15. He
obtained a fellowfhip in 1729, and took his dotor’s degree
e fame year. Archbifhop Dawes appointed him his
chaplain, and in 1720 he was collated to the rectory of
Rothbury, in Northumberland. He was afterwards pre-
ferred to a prebend in Durham cathedral, and alfo to the
archdeaconry of Northumberland. He died in 1758. Dr.
S) wrote two diflertations concerning the etymology of
the Hebrew words Elohim and Berith—* Diicourfes on
the Antiquity of the Hebrew Tongue and Character.”’
He left a fon, Granville, to whofe fine character as a
genuine Englith patriot, we fhall endeavour to do juftice
in the next article,

Suarp, Granvivte, fon of the preceding, a moft dif-
tinguifhed philanthropift and friend to the liberties of man-
kind, was born in che year 1734. He was educated for

3E2 the

SHARP.

the bar, but did not practife at it. When he quitted the
legal profeffion, he obtained a place in the ordnance office,
which he refigned at the commencement of the American
war ; the principles of which were abhorrent from his mind.
He now took chambers in the Temple, and devoted himfelf
to a life of ftudy ; at the fame time, laying himfelf out for
public utility. He ‘firft became known to the public in the
cafe of a poor and friendlefs Negro, of. the name of So-
merfet. This perfon had been brought from the Welt
Indies to England by a mafter, whofe name we fhould
gladly hand down to the execration of pofterity, if it were
in our power; and falling into bad health, was abandoned
by him as a ufelefs article of property, and turned into the
{treets, either to die, or to gain a miferable fupport by
precarious charity. In this deftitute ftate, almoit, it is
faid, on the point of expiring on the pavement of one of
the public ftreets of London, Mr. Sharp chanced to fee
him. He inftantly had him removed to St. Bartholomew’s
hofpital, attended perfonally to his wants, and in a fhort
time had the happinefs to fee him reftored to health. Mr.
Sharp now clothed him, and procured him comfortable em-
ployment in the fervice of a lady. Two years had elapfed,
andthe circumftance almoft, and the name of the poor
Negro, had efcaped the memory of his benefactor, when
Mr. Sharp received a letter from a perfon, figning himfelf
Somerfet, confined in the Poultry Compter, ftating no
caufe for his commitment, but intreating his interference to
fave him from a greater calamity even than the death from
which he had before refcued him. Mr. Sharp initantly went
to the prifon, and found the Negro, who in ficknefs and.
mifery had been difcarded by his matter, fent to prifon as a
runaway flave. The excellent patriot went immediately to
the lord mayor, William Nath, efq., who caufed the parties
to be brought before him; when, after a long hearing, the
upright magiftrate decided that the mafter had no property
in the perfon of the Negro, in this country, and gave the
Negro his liberty. The matter inftantly collared him, in
the prefence of Mr. Sharp and the lord mayor, and infifted
on his right to keep him as his property. Mr. Sharp now
claimed the proteétion of the Englifh law, caufed the mafter
to be taken into cuftody, and exhibited articles of peace
againft him for an affault and battery. After various legal
proceedings, fupported by him with moft undaunted f{pirit,
the twelve judges unanimoufly concurred in an opinion that
the mafter had aéted criminally. Thus did Mr. Sharp
emancipate for ever the race of blacks from a ftate of
flavery, while on Britifh ground, and in fa&t banifhed flavery
from Great Britain. Such an incident could not fail deeply
to imprefs a benevolent mind; and flavery, in every fhape
and country, became the objet of his unceafing hoftility.
In 176g he publifhed a work, entitled “* A Reprefentation
of the Injuftice and dangerous Tendency of tolerating
Slavery, or of admitting the !eaft Claim of private Property
in the Perfons of Men in England.”? Having fucceeded in
the cafe of an individual Negro, he intereited himfelf in the
condition of the many others, who were feen wandering
about the ttreets of London, and at his own expence col-
le&ted a number of them, whom he fent back to Africa,
where they formed a colony on the river Sierra Leone. He
performed a {till more effential fervice to humanity, by be-
coming the inftitutor of the *¢ Society for the Abolition of
the Slave Trade ;” which, after contending again{ft a vait
mafs of oppofition, at length glorioufly fucceeded, as far as
this country was concerned in the horrible traffic.

Mr. Granville Sharp is mentioned in conneétion with this
bufinefs, in terms of the higheft commendation, by Mr.
Clarkfon, in his “ Hiftory of the Abolition of the Slave

Trade.’ (See vol. i. p. 63—70.) The following fhort
account of him is extraéted from the Edinburgh Review,
vol. xil.

“We think it a duty to mention the name of Mr. Gran-
ville Sharp. Regardlefs of the dangers to which he ex-
pofed himfelf, both in his perfon and his fortune, Mr. Sharp
{tood forward in every cafe as the courageous friend of the
poor Africans in England, in direét oppofition to an opinion
of York and Talbot, the attorney and folicitor-general for
the time being. This opinion had been a¢ted upon; and
fo high was its authority, that, after it had been made
public, it was held as the fettied law of the land, that a flave,
neither by baptifm, or arrival in Great Britain or Ireland,
acquires freedom, but may be legally forced back to the
plantations. Difcouraged by judge Blackitone, and feveral
other eminent lawyers, Mr. Sharp devoted three years of
his life to the Englifh law, that he might render himfelf the
more effectual advocate of thefe friendlefs itrangers. In
his work, entitled «* A Reprefentation of the Injuftice and
dangerous Tendency of tolerating Slavery in England,’
publifhed in the year 1759, and afterwards in his learned
and laborious “ Inquiry into the Principles of Villenages,’?
he refuted the opinion of York and Talbot by unan{werable
arguments, and neutralized their authority by the counter
opinion of the great lord chief juftice Holt, who many
years before had decided, that as force could be ufed againit
no man in England without legal procefs, every {lave com-
ing into England became free, inafmuch as the laws of
England recognized the diftinGtion between perfon and pro-
perty as perpetual and‘facred. Finally, in the great cafe
of Somerfet, which was argued at three different fittings, _
in January, in February, and in May, of the year 1772,
(the opinion of the judges having been taken up on the
pleadings, ) it is at laft afcertained and declared to be the
law of the land, that as foon as ever any flave fet his foot
upon Englifh territory, he became free. Among the heroes
and fages of Britifh ftory, we can think of few whom we
fhould feel a greater glow of honeft pride in claiming as an
anceftor, than the man to whom we owe our power of re-
peating with truth,

‘¢ Slaves cannot breathe in England ; if their lungs
Receive our air, that moment they are free :
They touch our country, and their fhackles fall.’’

Similar principles led Mr. Sharp to ufe his endeavours to
reftrain the arbitrary praCtice of marine impreflment ; and a
citizen of London having been carried off by a prefs-warrant,
Mr. Sharp obtained a habeas corpus from the court of king’s
bench, to bring him back from a vellel at the Nore; and
by his arguments obliged the court to liberate him. In his
political principles he was always the ardent and zealous
friend to liberty, and he neglected no opportunity to defend
its principles, and aflert the rights of the people. He was
the warm advocate of “ parliamentary reform,’? and pub-
lifhed, in 1778, the fecond edition of an excellent little
work, full of conftitutional knowledge and found reafoning,
entitled «* A Declaration of the People’s natural Right to
a Share in the Legiflature, which is the fundamental Prin-
ciple of the Britifh Conftitution of State.”” He was, in
1794, as zealoufly attached to the caufe as he had been
twenty years before; though, perhaps, he did not feel him-
felf fufficiently aGtive to engage in it as a partizan, when it
was a fubje&t of obloguy. He was not, however, an un-
concerned fpeétator of the dreadful tyranny, which, but
for the intervention of an honeft Englifh jury, would have
overwhelmed the land. He fent, to one of the perfons at
that time confined in the Tower of London, a copy of oe

wor

SHA

_ work referred to, we allurances of a readinefs to os =r
thiog in his power to ftem the torrent fetting in againil t
liberties of the country. ae ae

Mr, Sharp's plan of reform recommended to the public,
was founded on the earlieft princip practices of the

Britihh contlitution, He propofed to reftore the ancient
tithings, hundreds, &c.; and the whole body of the people

were to form a national militia, each thoufand to conititute

a regiment, the alderman or magiltrate to be the colonel ;

and each hundred to conftitute a company, the conttable of
each for the time being to be their captain. So many of

the thoufands to be fummoned once in every year, by their

magiltrate, as would have a right to vote in their re{pective

hundreds, before the conftable, in the choice of their part of
the reprefentative legiflature. Mr. Sharp has thewn that

the divifion of this kingdom into tythings and hundreds was
initituted

by the immortal Alfred; that fuch a divifion is

_ confiftent with the moft perfect ftate of liberty that man is
capable of enjoying, and fully competent to anfwer all
fes of mutual to fecure the due execution

ws, and maintain public peace.
Mr. Sharp was educated in the principles of the efta-
i blifhed church, and through life fhewed a warm attachment
: tothem. He always, even at the clofe of life, had a tho-
rough dread of Popery, but was candid and liberal to Pro-
teflant diffenters of all parties. His zeal for the eitablifhed

religion of the country led him to recommend an epifcopal

Se

eburch in America ; and he introduced the firlt bifhops from
that country to the archbishop of Canterbury for confe-
cration.

y
very diftinguithed, and few perfons in private life have
higher or more “saplt Sieneureasan
iter, his pieces are very numerous. From thefe
he was a believer in the do@trines as fet forth
icles of the church, as that of original fin, the ex-
ifkence and operations of the devil on the human mind, and

of the Athanafian myttery of the Trinity. He alfo, from
fludying the book of Revelation, fully expeéted the com-
-mencement of the Millenium, or perfonal reign of Chriit on

in the {pring of 1811; but he lived long enough to

error. He poffeiled a extenfive library, in

the theologian, lawyer, clafkeal {cholar, politician,

ry, and orientalilt, ight find almoft every thing of
’

=
vhich and his colledtion of bibles

s efteemed the belt in the kingdom.

es;’’ “ Remarks on the Ufes of the riohivitiee Acti
Greek of the New T:

work of great talent, profound
it. It has long fince been out of
y known only to. two or

tion Blunt being aflumed to con-
L the n - Sharp’s laft work was entitled
marks on the 68th Pfalm, addrefled to the Confidera-
of the Houfe of Ifracl.” Monthly Mag. Gentle.

E
i
lt

Z
é

,

ra

_ Arguments in Defence of Chriftianity.

SHA

man’s Mag. Edin. Rev. Clarkfon’s Hilt. of the Abolition
of the Slave ‘Trade.

Suarr, Samuxt, an able and dittinguithed furgeon in
the middle of the lait century, was a pupil of the celebrated
Chefelden, and afterwards udied his profeffion with great
zeal at the hofpitals of Paris. He is faid to have com-
menced his profeffion rather late in life; neverthelefs, after
fettling in er, and obtaining an ene as fur-
geon of Guy’s hofpital, his gemus and affiduity foon ob-
tained for him a high degree of celebrity, and extenfive
practice. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society,
and a foreign member of the Academy of Surgery at Paris ;
and he contributed to the improvement of his art by two
valuable publications, which pafled through many editions,
and were tranflated into feveral foreign languages. ‘The
firit of thefe was * A Treatife on the Operations of Sur-
gery, with a Defcription and Reprefentation of the Inftru-
ments; and an Introduction on the Nature and Treatment
of Wounds, Abfcefles, and Ulcers ;”’ firlt printed in 1739.
Our edition, printed in 1751, is the fixth, The fecond
work was entitled “ A critical Inquiry into the prefent
State of Surgery ;’’ firft printed, we believe, in 1750.
Our edition of 1761 is the fourth. See Eloy Diét. Hitt.
de la Med., and Sharp’s Works.

Suarp, in Mufic, 1s a chromatic fign, marked thus, %;
and elevates the note before which it is placed half a tone,
without changing its name or place on the ftaff.

fharp on = fe or {pace, at the beginning of a move-
ment, affects all the notes of the fame name throughout the
piece, contradicted by anatural, &. See NaTuRAL.

An accidental fharp affeéts no note beyond the fingle bar
in which it occurs; but it always, when accompanied by a
bafe or lower part, implies a new modulation, except in
minor keys, the fharp to the feventh of the key, which isa
thing of courfe.

In the key of C x with a fharp third, there are feven
fharps at the clef, which implies that every note in the {eale
is elevated a femitone above its ufual pitch.

> —_—

In this key, an accidental fharp is marked by a double
fharp x, ulually called 2 dicfs, or enharmonic tharp ;
which fee.

Suarp the Bow-line, in Sea Language.

Suanp Nails. See Nain.

SHARPE, Grecory, in Biography, a learned divine,
was born in Yorkhire in the year 1713. He received his
education firft at Weitminiter fchool,and afterwards at Aber-
deen, under the learned Blackwell. Upé6n his entering orders
he became miniiter of St. Margaret’s chapel, Weitmin-
iter ; after this, he was appointed chaplain to the king, and
matter of the Temple. He was alfo ele¢ted a fellow of the
Royal and Antiquarian Societies ; and died in 1771. He

nited to great learning a tafte for the fine arts, and etched
al plates in the edition of Dr. Hyde’s Syntagma. His
own works are, 1. A Review of-the Controverfy about the
Meaning of the Demoniacs in the New Teftament. 2. A
Defence of Dr. Clarke againit Leibnitz. 3. Two Difler-
tations upon the Origin of Languages, and the Power of
Letters ; with a Hebrew Lexicon. 4. A Diifertation on
the Origin aud Struéture of the Latin Language. 5. Two

6. Tranflation of
Holberg’s Introduction to Univerfal Hittory. 7. Sermons.
To

See Bowie.

SHA

To which is prefixed a biographical preface, from which the
foregoing faéts have been extrated.

SHARPING Cory, a cuttomary prefent of corn,
which, at every Chriftmas, the farmers in fome parts of
England make to their {mith, for fharpening their ploughing-
irons, harrow-tines, &c.

SHARPLING, in Jchthyolgy, the Englifh name of
the gafterofteus. See SrickiE-Back.

SHARPSBURG, in Geography, a town of America,
in Maryland; 69 miles N.W. of Baltimore.

SHARUM, a town of Arabia, in Hadramaut ; 15 miles
S.W. of Kefchim.

SHARUT, Suaurat, or Sharoot, a {mall town of
Perfia, in Atterabad, called alfo Biftan, is furrounded in
fome parts witha flight earthen wall. The houfes, from a
want of wood, are built of unburnt bricks, and covered
with a flat arch of the fame materials. In its vicinity are
feen many people, whofe nofes, fingers, and toes have been
deftroyed by the froft, which is faid to be feverer at this
place than in any part of Perfia, This town, with its de-
pendencies, yields a revenue of 1969 tomauns. ‘The pofi-
tion of the town is determined by two routes, one from
Tehraun and the other from Tarfhifh.

SHASAD, or SuHazapBary, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbul; 16 miles S. of Sumbul.

SHASAVA, a town of Hindooftan; 18 miles S. of
Agra.

SHASH, Ar. See TAsHKuND.

SHASHTTI, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god-
defs Parvati; which fee.

SHASK, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bag-
lana; 15 miles S. of Bahbelgong.

SHASSAIR, a town of Africa, in Biledulgerid; 7
miles N. of Fighig.

SHASTAH, Suaster, or Saffra, which latter is faid
to be the corre& {pelling and pronunciation, the name of
a facred book, in high eftimation among the idolaters of
Hindooftan, containing all the dogmas of the religion of the
Bramins, and all the ceremonies of their worthip, and
ferving as a commentary on the Vedam.

The word is derived from a root fignifying #o ordain, and
means generally an ordinance, and particularly a facred
ordinance delivered by infpiration: properly, therefore, the
word is applicable chiefly to facred literature.

The term Shafter denotes /cience or /y/lem ; and is applied
to other works of aftronomy and philofophy, which have
no relation to the religion of the Indians. None but the
Bramins and rajahs of India are allowed to read the Vedam;
the priefts of the Banians, called /buderers, may read the
Shafter; and the people, in general, are allowed to read
only the Paran or Pouran, which is a commentary on the
Shatter. ,

The Shafter is divided into three parts; the firft con-
taining the moral law of the Indians; the fecond, the rites
and ceremonies of their religion ; and the third, the diftri-
bution of the people into tribes and claffes, with the duties
pertaining to each clafs.

The principal precepts of morality contained in the firlt
part of the Shafter, are the following: that no animal be
killed, becaufe the Indians attribute fouls to brute animals
as well as to mankind; that they neither hear nor fpeak
evil, nor drink wine, nor eat flefh, nor touch any thing
that is unclean; that they obferve the feafts, prayers, and
wafhings, which their law prefcribes ; that they tell no lies,
nor are guilty of deceit in trade; that they neither opprefs
nor offer violence to one another; that they celebrate the

SHA

folemn feafts and fafts, and appropriate certain hours of
ordinary fleep to cultivate a difpofition for prayer ; and that
they do not {teal, or defraud one another.

The ceremonies contained in the fecond part of the
Shafter, are fuch as thefe: that they wath often in the
rivers, hereby obtaining the pardon of their fins; that they
mark their forehead with red, in token of their relation to
the Deity ; that they prefent offerings and prayers under
certain trees, fet apart for this purpofe; that they pray
in the temple, make oblations to their pagodas, or idols,
fing hymns, and make proceflions, &c. ; that they practife
pilgrimages to diftant rivers, and efpecially to the Ganges,
there to wafh themfelves, and make offerings; that they
make vows to particular faints, according to their refpec-
tive departments ; that they render homage to the Deity,
at the firft fight of the fun; that they pay their refpect
to the fun and moon, which are the two eyes of the Deity ;
and that they treat with particular veneration, thofe ani-
mals that are deemed more pure than others, as the cow,
buffalo, &c. becaufe the fouls of men have tranfmigrated
into thefe animals.

The third part of the Shafter records the diftribution of
the people into four claffes; the firft being that of the
Bramins, or prie{ts, appointed to inftruét the people: the
fecond, that of the Kutteris, or nobles, who are the ma-
giftrates: the third, that of the Shudderis, or merchants :
and the fourth, that of the mechanics. Each perfon is
required to remain in the clafs in which he was born, and
to purfue the occupation afligned to him by the Shatter.
According to the Bramins, the Shafter was imparted by
God himfelf to Brahma, and by him to the Bramins, who -
communicated the contents of it to the people.

Modern writers have given us very different accounts of
the antiquity and importance of the Shafler. Mr. Holwell,
who had made a confiderable progrefs in the tranflation of
this book, apprehends, that the mythology, as well as the
co{mogony of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, were
borrowed from the doétrines of the Bramins contained in it,
even to the copying of their exteriors of worfhip, and the
diftribution of their idols, though grofsly mutilated and adul-
terated. With refpeé to the Vedam and Shattah, or {crip-
tures of the Gentoos, this writer informs us that Vedam, in
the Malabar language, fignifies the fame as Shaftah in the
Shan{crit ; and that the firft book is followed by the Gen-
toos of the Malabar and Coromandel coafts, and alfo of the
ifland of Ceylon. The Shaftah is followed by the Gentoos
of the provinces of Bengal, and by all the Gentoos of the
reft of India, commonly called India Proper, along the courfe
of the rivers Ganges and Jumna to the Indus. Both thefe
books, he fays, contain the inftitutes of their refpective reli-
gion and worthip, as well as the hiftory of their ancient rajahs
and princes ; often couched under allegory and fable: their
antiquity is contended for by the partifans of each ; but he
thinks, that the fimilitude of their names, idols, and great
part of their worfhip, leaves little room to doubt, nay, plainly
evinces, that both thefe f{criptures were originally one. He
adds, if we compare the great purity and chafte manners of
the Shaftah, with the great abfurdities and impurities of the
Vedam, we need not hefitate to pronounce the latter a cor-
ruption of the former. .

With regard to the high original of thefe feriptures, the
account of the Bramins is chiefly as follows. Brahma, g. d.
Mighty Spirit, about four thoufand eight hundred and fixty-
fix years ago, aflumed the form of man, and the government
of Hindooftan. He tranflated the divine law (defigned for the
reftoration of mankind, who had offended in a pre-exiftent

ftate,

SHASTAH.

mah, or the Six Scriptures of the Divine Words of the Mighey

years. ifhed a

on
afterwards, a fecond expofition, called “ Augh-
Bhade Shatta,’’ or eighteen Books of Divine Words,
in a charaGter compounded of the common Hindoo-
Shanferit. This innovation produced a {chifm
3 on which occafion, it is faid, thofe of
and Malabar formed a {cripture of their own,
pretended to be founded on the Chartah Bhade
and oe 3 the 7 of wi es or Divine
i pirit. The original Chartah Bhade
» ot at length, sa 5 sac except to
i: ies, who can {till read and expound it in the Shan-
ferit charaéter. With the eflablifhment of the Aughtorrah
Bhade, and Vedam, which, according to the Gentoo ac-
is three thoufand three hundred and fixty-fix years
polytheifm commenced ; and the principles of
became fo ob{cure, and their ceremonies fo numerous,
head of a family was obliged to keep a Bramin,
both in faith and gaa Mr. Holwell is of
» or original {criptures, are
any other fyftem of theology, promulgated
or obtruded upon mankind. The Gentoos do not at-
‘tribute them to Zoroatter ; and Mr. Holwell fuppofes, that
h Zoroafter and P
&, but to be i

Shaitah were accordingly preached in their original purity a
thoufand uh

es TP eae
un

i

iE
y
ze

as.
‘I

ras vilited Hindoottan, not to

ch contain the religion and peel ‘ophy of the Hindoos,
diltinguifhed by the name of Bedas ; that they are four
umber, and, the facred writings of other nations,
to be penned by the divinty. Beda, he fays, in the
crit lan: sera ignies fic and thefe books

: religion moral duties, but of every
i wledge. The Bramins maintain,
are the divine laws, which Brimha, at the
n of the world, delivered

ea pee as evil {pirits, who then haunted the
re ft credible account we have of the Bedas is,

» or commentary omacie
adhere to the principles of the Ne-
Shafter is Bedang, and is a
s, is erroneoufl

Vedam. It is afcribed to 3
been revifed fome years after by one

i been reckoned facred,
farther alterations. Almoft all the
and thofe of the Malabar aud Coro-

which may be injurious to himfelf, but can be of no detri-
ment tothe general fyitem of nature. God, they fay, <r

fettly benevolent, never punifhed the wicked otherwife
than by the pain and affli@tion which are the natural confe-
quences of evil aétions; and hell, therefore, is no other than
a confcioulnefs of our evil.

The Neadirfen Shatter is faid to have been written by a
philofopher called Goutam, near four thoufand years ago.
The Bramins, from Mr. Dow’s account of their facred
books, appear to believe invariably in the unity, eternity,
omnifcience, and omnipotence of God; and the polytheifm,
of which they have been accufed, is no more than a fym-
bolical worfhip of the divine attributes, which they divide
intu three clafles. Under the name of Brimha, they-worlhi
the wifdom and creative power of God; under the pelea
lation of Bifhen, his providential and preferving quality ;
and under that of Shibah, that attribute which tends to
deitroy.

According to M. de Sainte-Croix, the Shafta, however
extolled in Europe with refpect to its antiquity, is pofterior
to the Vedam, being no more than the explication of it.
Holwell’s Intereiting Hittorical Events, &c. 8vo. Dow's
Hittory of Hindooftan, gto. 1768. L’Ezour Vedam, &c.
by M. de Sainte Croix, 1zmo. Paris, 177g. See Genroos,
SnHanscnrit, and VepAM. 7

Six Saftras are commonly defcribed as of fuperior fane-
tity, and are called the proper Saltras :—in thefe are com-
prifed the four Vedas, the eighteen Puranas, commentaries
on the Vedas, called Upaveda, and others. (See Vepa, and
Purana.) The Sudra, or loweit of the fouryclafles of
Hindoos, are not permitted to ltudy thefe fix Saitras, as
being too holy for fuch prophane contemplation. (See
Supra.) As noticed under the article Ramayana, that
book is reckoned too fublime for the perufal of fo inferior a
clafs. The Sudra may Aear it read. An ample field, how-
ever, remains for them in the ftudy of prophane literature,
comprifed in a multitude of popular books, which corref{pond
with the feyeral Saftras, and abound with beauties of every
kind. All the traéts on medicine muit indeed be ftudied by
the Vaidyas, or thofe who are born phyficians ; and this pro-
feffion is confined chiefly to the Sudras. The Vaidyas are
{aid to have often more learning than many Bramins, with
far lefs pride than any. ‘They are ufually poets, gramma-
rians, rhetoricians, &c. and may be efteemed in general
among the moft amiable and virtuous of the Hindoos. See
Vaipya.

The word Saftra is, however, applied more extenfively than
the above account may feem to imply. For inftance, a col-
leétion of traéts on arts and manufactures, is called Silpi
Saftra. The name of Niti Saftra is given to a fyitem of
ethics. The Derfana Saftra is indeed one of the fix panes
and comprifes an explanation of the principles of the fix
philofophical {chools ; a brief notice of which is given under
the article Puitosorny of the Hindoos. An analyfis of this
work would fhew that many of its theories are either the
fource of fimilar doGtrines propounded in’ later times in
Greece, or borrowed from the fame fource with them. Other
colleétions of traéts, and fome feparate works, bear alfo the
denomination of Saitra; and it is fometimes rather vaguely
x gto A Brahman deeply verfed in facred literature has
the honourable title of Saltr: added to his name ; equivalent
to our clericus. Sometimes he is diftinguifhed by it alone,
and called the Saflri. There is alfo the Dherma Sajtra, a
body of ethics and ritual obfervances ; the Agama Saitra,
or occult ordinances. This latter has been fufpected to
have fome reference to the Ogham of the weft. See Ocuam,
and O's.

Saftri,

SH A

Safri, which was omitted in its properyplace, is a name
for the Hindoo deity Budha, or Boodh. The name figni-
fies wifdom, or a wife man; and is ftill applied to, or
aflumed by, individuals, efpecially Bramins, who are fup-
pofed to have acquired an extraordinary degree of learning
or wifdom. As all profitable wifdom is prefumed to be
comprifed in the Saftra, or facred books, the title of Saftri
is thence derived. Jt is f{ometimes appended fimilarly to the
{cholar’s name; and he is at others called the Sattri, or
Saitri fahib,—Mr. Saftri.

SHASUMAN, in Geography, atown of Perfia, in the

rovince of Mazanderan; 30 miles E. of Efterabad.

SHAT-EL-AMAAR, a name given by the Arabs to
the Tigris.

SHAT-EL-DEAAL, ariver which runs from the north,
and enters the Tigris near Bagdad.

SHAT-EL-DEGELA, a river or canal, fo called by
the Arabs, which communicates with another named Shat-el-
Hie, which is a branch of the Tigris.

SHAT-EL-FRAATE, a name given by the Arabs to
the Euphrates.

SHAT-KRATU, in Af%jthology, one of the names
of the Hindoo Indra, regent of the firmament. It means
the hundred facrifices; that is, he to whom a hundred
facrifices are offered ; or rather, perhaps, he who has offered
them. Indra, it is fabled, obtained his prefent dignity by
the great facrifice of a hundred hortfes. An offering of a
horfe is called Afwamedha, and is attended with infinite
trouble and expence, as laid down in the Hindoo rituals.
See Inpra, NAraMepHA, and RHEMBA.

SHATNUF, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile; 9 miles N. of Cairo.

SHATOOR, a town of Hindoottan, in Madura; 20
miles N.N.W. of Coilpetta.

SHATORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura; 12
miles N.E. of Coilpetta.

SHAT-_UL-ARAB, one of the nobleft rivers in the
Eaft, formed by the combined ftreams of the Euphrates
and Tigris. ‘The union of thefe ftreams takes place near
Korna, or Corny, which is one of the three Apameas,
built by Seleucus in honour of his firft wife, Apama. On
the weltern bank of this river, and 70 miles from its mouth,
in N. lat. 31° 30!, is fituated the city of Buflora or Bafra ;
and the river is navigable as far as the city for fhips of 500
tons burthen. The city is fometimes fo completely deluged
by the river, that it appears like an ifland in the middle of a
lake. The combined ftream of the Shat-ul-Arab has gene-
rally been thought to enter the Perfian gulf by a variety of
mouths: but the fa& is, that this noble river has, at this
time, only one mouth, and probably never had any other.
The ifland, or delta, between the Shat-ul-Arab and the
Bamifhern (the ancient Mefena) was formerly included in the
pachalic of Bagdad ; but having been conquered by Sheik
Solyman from the Turks, has remained in the pofleflion of
his fucceflors. This is a low and fertile traét : the northern
parts of which, towards the Hafur, are interfected by a
number of canals, and are in a tolerable ftate of cultivation.
Extenfive ruins are vifible in many places, and the borders of
the Shat-ul-Arab, as far down as Chubda, are covered with
date-trees. The river ‘ Shat-el-Ajew,”’ fignifying in Arabic
a river of Perfia, difcharges itfelf on the Perfian fide into
the Shat-ul-Arab, near Margill.

SHATZAM, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mekran; 210 miles S.E. of Arokhage.

SHAVAKAT, atownof Turkelftan, on the Sirr; 20
miles S. of Tafhkund.

2

SHA

SHAUBACO, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of
the Nile; 16 miles S. of Cairo. ;

SHAVE Grass, in Botany. See Equiserum.

SHAVING-Ixons, among Gardeners, tools to keep @
garden free from weeds, otherwife called edging-irons.

SHAVINGS, Horn, in Agriculture. See MANURE.

SHAUL, or SHAWL, an article of female drefs, much
prized in the Eaft, and now well known in England. As
the fhauls all come from Cafhmere, or Cachemir, it was ge-
nerally concluded, that the materials from which they were
fabricated was of the growth of that country. It was faid
to be the hair of a particular goat, and the fine under hair
from acamel’s breaft ; but we now certainly know that it is
the produce of a Thibet fheep. Bernier relates, that m his
time, fhauls made for the great omrahs of the Thibetian
wool, co{t a hundred and fifty fupees.; whereas thofe made
of the wool of the country never coit more than fifty. For
an account of their manufa¢ture and value, fee CASHMERE,

SHAVOYA, or Cuavoya, in Geography, a province
of the empire of Morocco, fituated to the S. of the king-
dom of Fez, and W. of Tedla; inhabited by moun-
taineers addiéted to robbery and violence. Towards the
latter end of the laft century refufing to pay tribute to the
emperor, Muley Ifhmael, he marched an army, which, fur-
rounding their itrong holds on the mountains, compelled
them to flight, leaving their wives and children, who were
put to the fword, and the plunder diftributed among the
foldiers.

SHAUR, a {mall ifland in the Red fea.
E. long. 34° 58!.

SHAUS. See Cuaus.

N. lat. 27°20,

SHAVUNGUNK, a mountain of New York ; 20 miles.

S. of Kingfton.

SHAW, Tuomas, in Biography, was born at Kendal in
or about the year 1692. He was educated at the grammar-
{chool of that town, and in 1711 was admitted of Queen’s
college, Oxford. Soon after he had taken orders, he was

appointed chaplain to the Englifh fa€tory at Algiers, in |

which ftation he remained feyeral years, making ufe of the
opportunity which it afforded of travelling into various parts
of Barbary, and into Egypt. In 1727 he was ele&ed
fellow of his college, in 1733 he commenced D.D., and in

the following year he was elected a member of the Royal
Society in London.

In 1738 he publifhed his “* Travels, —

or Obfervations on feveral Parts of Barbary and the Le- —

vant,”? to which a fupplement was added in 1746 ; and about

ten years afterwards the whole appeared in a fecond edition, _

with confiderable improvements.

Few books of the kind |

{tand higher in reputation than Dr. Shaw’s Travels, which —

contain many learned diflertations ref{peéting the countries
which he had vifited, with divers remarks on their manners
and cuftoms, and valuable obfervations in natural hiftory.
They have been regarded as particularly ufeful in illuftrating
the {criptures by comparifons between the ancient and mo-
dern itate of the eaftern regions. Dr. Shaw, on his return
from his travels, brought back a large colleétion of dried
plants.
lics of antiquity which he had ¢olleéted, of three of which
engravings were made in the “* Marmora Oxonienfis.”” In
the year 1740 he was chofen principal of St. Edmund’s
Hall, and was at the fame time prefented to the vicarage of
Bramley in Hampshire. Soon after the regius profefforfhip
was conferred upon him, which he held till his death, in 1751.
His Travels have been tranflated into various modern Jan-

uages. An attack was made on them by Dr. Pocock,
which led the author to defend them in his fupplement, and
in a letter of Dr. Clayton, bifhop of Clogher.

SHAW;

He prefented to the univerlity of Oxford fome re- —

SHAW.

Suaw, Perex, « phyfician, and contemporary of the

former, was the author of {feveral works, which enjoyed
a confiderable reputation in their day. His firft pub-
lication was entitled «« New Practice of Phylic,” in two
4 volumes, and firft printed in 1726; it contained a brief

defeription of difeafes and the methods of treating them.
His next work was an “ Enquiry into the Virtues of Scar-
Spaw Waters,”’ which he vifited during the fea-
was printed in 1734. In the fame year he pub-
] mical ures publicly read in London
878%) 1732, Scarborough 1733."" "This was deemed
a ific and valuable work, and was tranflated into
He publithed fome minor works, “ A Portable
»”” 17315 “On Scurvy,” 1736; « Effays in
y,” 17313 “On the Juice of the
24; and he edited the “ Difpenfatory of the
yficians of Edinburgh,” in 1727. Eloy

Did. de la Méd.: and the works mentioned.
| Suaw, Geonce, the younger of two fons of the re-
yerend Timothy Shaw, was born December 16th, 1751, at
Bierton, in Buckinghambhire, of which place his father was
wed, at a very early age, a great propenfity
to ftudy, and when he was only four years eld, inftead of
following the amufements common to young children, he
_ ufually entertained himfelf with books, or by the fide of
_ ditches and rivulets catching infeéts, and taking them home,
and {pend all his leifure time in watching their motions
and examining their ftru€ture. He was educated entirely
by his father, and before he was fourteen years of age, his
i was fuch as allowed him to enter with
upon a courfe of college ftudies. In 1765 he was
at -hall, Oxford, where he was no lefs dif-

Artificial

of B.A. and in May 1772 to that of
In order he might afiit his father in his clerical
he took orders, was ordained deacon in 1774,
Buckden, by Dr. Green, bifhop of Lincoln, and regu-

performed the duty at Stoke and Buckland, two po
each three miles yin rate re cage As
33 an opportunity o id afide his theological
he ohare ie mace aoe os i ta his indo and
ive. Havintheineat ae
Dp vin.

Tn this office he acqui

feflor, who was then upon the eve o fetting out upon his
travels into Greece. ( Sisrnorr.) Upon the death of

mn, Dr. Shaw became

Mibits a perfon I in eden fren Gilzn the office. In 1
8 admi ithe degrees of batchelor and door of
i that at this time he had removed from

where he ifed as a "
i li piel dh age res diftin ithed for their
nt to the ftudy of, and eminent for their acquirements
jnatural hiftory, eftablithed a fociety for the advancement
‘this feience, under the denomination of the Linnwan So-
y- Dr. (now fir James) Smith was elevated to the pre-
and Dr. Shaw was nominated one of the vice-
To the Tranfaétions of this Society Dr. Shaw

the followin Defcription of the
ORUS Cordatas,”” which {er “ Defcription of the

er xe:

Cancen Stagnaliz;"” “ Remarks on the Scotorewpna Ble.”
trica and Scoropenpna Swhterranca;” “ A Note to Mr.
Kirby's Defeription of the new Species of Hirudo;”
* Account of a minute Ichneumon ;"" « Defeription of the
Species of My@eria ;” Defcription of the Mus Burlarius,
and Tubularis Magnifica.”’

Dr. Shaw at this period delivered a courfe of leGtures at
the Leverian Mufeum, and never failed, as well before, as
after, that rich and magnificent colleétion was removed from
Leiceiter Fields, to attra& very large and {cientific au-
diences. In 1789 Dr. Shaw began to publifh “ The Na-
turaliit’s Mifcellany,”” which came out in monthly numbers,
and continued to his deceafe, when 286 parts had been
publithed, and, according to the biography of the author
given in the Gentleman’s Magazine, a pofthumous number,
with an index, was to terminate the work, which is deferibed
as a mofl beautiful and extenfive produ¢tion, comprifing, in
1064 plates, figures of the more curious and remarkable

roductions of the three kingdoms of nature, more particu.
arly of the animal kingdom, with defcriptions in Latin and
Englith. In this year Dr. Shaw was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society, and in 1790 he projected a work in
4to. entitled “ Speculum Linneum; or Linnean Zoology,”
but it probably did not promife fuccefs, as a fingle number
only ~\ mews In 1791 Dr. Shaw became a candidate for
the office of a librarian in the Britith Mufeum, and his qua-
lifications, which were of the firlt order, procured him the
appointment of affiftant keeper of the natural hiftory. He
now quitted the duties of phyfician, and devoted himfelf
entirely to refearches in natural fcience. Between the
years 1792—6, appeared the following work ; « Mufei Le-
veriani explicatio Antics et Latina, opera et ftudio Georgii
Shaw, M.D. F.R.S. Adduntur figure elegantur {culptz et
colorate. Impenfis Jacobi Parkinfon.” In 1794 Dr. Shaw,
in conjunction with Dr. Smith and Mr. Sowerby, engaged
in a {plendid publication, illuftrative of the acceflions which
had been made to natural {cience on the thores of New Hol-
land. The animals peculiar to that country were defcribed
by Dr. Shaw in a work entitled « The Zoology of New
Holland ;” the figures were delineated by Mr. Sowerby ;
and the botanical part was written by Dr. Smith, and pub-
lifhed under the title of « The Botany of New Holland.”

Sixty lar lates publifhed by Miller, the editor of the
Gardener’s Di ionary, under the title of * Various Subjeds
in Natural Hiftory, wherein are delineated Birds, Animals,
and many curious Plants,” being judged defeétive from
want of letter pref, Dr. Shaw fupplied the deficiency in a
work entitled «Cimelia Phyfica: Figures of rare and cu-
rious Quadrupeds, Birds, &c. together with feveral mott
elegant Plants, engraved and coloured from the Subjeés
cael with Defcriptions by George Shaw, M.D.

”

In the year 1800, Dr. Shaw began his great work, entitled
«General Zoology, or Natursl Hiltory, with Plates from
the beft Authorities, and moft fele& Specimens.’” This work
had proceeded to the eighth volume during the life-time of
the author, and a ninth was left ready for the prefs. In this
work he intended te comprife the whole of the hiftory of
the animal world. Jt began with quadrupeds, and had

roceeded through fifhes, amphibia, infeéts, and part of the
irds. The Linnzan arrangement, with occafional varia-
tions, has been purfued throughout.

In the years 1806 and 1807, Dr. Shaw delivered a courfe
of zoological leGtures, which were publihed in 1809 in
two large volumes 8vo. In the firft nine leétures the author
has compreffed the fubftance of what he had delivered in the
General Zoology, and in the three remaining leGtures is

3F a tketch

SHA

* a flketch of what, had his life been fpared, he intended to
accomplifh in completing the General Zoology. In 1807,
upon the death of Dr. Gray, keeper of Natural Hiftory in
the Britifh Mufeam, Dr. Shaw was promoted to that office.
An abridgment of the Tranfaétions of the Royal Society was
begun in 1809, of which the department of natural hittory
fell to the lot of Dr. Shaw. It is faid heabridged 1500 dif-
ting articles, which he rendered ftill more interefting than the
originals, by the infertion of Linnzan and fpecific names, and
by occafional annotations, and confiderable references to fub-
fequent authors of molt celebrity, who had treated on thefe
fubjeGts. This was the laft work in which he engaged. His
time was wholly occupied upon the ‘ Naturalift’s Mifcel-
lany’? andthe “ General Zoology,” when death terminated
his aétive and very ufeful life on the 22d of July, 1813, in
the 62d year ofbis age. His illnefs was but of a few days’
continuance: his fenfes and his recolle¢tion only forfook
him with his breath. He died, as he had lived, with philo-
fophic compofure and ferenity of mind, which neither the
acute pains which he endured, nor the awful change which
he was well aware he was about to experience, could in any
degree difturb.

«© As few men have left behind them a character more
eftimable, his name will be tranfmitted to poiterity among
thofe who give lu{tre to their age and country, who do
honour to human nature by their virtues, and who contri-
bute to the advancement of fcience, and the interetts of
literature, by their fuperior talents. Endowed by nature
with confiderable intellectual parts, and thefe improved by
affiduous cultivation, he acquired a vaft ftock of general
knowledge. His extenfive information was treafured up
without confufion, applied in his works with difcernment,
and communicated to every enquirer with cheerfulnefs and
freedom.’’ Gentleman’s Magazine, 1813, p. 290.

Suaw, STEBBING, a divine and antiquary, was born at
Stowe, in Stafford fhire, in 1762, and educated firft at Repton
fchool, and afterwards at Queen’s college, Cambridge,
where he took his degrees and obtained a fellowfhip. In
1787 he madea tour in the Highlands of Scotland, of which
he publifhed an account without his name. In the following
year he made another tour in the weft of England, an ac-
count of which he alfo publifhed. In 1789 he commenced,
in conjunétion with a friend, a periodical publication, called
The Topographer, chiefly confifting of extraéts made from
curious books and MSS. in the Britith Mufeum. This
work was difcontinued in about two years. He next under-
took the “ Hiftory of Staffordfhire,’? of which the firft vol.
in folio, was publifhed in 1798: in 1801 the firft part of
the fecond volume was given to the public, and he died in
1803.

aS in our Old Writers, a grove of trees, or a wood.

SuHaw Fowl, an artificial fowl made for fowlers to
fhoot at.

Suaw’s J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
North Pacific ocean, at the entrance of Cook’s Inlet. N.
lat. 59°. E.long. 207° 16!.

SHAWABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Rantampour; 35 miles S. of Suifopour.

SHAWANEE, atown of America, in the county of

Randolph, and territory of Illinois, containing $30 in- .

habitants.

SHAWANESE. the denomination of a tribe of In-
dians who inhabit Louifiana, on the Miflifippi and St.
Francis. The number of warriors is 300; that of the in-
habitants 800: their trade requires 1000 dollars of merchan-
dife: the value of their returns is 30003; their commerce
is carried on in their villages or fettlements. The Indians

SHA

of this tribe have four towns on the Tallapoofee river. By
the treaty of peace, Aug. 3, 1795, the United States
agreed to pay this tribe a fum in hand, and 1000 dollars
annually for ever in goods. They inhabit on the Scioto
river, and a branch of the Mufkingum, and have their
hunting grounds between Ohio river and lake Erie. They
are generally of a {mall fize, rather handfome in their fea-
tures, and a cheerful crafty people. Counfelling among
the elder, and dancing among the young men and women,
take up a great part of their time.

SHAWANGUNK, a poft-town in Ulfter county, New
York ; containing 2809 inhabitants; 20 miles from Gofhen
and 12 from New Pelta.

SHAWGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude, on
the left bank of Dewah, oppofite to Fyzabad.

SHAWGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad ;
32 miles N. of Gazypour.

SHAWIA, in Botany, received its name in honour of
the celebrated oriental traveller, Dr. Thomas Shaw, who
has given a catalogue, in alphabetical order, accompanied
with rude plates, of the rarer plants, obferved by him in
Barbary, Egypt, and Arabia. The fpecies amount to
632, and the catalogue is enriched with feveral fynonyms,
as well as occafional defcriptions and remarks. His dried
fpecimens are preferved at Oxford. The orthography of
the name is attended with difficulty to foreigners, our w
being as unmanageable to them, as their multiplied confo-
nants are to us. Some of them blunder into Schawia,
Shaavia, or Shavia. Perhaps the latter might be tolerated,

were it not for the ludicrous ambiguity of Savius itfelf,

applied by facetious Oxonians to the above famous tra-
veller and his namefakes.—Forft. Gen. t. 48. Prodr. 58.
Schreb. Gen. 595. Mart. Mul. Dié. v. 4. Juff. 180.
Lamarck Di&. v. 7. 148.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia
Monogamia, Fortter. S. Polygamia-/egregate, Schreb. . Nat.
Ord. Compofite difcoidez, Linn. Coryimbifere, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth imbricated, cylindrical, of five
or fix oblong fcales ; the three innermoft longeft, and nearly
equal. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped, fhort ; limb in
five linear {preading fegments. Svam. Filaments five, ca-
pillary ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Pif. Ger-
men oblong, below the corolla, fuperior with refpect to the
calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the corolla; ftigma
divided, fpreading. Peric. none, except the unchanged
pervious calyx. Seed folitary, oblong. Down capillary,
woolly at its bafe. Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch. Calyx imbricated, fingle-flowered. Corolla
tubular, regular. Seed-down capillary, woolly at its
bafe.

1. S. paniculata. Fort. Prodr. n. 1.—Native of New
Zealand. We have feen no {pecimen of this plant. The
younger Linnzus, in his copy of Forfter’s book, has made
a note of its being referred by Banks and Solander to Soli
dago, under the name of undulata. Perhaps this is the moit

natural way of difpofing of it; though if the calya never —

contains but one floret, and is not in any way. aggregate,
the genus fhould {tand in Pentandria Monogynia, along with
Corymbium, at leaft according to the ftri&t laws of artificial
arrangement ; but we fhould hardly, in either cafe, recom-
mend fuch a meafure.

SHAWLE, in Agriculture, a name applied to a fhoyel
ufed in winnowing corn, in fome places.

SHAWMGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal 5
18 miles W. of Rungpour. N. lat. 25° 27!. E. long.
88° 46'.

SHAWNAWAZ, a town of Hindooftan, in the inp

3 ©

SHE
of Moultan ; 7o miles N.E. of Moultan,

E. long. 77° 38’.

. SHAWPOUR, a town of Bengal; 42 miles S.E. of
Moorfhedabad.— Alfo, a town of gal; 30 miles S. of
Calcutta. N. lat. 22° 5’. E. long. 88° 26'.—Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Surgooja; 28 miles
NV. of Surgooja. N. lat. 23° 35’. E. long. 83° 25'.—
_ Alffo, a town of Hindoottan, in biets 45 miles N.W. of
SHAWR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo,
fituated in a romantic country, where the river Orontes
winds through the plain. ‘The town is po-
puleus, and has a good caravanierai. Adjacent to it sa
ftone bridge of feven arches. Thele conveniencies

N. lat. 30° 40’.

been i provided for the caravan, which reits
in its route from Conttantinople to Mecea.
SHAWROWAH, a town of Hindoottan, in the circar
of Chanderce ; 45 miles W. of Chanderee.
SHAWSHEEN, a confiderable ftream of America, in
A argon which rifes in jection oy he 93 Ha
a pafling through Billerica, Tewkfbury, and Andover,
cenke itfelf into Merrimack river.
SHAYE, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 33 miles

N.E. of J ;
SHAYSHA » a town of Syria, anciently called La-
riffa, on the Orontes ; 1o miles N. of Hamah.
SHAZADABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Allaha-
bad, erg g bank of the Ganges; 30 miles N.W. of
- lat. 25° 42’. E. long. 81° 43.
SHAZADPOUR, a town of Hindoottan, in Bengal ;
35 miles $.E. of Nattore. N. lat. 24° 12. E. long.

s DING, a ee rs or divifion, in the Ifle
of Man; the whole ifland being divided into fix heading
in every one of which is a coroner, cqviciiol>aftesles
pointed by the delivery of a rod at the annual con-
BHEAF, in Agri bundle of bound
> in , a bundle of corn, as bound u
in the field. se peau very different fizes in dif-
ferent places, but they are beft when not made too large.
See Harvest.
Corn, fuch grain as is in the ftate of ear in the
ftraw before being threfhed out. It is fometimes employed

in this fate as for different forts of live-ftock.
Swear of Arrows, a bundle confiiting of 24 in number.
SHEA UR, in » a town of Hindooftan, in

M 3. 4 miles W.N.W. of Vaniambaddy.
7: EALLINGS, in Rural Economy, the portions of
rich grafs-land in the more hilly and mountainous parts of
the » which were fixed upon, and taken poffeffion
of “sired i snbtisake xt caslanty pected: of Cockeby}
for the purpofe of retiring to, and grazing their cattle-
flock upon, at certain feafons of the year. Some fnu
well-theltered {pot in fuch hilly ranges was always fix
in this intention, which was removed from one to an-
ther whenever the cattle had confumed the gras of it;
or cots mec aied for the accompanying perfons
live in, who the care of the animals, &c. ; a trufty
t being ufually fent before hand to fecure the fpot,
drive a any wandering and trefpafling cattle ton
This es He was denominated the poindler, perhaps
e he was authorized to poind or confine troublefome
d fix the fine eftablifhed for the trefpafs. In fome
fe were more than one fuch fpots, and where the
a ich, as near lakes, brooks, or in vallies, the
confumed in common by two or more of them atlo-
g together. The fheallings were by no means, as

nd

SHE

fome have fuppofed, depattured at random, but according
to the flock, or as they were foumed out. See Soum:

Thefe thealling farmers lived with great fimplicity, motlly
on fome oat-meal, and the produce of the dairy ; having at
the fame time a conftant ocealional connection with their
farms or home-fleadings for the fake of performing different
forts of work on them, a8 colleéting fuel, weeding flax, &e. +
the laft was mottly done by the women.

Though fome of thefe theallings fill exift in the fame
way in the northern parts of Scotland, they are falt falling
into difufe. Inthe room of {uch removals from place to
place during the fummer feafon, the diltant grazings are
frequently disjoined from the farmer’s homeitead, and lett
to fhepherds, who live there all the year round, attending
their flocks, in a modern houfe of fubftantial mafon-work.
In this mode of occupation, the landlord is faid to draw
more rent from his glens and mountainous property, and
the farmers are at liberty, during the beft feafon of the
pe to ply the neceflary and variety of labours wanted,
ior the improvement of their arable grounds, which, to
induftrious men, are never at an end.

The thealling feafon was, and is, as far as it yet continues,
that of contentment, of fettivity, of health, and of joy. The
women are employed in {pinning wool to clothe their fa-
milies, and in making butter and cheefe for part of their
winter provifions. The youth are employed in fifhing and
wreltling, or athletic exercifes, which put their {wiftnefs
and courage to the telt, as a preparation for the more
ferious confliéts of a field of battle. When the various
labours of the day are ended, the whole hamlet retires to
reft, and to drown their fatigues in the foundeit Numbers, on
a bed of heath, the mellifluous fragrance of which perfumes
the whole dwelling. See the Agricultural Report of the
County of Invernefs.

SHEALLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; ro miles ew. of Tanjore.

SHEAR, in Agriculture, a provincial word, fignifying
the reaping of grain. It is alfo applied to fheep, as one-
fhear or two-fhear, which fignifies one or two years old.

Suear-Of, in the Sea Language. See SHEERING.

Snean-Water, in Ornithology, the procellaria pufinus of
Linnzus, and called by fome writers avis diomedis, 18 a bird
about fifteen inches long, and thirty-one inches broad ; the
bill is an inch and three quarters long ; the noftrils tubular ;
the head and whole upper fide of the body, wings, tail, and
thighs, are of a footy blacknefs; the under fide, from chin
to tail, and inner coverts of the wings, white; the legs
—? and compreiled fideways ; duiky behind, and whinth
before.

Thefe birds are found in the Calf of Man, whither they
refortin February ; taking pofleffion of the rabbit-burrows,
and then difappearing till April; the young, which are fit
to be taken in the beginning of Auguit, are killed in great
numbers, falted, and barrelled; and when boiled, eaten
with potatoes. They quit the ifle the latter end of Auguit,
or beginning of September ; and there is reafon to imagine,
that, like the ftorm-finch, they are difperfed over the whole
Atlantic ocean. In the Orkney ifles this {pecies, called
the /yre, is much valued for food, and for its feathers.
anes are taken and falted in Augutt for winter provifioa.

nant.

SHEARDAY, in Agriculture, provincially the theep-
fhearing.

SHEARING, a term applied to the cutting of grain,
and to a fheep that has been once fhorn. See Sueer.

SuHearine, Sheep. See Suxer-Shearing.

SHEARING, in the Woollen Manufadure, See SHeerine.

srs SHEAR

SHE

SHEARLING, another term commonly applied to a
fheep that has been once fhorn by fheep-matters.

SHEARPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bengal, on the Burhampooter; 82 miles W.N.W. of
Dacca. N. lat. 24°53!. E. long. 89° 55!.

SHEAT, or Sueer, a name by which fome call a young
hog.

Somes or Sheats, ina Ship. See SHEET.

If the main-fail fheats are haled aft, it is in order to make a
fhip keep by a wind, but when the fore-fheets are haled
aft, it is that the fhip may fall off from the wind; and if
fhe will not do it readily, they then hale the fore-fail, by
the fheat,, flat in, as near the fhip’s fides as they can ; and
this they call flatting in the fore-fail. When they fay, ea/e
the fbeat, they mean veer it, or let it go out gently; but
when the word is, /et fly the fheat, they mean let it go all
at ence, and run out as faft as it can; and then the fail will
hang loofe, and holdno wind. The feamen fay, when they
would have the fheats of the main or fore-fail haled aft,
tally the feats. Ina very great gale, or guilt of wind, there
is another rope bent to the clues of the main-{ail and fore-
fail, above the fheat-block, to fuccour and eafe the fheat,
and this they call a fal/e heat.

Sweats, in a Ship, alfo, are thofe planks under water
which come aleng her run, and are clofed into the ftern-
poft: fo alfo that part within board, in the run of the fhip,
is called the /ern-/beats. :

Surat, Fale. See SHEAT.

SHeat, Overhale the, in Sea Language, a word of com-
mand to hale upon the ftanding part of the fheat.

Sneat-dnchor, ina Ship. See ANcuHor.

Surat of a Plough, in Agriculture, that part of the
plough which paffes through the beam, and is faltened to
the fhare. It is fometimes called /Leath.

And the fheat, or as it is fometimes called, the fore-fheat,
there being another piece of timber behind it, which is
called the hinder-fheat, fhould be feven inches wide, and
faftened to the beam by a retch (a piece of iron with
two legs), and by a wedge driven by it into the hole of the
beam. But in the modern conftruGtion of this tool, the
fheat is faltened without having recourfe to thefe means.
The angle contained between the fheat and the beam of the
plough fhould be about forty-two degrees.

SHEATH, in Botany, is fynonimous with /patha, peri-
chatium, and vagina. Inthe firft inftance it belongs to the
fingle-leaved covering, burfting longitudinally, which Lin-
neus reckons a kind of calyx, differing from a ferian-
ihium in being more or lefs remote from the flower. Such
occurs in Galanthus, Narciffus, Allium, and others of the
Hexandrous clafs; as alfo in drum; and more efpecially
in the natural order of Patmz. The Prericuz@tium, fee
that article, isthe fcaly fheath, or calyx, of Mofles. Va-
GinA, which will be further explained in its place, is the
fheathing part of a leaf.

SHEATHING of a Ship, is the cafing that part of
her hull which is to be under water with fomething to keep
the worms from eating into her planks.

It is ufually done by laying tar and hair, mixed toge-
ther, all over the old plank, and then nailing on thin new
boards. But this hinders a fhip’s failing ; and therefore,
of late, fome have been fheathed with milled lead, which
is much fmoother, and confequently better for failing ;
and alfo more cheap and ‘durable than the other way.
It was fir invented by fir Philip Howard, and major
Watfon.

The fheathing with copper is a ftill Jater invention, and
anfwers better than any other.

SHE

It is very well worth the trying what the new ftone pitch
will do in this cafe ; if it will defend from the worm, as
perhaps it may, a fhip might be paid with it cheaper than
with the crown pitch ; and it will not crack nor feale off,
as that will do, but keeps always foft and {mooth. It has
been found to continue on thirteen months, and to remain
very black and foft all the time.

SHEAVE, a cylindrical wheel, made of hard wood or
metal, moveable round a pin as its axis in a mortife, as
being ufed to raife or increafe the mechanical powers, as 2
pulley, applied to remove or lift weighty bodies. Sheaves
are either fixed in blocks, to form tackles, or let through
the fhip’s fides, for affifting to lead the tacks and fheets on
board, or in mortifes cut through the malts, yards, caps,
&c. to facilitate the working of the rigging, and outer ends
of the cat-heads, to form the cat-tackle to raife the anchor
to the bow.

SHEAVES, in Rural Economy, provincially the broken
parts of the ftems of flax which come away in drefling.
Alfo the {mall bundles of grain in the ftraw.

SHEB, in Geography, a town of Nubia, on the borders
of Egypt, on the route from Charjé to Cobbé; 175 miles
N. of Charjé. This place is occafionally infefted by a tribe
of the wandering Arabs, called babdé, who come from
the neighbourhoed of the Nile. Sheb is marked by the
produétion of a great quantity of native alum, as the name
imports. The furface, from which the alum is found,
abounds with a reddifh ftone; and in many places is feen
argillaceous earth.

SHEBAT, in Chronology, the eleventh month of the
Jewith ecclefiaftical year, anfwering to part of our January -
and February.

SHEBBY, or Surety, as Morfe has it, in Geography,
a county of Kentucky, in the United States, containing
14,453 inhabitants, of whom 2996 are flaves.

SHEBBYVILLE, atown oe the forementioned county,
containing 424 inhabitants, of whom 118 are flaves ; fo that
the total in the county and town includes 14,877 inha-
bitants. '

SHEBSHIR, a town of Egypt; g miles S. of Amrus.

SHEBUSTER, a town of Perfia, in the molt pic-
turefque, and, at the fame time, the moft flourifhing divi-
fion of Azerbijan, which lies along the N. and W. borders
of the lake of Urumea, from Tabreez to the confines of
Armenia. Shebufter is a large and flourifhing town.

SHECATICA Bay, a bay on the S. coaft of Labra-
dor. N. lat. 51°20!. W. long. 58° 20!.

SHECHALLION, or SuicHaxuin, a lofty mountain
in the parifh of Fortingall, diftri€t of Rannoch, and county
of Perth, Scotland, is fituated in the immediate vicinity of
Loch Rannoch. It rifes in a conical form, and hence de-
rives its name, which fignifies the maiden’s breaft. Avccord-
ing to menfuration, its height is 3564 feet above the level
of its bafe, which nearly coincides with that of the ocean.
This mountain is rocky and barren; but is particularly re-
markable from the circumftance of its having been chofem
by: Dr. Maikelyne, late aftronomer royal, for afcertain-
ing the power of mountains in-attraéting the pendulum.
Sinclair’s: Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. 1. 1792.
See Arrraction of Mountains, and MounTAtns.

SHECHINAH, in the Jewifh Hiffory, the name of -
that miraculous light, or vifible glory, which was a fymbol
of the f{pecial prefence of the Deity. This fhechinah, after
it had conduéted the Ifraelites through the wildernefs, had
its more ftated! refidence in the tabernacle and the temple.
See Ark of the Covenant.

For a farther account of this miraculous Piso

the —

SHE
the reader may confult part ij. chap. 2. of Mr. Lowman’s
Rationale of the Hebrew Ritual,
Toland, in his Tetradymus, has attempted to prove, that
__ this appearance had nothing miraculous in it, but was only
a Kid of beacon, ufed by the Ifraclites for their direétion
in their journey. "
s Buitpine, in Agriculture, a term applied to any
fort of fight temporary bui ding.
Sunn, Open, a fort of flight open building, for containing
_ eattle, and various other ufes in the farm-yard. See Carre
Shed.

Suen, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying to part, with
the fi and thumb, wool, hair, Pogend alving theep.
“SHEDDING of the Heir, in’ horles, is the cafting of
the coat. See Moutrinc.

SHEDIAC, in Geography, a harbour on the E. coatt
of New Brunfwick.

SHEDMA, a province of Morocco, se gen. 550,000
inhabitants. This province produces wheat and barley ;

its fruits are not fo rich as thofe of the north, or of Sufe;

it abounds however in cattle. Of goats it furnifhes annually
an incalculable number, the fkins of which form a bores

__ article of exportation from’the of Mogodor ; and fu
_ are often the animofity and sok he beeing merchants

_ there, that they have fometimes given as much for the fkin,
_ @ the animal itfelf was fold for. Honey, wax, and tobacco

} produced in this province; the two former in great

3 alfo gum arabic, called by the Arabs “ Alk

: tolh,” but of an inferior quality to that of the Morocco

diftric.

SHEDUAN, an ifland in the Red fea, about nine miles
long and fix broad. It is high and craggy, without wood
Or water; it is fituated at about an aul itera between
the two coatts of Egypt and Arabia. N. lat. 27° 4'.

SHEEDWOOD, in Rural Economy, provincially rough
poles of top.wood. See Woon.

SHEE Movnrains, in G aphy, the name of a
_ Fange of mountains in the barony of Mufkerry, and weftern
part of the county of Cork, in Ireland. Of thefe and other
mouctains along the cenfines of Kerry, it is obferved by
Mr. Tewnfend, in his Statiitical Survey, that though fome-

imes high, they generally want grandeur, and that the in-
termediate hollows are feldom marked with itriking or ro-

mantic {eenery, The adjoming lands are rude, rugged, and
ony in the extreme, with a very {canty intermixture of
thing fair or fertile to relieve the eye amidit fuch a

HEELAMOOLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
miles S. of Erroad.
a. or, as Arrowimith fpells it, Shillin, a lake
on the fouth of the feuaty of Cavan, Ireland, fituated

en it and the counties of Meath and Weftmeath. The
this lake, of which Mr.
to the Bog commiflioners, that it is
deep river, and capable of being ren-
a {mall expence, and to great national ad-

ee ee well-
i and Rural *
i kind of live-ftock kept by the farmer.
gs to the clafs of ruminant animals, or fuch
cud, and of which there are different {pecies,
And in its generic charaéter it is
tinguifhed by being with or without horns, which are
ilo wrinkled, turning backward, or intorted in a {piral
anner. Bigheont teeth in the loner jaw, in the upper

*

.

SHE

It is evident that theep are animals of the utmoft un.
portance to mankind, whether confidered in the light of
affording food and clothing, or in that of the vaft Lm prove-
ment and profit which they produce in the various {yttems
of management to which are way by the farmer ;
in fome initances conitituting a very large proportion, and
in others pearly the whele of his lependence aod (upport.
There is alfo another point of view in which they appear
equally advantageous and interefting, which is that of their
becoming thus Teoeficial in fituations and upon lands that
mult otherwife be nearly if not wholly ufelefs. Alfo in the
view of affording the raw material for one of the mott ex-
tenfive ftaple manufaétures of the kingdom, the advantages
which they afford are almott incalculable.

But befides the wool, the fins and other parts of thefe
animals afford a variety of other equally ufeful aud im-
ae articles and produéts, fuch as thofe of parchment,

ther, glue, fuet, and many others, which ‘are of great
value for different intentions and purpofes in the arts and
other ways, and which employ a great number of labourers
in forming and preparing them. In fhort, there is hardly a
part of the fheep that does not afford an ufeful and me a
product of fome fort or other. In ufefulnels they may, of
courfe, be placed at leaft next to, if not before, the cow.
In difpofition, almoft all the improved breeds are extremely
mild, tame, and gentle, which is a proof of their value as
grazing ftock ; but thofe which have been lefs attended to,
or which continue more in their native or original fate, are
much lefs traétable, as thofe which inhabit the downs,
heaths, and mountains in different parts of the ifland.

The chara¢ter of ftupidity, want of fagacity, and of fome
other valuable properties, which the naturaliit Buffon has

iven thefe animals, feems by no means well-founded. It
is probably the offsprin of prejudice, and the improper
examination of the fubje@.

The increafe or growth of the fheep continues to advance
till at leaft three years old, when it is in general confidered
as in the moft proper ftate for the purpofes of the grazier,
though it is employed in this way till a much later period,
fometimes even till five or fix, and alfo with the view of
breeding ; but an early maturity is a property of much
confequence, efpecially for the grazier. Of theep, the
breeds or varieties that are difperfed over the are
almoft endlefs ; even in this country they are fo extremely
numerous as fearcely to be deferibed with any correétnefs.
The characteriftic cireumftances by which they have been
chiefly diftinguithed, are thofe of their pofleffing horns, or
being wholly without them, and from the length or fhortaefs
and finene{s of the wool or coat, aswell asthe fituation in which
they are chiefly found. It has been ftated by lord Somer.
ville, in his “ Syftem of the Board of Agriculture,” that all
the breeds of fheep in this kingdom may be arranged into
two claifes ; thofe which fhear the thort or clothmg, and
thofe which thear the long or combing wool. And that
the quality of the fleth in each clafs follows the charaéter
of the wool; the thort-woolled fheep being clofe in the

in as te fleth, confequently heavy in the feale, and high-

voured as to the tafte; the polled long-woolled theep
more open and loofe in the grain, and larger in fize. And
by the author of “ The prefent State of Hufbandry in
Great Britain,” they have been diftributed under heee
general divifions, as below :

1. The mountain breed ;

2. The thort-woolled breed ; and

3+ The long-woolled breed.

And among the firft are comprifed feveral varieties, as
the black-faced, which range on the mountains = eg

eftmore-

SHEEP.

Weitmoreland, Cumberland, Yorkfhire, and thofe in the
fouth, welt, and north of Scotland, and in the Shetland
iflands ; the Cheviot hills, in the fouth of Scotland and
north of England; and the foreft and common fheep of
the lait-mentioned country. In the fecond divifion are in-
cluded thofe of Hereford, Dorfet, Suflex, Norfolk, and
fome parts of Cumberland. And the third divifion com-
prehends all thofe varieties that are difperfed over the more
rich and fertile parts of England, and which are diftin-

guifhed under the titles of the Durham or Teefwaters, the

Lincolnfhires, the old and new Leicetterfhires, &c.

4 ie others divide them into /ong, fhort, and middle-qwoolled
inds.

And a ftill more clear and concife view of the va-
rious breeds of Britifh fheep, is afforded in the tabular
form given by Mr. Culley, as enlarged and correéted
Py the author of the “ General Treatife on Cattle,?? and
others.

Taste of the Breeds or Varieties of Sheep in England.

Names of Breeds.

1. Teefwater. No horns. White face and legs. | Long wool. glb. | 30lb. |2 years
2. Lincoln. No horns. White face and legs. | Long wool. II 25 2
3. New Leicetter. No horns. White face and legs. | Long wool (fine). | 8 22 2
4. Cotfwold. No horns. White face and legs. | Long wool (fine). | 9 24. 2
5. Romney-Marth. No horns. White face and legs. | Long wool ay 8 22 2
6. Dartmoor or Bampton. No horns. White face and legs. | Long wool (fine). | 9 25 2
7. Exmoor. Horned. White face and legs. | Long wool (coarfe).| 6 16 24
8. Heath. Horned. Black face and legs. | Long wool (coarfe).| 3. 15 35
9. Hereford, Ryeland. No horns. White face and legs. | Short wool (tine). | 23 14 3h
10. Morf, Shropfhire. Horned. Black and fpeckled. | Short wool (fine). if 12. zt
11. Dorfet. Horned. White and {peckled. | Short wool (fine). | 33 18 2
12. Wilts. Horned. White and fpeckled. | Short (mid.) 3 20 3
13. Berks. No horns. Black and white. Long wool. 7 18 25
14. South Down. No horns. Speckled and white. Short wool. 24 18 2
15. Norfolk. Horned. Black and white. Short wool. 2 18 34
16. Herdwick. Horned. Speckled and white. | Short wool. 2 10 4a
17. Cheviot. No horas. White face and legs. | Short wool. 3 16 43
18. Dun-faced. No horns. Dun face and legs. Short wool, 14 7 4
1g. Shetland. No horns. Various colouredditto. | Finecottony. . 1% 8 4k
zo. Spanifh. Rams-horned. | _White. Short wool (fuper.) 33 14 24
21. Ditto crofs. Ditto fine. 23 16 2

There are a few other breeds met with in different dif-
tris, as noticed below. ;

Since it is found by the grazier that the more an animal
approaches towards perfection in its form, the better, in
general, it is adapted to the purpofe of fattening ; it is
obvioufly a matter of much importance to be well ac-
quainted with the peculiar difpofition and conne&ion of
parts which conftitute fuch excellence or perfection of
form; thefe have been already fully explained in {peaking
of the nature and principles of breeding animals, as well as
in confidermg the nature and management of cattle. And
the fame thing is to be aimed at in fheep-ftock; asthe more
any breed may approximate to fuch an excellence of fhape,
the more perfect 1t muft be. A fort of model to be aimed
at, in fo far as fhape is concerned, in the improvement of thefe
animals, due attention being always had to other properties,
has been given by Mr. Culley, in his defcription of a ram,
and which may be feen under that head. (See Ram.)
The nature and combination of the various points and
parts fhould, of courfe, be well underftood and imprefled
on the mind of the breeding and grazing farmer, in order
that he may always rear or procure thefe animals to the
greateft advantage: -

The varieties of this mo ufeful animal are endowed with
different particular qualities, properties, powers, and pro-
penfities, which it is neceflary to afcertain, in order for the
farmer to draw and produce the utmoft advantage poffible
from the combining, crofling, and rearing of them. All

Weight |Wethers

Age
of Fleece. |per Quar.

killed,

the breeds of fheep are the moft diftin&t while they are
kept or left in the itate of nature.

The common and ufual defcriptions of the feveral breeds
are the following :

Teefwater Breed or Variety.—This is a breed of fheep faid
to be the largeft in the ifland ; it is at prefent the moft preva-
lent in the rich, fine, fertile, inclofed lands on the banks of the
Tees in Yorkfhire. In this breed, which is fuppofed to be
from the fame ftock as thofe of the Lincolns, greater atten-
tion feems to have been paid to fize than wool. It is, how-
ever, a breed only calculated for warm rich paftures, where
they are kept in {mall lots, in {mall inclofures, and well fup-
ported with food in fevere winter feafons. ‘The produce in

weight of mutton is large, but then, from their requiring fo

much longer time and richer keep, and being admitted in fo
much {maller proportions on the acre, they are probably not,
upon the whole, fo profitable, even in fituations where they
can be kept with the greateft chance of fuccefs, as the
f{maller more quick-feeding breeds, In the ewes there is,
however, a property which is of mueh confequence,
which is, that in general they are very prolific, bringing
two and frequently three lambs, and in fome cafes
a greater number each, according to Mr. Culley. He
gives the following defcription of the breed.
longer, finer boned, and fupport a thicker and more firm
and heavy carcafe than the Lincolnfhires ; the fheep
much wider on the backs and fides, and afford a fatter and
finer grained mutton. The weight per quarter in torte
a

The legs are

are

old wethers is from 2stbs. to gstbs, and in particular
Hoflances to gslbs. or more. ‘The wool is thorter and lefs
Heavy than in that breed. However, the writer of the
™ Treatife on Catile,” thinks that the breed is nearly worn
out; but fuggelts that there is a fimilar breed in Ireland,
This is a fort of theep chat has been little attended to,
but which, whea improved by proper crofling, it is fuppofed,
ay well in diftri&s where it could be

would anfwer and
well fupported. In the Corre&ed Report of the State

of Agriculture in the Weit Riding of Yorkthire, Mr. Par-
= fuppofes that an ufeful kind is Sanh of being
by crofling the ewes of this fort with ithley rams, in

a aly & manner. And it is added, that by the ule of
thefe, and thofe of the Northumberland kind, the quality

_ of the wool and the mutton has not only been reatly im-
proved, but the quantity of bone and offal much leflened ;
at the fame time, the fattening property confiderably
increafed ; they becoming fatter at two years old than the
others are at three. wethers of this improved fort
at two years’ old, from 45s. to 55s.
| apiece, and weigh from twenty-four to thirty pounds the

; bones
pelts thick ; flow-feeding ; mutton coa meh
i i bs. 5 in

in the diftri& which gives
pers Hatithe writer of the
, it thi

ofe defeéts of the old breed, of which Mr. Culley,
with much reafon, complained, namely, flow feeding, from
a loofenefs of form, aide too much bone, and coarfe-grained
Tt muft not, however, be denied, that a good old
Lincoln has ever been, and the name, at leaft, ftill continues
a great favourite at Smithfield, and the flavour of the Lin-
‘coln mutton has been generally held fuperior, as more
lavory than the Difhley. The new or improved Lincolns
have now finer bone, with broader loins and trufled carcafles,
and are among the beft, if not aCtually the beft, long-woolled
flock we have. Many will recolle& the Padictlsas and
andecorous {quabble, fome years ago, between two eminent
weeders concerning thefe two breeds of fheep. About
his time, they attempted to feed Lincoln fheep on the
Effex marfhes, and eechepaed the ftock degenerated, which
might happen from tofufficiency of winter
Seectinr flocks, from crofling with other breeds, an
werlafting and un practice in thofe not profeffedly
breeding op enemy
ble 0}
but that in tuck cate it may probably be

which pays for their
: uch breeds as feed

m th other long-woolled forts, according to Culley, by
ving fine lively eyes; clean heads, without Bates itraight,
d, flat backs; round or barrel-fhaped bodies; fine

sal bones ; thin pelts; and a difpofition to make fat at
carly age ; to which may be added a fuperiority in the

Dl!

SHEEP.

finenefs of the gaia and the flavour of the mutton to that
of other theep of the large long-wovlled kinds. The
weight ger quarter in ewes three or four years old from
18lbs. to 2blbs.; in two-year old wethers, from zolbs.
to 3olbs.; the length of wool from fix to fourteen inches.
But the author of the “ Treatife on Live-Stock,”’ chae
racterizes them as having a fulnefs of form and fubftantial
width of carcafe, with a peculiar plainnefs and meeknefs of
countenance ; the head long, thin, and leaning backward ;
the nofe projecting forward ; the ears fomewhat long, and
flandin ackward ; great fulnefs of the fore-quarters ;
legs Pe wh, length, and the finelt bone ; tail fall ;
fleece well covering the body, of the fhorteft and finelt of
the combing wools, the length of ftaple fix or feven inches.
The fore-flank, a term of the old {chool, current in the time
of Lifle, or that flap of fkin and fat appended to the
ribs, and the inferior part of the fhoulder, is remarkably
capacious in this breed. New Leicetter mutton, it is be-
lieved, is the moft finely grained of all the large long-woolled
{pecies, but of a flavour bordering on the infipid. And it
is added, that it is reported, and with the ftrongeft proba-
bility, from the appearance of the flock, the finenefs of the
Ea and the grain of the mutton, that a Ryeland crofs was
a prime inftrument in the Dithley improvement ef theep.

Probably the root or foundation was Lincoln. In the
erdinary and gradual courfe of improvement or alteration
of form, it muft have taken, it is thought, a long time

and vat pains, to mould the animals into that artificial and
peculiar ee which diftinguifhes this remarkable variety,
unlefs indeed fomethiog nearly fimilar was fuddenly and
fortuitoufly chopped upon, as will occationally happen
when the fickle deity is good-humowredly difpofed to {pare
our labours.

It mutt be obferved, that the great advantages of this
fort of fheep have been ftated to confitt in producing’a better
profit to the farmer, in proportion to the quantity of food
coniumed, than moft others 3 in being more perfectly formed,
and confequently more difpofed to fatten quickly ; in con-
taining a much larger proportion of meat on an equal weight
of bone ; in thriving well oa fuch pattures as would not
fupport other forts of the fame fize; in being capable of
being kept or fattened in larger proportions to the acre, than
other breeds of the fame fize of carcafe 3 in the wool being
more valuable, though lefs in quantity ;. in their being ready
for the butcher in the early part of the {pring inftead of the
autumn, by which there is a confiderable faving in the fum-
mer’s grafs; and in the mutton, from the clofene(s of its
texture, keeping longer than that of other equal-fized
breeds. And that the principal defeéts are the fattening too
much, and the mutton, in confequence,: becoming lefs deli-
cate in its flavour, than in that of otber breeds that require
a greater length of time in the procels; the deticiency in
the quantity of wool which they produce ; and the not bein
calculated for the fold. It has alfo been fuppofed that their
peculiar rounded form, from throwing much of the fat on the
external parte, prevents their tallowing well internally ; and
that from their great propenfity to fatten, they are liable to
early decay, becoming old fooner than other breeds. There
can however be no doubt, but that it is a valuable breed on
pattures that are adapted to it, as is evinced from its rapidly
making its way into different diftri€s of the kingdom; but
fome fuppofe that the theep are too fmall, and that, from the
thinnefs of their fkins, or pelts, they may not be fo capable
of bearing cold, which, however, experience does not appear
to fupport.

The author of the “ Treatife oy Cattle,”” who feems
chiefly to obje& to the Leicelter breed, from its too great
propenfity to fatten, which, it is fuppofed, alfo abates the

procre-

SHEEP.

procreative and lactiferous powers, fays, *¢ Pure Dithley fheep
are by no means the moft prolific, nor the beft nurfes.””
And adds, that the heads of the improvers having had time
to cool, it is no longer boalted, that new Leicefter fheep are
able to fubfift, and even thrive, on the fhorteft commons, In
fine, it is contended, the merits of this ftock as an improving
crofs, (their grand point of utility,) being fo undeniably
great, their difadvantages have been overlooked, and com-
parifons have been ufually made with fuch only as had a
{trong need of improvement, in which the new Leicefters in
courfe were fure to triumph. And further, that though
the Difhley crofs has made its way into every part of this
ifland, to the Land’s End, to the bottoms of the Welfh
mountains, and of the Scottifh Highlands, to Ireland, and
even to Ruffia, its general fuccefs has been attended with
various particular inftances of failure, a remarkable one of
which is given by lord Somerville, in his Fa&s, in re{pe&t to
the Bampton or Weftern long-woolled fheep. The crofs is
fometimes very injudicioufly ufed with fhort or carding wool
{tock, excepting where the intention is only forward lamb.
On ftock naturally good and improveable, this peculiar
effe&t of the new Leicefter crofs has refulted, the improved
have confiderably furpafled, in the moft valuable properties,
their improvers. Of this many examples may be feen, it is
fuppofed, in the improved Lincoln, Northumberland, and
Midland county fheep.

The following is a table of the value of new Leicefter
fheep, at various ages, as given on the authority of different
eminent breeders in the Lincolnfhire Agricultural Survey.

Wether lambs, at 6 months, worth . 17S

-——, at 12 months - 4 30s.

» at 18 months é 355.

——, at 24 months ° 455

--—, at 30 months 5 455-

—_——_-——, at 36 months ° . 55s.

But others, in different parts of the diftri€, {tate it thus <

Leicefters, at fix months old, worth . 145.

5 at twelve ditto 2256

, at eighteen ditto 285.

» at twenty-four ditto 3556

————.,, at thirty ditto : 4 455.
,and, if kept to thirty-fix,

would be i 5 3 50s.

If a three-fhear fells for 3/. it will be worth,
At 6 months, 28s.
At 12 months, 35s.
At 18 months, 4os.

Wool gdlbs.

At 24 months, 48s. Wool olbs.
At 30 months, 56s.
At 36 months, 6os. Wool glbs.

According to the firft of thefe tables, the {cale of receipt is ;

ie Sau ae

For the firft fummer . 5 O15)

For the firft winter. : 013 0
For the fecond fummer, including

€lbs. wool at gd. (oy isi!)

For the fecond winter . - 5 © 10 oO

For the third fummer, including wool o 6 oO

For the third winter, including wool 0 16 o

BuO

Three fleeces 0 18 Oo

Asabove 2 15 o

At 73s. they pay, per annum, 24s. 4d.

And it is remarked, that, at thefe prices, the laft half
year pays better than any ; if this is juft, there isa great
lofs, by felling at 23 years old; for it is juft at the con-
clufion of the worft half year there is.

Mr. Dawfon of Berthorp, who has an excellent ftock
bred from Mr. Dalby’s tups, latt year fold 200 two-fhear
wethers at 3/, round. The following is his table of fales
for feven years, of wethers of that age.

1790 Averag 3556
179t 3 355.
1792 . 435.
1793 ° . : 385.
1794. = 6 445.
1795 0 . 50s
1796 60s,

He tods threes. Average 21. 35. 6d.
And, at this average, he would thus divide it, by fup-

pofing the proportion to be,

23 ak
At 6months . . °o 17 0
Atizmonths . 5 STE Ko)
At18 months . ; I 12 0
Atz4 months . . 2eOuo
At 30 months. Opt Aiea ile)

The advantages and difadvantages of the Lincoln and new
Leicefter breeds of fheep have been very fully confidered in
the Agricultural Survey of the former county; and the
refults {tated as below in the different diltriGts of it.

Circumttances of comparifon between the Lincoln and
Leicefter breeds of fheep. \

Bofton. Lincoln better than Leicefter, on general
experience and particular experiment.

In experiment, very little difference.

Leicefter tenderer than Lincoln. Lincoln
pay beft for keeping to three-fhear.

Laft year of Lincolns pay bett.

Old fheep ftand the winter better, and pay
better than young.

Shearling Leicefters have, at Wakefield, fold
as high as two-fhear Lincolns. Differ-
ence of wool has beenas 8 to 16. Leicef-
ters tenderer in winter.

Lincoln fleece zlbs. heavier than Leicefter,
Leicefter off-fhearlings ; Lincolns two or
three-fhear, but the latter pay well, if —
kept to three-fhear. Leicelters finer
grained mutton.

Leicefters rather thicker on the land, but
Lincolns confiderably larger.

As much wool ger acre from Leicefters as
Lincolns. f

Leicefter fleeces, though not fo heavy as
Lincoln, fold, in one inftance, for as much
money. :

Leicefter not tenderer in winter than Lincoln, ©

Old breed of Lincoln ufed to go lean at two —
years old.

Now, Leicefters fat at the fame age.

No difference in number on the fame land.

Wool the fame.

Leicefters come to fale fooner, but will not
bear cold, wet land in winter fo well, nor
heat or cold after fhearing, as the Lincoln.

Five Leicefters where four Lincolns; and
Leicefters have refifted hardfhips on the
worft land better,

Brothertoft.
Ewerby.

Hackington.
Ewerby.

Owerfby. .

Normanby.

Walcot.

Barton.

Bonby.
Barrow.

Brocklefby,

oL. XXXII.

SHEEP.

Lincola more profitable than Leicetter.

Where a man can keep, by means of marth,
to three-fhear, Lincoln moft profitable,
but not otherwife. Not more Leicetters
kept on the fame land. Leicefter wool
1s, atod more than Lincoln. Leicefter
more liable to the fly.

Leicefter will feed a little fafter, and run a
little thicker. :

Leicetter one in fix more on the fame land,
but both go at the fame age. Leicefters
hardier, and have lefs offal. ‘Tallow
equal ; wool higher priced. Gives corn
to Leicefters, but did not to Lincolns.

Leicefters feed quicker, and have lefs offal ;
wethers and lefs wool, but ewes
equal, and on the whole more per acre ;
hardier, and bear driving better. Go
off at the fame age, but Leicefters fatter.
Five kept initead of four. Lamb eafier ;
neceflary to give corn.

More pride than profit in the new fort.

Lechers 2ibs. lefs wool than Lincolns, and

not better; but run one in ten thicker,

i feed quicker, and have lighter

ae, No difference in hardinefs. eine

co s

Lincolns and Leicefters being put together
into the marfh, and fent teece at fame
time to Smithfield; the former yielded
44- ahead more, and 5s. a-head more
wool,

Marth graziers all prefer Lincoln. No dif-
in nu ept.

Lincoln wool 4lbs. heavier than Leicefter.

At two-fhear, Lincoln heavier by 2lbs. a

uarter ; at three-fhear, slbs. In tallow,

at three-fhear, in favour of Lincoln.

In number acre no difference. In

inefs, Lincoln beft. Leicefters lefs

wool, and lefs mutton ‘ad acre.
No difference in number kept.

Leiceiters as fat at Lady-day, coming two-

» as Lincolns at Lammas.

; Lei have corn.

Three-fhear better than two, as {ure to find
more tallow.

Leicefters bred too fine; fine-headed ones
do not yield wool enough.

As many of one as the Sane: fe acre. Lin-
colns travel belt, and ay beit.

Leicetters thicker on land, as five to four.

In an experiment of the two breeds on the
fame land, of the fame weight and age,
the Lincolns confiderably fuperior.

True Lincolns mott faleable, and moit pro-
fitable to breed.

One-third more Leiceiters on the fame land.

Botton graziers uot judges, for they can get

anne a0 at ao Leicetters, as the

) of thefe can fat them themfelves.

Leicefters ran one-fourth thicker on the

land. From fix to twelve months old,

rather tenderer than Lincolns ; Leiceiters

travel beft. '

Leicefters as fat at one year as Lincolns at
two, and with lefs trouble, and one-tenth
thicker. Do as well as Lincolns in win-
ter on wet land.

Leicetters beft, and run one-fixth thicker.

Leicetters by far the beft ; but more apt to
be barren than Lincoln. Drape ewes far
more valuable.

Leicefters travel belt, and are the belt ; and
much lefs lofs in lambing ; run one third
thicker,

A clear diflinétion is to be drawn, as the writer remarks,
between the rich fouth-eattern diftri& and inferior foils ;
for, u the former, the information is ftrong in favour of
eh my However, in general, he fhould rve, that the
new Leicelters are {preading very rapidly over the country,
probably faiter than they have done in any other, one or two
ard excepted, which may be attributed to the general -
nefs of the foil ; for this breed makes a much more re -
able figure here than it has done in various trials made in
counties inferior to it in foil; and the breed driving out the
Lincolns fo much as it has. done in the poorer parts of this
patos is a fa& that unites with this circumitance. The
true Lincoln is a large fheep, and with a longer wool, and
therefore demands better pafturage ; where it finds fuch,
there the old breed remains ; fubje&, perhaps, to little more
change than fafhion may caufe. Upon inferior land the
Leicefter eftablithes itfelf; and upon land till inferior in
other counties, experiments prove unfuccefsful for the fame
reafon ; that of the neceflity of having a fmaller fize and
fhorter wool.

But fome of the original pure long-woolled polled breed
of theep, are ftill to be met with in the midland diitriés,
which are a larger boned, longer formed, deeper coated, and
more coarfe {tock than the improved fort. And that, from
the coarfenefs and larger fize of the head and neck in the
old fort, the ewes lamb with more difficulty than in the true
Dithley breed.

The new Leicefter fort of theep is found a very advan-
tageous breed on fome kinds of land in the county of Oxford,
as on the ftone-brath ; there are fome farmers indeed, who
think that no other fort comes nearly up to them, when all
their valuable properties are taken into the account.

Cotfwold or Gloucefler Breed or V. aricty —This is a breed
of theep which, according to a late writer on them,.is of the
fine combing wool fort, deriving the finenefs of their fleece
from the fame fource as the new Leicefters. This part of that
county formerly, and within memory, bred, it is faid, {mall
fine-woolled theep of the Ryeland kind, which in pait times
had been cotted, but the praétice was difcontinued. ‘Thefe
theep, being judged too {mall for the improving ftate of the
county, have been, by gradual croffings with Midland long-
woolled rams, chiefly Warwicks, completely changed from
thort to large long-woolled ftock. The writer faw a picked
lot of Cotiwolds lat year, he fays, which anfwered the
following defcription : long coarfe head, with a i
blunt, wide nofe, a top-knot of wool on the forehead,
running under the ears; rather long neck; great len
and breadth of back and loin; full thigh, with more fub-
ftance in the hinder than fore-quarters ; bone fomewhat fine ;
legs not long; fleece foft, like that of the Difhley, but in
clofenefs and darknefs of colour, bearing more refemblance
to hort or carding wool. Although fat, they had
all the appearance of fheep that woe Fok of folid fleth,
which would come heavy to the feale. It is added, that it
is faid, fome of thofe theep have reached 40, and even solbs.

3G a quarter,

Claypool.

Martton.
Woollthorpe.

Grimithorpe,

SHEEP.

a quarter, at two years and a half old, giving 11]bs. to r4lbs,
of wool each fheep, and being fat, they are indubitably
among the largeft breeds in England. A fingle dip, con-
tinues he, of new Leicefter gives the Cot{wolds a fulnefs in
the fore-quarter ; but any farther crofs of that kind, it ap-
pears, diminifhes their fize. The ftrange crofs of Wilts
horned fheep has been recurred to in fome parts, for no pof-
fible good purpofe, he fhould apprehend, either to the car-
cafe or wool ; and it is probable, f{uppofing fuch large {tock
profitable, that the chief alteration required by the Cotf{-
wolds, is to encourage length of ftaple in their fleece or
wool.

In this breed the ewes are ulually put tothetup, fo as to
have lambs at two years old, moitly producing two lambs
each, in the proportion of nearly one-third of the whole,
where kept well, which. muit always be done. They may
be kept for breeding till three or four years old, if they are
of the proper improved fort. But it is faid that the wethers
afford moft profit when killed fo early as at two years old,
as they are apt to become too fat when kept longer.

The Cotfwolds or Gloucetters, and the half Leicefters
and half ‘Gloucefters, and other mixtures of thefe breeds,
are confidered as very excellent forts of fheep ftock in many
parts of Oxfordfhire ; they are of a good fize, bear plenty
of wool, and ftand penning well. But penning or folding
is not thought beneficial by fome farmers, as more and better
fheep may be kept without it.

The native Cot{wolds, if they areany where to be found,
would be, it is faid, at two-fhear from twenty-eight to
thirty-two pounds the quarter: they are along fort of fheep,
not full inthe fides, fharp inthe chine, not full in the fore-
flank, coarfe in the bone, not ftraight but good in the hind-
quarters ; will not fatten fo early as when crofled ; and of
wool, the two-fhear wether affords three and a half fleeces
to the tod. The new Leicefter, it is contended, is calcu-
lated to correct every one of the deficiencies which have
been noticed, and to bring a greater difpofition to fatten.
Between all Cotf{wold and all Leicefter, the average differ-
ence of wool, it is faid, is three pounds.

In Devonfhire, fome, it is faid, have fucceeded in the crofs
of new Leicefter upon the Cotfwold, the equal breed of
which is attempted to be preferved as much as_poffible.
Wethers of this kind, at eighteen months old, will average
nineteen pounds the quarter, and feven pounds of unwafhed
wool the fleece. When kept on for another twelvemonth,
the age at which they are moitly killed in this county, this
crofs will attain the fize of twenty-five pounds the quarter,
and yield nine pounds of wool to the fleece. This wool is
allowed by the ftaplers to be one penny the pound fuperior
to that of the Exmoor, Bampton, South Devon, and
Dartmoor fheep, yet {till the common price of tod. the
pound is only allowed for it. Inthe young wetbers of this
breed, the loofe fat is ftated to be nine pounds, with nearly
three pounds of kidney fat on each fide. . The larger wethers
are faid to produce thirteen pounds of rough fat, and four
pounds of kidney fat on the fide.

Romney-Marfb Breed or Variety.—This isa kind which is
defcribed by Mr. Young, as being a breed of fheep without
horns; white faces and legs; rather long inthe legs; good
fize ; body rather long, but well barrel-fhaped ; bones rather
large ; and it is faid that the weight per quarter, in fat
wethers at two years old, is ufually from 22lbs. to 28lbs.
In refpe& to the wool, it is fine, long, and of a delicate
white colour, when in its perfe&t ftate. On this Marfh 2olbs.
of wool are fuppofed to be produced fer acre. In this breed
there is a property of arriving at the itate of fatnefs at an
early age, as well as that of producing a large fleece of fine

long combing wool, of courfe it is a valuable fort; how.
ever, from the fize, and great weight of the coat, it is only
capable of being fupported and fattened on the rich kinds of
marfh pa{ture : and on thofe which extend from Haftings
to Rye, in Kent, according to the Suffex Agricultural
Report, the graziers find it much more beneficial than the
South Down ; the marfh wethers fattening more quickly.
The wool afforded by fuch fat wethers averaging fix pounds,
and in breeding ewes five pounds, but not equal in quality
to the wool clipped from fhearlings. And the author of the
“ Synopfis of Hufbandry” remarks, that a convincing proof
of the great value of this breed of fheep, as well as of the
Jand on which they are fed, is feen in the manner of ftock.«
ing, which in tegs is from four to feven fer acre, in fatten-
ing wethers from fix to eight, in barrens from two to three,
and in couples three; which is certainly a great ftock.
And this is a breed that might probably undergo much im-
provement without crofling, by proper care and attention,
and being lefs expofed in the winter feafon.

In the old Romney-Marfh breed, the fheep were remark-
able for having large heads; for being large, long, and tub-
bellied; alfo i being large in their bone, long in their
legs, and coarfe in their wool; which form is ftill held in
eftimation by fome, in confequence of improper prejudices,
tothe great injury of the grazier and community in general ;
but the pure breed of this fort, Mr. Price fays, is diftinguifhed
by a thicknefs and length of head, a broad forehead, with a
tuft of wool upon it, a long thick neck, a great length and
thicknefs of carcafe; being flat-fided, and having a fharp
chine, tolerably wide on the loin, but the breatt narrow,
not deep, the fore-quarter not heavy or full, a good cleft ;
the thigh full and broad, the belly large and tubby; the ©
tail thick, long, and coarfe, the legs thick with large feet,
the mufcle coarfe and the bone large; the wool long and
not fine; coarfelt onthe breech: the fheep prove good, and
are great favourites with the butchers. But this defcription
is not now, it is faid, fo applicable as it was fome time ago,
when moit of them had horns. ;

The fame writer, in his account of the fheep management
in this marfh diftri€t, has remarked, that the introduétion of
the Leicefter breed has very perceptibly altered the form
and properties of the original breed or {tock of this tra@,
fo that in a few years it will fcarcely be difcernible. And
that it is probably the general opinion that it has been inju-
rious to it, in reducing the fize and value of the animal, as
well as the quality and quantity of its wool, though it has
ftill many advocates, and has certainly contributed much to
itsimprovement. The principal objections which the graziers
of this Marfh feem to have to the mixing of the Leicefters
with their own breed, are, that they have feldom or ever twin
lambs, which are very defirable and beneficial in this fitua~
tion; that the lambs are more tender, and, of courfe, a
greater lofs liable to be fuftained, efpecially in an open ex-
pofed tra&t of this fort; that their lambs do not winter fo
well as thofe of the native breed upon the uplands: they
are much lefs hardy, confequently cannot ftand cold and hard-
fhips fo well, whichis very difadvantageous ; that their wool
is not in fuch abundance, or fo valuable, which is a great ~
defe&t ; that there is a want of proof in them, which renders
them a great deal lefs faleable to the butcher ; this may,
however, be no difadvantage to the breeder or grazier, as it
fhews other more valuable properties and difpofitions ; and
that they are too fhort in their bodies and legs, fo as to ftand —
too low in their pens at the market. Thefe are, however,
probably improved valuable properties, which muft be rather
beneficial than hurtful. Some improvement has, however, —
been given to the Marfh breed by the Leicefter rape F

thoie

thofe of imaller and leis evoarle heads, a greater depth of
fhorter and lefs coarfe legs, ter fymmetry
feveral different parts, as well as of the whole

» therefore, be no doubt bit that this breed
tly benefited by the introduétion of the new

has been
i ort, and it is probable that it has not depended
much upon feleétion as the ule of this new variety, as
the in the market is for the marth kind, that

carefully improved, and by no means preferved, al-

fill exit, Something of the
difcernible in this breed, it is

This breed of theep is thought to be highly valuable for
expofed fituations, as being eafily bred, and itanding in

. ‘no artificial food “ales age evere winters, except a
1 ; are y for their fize, have now mah
austin, and | x

of it ma
fort is likewile

Dartmoor, Devenfbire,
This is a breed or fort o theep, which is chiefly dit,
by having no horns; white faces and legs, thick
backs narrow, and back-bones high; fides good ;
and probably without any ma-

bs. a quarter: in

_Befides the foreit from which it takes its name, this breed
met with in fome other parts of the county. The Dart-
bor wethers at five years old will average about 16lbs. per
rter, and uce from four pounds and a half to fix
! wy ne th eprs es re af a This
red of theep, not feed fo quickly, when
t to good | as the new Leicetter for, yates
they conftantly prove the very beft mutton, and never
command a fuperior price. They alfo ftand the
in a favourable manner, and the ewes are good

he old Devonfhire dun-faced apeiioes ters Siiey
id in high eftimation, as a native breed of fome parts of
‘this county. It is, however, 2 crooked-backed, flat-fided,

SHEEP.

coarfely boned and woolled animal, but which has been
much improved by crofling with the new Leicelter fort; its
principal defeéts are by thefe means removed, and a grester
difpofition to fatten at an earlier period given ; while at the
fame time, however, the fleece, as well as the weight of the
carcafe, has been leflened, the former from ten to pu
pounds of unwafhed wool the fleece, and the latter fr
twenty-two to nineteen pounds the quarter. In order to
recompenfe which, the animal comes to market four months
earlier ; the wethers at two years old, with advantage; that
is, after being twice thorn as fheep, and once as lambe, equals
the average already ftated. This iflue once more crofled
with the new Leicefters, will arrive, it is. faid, {till earlier
to the fame perfeétion.

In the Bampton nott breed, the wetherswill, at twent
months old, weigh twenty-two pounds the quarter, ab
fhear fix pounds and a half of wool to the fleeces alfo
the fame theep, well wintered, and kept on for another
twelvemonth, will average twenty-three pounds the quarter,
and yield eight pounds of unedthed wool to the feece, The
price of the wool at prefent is about 14. the pound. i

The firft crofs of this breed with the new Peicetter is faft

wing into t efteem in this diltriG, in confequence
or ite rite the form, and bringing the animal three
months fooner to market ; but though fo far ufeful and de.
firable, any more of that blood is thought difadvantageous,
as rendering them too tender while young, and to require too
much care and nurfing. ~

The Bampton nott croffed with the new Leicetter is alfo
a fort much approved of in feveral parts of the county, efpe-
cially when carried to the fourth degree, or four parts of the
Leicetter to one of the native nott. ‘This crofs, it is faid,
comes earlierto market, and at two years old will generally
average twenty pounds the quarter, and eight pounds of
yoak wool to the fleece, which is worth about 10d. the
pound. And the old Leicefter crofs upon the ton
makes a large and handfome animal, which feeds kindly and
tallows within. The wethers of two years old will
average, with advantage, thirty pounds the quarter, and
fhear ten pounds of yoak wool to the fleece. It is much
valued in fome places. But the new Leicelter crofs upon
the fame fheep, will in fome fituations bring forward wethers
at twenty months old, weighing twenty-two pounds the quar-
ter, with a thear of eight pounds of yoak wool to the fleece,
both of which are at this time worth 1od. the pound, weigh-
ing, according to the cuftom of unwafhed wool, twenty-one
pounds for every fcore. This fort is highly valued by fome
in different parts of this county. The half Bampton crofs
is more hardy than the new Leiceiter fort, and fuits fome
places better.

3G2

SHEEP.

Tas e of the different Breeds, Croffes, and Produce of the Sheep of this and neighbouring Diftriéts.

Age of | Average | Average q
Wethers} Weight | Weight | Condi- | y, Rough | Kidne
Charaéter of Breeds. when eQuar per tion of Value of Fat in’| Fat in

killed in} ter, in |Fleece,in| Fleece. P Pounds. } Pounds.
Months. | Pounds. } Pounds.

Native.

Exmoor, horned, white
legs and face, mode-
rately long ape |
wool, pure ~

Dartmoor, the fares a
fame - =

South Devon Nott, own
face and legs, long wool,
pure

Bampton Nott, white voor
r

The wafhed wool
of all the long-
coated fheep is |
fold from x4d. }
to 15d. per |b.

and legs, es wool
pure -

Neighbours.

Dorfet, horned, white
face and legs, fhort
wool, pure

Same, croffed with Bese

Thefe fheep are
not fent to the
Diftant. 4- forefts.

South Down, pure

Same, crofled with new )
Leiceiter.

Leicefter, old, crofled with
Bampton - -

Same, old, crofled with
Exmoor - S {

Same, new, pure -

Same, new, croffed with

Dartmoor. In moft cafes of a
Same, new, crofled with crofs with the }
Exmoor § - - 4 new Leicefter
Same, new, fourth crofs upon long full
with South Devon } s fleeced fheep, 2
Same, new, fourth crofs deficiency of

with fame - = 5 wool is obferv- |
Same, new, croffed with able under the
Bampton - - z belly and breaft |
Same, new, crofled with of the animal.
Cotfwold - - r
Same, new, crofled with ]
fame - -
Foreign.
Tino, crofled wi -
Me eur ae { a4 | 1s | 6F | do. |2 9 [18 63
Same, croffed with fame 2 I do. | o {15 o
Same, firft crofs with Ex- 4 2 : ‘ended ; ‘ 2 6
moor - -
Same, fecond ditto = 5 do. | 2 9 |13 9
Same, third ditto - 5 do EGS higy

SHEEP.

8. to 18lbs. ; and the weight
Tt is a
-woolled theep, principally produced on
or in the neighbourhood of the moor from witch it takes its
fame, which ts in the northern extremity of the above county.
» Lawrence fuppofes that in their prefent ftate they are
18 to be confidered as a profitable fort of theep-
either in what relates to fleth or wool ; on which ac-
be for the intereit of the county to chan
* beit fine-woolled breed. It is remarked by Mr.
that this breed of fheep is frequently kept two
merely for the annual profit of their fleeces,
do not exceed more than four pounds in weight ;
from their being kept upon bare and indiffer-
paftures while young, they are f spoted by many theep-
to be a very proftable fort of flock.
horned has a moderately long ftaple of wool,
which formerly, before the cloth manufaéture of the county
of Devon fled into Yorkthire, was much in demand by the
¢lothiers of feveral different places. The fattened wethers
this breed, at three years old, will ufually weigh about
the quarter, and average 4ilbs. of wathed wool to the
which is worth at prefent about 4 3d. the pound.
pts have been lately made in different places to im-

z

re

if

aE
z

Te

_ eee embeds IT ae peBisiae. 20kd

Mer; , Seas a2. = 10 10
Second crof hi

ia oy ts 2 9 Syn
Third crofson fame “5 — 3 5— 7 1
_. Inwhich improvement of the fleece the carcafe is faid to
be rather advanced than the contrary.

tothe fleece. The Exmoor theep have alfo been croffed with
ee eters wa ag preduce of (ory at twe
years o ill weigh 18) uarter, and yield 6lbs. of
“unwathed cl 4n tee feece: the rice of age latter
the pend Much lofs is often, it is faid, fuftained ia this
erofs at the time of yeaning, in confequence of the great
of the fhoulders of the lambs retarding or preventing

ir exclufion. This will, however, be remedied in the

a? of this crofs.

The Exmoor breed is a hardy fort of on wet ex-
land while young. The ewes under {uch circum.

in lambing, are alfo fuperior to the Bampton nott

vernifh Breed or Variety—The true breed of this fort
to have grey faces and coarfe fhort thick necks,
lower before than behind, narrow backs, flattith
a fleece of coarfe wool, weighing about two or three
of eighteen ounces each; their mutton, which is
fat, from eight to ten pounds the uarter.
However, from various croffes which have been intro-
into the county at different times, in confequence of
I

tie hese 24lbs. the quarter, and carry 62lbs. of yoak wool

the ufe of rams of the Exmoor, Dartmoor, North and
South Devon, Dorfet, Gloucefter, and Leiceiter kinds, the
pure breed of this defeription is, it is faid, now become rare,
but that, from the inferior nature and value of its properties
the total extinétion of it need not be lamented. The dif.
trict is now capable of fupporting a much better and more
improved breed of this fort of animal.

Black-faced Heath Breed or Variety.—This is a kind or
breed of theep which, according to Mr. Culley, have large
{piral horns, black faces and legs, a fierce wild-looking eye,
fhort firm carcafes, from 12lbs. to 16lbs. per quarter, covered
with long, open, coarfe fhagged wool, fleeces glbs. or 4lbs.
each, wool worthi at prefent about 8d. per pound. They are
an active hardy fort, running with amazing agility, and beit
adapted, of all other breeds, to expofed, heathy, and moun-
tainous diftri€ts ; feldom fed until three, four, or five years
old, when they feed well, and make the fineft mutton, having
a high-flavoured gravy. ‘The theep of this wild-lookin
breed are natives of the sortie of Yorkfhire, and o
that mountainous traé of country adjoining the Irifh fea,
from Lancathire to Fort William : they have been of late
years introduced into the Weltern highlands of Scotland.

And the writer of the “ Treatife on Live Stock,” fuppofes
the black-faced Linton, or fhort theep of Scotland, to be a
variety of the Heath fheep. They have been croffed with
the Cheviot breed, and Mr. Culley, it is noticed, recom-
mends a Dithley crofs, meaning, ye for the ufe of
the low lands. If he may be allowed to give an opinion, he
would, for upland fituations, lah. a Spamsh crofs,
with free winter management, in preference to all others.
It is difgraceful, he contends, to the rural economy of Bri-
tain, that fo excellent a breed of fheep fhould be needlefsly
compelled to brave the rigour of the feafons, in fuch loofe,
ragged, and beggarly clothing, when they might, with a
few years’ pains, and without any deterioration of the car-
cafes, produce a fleece of high = fe and confequence to the
manufactures of the country. And he adds, that Mr. Henry
King, falefman of Newgate market, and an eminest gra-
zier, informs him, that he once fed a lot of thefe northern

th fheep, and made excellent mutton of them, about
16lbs. a quarter ; but that their wool hanging down their
quarters like goat’s hair, was fo execrably bad, that it could
be fold only for mop yarn.

But what are termed black-faced, or fort fhecp, are {aid to
have been originally thort-woolled, the prefent length of it
having proceeded from croffing ; and it is not well afcertained
whether they are a native Scotch breed, or have been intro-
duced from the moor-lands of Yorkthire. Befides the ob-
jection to thefe black-faced theep, on the ground of the coarfe
loofe nature of their wool, they are faid to be fubje& to the
braxy, a difeafe that was unknown in the Highlands be-
fore their introduétion, And it is remarked, in the able
Agricultural Survey of Eait Lothian, that the kind of fheep
bred and moft generally kept in Lammermuir, is the black-
faced, or more properly, what is called the brocked faced, a
fort of dirty-looking mixture of black and white ; they are for
the moft part horned ; when they are fed, the wethers weigh
from 1olbs. to 12lbs. ger quarter, and the ewes from §lbs. to
tolbs. on an average. It will take eight or nine fleeces of the
ewes and hogs, and fix or feven of the wethers, to make a
ftone of feventeen pounds (twenty-one ounces to the pound) ;
the quality, and confequently the price, vary much. The.
difference of quality may refult from various circumftances ;
it is owing partly to the pare of tar put upon the thee;
in falving; partly, it is uppofed, to the fituation in whic

paiture, as thofe fed on high grounds, and coarfe mofly
herbage, are thought to have ce wool ; and partly to the
general

SHEEP.

general attention and care which farmers beftow upon their
flocks, in which fome are greatly fuperior to others. But the
black-faced fheep feem, the writer thinks, to becapable of very
confiderable improvement ; it does not, indeed, appear, that
much has been done for improving that breed, which cer-
tainly places them in an unfavourable fituation, when their
merits come to be difcufled in oppofition to others which
have received great attention. There can hardly be a doubt
that the weight of the carcafe and the quantity and quality
of the wool might all be increafed, by fufficient care to fe-
le& the ftrongeit, healthieft, and beft feeding among them
for the purpofe of breeding. It has been obferved, that
thofe which feed beft have the greateft quantity of wool, and
generally of the bett quality ; and it is natural to fuppofe
that it fhould be the cafe, as they mutt’be the healthiett and
ftrongeft.

Herefordfbire, Rofs, or Ryeland Breed or: Variety.—T his
is a fort of fheep which is diftinguifhed by the author of the
« Treatife on Live Stock,”? by the want of horns, and having
white legs and faces; by being {mall in fize; and the wool
growing clofe to the eyes; by the careafe being pretty well
formed ; and by the excellence of the mutton. Weight per
quarter from rolbs. to 18 Ibs. Wool fine and fhort, the
lean pocr-fed fheep producing the. finett. It is the true
breed of this fort of fheep which is properly denominated
Ryelands. In the Agricultural Report of that diltri@,
they are faid, in fymmetry of fhape, and the flavour of the
meat, to be fuperior to mott flocks in the country. They
Jamb in February and March. It is a breed which, Mr.
Knight fays, is found to be remarkably eafy in re{fpe&t to
food, but which, in its management, requires cotting in the
winter feafon, and being fed with hay or peas-haulm. In
fome cafes they are houfed all the year round in the night-
time. The cots are low covered buildings, proportioned to
the extent of the flocks. Inthe Herefordfhire Agricultural
Report, it is obferved that the cotting materially contributes
to the health of the animal and the finenefs of its fleece.
The quantity fhorn from each of the fmall original breed
does not average more than two pounds; but the quality is
fuch as almoft to rival that imported from Spain. The
price has often been as high as thirty-three fhillings the
ftone of twelve pounds and a half untrinded, when the coarfe
wool has brought but ten or twelve fhillings. They are faid,
by Culley, to fatten the beft at four years old. ‘The Archen-
field, or true Herefordthire bréed, is faid to afford the fineft
wool, except the Spanith. It is fuggefted by Mr. Knight,
that the difpofition of fheep to fatten in the north-weft part
of that diltri@ is in the proportion to the finenefs of the
wool; but he is not certain of its being fo in this breed ;
however, it feems to him that where the wool is clofe and
fine, there are many advantages ; lefs nourifhment is drawn
from the body in its fupport than in the contrary cafe. The
long coarfe-woolled fleece admits the rain more freely, and
by dividing on the back lets it down to the fkin. It alfo
takes in a larger weight of water, which muft more inconve-
nience the animal: already heavily loaded. The fine clofe
fleece of this breed admits the water with difficulty, even
when immerfed in it in wafhing, and is never wet through
by rain. On account of the clofenefs of the texture, it only
lodges on the outfide, and is eafily removed by the animal
fhaking itfelf. Befides, a fleece of this kind is much more
warm and light. For thefe reafons it is fuppofed that no
breed of fheep in the ifland is capable of fubfifting on fo
{mall a proportion of food as this.

This animal, in Mr. Knight’s opinion, appears fo be much
more patient of hunger, and to keep itfelf in better condition
on a lefs quantity of food than any other which he has had

an opportunity of obferving. To the great feantinefs of
the paiture on which it is ufually condemned to feed, is to
be attributed the finenefs of its fleece; for the quality of
this becomes immediately impaired by a copious fupply of
food; and this circumftance fhould be attended to, inevery
county where thefe fheep are introduced.

Some attention has lately been paid to its improvement,
and although the wool is fomewhat lefs fine in its quality
than it formerly was, it is {till the fineft in the ifland, with
the exception of the Spanifh fort recently imported ; and
the animal mutt be allowed, on the whole, to have been con-
fiderably benefited. The quantity of wool afforded by the
improved fort of Ryelands, although increafed, is {till far
from large; a three-years old wether rarely yielding more than
three pounds and a half. But as a large number of thee
will fubfitt on a {mall portion of ground, and the wool is till
worth two fhillings and fixpence the pound, its value, com-
pared with the quantity of food confumed by the animals, is
probably much greater than that afforded by any other breed.

And the Ryeland fheep readily acquires, on a very mode-
rate pafture, that degree of fatnefs which renders its flefh
more acceptable, but it is wholly incapable of being loaded
with fat in the manner of Mr. Bakewell’s. It appears to
him to fatten fomewhat more quickly than thofe he has feen
of the South Down breed.

In the Agricultural Survey of Herefordfhire it is fug-
gefted, that a crofs between the Ryeland and real Spanifh
feems the moft probable mode of adding to the finenefs and
value of the wool; and amongft many {pirited breeders who
are now making the experiment, colonel Scudamore of Kent-
church, fold the fleeces of a flock fo croffed at forty fhillings

per ftone, in the fair at Rofs, in the courfe of laft year. The -

firft ftage of the crofs materially detracts from the beauty of |

the Ryeland’s form, but by continued attention, this ob-
jection will probably be removed, and the flavour of the
mutton is uninjured. Lord Somerville has found that they
feed quickly, and weigh heavily, although their form be not
attractive; but perhaps form in this animal is of little com-
parative confequence. An ox rarely fattens well, or has
flefh of good quality, unlefs it be in one particular fhape 5
but fheep fatten well, and the meat is of prime quality in
thofe of very different forms. Two Leicefters which were
fed by Mr. Hewer, of Abergavenny, and flaughtered “be-
fore the Agricultural Society of this county in March laft,
weighed no lefs than fifty-one pounds in each fore-quarter,

and forty-five in each hmd-quatter. But notwithttanding

this great weight, the Leicefters are often found lefs heavy
than they appear to be, whilft the half Spanifh

than is generally expected from its fize.

A crofs of the Merino onthe Ryeland breed has been tried

in fome parts of Devonfhire with an appearance of fuccefs.
The three-years old wethers of this crofs, when fattened to
their frame, being, it is faid, e(timated to run from fourteen

to fixteen pounds the quarter, and to throw off from three |

pounds and a quarter to four pounds of wafhed wool to the
fleece. In experiments made by fome on this crofs in other

weighs more —

parts, it appears that two-years old wethers of the firft crofs —

will weigh about fifteen pounds the quarter, and fhear from
fix pounds and a half to feven pounds of wool in the yoak to
the fleece, which is worth 2s. gd. the pound. The fheep are,

however, greatly expofed to the foot rot. é
The crofs between the Ryeland and the Spanifh has been
made in fome other parts, which has completely fucceeded as
to fleece, as the produce of the third crofs of this breed
readily fells for 3s. 6d. the pound; it is, however, objeéted to
by many on account of its not affording an equal acreable
proportion of mutton with the native fheep. '
n

SHEEP.

Incrofling this breed with the Difhleyy aw ufeful kind of
theep has, however, been produced, both the wool and car-
cafe being increafed in weight, but much injured in refpect
> ao and it is contended by fome, that the breed is
rendered much lefs hardy by it.

Warten Cragg Breed or V ariety.—This is a fort or variety
of theep which is principally met with in the diftri@ of the

chat of Silverdale, in the northern part of
the county of Lancafter. ‘Thefe eragg theep are greatly
the fine flavour of their mutton, their ready
ion to fatten, and the finenefs of their wool. They
a clofe compact well-made breed of fheep, commonly
white or mottled black and white faces and legs.
Their fleeces are thort and clofe in the wool, which ufually
fells » Their patture is chiefly that of the poor fhort
rocky ‘one kind. are deferving of more atten-
tion hitherto been bettowed upon them by the
neighbourhoeds where they prevail.
The Shropfbire or Morf Breed or Variety.—This is a fort
> seey: A the writer on live ftock, has {mall horns,
irk or black faces and legs ; they have the
_ full charaéter of real fine-woolled theep, and have been, for
_ centuries, bred in Shropthire, Staffordthire, Worcetterhire,
and the vicinity. Their fleece is nearly all fine, and, it is
faid, fuperior to Ryeland wool, fince the crofling which has
taken place in that flock.
etter to lord Somerville, dated 1799, eftimates the extent
of Morf common, or watte, at 3600 acres, and the number
fheep fummered thereon, at 15,800, to the annual profit
of fifteen thillings acre in wool only, on a te
calculation hain and a half to the ftone of 14 Ibs.
hing is reckoned on account of carcafe, as the fheep have
— fome an keep during winter. rt is 8 that the
ni ire commons uce wool, but none equal
to orp Ar ceconed pean ges a
__ The Dorfetfbire Breed or Varicty.—This breed is known
having the face, nofe, and legs white, head rather long,
but b and the forehead woolly, as in the Spanifh and
ind forts; the horn round and bold, middle-fized, and
ding from the head; the fhoulders broad at top, but
than the hinder quarters; the back tolerably ftraight;
earcafe deep, and loins broad; legs not long, nor very fine

‘the bone, Weight i quarter in wethers, at three years
and a half old, from 16 lbs. to 20 lbs. Mr. Billingfley fays,

the wool is fine and fhort. It is a breed which has the
culiar property of producing lambs at any period in the
fon, even fo early as September and Odtober, fo as to
it the purpofes of the lamb-fuckler. It has been found to
er well in fome of the midland diftri@s, and, from its
clofe make, to be equally advantageous with almoft any
her. Itis, however, fuppofed capable of improvement by

2 with rams of a larger fize. There are varieties

it met with in feveral diftricts. And it is faid by fome,
hat the Dorfet breeders pay great attention to preferve the
our of their flocks from mixture, fince white lambs are
tmoft efteemed in the London markets, from a prefumed

or delicacy in the meat. It is believed this is one of
bef breeds in England, if not — to all others, con-

g its various qualifications. heir of bring-
‘twin eal cuking ode Might priced Lente lesib, God
dered firit ; they are both hill theep and pafture

t medium between the
hills, and the rich and juicy meat of
- The later Dorfet lambs, when
ened ieft grafs lamb. By the practice of
yunty, the lambs which the breeders retain are thorn
Midfummer, having taken from the ewes in May ;
- a ee arn ce
4

Mr. Pitt, of Pendeford, ina per

rice a penn pound nearly, under the price of theep’s wool,
AN radget yi may produce four or five sound mid.
dling fine waol, which it would be highly advantageous to
improve to the utmolt, on this excellent breed.

This is a breed, or fort of theep, which feems to prevail
among the generality of farmers in the high lands, and fome
other parts of the county of Devon, which border ou the
above, in which they are found to anfwer very well.

And there is a breed or variety nearly connected with thefe
in the Mendip hilly diftri, They are fmaller than that
breed, having {maller horns, more deer-headed, the wool lefs
in weight ; the mutton excellent in its favour. It has been
oblerved by the author of the General Treatife on Cattle,”
that in the Welt Riding of Yorkshire, and in the adjoinin
parts of Wellmorcland, they have a breed of horned
white-faced fheep, bearing a throng affinity to the Dorfets ;
they are called Craven and Wen/leydale theep, but more ge-
nerally Peniflon, from the market town where they are fold.
They are a good down or hill theep, in their pure ftate, and

ive a fleece of coarfe thort wool, weighing between two and
Sree pounds, the carcafe good mutton, about fifteen pounds
fer quarter. They are varioufly croiled in that riding, with
Cheviot, Difhley, and Northumberland tups; with the two
lait, for the purpofe of making patture fheep, in which eafe
the weight oF decals is increaled to twenty or thirty pounds
quarter. In the north, this breed is commonly crofled
with the Heath theep, which gives them black or grey faces
and legs, with fometimes a black {pot on the top of t he neck,
the wool coarfe and open, inftead of being clofe and thick
fet upon the {kin, as a defence againft the feverity of the
climate of that hilly and expofed country in which they are
fed ; defects for which the remedy is obvious. Ryeland tups
have been tried with the Penifton ewes, a crofs which made a
confiderable improvement.

The Wiltfire Breed or Variety.—This is a fort which has
fometimes the title of horned-crocks. The writer on live
ftock diitinguifhes the breed, as having a large head and
eyes, Roman nofe, wide noitrils, horns bending down the
cheeks, colour all white, wide bofom, deep greyhound breatt,
back rather ftraight, carcafe {ubftantial, legs long, bone
coarfe, fine middle wool, very thin on the belly, which is
fometimes bare. He fuppofes, with Culley, that the bafis
of this breed is doubtlefs the Dorfet, enlarged by fome long-
woolled crofs; but how the horns come to take a direétion
fo contrary, is not eafy, he thinks, to conjeéture; he has
fometimes imagined it mutt be the refult of fome foreign,

robably Tartarian, crofs. The old Hertfords were, he
ays, fuppofed a kindred breed with the Wilts, but at prefent,
the few of this kind bred in Herts are of {maller fize, longer
and coarfer wool. Thefe large and leggy Wilts’ theep
work well in the fold, and have always had the charaGter of
good thrivers at corn, oil-cake, and the beft meat, making
very large mutton, and very deep in fleth, which is high-
flavoured, yielding the dark-coloured gravy. The breed is,
he adds, every where on the decline, generally fupplanted
by the South Downs, of which the farmers find they ean,
on the fame quantity of land, keep more than one and a half,
for one of the Wilts, the former, moreover, ucing both
better mutton and better wool. The difeafe called the
les, is faid to be peculiar to the Wilts theep. It is
ated, that this breed has been long ufed, more or lefs, in the
counties bordering on Wilts, and in Surrey, Kent, Herts,
Effex, and fex. But that it is a breed not worth
preferving ; perhaps the only thing to be done with it to
advantage, is to crofs it with the Merino. The Hamphhire
variety of this breed is faid, for what reafon he knows not, to
wae hardy. It is a breed, however, which is efteemed
in fome places.

The

SHEEP.

The Berkhire Breed, or the Variety called Notts. —This is a
fort which the fame writer defcribes by having confiderable
length and bone, ftraight made like horfes, full fore-flank,
Roman faced; with diftin@ black fpots, high on the leg,
thick fleece, of confiderable length. He fuppofes them to
clafs with the long-woolled breeds, and to probably bear
fome affinity to the breed of Oxfordfhire, which is, he is
told, a peculiar variety.

The peculiar qualities of the Berkfhire nott breed feem
to be its great fize, height on the legs, and weight when
fattened. It would appear, contrary to the opinion of fome,
that this breed is well fuited for the ftrong low lands of
its native diftriét, though the South Down fort are faft fup-
planting it im many places, probably without fufficient ex-
perience of them in fuch fituations. In contrafting them
with the horned Wiltfhire fheep, it is found by fome that
the polled Berkfhire or nott fort are as certainly more pro-
perly adapted to the low and cold lands, as they are proved
to be more hardy for the fold, to fat fooner, and to be lefs
liable to injury from the fly, than the horned fheep. When
fat, the fheep vary as much as from fourteen to forty pounds
the quarter, in weight. Thefe polled or nott fheep are,
however, not of fo large a fize as the horned fort of the
fame diftritt. The fleece of this breed of fheep is not fine,
and on the average it will take eight of them to a tod of
wool. The mutton is rather coarfe, as in all large breeds of
animals. The utility of croffing this breed is by no means
decided. Some advife to breed from the beft of this fort,
but to crofs for fattening. Croffes are, however, very
common between many different forts, as between the notts
and the Wiltfhires, the Cot{wolds, the Leicefters, and dif-
ferent mixed breeds.

The Berkfhire nott breed is much valued in fome parts of
Oxfordfhire, efpecially for regular breeding as well as {tand-
ing the fold. . They are ftrong, ative, and able to travel,
and fold unufually well; againft which good qualities they
are, however, long in fattening, &c. The crofs with the
Leicefter improves them confiderably, {till they are faft
giving way to the South Down and fome other breeds.

And it is obferved in the Norfolk Agricultural Report,
that the Wiltfhire fheep have proved, in various trials, an
unprofitable breed, as well as the Norfolks; but it is re-
markable that for turnips, no fheep are faid, by many prac-
tical and experienced hufbandmen, to pay better, if fo well.
In Hertfordfhire, many who turnip-feed adhere to that
breed, who admit the South Downs to be a fuperior fort for
grafs-feeding.

Heath-Croppers or Windfor Foret Breed or Variety. —This is
a {mall ill-fhaped breed of little value, found abundantly in the
parifhes which lie within the precinéts of the foreft of
“Windfor in Berkfhire. It is a breed which affords a very
{weet kind of mutton. A quarter of it will weigh about
twelve or fourteen pounds. And in regard to the wool,
about fhirteen fleeces will make a tod. It is of equal value
with that of the South Down breed. The term heath-
croppers 1s very commonly, though vulgarly, applied to fheep
of this breed.

The South Down Breed or Varieiy.—This isa very valuable
fort of fheep, which Culley has diftincuifhed by having no
horns, grey faces and legs, fine bones, long {mall necks,
and by being rather low before, high on the fhoulder, and
light in the fore-quarter, fides good, loin tolerably broad,
back-bone rather high, thigh full, twift good, mutton fine
in grain, and well-flavoured. Wool fhort, very clofe and
fine, in the length of the ftaple from two to three inches.
Weight per quarter in wethers at two years old 18 lbs. It
is a breed which prevails on the dry chalky downs in Suflex,
as well as the hills of Surrey and Kent, and which has lately

been much improved. both in carcafe and wool, being much
enlarged forward, carrying a good fore-flank ; and for the
fhort lefs fertile hilly paftures is an excellent fort, as feeding:
clofe. The'fheep are hardy, and difpofed to fatten quickly 5
and where the ewes are full kept, they frequently produce
twin lambs, nearly in the proportion. of one-third of the
whole, which are, when dropped, well-woolled. The we~
thers are capable of being difpofed of at an early age, being
feldom kept longer thaa two years old, and often fed at
eighteen months; which is a very valuable property. But
according to.the Suflex Agricultural Survey, the ewes are
commonly kept till between four and five, and found to
an{wer well to the graziers in the neighbourhood, as well as
the farmers in Norfolk and the adjoining counties, in the
place of heme-bred fheep, as being more expeditious feeders,
and equally adapted for the purpofe of the fold. It has
been obferved, that it is in fa¢t a breed of fheep which, from
the compactnefs of their form, and their legs being fhorter,
confiderably outweigh both the Dorfet and Norfolk breeds,
in proportion to the fize of the carcafe, being heavy in a
{mall compafs. heir hardinefs is eftimated according to
the darknefs of the colour in the face and legs; but as there
is inconvenience in the produce on this account, from, the
wool, efpecially about the head and neck, becoming {potted
with black, and thereby thrown afide by the ftapler, as only
of half the full value, a middle degree of colour may be
beft. As an open country breed, they are fufficiently gentle
and traétable. They are capable of travelling well, and of
refifting the effects of expofure to cold. The wool is
{carcely, if at all, inferior in finenefs to that of the Here.
fordfhire kind ; as the praétice of forting, which is common
in that diftri&, is not in ufe on the Downs. The excellent :
properties of this breed have been brought fully to the
notice of the farmer, hy the great patrons of improvement
in Bedfordfhire and Norfolk, and its fuperior merits on trial
have been fuch as to have induced the fheep-farmers in va-
rious. diftriéts to introduce them in preference to other
breeds. It is ftated, in the Annals of Agriculture, that
they have been found to confume lefs food, in proportion to
weight, than the Norfolks, yet keeping in better order.
Young fheep produce the beft lambs; the crones are of
courfe conftantly fold at four or five years old; and if it
were done earlier, it is fuppofed, it would be more profit-
able. The author of the « General Treatife on Cattle’’ fug-
gefts, that the moft noted variety is that of Mr. Ellman, of
Glynd, in Suffex, who, he believes, firlt enlarged the Down
breed, by the aid of polled or nof Berkfhire tups. From
this enlarged crofs, he underftands, originated the ftocks
of the duke of Bedford and Mr. Coke; the South Downs
of Mr. Coke being generally acknowledged the large{t and
fineft in England, a very pregnant proof of which was given
at lord Somerville’s cattle fhow, in a two-fhear Holkham
South Down wether, which weighed more than 4o lbs. per
quarter. Although quick and early feeders, they tallow
within remarkably. And in anfwer to the complaints of
thofe who knew the old Down fheep, that their wool is be-
come fo much coarfer than formerly, from the modern habit
of feeding the fheep with rape, cabbage, and oil-cake; they ~
feem totally to forget the middlé and long-woolled crofs, by
which the careafe of the South Downs of the prefent day
has been enlarged, and their weight of wool increafed, and
rendered more coarfe. The mutton is flill excellent, al-
though probably not fo high-flavoured as the old Down
mutton, It is alfo further fuggefted, that it would be dif-
ficult to point out any part of the ifland for which this breed
would be unfit, but extremely eafy to name a valt number
of diftriéts where it would be 4 molt advantageous fubfti-

tute for the native ftocks. It is fuppofed, that all the
- South

and South Downs, at one-third in favour of the latter, in
number, in better condition, and of greater weight, both in
wool and carcafe; all fairly attributable to the fuperiority of
the breed, and free from any charge of leffening cattle, &e.
When his flock was of Norfolk, fearcely one in a feore had

7 SHEEP.
South Downs want is the noble covering of a Spanihh fleece,
and how little their carcafe would fuffer by the crofs, has,
it is faid, been demonflrated by lord Somerville, in the ex-
hibition of a fine ewe, large enough for any purpofe,
half Spanith half South Down. ut in order to form
acomparifon between the Norfolks and South Downs, Mr.

Overman of Norfolk, on March a7th, 1799, took from
turnips twenty-four two-years old Norfolk wethers, and ten

Down of the fame age, havin always lived together
from the time they were lambed, and two hours afterwards

they weighed as follows:

ft. Ib.
24 Norfolks from the field, 264 74 it. Ib. oz.
vera - - - ix a.a8
Ditto after nftiog 28 hours, 237 13 ;
Average - - - 1010 7
Difference - o 5 8
, ft. Ib.
to South Downs from the field, 109 4 it. Ib. oz.
A - - - 10 13 0
Ditto aher baling 28 hours, 106 2
Average - - ao ae ioe. 0
} Difference - ee
One of each lot flaughtered. 5 —_
. Norfolk.
ft. Ib. 2s. d.
- - 610 a6 27 0
- - I 24 at 5d. o 6 10%
- © 105 - © 0° 9
- - ° o 10
- - © 33at17d. © 5 4
3. O11
- ° 65 3
- or
Live weight = - 10 125
South Down.
oR: 2s. d.
- - 6 82 at 6d. 26"
hy - © 135 at 5d. o-.5 F
pluck - © 10 ° oO 4
. - © 10 o ‘r™"»
> - © 7zati8d. or 3

>
&

Norfolk < pe :
Down fuperior by - <

+, Befides, thefe Norfolk hep lofing 11 1b. 10.0%, more of
_ their refpeGive —— (taken full and empty) is a ftrong
‘cumitance againft them. ‘The Downs are run much thicker

en the land than the Norfolks. And Mr. Hill of the fame
diftrié <7 of hocking between Norfolks

3 om

o 311

a whole fleece; but now they are South Downs, fearcely
one in a feore is broken. And Mr. Blythe of Burnham
had, four years ago, a flock uf between five and fix hundred
Norfolks: he has now one thoufand South Downs on the
fame land, and has likewife double the wool from his land
ftocked with South Downs, to what he clipped when under
Norfolks. Alfo Mr. Durfgate, who has had South Downs
fix years, is clear that, free from all change in hufbap-
dry, or other circumftance that would unfairly affe&t the
comparifon, the number kept, compared with the Norfolke,
has been as five to four. The carcafe is as heavy as the
Norfolks, more wool, and a better price. He does not
fold; but the South Downs would bear it better than the
Norfolks. At Palfgrave he folds the South Downs, becaufe
there is a fheep-walk ; a Norfolk flock changing gradually
to South Downs.

Some think that the South Down are much fuperior to
the Norfolk, Cambridgethire, and welt country fheep, both
in: point of form, hardinefs, finenefs of wool, and difpofi-
tion to fatten. Croffes of the South Down with other forts
are likewife much approved of in man places; as that of
the South Down ram with the Norfolk ewe, the lambs of
which crofs are fometimes greatly admired. Some fuppofe
it equally beneficial when done with feveral other breeds,
according to the circumftances of the different diftri@s.
But this fort of crofling is very {paringly praétifed in the
native diftri@ of this breed of fheep. It has been tried with
Spanifh rams, and the wool has been confiderably improved
by the attempt; but two great defets, not to be compenfated
by any improvement in the wool, gre faid to be produced,
which are tendernefs of conftitution, and badnefs of fhape.
In other places this has not, however, been noticed to take
place. In Oxfordthire, and feveral other counties, the
South Down breed is fait fupplanting the Berkfhire, Nor-
folk, and many other kinds.

And it is ftated, in the Staffordfhire A gri Survey,
that the Cannock Heath are a fort of fheep that has much
refemblance to this breed, and is believed to have originated
from the fame. It is {tated to have been much improved in
the form, thicknefs, and weight of the carcafe, as well as
the finenefs of the wool, by crofling with rams of the Here-
fordthire breed. They are polled with grey faces and legs;
low before ; wool fine and thickly fet, weighing two or three
pounds the fleece ; the mutton good: they weigh from 1 5 lbs.
to 2olbs. the quarter. In fir Edward Littleton’s improve.
ment of this breed, by croffing with Herefordhire tups, the
carcafe and wool were both bettered, the latter being ren-
dered worth nearly 2s, the pound. -

The Norfolk Breed or Pariety.—In this fort of fheep, the

face is black ; the horns large and fpiral ; the carcafe long,

{mall, weak, and thin; narrow chine; large bones 3 very
long black or grey legs: mutton fine-grained and high-
flavoured, but does not keep well in hot feafons. The
weight per quarter from 16]bs. to 20lbs. The wool in the
beft part fhort and fine, but part coarfe. "This breed is
chiefly prevalent in Norfolk and Suffolk, where folding is
much the praétice, as they have the property of travelling
well. They are found in difpofition to be given to be reft-
lefs, which renders them unfit ftock, except in good in-
clofures. Atnd it is ftated, in the nineteenth volume of the
Annals of Agriculture, that this fort of theep, from pof-
fefling few valuable properties, in addition to that of ftand-

3H ing

SHEEP.

ing the fold well, and as requiring much expence in winter
keep, an acre of turnips being the ufual allowance for half
a dozen befides hay, has lately given way to the South
Downs, which are fuppofed by fome to be hardier, lefs nice
in their food, fooner ready for the fold, and more quiet.
This laft fort has lately gained much ground. The wool
might be improved by a Spanifh crofs, but little other ad-
vantage would be gained. It has been remarked, in refpeét
to the quick fainting of this mutton, by Mr. Vyfe, butcher
of Eaton college, that the Norfolk mutton certainly will
taint fooner than any other, in very hot weather ; neither is
there any fort (that he knows) of a worfe flavour at that
time, though inferior to none in cool weather. ' Many very
fine and fat Norfolks do not pleafe on the table. The fat
runs away in roafting, if they are laid to a hot fire; and
they rarely are fo fweet as the South Downs. The latter
are in hot weather worth a halfpenny a pound more than the
Norfolks. When both are completely fatted, it is hard to
fay, (ppoling the feafon cool,) which upon an average is
fattett : the flavour too, in fuch a feafon, he thinks, is equal,
and as to coarfe meat, there is none in either fort. But if
they are killed in cool weather, before they are very fat, the
preference muft be given to the Norfolks, becaufe the meat
will in that cafe eat better, and there is a probability of
much more fat within. With refpeé to profit to the feeder,
if they are fed entirely with grafs and upon good land, his
opinion is decidedly in favour of the South Downs; or if
they eat turnips in the winter, and after that are kept two
or three months upon grafs in the fpring, it is the fame;
but if they are half fat againft winter, and are to be com-
pleted at turnips, he believes no fheep are more profitable
than Norfolks, perhaps none fo much fo. But both forts
fhould be kept where there is both turnip and grafs land.
These are varieties of this breed in Cambridge and Suffolk,
with coarfe wool, and weighing about 18 lbs. or 20 lbs. the
quarter. ;

Crofles of the Norfolk, with the South Down and many
breeds of other kinds, are met with and highly valued in dif-
ferent fituations.

A great diverfity of opinion prevails, in regard to the
{uperiority of the Norfolk and the South Down, which has
led an experienced fheep farmer, at Finchfield in Effex, to
make the very accurate trial which is detailed below. In
September 1791, he purchafed in Suffolk a lot of ewe
lambs, at 6/. 10s. the {core: and in Suffex, in the O@ober
following, a lot of South Down ewe lambs, at 13/. the fcore.
Thefe lots of fheep were depaftured together, and received
in every refpeét the fame treatment until the 25th of the
fame month in 1793; when a fingle fheep, which was ad-
judged to be the level of each lot, was taken out, and after
both of them had fafted twenty-fix hours, they were weighed
alive, the South Down weighing 96 lbs. and the Norfolk
95 lbs: they were then killed, and the refults of the trial
were as follow.

South Down. Norfolk.

Cacde - - 524 Ibs. 534 ze ‘
Skin - = z 7 and horns.
Legs cut eff at the knee-joints, a 1

as ufual = = ie 1
Caul = Zh 3 3
Blood - =p Hi 5
Head and pluck aC me ES
Gut fat - - 22 od
Entrails and contents - 123 14
Lofs by killing, probably urine 2 Iz

96 95

In favour of South Down.

S. ds
2ilbs of fat, 44d. per pound
4 at, 45 a. per poun © 10
1x 1b. of flcin and wool - °o 5
1 3
In favour of Norfolk.
Se de
1 lb. of mutton - ° 5
1 ftone coft = t 6 6
6 11

Total difference in favour of Norfolk fheep 5s. 8d.

It is noticed, that neither of thefe ewes had any lambs,
but at the time of trial, the Norfolk was more than half-
gone with lamb, and the South Down had but jut taker
the ram.

In fhort, the leading and charaéteriftic qualities of the
hizh and full-bred Norfolk and South Down fheep, feem
upon comparifon to be chiefly thefe, the wool of both is
found to be of the firft clothing quality, but the larger
quantity is produced by the South Down: the mutton of
both is equally delicious. But the quiet gentle South Down
in the pafture, muft be oppofed to the wild impatient
ramblings of the Norfolk, whofe conftant exercife not only
excites continual appetite, but at the fame time occafions
confiderable wafte in the pafture, by treading down and un-
neceflarily fpoiling a great deal of food they do not eat.
For this extraordinary exertion on the part of the Norfolk .
fheep in thus, as it were, wantonly deftroying a large por-
tion of food which is prepared for its fubfiftence, there does
not appear, from the trial already noticed, to be the {malleft
occafion at leaft, to put it on an equal footing with the
South Down in that particular; for it is evidently demon-
ftrated by that trial, that in an equally fized fheep, the
heavieft, and moft capacious ftomach, ‘and confequently re-
quiring the greateft quantity of food, is found to appertain
to the Norfolk fheep. The hardinefs of the South Down,
enduring wet and cold lodging, and a greater degree of ab-
ftinence and fatigue than the Norfolk in the fold, is a: fu-
periority of much moment; and only to be equalled by
another, which they poffefs in a very fuperior degree, which
is that of doing well upon coarfe four paftures. Thefe are
fairly to be contrafted with the delicate conftitution, and
the tender aromatic herbage, required by the Norfolk; to
all which it may be added, that the South Down is an ©
equally good turnip fheep ; and for every poffible purpofe,
whether for its flefh, for its wool, for breeding, for folding,
or for the butcher, they demand a lefs fupply of food, and
of an inferior quality to that which, in every fituation, would
appear indifpenfible to the well doing of the Norfolk. On
the {core of the firit coft of thefe fheep, an objection may,
it is faid, be very juftly ftated as to their general ufe; but
when the South Down are moré generally bred and increafed
through the country, in that proportion will the prefent ob- |
jection be done away; and though they may continue in
equal eftimation, they will neverthelefs, by their being more
generally diffufed and increafed every where, be brought to
a more equal level, in point of price, with the Norfolk,
Welfh, and all thofe breeds fo juitly held in requifition for
the finenefs of their wool, and the fuperior excellence in the
flavour of their mutton.

The value of the croffes which have been made between
the Norfolk and Welfh fheep, by the South Down rams,
are far from being decided, fome fheep-farmers ny

them

them highly beneficial, while others frongly reprobate
them .

Delamere Foret Breed or V ariety.—This is a breed or fort
of theep, which is found about the foreft of that name, in
the county of Chefter. In point of thape, the animals are
faid not to be unlike thofe of a diminutive Norfolk fort,
having the faces and legs black, grey, brown, and white,
generally with fmall horns. The b is {mall, the wethers
not weighing more than from & lbs. to 12 Ibs. the quarter,
at four years old. The mutton is in common much
eftcemed, and the wool is valuable, felling about the year
1808 at 2/. 12s. Gd. the ftone of zolbs; the fleeces are,
however, fmall, often not weighing more than 2lbs. The
wool is commonly purchafed by the manufacturers of ‘cloth
in Yorkthire.

The Herdwick Breed or Variety.—This is a breed which
is charaGerized by Mr. Culley by having no horns, and
the face and legs being {peckled ; the larger the portion of
white, with fewer black {pots, the purer the breed; legs

fine, fmall, clean; the lambs well covered, when drop 4) ;
the weight ger quarter, in the ewes, from 6 lbs. to 8 Ibe. ;
in the wethers of four years and a half old, from 9 lbs. to
12 lbs.; the wool fhort, thick, and matted in the fleece.
Tt is a breed peculiar to the elevated mountainous trat of
country at the head of the river Efk, and Duddon in Cum-
berland, where they are let in herds, at an annual fum:
whence the name. At prefent they are faid to poflefs the
ai of being extremely hardy in couttitution, and ca-
pable of fupporting themfelves on the rocky bare moun-
tains, with the trifling fupport of a little hay in the winter
feafon; {cratching down to the heath, during the {nows,
for their fubfiftence ; and by their conftantly moving about,
not being liable to be drifted over by fnow. From the na-
ture poh ew — produce their lambs late, and
are tas long as they produce lambs. But
the wether hock is ufially” difpoted ff from the mountains,
without being put in the paftures, at from four to five years
old. It is s erved, that the fleece in this breed is finer
than that of the Heath fort, but coarfer than any of the fhort-
woolled breeds. It is a breed that ftands in need of a créfs
= nem of the finer-woolled breeds, and the Spanifh has

geited as proper for the purpofe. The pro of
sae Sacks, as well DOF the pd say is in lord Menca er,
the lord of the foil; and the farmer of the principal flock is
now Mr, Tyfon, whofe family, it is faid, have inhabited
this wild and fequeftered {pot through four centuries. Mr.
Tyfon is a tup breeder, and fells a number of Herdwick
= Phage fome at feveral guineas each, to the adjoining

its, where their known hardy qualities are defirable.

— The Cheviot Breed or Varicty.—This breed of theep is
known by the want of horns; by the face and legs being
moftly white, and the eyes lively and prominent ; the belly
Jong ; little h in the breaft ; narrow there and on the
ehine; clean, {mall-boned legs,

much improvement within thefe
pect to its form and other qualities, and
ely introduced into the moft northern diftriéts ;

The Sp and South Down have been
as proper croffes for this fort of theep.

SHEEP.

And it is obferved by the writer of the Argylethire Re-
port, that the Cheviot fheep are in every refpect fuperior to
the black-faced kind, and found to be equally fit for a
mountainous fituation. “They are hardy, fine-woolled, and
well-fhaped. They are long biedied and long-limbed, which
fits them for climbing fleep mountains, and for travelling,
either for feeking their food, or going to a diftant market.
Their fleece, too, is finer, clofer, and warmer. They have
every property that fhould be yy in a mountain theep,
and accordingly they have been found to thrive in every
part of the Highlands in which they have been tried, and
are faid to be lefs fubjeét to difeafes than the black-faced
kind. Some of them have been lately introduced into the
county by the duke of Argyle, and by Mr. Campbell of
Auch, in the higheft parts of Glenurchay, and found to
anfwer eadeedingh well. And lord Breadalbane, a few years
ago, made a prefent of fume Cheviot wedders to feveral of
his tenants in Glenurchay, in order to try how they would
fare on the fame paiture with the black-faced kind; and
the writer was informed by fome of the flore-mafters, that
they perceived no difference in their thriving. Indeed no
part of this county is more inclement than that from which
they came, where the hills are fometimes covered with fnow
for three or four months in a year, and where many of the
lower walks confilt of peat-bogs and deep morafles; fo that
with us their fituation would be mended, a circumftance
which will always enfure fuccefs.

It is likewife itated in the twelfth volume of the Sta-
tiftical Account of Scotland, that the following experiment,
made in the parifh of Barr, in Ayrthire, fhews the com-
parative hardinefs and value of the Cheviot breed. In
June, 1792, a ram and two fcore of ewe hogs, of the
Cheviot breed, were put upon one of the higheft and coldeft
farms in the parifh. The harveft was wet, the winter and
{pring ftormy, and the lofs of the native fheep, through po-
verty and difeafe, was confiderable ; yet all thefe, though
ftrangers, and in fuch a fituation, did well. ‘The wool of
the native fheep, taking ten fleeces to the ftene (24 lbs.),
fold at 7s. 6d. ; the wool of the Cheviot kind, taking only
feven and a half to the ftone, fold at rss, The profit here
was great; but how much more, if the wool had fetched
its real value of 20s. the ftone! And in “ The Obferva-
tions on different Breeds of Sheep,”’ it is ftated that in
1792, the Cheviot wool fold from 18s. to 20s. the {meared,
and from 20s. to 22s. the white; from fix to eight fleeces
of the firft, and from eight to nine of the laft, going to the
ftone. Some went as high as 23s. ; and it is thought it will
foon be improved fo as to fetch 30s., if not gos. Draft
ewes fold from 125. to 16s., and three-years old wedders
from 18s. to 22s. In Etterick, Ewefdale, and Liddef-
dale, they are now converting their flocks as quickly as
poflible into the Cheviot breed. The Roxburgh Agricul-
tural Report alfo fays, that Liddefdale is the worlt diftri&,
yet the Cheviot breed thrive in it. The writer of the firft
of thefe Reports remarks, that it is difficult for thofe who
haye already got another kind to change the breed; but
new beginners ought undoubtedly to ftock with the Cheviot
kind. It is faid that the Yorkfhire graziers have a preju-
dice againft this kind; probably becaufe they would thea
have more rivals in the trade, which is now in few hands; as
the carcafe, and not the wool, is the principal obje€&t of at-
tention. Whatever there may be in this, the introdu€tion
of the Cheviot, which would treble the price of wool, would
more than balance it. And he adds, from the fame volume
of the Statiftical Account of Scotland, that even they who
have another ftock, and cannot conveniently change it,
might at lealt crofs it with Cheviot breed, which “—

3H2z

SHEEP.

be done with little trouble, and to great advantage. In
the years 1787, 1788, and 1789, an intelligent farmer, in
the parifh of Moffat, put Cheviot rams to his black-faced
ewes. In 1790 he fold the wool of the fheep produced by
that crofs at ros. the fix fleeces; and the wool of his other
ftock of the black-faced kind, which went exaétly on the
fame pafture, only at 6s. 3d. the feven fleeces. The fheep
thus produced were as healthy as his other fheep, the car-
cafe not materially altered, and the weight of the wool in-
creafed a feventh part, aud its price more than a third.
The farm on which they were is as high ground as almoft
any in Scotland.

And the fheep which are at prefent known by the title
of Long Hil) beep, by the northern farmers, are a hornlefs,
white-faced, loofe-fhaped breed, having a coat of ordinary
fhort or fine wool, perhaps raifed by croffing, through time,
the old country breed with thofe of the Cheviot kind.
They are faid to be more tender than the fhort or black-
faced breed, but to anfwer well with good care and keep.
However, from the practice of milking ewes of this breed,
for the purpofe of making cheefe, being found to be pre-
judicial, it has lately been much left off by the beft fheep-
farmers in thefe diftricts. .

The Dun-faced Breed or Variety.—This is a fort which
Culley fays has no horns; the face in common of a dun
tawny colour; the fize {mall; the tail fhort ; the mutton
fine in texture; the weight often only 6 lbs. or 7 lbs. the
quarter; the wool varioufly ftreaked and blended with dif-
ferent culours, fome of which is very fine. He fuppofes it
to partake of the Spanifh breed, but it is not fo hardy as
the Cheviot breed. The mutton of this breed is excellent
in flavour. They are fuppofed by fome to have had a
Spanifh origin ; but they have been naturalized, for a great
length of time, on the Grampian and other hilly diftri€ts in
Scotland.

The Shetland Breed or Variety—This is a {mall breed,
and moftly without horns; but what more particularly. dif-
tinguifhes it from other breeds, is the uncommon {mallnefs
and fhortnefs of the tail; the weight per quarter from 7 lbs.
to rolbs.; the wool very fine, and of various colours.
The breed is very hardy, but much too wild in its difpofi-
tion to be confined in inclofed paftures, and of courfe lefs
proper for the purpofes of the grazier. There is a fort of
this breed of fheep, which, according to Mr. Johnfon,
carries coarfe wool above, and fine foft wool underneath;
and the fheep have three different fucceflions of wool an-
nually, two of which refemble long hairs rather than wool,
and are by the common people termed fors and /cudda. As
foon as the wool begins to loofen at the roots, which is
moitly about February, the hairs or /cudda {pring up ; and
when the wool is cautioufly pulled off, the tough hairs con-
tinue faft, until the new wool grows up about a quarter of
an inch in length, then they gradually wear off; and when
the new fleece has acquired two months’ grewth, or there-
abouts, the rough hairs, termed fors, {pring up and keep
root, until the proper feafon for pulling it arrives, when it
is plucked off along with the wool, and is feparated from it,
at the time of drefling the fleece, by an operation called
forfing. The /cudda remains upon the fkin, as if it were a
thick coat, a protection againft the inclemency of the
feafon. But the native or kindly breed, that bear the foft
cottony fleeces, according to Mr. Culley, are rather deli-
cate; though the faé of their eating the fea-weed greedily,
when the ground is covered with {now, and often during
long and fevere fnows, when thev have little elfe to live on,
feems to prove the contrary. Nature, he fays, feems to
have imparted to them a perfect knowledge of the times at

which this food may be procured; for immediately upon
the tide beginning to fall, they in one body run direétly
down to the fea-fhores, although feeding on hills feveral
miles diftant from the fea, where they remain until the tide
returns, and obliges them to feek their ufual haunts. They
are very hardy, and the wildeft of all the breeds of thefe
animals.

But in refpeét to the wool of thefe beaver fheep, as they
are fometimes termed, it is fhort and open, and deftitute of
a covering of long hairs. Thefe fine foft fleeces are liable
to be rubbed off during winter, or early {pring, which, it
is {uppofed, might be prevented, by clipping the fheep in
the ufual way, inftead of the abfurd mode of pulling them
off, which tends to weaken the fheep, and decreafe the
length of the ftaple of the wool. In regard to colour this
wool is various, as /ilver grey, which is the fineft and foftett ;
the pure white, which is moitly of the greateft value for all
the purpofes of the fineft combing wool ; the d/ack, and the
mourat or brown, which are very little inferior; the whole
of the fofteft texture, fit for the fineft manufactures, and
in fome inftances rivalling even Spanifh wool, than which it
is fomewhat longer in the ttaple, and not fo elaftic. And
it is {tated to have been manufactured into ftockings of ex-
traordinary finenefs; and that the fleece attached to the
fin affords a fur of great value. This breed was formerly
a native of the higher parts of Aberdeenfhire, and in the
diftriéts to the northward of it; but it has been fince much
crofled, and it is now moftly confined to the Orkney and
Shetland ifles, the pureft breed. being to be found in the
latter. The number of the deaver fheep in thefe ifles
amounted to ninety thoufand, fome years fince ; and five cr
fix of them are faid to be capable of being fed with the food
required for one Englifh fheep. Inthe Welt Riding of
Yorkthire, Mr. Beaumont is faid to have made a trial of
thefe fheep ; the refult of which was, that they did not fat,
but grow, which fhews that their fize would improve with
that of the foil: their wool alfo improved in length, But
the original old breed of the Highlands are faid to partake
of the nature of the goat and deer; their coat confifting of
a fort of fur or down, covered by long, ftraight, rigid
hairs, like thofe of the beaver, rather than wool; tail fhort,
flender, tapering, not larger than that of the deer or goat,
and thinly covered with itrong, filvery hairs; the face co-
vered with fleek hairs, like the face of the deer, with his
prominent eyes. They are tame, delicate of frame, and
requiring to be houfed in winter: their flefh of high venifon
flavour. The breed is found in its original purity, in the
central Highlands, on the fouthern banks of Strath Tay,
and between thofe and Strath Brand ; and on the banks of
Loch Nefs, in the northern Highlands, as well as in the
Shetland iflands. f

The Merino or Spanifh Breed or Variety.—In this breed
of fheep the males have horns, but the females are without
them. ‘They have, according to lord Somerville, white
faces and legs; the body not very perfect in fhape; rather
long in the legs; fine in the bone; a degree of throatinefs,
or produétion of loofe pendulous fkin under the neck ; and
the pelt fine and clear; weight,- when tolerably fat, per
quarter, in the rams about 17 lbs., in the ewes 11 lbs.;
the wool very fine. It is a breed that is aflerted by fome
to be tolerably hardy, and to poflefs a difpofition to fatten
readily ; but others maintain the contrary opinion. ;

His majefty took the lead in the introduétion of the Merino
breed into this country, and his firft flock was imported in
17923 but other nations feem to have got the ftart in this
re{pe&t, as Sweden had them even in 1723, where they have
fince greatly increafed ; and in France, Germany, and fos

other

SHEEP.

other ftates, they were probably known long before. They
have lately fpread much in this country, and been great!
ved in different refpeéts, by judicious crofling wit
forts. ‘The horns in the true Merino rams are now of
a middle fize; the faces and legs darkifh-white, the latter
rather inclined to be too en The wool is uncommonly
bs.

slew weighs about 34 to the fleece, not being
to deteriorate in this climate. The fleeces have a
dark brown tinge in their furfaces, formed by duft flicking
on the realy yolky property of its pile; the contraft be-
tween which and the nth white coloured wethers, and the
rofy hue of the tkin, is very ftriking on the firtt view.
erofs the Merino rams with Devonshire ewes, but
the Ryelands are more commonly preferred. They confider
five crofles as neceflary for reaching perfection ; and on that
he wool of the firft crofs
pofed to be worth about 7d. the
more than that of the maternal ftock, on the idea
j that it will, in five crofles, be of the value of 3s. above that
¥
6

of the Ryeland ewe ; making an improvement of about 7d.
Hi the wool, when this fort is
mixed with the moft valued native breeds, does not gain its
neceflary degree of finenefs in lefs than five crofles, it is un-
a to expect the full price for it at one crofs. It is,
, certain that the animal is improved by a mixture
with the and that the wool will not ultimately be
found inferior to that of the Spanith flock. The Spanith
crofs with the South Down and Ryeland, in feveral de-
is diffufing itfelf in many diftriéts with great benefit.
Wan the latter, in Devonfhire, the wether produce, at
two old, weigh 15 lbs. the quarter, and afford a fleece
of 5 Ibs. each, worth 3s. the pound. In other cafes, the
weight of mutton is greater in the firlt crofs; and the thear
_ of wool from 64 lbs. to 7 Ibs. in the yoak to the fleece, at
the fame age. Crofles with fome other fine-woolled breeds
are likewife made with great utility. ~
But according to Dr. Parry, who has had great ex-
i of this breed, they are, as ftatéd in a late work
a Live-ftock, entirely enveloped in wool, which grows
under the jaws, down the forehead to the eyes, under the
belly, and down the legs to the very feet. It is aitonifh-
ing to fee how thickly it coversthe {kin ; it will fearcely
ive way to the preflure of the hand, but yields as it were
i the clofe fhort hair of an extremely fine

the fkin with t diffieulty: Thesfleece is heavier, in

ion to Ne careafe, than that of any other known
Seeed ts Earope. In the raw fate (unwafhed on the
fheep’s back or afterwards), the fleeces of the two-years
old ewes average at _ avoirdupois, and the weight
of the living ewe being about 6olbs. the proportion of wool
to that of carcafe is about 1/b. to r2glbs. The fleece of
a fat wedder of the fame age will be from slbs. to 7lbs.
In eight fhearling rams, weighed alive, after having been
the weight of the fleece to that of the living ani-
was as one to about twelve and three quarters. The
from the head and behind the ears, and the reft of
e refufe, generally called daglacks, had been previoufly
away. It is added, that had thefe’fheep been wafhed
— , their fleeces would have loft about a ninth

‘and a half in length; and that of the breech, or
of the back part of the thigh, three inches and three

: of an ewe of the fame age, about a quarter of
b inch fhorter: the average according very exa@ly with

the fpecimens taken from newly imported Spanifh theep.
An inttance of the extraordinary length of ftaple, of four
inches and three quarters, is related, which from the fcoured
fleece produced a fample more than five inches long. The
roportion of fine wool in the fleeces of the Spamth thee
1%» much greater than thole of any pure Englith breed.
Thus, while in the Ryeland, which is probably divided into
four or five forts, the Cott wool from the neck and fhoulders
does not make above Bo part of the whole fleece ;
in that of his majelty’s flock, the fine wool formed near
four-fifths of the whole. It is farther obferved, thet of
Dr. Parry’s wool, confilting of whole fleeces taken from
fheep which had not more than three or four crofles of
the Spaniard, and divided into three forts (R. F.'T’’), ac-
cording to the Spanith method, 1554lbs. produced of R.
or Rafinos, or fuperfive, roglbs. more than two-thirds of
the whole. Avnd the uniformity of finene{s in the improved
wool is fuch, that in thewing {pecimens from thefe differ-
ent parts of the fame animal, (the fhoulder and the erga |
which are generally confidered as producing the beft au
the worft wool; the doétor never met with any three per-
fons who could agree which was the fineft, and man
good judges aétually decfded in favour of the latter. This
wool contains a great deal of yolk, or oil, which is apt to
entangle the dul of the fields, fo as often to form a kind
of mat of nearly an inch in thicknefs ; it is remarkably, or
rather wholly free from ftitchel hairs or kemps. Brownnefs
in the wool of any particular fheep is an indication of
fuperior finenefs (and fuch was the colour of the ancient
fine-woolled fheep, and we need not look for the caufe in
any “yiraget quality of foil or pares? mixed with the
wool) ; it will neverthelefs feour white. But according to
lord Somerville, this dark-brown tinge on the furface of
the beft fleeces amounts almoft to a black, which is
formed by duft adhering to the greafy yolky properties of
its pile; and the contraft between it and the rich white
colour within, as well as that rofy hue of the fkin, pecu-
liarly denoting high proof, furprife at firlt fight. The
harder the fleece is, and the more it refifts any outward
preflure of the hand, the more clofe and fine will be the
wool. Here and there a fine pile may be formed with an
open fleece, though but rarely. And in Mr. Tollet’s Spanith
flock, purchafed from lord Somerville, the average weight
of each Spanifh fleece in the greafe was slbs. 13 oz., and
the lighteit ewe fleece 3lbs. 40z., and the heavielt ram
fleece 11lbs. 12 0z. of very good quality. Thie ram was
not quite thirteen months old at fhear-day, and was ad-
judged to weigh zolbs. fer quarter. Mr. Tollet declined
the price of two hundred guineas for him, likewife that of
ene hundred for the ufe of him durigg the tupping feafon:
he does not wafh his Merino fheep before fhearing, fince,
from the clofenefs of the fleece, it is not much hable to
the intrufion of dirt: as it does not lofe quite half its
weight in feouring by the manufacturer, an eftimate may
be made after that rate of the value of the fleece in the
yolk. The fleece of the young ram produced upwards of
355. and the average produce of the whole unwathed Me-
rino wool 18s. gd. each fleece. The price of the fuper-
fine more than four-fifths of the whole, 65. 3d. and 6s. per
pound of the third fort, or fritz, which was but about one
pound in the whole quantity. Mr. Bartley has fomewhere
mentioned, that four wethers of this breed produced the
quantity of 35$lbs. of wool; and of Pent ewes which
produced 8 Ibs. each, and of a wether which gave 1odlbs.
In the introduétion of this breed his majeity, as has been
feen, has taken the lead, and from his, flock a great num-
ber of the improvera of it have been fupplied in the dif-
ferent

SHEEP.

ferent fales that have been made fince its firlt eltablifhment.
In the fale of 1803, in Kew Lane, under the direGtion of
fir Jofeph Banks, the numbers fold, according to fome,
were twenty-four fhearling rams, which produced the fum
of 402/. gs.; feven full-mouthed and four toothed rams,
171. 135. 6d.; fourteen ewes, 118/. 85.3; amounting in all
for the forty-five fheep to 692/. 105. 6d. The highelt price
of the fhearling was 42 guineas, the loweft 6/. 75. Of the
full-mouthed rams, 28 guineas were the higheft, and 74 the
loweit price. Of the ewes, 11 guineas the highett, 6 the
foweft. The rams were put up at fix guineas, the ewes
at two guineas; the former prices at which they were
allowed.

The wool has been fold this year unfcoured at 4s. 6d.
per pound. The fize of the ewes fomewhat under our pure
Ryelands, but above feveral of our {mall breeds; heads
fharp and well-fhaped, with occafionally a black {pot or
two; wool externally having a dirty tinge, but without
that red-brown hue which has been before mentioned ; ears
pendulous ; perfeét ewe-neck, with the finking or cavity
both before and behind the fhoulder, the top of which is
generally higher than the rump ; capacious belly, the ani-
mal ftanding wide and well upon the legs; the rams gene-
rally of good fize, fome of them large enough for any pur-
pofe whatever, and of a great bone, but flat and fymme-
trical; feveral of them were of as good and ufeful form as
need be feen, having compact loins and fhoulders, and
ftraight backs. Two or three individuals refembled very
ftrikingly our Dorfet and Hampfhire ftock; the charac-
teriltic velvet or filken glofs on the fhorn faces of the rams
was remarkable, and their countenance put one in mind of
the fair-haired human complexion. Mouths by no means
fine

And it has been obferved, that the large tuft of wool
covering the face of Merino fheep is extremely inconve-
nient in northern countries, where they have frequent heavy
drifts of fnmow. And that it is lord Somerville’s praétice
to clip this and the leg-wool two or three times a-year, be-
ginning about fix weeks after fhearing. But that in winter,
and in very rigorous climates, it may not be proper to leave
the head too bare and expofed, as it may produce difeafe,
Thefe clippings may be proper for inferior purpofes, and
the fleece be rendered more pure and valuable without them.
The tuft on the head, and eyen the ¢hroatine/s, or protu-
berance in the throat, charaCteriltic of the Spanifh fort,
are, as it is afferted, difcoverable, in degrees, in fome of
the native breeds, particularly the Ryeland, fhewing its
origin. And a good judge, Mr. Knight, contends, that
the produce of a crofs with this breed, and the Archenfield
or true Ryeland fort, is extremely ugly, and, according to
his information, fubjéét to the foot-rot. On fome rich
pattures in- Middlefex this has alfo been feund to be the
cafe in both the true and crofled breed.

The Mugged Breed or Varisty.—TVhis is a fingular breed
of fheep, which formerly prevailed throughout all the low
lands of Northumberland. They had a fhort, coarfe, curled
wool, covering their heads, faces, and legs, and grew down
to their feet; in form they refembled hill fheep; their
fhoulders low and fharp; fides flat; back rather arched ;
loins thin. It has been fuggefted, that this mugged ap-
pearance may have been the refult of a Spanifh crofs,
This fort of fheep has extended to Yorkfhire; and traces
of them are ftill vifible; although they have long fince given
place to fheep of the long-woolled kinds. They are now
chiefly met with in the northern counties.

The Welfo Sheep or Faricty.x—Thefe, which are the moft
general breed in the hill diftri@s, are {mall-horned, and all

over of a white colour. They are neat .compaét ftheep
There is likewife a polled fhort-woolled fort of fheep in
thefe parts of the country, which are efteemed by fome.
And the genuine Welfh mutton, from its fmallnefs and
delicate flavour, is commonly well-known, highly efteemed,
and fold at a high price. But the fattening of the {mall
Welth fheep has not in general been found to anfwer in
the fouthern diftri@s of the kingdom. In fhort, this is
a breed which ftands in need of much improvement, and
which is capable of admitting of it with much advantage
to the fheep-farmers of that diftria. .

The crofles of it fhould be with the larger finer woolled
breeds, that afford good mutton, and be made with great
care and attention. It.is fuppofed by fome, that the
Welth are the original of all the different breeds of fheep in
the ifland. :

The Irifo Breed or Variety.—This is a breed of fheep,
which is defcribed in. this way by Culley. Thefe fheep are
f{upported by very long, thick, crooked, grey legs; their
heads long and ugly, with large flagging ears, grey faces,
and eyes funk ; necks long, and fet on below the fhoulders ;
brealts narrow and fhort, hollow before and behind the
fhoulders ; flat-fided, with high, narrow, herring-backs ;
hind-quarters drooping, and’tail fet low. In fhort, they
are almott in every refpeét contrary to what he apprehends
a well-formed fheep {hould be. The {pirit of improvement
in fheep-itock has however extended itfelf to Ireland, and
there can be no doubt, therefore, but that they will foon im-
prove this as well as other forts of live-ttock.

Indeed, fince the period in which the above account of

Trifh fheep was given, many ufeful and important altera-

tions and improvements have been produced by judicious
feletion and croffing-in this fort of itock, in feveral ditfer-
ent parts of that country.

‘However, independent of thefe numerous breeds or varie-
ties of fheep, which are inhabitants of this ifland, there
are in other countries many other kinds, which may be
juft noticed for «the fake of curiofity, as they are occa~
fionally feen in parks and pleafure-grounds in this intention.
The more cold diftri€s of Iceland and Ruflia afford a many-
horned breed of fheep, moltly from four to feven or eight 5
having a coat of dark-brown coloured hairy wool, weigh-
ing about four pounds, and covering an interior one of
fhort foft fur. Alfo in Ruffian Tartary, a large /op-eared,
polled aquiline-nofed breed of fheep, fomewhat refembling
the Wiltfhire and Dorfet breeds in their fhape, are. pro-
duced, and which have a long thick wool, ofa black and
white mixed or roan colour, and in the place of a tail, a
large cufhion of fat occupying the rump; hence fome
naturalifts have called them fat-rwmped fheep. This and
the broad-tailed breed are fometimes called the Kalmue
and Aitrachan breeds. The projection of fat, in this, has
an exquifite delicate marrawy talte. Some fay the wool is
rather fhort, not coarfe, but having hair growing through it.
They are faid to be fo prolific as to bring two or three
young at-once. And in Walachia, Crete, and through
moft of the Archipelago iflands, there is a breed of fheep
which have fingular horns, twilted in a {piral or fcrew-
like manner, ftanding in a perpendicular or diverging ex~
tending manner from the fore-part of the head, to fome
height, In fize and fhape tolerable, bearing a long fhaggy
but not coarfe coat. Likewife in the extended diftrifts of
Perfia, Syria, Egypt, and Barbary, the droad-tailed theep
are met with, the tail in fome of which grows to the
breadth of a foot, and to a length to bring them to the
weight of from twenty to fifty pounds, on which account
the fhepherds are fometimes under the neceflity of fupport-

ing

. SHEEP.

: ing them on a carriage to prevent them from galling and
exhaufting the animal. ‘Ihefe appendages are moitly alfo
efleemed a great delicacy, being of a nature between fat
and marrow. Further, fome of this breed of theep, efpe-
cially thofe of the mountainous forts, have a wool of extra-
erdinary length and finenefs, from which are made the ex-
penfive Indian thawls, aud fome other fabricks.

~ And the Guinea breed of theep, faid to be common in

_ tropical climates, is large, flrong, and {wift, and though

ic are often found in a wild flate ; having coarte,

hairy coats, thort horns, pendulous ears, and a fort of dew-
lap under the chin.

What is called the Madaga/fcar breed of /heep, is alfo of

a good fize, and well covered with a clofe pile of {mooth

oie la in the place of wool.

he Buckbarian breed of Jheep is alfo hairy, and kept in
large flocks in Great Tartary. The ifland of Antigua has
likewife a breed of the fame kind, Sheep of this fort
were imported from Spain by fir Jofeph Banks, with coats
as fleek and {mooth as thofe of a horfe, and which never at
any feafon exhibited the leaft appearance of wool or down,
or any thing of a fimjlar kind.
Tt may be noticed, that it has been well ftated in a late
ical work, that in the breeds of fheep there are evident
in their fizes, forms, flefh, wool, and other pro-
perties, that admirably adapt them for different forts of
ures, fituations, and ufes of the farmer. And that the
long-woolled breeds, from their being more flow,
heavy, a tame in their difpofitions than moft other kinds,
are in general the molt proper for the rich inclofed pafture
diftris : the breeds which poffefs greater length in the legs,

‘more activity in walking, and a lefs burthen of wool, are

{uited to the more elevated lands, fuch as the downs, moors,

and heaths in different parts of the ifland, where the paf-

is lefs fertile and luxuriant ; and that the {mall hght
carcafed hardy breeds are mott adapted to the expofed moun-

‘tainous fituations, where the food is more {paring, and ob-
tained with greater difficulty and expence. And in the
Rural Economy of the Midland Counties, it has been ob-
erved that a -long-woolled breed of fheep, as the old
i oT eefwater fort, is neceflary ait in the view
of our fineft worfted manufactures; and another, fuch as
hat of the. new Leicefter, for the inferior kind of grafs-
ds, and the rich inclofed arable lands, where the flding
fyitem is not in ufe; for the fupplying the materials of the
parfer forts of- worlteds, ftockea aize, coarfe cloths,
lan and other ae of the fame kind;
ami woolled breed, as the Wiltthire, the Nor-
or the South Down, is wanted for the well-foiled
ble lands, where ico P sia of the fold is in ufe, in the
view of making cloths of the narrow medium kinds ; a ver
e-woolled breed, as the Hereforfhire Ryeland, for the finelt
cloths ; and the Shropfhire, or fome of the more hard
teds, for the heathy mountainous fituations. ‘The Spanith
and Cheviot forts may alfo be proper in the lait intentions.
What is therefore chiefly nece to be regarded in the in-
roducing of new breeds of fheep, is to conlider with atten-
ion the nature and fituation of the paftures on which they
e to be fupported, and to carefully avoid making ufe of
ger or finer breeds than can be properly fustained; as
pon due management in this ref much of the fuccefs
the improvement of fheep-ftock muft neceflarily depend.
ere bettering the form of the animal, and improving the
wality of the wool or coat, are the principal objects,
a be effe&ted by judicious eralling with pro
reed the particular purpofe, on the principles that

have been explained in {peaking of the nature of breeding,
and which is farther fhewn below. (Sce Barun, Baeepine,
and Live-Stock.) Indeed this lait cireumftance is one
which fhould particularly engage the notice of the farmer in
the bufinefs of flocking his lands with theep, as it feems
from numerous flatemente, that wool of the fineft quality
may be produced in this country by means of Spanith theep,
and their being properly crofled with our fine-woolled aie
which is a matter of the greateft national importance, as
affording a probable means of rendering us iedenendlies of
the foreign a ly of this expenfive but indifpenfible article.
The breeding diag ane fhould therefore be particular!
interefted in promoting this fort of improvement, in all
fituations where the nature of his land will admit of it,
which lord Somerville has. fhewo may be the cafe in moft
inftances where the fhort-woolled breeds of theep can be
properly kept, or probably on more than one-half of the
pafture-lands of the ifland. And he has remarked that
there is one inducement to this, which is that of its not in-
terfering with the produ€tion of the molt valuable fort of
mutton, a point to which the theep-brecders of this coun-
try have till lately been particularly attentive, almoft with-
out regarding the quality-of the wool: as it has been found
that the quality of the flefh ia the different divifions of theep
inclines to the nature of the wool, the fhort-woolled theep
being clofe in the grain of their flefh, of courfe heavy in the
{cale, and in the talte high-flavoured ; while the polled long-
woolled fort are more open and loofe in this refpect, larger
in fize, and the mutton more coarfe, and in general lefs
faleable in the different markets in the kingdom.

In fheep there are certain good or bad qualities, properties,
or difpofitions which mark Seis value and importance in the
view of the farmer, grazier, and breeder. That fuch cer-
tain peculiar properties and difpofitions prevail, is well
known to experienced perfons of thefe defcriptions, by
fheep in exactly fimilar circumftances in every refpect be-
coming more or lefs quickly in the ftate of fatnefs, &c.; as
an improved difpofition in them fignifies an aptitude to con-
vert their food or nourifhment into flefh and fat. Thus, in
a number of fheep of the fame kind and age, under the very
fame management, when handled, a vait difference will be
found in their condition and ftate of fatnefs, &c. Some
will be in a ftate to go off many months before the others
are ready, although put on the fame land in equal flefh ; and
others, though kept far beyond the ufual period of time,
will never get into fufficient condition. The difpofition of
the former muit, of courfe, be very beneficial and defirable
to fuch fheep-farmers, as well as advantageous to the com-
munity, while that of the latter is quite the reverfe. This is
likewife the cafe in the breeding of ewes, as thofe which have
it molt are in the beit ftate at the lambing time. But there
are, itis fuppofed, fome initances of exception in this and
other defcriptions of fheep, which poflefs good qualities,
that have bad properties, which fuch fheep improvers as the
above thould alfo be careful in deteGing, otherwife they may
be liable to fuitain confiderable injury and lofs : and it 1s fre-
quently feen on killing different kinds of fheep, that there
is great difference in individuals of the fame breed and
variety.

There are feveral circumftances which are fuppofed to
form or contribute to this goodnefs of difpofition in thefe
animals ; they mutt be well bred, or come from fuch as have
good properties ; they muft not be permitted ever to be in
a ftate of want of food, or be reduced in fiefh; they mutt
have conftantly good food in {fufficient abundance, the
richer, to fome extent, the better; they muff have their

3 frame

SHEEP.

frame or bone not too large for the quality of their keep ;
they muft have a due relative proportion of parts; they
mutt handle free and mellow in their flefh ; they muft have a
peculiar appearance of countenance; and they muft be
perfectly tame and quiet. There are alfo other caufes
which in fome meafure conduce to this end, but they are of
lefs certainty in their operation, fuch as the ftate and ation
of the blood in their fyftems, &c. The external forms and
qualities of fheep which fhew a good difpofition are, a
{mallnefs of the head, athinnefs and fhortnefs of the neck, a
deep wide breaft, a widenefs over the fhoulders, a broad,
ftraight and deep carcafe or barrel, a {mallnefs of bone and
feet, the joints moderately fhort, the mufcles or flefh plump
and full, with a thinnefs about the infertion: the fkin mid-
dlingly thin and mellow, of a fine texture, and a clear red
and white colour; the wool of a yellowifh-white appear-
ance, a curly nature, and neither too long nor too fhort,
but thickly fet, the fat and flefh foft, with fome fort of
firmnefs in handling, and the countenance pleafant, and in-
clined to quietnefs.

The improved difpofition or quality of fheep is promoted
by taking them from poorer or inferior keep or foils, to fuch
as are of abetter and morerich kind, as in the cafe of feeds :
but the removing of them from rich foils or keep, to fuch as
are of a worfe nature, has directly the contrary effe@. The
quality of the flefh, in one cafe, becomes foft and mellow,
while in the other it gets more clofe and hard.

The nature and quality of the land or foil, when any
breed of fheep are kept upon it fora length of time, will, it
is believed, throw out the fuitable fize for it, and certain acci-
dental qualities will occur according to its fort, which, when
properly managed by the breeder, will afford an improved dif-
pofition in the animals. In fuch a cafe improvements may
have a probability of being produced, by having the male
fmaller in fize than the female, and by changing him from
too good or rich keep, fo that his conftitution may be in
fome meafure delicate, by the female having her nourifhment
regular, and fo as at no time to be lowered in flefh; and
when a more full fupply of food may be wanted, by the
increafe being moderate, fo as to preferve rich keep for the
young, in its advancing growth; by breeding from fuch
fheep as are the moft kindly, fhew the beft difpofition, and
allow the fulleft profit, on the particular foil or land on
which they are bred and paftured ; by choofing and feleGting
the middle-fized fheep of the flock to breed from, and not
the largeft, as it is favourable to be rather under than over
the quality of the foil or land for forming good difpofition ;
by refraining to breed from fheep difplaying a bad difpofition,
or which have defe&ts; and by cautioufly ufing for this pur-
pofe ewes which have had lambs, and are not too old, as
difpofition is fuppofed more likely to be produced from the
fecond than the firft lamb : and laftly, by the mode of breed-
ing that is called in and in, or in the fame line, which greatly
contributes to form difpofition.

In the degenerated form of fheep, the reverfe of all
this will, of courfe, moftly take place; they will have
thefe qualities or properties in a larger or {maller degree ;
their heads will be generally fhort and thick, though occa-
fionally rather long, and of a coarfe nature; the neck, for
the moft part, long, thick, and concave in the higher part ;
the carcafe long and thin, and the ribs flat, ufually termed
“ flat-fided,”” while inimproved fheep they bow out almoft
at right angles with the fpine, in fomewhat the barrel man-
ner. Narrow fhoulders, the loin not wide, the back not
ftraight, and the belly gutty ; the breaft or cheft contrated,
without being deeply let down; the legs long, and thigh

not full or flefhy ; the flefh thin, of a clofe texture, and
thick about the infertion of the mufcular parts; the feet
large and coarfe; the flefh hard in handling, or what is
fometimes denominated “ fticky ;”? the countenance far from
pleafant, and the nature wild; the wool coarfe and hempy ;
but capable of improvement by attention; difficult, or
requiring time in fattening ; the mutton often of good
quality for eating, of a firm grain, fweet flavour, and
abounding in gravy.

Sheep of this kind in general require a much greater quan-
tity of food for their growth and {upport, and for fattening,
than the improved fort, which is a circumftance that muft
evidently be difadvantageous to the breeder, grazier, and
the whole community,

All fuch perfons as are in the habit of breeding and fat-
tening fheep, and have fufficient experience, find that they
depend on the qualities or properties of their breeds for
growth and improvement : fome will not fatten at all, or be
as long again in fattening as others, and this moft commonly
occurs in fuch as are not of the individual’s own particular
breed or kind. The degeneracy of fheep is readily feen and
eafily proved in the management of them. And fome confi-
der almoft the whole of the breeds or varieties of this country
to be more or lefs in this ftate, or that there is not probably
more than one which can be faid to be truly in an improved
condition, on the exaét principles of improved forms.

This degeneracy is in a great meafure the confequence of
neglect or error in the breeders and managers of fheep, as
when they thrive and fatten well, that is to be attributed to
proper feleétion, fuitable keep, and a due regard to the
true and exaét principles of management: but when, on -
the contrary, they do not go on to fatten well, but decline
into a ftate of degeneracy, it proceeds from negle&, ftarva-
tion, and the want of fuch true principles in their regulation
and management. Asthoughalamb may poflefs good pro-
portions, yet from negleé and other caufes, it may be re-
duced to a ftate of poverty ; which, when it takes place, its
degeneracy may be dated from that period, as its conftitu-
tion is injured, and an unfavourable aétion is given to the
fyftem. The longer it is kept in this ftate, and the more
frequent the changes it may undergo, the more confpicuous
willits degeneracy be. Nature, then, it is fuppofed, will throw
out indications in conformity to this decline ; the head will
increafe in fize in a greater proportion than the other parts.
The body will become thin and long ; the bones will be ir-
regular in their growth; and there will be a want of fymme-
try in the whole fyftem. The caufes which are the found-
ation of fuch degeneracy are believed to be thefe ; the rams
being too large in fize, and kept in too high amanner ; thefe
and the ewes not being well adapted to the foil, but too
large ; the lambs being kept in an occafional fate of want
or itarvation ; the negleét in not breeding a proper number
for the purpofe of fele&tion; the ignorance of breeders in re-
gard to the true principles, in refpeét to the forms of fheep
or their management ; the frequent croflings of varieties of
the fame breed; the prefence of dry fummers and hard
winters, which tend to incline the conftitution to an unfa-
vourable aétion, and confequent degeneracy ; and the want
of good water, which is very prejudicial to fheep.

It is fuggefted, that it is to be lamented, that almoft all the
breeds, in every fituation, are found to have one or other of the
bad properties or qualities already noticed. However, of all
fheep, the fhape or form of that of the Indian fort is probably
the worlt whichis produced; and the Wiltfhire, the Welfh, and
many other breeds, are not without partaking of too many of
the properties and imperfe¢tions of the fame kind, in a

. or ke}

SHEEP.

_ their other defe&s. It is to be hoped, however, that a
more a¢tive exertion, and inveltigation of the matter, in {heep-
farmers, will in a thort time be productive of the requilite
improvement in this fort of live-itock, and that by having
recourle to fuperior modes of breeding, rearing, and manage-
ment, an equal pace will be kept in their advancement with
that of any other branch of the farmer's art.

dt may be noticed, notwithitanding what has been already
Maid, that itis fated to be almoft univerfally and unanimoufly
the practice of the breeders on the South ete hills, to ex-
ehange the rams every third, fourth, or fifth year, as it is
eonceived eflentially neceflury to the prefervation of the
health, the fixe, and the bone of the flocks, though quite
contrary to the maxims laid down by fome eminent theep-
farmers, who are itrenuous promoters of the method of breed-
ia and is, or in the ¢ line, continually, when there
breed or fort of fheep. Flocks that are ftated to
nearly ruined in conftitution and habit by this
means, are faid to have had a wonderful improvement by
change of the rams. See Breepina.
The queition concerning the beit and moft profitable fize
of theep for the purpofe of the grazing farmer, and for

producin oe ae SIRT S food and other
rodud the ule of the community,

is a matter of very
great intereft and im ce. . Though it cannot probably
be difputed but that different fized animals of this fert muit be
had recourfe to for different fituations, forts, and qualities of
land, &c. yet the confiderate theep-farmer will, perhaps,
oltly perceive the propriety of havin gat pees ftocked
with not too large a fort of theep. fe ill moft likely be
beft way for fuch farmers to fully confult the nature
and prop erties of the foils of their pafture or other lands,
_previc a Se fixing upon the fize of their fheep-ftock
which be the moft Toitable and advantageous for them,
where their pafture or other grounds are inferior in their
‘mature and richnefs, the fize, of the live-ftock of this fort,
which is admitted, cannot with propriety be fo large as in the
C circumftances, even where li Le ftocking is prac-
‘tifed, for hard and pinching feafons will reduce the ftock to
ity of the find, hough many are advocates for
zed fheep, probably from want of fufficiently
ponfidering the nature of the fubjeé, it is never found that
jofe who ftock with fuch fized animals, ever produce fo
ch mutton on the acre, or gain fo great a profit on it, as
thofe who make ufe of a middling-fized ftock. Some indeed
think that four f{mall-fized theep may be kept on the fame
tent of land which is required for three large ones ; and
that in fome cafes, allowing the fheep to be equal in difpo-
fition, the fame number of {mall ones, of about nine ftone
may be fattened on the land that will barely be fuffi-
tient to feed three of from ten to eleven ftones. Small-fized
fheep-ttock have alfo many other advantages attending them.
lany make complaints againft fheep with improved forms,
uch as the new Leiceiter, as being too fmall, from the mif-
ren idea of their clofe form, as although they may be
Say a TF ey ter width and depth of ¢ar-
safe in them; by which they do not come much, if any thing,
art of the weight of the more apparently large breeds.
_Ieis eteoners error and defeét in the theep-
grazing practice to fheep of too large a fize for
conftitution of the foil, and the quality of the keep which
saffords. The nature of keep will indeed itfelf be the

a

of different fizes in theep-ftock, if they be fteadily
aintained on the fame fort of land for fome length of time,
ind this in fome meafure has produced the differences of fize
in the different breeds of this animal.

, particular advantages of the different fizes of fheep
- Vou. XXXII.

may be fummed up fomewhat in this way. Thofe of the
large fort are fuppofed capable of being kept in equal pro-
portion, on the fame quantuty of land, and of bringing more
money at the market, than the {maller breeds ; they are like.
wife conceived to fatten ina more kind manner. f the frit
of thefe conclufions were true, they would certaiuly have a
decided fuperiority, but the refult of wellanade trials, with
equal proportions on the fame paftures, fhew the contrary to
be the — And in regard to the latter, it has srobably
proceeded from its being noticed that the largelt theep are
moltly the ftrongeit oat beft thaped, without confidcring
that they are always below the quality or conflitution ot
the foil or land on which they are fed or fattened ; hence it
is by no means in favour of large fheep on all kinds of land.
And though it is fomewhat generally allowed, that two {mall
theep of the fame breed will equal in weight one large one,
yet the latter will have lefs offal in proportion than they,
arg is certainly a defirable property in aa ftock of this
ind.

Small theep-itock are however more adtive, and feed clofer
than large, as well as on food which is of an inferior quality ;
they are capable of being ftocked in the proportion of three
to two on the land; they will produce more meat on the
acre, and be more hardy than large breeds ; they injure paf-
tures lefs than large forts ; they will, where the proportions
are the fame in relation to the fizes, fooneft become fat in
the {malleit, in any two fheep. This may probably be con-
cluded as always the cafe, where the regularity of form and
proportions are equally good and exa¢t: as {mall fheep reach,
the ftate of maturity fooner than large ones, the {mallee
breeds are ready for fale five, fix, or more months before the
large, which is beneficial in every way: the {maller breeds
of fheep are almoft conftantly preferred by the butchers, aa
the mutton is more fuitable, faleable, and defreable at par-
ticular feafons, and as having two fifth quarters inflead of
one, where the weights are equal. It may, therefore, upon
the whole, be roalidersd as the intereft and advantage of
grazing farmers in general to breed, rear, and fatten theep
which are of the middling fize, however oy may have hither.
to been led away by other circumftances, fuch as great fize,
extreme fatnefs, &c. without fufficiently taking into the ace
count the expence at which they are produced.

What regards the proof of sheep 1s more the interelt of
the butcher than the grazing farmer; but it has much toda
with the difference of breed, as all the more thin-flefhed
breeds of fheep, as the South Down, the Norfolk, the
Welth, and feveral others, moftly die well for the advantage
of the butcher, while thofe of the flefhy fort, which have
impreved difpofitions, fuch as the new Leicetter, &c. com-
monly die to his difadvantage; fo that where the great
object is proof, fuch breeds muft be chofen as approach the
moit to the former. It is not, however, probably the breed
fimply, but the form of the fheep that gives the proof.
But as fuch theep as afford great proof moftly require a
longer time in fattening, the prazing farmer fhould be care-
ful not to breed or purchafe fuch fheep as are fo formed as
te convert their food into tallow, in the place of enlarging
the fize of their mufcular parts, and producing meat of a
fufficiently fat quality.

The age of fheep has alfo much to do in the proof which
is afforded by them, as the older they are, in general, the
better they die in this particular, as their full growth allows
the nourifhment to go for fat ertallow, according tothe nature
of the fheep, as where the form is inclined to be bad there
will be more tallow, but where the difpofition has a tendency
to pepe oie more fat produced on the outfide. Keep has
likewife {ome influence en proof as the beft paftures, and fuch

31 ae

SHEEP.

as are the clofelt ftocked, are found in common to afford
fheep that give the beft proof, but it has probably lefs effect
in this way than is generally imagined, as particular breeds
give a fuperiority of proof on poor lands, to that of others
on very rich. ‘Time has confiderable effet in giving proof
to fheep, as by it fat is enabled to be colle€ted and formed
internally; but difpofing of the animals at fhort periods con-
ftitutes the great advantage of the grazing farmer, and he
has no reafon to breed and fatten his ftock for the benefit
of the butcher and other dealers in tallow. The manage-
ment in regard to breeding and crofling, as well as the nature
of the wool, are faid to influence the proof in thefe animals,
as where the more ordinary forms are adhered to, the proof
will be greater than in the contrary circumitances, as they
have a greater tendency to form tallow and loofe infide fat.
And though fome think long white watery wool favour-
able to proof, others fuppofe it the contrary, as denoting
a difpofition to fatten quickly, and as preventing infide fat
by taking away the nourifhment, thereby concluding fine
fhort-woolled fheep more difpofed to afford good proof.
The good or bad forms and feel of particular parts, as of
the head, the neck, the breafl, the back, the barrel, the
bone, the fkin or pelt, and the flefh, often afford indications
of proof, though not always fuch as are certain ; ‘as when
the firftis large, the fecond long and thin, the third narrow,
thin, and high, the back thin and ftraight, the carcafe thin
and not well rounded, the bone long and large, the hide
or fkin fticky and hard, and the flefh harfh. But thefe dif-
ferent indications of proof cannot, it is evident, always be
wholly depended on, as fheep may have one or more of the
marks or properties which denote good proof, but which
may be counteraéted by others that favour difpofition and
other fimilar qualities to the contrary ; confequently where
two fheep are fimilarly formed, that which has the largeft
head and firmeft flefh may moitly be concluded to give the
beft proof. The opinions on proof ought, in faét, conftantly
to be formed from the greateft combination of the marks of
it met with in the particular animals examined.

Perhaps, fo far as proof is capable of being judged of
before the animals are killed, it may be known by the feel
of the fat glandular part, which extends from the bottom
part of the neck to the fhoulder, which in lean fheep is fo
very {mall as fcarcely to be felt, while in thofe that are pro-
perly fatted by fufficient time, or /oaked, as it is fometimes
termed, there is a different fized cufhion or projection of
the fame fat glandular part extending to the thick portion
of the fhoulder; by the feel on the ribs and tail or dock,
which, when it is thick, fat, and mellow, the fheep will
commonly, it is thought, die well for proof. A thick loin
is fometimes alfo thought a mark of proof in the kidney
and weight. The feel of the fore dug of barren ewes and
the cod of wethers, likewife fhew, it is thought, proof.
Many of thefe marks muft, however, be allowed to be pre-
carious and uncertain.

It cannot on the whole be doubted, from what has
been ttated on the fubjeét of proof, but that the interelts
of the butcher and the grazing farmer are at variance
as matters ftand at prefent, as what is the gain of one
mutt be the lofs of the other, where the thing is well under-
ttood.

In the Agricultural Survey of the County of Norfolk,
lately publifhed, it is noticed, that the South Down breed
is getting rapidly into the pofleffion of all the country from
Swaffham to Holkham; but that from Brandon to Swaffham
many Norfolks remain. However, fome mixture was obferved
even in that diftri&t. And it is ftated that Mr. Coke is
well fatisfied of the advantage of the breed from Leicefter

ewes and Bakewell tups. His flock of 160 new Leicefter
ewes produced, in 1802, 100 lambs; his flock of 630 South
Downs produced 830 lambs living in June. The fame farm,
it is added, yields a moft interefting comparifon between
Norfolks and South Downs; his former ftock was 800
Norfolks, seLi1Na all the produce: he planted 700 acres, and
now has 800 South Downs, KEEPING all the produce. Fur-
ther, that his new Leicefter hogs and theaves produced 8lbs.
of wool each in the fame year, yet they had been hard kept
on feeds fed very bare. And it is ftated, that though he
had a high opinion formerly of the crofs between the new
Leicefter tup and Norfolk ewe, now (1803) his opinion is
changed from much experience ; fo that he prefers the crofs
of a South Down ram on a Norfolk ewe to that of a Leicefter
ram. And it is added, that Mr. Holte has had the fame
crofs, and they come to 32lbs. a quarter, at two-fhear. He
put a Norfolk tup and a Bakewell tup at the fame time to
the fame parcel of Norfolk ewes, and at St. Ive’s fair fold
the lambs fat at fix or feven months old, and the Bakewells
brought juft double the price of the Norfolks. In April
1799, Mr. Coke, on fending Norfolk, South Down, and
new Leicefter three-fhear wethers to Smithfield, that had
been fed together, the return was :

RENTS

Average per head, Norfolks = = = SUR GCr.! (6)

Leicetters Ce puidets : = é < Beira

South Downs - = c: a . e 2
Ditto, fleeces included, the others being in their

coats - 2 = Pee Conte dan Svea Mey 22

And in May following above 100 going, the South Downs
beat the new Leicefters by 2s. a-head. It is alfo obferved, °
that at Waterden, Mr. Money Hill, with about 500 acres
lefs land than at prefent, kept 27 {core breeding Norfolk
ewes, and fold the produce of lambs: now he has 35 fcore
South Down ewes, and keeps their produce, felling his
wool at 5s, a tod more than the Norfolk. And further,
that Mr. Bevan, in 1792, had a South Down flock, of 30
f{core, on one farm, and having a flock of Norfolks on an
adjoining farm at Knattifkall, he had an opportunity of com-
paring the wool exaétly: 34 fcore of Norfolks produced
43 tod at 28lbs.; and 34 {core of South Downs produced
61 tod; which 61, kept till November, became 64, bu

the fummer very wet. f

Ibs,
South Downs - 0 - 1708
Norfolks = - - - - .1204
Superiority, juft2lb.each - 504

Alfo that in 1791, the fhepherd would not let his own
Norfolk ewes take the South Down ram; but in 1792 he |
was ready enough. THe faid they would eat harder than
the Norfolks ; and would cat what the Norfolks would not ;
that they are more quiet and obedient than the Norfolks ;
fo that he has done with them what he could not do with the —
Norfolks; folded them almoft to an inch without hurdles.
And that a neighbouring farmer bought three rams of Mr. —
Bevan, at 5/. 5s. each; but afterwards repenting; becaufe
they would flain his flock, Mr. Bevan offered him 6d. a-head,
for all their lambs, more than he fold his Norfolks for, in
the fame flock, at Ipf{wich fair. The offer was accepted ;
the price proved 6s. 3d. for the ewe lambs, and gs. for the
wethers. Mr. Bevan refold the ewes for gs. and the wethers
for tos. 6d., or 25. 14d. a-head in favour of the half-breds.
Further, that when his fheep were Nerfolks, he kept 500;
but in 1794, he had g60.South Downs. That the a

uce

j

Pace of -16 ewe lambe, bred by Mr. Bevan at Riddlefworth,
1 was;
“so Mi ides
Wool, 12 tod 16lbs. - 26 8 o
48.Lambs, foldfor - - 32 2 0
: 5 Ram lambs, ditto - 8 Bo
6 Retufe ditto - . 2 10 ©
2 Refufe thearlings ditto - 5 10 0
10 Good ditto - : - 10 10 0
1 Ditto - . - . Eu 20
87 Ditto . - 21. 00Ra> 0
405 177.15 0
4 Dunant } ~ - bs 57 14
116
7 AGaal profit - 120 10

» it is alfo added, that he was early in trying
South Down theep, but finding them tender at lambing,
into a new Leicelter crofs ; thefe he abandoned, and

; back to the South Downs, but ftill elteems them a ten-
eer) and that they ought to have yards fheltered and
lambing in bad weather ; remarking, that all the
knows on the South Downs have thefe yards for
that purpofe. It is likewife ftated, that Mr. Bircham, at

Beecaky tones mm pee Te favourites ; he has

-bred lambs ; fome few
wns, but they did not anfwer: has had fome
Leicefters: any fort he can get worth his money. Little
~farmers, who a few theep, find the polled breeds very
convenient from their quietnefs, and therefore prefer them.
Norfolk lambs bred near Cromer, bought by Mr. G.
Jones at 14s., were run on ftubbles in the autumn, and put
ips at Chriftmas, then to layers of coat a eaed an
the beft food for and fold fhearling we’

at 55s. each; 2olbs. to 24!bs. a quarter. And
colonel Butler, at n, is faid to be convinced that Nor-
folks anfwer better than South Downs: fhearlings fometimes
fording 2olbs. and 25lbs.a quarter, and 19}1bs. of tallow; he
a breeding flock of 400, and fold his wether lambs at 26s.
and his ewe lambs at 24s. Mr. Johnfon, of Thurning, has
—reiethaeree crag which he rod, gas rearing thefe
t many ewes, and got good tups.
He has, hersa speed pmol Norfolks, 3 will tot
be furprifed to fee come into fafhion again. In May
vit he rambling ifpolition, which is ma ocr

( i i tion, which is much agai
them ; and he is clear Sp) one on his
far of South Downs. The South Down wool is not,
fo good as Norfolk wool, but the fleece is
ier. Five years ago he alot of Yorkfhires from

more than when, on the fame land,
te kept Norfolks: his farm may, and probably does, pro-

oe -food than it did at that time ; but he is per-
in the great fuperiority of the number, this cir-
dedu&ed, and that profit is confiderably

SHEEP.

ater; and he is clear alfo in the fuperior hardineis and
Brdlinete of feeding of the new breeds. Of all crofs-breeds,
he thinks the firlt crofs of the Leicefter tup on the Norfolk
ewe the belt, and that wool now (1802) fells at 46. «
tod; fleeces ibs. And at Hillingdon, all are either Nor-
folks or hall-breds, a Leiceiter tup on a Norfolk ewe,
Captain Beacher thinks there are no fheep in the ifland which
the Leicetter will not improve. He has grazed many Wilt-
thires, and thinks them the belt of all for cole-grazing in
the fens. But Mr. Beck, of Caftle Rifing, has fed South
Downs thirteen years, beginning with fome from Mr, Tyr-
rels, of Lamport, and has imported three or four times
fince. He has now 800, and is quite convinced of their {u-
periority to Norfolks; when he was in that breed, he had
not hai the number; but after abating fully for improved
hufbandry, and every other circumftance, he is clear that
there is a fuperiority of four to three. His fences are and
mult be bad, and in fuch a farm quietuefs is a valt obje& :
his farm 486 acres. He gained the firit prize for ewes, both
the lait and this year at Swaffham, and alfo at Holkham.
The (urveyor examined his flock attentively, and it certainly
is a very beautiful one. His wool now averages eight to a
tod, equally of hogs and ewes: his Norfolks todded twelve ;
he is clear that, take the country through, they average
half as much again as Norfolks. Before he took the farm
there were fifty fheep on it, and a dairy of cows. What an
improvement! However, in the vicinity of Downham are
found all forts of breeds ; towards the river, Lincolns and
Leicefters ; higher up, Norfolks and South Downs. Mr,
Saffory likes the South Downs beit, but thinks that if as
much care and attention had been exerted to improve the
breed of Norfolks as the South Downs have experienced,
they would by this time have been a very different theep.
Norfolk three-fhear wethers fold in April laft at St. Ives, at
from 4/. 45. to 4/. tos. each. At Bretenham, Mr. Twilt keeps
68 {core of breeding Norfolk ewes on 1800 acres of poor
land. He had a South Down tup fome years ago from
Mr. Crow, but he could not perceive that the breed did
better than Norfolks, though they itood the fold to the
full as well.

In the diftri& called Marfhland, Mr. Dennis, of Wigen-
hall, St. Mary, grazes only the beft Lincoln wethers; he
buys from May-day to Midfummer ; keeps them over-year,
clipping twice, average price 50s. to 6os. and fells at 65s. to
75s. getting 15lbs. in the two fleeces: his land will
c fix per acre, on an average, in fummer ; in winter, two
ey Fae acres; and thefe will quite preferve their fleth ; if
the feafon be favourable, will get fomething : he thinks that
there is no other breed fo profitable here ; even a ftain of the
new Leicefter is hurtful, as they will not ftand the winter fo
well. Sheep the chief ttock, though fome Lincoln bullocks.
He never gives hay to fheep, nothing but grafs; 32lbs. a
quarter his average of fat wetbers. But Mr. Swayne, of
Walpole, prefers the crofs between Lincoln and Leicefter :
he buys them fhearling-wethers, about Lady-day ; laft year
3/. to 3/. 10s. each, but has had them at 36s. and 38%. He
clips the beft twice, three to a tod, which he likes better than
heavier fleeces of fheep demanding more food. Some give
17lbs. or 18lbs. of wool. At Mickecknes he culls the worit,
or buys cole for them, if reafonable ; fells all by Midfummer,
making 8s. or 10s. a-head, when bought in high, befides
the wool. Very few beaits are kept.

Alfo in Hertfordthire, fome prefer the South Downs to
Wiltthires, as the latter have the goggles often, but the
South Downs never. But sSeidbng Reed Wiltthires {uffer
lefs in folding on wet land. But in other places the refult of
the comparifon feems to be, that South Downs do better on

3l2

SHEEP.

grafs-land than Wiltfhires, and will in that cafe thrive more,
and better fupport the hardfhips of fhort food ; but on arable
land with plenty of turnips, clover, rye, tares, &c. in am-
ple provifion, the Wiltfhires are more profitable than the
South Downs. The Wiltfhires are large fheep, and confe-
quently require to be well kept. Inthe trials of Mr. Hale,
of King’s Waldon, for five or fix years, nothing beats
South Downs, where there is much grafs ; but on artificial
grafs and turnips, without a breadth of natural grafs, they
will not do like the Wiltfhires ; for which reafon Mr. Ro-
berts, on his own farm, keeps Wiltfhire ewes, and crofles
them with South Down rams ; fo that they lamb in March.
When put to grafs they are folded, and fome lambs are fold
at 34s. inthe beginning of harveft ; fome twins at 31s. 6d.; and
the beft are kept. He approves fo much of them, that he
intends to continue them. Mr. Hale’s flock is a capital one,
and the wool remarkably fine. And between thirty and
forty years fince, Mr. Calvert of Albury had Lincoln fheep,
but fold them, from conviction that they did not anfwer: he
was then, for about twenty years, in the Wiltfhire breed ;
and lattly, he changed thefe for the South Downs, which he
has had for the laft feven or eight years, and prefers them to
all. He has no other but lord Pelham’s breed, both lambs
and ewes, and confiders the more modern attempts to raife
a jiner race, as likely to prove mifchievous: he will not
have any thing to do with them. His fix-toothed wethers
weigh eleven {tone and ahalf. He finds the breed extremely
healthy: they very rarely die; and are fubjeét to much
fewer diftempers than the Wiltfhires. And Mr. Smith has
changed Wiltfhires for South Downs. He has about 400 in
all, fome of them Wiltfhires; they are fed and worked together,
and folded on wet lands. The South Downs in exceeding
good order, but the Wiltfhires very inferior. But about
Barkway, South Downsare not yet introduced ; Mr. Whittle,
however, gave it as his decided opinion, that feed and work
Wiltfhires and South Downs together in the fame manner,
and the former will prove to be the moft profitable ; the latter
are much injured by the dirt, as they are too fhort in hair
and legs; it was tried at Kimpton Hoo, and fuch was the
refult. He has fold Wiltfhire wethers thrice fhorn, at 7/. 145.
each. And Mr. Doe, of Bygrave, keeps Wiltfhire ewes,
which he croffes every year by new Leicefter rams ; but gogs
no farther than the firft crofs. Thefe anfwer greatly,
whether the fale be fat lambs or fhearlings. He does not
approve of South Downs, en account of their inferior
weight.

However, from the high charaéter which South Down
fheep have lately attained, it may not be uninteretting to give
Mr. Young’s account of their firft introduétion into Nor-
folk. Heremarks, that when once an improvement has f{pread
fo much as to become an objeét of importance, there are
generally many claimants for the merit ; and if {uch claimants
are only heard of many years after, but little attention is
due to them. With regard to the neighbouring county of
Suffolk, he can fpeak with fome accuracy, but fhould not
mention it on this oceafion, were not the fact connected
with the introduction into Norfolk. In May, 1785, he
publifhed an account of an obfervation he had made in 1784,
the year he brought them into Suffolk from Suflex ; and it
being printed at the time, the fa& will admit of no doubt.
He recommended them ftrongly to every gentleman and
farmer he converfed with on the fubjeét ; and at his per-
fuafion, as many well Know, the late Mr. Macro, of Barrow,
purchafed that flock which the earl of Orford, after his
death, bought and eftablifhed at Houghton. Mr. Macro
died in 1789. And in a paper printed in the Annals, in
1790, he (Mr. Young) remarks, ‘* I have had fix and twenty

5

years’ experience in Norfolk fheep, and once thought fo
well of them, as to carry them into Hertfordfhire ; but in
the advance of my pra¢tice, I began gradually to doubt the
fuperior merit of that breed. I thought that of all the
fheep which I had examined particularly, none promifed to
anfwer fo well for the general purpofe of the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk as the Seuth Downs. I began the
import in 1784, and in 1790 had 350. I had too much
friendfhip for the late Mr. Macro, to advife him to try any
experiment that I was not clear would anfwer to him. I
repeatedly urged him to try the South Downs ; he liftened
to me with attention for fome time, but would not deter-
mine, till having feen the number I kept proportionably to
the quantity of land, and at the fame time with fome Nor-
folks, it proved to him that the South Downs were worth
attending to; and the journey I perfuaded him to take into
Suffex, giving him an opportunity to converfe with various
noted fheep-matters there, he determined to make the expe-
riment: he went over, previous to Lewis fair, and bought
a flock of them. The lambs fold well at Ipfwich fair.
Mr. Le Blanc, at Cavenham, alfo turned South Down
rams to 700 Norfolk ewes: he found no difficulty at Ipf-
wich ; and his fhepherd, after three years’ obftinate pre-
ference to Norfolks, gave up his old friends, and aétually
fet South Downs for his fhepherd’s ftock. Whether the
breed fhould or fhould not, in the long run, eftablith itfelf,
I have the fatisfa¢tion of feeling that I have done no ill office
to my brother farmers by introducing it. From the daily
accounts I receive, I have good reafon to believe that it will
be eftablifhed.”’

The farmers in Oxfordfhire employ many different forts _
of fheep, as the Wiltfhire, Berkfhire, and fome others ; but
the South Down and new Leicetter, and their crofles, are
fa{t driving the other forts out of the county, as being more
profitable in the number that can be kept on the fame ex-
tent of land, in fattening more expeditioufly, and at earlier
periods of their growth, in folding equally well, and in the
value of their wool. Soine, however, think, that the long-
woolled fheep are very profitable on farms of the ftone-brafh
kind, and have large flocks of that fort. In this diftri@,
in general, the quantity of fheep that is kept is large, in
proportion to that of the extent of the farms.

In Berkfhire, the large Wiltfhires and the breed of the
county are giving way to the South Down, and other {mall-
fized breeds, as yielding more profit, fattening quicker,
and doing better in general. The new Leicefter, fo far as
they have been tried in proper fituations, have alfo anfwered
well. Some croffes of thefe {maller breeds have likewife
been employed with confiderable fuccefs.

In the county of Effex, feveral forts of fheep-ftock are
made ufe of by the farmers, as the Norfolks, Wiltfhires,
Lincolns, new Leicefters, South Downs, and different
crofled kinds; but the fuperiority and advantage of the
Downs are now almoft every where admitted. The
Dithley or new Leicefter fort is alfo held in much eftima-
tion in many places, efpecially where the {oil is of a dry
light nature; as the wether lambs of this breed, and that
of the Downs, on being conftantly kept together on the
fame land, until they became fat, the former were inva-
riably drawn off the firlt, and were the fatteft and heaviett.
Beflides, rams of this fort are preferred for being put to
Norfolk ewes, to thofe of the other breed ; as the produce
is larger, and fooner fat. The new Leicefters are by fome,
however, thought inferior to the South Downs, as being
fuch bad breeders; one hundred of them only producing
eighty lambs, while the fame number of the Downs wilh
bring one hundred and twenty. :

R

SHEEP.

Tn the diftri of Devonthire, many kinds of theep, be-
fides the native breeds, are had recourfe to by the farmers,
asthe Dorfet, new Leicefter, Cotfwold, and South Down,
with crofles of thefe and feveral other kinds, as may be feen
by the table introduced above. The lait of thele breeds
feems to be fatt making its way, in fome places where the

Mand is dry, in this county too; but other forts and crofles
are held in great favour for different purpoles and ufes, as
for mutton, wool, feeding, and different others.

To many of the northern and other counties, as in York-

ire, ire, Cumberland, and feveral others, the new
Leicetter, South pomhines different improved breeds,

are now beginning to be had recourfe to, and f{upplantin
the old he or Rae kinds, x :
The trials bave hitherto been fo few, in regard to the
comparative advantages of different breeds of fheep, in what

— the relative proportion of food te mutton, offal,

» live apd dead weight, and many other points, that
_ the itock-farmer has been kept much in the dark. In order,
_ however, to fully clear up and afcertain thefe eflentiall
t matters, fo abislutely neceflary to the perf
knowledge of the fubjedt, the earl of Egremont lately or-
dered — ing experiment to be made. The wether
lambs ng {pring were ordered to be put up by
themfelves, into a caddeck adjoining the Ruassake
There were of

gy Down wether lambs 29—12 beft faved for rams.
Leicefter do. =. 25— 6 do. faved for do.
Half-bred new Leicefter and —
uthDown wether labs, baa 18
: ame get as above -
: Marfa wether las.Bs,

out of Mr. Wall’s ewes by
his own ram, which, from

being therefore nearly two
eam than an
Ts .
asa aebasie Begs re 8
55

___ Thefe fifty-five wether lambs, put into the paddock in
the month of Au were brought up and examined on
the 25th of the June following, when it was found that
twelve of the South Down, and all the half-bred South
- Down and new Leicefters, were in a marketable condition ;
_ none of the true new Leiceiter or Romuey-Marfhes
in any proper ftate for fale. r ait

’ s d

Of the South Downs, ten out of the twelve
__ were fent off to Smithfield market, fome days
__ afterwards, and fetched per theep =
‘OF the half-bred new Leicefters and rie ;
113 0

I 14 0

Downs, ten of the twelve, fent a week be-
fore to the fame market, brought per fheep

It is remarked, that the half-breds were feemingly the
fheep; but they went to a bad market, when the
ces were low.

“The two of the half-bred fort that remained, and which
fe in equal condition for the market, were kept back, as
ing part of the trial, detailed next column.

Here, however, it is neceflary to paufe, it is faid, as the
experiment is already decifive of one point, namely, that at
this age of fix months, as noticed above, thofe two breeds
were fo much more advanced than the others, that the
might be profitably cleared from the land, and a freth floc
fent in. It will remain, it is faid, for the future progrefs
of the trial, to afcertain whether fuch freth flock would not
pay better, than continuing the old; and for this purpofe
it may be calculated, that the theep now fold at the above
market at 34s., with the addition of $e for wool, pay for
fixty-four weeks 7d. the pound from the time of thetr being
lambed: This is noticed to be a very confiderable profit ;
and that if it fhould turn eut, that keeping them much
longer is not attended with an advavtage fomewhat propor~
tionate, it will clearly prove the fuperior benefit of that
breed, which may be got rid of at fo early sn age. Arnd it
is thought worthy of remark, that not one of the true new
Leicelters being in any condition fit to be drawn off in the
firft lot for market, is a circumftance moit (trangely contra-
dictory of affertions without end, that fattening at an early
age is almolt peculiarly a characteriltic of that breed.

But to’proceed with the trial.

as Ten Weeks’ Gain

Weighed gain. per 100 lbs.
Ibs. Ibs. lbs
Sept. 7. South Downs 273 33 13
Leicetters 255 46 21
Half-breds 204 34 13
Romney-Marfhes 270 34 14

It is noticed, that this refult is not very different from

* what might have been expected ; for as the Romney-Marhhes

and new Leicelters were very much behind the South
Downs and half-breds ten weeks before, it was natural to
fuppofe, that when they did begin to thrive, they would
do it in a more rapid manner.

Weighed , 146 it Lofsper 100lbs.
Ibs. Ths, Ibs. az.
Dec. 1. South Downs 264 9 3 0
Leicelters 251 7 20
Half-breds 282 12 4 0
Romney-Marfhes 269 I °o 6

It is confidered as very material, in all trials of this na-
ture, to note the lofles, as making fuch attempts double,
by not only fhewing when the fheep thrive, and which do
beit, but equally by marking when they go backward, and
which breed is moit capable of withftanding thofe circum-
ftances which operate againft them all. In the above feale,
the difference is not very material. In that lot which did
the worift, the lofs, it is faid, amounts to about 1d. per
week ; but that it is unfavourable to every lot, that in a
period including the beft part of the autumn, as
fhould thrive, when the weather is fuitable, deep into the
month of November, none of them fhould have gai
which they ought to have done confiderably. Their paf-
ture, however, though good in quality, was bare.

The refult being found, the fheep were ordered to be
ftarved for twenty-four hours; and after which, to be
turned out for other twenty-four bours ; propofing, by thus
weighing them, to afcertain the quantity of food eaten, and
the quantity voided: it being rightly conceived, that if,
upon the repetition of fuch trials, there exilted any remark-
able fuperiority, or any material difference, between the
refpective breeds, it might throw fome light upon the

general inquiry. P
South

SHEEP.

Lofs by Starving. Lofs per 100 lbs.

Ibs. Ibs. oz.
South Downs - : 8 3 0
Leicetters - - - II 4.0
Half-breds + - a 17 a6
Romney-Marfhes — - - 5 oO 14

_The fheep were then turned out, and twice weighed,
after twenty-four hours eating each time.

Gain inthe Gain in the Total Gain
1ft24Hours. 2d24Hours, “oC per 100 lbs.
Ibs. lbs, lbs. Ibs. 07.
South Downs I 6 G] 2 10
Leicetters 6 6 12 4 13
Half-breds fe) 9 19 6 12
Romney-Marthes ° 5 5 I 13

The refult of thefe weighings fhew that the half-breds
loft moit, and gained moft ; that the Romney- Marfhes loft
leaft, and ate leaft ; that the Leicefters loft more than the
South Downs, and ate more. It is fuggeited, that fuch
trials muft be repeated many times, before conclufions can
be fairly drawn. How the Romney-Marfhes, in the firft
twenty-four hours, could gain nothing, is not to be ac-
counted for, as the weighing was performed with ac-
curacy.

Weighed again in the fucceeding month of March, in the
next year, which, as it will mark the lofs fuftained by the
fevereft part of the winter feafon, deferves particular atten-

tion. They were at grafs the whole of the time.
Weighed Lofs in 4 Months. Lofs per 100 lbs.
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
South Downs 253 It 4
Leicetfters 214 37 14
Half-breds 253 29 10
Romney-Marfhes 25.4. 15 5

The refult here fhews that the Leicefters, which is re-
markable, fuffered the moft; from which it is thought,
that it may fairly be concluded, fo far as one trial goes,
that the great peculiarity of that breed is not by any means
what has been contended for, a capability of fupporting
itfelf on little food; but that, on the contrary, it demands
a very plentiful nourifhment, and will bear the want of it
worfe than any of the other breeds.

The half-breds are the next in the order of demerit : the
South Downs are the bett of all.

n Gain in Gain

Weighed 12 Weeks. per 100 Ibs,
Ibs. lbs. Ibs.
June 19. South Downs 299 46 18
Leicefters 275 61 28
Half-breds 310 57 22
Romney-Marfhes 317 63 24

The period from the 30th of March to the 19th of June
neceflarily forms another interefting portion of the trial, as
it takes in the whole flufh of the {pring growth of grafs.
Here the refult, it is faid, is alfo remarkable, and ftrongly
in confirmation of the preceding obfervations on the Lei-
cefters ; for when in favourable circumttances in regard 'to
food, as in the prefent cafe, from feafon, they exceed all
the reft. The Romney-Marfhes, however, approach near
to them; and as thefe fad loft, in pinching circumftances,
much lefs, their fuperiority upon thefe two weighings feems
to be clearly afcertained; and which will appear the plainer,
by comparing the weight of December 1ft with that of
June rgth.

Dec. ute: June 19th.
Bliss ana Gain. Gain per 100 Ibs.
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
South Downs 264. 299 35 13
Leicetters 251 275 24 9
Half-breds 282 310 28 9
Romney-Marfhes 269 317 48 17

The merit of the Romney-Marfhes, in this ftage of the
trial, is, it is faid, confpicuous. The South Downs are
next, the Leicefters and half-breds being equal.

Weighed. Gain per 100 lbs.

Ibs. Ibs.
Sept. 7. South Downs 316 5
Leicefters 312 It
Half-breds 310 8
Romney-Marfhes 337 6

The Leicefters here, it is obferved, continue to take the
lead throughout the fummer. So long as the food is
plentiful, they beat all the others; and this part of the ex-
periment goes to prove a moft important point, which has
indeed been long fufpected, that in good fituations no breed
is fo profitable to the grazier. The half-breds are found the
next to thefe.

The five remaining Romney-Marfhes were fent to Smith-
field on the 4th of July, and brought 48s. each; and on
Auguit the 7th, ten of the remaining Leicefters went at
48s. each, alfo feven at gos. each; fo that the profit for
two years and two months food, added to the value of the
wool, is, it is faid, 5d. and a fraétion fer week for the
Romney-Marthes, and from 4d. to 44d. tor the Leicefters,
from the time of their being lambed.

The former part of the experiment will fhew that the
South-Downs and half-breds in 64 weeks age gave 7d. per
week profit; and that the Romney-Marfhes and Leicetters,
kept until they were nearly twice the age of the others,
namely, 108 weeks the former, and 117 the latter, only
gave a profit of from 4d. to 5d. per week. ‘This is, it is
faid, a moft interefting circumitance, and which manifeftly
tends to afcertain how much better it would be to the
grazier to get rid of thefe fheep at an earlier age, and re-
ftock his land with thofe which are molt faleable at the
earlieft period.

November 21ft to December 25th. Weighed again.

Gain. Gain per 100 lbs,
Ibs. lbs. Ibs.
South Downs - 320 4 I
Leicefters - - 326 14. 4
Half-breds_ - -. 346 6 I
Romney-Marfhes - 331 lof 6 loft 1

This, it is fuppofed, is perhaps the moft ftriking period
of the experiment. By the laft weighing, if turned to, it
will be feen that the Leicefters had outitripped all the reft,
and that the fuperiority is {till maintained.

The above details of the practices of different diftriéts, ex-
periments, and remarks, muft place the profits and advan-
tages of different breeds of fheep for the purpofes of the
fheep-farmer, in a clear, fatisfa€tory, and ftriking point of
view. With refpe& to the wool of different fheep, we refer
to the next article, and Woot.

Different Kinds of Sheep-Management.—In the practice of
fheep hufbandry, different fyftems are had recourfe to, ac-
cording to the extent and nature of the farms on which they
are kept, and the methods of farming that are adopted on
them; but under all circumftances, the beft fheep-mafters

contitantly

SHEEP.

eonilantly endeavour to preferve them in as condition
as pollible at all feafons. With the patture kinds of theep
this is particularly the cafe; and with the view of accom-
plithing it in the moft complete manner, it is ufeful to divide
them into different parcels or lots, in refpeét to their ages
and forts, as by sd apna they may be kept with greater
convenience and t than in large Hats together, under
a mixture of different kinds; as in this way there is not only
lef waite of food, but the animals thrive better, and the
are fed with much more eafe. The advantage of
has been fully re mg in many of the
riéts, where they ufually divide the theep-ftock
into lambs, yearlings, wethers, and breeding ewes; and in
oo not improbable that a much larger
i ock m hep

rewsdiw ay be kept, and the fheep be pre-
in a more healthy condition,

and the capital which he poilefles, either felling
the lambs to on fattening them for grafs-lamb,
ing them or era them on to be

and fold as ftore or fat wethers ; the ewes being fold
lean, as they are called, or fattened, as circumftances, profit,
and convemence, hw point out. Another practice, but

fale, when fat, are convenient!
where this fyftem is too extenfive, it may
varying the according to capital, circumitances,
nature of the times. In which cafe, whenever {tore
becomes extravagantly high, it is moftly a good way to
fell. But amethod which is attended with the leait trouble
hazard, is that of purchafing a {tore flock, as lambs,
-wethers,and what are termed crones, or old ewes; fome of
the lait fort often proving with lamb, may be fattened off
with them to good account. It is likewife often the cafe
that ewes are difpofed of in lamb, or with lambs by their
fides, in what are termed couples, in which circumttances it
is frequently a good praétice to make annual purchafes of
hem, in order to the fattening of both, and felling them in
tha ftate within the year. f of breeding can only
be had recourfe to with effe& and advantage in fituations or
on farms, where there are extenfive traéts of land fit for the

partially acted

patturing and fupport of thefe animals, but not the fattenin
of them ; the more rich deep : ;
their fattening, and

g of fheep, which is often done from
and markets, much care and circum-
neceflary, whatever the fort or intention with
be. In thefe cafes much ad-

fituations. This is a neceflary precaution alfo in bringing
them from one fituation to another while on the road.

It may be noticed that, with theep-farmers, the common
practice, except in particular inftances, has been to leave the
ewes for the rth? 2 of breeding without any fele¢tion ; buat
where good theep-ftock is the obje&t, much attention fhould
be paid in hooks fuch as are the moft perfe¢t, and that
poflefs, in the highett degree, thofe qualities or properties
which are wanted, whatever the breed or variety of theep may
be; as it is only in this way that a good ftock can be railed and

referved. And it isa bufinels that fhould always be per-
ormed at the time they are turned to the ram, if it bas not
been done before ; and this is equally neceflary in regard to
the rams, that they may be adapted to the ewes. ‘The
author of the Farmer’s Calendar has obferved, that the late
duke of Bedford, in attending to this objeét, had every ram
with the lambs got by him the preceding year put in diftin&
pens, that he might not only examine them but their pro-
> previous to his deciding ‘ what ewes to draw off for
im,”? which is certainly a method highly deferving of imi-
tation by theep-farmers in general. Such attention, united
with a careful fele&tion of cull lambs, mult, the writer
thinks, keep a itock in a ftate of progreflive improvement,
proportioned to the accuracy of rah ag eye, and hand of
the farmer who praétifes it. And it is obferved in the Agri-
cultural Report of Norfolk lately publifhed, that Mr. Coke
readily affifts, not only his tenants, but other neighbouring
farmers, in forting and feleéting their South Down ewes, &c.
and diftributing them ia lots to the rams according to the
fhapes and qualities of each. He puts on his fhepherd’s
fmock, and {uperintends the pens, to the fure improvement
of the flock ; his judgment is fuperior and admitted. The
writer has feen him, and the late duke of Bedford, thus ac-
coutred, work all the day, and not quit the bufinefs till the
darknefs forced them to dinner. See SonTING a.

Farther, it has been remarked in a late praétical work,
that the moit advantageous and proper age for ewes taking
the ram in the different breeds, has not te fully fhewn ;
but from a year to a year and a half old may be {efficient,
according to the forwardnefs of the breed and the goodnefs
of the keep. Some judge of this by the production of
broad or theep’s teeth. It fhould not, perhaps, be done
while too young in any cafe. And in regard to the feafon
of putting the rams to the ewes, it muft be directed by the
period at which the fall of the lambs may be moft defirable,
which muft depend on the nature of the kzep which the par-
ticular fituation affords; but the moit ufual time is about
the beginning of Odtober, except in the Dorfetthire ewes,
where the intention is fuckling for boufe-lamb, in which cafe
it fhould be much earlier, in order that the lambs may be
fufficiently forward. But, by being kept very well, an
of the breeds will take thesram at a much earlier period.
Where the rams are young, the number of ewes fhould
feldom exceed fixty for each ram; but in older rams 2
arp number may be admitted without inconvemience, a5

m one to two hundred ; but ying them have too many

fhould be cautioufly avoided, as by fuch means the farmer

may fuftain great lofs in the number of the lambs. It is
found that the ewe with lamb about the {pace of five
months, confequently the moft common lambing-feafon is
March, or the early part of April; but it has been obferved,
that in many of the more fouthern diltri€ts, where theep-
hufbandry is carried on to a confiderable extent, fome parts
of the ewe-ftock are put to the rams at much earlier periods,
fo as to lamb a month or fix weeks fooner ; a pra¢tice which
is attended with much profit and advantage in many fituations
where carly grafs-lamb is in great demand. It is ufual _

SHEEP.

the rams to remain with the ewes for a month or fix weeks,
and in fome cafes longer, in order to complete the bufinefs
of impregnation, which in fome diltriéts is afcertained by
f{mearing the fore-bows of the rams with fome colouring fub-
ftance. The method formerly in praétice, and which is too
commonly the cafe at prefent, of turning a number of rams
among the flocks, is highly exceptionable, as tending to
prevent the main obje&, and injure the rams. A better way
is to let each ram have a proper number of ewes, and with
very choice {tock to keep the ram in an inclofed {mall pafture,
turning a few ewes to him, and as they are ferved replacing
them with others. By this means there is more certainty,
and more ewes may be impregnated. In fuch fort of fine
ftock, it is likewife of great utility to keep the rams during
this feafon in a high manner. In this view a little oats in the
ttraw, or a mixture of barley and pea-meal, are excellent.
Where ewes are backward in taking the ram, the. beft means
to be employed are thofe of good {timulating keep. The
rams fhould always be continued with the ewes a {ufficient
length of time. I[t is {tated in the General Treatife on
Cattle, that the ewe will breed twice and even thrice a year,
if it be made a point to produce fuch an effect by attention
and high keep, fince fhe will receive the male indifferently at
any feafon, and, like the rabbit, very foon after bringing
forth. And that Lifle gives an inftance of three of his
ewes, well kept, lambing at Chriftmas, fattening off their
lambs at Lady-day, and producing lambs again the firft
week in June. It feems they {tole the ram immediately after
lambing, but brought the fecond time only fingle lambs,
although of a breed that generally produces twins. The
former writer thinks there is no doubt but the fheep would
produce young thrice a year, were the bad pra¢tice reforted
to, which has been fo currently recommended with the
rabbit, of allowing the male immediately after parturition ;
the ready way to render both the female and her progeny
worthlefs. Could the lambs be advantageoufly weaned at
two months, fufficient time would, he conceives, remain for
the ewe to bring forth twice within the year; for example,
fuppofe the young ewe tupped in Auguft, the lamb would
be dropped in the middle of January, and might be weaned
in mid March, the ewe again receive the ram on the turn of
the milk, like the fow, perhaps in or before April, fhe
, would then bring forth within the twelve months, or in

Auguft. This plan would, he thinks, at leaft injure the
dam infinitely lefs than fuckling during geftation.

And it is neceflary, that during the time the ewes are in
lamb they fhould be kept in pattures, and as free from dif-
turbance as poffible, being carefully attended to, in order to
prevent accidents, which are liable to take place at this time,
fuch as thofe of their being caft in the furrows, &c.
Where any of the ewes flip their lambs, it is advifed by Mr.
Bannitter that they fhould be immediately removed from the
flock. They alfo require, under thefe circumftanees, to be
kept as well as the nature of the farm will admit, in order
that there may be lefs lofs at lambing-time, from the ewes
being ftronger, and the lambs more healthy, and better ca-
pable of contending with the ftate of the feafon at which
they may be dropped. At lambing-time every poflible at-
tention isto be paid. The fhepherd fhould at this period be
particularly careful and attentive to afford his affiftance where
it may be neceflary. He fhould conftantly have regard to
the fuckling of the lambs, and to fee that the udders of the
ewes are not difeafed. His attendance will often be required
in the night as well as the day. At this feafon covered
fheep-folds are often of very great advantage, in faving and
protecting both ewes and their lambs. And in refpe& to
the number of lambs, it is remarked by the author of the

work on Live-ftock, that the ewe brings moft commonly
one, next in degree of frequency, two, rarely from three to
fivelambs at a birth. This property of double birth is, he
fays, in fome initances, fpecific; the Dorfet fheep ufually
yeaning twins; and the large-polled Belgic fheep, with
their defcendants, our Teef{water, doing the fame, and pro-
ducing occafionally more at a birth. Other breeds bring
twins in the proportion of one-third of the flock, which is
{uppofed to depend confiderably on good keep. A certain
number of ewes per centum prove barren annually ; the caufe
very rarely, natural defeét ; fometimes over-fatnefs, a mors
bid {tate of body, from poverty, or negleét of the ram ; in
other words, want of fy{temin the fhepherd.

Further, it has been recommended, that where rich paf-
tures, or other forts of good grafs-lands cannot be referved
for their fupport, turnips, or other kinds of green food,
fhould be provided for the purpofe, and given them ina
fuitable manner; but where it can be done, it is always
better to leave this fort of food untouched till about the
period of lambing, when it fhould be regularly fupplied, in
proportion to the neceflity there may be for it. The ewes
alfo demand at this time much care, to fee that they are put
upon a dry fheltered patture, free from difturbance, and that
neither they nor their lambs {uftain injury from the too great
feverity of the feafon. Whenever this is the cafe, they
fhould be carefully removed into a proper degree of warmth
and fhelter, until perfe@ly reftored. It is likewife a necef-
fary, as well as a ufeful praétice, as they lamb down, to take
them and their lambs away fromthe common ftock, putting
them into a piece of turnips, or frefh dry pafture, where

there is fhelter when neceflary, as by this means much fewer .

lambs will be loft than would otherwife be the cafe. It is
alfo found, that by a proper fupply of turnips, or other fimi-
lar green food at this period, the milk of the ewes is much
increafed, and the growth of the lambs greatly promoted ;
which is of much future importance, as when they are ftinted
at this early period of their exiftence, they never turn out
fo well afterwards for the farmer. With the green and root
crops, and preferved after-grafs, hay, ftraw, corn, and oil-
cake, are in fome cafes made ufe of in the winter fuppert of
fheep-ftock. Withturrips, where the foil is not fufficiently
dry to admit the fheep, it is the praétice to draw them and
convey them to a found firm pafture, that the ewes may be
baited upon them once or twice in the day, as there may be
occafion, care being taken that they are eaten up clean,
as the circumftance of their being thus eaten may ferve as a
guide to the farmer for the fupply that may be daily necef-
fary. In this way this fort of food wil be confumed with
the greateft economy. Where the land is perfectly dry, and
the intention is to manure it for a grain crop, eating the tur-
nips on the land, by means of portions hurdled off as wanted,
is a good praétice.
where it produces fcouring in the ewes, green rouen hay,
cut ftraw, or peafe-haulm, fhould conftantly be given, and
alfo with rape, &c, Mr. Young has ftated, that in fome
parts of the kingdom, the beft farmers give their ewes and

lambs bran and oats, or oil-cake, in troughs, while they are —

feeding cn turnips; but he fuggedts, at the fame time, that it
muft be a good breed for fuch a praétice torepay. And it
has been advifed, when the weather is very wet, ftormy, or

there is much fnow upon the ground, that the ewes and —

lambs fhould haye hay given them in baits as may be necef-

fary, which is moftly done in covered moveable racks, a

portion being given frefh every day. It is, however, much
better to have it cut into chaff, and given in troughs, as
much lefs watte is made.
of feeding made ufe of by fome farmers, with ewe-ltock of

the

There is full a higher praétice ©

And with this fort of food, efpecially _

SHEEP.

the more improved kinds, and which is faid to have been
found to anfwer better than the common keep in particular
cafes; which is that of employing parfuips or carrots with
hay of the green rouen kind, or a portion of pea, bean, or
«meal, alfo malt-combs, with potatoes and hay, Xe.
‘ forts of keep are, however, obvioully much too ex-
peafive, except under icular circumitances, and for the
more improved haa
It is obvious, that where fhelter can be provided, it will
always be of much beneiit to the theep, But it has been
that the practice of letting them to the hay-
i which is common with fome farmers, is flovenly and
walteful, and which, though it may afford a degree of
ter, never be attempted when the other methods
ean be had

recourfe to. It has alfo been fuggeited by Mr.
Young, asan excellent method, though not effentially necef-
fary, to allow the theep, whether the weather be bad or
mot, a acer! pose of hay daily while at turnips. And
it is fuppofed that by this careful management, and the ufe of
ftubble turnips when neceflary, the ewe and lamb-ftock may
well fapported through the feverity of the feafon, and be
brought ou in the bett poffible condition until the turnips
fhed in March, which fhould always be the cafe when
preferved or rouen may be y to receive them ;
os ch is confidered by fome as the moft to be depended upon
: ugh this and the wing month, which, with the frit
_week in May, is the moft di cyt" a get a an
ftock-farmer. On dry meadows and pattures it is invaluable
iin this view, though at firft fight it may have an unpromifin
appearance, from the covering of decayed autumnal grafs
that is upon it ; but which, when removed, prefents a new
growth of sg: ag gy five or fix inches in height,
rought up by fhelter and warmth afforded by the
covering of old grafs. This is found to agree remarkably
ll with the fheep, as they confume both together, having,
sit were, both hay and grafs in the fame bite. It is, sca
fuppofed impoflible to a full ftock of theep fo cheaply
in April by any other method as by this. Tolerable rouen
will carry ten ewes an acre, with their lambs, through the
month. Such rouen may be worth in autumn ten or
elve pa acre; in April it is worth thirty or forty
; and ifit be a backward feafon, a farmer that has it

s

d not be tempted to fell it formuch more. But in the
spport of his theep and lamb-ftock, if the farmer be pro-
ed with a fufficient extent of watered meadow, he may
depend upon that without any other provifion for this

cafes, however, where thefe cannot be fully de-
on for the fupport of the fheep-ftock at this difficult
the moft improved praétice is, in of depending
fo

pn turnips and hay with rye fown for the purpofe, youn
; and the run of the paftures, to let fae tics <a
as that their fhoots may become an object of fheep
and to have annually a portion of tolerable good
fufficient to the extent of the flock, under rye-
is and clover, seek sig in the {pring to take the

eep from turnips, and fu till the time of turnin
0 the paftures. The a; iter remarks, that this pe
% is

an improvement on the other, as it gets rid of

evils : ending on rye, which is foon eaten;
pding on wheat, is pernicious to the crops; and
rning too foon into the general paftures. But at the fame
ne that it effeéts this advantage, it is open to fome objec-
ms, which make furtherimprovement neceflary. Keeping
‘turnips long in the fpring is very bad hufbandry.
damag = i barley crop, both in robbing the

-_

land, and preventing it from being fown in proper time +
nor is the food of great confequence, for many acres of tur-
nip-tops are requilite, the number of which muit be in pro-
ortion to the {tock of theep ; and as to the roots, they grow
a fticky and hard after the tops are at all advanced, that
their sie is trifling, With refpect to ray-grale, the clo-
ver mixed with it is feldom above three inches high at this
feafon ; and a great breadth of ground to a given ftoc k mutt
be afligned to keep the theep through <4 lem The number of
acres of that young growth neceflary to keep a hundred theep
and lambs, is, it is faid, furprifing; fo that thefe farmers,
although they manage to fering feed more fheep than the
worft of their brethren, yet efleét it at a great expence,
and at laft not in any degree comparable to what might be
done. A turnip fhould never be feen on the groun after
March. For the month of April the farmer fhould have a
field of cabbages ready, which, yielding a great produce on
a {mall breadth of ground, reduces the et of a late {pring
fowing ; and, if he manages as he ought, totally eae it.
The turnip-cabbage, oe ruta baga, will lait as long as
wanted; and though they run to feed, yet the bulbs will
not be fticky. ‘The green borecole may be fed off feveral
times ; it is impenetrable to froft, and will make thoots in
the winter. And another crop, continues Mr. Young, for
feeding fheep in {pring, which is of particular merit, 1s bur-
net. An acre of it managed properly, will at this feafon
ield much more food than an acre of clover and ray-grafs.
ie fhould be four or five inches high in November, and left
fo through the winter. Burnet has the fingular quality of
maintaining its green leaves through the winter ; fo that,
under deep fnows, you find fome luxuriance of vegetation.
From November to February the crop will gain two or three
inches in growth in the young leaves, and then be ready for
fheep. It will be better in March, and if kept, a in
April, not only for fheep, but horfes, cows, or any other ftock.
Thefe fyftems of feeding and management are, however, im
practice much varied according to the nature of the farm
and the kind of fheep that are kept. In Norfolk, with
Mr. Bevan’s flock, which confifts of forty-five feore of the
South Down kind, the following is the arrangement. The
tups are put to the ewes about the roth of September, for
two months, being fed on the layers and paftures, and are
folded on the old layers for wheat : after wheat-fowing they
are folded on the paftures and layers till the time of yeaning,
during which they lie on the paftures without fold, and have
turnips thrown to them, with plenty of good hay. The
fattening fheep are on turnips and hay, from Michaelmas to
the end of March, followed by the hoggits. In April
the couples go to cole-feed in hurdles; from cole to rye;
from rye to the new layers, if forward enough, otherwife to
the water-meadows, till the beginning of May ; and from
thence to the new layers, being full in hurdles, with a good
deal of room to fall back, and continue fo on the layers
till about the roth of June, when the ewes are wafhed for
clipping, and until the lambs are weaned : the ewes then go
to fold with the thearlings on the fallows intended for turnips,
and the lambs are put to frefh grafs referved for that pur-
pofe; all the fheep on turnips and cole having hay, they
confume about twenty-five tons. The general winter pro-
vifion is 80 acres of turnips, 20 of cole, and 30 of rye, for
the fpring. Mr. Bevan ploughs in his rye-ftuLbles before the
fsck are carried to turn in the feattered feed, harrowing
in half a peck of cole-feed for theep-feed in the {pring, and
finds it of very great fervice. The latter, after feeding,
ftands fora crop. He values his turnips on the average at
30s. per acre, and cole at 25s. After turnip-fowing, the
3K flock

SHEEP.

flock is folded on old layers for rye, till the end of Augutt,
when the ewes intended for breeding are put to good pafture
till the tups are let in. But in 1802, the tups now put to
the ewes about a week later, and the lambs not weaned till
the latter end of June. Provifion this year, 100 acres of
turnips, 30 cole, 30 rye, for 25 fcore breeding ewes, 15
SoH hoggits, 20 tups, 10 {core fatting ftock; 51 {core
in all.

Turnips, as a holding-out winter food for fheep, are unquel-
tionably excellent, particularly when not given in too large
quantities, and with fome fort of dry food with them, as
fainfoin hay in this feafon, common hay, cut pea, bean, or
wheat-ftraw. There is alfo faid to be an advantage in having
them drawn one or two days before they are ufed, in fome
diftri€ts, and even in having them ftacked. - But potatoes are
thought a much better food than turnips in other parts where
fheep are a great objeét, as being more fully and regularly to
be depended on, and as preventing the difeafes to which the
animals are liable in a more effeCtual manner. The Swedith
turnip come into ufe the lateft, as in the early {pring.

It is ftated in the Corre&ed Agricultural Report of the
County of Suffex, that general Murray fed 5000 fheep with
potatoes and hay, 1651 of his breeding ewes ate 51 bufhels
every day, giving a quart to each ; and which, for 120 days,
is 6120 bufhels: while the Norfolk ttock-farmer provides
for 720 fheep, 80 acres of turnips, 16 tons of hay, 20 acres
of rye. The following is the comparifon of the value, &c.
of the provifion.

It is faid, that if 720 fheep require 80 acres of turnips,
2240, the upland flock at general Murray’s, will require
248 acres of turnips ; but they have only 50. That if 720
fheep require 16 tons of hay, or 10 acres, 2240 fhould re-
quire 49; inftead of which they have 120, which is 71
furplus, or, at one load and an half the acre, 48 acres. And
that, if 720 fheep require 20 acres of rye, 2240 fhould re-
quire 62, inftead of which they have none at all.

Winter food of 2240 fheep, as provided for in Norfolk.

Acres.
Turnips - - - - 248
Hay - - = = = - 10
Rye - s = - = 62
Potatoes = = = = °

320

—_

Winter food of 2240 theep, as provided for in Suffex.

Acres,
Turnips 2 . z = 50
Hay - - - 5 - 80
Rye - = - - 5 fe}
Potatoes - - - - 20
150

Value of crops, as applicable to each county, without
regard to the expences.

ed oy al
Turnips = - - 2 ORO
Hay - - - - 5 0 0
Rye - - . - o 10 0
Potatoes = = * 4) 0 70

Expences. Norfolk.

Turni :
urnips - - - - 496
Hay - - - - 20
Rye - - - = 3r
Potatoes - - - - °
547
Expences. Suflex.

#£

Turnips - - - - 100
Hay - . - - 160
Rye - - - - (ey
Potatoes - - - - 80
349

Which is, it is faid, a difference of 63 per cent. This vatt

difference is to be attributed, it is fuppofed, in a great
meafure, to the diftinction between the breeds of the flocks,
as one being the Norfolk, and the other the South Down,
as all the circumftances are in favour of it; but it may be
partly owing to potatoes being a cheaper food than turnips.
As to the feeding of fheep with potatoes, however, it is,
though afcertained on the above farm on a very large feale,
a more difputed and doubtful circumftance ; and for this rea-
fon, they are allowanced, ftinted, or limited in their con-
fumption, which is not the cafe with turnips: thefe, on the
Norfolk farm, are fed off on the land, and, of courfe, in the
greateft plenty.
which they are conftantly lable, are alfo not to be over-
looked : while potatoes are aregular certain crop, and fub-
ject to few accidents or inconveniencies. When thefe cir-
cumitances are therefore well confidered, in the pinch of a
fevere feafon, it will be readily agreed that the introduGion
of this root, and the proof of its advantage by the above
extenfive trial, as a winter and fpring provifion for {heep-
ftock, is really important.

The quantity of a quart every day of this root for each
fheep is probably, however, much too fmall, as in fattening
them with it in fuitable yards for the purpofe, a far greater
quantity has been found neceflary. But lean fheep certainly
do not require the fame proportion for keeping them as is
requifite in the fattening fyttem, as may be feen below, in
{peaking of that fort of management.

Cabbages, as a food for fheep, are of great importance
and utility in many fituations, particularly in thofe where
the land is fuitable for raifing them, though it may not be
of the very rich quality. They are of vaft fervice in carry-
ing on improvements in fheep hufbandry, and as the meané
of keeping a greatly increafed fteck, where good manage-
ment is followed. ;

The artificial grafles, fuch as ray-grafs and red clover,
are of much confequence as {pring food for fheep ; the firft
is early, and comes in after common turnips, when much
wanted. It may be cultivated to advantage when the latter

The other accidents and objections to ©

will not fucceed. The clover comes into ufe’in this way at

a later period, and on ftronger defcriptions of land. Many
other grafles of this fort, as well as fome of the natural grafs
kind, might be very beneficially grown in this intention, a8
the cock’s-foot in fome cafes, fainfoin, &c. on foils of the
calcareous kind, and fome of the poas and alopecurufes,
in other circumitances ; by which means earlinefs, quantity,
and quality of keep might be fecured.

Tares,

Tares, rye, and cole, are in ft as (pring food
for oe the firf being a. ttrouger forts
of land, the fecond on fuch as are of a lighter quality, and
the laf on many kinds, even the hilly calcareous fort,
are all fufficiently early for being fed in April, or the
oe month, when turnips are done. Spring tares are
fe often put Ms to be fi a at the se the pe
Thefe practices an{wer well; but mixed erops of tares
and rye never do well or ee purpofe of theep-teed ; as they
do vot by any means come well together, of courfe there is
much lofs. Thele and other mixed crops are, however,
uently had recourfe to in this fort of management, with
ident benefit.
The flubble turnip fyitem of food is very good in this
of hufbandry, for late {pring or other feed ; where
of fuch kinds take well in fucceffion to thofe of
forts.
The of preferving after-grafs for the purpofe of
“Da apeehains re refal stpeeill y for the fupport
and lambs in the early fpring. It provides well for
practice of converting young wheat crops to {pring
Mheep-food is feldom good. ts Sole the bufinefs of ne-
want of forecait in the

and fheep manager. On light
» Bag me it ecauuiaelictasee. but it often does
harm.

© Winter barley, and fome other forts of crops, have alfo
been tried watery ton, but hitherto only by particular in-
i oua fcale.

Whatever the nature of the food which is raifed with this
may be, it fhould always be provided in ample
abundance to the quantity of -flock which is to be
Aept, as 20 fort of pinching ever an{wers any good purpofe
’ management. Good water fhould Meer: be con-
t pene 0. 70,tree,predtice. ‘ gail, ais
By thus cultivating proper quantities of proper fheep
. (ee a a cat a i gil iy
9f this fort, many important benefits and advantages would
peceilarily refult, a far quantity of fheep would be
pt on the fame extent of ground, they would be preferved in
h better itate of condition, and they would be in a much

ai

ie See teJepuatads nieve. the ds are
divifions, in proportion to the ut
pros. care being taken not to over. tock
ghe flocking in fome cafes may be bene-
s] farmers they are put upon the richeit
aiture of the farm, while with others it is the cuftom to

st them have thofe of the inferior kinds. This mutt depend
wach upon ci 3 but whatever mode is adopted,
point of havi ftock in good condition
to be lo t is advifed, that oes a

ag theep on inc pattures, particularly where

‘ood,
order to guard againit the mifchief of the fly, as its
ts aL Pitas pally Ta

SHEEP.

time in fuch fituations, if mot attended to, in hot feafons.

With the view of fully guarding aguinit this infeét, a very fre-

a and particular examination muft be made by the
epherd.

Frthen, on this fubje& it may be noticed, that the next
circumftance in the mawagement of thefe animals is that of
weaning the lambs, which is a bufinefs that fhould be efle€ted
when they are three or four months old, as about July, but
itis done more early in fome diflriéts than in others. And
to effeét it in the beft and moft beneficial manner, a proper
referve of fome frefh pafture grafs, where there may be a
good bite for the lambs to feed upon, thould be had yecourfe
to, a6 itis of much confequence that an ample provifion of
this fort be had, in erder that the growth of this young
flock may not fufler any check on being taken from the
mother. Where they have been continued fo long as to

aze with the dams, little check will be fuftained m their
eparation, if turned upon fuch good feed, Some advife
clover in bloffom as the moft forcing fort of food in this in-
tention, and with others fainfoin rouen is highly valued for
the fame purpofe. When good feed is not provided, of
fome of thefe kinds, the lambs foon decline in flefh, or in
the technical language of the fhepherd, the flock are {aid to
pitch ; and when once this happens, they never afterwards
thrive fo well, however good the management may be.
With regard to the ewes, they fhould be removed to fuch
diftant paftures or other places, as that they may not be
heard by the lambs, which would caufe them to be difturbed
in their feeding. And where the ewes fuftain any inconve-
nience from their milk, as by their udders {welling, it thould
be drawn once or twice, as by this means bad confequences
may be prevented. And as foon as the lambs have been re-
moved, the ewes are returned upon the paitures deftined for
their fummer fupport. There is, however, one caution to
be attended to in firft turning the lambs upon rich keep,
which is that of letting them = in fome degree fatisfied with
food previoufly, that they may not be furfeited by too
quick and full feeding, and eave or howe, as it is termed ;
keeping them gently moving about the field has alfo been
adyifed in this intention. In fome places where the lands are
of the more poor kind, it is a cuitom to fend the lambs to
the more rich vale or marth diftricts, to be brought forward
in conditien, or fattened. In thofe cafes, where the lambs
of the male kind are reared on the home lands, as wethers,
they are ufually reftored to the flock in the latter end of the
year, but a, is not by any means a good pradtice, as
they often fuffer for want of proper keep in the winter,
and lofe what they had previoufly’gained in growth and
condition,

And in the ufual management of fheep-flocks, it is the
common pra¢tice to remove a certain number of the ald
ewes or crones every year, replacing them by the beft lambs,
in order that they may be kept up in the greateit perfection ;
it is, of courfe, a matter of confiderable importance to have
this done in a proper manner. And in almolt all the theep
diftriéts in the fouthern part of the en Fok pene la
fetting of the lamb-frock, is ‘ormed about Auguft, at whi
period the fairs fe me of lambs moitly take place.
And as at this time the whole are collected together for draw
ing into different lots, it is a very {uitable period for felect.
ing or choofing thofe that are to fupply fuch deficiencies in
the breeding $s. Tn his Calen of Hufbandry, Mr,
Young has well remarked, that in making this felection, the
farmer or his fhepherd ufually (whatever the breed may be
rejeéts all that manifeft any departure from certain figns
the true breed; thus, in a Norfolk flock, a white leg, and
a face not of a hue fufficiently dark, would be ¢:

3K2 however

SHEEP.

however well-formed; in the fame manner a white face on
the South Downs; in Wiltihire, a black face would be an
exclufion, ora horn that does not fall back ; in Dorfetfhire,
a horn that does not project, &c. &c. And where the pro-
duce is annually fold lean, there is, he maintains, reafon in
all this ; for cuftomers who have been ufed to and prefer
certain breeds, as having paid them well, are apt to be faf-
tidions when they purchafe. Some farmers in this feleGtion
look chiefly at fize, always keeping the largeft frames; but
this is probably erroneous, unlefs they seep very high. It
connects with a queition by no means afcertained, whether
fheep do or do not eat a quantity of food proportioned to
their weight? In general it is a fafer rule to choofe a well-
formed lamb, or that indicates the probability of making a
well-formed ewe, rather than to feleét for fize. The at-
tention that is to be paid to wool in the breeds that pro-
duce the carding fort, will depend on the price to be received :
if the farmer lives in a diftri€t where the price of the year
is given equally to all flocks, there is little encouragement to
leflen quantity for the fake of quality ; retaining, however,
ip idea, the fact that both are attainable, that it is very com-
mon to fee coarfe breeched fheep with light fleeces, and thofe
of a fine quality heavy in weight. The Spanifh fleeces,
which are finer than any other, are heavier than thofe of our
fineft woolled fheep. With combing wool the importance
of the fleece depends ftill more on price ; we have feen it at
8s. a tod: and it has lately been 36s. Quality is of very
little confequence indeed, compared with quantity ; and
when wool fells high, no prudent breeder will fet his flock
without being governed confiderably by this obje&t. And it
is added by the fame writer, that the high prices at which
new Leiceiter and new South Down rams let and fell, has
opened a field of {peculation in fheep-breeding. It is fufficient
to remark, that this fpirit of breeding, whether it hall
prove durable or not, whether much money fhall or fhall not
be made in it in future, is not what any prudent man begin-
ning bufinefs will adventure in, but with great caution :
men of fuch immenfe fortune are now taking a lead init, and
are in many refpeéts doing it on fuch hberal principles, that
the wifeft condué of fuch farmers as he may be fuppofed to
addrefs, is to take proper opportunities of converting their
experiments to their own (the farmer’s) profit. Leave the
expence to them; but, when you can, convert the profit to
your own advantage. In fetting a ftock of lambs, there-
fore, you may mark a {core of the beft, for a future ram to

be picked up when opportunity offers ; or, better ftill, to

fend to the tup of fome ram-letter that takes them in at a
reafonable price per head. By every year feleéting five or
fix per cent. and by every year covering that number by a
ram better than your own, the flock mutt be on the improving
hand; and this may be done at a very {mall expence. Alfo
at this period, befides filling up the deficiencies in the ewe-
ftock, the increafing or diminifhing the quantity of ftock
ufually kept, by referving a larger or {maller number than
that of the old fheep which are difpofed of, is alfo a point
that demands particular notice. Mr. Young has given the
following ufeful dire€tions on this fubje&, in his Calendar of
Hufbandry. f

On a farm, fays he, with a given {tationary fheep-walk,
it is probably regulated by circumftances that rarely change ;
but on inclofed farms, where the fheep are fupported by
fields alternately in grafs and tillage, variations may eafily
be fuppofed, and the queftion of hard or light ftocking,
that is of clofe feeding or a head of grafs, then comes in to
decide the number kept. If the produce or profit per head
is looked to, the condué to be purfued is evidently to ftock
lightly; but if the return is looked for in corn from fields

laid down for refrefhment by reft, then clofe feeding is a
very material point, and the number kept will depend on
it. With all grafles, &c. that donot decline from age, the
more fheep you keep the more you may keep, and the more
corn you will reap when fuch are ploughed ; a circumftance
too important to be forgotten. But the young farmer will
remember, that upon this fyftem he muft not have a fbow
flock, or let the variety of a farm have the leaft influence
with him: if in this way he will have a fomething to talk
of, a {core or two of pampered favourites, the fuser the
better, for they may coft him more than they are worth.

And as foon as this has been properly executed, the ewe
and wether lambs that are left are moftly fent to the neigh-
bouring lamb-fairs to be fold off. But where the fairs for
this purpofe happen later than the above period, as in the
beginning or latter end of September, as is the cafe in fome
fituations, it has been advifed by the writer firft mentioned,
that great care be taken to keep them in forcing food, as in
{pring tares, early fown rape, good grafs of the right de-
gree of bite, &c. &c. in order to promote their growth
and increafe their value; but to fell in Auguft is more
beneficial.

It cannot but be obvious, that in the management of
breeding flocks, the lambs come to be difpofed of at dif-
ferent periods ;, firft thofe that have been fuckled or fattened
in the houfe, in which fyftem of fattening, much attention
is required to have them early, to their being well, regu-
larly, and very cleanly kept and fuckled, as well as to the
ewes being of the right fort, and the beft milkers that can
be provided, and to their being fully fupplied with food of
the moft nourifhing and fucculent kinds. Their tails and —
udders fhould have the wool well clipped away from them ‘
in order that they may be preferved in a perfeétly clean
ftate. The lambs alfo require, efpecially towards the clofe
of their fattening, to have regular fupplies of barley,
wheat, and peas, meal ground together in combination
with fine green rouen hay, &c. See Lamp-Suckling.

And as foon as thefe have been fold off, the lambs which
have been fattened on the beft grafs-land will be ready to
fucceed them at the markets, in the {pring and fummer
months, and thefe will be followed by the fale of the ftore-
lambs at the different autumnal fairs.

Further, there are different local practices alfo adopted in
different counties, to fuit the particular methods in which
their fheep hufbandry is conducted, as well as the particular
objects of it. The following is given as a hint from fir Jo-
feph Banks, by the writer of the Lincolnfhire Agricultural
Survey, onthe fheep fyftem of that extenfive diftri@: that
as tups are there always hired by the breeders, the lambs
may be faid to be purchafed before they are born ; a year’s
credit, however, is given on this occafion, they are not paid
for till the a€tual value can be fairly eftimated ; if, therefore,
any one who has hired a tup at a confiderable price, finds
the lambs he has got not iufficiently above the ordinary
fort to pay him the difference, with intereft, he complains
to the tup-man, who generally views the lambs with him,
and makes a fair abatement, which is generally fettled in the
price of the hire of the next year’s tup ; this regulates the
price of letting, and makes the tup-men a moft ufeful fet of
people. The great mafs of breeders in Lincolnfhire fell
their heeder lambs about old Michaelmas time, or a little
after: a fucceffion of fairs for that purpofe are held in a
village called Partney. Thefe lambs are refold in the {pring
at Lincoln fair, under the name of hogs; at Midfummer
their owners clip, and then winter them; the fucceeding
{pring they are carried to Bofton, where, in a long fuc-
ceflion of markets, they are old to the graziers, with a

woo

SHEEP.

on, under the name of thearlings, and immediately
into the marth to fatten; the gragiers take their
fleeces, and having wintered them, get the kindlielt to
Smithfield in the courfe of the fucceedin fprings thofe
that de not fat fo eafily, yield the yrazier a fleece at Midsum-
mer, and are got off the ground in the courfe of the next
autumn. Here you fee a combined fyftem of theep agni-
culture, for as the animals are eternally either chan ng
hands or yielding fleeces, they make a return of fome kin
or other to their owners, new
to that of their

In the theep fyftem of management which is praétifed on
the large rich traéts of the Romney, Walland, and Deuge
in the county of Kent, there is alfo a local pecu-

liarity and difference which is worthy of notice. The ufual
— with the lambs in thefe m is that of fending
about the beginning of September to be kept by the

nei pland or hall farmers during the winter. They
in feparate lots, being received at certain appointed
Bone by the farmers, and driven tothe houfes, or taken to

half-yearly from the time of
nal diffolution at Smithfield.

. .

would probably be gained 7. having them
ae a

ieee tag

ambs

Se “i Br a lambs do not thrive well on being put to
: after having been fed on luxuriant food, fuch as
turnips, old tares, rye-grafs, &c.

the price of the keeping of lambs in thefe cafes is very
ifferent ; fome paying only 4s. 6d. the lamb, while others
pay 5s.; and where no neat ftock are kept, they charge as

igh as from 6s. to 6s. 6d. the head, for the {pace of about
x months. This is but a late advance ; however, it makes

th _ of keep a ferious objeét. The lofs of lambs in
js fyitem of winter t, is oceafionally confider-
e, but much on the nature of the feafon, as to
mildnefs or ity, amounting in fome cafes to four or
more in a hundred.

The or one-year old lambs, in this fy{tem are brought
hes eal where they have been <i too o
|a low {tate of condition, for the fupply of the marth gra-

which enables them to keep more ewes and fattening-
beep on the marfh lands. This is done about the be-
inning of April, when the upland farmers are indulged
ith a feaft or treat at the ex of the graziers, as
ecompenfe for their care and attention to the lambs,
ich liberality has a great effe&. As the flocks reach

marth, they are put the pooreft paftures, at the
five to the ae ed old ee ne juit fold to
for ‘Thefe are commonly the bett condi-

them.
in which there may fometimes be lofs from the
- 8

fudden tranfition from to too good keep, though they
are not, in general, fo fubjeét to fome forts of difeafe as the
old ones, on fuch changes being made in their food,

The marth theep-graziers have lately been much in the
practice of prevailing on the farmers to keep fuch flocks a
fortnight, or even double that time, on turnips, which has
the advantage of enabling them to double the flock on the
fare pattures during the fummer; while on the other hand,
it is evident, that when they are fo hard {tocked early in the
{pring, they can neither have fo luxuriant a growth, nor be
fo full of grafs. ‘he patturesare likewife eafed gradually,
as the fat ewes or wethers are taken off, and their places
fupplied by the wether-tegs, while the ewe-tegs are fuflered
to remain on their original pattures, until they are felected,
or fet for going to the rams,

In the ewe management of the marth fyftem, which is by
no means well van eer the ewe-tegs, one-lamb, two-lamb,
and three-lamb ewes, are all mixed toyether, fo that they
cannot be diftinguifhed by the grazier, as they are not
marked until turned off for fattening. A better and more
convenient way would, however, probably be to keep the
different kinds feparate as much as poflible, as many advan-
tages would refult from it. In winter the land is ftocked in
proportion of from two to three ewes on the acre, as it may
be of a more or lefs good quality, and in fummer with from
three to four and their lambs. In cafe of twin lambs, with
not ever more than three to the acre upon the belt paftures.
The fummer ftocking with ewes is here {uppofed to have too
much uniformity ia it, though it may perhaps be proper in
the winter, yet when that feafon is mild more might certainly
be kept than under the contrary circumftances, for which no
fort of allowance is made. It is conceived, that it would
be good policy, when there is the probability of pleaty of
keep, to increafe the number of ewes on the breeding paf-
tures, though there fhould be a neceflity, on that account,
to provide an additional pafture field ortwo; however, fo
prejudiced are many fheep-farmers in favour of the commen
practice, that they do not even make the neceflary additions
of itock to keep the grafs properly under, by which means
it is apt to become benty, the pafture injured, and con-
fiderable waite fuftained. The old fheep, or thofe which
have had the third lamb, are commonly caft off for fat-
tening, and the others marked for ftores, and weaned
from their lambs, by putting them into one of the patture
fields for fome days ; which not only improves the field, but
aes the ewes from receiving injury by the flow of milk.

his is a practice which in the marfh management is termed
bleating the ewes. Some rejeét this mode, and put the ewes
immediately on the fattening ground, from the convi¢tion
that more injury is hkely to enfue by keeping them in a
ftarved condition, for even a fhort time, than b throwing
them at once into frefh keep. Whichever of thefe is the
molt eligible practice is not attempted to be decided, but
the moft general one is that of bleating: aged fheep are not
fo liable to be ftruck with difeafe as young ones in fuch cafes,
or the feafon of the year fo favourable.

The fyftem of the marfh fer the management of the
wethers, and the time of drawing them for the market, is
this: the wether-tegs are in the general practice put upon
the fattening land for the winter about Michaelmas, in the
proportion of from two to three upon the acre, as may {uit
the defigns of the grazier. Thofe who intend to keep them
for a mare year, commonly put three on each acre of the
beit paftures for the winter ttock ; but thofe whofe intention
is to make afecond or third return, are fatisfied with two
on the fame extent ; in which cafe, however, it is néceflary
that they be put more early upon the land, in order that they

may

SHEEP.

may get properly fat before winter, and go off fufficiently
early, which would otherwife not be the cafe. The latter
method is thought unqueitionably to be the moft profitable ;
but thofe who have not a fufficient f{upply of f{ummer pafture,
conceive that it will pay them better to keep three to the
acre, in barely a thriving ftate, and fatten them in the fol-
lowing {pring and fummer. However, though they may
continue to increafe in fize, it is moft likely they will not
be of more value at Michaelmas than they were in the
{pring ; fo that there is a clear lofs of the whole fummer
keep : as mutton may often fell for 65. or 7s. the {tone in the
{pring, and not bring more than from 4s. to 5s. at that pe-
riod in the autumn. It has been long a queition, whether
other fheep or old barrens fatten the mott quickly, on which
it may be noticed, that any increafe in the food of full-grewn
fheep muft have a tendency to the formation of fat,
whereas in wethers or other young fheep, it mutt be partly
expended in the evolution and developement of their frames,
and, of courfe, lefs fat be produced. Much, however, will
depend upon the fize anddifpofition of the fheep.

There is great difference in the praGtice of different gra-
ziers, in regard to the time and manner of drawing the
fheep for the market, fome beginning much earlier than
others, though the fheep were all put into the fattening
paitures at the fame time. Some draw the wortt of the fheep
firft, conceiving that the prime fheep pay the beft for keep-
ing ; while others fend them to market as they get fat, by
which means, time is given for the advancement of the more
commonones. Which of thefe methods is the moft to be pre-
ferred, it is not at all attempted to determine ;. but the fend-
ing of inferior mutton to market, it may be remarked, is
only giving it away, while, on the contrary, the retaining of
fuch fheep as are deficient in difpofition to fatten, is a com-
plete lofs of the keep of them. Towards the end of the
fummer, keep, however, is of but little value, and, of
courfe, their remaining a little longer is not of any material
confequence. It is therefore thought, perhaps, the bett
not to part with them until the approach of autumn, when
inferior mutton often fells well in the vicinity of the marfh,
or to difpofe of them to lamb butchers at a fomewhat reduced
price. This inconvenience would, however, be much re-
moved by a better and more proper feleGtion of the fheep than
that which at prefentis the cafe.

In fending the fheep to market, care fhould be taken to
have them as nearly as poffible of the fame fize and condition,
as a few inferior ones are apt to lower the value with the
butchers. In this intention they are by fome divided into
two or three lots, while others fend them in one only; the
former, however, in general obtain the highelt prices. By
more attention to the regulation of fizeand keep, agreater
equality would be met with in the wether fheep on the fat-
tening paftures of the diftri& than that which at prefent
prevails.

In the fyftem of thefe marfhes, the ewes which are de-
figned for breeding ram-lambs from, are felected and drawn
before the riding time, as dire€tly upon the weaning feafon,
or a few weeks previous to giving them the ram ; there being
great differences in the forms and fizes which are thought the
beft calculated for this purpofe, in the notions of different
graziers ; fome preferring large, others middling fizes, while
many efteem mott, fuch as have long legs and bodies. There
is here, however, much too little principle in the manage-
ment of this bufinefs; Such ewe lambs as come from ram-
lamb ewes, fhould be fo marked as to diftinguifh them, and
be conftantly preferred for breeding ram-lambs from. The
ram-lamb ewes are mottly lambed’by themlelves, and have
fuperior keep. Thofe which do not {uit the intention

of the grazier are caftrated; while fuch as are to be faved
have a {mall part of the tip end of the fcrotum cut off,
and two marks fixed upon them, one on the fhoulder and
the other on the hip; being coniftantly indulged with the
beit fattening keep, as it is the common opinion that they
cannot be too large. They are fent to particular fituations
on the neighbouring hills during the winter feafon, where
they are tended with the utmoft care and cireumfpection,
having hay and turnips occafionally given them. On being
brought back to the marfhes in the fpring, they have the
run of the beft paftures, being ftocked fo lightly upon them,

as to be in every way difadvantageous to the grazing farmer. —

Another feleétion fometimes takes place from them during
the fummer, in which, thofe which do not fuit are either
fent to market, or nerted, while thofe which are approved
are employed in the enfuing riding time. Thefe young rams
fhould only have a few ewes, as thirty or forty; as more
greatly injures their growth, &c. They are ufually fold or
hired out, by which much money is often made.

It 1s the practice here to keep too many rams together in
the fame pafture, as much lofs is fometimes fuftained by it.
The ufual time of putting tlie rams to the ewes here is about
the middle of November, though fome prefer a month, and
others a week or a fortnight fooner, as their notions may be
in regard to the conveniencies of lambing and other matters.
A week or two before the riding time the ewes are prepared
by being put into the larger fields; only one ram being ad-
mitted in each, unlefs it be fo large as to ftand in need of
two, when with the old ram a young one is admitted. -'This
management prevents fighting and all inconveniencies of that
kind. The rams commonly remain with the ewes a month,

care being taken that they perform their bufinefs properly 3 ~

fome change the rams occafionally, as after the firft fort-
night, and at other times according to circumftances. Sixty
ewes are ufually allowed to an old ram, and thirty to a tee
ram in this marfh fyftem. See Srocxine Laad.

It may be obferved that there is fome difference in the
method of managing heath, down, and mountain flocks of
fheep, from thofe which are purfued on the inclofed paiture
lands, though in the fele&ting and providing the rams and
breeding flock, the fame praétices are followed by the beft
fheep-matters. The principal difference confifts in the man-
ner of keeping them, by putting them as early as poflible in the
{pring months, asin the beginning of April, upon the downs,
heaths, and commons, and keeping them upon them until
the approach of the autumn, as the beginning of Qétober 3
the fine foft {weet herbage in thefe cafes preferving them in
a ftate of tolerably good condition, And where it begins
to grow feanty and decline in goodnefs, other forts of feed
which have been previoufly provided are had recourfe to,
fuch as turnips, cole, &c. on which they are folded during
the autumn and winter till confumed, when hay which has
been ftacked for the purpofe im fuch fituations, is employed
until the grafs has again advanced toa proper bite, In
thefe cafes the fyftem of folding is generally recurred ta
during the whole year, in the fummer and autumn chiefly
on the ground in a ftate of preparation for the wheat crops,
but in the winter feafon often on the ttubbles, though more
extenfively upon the downs and paftures ; while in the {pring
feafon the lands under preparation for the barley crops rew
ceive them. This fy{ftem is confidered as very beneficial by
the farmers in thofe diltriéts where it is inufe. Andin the
more hilly and elevated fituations in the northern parts of the
kingdom, other methods of management with this fort of
ftock are employed, In Argylefhire the principal circum
itances attended to by the moit intelligent fheep-farmers are
thefe; to ftock lightly, which will mend the fize of the fheepe

wit

|

with the aoe and quality of the wool; and alfo render
bjedd to didales.. In all thefe refpects, it is al-

Howed by good judges, that 500 kept well, will return more
rvs Lave indifiersatly. ToJfeleet the bett lambs,

and breeding ewes, and to cut and {pay the wort, To get
a of rams frequently, and of breeding ewes occafion-
‘To put the bett taps to the beit ewes, which is con-

as ueceffary for bringing any breed to perfection.
Novto tuptheir year-old ewes; which, in bad feafons efpe-
cially, would render the lambs produced by them of litle
value, as the ewes would not have a fufficiency of milk;
and would alfo tend to leilen the fize of the flock. To
above three, or at molt four years old, nor any
above five or fix. ‘To feparate the rams from
Oober, for a month or fe weeks, to prevent
coming too carly in fpring. ‘To feparate the
the rsth and 25th of June; to have good
prepared for ; and, if they can, to keep them
¢, and on good grafs, all winter ; that they may be
attended to, and have the better chance of avoiding

not their lambs or hogs, but alfo their wedders,
&c. in te hirfels ; by which every fhepherd, hav-
can attend to it better than if all were

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into
In winter they are kept only in two hirfels.
the hogs, in the other the "ewes and yield

HE

the end of June to the end of pe esmomer to the weather

however, are kept longer than five years,
sais ebteekrgeniitien 5 st shcy:@e
In Eaft Lothian, fheep are in

E t, may be faid to be almoft
, Inthe

SHEEP.

extent keep two flocks, wi. one of ewes, and another of
yield theep ; and this flock they fomctimes divide, and have
a flock of what is called dogs, that is, lambs of one year
old. The common praétice is to fold the ewes upon a
break of arable land, during the fummer: they cut the
lambs about the 26th of May, and they wean them in the
firft week of July, and then they fhear the whole flock.
The lambs, after weaning, are fent to a healthy paiture,
called the dirn, which has been kept for. them, where they
remain till the end of Augult; when they are moved down
to the beit low patture, called the bog-fence, which has been
faved from the weaning ; and here they remain during the
winter, The ewes are milked for about eight weeks after
the weaning, and fometimes longer, and then are put out
with the lambs into the Aog-fence, for the winter. All the
fheep are {meared, that 1s Jalved, immediately after the
harvelt, at the rate of two pounds, tron weight, of butter,
to a Scotch pint of tar, which falves from fix to eight theep,
at the expence of about five-pence each. ‘The wool fells at
from five fhillings to eight thillings fer flone, tron weight ;
and ufually takes from fix to eight fleeces to a ftone: fo,
deduéting the expence of falving, the net proportion upon
the wool may amount to from eight-pence to ten-pence per
head, fometimes a little more or lefs, varying according to
the price of wool. Upon dry heathy grounds, the ewes
are drafted, and fold to graziers, in the month of March;
but upon wet grounds, which are dangerous, and fubjeét
to the diftemper called the rot, they are drafted and fold
in Oétober. Few itore-mafters (tenants) in Lammer-muir
breed as many fheep as keep up their ftock; fo they have
to buy yearly a parcel of hogs, which are moitly wed-
ders. Linton, in Tweeddale, is the great market for
thefe wedder hogs. hele wedders they keep for two
years, and fell them to the feeders. Some of the moft judi-
cious itore-matters have totally given up the practice of
milking the ewes, after weaning; and others milk for a

. fhorter {pace than formerly ; and they now allow the lambs

to fuck longer, which confiderably increafes their bone, and
is thought not fo pernicious to the ewes as the milking.
This practice, however, itill prevails in Wales; the cheefe
made from ewe-milk being highly efteemed, fuch milk beiag
faid to be four times as rich as that of cows. The fheep
are ftated to give a quart of milk per day each, and being
milked three months, the return is ftated at ten fhillings

per ewe.
It is alfo further ftated by the writer of the above Re-

port, that the method ef managing the arable land in that
diftri& has been changed much for the better, within thefe
few years. When in grafs, it is folded; and when taken
up, it gives three crops; and is then fallowed, and fown out,
the firft crop with grafs-feeds ; and they generally follow
the fame practice writ the new grounds taken in by fallow
and lime, which has now become a general pra¢tice through
Lammer-muir ; and lime, when applied to dry ground, is
certain of making a lafting improvement upon the grafs,
which is, and always ought to be, the great object upon
ftore-farms. However, fince this account was given, much
improvement has been made in this fort of hufbandry, which
is now carried on in a very fyitematic manner, it is faid.

It is worthy of notice, that the praétice of /mearing or
falving is now, even in thefe fituations, much oa the de-
cline ; and in the more fouthern parts of the ifland, not at
all See Sarvine of Sheep.

In the theep diftriéts, in the more elevated and expofed
northern parts of the ifland, a ftill inferior practice 1s had
recourfe to; the theep being mottly left to provide for
themfelves, even in the moft fevere and inclemen shane

SHEEP.

when the bleak traéts on which they live are deeply covered
with f{now. According to the writer of the Perthfhire
Agricultural Report, in thefe cafes the fheep have their
chief dependence for fubfiftence on their own habits, which
lead them to remove the {now by their feet with great faci-
lity, till they reach the heath or withered herbage. But
when the fnow is falling, or blown by a ftorm, the fhep-
herds drive their focks, without irtermiffion, round the top
of a hill ina circle, in order to keep them from lowering,
and being drifted up or {mothered. It has been the prac-
tice, in fome diftricts, to ere&t a fort of circular folds on
the tops of low hills, for the fame purpofe; and when the
heath is all covered, they fometimes rake or harrow the

fnow, in erder to bring up the heath, with a fort of long- -

toothed rake or {mall harrow. With fome fheep-farmers it
is the mode to have recourfe to feeding with hay, or un-
threfhed oats, which is depofited in handfuls upon the fnow.
Mr. Marfhall has fuggefted, that cultivating plots of furze,
broom, juniper, &c. by fod-burning, and rippling the fur-
face, or by other more eligible means, could not fail of
proving beneficial upon the wintering grounds of a fheep-
farm. By means of thefe, as a refource in the deepeit
fnow, when the herbage of the draes was buried too deep
and too evenly to be uncovered by the {craping of the fheep,
by keeping the molt expofed part of the draes in full
herbage for lefs general coverings of {now, and by referve
of rape for the feafon of lambing, even ewe-flocks might
be fupported through the winter with fome degree of eer-
tainty, without dry fodder, and without being left to the
uncertainty of the feafons, and the mercy of the winds and
weather, as they are at prefent.

The praétice of Air/elling, where no more lambs are kept
than what is neceflary for drawing the ftock, is now much
objefted to by fome, though it may be beneficial in rearing
wether hogs ; as they are found not only to do much better,
when at large with the ewes, but there is much lefs deftruc-
tion of grafs by trampling, and the paftures are.fed down
more properly, and with lefs injury to, and lofs of, the fheep.
Befides, the fheep thrive better, and are kept in far better
condition, while much lefs herding is required, by which
there is a confiderable faving of expence.

There are feveral different modes of rearing the lamb
hogs in thefe fituations; as by laying them, when lambs,
upon a certain part of the ground, and keeping them fepa-
rate from the old fheep, through the whole winter and
{pring, until they are clipped; and then blending them
again with the old fheep, putting more lambs upon the fame

* ground, &c.; by allowing the hog lambs, when gimmers,
to remain upon the fame land on which they were bred, and
breeding the hogs on a different part of it, and continuing
them on that alfo until they are gimmers or dinmonts, and
then introducing them. among the old fheep, the lambs
being every year laid on the land where fuch gimmers or
dinmonts had been the previous year; by keeping the hogs
and dinmonts or gimmers together, and putting the gim-
mers or dinmonts only among the old fheep, and the lambs
among the hogs, in the fame place, &c.; and by breedin
the hogs among the old fheep. The three laft of thefe
modes of management are fuppofed the moft ufeful, but
the lait the motit powerful in preventing difeafe; though
the firft and fecond probably afford the molt equal ftock of
this defcription, in fuch expofed fituations.

Profits of Sheep-Management.—It is evident that there is
a variety of circum{tances in the practice of fheep hufbandry,
that mutt affe&t any ftatement that can be made, in refpe&
to the profit that may be derived from it: the nature of the
fyftem of management purfued, and that of the breed of

fheep employed, muit operate fo much in this way, as to
leave the profits of no two fheep-farmers fcarcely the fame.
But our limits will not allow us to introduce any particular
ftatements on the fubject.

In all forts of fheep-grazing management, it fhould be
the conftant aim of this kind of farmer to have his pafture
or other land fo ftocked and provided, as to derive the
greatelt poffible profit from it ; as where this is not the cafe,
he not only injures himfelf, but the whole community.
Where fyltems and praétices of this nature are followed,
which are not fufficiently profitable, they fhould be given
up, and changed for fuck as are more fully beneficial. The
fame plan cannot, however, be always equally productive
of advantage, as the fluctuation in the value of ftock in dif-
ferent places, and from the eafe or difficulty of providing
it, at different times, as well as the nature of the feafon,
mutt be the caufes of much diverfity in it, which are in-
variably to be well attended to by the fheep-grazier, and.
turned as much as poflible to his own account. See
GrazinG, and Stockxine Land.

The practices and profits of different fheep-grazing
farmers are often very different in the fame fituations, as
fcarcely any two farms of this kind are conduéted exa&ly
in the fame manner for the whole of the fame year, or pro-
bably the fame farms for two fucceeding years together ; as
farmers of this fort muft be direéted and regulated in their
management by times, circumftances, and feafons, fo as to
have their lands ftocked according to the growth, or the
probability of the growth, of grafs on them; taking care
to have them always provided during the early fummer
months. Peculiar local circumftances, and the difference in
the condu@& and management of individuals, as well as ca-
pita’, may alfo have great influence on the profit. On thefe
grounds, the ordinary profit may amount, in favourable
cafes, to one pound the acre, and from that to two or three,
as they are lefs or more favourable. The difference of prac-
tice which is had recourfe to, as it relates to the forts of
fheep-ftock, may likewife further increafe it.

The employing fheep-ftock wholly is probably the moft
profitable plan of all others, where fueh ftock can be readily
and reafonably procured, at all times, in the lean ftate; but
which is not always the cafe. And where the grazing
farmer, as in the Romney-Marfh practice, can either fend
them readily to the uplands for the winter, or feed them on
turnips, and have their lambs well kept, and fend out a
fufficient number, as well of them as of the tegs or two-
years old fheep, or render thefe laft fat, as is fometimes the
cafe, a greater profit, it is faid, will be produced than in
other ways. The value of the wool is likewife to be taken
into confideration in this fort of ftock, as it tends to
profit.

The profits of the breeding fyftem, in the above marfh,
with fheep, depends much upon the qualities and properties of
the lands for the purpofe, as fome will carry and keep a far
greater number of them than others; as two to the acre,
two and a half, and three on the fame extent of ground.
It is unqueftionable, that by lightly {tocking fuch lands in the
winter feafon, the growth of the fummer grafs would be
greatly benefited; but 100 acres-of fuch breeding pafture
land, which keep only 200 fheep, producing 220 lambs,
will not pay fo well, it is thought, as if 300 ewes were
kept, producing 340 lambs. ‘Two returns, therefore, are
not capable of being made in the breeding {yftem, as
many ewes are, of courfe, under the neceflity of being kept
in the winter time as fuch lands will fupport. It is, how-
ever, fuggefted, that by the ufe of hay and artificial food,
much increafe of profit might not only be produced, pies

uc

,

fuch paftures be improved ; which thould be the conftant
aim of the theep-grazing farmer, whenever the expences will
allow of it. Further, the expences of labour and keepin
fch patture-lands in proper order, lofles of flock, &e. mull
take greatly away from the profits of this kind of aay
Te is, on the whole, thought, that ee the profits of
breeding fyitem may fluctuate confiderably, it will not be fo
as in fome other modes of theep-grazing. The breed-
ba may, it is faid, * have a large or a {mall
crop of lambs; he may lofe a great many, or only a few
may be an inereafe or decreafe in the value of
the lambs, old theep, or wool; there may be a prolific or
feanty crop, an increafe or decreafe of rent; which circum-
frances cannot fail to alter the profits of a breeding grazier.”’
that lately, for many years, the great demand for lean
fheep and wool has contributed greatly to the profits of
farmers of this kind. The profits and advantages of the
_ fattening fyitem of theep mana t, which is more vary-
ing, ai teieciteds particularly confidered, and in fome
-meafure compared with the breeding practice.
cae oer nat ely ue of lean fheep, for the
the breeding fheep-farmer, and as they ma
, Selden andbenah emai ot skis (ye ition, mu
have a further effet on t of this fyitem of manage-
ment, as often amounting to not lefs than ae three or four
gtk Seep ae In the bufinefs of f
, i — 3 of fat-
theep, there are many circumttances that fhould
attended to, as well as that of managing the
other flocks. The kind of fheep that are moft
reous under the different forts of keep, fituations
d kind land, muft be well confidered : the differences
the forts of in regard to the improvement of the
rep ; and the moit beneficial methods of employing it in dif-
ent cafes ; and laitly, the markets. And as the fheep under
ais treatment fhould never be fuffered to have any fort of want
freth food, they fhould never be too long upon any
ofure or iece, or any other fort of keep, fo as to
to upon the fullied or trampled food, as
retards the fattening of the animals, or what
which is conitantly the mott promoted by
the prime freth food.

i t forts of food made ufe of in this
nefs, fuch as the different forts of turnips, which are very
tenfively applied in this fyitem, and fome ufe them alone ;
ut it is a better practice to give fome fort of dry
d with them, efpecially where the common turnip is em-

d, as it is more watery and lefs nutrient than that of
Swedifh kind. Cut hay, chaff, bran, corn, oil-cake,
all anfwer well in _ intention pyar firit two or three
fort fhould have a upply ; but the latter,

Gees ri pac lin ientioaiy given ; feveral
pounds of oats will however be required for each theep per
rae Setar ome = i is ftated in the

i urvey, publithed, that captain
eacher having 700 fatting fheep, and turnips runnin
put 200 of them to oats (not ground) ; he San
‘the practice would not anfwer if oats were more than

coomb, and then not for longer than fix weeks : they
fed on a paiture, and the improvement of it very great.

‘thinks grey peafe or beans would have anfwered much

With oil-cake, fome give half a cake a day to each theep,
the quantity mult depend in fome meafure upon the other
seep which they have. All food of this fort fhould be
in troughs, divided in the middle, fo that
tep may feed on each fide, with » floping roof over
Vor. XXXII. _ -

¢

SHEEP.

them, fo as to cover the fheep’s beads and necks while feeding,
as wet is not only prejudicial to the theep, but f{poils t
cake. A rack for 3 » fixed over the trough, might pro-
bably be made to anfwer in this intention, while it would
be very convement for holding that material, and prevent-
ing waite. ‘The whole thould be fixed on wheels, and be
made to ftand fleady, and a fufficient number fer the quas-
tity of theep be always in readinefs.

Steamed or baked potatoes, cheap convenient contrivances
for the preparation of which have been lately invented, have
been fuppofed by fome to be preferable to = as a food
inthis intention, And they have been employed raw in the
proportion of cight or ten pounds per theep in the courfe of
the day or night ; but they are certainly a much better food
in their prepared ftate. The quantity of common turmps
confumed by each fheep in the fame length of time, is
ufually about eighteen or twenty pounds. Where this laft
fort of crop is good, an acre is f{uppofed to fupport about
five {core fheep in the field, fix or feven weeks in the winter
feafon: an acre of good grafs {upporting at the rate of one
hundred couples from five days to a week.

In the fattening of wedders, the ufe of barley meal, with
ate fome other fort of green food, has kewile been found

ighly beneficial, and when it can be procured at a reafonable
rate, fhould not be neglected, as it is quick in rendering them
fat, and the mutton is excellent.

Different other articles are occafionally made ufe of as the
fattening food of theep, fuch as peas and beans,or pea and bean
meal in the winter feafon, and fome fubitances of other kinds.
It is not known that any fort of pure faccharine matter has
ever yet been tried in this intention in fheep, but it is pro-
bable that it could not fail having the effeét in a very expe-
ditious manner, if the expence of it would allow of its ap-

lication in fuch a way ; and it might be conveniently given,
in {mall quantities at a time, in mixture with chaff, cut hay,
bran, or any other fimilar fort of material, in covered
troughs or bins for the purpofe, fuitable other forts of food
being had recourfe to at the fame time.

On the moit ufual fort of food for this ufe, that of tur-
nips, fheep are very apt to go backward, unlefs fattened out
before the winter feafon fets in. Indeed the lofs from keep-
ing fat theep through the winter is often fo confiderable, that
it 1s advifeable to have them ready to fell at the clofe of fum-
mer, to prevent the winter keep from being thrown away.
The moit beneficial application of this fort of food in fat-
tening fheep, has, however, probably not yet been fully
fhewn, as fome kinds of theep are faid to pay well in winter
fattening.

In fattening fheep in yards with potatoes, fome take
them in towards the latter end of the year, and keep them
until they are ready for fale about the beginning of March.
They have the potatoes fliced, and put into covered fheep-
troughs, a gallon being fufficient for a fheep in the day.
They mottly prove well on this fort of food, fo that if a
fair trial be made, the potatoe {yitem will probably be found
the moft expeditious of any in fattening thefe animals.
When compared with different forts of grain, oil-cake, &c.
by means of accurate trials with fheep in any way the
fame, it has been proved to be the moft ready in effecting the
bufinefs. A little hay is moftly given with the potatoes,
ale 4 and evening. A vait ok of excellent manure is
likewife raifed by this practice, where due care is beltowed
in the preparation of the yard. Many other fubitances tned
in the fame way, may poflibly be equally beneficial in this
intention, though they have not yet been made ufe of by

In regard to the profits of the fattening practice of theep
gL management

SHEEP.

management on the more rich lands of the marfh kind, they
muft vary much according to the nature of the methods
which are purfued by different fheep-grazing and fattening
farmers, as fome will make their land carry nearly one-third
more ftock than others, though the quality of it may be
the fame, while fuch {tock will do equally well, if not bet-
ter. Such commonly make the largeft profits as have con-
{tantly the belt fupply of additional theep-ftock to fucceed
fuch as are taken away, and who regard the number more
than the quality of them. The fattening pra¢tice may like-
wife be carried further than 1s proper and beneficial, by which
the profits of the individuals will be leffened, and a lofs fuf-
tained by the nation at large. The nature of the breeds of
this fort of ftock will have fome influence, as they make a
more or lefs quick return, and as they may come to amore
cheap or dear market, The be{t way in general, is to fell
the fat ftock of this fort when ready, without waiting, but
which is not always the cafe. Where more returns than one
are made in the year, there-is commonly the moft profit made
to the fheep-farmer ;. and the practical management which is
had recourfe to in fuch cafes, will have a great effeé& on the
profits, as different rich fheep-fattening diftrifts have many
different pra€tices, which are more or lefs profitable, as that
of ttocking the land with fheep, at the rate of three to the
acre, from the beginning of one autumn to that of another,
and having recourfe to mixed ftock of other forts during
the fummer for producing the profits: that of ftocking
with barren ewes which have had lambs, at the fame time,
but only at the rate of two to the acre, fo that the keep
may render them in a great meafure fat by the beginning of
the new year, and they may be fold off in March or the fol-
lowing month, in their wool, fo as that the advance in their
price may more than compenfate for having it, by keeping
them on until May. And after thefe are gone, by again
ftocking the fame land with fheep brought in from the mar-
kets, fairs, hills, or neighbouring high grounds, or the two-
years old wethers that have been kept out, or, which is per-
haps the beft ftock in thefe cafes, with fuch tegs as have been
well kept through the winter, and which are equal in weight
with ftarved or ftunted two-yearlings. This is a moft proe-
fitable fheep-fattening fy{tem, where it can be carried into
practice, that of putting, what are denominated made bar-
rens, or fuch ewes as have mifled going to lamb, upon the
fattening land; but as thefe will not form the neceflary
fupply of itock, other fheep or mixed ftock mutt be
provided to produce fufficient profit. It is never a good
practice to turn poor lean fheep direétly upon the rich fat-
tening lands, but to keep them fome time on the inferior
paftures, as they are in danger of becoming difeafed by the
former method. But half-fat fheep may be put immediately
upon them without danger, and be fed out, often in the
courfe of two months or lefs, by which the fheep-grazing
farmer is enabled to have another return, which may con-
tribute greatly to his profits.

In the fheep-fattening fyitem, it is often of advantage to
have a portion of land, of a {uperior rich quality, for the
purpofe of finifhing them out upon ; as by fuch means not
only nore fheep can be fed out and returned, thanif the re-
gular quantity of {tock was kept upon the different fields,
but the lefs rich paftures be ftocked in a more clofe manner,
and as the more quick feeding fheep advance, be taken into
the rich finifhing portion.

There are feveral other circumftances which have much ef-
fe& in this fyftem of fheep management ; but the profits
will materially depend on the proportion, the richnefs, and
the quality of the farmer’s fattening to his other lands, on
the judgment which he poflefles inthe buying in lean ftock,

the nature of the feafon, the ftate of the markets, the
lofles fuftained, the expences of the management, &c. as
already feen.

Though the fize of fheep is by no means a point. of much
confequence in the breeding practice, it fhould not on any
account be overlooked in that of fattening.

The average profit of middling-fized fat rich pafture
fheep may be ftated to be from about one pound to one
pound four or five, or even ten shillings, or even more in
fome cafes.

Folding-Management of Sheep.—In the management of
fheep there is a practice made ufe of in fome diftri€ts, which
remains to be noticed ; and whichis that of folding. It was
formerly thought to be indifpenfably neceflary to the fuccefs
of the farmer in different diftriéts ; but of late a different
opinion has prevailed, except in particular cafes, and it is
confidered as merely enriching one field at the expence of
another. The pra¢tice may, however, be beneficial where
there are downs, heaths, or commons. The ideas of farmers
are not, however, uniform on this fubje&t, as will be
fhewn by the following details from the Norfolk or Hert-
fordfhire Reports on the agriculture of thefe diftri€ts. In
the former it is remarked, that near Brandon there is a prac-
tice, introduced about ten years ago, faid to be from Kent,
whichis, to fold their flocks for five or fix hours in the mid-
dle of the day in hot weather. And that, in laying out
the inclofures of the farm at Waterden, from fifteen to fifty
acres each, much attention was paid in the arrangement to
have every field of the farm to open into a lane, that leads
through the whole, fo that by dividing the flock for ftock-
ing, according to varying circumftances, Mr. Hill can keep
at leaft one-fourth more than when all the breeding ewes and
lambs were in one flock, and the food dirtied by driving to
fold: by this means there is not a bent on the farm, the
flocking being equal. He is not, however, entirely with-
out a fold: when the lambs are weaned (ufually about old
Midfummer) the ewes are folded for about two months,
principally to prevent their breaking pafture, when the
lambs are taken from them: and while thus folded, he finds
that it takes one-half more land to feed them than if they
were left allotted, as through the reft of the year. That
folding leffens the value of the lambs he has not a doubt, and
that confiderably ; they do not bring fo high a price as
others not folded. This is not opinion, but fa&. The
ewes are alfo in doubly better condition, from lying {till and
quiet. That the seath will, in certain cafes, be unequally
given, he does not deny ; but it is not difficult to remedy
this by the dung-cart ; to fold a lot in its own lay, is alfo a
remedy, and is the only fort of folding he can approve. In
regard to the effec on wool, he is clearly of opinion that
folding does not render it finer, it makes the fleece lighter,
but never finer. And folding is generally given up by all —
who have South Downs ; not becaufe they will not bear it,
for they bear it better than any fheep in the ifland ; but be-
caufe the itock is fo valuable that it is worth the farmer’s
attention to contrive, by every means, to keep as many ~
as poflible. And it is added, that one circumftance, though —
a {mall one, deferves mentioning, for the ufe of thofe who ~
form feparating fheep-pens: which is, that Mr. Hill has —
fliding-gates from one to the other; the writer remarked
that when a pen is full of fheep, the gates cannot be opened
with convenience ; but by their fliding in the fence, this is
avoided in a very eafy manner.

Further, Mr. England, of Binham, does not fold. When
not folded, he thinks, fheep do with lefs food ; and as to the
common objeétion, of their drawing under hedges for fhelter,
in ftorms, &c. fo much the better; it is what they ought

9 not

to be prevented from doing. The tathe is much more
loft ia mutton. Aad Mr, Reeve, of Wighton, never
: folding from layers, upon fallow, is only robbing one
to enrich another. He is clear in this point ; rs. alfo
the fact, that if theep (whatever the Geoslh are driven by
weather to a hedge, there is the proper place for them,
not by penning left to abide the beating of the ftorm.
. H. Blythe, of m, fometimes folds, but never from
but folely by reafon of the opennefs of his farm ;
does he approve the practice. And he explained a point
his manuring for wheat, which, the writer fays, comes
to the queition: he never fows tempered land with
» without either oil-cake, or muck, except on pieces
which the were not folded while feeding the
And Mr. Durfgate remarks, that folded theep
i ome pe food pan thofe which re not folded ;
quarter of a ton of rape-cake is equal to the fold ; and the
a » without any doubt, fuffers more than that value by
ing. In thort, folding is to gain one fhilling in manure,
the lofs of two in fiefh, Some, however, fold with a
But Mr. Beck, of Rifing, does not fold; and
very certain that if he did fold, he could not keep an
thing like the number of his prefent flock. It is added,
hat as the writer rode acrofs a layer of forty or fifty acres,
‘on Mr. Overman’s farm, he obferved a great difference in
’ ure, to a line acrofs it, the ap of one fide of
line rnp, be much fuperior to other; and on his
remarking it, he was informed, that it was an accidental ex-
iment, which was well worth attention: there was no
ther difference in the management, to make one part of that
ye than another, except the theep that fed it being
it folded on another arable field during the
ut from the other part they were not folded at
in the layer night and day. The difference was
= and might yoga difcerned hits mile
is experiment made armer give u ding,
his flock was in a falt-marfh oad Me. Tuttle,
he would never fold at all had he no
: Mr. Etheridge, of Stanhow, fold.
faéts fhould, the writer fays, be combined with an-
that of heaths and fheep-walks that have been fed
it thcp for centuries ; but thofe fheep conftantly folded on
! are fo far from improving them, that they are to
appearance eT oe at any former
It is further ft that Mr. Styleman, at Snet-
n, turned his flock loofe, and without folding, in twenty
es of ollond every night, for the fame period that would
ve folded it in the common manner. The fheep did much
better than weuld have done had they been folded ; the
ce of the materially improved during the period,
d upon ploughing it up for wheat the crop was equal to
it would have been with folding, and fhewed by a
verdure, that they had diftributed the manure equally
every part. He conceives that lambs fell 3s. a-hezd lower
mm account of folding, than they would do without it ; but
his is only his opinion. He thinks alfo that the ewe is much

‘Bu Mr. Pitts, of Thorpe Abbots, finds that no muckin \
b his burning gravels, will do fo much good as the fold,
nc on a white clover and trefoil layer for bar-
im the clay diftri& of the county of Hertford,

Byde remarks that fheep have been too much leffened.
the common. manures, he confiders the fold as the
obferved in many farms the general appear-
2 eee as the number of the ag Ci
: at the Hadhams, every man f the
which he keeps; a little farmer wil] even fet four

an

SHEEP.

hurdles, if he has not theep for more. But that good as the
manure of the fold is, Mr. Chapman has found by trial in
the fame field, for turaips, that yard-dung was much better
than both fold and malt-duft together. However, Mr. Ro-
berts, of King’s Walden, thinks nothing is equal to the
fold; he never reckoned it worth lefs than 40s. fer sere,
corn being cheap ; but of late much more; he folds two
poles of ground with twenty fheep, And Mr. Sedgwick,
of Rickmanfworth, is clearly in favour of folding on all farms.
See Founinaof Sheep.

It has been obferved by Mr. Ellman, in the Annals of
Agriculture, that juft twenty South Down theep (if a large
fort, a lefs number will do) will fold one rood per night : three
thoufand two hundred will fold one Englith acre per night.
We value the manure at from 35s. to sor. peracre, the eee
of which depends much on the manner in which the theep are
kept; if kept on artificial food, fuch as tares, rape, clover,
turnips, &c. they will drop more foil than if fed on grafs only.
Suppofe we elftimate the folding at 40s. per acre, it will
amount fer year to 4s. 63d. per theep; 22/. 16s. 3d. per
hundred ; or 223/. 2s. 6d. per thoufand, {uppofing the thee
folded throughout the year. If it be a breeding flock, it
might be te to omit folding for five or fix weeks imme-
diately after lambing, as the young lambs might fuffer from
being trampled upon, and from driving to and from fold,
would often lofe their dams, and fuffer in that way more
than if they remained quiet. There is, however, another
method of folding, by which all the advantages may be
attained during winter on all foils, without the inconveni-
ences of the former plan. This is ftated to be by confining
them at night in a fheep-yard, well and regularly littered
with ftraw, ftubble, or fern ; by which means you keep your
flock warm and healthy in bad feafons, and, at the fame time,
obtain a furprifing quantity of dung, fo great a quantity, if

ou have plenty of litter, that the profit will be better than
‘olding on the land. A t improvement in this method
would be giving the theep all their food (except their paf-
ture) in fuch yard, viz. hay and turnips, for which purpofe
they may be brought up, not only at night but alfo at noon,
to be baited; but if their pafture be at a diftance, they fhould
then, inftead of baiting at noon, come to the yard earlier in
the evening, and go out later in the morning. This is a
practice which cannot be too much recommended ; for fo
warm a lodging is a great matter to young lambs, and will
tend much to eli their growth ; the fheep will alfo be
kept in good health, and, what is a point of confequence to
all farms, the quantity of dung railed will be very great.
If this method is purfued through the months of December,
January, February, March, and April, with plenty of litter,
a hundred fheep will make a dunghull of, at leaft, fixty loads
of excellent fluff, which will a manure two acres of land,
whereas one hundred fheep folded (fuppofing the grafs dry
enough) will not in that time equally manure one acre.

And in Norfolk, Mr. Bevan finds a yard well fenced in
for ftanding fold for littering and for folding in bad wea-

ther convenient ; and is fully convinced of the at ad-
vantage of it. He intends in future to have his flock in it
for yeaning, whether the feafon be or bad. And in

Hertfordfhire, the earl of Clarendon bas a fold which con-
tains good room for three hundred fheep, the number kept
in it: an open fhed furrounds it, except on one fide, where
a barn is fence ; the outfide of fhed is formed of
wattled hurdle-work, without ftraw or other materials, for
coolnefs, left a greater clofenefs fhould make the yard too
hot : it is all kept well littered with itubble, and yields, from
three hundred fheep, eighty large cart-loads of manure.
This fem agree pevfesly well with the cep and eps

3L2 m

SHEEP.

them more healthy than when they were left in the fields in
the common manner... His lordfhip has another yard for
lambing, which has alfo a fhed. Thefe forts of yards, from
their beneficial tendency in different views, fhould be more
generally made ufe of by fheep-farmers in all fituations. See
SHEEP-foufe.

This practice is had recourfe to on arable land for raifing
different forts of crops of the corn and green kind, as well
as on fPrafs-lands. It is fuppofed by fome, that a flock of
about tive hundred fheep will be fufficient to pen twenty-
eight fquare perches of land each night, which will amount
to about fifty acres in the year, where the practice is dif-
continued two months in the courfe of that time. The value
of this is different in different diftri€ts, as from above thirty
to more than forty fhillings the acre, which for five hundred
fheep, would be from 87/. to 10o/. for fifty acres, which,
taking the average at 94/. for that amount of ftock, the an-
nual advantage of the fold may be fet at 3s. 9d. a-head, or
rather more ; taking it at 100/, it would be 4s. 24¢., or rather
more. This fhews the great utility of it in fome places.
All forts of fheep, except the fattening ones, and thofe dif-
pofed to that ftate, are moftly folded. It forms a fort of
moving dunghill, which enriches the land at but little ex-
pence, and which may probably be rendered further ufeful
by a greater divifion of the flocks. It is alfo beneficial in
preventing the wafte of food on grafs-lands, as well as in
confuming particular forts of crops. See SHEeEp-Fo/d.

Hurdling- Management of Sheep.—It may be noticed, that
the great utility of hurdling off different kinds of green
crops, in confuming them by fheep, has been long known
and practifed; and equal advantage may be derived in
many cafes, by having recourle to the fame method on rich
graf{s-lands in large inclofures, fo as to let the animals have
a frefh {pace or bite every day. The fheep are found to
thrive better, and the fame extent of land to fupport con-
fiderably more in number, while the land is at the fame
time much improved. And it is not improbable, but that
other forts of {tock may be managed in the fame way with
fimilar advantage. In thefe cafes the hurdles mutt be fet
according to the nature of the grafs; where it is bare and
thin, larger pieces fhould be folded, than in the contrary
circumitance. See Hurp ies.

Wafbing- Management of Sheep.—¥ rom the fleeces of fheep
becoming much loaded and filled with duft and dirt of various
kinds, in the hot fummer feafon, by way of preparation for
fhearing, it is neceffary to have recourfe to the operation of
wafbing. It was formerly the method of performing this
bufinefs to have the wafhers ftanding up to the breaft in the
water ; but from the inconvenience and danger of it, the
men requiring a large fupply of {pirituous liquors, and being
liable to be attacked with colds, rheumatifms, and other dif-
eafes, as well as being apt to difpatch the work with too
much expedition, fo asto leave the wool infufficiently clean ;
it has been propofed by Mr. Young, in his Calendar, to rail
off a portion of the water (in a ftream or pond) for the fheep
to walk into by a flope mouth at one end, with a depth
fufficient at one part for them to {wim; and to pave the
whole: the breadth need not be more than fix or feven feet ;
at one fpot to let in on each fide of this paflage, where the
depth is juft fufficient for the water to flow over the fheep’s
back, a cafk either fixed or leaded, for a man to ftand in dry ;
the fheep being in the water between them, they are wathed in
perfection, and pufhing them on, they {wim through the deep
part, and walk out at the other mouth, where a clean pen,
or a very clean dry pafture, is to receive them ; of courfe
there is a bridge rail-way to the tubs, and a pen at the firft
mouth of the water, whence the fheep are turned into it,

where they may be foaking a few minutes before being driven
to the wafhers. But other more cheap contrivances may be
provided where there is clean water at hand for the pur-
pofes. And fheep fhould on no account be driven on dry
or dufty roads after this operation.

But in all cafes before this work commences, the lambs
fhould be feparated from the ewes and other fheep, and each
be put in feparate pens. With thefe it is feldom neceflary
to do much more than juft {will them through the water,
without their being touched by the wafhers. As foon as
they have been wafhed, the fheep fhould have a clean hard
patture for a few days, until they are perfectly dry, and in a
proper condition to be fhorn. The lambs are generally
fhorn, efpecially in the northern diltri€ts, a few weeks after
the old fheep, and the operation is termed /berling. The
lambs that are fold in Smithfield market are, we believe,
feldom or ever fhorn. See SuHEEP-Shearing, and Suer-
LING of Lambs.

The praétice of wafhing the fheep before they are fhorn is
a cuftom that prevails over moft part of the kingdom, efpe-
cially with the long-woolled breeds, and pretty generally
with thofe of the fhort-woolled kinds alfo, but which is
performed with more difficulty in them from the clofe-
matted nature of the fleece. It is faid, however, to have
been the cuftom in Devonfhire, for a great length of time,
never to wath the fhort-woolled fheep, but to fhear them dry,
as is conftantly the cafe in Spain.

The praétice of wafhing the fheep before fhearing now,
however, begins to prevail in fome parts of it, according to the

writer of the Agricultural Report of the county. This has

at length been enforced, it is fuppofed, by the difference in
the price which the weol-buyers make between wool in the
yolk and wafhed wool, which is no lefs than 50 fer cent. even
in the Dorfet fort of wool; and though it is not fo much, it
is greatly more than proportionate in the coarfer fleeces, be-
fides the over-weight of 5 per cent. The wool of the Dorfet
fat wether fheep, which is about five pounds each when wafhed
in the yolk, rarely fells for more than 1s. the pound, but when
wafhed, it as commonly commands ts. 6d. The weight
of a fleece in the yolk, is to the fame fleece when wafhed, it is
faid, as fix and three quarters to five, and the confequent
value is as 65. gd. to 75. od. the fleece. This has, at length,
been made evident to the fheep-farmers of this diftriێt, who
now willingly agree, that it is advantageous to wafh fhort-
woolled fheep before fhearing, but to fell the long and coarfe
ftapled fleeces in the yolk.

Good clean waflting is a matter of great confequence to
the wool ; and it is of much advantage to it as well as the
{heep to have the weather fair and fine at the time it is
performed, as they are much lefs liable to have colds.

Shearing-Time.—In refpe& to the proper period of
clipping or fhearing fheep, it muft be directed by the ftate
of the weather, and the climate in the particular dittri@ ;
and by this means the danger of injury by cold, from de-
priving the fheep of their coats at too early a feafon, and
from heat, by permitting them to continue on them too
long, may be avoided in the beft manner. But another
circumftance, that fhould likewife be attended to in this
bufinefs, is that of the wool being fully grown, or at the itate
of maturity ; as where the clipping precedes that period, it
is faid, in the Annals of Agriculture, to be weak, and
fcarcely capable of being fpun; and if protracted later, it
is yellow, felted, and of an imperfeét nature. It has been
ftated, that for the more warm fheltered fituations in the
fouthern parts of the kingdom, the beginning or middle of
June; when the weather is fine, may be in general the moit
proper; but in the more expofed diftrits, in the northern

4 parte

parts of the ifland, the middle or latter end of the fame
month may be more fuitable, provided the feafon be fa-
vourable. But with the fattening theep in the inclofures,
will moftly be neceflary to perform the work at an earlier
_* in every fituation; as the great increafe of heat,
the fetting in of the fummer weather, added to the
warmth of the » becomes very oppreflive and injurious
them, in their feeding and other properties.
t is an excellent practice with many good theep-farmers,
clip off all the coarfe foiled wool about the thighs and
docks, fome weeks before the ufual time of wafhing and
clipping the fheep; as by this means the fheep are kept
clean and cool, w the feafon is hot, and with ewes the
cudders are prevented from becoming fore. This practice is
common with fome South Down theep-maiters, as well as
in Yorkthire. In the former fituation, Mr. a fells
his, as locks, at 34¢. per pound, having about four ounces
from each thee ¥

By fome it Tis propofed to fhear theep twe or three
times in the courfe of the year, with the view of having
finer, as well as a larger quantity of wool; but it ae
bable that fuch a practice can never be of any general ad-
vantage, though the trials that have been made in Northum-
berland in this way feem to thew that advantages may be
derived in both thefe intentions; but the difadvantages in

_refpeét to the do not feem to have been fufficiently
attended to. And with the fame view, the clothing of

been had recourfe to. In experiments made in
way in Scotland, the advan in refpeét to wool is
to have been very confiderable, and the expence not
than 7d. per fheep. By having recourfe to this prac-
ith that of the -above, it has been fuggefted that
ing wool may be rendered fit for the siiipple of cloth-
at the fame time the mutton rendered more
. The trials in thefe ways have, however, hitherto
few, and do not feem to extend.
alfo be noticed, that in the general management
, it is ufual, after the fhearing has been performed,
the with » ochre, or fome fimilar fub-
and fome alfo cut the ear in different ways. The
ing with tar has been faid to be prejudicial ; but where
quantity is only employed, little injury can be fuf-
And in almoft all the theep diftricts of the king-
except in Dorfetthire, the tails of fheep are fhortened,
ich feems to be an ufeful praétice in keeping the animals
clean behind, and of courfe lefs liable to be ftricken
e fly. It has, however, been fuggetted in the ninth
Annals of Agriculture, that by this cuftom the
be rendered lefs able to drive away the flies.
general prevalence of the practice would, however,
to prove its being of advantage. There is much dif-
in the manner of performing the bufinefs in different
diftriéts, in refpeét to the length; but four or five inches
being left, are quite fufficient. It is ufually done while the
imals are sen all fheep-paitures the hedges fhould
be well cleared briars, as their coats are often injured
by being torn by them; and all forts of pernicious reptiles
sper much as poffible deftroyed, and removed from

- Farther, in refpeé& to the bufinefs of caftrating or gelding
_ the lambs, it may be performed any time from the age of a fort-
ight or three weeks to that of a month or fix weeks; and
diftri€ts it is deferred to a confiderably later period.
Itis, however, the fafeft method to have it executed early,
‘as there is lefs danger of teo much inflammation taking
But in all cafes, the lambs fhould be in a healthy
when it is done; as under other circumitances, they

LEE

7

Har

:

TE

5

ave
§

]

3

3

SHEEP.

are liable to be om by it. ‘The operation 1s ufuall
performed by the thepherd, by opening the ferotum or ak
and drawing out the tetticles, with the {permatic cord.
This he often does with his teeth, in the young ttate of the
animal, But where the operation is performed at a later
period, it is ufual to have recourfe to the knife ; the arteries
being taken up, and fecured by means of ligatures or the
fearing-iron. ‘The bufinefs, if poflible, fhould be done in
fine weather, when not too warm; and the gelded lambs be
kept in a dry, theltered, quiet fituation, Ee a few days,
until the inflammation is gone off. If it thould happen to
be wet at the time, it may be advifeable to have them under
fome fort of fhelter, where they can have room to move
freely about.

It is now well known that the mode of afcertaining the
age of thefe animals is chiefly by their teeth ; but they are
likewife fometimes named from the number of coats: or
fleeces that have been fhorn from them, as one-fhear, two-
fhear, &c. The theep of one-fhear having two broad teeth
before ; that of two-fhear, four; that of three, fix; and
poe of four, eight; which is full-mouthed. See Ace of

nd they have alfo different names in different diftriéts.
After being weaned, the ram or wedder-lamb is fometimes
termed hog, hoggit, teg or tag, during the whole of the firft
year; and the female lamb, an ewe or gimmer-daml, and
ewe-teg. The fecond year, the wedder has the title of
JSbear-hog, or a two-toothed teg or tag; and the ewe is called
a thaive, thave, or two-toothed ewe. In the third year, a
SJrear-hog, or feur-toothed wedder ; and a four-toothed ewe,
or thaive. he fourth year, a_/ix-toothed wedder, or ewe.
And in fome places, from the time of lambing till that of
falving, the males are called tup-lambs; and from that
period till the time of fhearing, tup-hogs ; and ever after-
wards, tups; the females in the fame order being termed
ewe-lambs, ewe-hogs, gimmers, young ewes, old ewes. The
gelded male lambs, caffrated wedder-lambs, wedder-hogr,
dummonds, or dinmonts, wedders. Crones allo fignify old
ewes; and there are feveral other provincial names, which
are explained in their proper places, under their different
heads. See SHzep, Names of.

In the management of this fort of ftock, it mutt be fuffi-
ciently evident that a great deal of the profit and advantage
muft depend upon having a careful attentive fhepherd, who
perfeAly underftands his bufinefs, aud is at all mes willing
to ni it. See SHEPHERD.

heep are fubjeét to a variety of difeafes, which fhould
be carefully attended to by thofe who have the care of fuch
fort of ftock, as foon as ever they thew themfelves; as a
very fhort time often renders them irremediable. The na-
ture of them, and the means of removal, are defcribed under
the proper heads to which they belong.

The above accounts, obfervations, and details, may ferve
to afford the inquirer a he knowledge of the nature of
fheep hufbandry, and of the ufual methods of management
which are required with that fort of live-ftock, as well as
the benefits and advantages which may be derived from it in
many different ways. ©

Sueep, and their Varieties, chiefly in connefion with the
Woollen Manufa@ure, Hiflory of. Of all the animals that
have been domefticated by man, none have rendered him
more effential fervice than the fheep. A large part of the
food and clothing of the civilized world is fupplied by this
ufeful animal. he culture, improvement, and manufac-
ture of its fleece, have conftantly accompanied and marked
the progrefs of civilization, both in ancient and modern
times.

Ia

SHEEP.

In the early ages of fociety, fheep appear to have been
principally domefticated for the fake of the fkin, or the
fleece: we fhall, therefore, firft take a fhort view of their
cultivation and improvement in different countries, as wool-
bearing animals ; whether as producing fine or coarfe wool,
or as /eng or fbort-woolled fheep ; the produce of the two
latter aiecne from each other in the mode of manufacture,
and the ufes to which it is applied, more than filk and cot-
ton, confidered as articles of manufacture.

It is not a little remarkable, that the dometticated fheep
depends for its fubfiftence almoft entirely on the care of
man, and is never found at any great diftance from his habi-
tation. ‘ Left to itfelf, it becomes the fubjeé of difeafe, and
the prey of ferocious animals; or if thefe fhould {pare it, its
own fleece becomes the abode of infe&ts, which continually
nourifh themfelves with its blood, and deftroy its conftitu-
tion. Its enemies are indeed fo numerous, and conftantly
at hand, that it has no chance of efcaping them.”

Naturalifts are not fully agreed from what animal the
different varieties of domettic fheep originally fprung. The
Siberian argali, as defcribed by Pallas, was moft probably
the parent of all the cultivated flocks in Afia, from whence
they have {pread to other parts of the world. This animal,
the argali, which in the Siberian language means wild fheep,
is called by the Ruffians kamenoi barann, or fheep of the
rocks, from its ordinary place of abode. According to
Pallas, it is the fame with the mufimon of Pliny, and the
ophion of the Greeks. It is found, in allits native wildnefs,
vigour, and activity, inhabiting the vaft chain of mountains
which run through the centre of Afia to the Eaftern fea,
and the various branches of this chain, extending through
Great Tartary, China, the north of Hindooftan, and Perfia.
The argali delights to bafk in the fun on the bare rocks, but
avoids the woods and fhade; it feeds on alpine plants and
fhrubs; it prefers a temperate climate, but is found alfo
amongtt the rocks of Afiatic Siberia. This animal loves a
itate of folitude, and flees the haunts of men. — According
to profeffor Pallas, nothing but the furrounding fea can ac-
count for the argali being found on an inhabited ifland, as is
fometimes the cafe.

The ewe of the argali brings forth before the melting of
the fnow: the lamb refembles a young kid, except that it
has a flat protuberance in place of horns, and is covered with
dark grey hair, frizzled and woolly.

There are few animals more difficult to overtake than the
argali. When purfued, it turns and doubles like a hare,
{crambling over the rocks with wonderful agility. Though
the adult animal is untameable, the lamb is eafily dometti-
cated, when taken young, and fed on milk, and afterwards
on fodder, which is proved by numerous experiments made
in the Ruffian fettlements.

The argali is about the fize of the fallow deer, but its make
is more robuit, being lefs elegant than the deer, and its
neck and legsare fhorter. Its head refembles that of a ram,
with long ftraggling hairs about the mouth, but no beard
like the goat. The horns, according to the drawing given
by Pallas, bear a fimilarity to thofe of the Merino rams ;
their weight is about fixteen pounds; the tail is fhort.
The fummer covering of the argali is a fhort fleek hair, re-
fembling that of the deer; the winter coat confifts of wool,
like down, generally of a white colour, and intermixed with
longer hair. See ARGALI.

From the facility with which the young of the argali is
domefticated, and from the charaéter of this animal, as well
as its fituation, we may with much probability infer that it
was the parent of the Afiatic flocks. According to other
travellers, the coat of the argali is of a grey or nut-brown

colour: probably it may be of different colours in the dif-
ferent diftri€ts it inhabits. In early ages the fleeces of do-
mettic fheep appear to have been all of a dark colour:
fuch was the flock of Laban, in Mefopotamia; and the
narrative of the manner in which the change was effeéted,
may ferve to fhew that, previoufly to that time, the com-
mon colour of the fheep was black or dark-brown. The
improvement in the quality, as well as the colour of the
fleece, has always been clofely conneGted with the progrefe
of the arts ; for we uniformly find in countries, where thefe
have flourifhed, a race of fheep which yield wool of a fu-
perior quality to thofe around them. In Perfia and Syria,
the influence of ancient manufaCtures is ftill vifible in the
fuperiority of their fheep, as fine-woolled animals. From
Afia Minor thefe animals were tranfported into Greece,
and from thence into Italy and Sicily. They were dif-
perfed by the Romans over various parts of Europe; and
the Tarentine fheep, formerly celebrated for their fine foft
wool, were introduced into Spain, where they have flou-
rifhed for fixteen centuries ; the prefent Merino race being
their immediate defcendants, but rendered more hardy by
an intermixture with the original native fheep of Spain.

From the writings of Columella, and the incidental cir-
cumftances mentioned by ancient hiftorians, we may infer
that the fine flocks of Greece and Italy were of the fhort-
woolled kind, producing clothing wool, which was manu-
faétured into woollen cloth, fimilar to what is at prefent _
worn ; but probably more flexible, from not undergoing fo
completely the milling or felting procefs. (See Woot.)
Indeed, from the remains of the Tarentine flocks at prefent
in Italy, we can be at no lofs to determine the nature of
the former Tarentine fleece. Thirteen centuries of ne-
gle&ted cultivation, and intermixture with other breeds,
have not been fufficient to obliterate the labours of former
times. From what we have feen of the finer Italian wools,
we have no hefitation in aflerting, that by judicious and
careful feleGtion, it would be praéticable to reftore the Ta-
rentine race once more to its original purity, in the courfe
of a few years; were it found to poflefs any fuperior merit,
compared with the fine-woolled fheep of Spain. The cir-
cumitances refpefting the management of the Tarentine
flocks, recorded by ancient writers, when compared with
the prefent treatment of the Merino flocks in Spain, leave
no doubt refpeéting the origin of the latter.

‘The term Merino, in the Spanith language, is an adjective,
derived from the corrupt Latin merinus, or majorinus : when
united with ovejas, it fignifies the royal judge, or fuper-
intendant of the fheep-walk. At the period when the
trafbumantes, or travelling flocks in Spain, were eftablifhed,
they became the objects of police, and were placed under the
exclufive jurifdiétion cf mayors, with public walks and
large diftriéts allotted for their fuftenance, and were termed
Merinos ovejas, or the fheep under the care of the merino or
mayor. The names peculiar to the eftablifhment of thefe flocks,
fuch as meffa, cavana, &c. are derived, not from the Morifco,
but from the provincial Latin that prevailed in Spain before
and after it was fubdued by the Goths. (See Mrsra.) The
management of the flocks is peculiarly Roman ;. the merino,
or mayor, correfponds exaétly with the magilter pecoris of
Varro and Columella, and was fuperior to the opiliones and
paltores. The practice of deftroying half the fheep at their
birth, and of fuckling each of the furvivors on two ewes; of
f{weating the fheep before they. were fhorn, to increafe the
foftnefs of the fleece; and of condu&ting them from their
winter to their fummer ftations, by long journies through
public fheep-walks, has been derived from Roman inftitu-
tions, with this difference, that in Italy their migrations

were

were confined to the coarfe-woolled theep, while the molles
ews, or fine-woolled flocks of antiquity, were always houfed.
The experiment of Columella’s uncle afcertains the early

ion of fine-woolled theep into Spain. men J

fome wild African rams at Cadiz of a coarfe

but of an admirable colour, he gave them to fome

ewes, and the male progeny being again given

to Tarentine ewes, the offspring with their defcendants,

‘united the paternal colour with uliar foftnefs of the
maternal | Columella’s rah ng refided in Beetica,
which com

ded the modern Eftramadura; and as
Columella i under the emperor Claudius, the
Tarentine breed mutt have been introduced into that pro-
vince at the commencement of the Chriftian era. Whatever
was the colour which the elder Columella intro-
duced by means of African rams into his Tarentine flock,
we may conclude that the fame fuccefsful expedient was
employed by other agriculturalifls of Beetica, to convert
thele coarfe into fine-woolled breeds, and to commu-
nicate the pureft white to the black or parti-celoured
» mative flocks, which, according to Pliny, were common in
‘Spain. The original intermixture of diftin& breeds of
mative Spanifh fheep with the Tarentine in different parts
‘of Spain, may be inferred from other circumitances : each
cavana, or flock, forms a diftin& breed ; and the Nigrette
no more refembles the Paulac, than the Merino South Down
refembles the Merino Cheviot. The uine unmixed
defcendants of the Tarentine breed would have preferved
ene uni chara@ter ; but the native flocks croffed with
‘Tarentine would retain their diftin@ive varieties, and
tranfmit them to each cavana.

That the Merino is a mixed race, feems to be further
indicated by the more tender conftitutions of the fine-
_woolled flocks of antiquity. Of thefe, the Tarentine were
molt celebrated in Italy, and the Milefian in Afia Minor.
‘They were termed pellite and teéte oves, from the cover-
ings of tkin with which they were clothed to defend
the fleece. were denominated alfo molles oves, not
fs of the fleece, but from the delicacy

. They were always fed in the houfe;

and though fatisfied with brambles, or the coarfeit food,
“they are deferibed as a mott voracious breed: a diminution
of their allowance from the fraud of fervants, or the parfi-
‘mony of the owner, was attended with certain deftruction
be flock. (Plin. lib. viii. cap. 47.) As there was no
fale for the lambs, nor any profit from the milk of a
‘Tarentine flock, half the lambs were deftroyed at the birth.
‘The ram-lambs were chiefly reared, and were killed at two
"years, when their pelts fold to the merchant at an advanced
sal ever of the beauty of the pile. This breed
conftant care, when in the fields, to preferve their

the fleece were opened and difparted, and were
ntly moiftened with wine and oi). The whole flock
wafhed three times , when the weather was warm.
ftables were — y {wept, cleaned, and fumigated :
or thefe different o two fhepherds were conftantly re-
ed for every hundred heep.
‘The exceffive care ra ec on thete flocks by the nations
‘of antiquity, thews in what eitimation their fleeces were
eld ; and though fuch attention is remote from modern
‘practice, we are fully convinced that, by feleéting the very
ineft and fofteft Merino flocks, and covering the wool, and
uently anointing and wafhing, it would give to the

‘ SHEEP.

pile that degree of foftnefs which is fo much wanted in the
manufacture of thawls, and other coftly articles of luxury,
but which we feek for in vain in the finelt fleeces of moderna
Europe. However expenfive fuch attention might prove,
we have no doubt that, on a limited f{cale, it would well
repay the labour of the judicious experimentalilt, as the
wool would be worth more than 30. pound, could it be
made to equal that of India in foftnefs. It would appear
that the T'arentine breed were feleéted with much care for
breeding, and every expedient adopted, which was proved by
experience to attenuate and foften the pile. The tranfition of
thefe delicate animals into the Merinos of Spain, which are
a hardy race, can only be explained by fuppofing that other
agriculturalifts had imitated Columella, and obtained a fine-
woolled race, by crofling their native breeds with the more
delicate animals from Italy. The beginning of this im-

rovement is indeed defcribed by Strabo in the reign of

iberius: he informs us that the inhabitants of Truditania
had formerly imported many garments, but that their wool
in his time furpailed that of the Coraxi, and excelled it in
beauty fo much, that a talent, equal to two hundred
orgie was the {tated price of a ram to breed from; and
that they excelled alfo in the fabrics which the Sal-
tiate manufactured. . Truditania, according to Strabo, com-
prehended the eae of Bettica, from the Guadiana to
the confines of Lufitania, and fouthward to Gibraltar,
and eaftward to Toledo. The wool of the Coraxi, with
which Strabo compares that of this part of Spain, we are
informed, in his account of Pontus, was from the foft-
woolled Milefian fheep. Such high prices as a talent muft
have been uced by a very general demand for rams,
not for the ufe of the Tarentine flocks, which could occafion
no fuch competition, but for the purpofe of crofling the
indigenous breeds of the province, which, from the earlieit
period, appears to have abounded in theep.

The travelling flocks were not at that time introduced, as
the mountainous regions had been till then infefted by native
as well as Lufitanian robbers, whem the Romans diflodged
from their villages, and difperfed into cantons. (Diodorus
Siculus, lib. v. cap. 32.) The Moorifh looms of Anda-
lufia and Catalonia, and thofe of the Chriftians at Segovia,
in the 13th century, muit have been fupplied by the fine-
woolled flocks introduced by the Romans. The vacant
mountains, when cleared of banditti, offered a vait range
of paiture from Eftramadura northward, towards Galicia
and the Afturias. A fimilar opportunity occurred to efta-
blifh or renew the inititution of travelling flocks when the
Chriftians defcended, in the middle of the 13th century, to
occupy the conquered provinces of Andalufia and Murcia.
After that time the travelling flocks became fo well efta-
blithed, that the mentargo, or tolls, on their paflage
through the mountains, from province to province, the
fervicio, or tax to the crown, and the laws of the meita,
were impofed or ratified by government, in the middle of
the 15th century, before the Mvorith kingdom of Grenada
had been finally reduced.

Weare thus enabled from hiftory to trace the introduétion
and eftablifhment of the Merino race of fheep in Spain, from
which, or from their defcendants, nearly all the masufac-
tories of fine cloth in Europe are at prefent {upplied with
wool. See Woot.

The native breeds of Bectica were originally and gra-
dually converted into fine-woolled saesalay by repeated
crofles with the Tarentine flocks, and thus an immenfe num-
ber of hardy theep, producing a moit valuable pile, were
{pread over the country, and furvived the fucceflive con-
queits of the Goths and Vandals, and the protracted war-

fare

SHEEP.

fare of many centuries. The pure Tarentine breed in Greece
and Italy being more delicate, is faid to have become extinét
with the deftruétion of the Roman empire ; but the mixture
of this race with the original flocks of Italy may ftill be
diftin@ly traced, particularly in the middle and fouthern
parts. The Italian wool was finer than that of any other
country in Europe, except Spain, prior to the improve-
ments which have recently taken place by the introduétion
of the Merinos. It is not improbable that the fine-woolled
flocks of England, though greatly inferior to the Merinos
in the quality of the wool, were alfo originally defcended
from crofles with the Tarentine breed introduced by the
Romans, when they eftablifhed a manufaéture of woollen
eloth at Winchefter.

The deitruGtion or deterioration of the improved flocks in
the ages of barbarifm which fucceeded the fall of the Roman
empire, was the natural confequence of the decay of the ma-
nufactures, and of a total inattention to prevent the inter-
mixture with coarfer breeds. In Spain alone, the improved
race had taken fuch complete poffeffion of the mountainous
diftriéts, that it remained unmixed and unimpaired till the
revival of commerce and the arts, when that country fup-
plied the neighbouring nations with fine wool, and was fup-
pofed to poflefs fome peculiar advantages of foil and climate,
which it would be vain to feek for elfewhere. The opinion
that the fuperior finenefs of the Spanifh fleeces was derived
entirely from fome peculiarity of the foil and climate, had
obtained fo generally, and was fo firmly believed, even
twenty-five years fince, in this country, that he who afferted
the contrary, was regarded by agriculturalifts and clothiers as
a {peculative theorift, only deferving their pity.

It is not a little remarkable, that this prejudice continued
undiminifhed nearly a century after the Merino fheep had
been introduced into Sweden and Saxony, and had conti-
nued to produce wool in thofe countries, equally fine with
that of their parent flocks in the Spanifh peninfula.

It might have been previoufly fuppofed that the climate
of Sweden, being much colder than that of Great Britain,
and more remote from the annual mean temperature of
Spain, would render that country peculiarly unfriendly to
the Merino race and to the produétion of fine wool. This
prejudice refpeCting the influence of climate would have been
removed by confidering that almoft al] the fineft furs are the
produGtion of cold climates, and that the growth of fine
wool and fur is a provifion of nature, to defend animals
againft the fevere cold of the diftri€ts nearer the poles.
Mr. Alftroemer, who had previoufly endeavoured to ame-
liorate the breed of fheep in Sweden, by importations from
England and Germany, obtained a flock of Merinos, which
he introduced into that country in the year 1723. In the
year 1739, the Swedifh government,‘ for the promotion of
this race, inftituted a {chool of fhepherds, under the direc-
tion of Mr. Alitroemer, and public funds were appointed
for granting premiums to thofe who fold rams of the Spanifh
breed ; and from the fame period, to 1780, a premium of
twenty-five ger cent. was alfo granted on the fale of fine
wools of a good quality. Thefe premiums were afterwards
reduced, and finally difcontinued in 1792, being no longer
neceflary. From exa& accounts, it appears that the fine
wool fold from 1751 to the year 1790, amounted to
3,402,961 francs.

The quantity of fine wool aétually produced was much
greater than what had been fold to receive the premium, a
confiderable part having been confumed in domeftic manu-
fa&tures by the growers and others; and the diftance of
the public magazines, where the wools were fent to receive
the premium, prevented the public returns from including

the real quantity of fine wool grown. In the year 1764,
there were in Sweden 65,369 fheep of the pure Merino race,
and 23,384 of a mixed breed, producing fine wool. The
Swedith Merinos preferve their primitive form ; their fleece,
are very clofe, and the wool has not deteriorated in finenefs
length, or elafticity ; and the fheep produce as great a weight
of fleece as in Spain, wherever they are fupplied with a fuf-
ficient quantity of food. This race, now naturalized in
Sweden, are larger and ftronger than the Spanifh fheep.
M. Layfteire examined the flock of M. Schulzenheim, at
Gronfoe, in the province of Upland, which had been intro-
duced from Spain 55 years. On comparing the wool with
that of other Spanifh fheep recently imported, he did not
find it inferior either in beauty or finenefs. M. Schulzen-
heim preferved the defcendants of fheep which he imported
from Spain to the fifth generation, and the comparifon of
their fleeces proved that they had not in the leaft degenerated.
Thefe fa&ts prove decidedly that the Spanifh fheep do not
lofe the good qualities of their wool by a removal to cold
countries. At the fame time it mutt be obferved, that
thofe fheep degenerated which had been negleéted, or treated
in the fame wretched manner as the native flocks, by cone
fining them in damp, infeéted, and dirty ftables during a
part of the year, and omitting the requifite quantity of
food ; or pafturing them in fummer in forefts and marfhes,
or in low moift fituationsy; where they could neither find the
proper kind nor due quantity of herbage.

The introduétion of the Merinos into Saxony took place
in 1765, and again in the year 1778. The firft flock con-
filted of one hundred rams and two hundred ewes, chofen
for the elector of Saxony from the beft flocks in Spain ; they
were placed under the care of a Spanifh majorinus, or mayor, ”
at Stolpen, fix leagues from Drefden, on the frontiers of
Bohemia.

After ten years’ experience, it was found that they had
preferved all the original good qualities of the fleece, and
the wool from the mixed breed had alfo acquired a degree of
finenefs which did not yield to that from Spain. As foon as
it was afcertained, by experience, that it was eafy to natural-
ize the Spanifh fheep in Saxony, and that the crofles from
this race with the native flocks were fo greatly ameliorated,
the attention of the agriculturalifts was direéted to the gene-
ral improvement of the flocks, and fuch has been the fuccefs,
that their produce is at prefent one of the greateft fources
of profit to the cultivator. During the laft fifteen years, a
very confiderable quantity of fine wool has been imported
from Saxony into England, and the price of the bett fort is
greater than that of the fineft Spanifh wool, a fufficient
proof of the eftimation in which it is held by the manufac-
turers. It is better fuited for the fineft kerfeymeres, and the
more delicate articles of the woollen trade, as it can be {pun
to a greater length than any other kind of carded wool
grown in Europe ; it is alfo fuperior in finenefs, but owing
to the {carcity of winter food, it is generally lefs found than
the beft Spanifh, and not fo well fuited for ftout cloths,
See Woot.

The Merino race has fince been introduced into Denmark,
the Pruffian ftates, Auftria, France, Holland, Italy, the
Cape of Good Hope, and the United States of America.
Of its introduction into England, we fhall afterwards
{peak.

4 As Saxony is the only country which has yet cultivated
the Merinos fo extenfively, as to come in competition with
Spain in the exportation of fine wool, it may be proper to
ftate the modes of treatment adopted in that country. It
is generally believed in Saxony, and in other parts of Germany
and Holland, that the praétice of breeding from the fame

race

or what the Englith graziers technically denominate

ing in and in,’’ occafions a deterioration of the flock ;
owing to this prejudice, the Swedith farmers frequently
change the rams e the Spanifh race for others of the fame
ae a neighbouring flocks, and fome proprietors bind
their farmers to renew a certain quantity of rams every
year. But this praétice is ufelefs, where the rams upon an
eftate are already of a good quality; if the contrary were
the cafe, there could not exik a perfe€& Merino theep in
Spain, as thefe theep have continued to breed from the tae
flock, without any attention to confanguinity, for many
centuries. The quality of a race of theep may be

referved, either by {electing the moft perfeét from the fame
hock to breed from, or by conftantly taking out thofe which
are moft defective.

The common food of fheep in Saxony, during winter, is
hay, which is diftributed three times a day, in a greater or
ee uantity, according to the ftock of the farmer: thofe
w om not fufficient hay, f{ubftitute peafe-ftraw, vetches,
and lentils. They take care to mow the crops before ma-
turity, that they may be more nutritive, and to prevent the
fall of the leaves before mowing. Some farmers fupply
the deficiency of hay with powdered oil-cakes, cru
feeds, and meal; they put the cake or meal into troughs
with water, which they give the theep to drink, and after-
wards ob ive them the folid refidue, which finks to the
bottom o eke trou This treatment ferves to keep them
in a healthy ftate, at a feafon when they cannot have freth
food. Eight pounds of cake or meal diffufed in water are
given to every paced When the fnow remains long
on the ground, they fometimes give them {traw which has
not been thrafhed, and even corn; but as this is expenfive,
_ they generally fubftitute roots of different kinds, fuch as
beets, turnips, and carrots, but particularly potatoes.

The Saxon farmers colleé& with great care the horfe-chef-
nuts in autumn, which they give their fheep as a remedy
againft the rot. The nuts are cut fmall, to prevent them
getting into the throat, and choaking the animal.

They out their fheep in winter, when the weather
its, and the fnow is not too deep, to the woods or dry

uations fheltered with underwood. Proprietors who have
no winter paftures, leave their in the fheep-houfes
from the beginning of November to April, but they take
are to turn them out each day in the frefh air, for t or
four hours, and they keep open the doors, to caufe a con-
ftant ventilation. Some. a pe keep their theep con-
fined the whole year ; ait where the fheep-houfes are kept
clean, and the fheep are fupplied with proper food, this prac-
tice is not found to injure either the wool or the animal.

During fine weather in fummer, they are allowed to range
in the paftures. They leave the theep-houle after the dews
are entirely diffipated, and they repofe in the fhade during the
heat of the day. This practice of providing fhade during

the hot weather cannot be too ftrongly recommended to the
cultivators of fine wool in England, with refpeé to the
: of the animal and the improvement of the wool. Nor
is another practice lefs deferving their attention, which is, to
fhelter them during heavy rains, hail-itorms, and thick fogs.
8 ae ase water is conduéted in troughs, from
which theep may drink at pleafure. Saxon farmers con-
er {alt not only as neceflary to the health of fheep, but as
wibuting to the finenefs of the fleece ; it is {prinkled in
sir forage, and is diffolved in their drink ; it is given prin-
in fummer, when the weather is dry. They ceafe to

ive it to the ewes five or fix weeks before lambing, becaufe
think 7 amma of water which it occafions them

race,
“

ene

q

5a

SHEEP.

to drink, is injurious to them at that time, and that it alfe
prevents them from licking their lambs.

The rams and ewes are not put together before the age of
two or three years; they allow one ram to twenty-five ewes,
and leave them together day and night during the feafon,
The lambs are kept in the fheep-houfes, but fome proprie-
tors allow them to go out with the ewes after eight days.

Before fhearing, the theep are wafhed in the Englifh man-
ner, but with greater care. Firft they make them {wim
through a river or dam; the following day they are again
driven through, and plunged in feparately, and the ficece
prefled with the hands, beginning from the head, and paifl-
ing on to the extremities of the body ; they are again driven
through the water in the afternoon. The fleece is fuffered
to dry during two days, and fhorn on the third. Saxon
wool, thus wafhed, is much cleaner than the Englih, which
tia undergoes but one wafhing. It lofes by a further
couring by the manufa¢turer, about 12 per cent. more than
Spanifh wool already feoured.

25 per cent. in the hands of the manufa@turer.
he general treatment of the Saxon Merino fheep we
confider as judicious, but we have frequently noticed
that the wool had been fomewhat injured by want of
fufficient nourifhment in winter, which renders it tender.
The hay being given in racks, feeds and ftraws fall into the
fleece when the animal is eating, which the Englifh manu-
facturer finds great difficulty in eradicating ; this might be
revented, in a confiderable degree, by lowering the racks,
© that the food might be level with the head, or fomewhat
below.

As France is perhaps the moft formidable rival which our
manufacturers of fine cloths will meet in foreign markets,
the progrefs made in the amelioration of her native flocks be-
comes an object of intereft to the Englifh agriculturalift and
clothier. The celebrated minifter Colbert firft formed the
defign of improving the breeds of French fheep, by im-
portations from England and Spain. But his intentions
were at that time oppofed. It was not till the year 1776
that the Spanifh breed was introduced into France by M.
M. Trudaine, intendant of finances, under the dire€tion of
the celebrated naturalift d’Aubenton. The experiments
which he made on thefe fheep, and numerous crofles from
them, with feven diftin& breeds, which he had on his eftate
in Auxors, demonftrated to the government that it was eafy
to introduce and preferve a race of fheep in France, pro-
ducing fuperfine wool ; and in the year 1786, a fele€tion of
376 rams and ewes, from the fineft flocks in Spain, was
conduéted, under the care of a mayor, tothe farm of Ram-
bouillet. They confifted of individuals of extraordivary
beauty, fuperior to any previoufly introduced into France,
but having been fa from a number of diftant flocks,
they prefented great varieties of fhape and fize, which have
fince difappeared by intermixture ; and a new race has been
formed, differing from any of the primitive flock, but which
equals the beit af them in form and conftitution, and in the
finenefs, length, foftnefs, elafticity, and quantity of wool.

It is to be obferved, that the wool-dealers and manufac-
turers in France were at firft difpofed to depreciate the value
of the wool ; but numerous accurate experiments having
proved that the cloths manufactured from it were in eve
refpe& equal to thofe made from the belt Spanifh wool, the
Lab oe difap , and the republican government, as

as that of the emperor Napoleon, interetted themfelves

in the further introduGtion of Spanith fheep into France.
In the year 1802 it was calculated that there were one mile
lion fheep in France, either of pure Merinos, or of an ame-
3 M liorated

Englifh wool lofes about

SHEEP.

fiorated mixed breed. Since that time many large flocks
have been imported from Spain, the temporary command
which the French obtained of that country having afforded
them facilities for their introduétion. In the courfe of a
very few years France will, in all probability, produce a
fufficient f{upply of fuperfine wool for her extenfive woollen
manufa@tories,

The experiments which haye been made by the introduc-
tion of the Merino fheep into the United States of America,
the Cape of Good Hope, and New Helland, prove that
fine wool may be grown wherever there are intelligent culti-
vators, and that it 1s not the gift of a peculiar foil or climate.
We are, however, fully convinced, that very elevated tempe-
ratures will require greater care to prevent deterioration.
The {pecimens of wool which we have feen from New Hol-
land, appear to have been affeéted by an arid fandy foil,
and by the great heat of the fun, which has in fome de-
gree injured the foftnefs of the fleece. Between the
tropics, elevated mountains and fhade would be effentially
requifite to preferve a race of fine-woolled fheep from de-
generating.

The advantages which the Merino fheep poflefs as wool-
bearing animals, over the native breeds of Englifh fine-
woolled fheep, confift in three important peculiarities ;
1ft, the wool is much finer; 2dly, it is more regularly fine
over the body ; and gdly, it is grown in a larger quantity
from the fame furface of fkin. ‘That the Merino wool is
finer than the beft Englifh, is proved from this circumftance ;
the beft forted Spanifh wool, or the R wool, as it is called,
from the fineit flocks, fells at nearly double the price of the
beft Englifh forted wool, or what the wool-ftaplers call the
prime and picked lock. Thofe Englifh fleeces which yield
a portion of the bett fort, generally contain a larger portion
of inferior forts: fometimes eight forts will be found in one
fleece, andthe fineft will not conititute one-eighth of the whole.
On the contrary, the fleeces of the Merino fheep are fo regu-
larly fine over the whole body, as generally to yield from two-
thirds to three-fourths of the fuperfine or R wool. The fe-
cond fort, called the F wool, is alfo fine; and with the
T wool, or third fort, bears a higher price than the beft Eng-
lifh wool. The quantity of wool on a Merino fheep is confi-
derably greater than on an Englith fheep of the fame fize :
this is not owing to the greater length of the wool, but to
the animal being more fully clothed over the body and legs ;
and the wool is alfo grown clofer than on Englifh fheep ;
that is, there are more filaments on the fame furface. A mo-
derate fized well-clothed Merino fheep will yield a fleece which,
when brought to the fame ftate of purity as the Englith
wool, will weigh 3lbs. A Ryeland, Norfolk, or South Down
fheep of the fame fize, will produce a fleece only weighing
about 2lbs, The value will be nearly as five to two in fa~
vour of the Merino fleece. In this ftate, however, the Me-
rino fleece is not clean, as the wools imported from Spain,
which are fcoured after they are fhorn, and before they are
forted, by which means it is much cleaner than it can be made
by wafhing on the back of the animal. The Merino rams
are horned, which is not generally the cafe with the ewes.
The average weight of a fat ram fer quarter, is about
17lbs. of a ewe, about r1lbs. fer quarter.

The fhape of thefe animals by no means correfponds with
the fymmetry of form which an Englifh grazier confiders as
the criterion of excellence. The legs are rather long, the
neck curved, and from the throat there hangs a pendulous
fin, or dewlap, which is very offenfive to thofe who are only
accuftomed to view the improved breeds of Englith theep.
This appendage is valued in Spain, as indicating a tendency

5

to produce wool. The colour of the fin beneath the wool,
on the back and fides, is of arofe red colour ; this is alfo confi-
dered by the Spaniards as a fign of a robuit conftitution, and
an abundant fleece. The only Englifh fheep which have
the fame coloured {kin with the pendulous dewlap, are the
Ryeland, which produce alfo the finett Englifh wool. Thefe
circum{tances, with the ancient prattice of houfing the
fheep, continued in Herefordfhire, where it is called coftingy
confirm the opinion before advanced, that the Ryeland fheep
were defcended from the Tarentine race introduced by the
Romans into this country.

Itis not to be wondered at, that the Merino fheep, which are
cultivated in Spain almoft exclufively for their wool, and
not for their flefh, fhould prefent that deformity of {hape
which at firft was particularly offenfive to the eye of the
Englifh farmer, accultomed to the new Leicefter and South
Down fheep. There cannot, however, be a doubt that the
Merino breed is as fufceptible of improyement as the Englith.
Indeed there is a very great diverfity of form in the flocks
in different parts of Spain; and were the fame attention paid
to feleCting the moft perfect to breed from, as has been given
in England to the South Down fheep, there is every reafon
to believe that a new race would be formed, pofleffing all
the good qualities which both the grazier and the manufac-
turer might require. ‘The South Down fheep, which have
been greatly improved, and rendered almoft perfeét in form,
have preferved all the good qualities of the fleece. This
alone is fufficient to prove, that there is no neceflary con-
ne¢tion between deformity of fhape, and the finenefs of the
wool. -

The Spanifh breed of fheep were firft introduced into
Great Britain in the year 1787.

Some individuals of the

black and {potted fheep had indeed been procured, and

kept in the parks of noblemen previoufly, but without any

regard to the wool; nor was much intereft excited by the _

flock introduced in 1787. The fheep, however, lived,
though treated in the Englifh manner, and the wool had not
deteriorated. Thefe faéts having proved that the Merino race
might be naturalized in England, his majelty George III.
obtained from the marquis of Campo Alanjo five rams and
thirty-five ewes of the Nigrette race.
in the year 1792, and were for fome time at Oatlands, the
feat of his royal highnefs the duke of York. On their ar-
rival they were extremely low in flefh, but they foon began
to improve; and the difeafes with which they had ‘been af-
feéted, were removed by a plentiful fupply of food.

They |

They were imported —

left Oatlands greatly advanced in bulk, and with renovated —
conflitutions ; and the quantity and quality of the wool were —

greatly admired. -

The prejudices of the manufaéturers were not fo fpeedily _

to be furmounted, as the difficulties attending the naturaliz-

ation of the Merino fheep. Though the wool was admitted —

to be equally fine with the beft imported wool from Spain, —
they would not offer a proportionate price, fearing that it

might not prove equally good, when manufactured. It
ought, however, to be ftated, that the condition in which
the Englifh Merino wool was offered for fale, either very

imperfeétly wafhed, or entirely in the greafe, prevented the ©

manufacturer from forming a juft comparifon with the wools
from Spain, which came to this country clean fcoured,
and regularly forted ; nor could they appreciate the lofs it
would fuftain in fcouring, which is not lefs than from 60
to 70 per cent.
tainty refpe@ting the lofs in {couring has, more than any
other cireumftance, retarded the fale of the Englifh Merino
wool, from the year 1792 to the prefent time. Nor will

our

We are well perfuaded that this uncer= —

ur manufaGturers ever greatly encourage the growth of this
w until it be Brougte s, areas? thee forted and
fcoured like the wools from Spain, or in the fame ttate of
yurity in the fleece as the fine Englith or Saxon wool.
lany manufacturers, who have purchafed it, have been
tly difappointed, not in the quality, which was excel-
' in the {mall quantity which remained after fcour-
In confequence of the manufacturers declining to
purchafe his majeity’s wool, it became neceflary to have it
‘manufactured on his majetty’s account, to demonitrate its
1 mefs for fu clot This was done till the year
1796 when it was refolved to fell the wool at the price
. ch was offered, that the manufacturers might have a fair
t The clip was fold that year for as. per pound, and the
fol year for as. 2d. In the years 1797 and 1798
th was forted in the Spanifh manner, and fcoured,
after having been previoufly wafhed on the fheep’s back.
‘The following is an account of the produce...

E -nine ewe and wether fleeces hn ck 195
Lola by fublequent feouring - - - = gp
Pore wool . et eek ae ee pe See

Which yielded, Rafinos, or R wool, 167 lbs. at 5+.
p Finos, or F wool, By Aad Te
Terceros, or T wool, 13 lbs. at 25. 6d.

N Ibs.
In 1798 one hundred and one ewe and wether
| Becces, wathed in the fame manner, yielded -§ 34°
by fubfequent fcouring - - -° - or
a a aC a er! |
‘Of which there was Rafinos, 207 lbs. at 5s. 6d.
Finos, 28 lbs. at 3s. 6d.
Terceros, 19 lbs. at 2s.
ibs.
he rams’ fleeces of both clips See eS ee
by fubfequent fcourmg - - - - 99
wool > = —werhso - - - 215

DF which there was Rafinos, 1§1 lbs. at 4s. 67.
. Finos, 22 lbs. at 3s. 6d.

ae Terceros, 12 lbs. at 2s.

“The prices have, fince that time, epenrey increafed
with the price of Spanifh wool, and have been nearly equal
to that: of the from i a In the year 1801,
‘right honourable lord Somerville took a voyage to the
eninfula, for the purpofe of felecting fuch theep as united
ee rear a eee oe Soe wi
od carcafe. efforts were in a confiderable

“ili Merino fheep from the various Spanifh

fufi to
ace of fine-woolled theep
we defirable. Many of the native flocks of fine-woolled
heep in England have been confiderably diminifhed in the
it fc owing to the numerous enclofures of forefts
d commons, that were formerly only fuited to pafture a
te of {mall light fheep ; but which, in confequence of im-
nt, are now of maintaining a heavier race of

mals 5 the former requiring a light dry foil, and an ex-

SHEEP.

tenfive range; and the latter, a rich and more confined

afture. ‘The Ryeland fheep in Herefordthire afford the
fineft wool in England, of any of our native breeds; but
the pure race is nearly extinét, The fleece weighs lefe than
two pounds; but if generally cleared from the thank-locks
and {kirts before it 1» wound, in this flate it bears the
highelt price of any Englith Meeces. It is not a little fe-
markable, that the practice of cotting or houfing the theep
is peculiar to Herefordthire ; and it is not improbable but it
may have been originally introduced by the Romans, with
the race of fheep from which the Ryelands originally [prong.
A mixture of the Ryeland theep is fpread over fome of

the counties adjoining to Herefordthire, but the number ts
not very confiderable. The light fandy foil of Norfolk is
aftu by another breed of fine-woolled fheep, which

upply a confiderable quantity of fine Englith wool for the
Yorkfhire market ; and it poffeifes, in sn eminent degree,
the property of foftnefs, when manufaGured, which is
wanting in many of our Englith wools. The original Nor-
folk breed have black faces and {piral horns, fmall, long,
thin carcafes, with long black or grey legs. The fleece
weighs from one pound and a half to two pounds. The
form of the animal is not fuch as to recommend it to the
grazier, but it has been greatly improved by an intermix~
ture with the South Down breed. Mr. Coke of Holk-
ham, the celebrated agriculturalift of Norfolk, has difpofed
of his native flocks of that county, from a conviction,
founded on long experience, that they are an unprofitable
breed. The principal recommendation of this breed was
the excellence of their wool ; and they might be well fuited
to the former uncultivated ftate of the fandy tracks in that
diftrié.

Of all the native fine-woolled breeds of England, the
South Downs appear to poflefs, in the moft eminent de-
gree, the combined advanta of excellence of form, with
a fuperior quality of seco. The average weight of
the two-year old wethers is 18 pounds fer quarter; the
mutton is fine-grained, and of an excellent flavour. The
weight of the fleece of the fineft kinds is about two pounds
on the average. Some of the coarfe fleeces exceed three

unds. ‘The South Down breed takes its name frem the

iftri& on which thefe fheep were originally cultivated. It
is a long range of rather elevated chalk hills, extendin
from the fouth-weftern fide of the counties of Kent ass
Surrey, through Suflex, into Hamphhire, confifting of
open downs, well fuited for fheep-walks.

The animal has no horns; its face and legs are grey 3
the bones fine, and the form compact. It has in been
greatly improved of late years, by the particular care of in-
telligent growers. The lambs are generally dropped from
the middle of March to the end of April. Ifthe ewes have
been well kept, one-third will be twins. The wethers are
fit for the butcher in two years; many graziers fatten them
at 18 months. From the South Downs thefe theep have
been fent to different parts of the kingdom ; and in all
and rather elevated fituations they will preferve the excel-
lent qualities of their wool. Indeed, in all fituations where

the foil is covered by a clofe h , and the fabfoil
is not calcareous, che wool will be of a wood quality to
whiat the fame animal would produce on the chalky downs

of Suffex. Of this we have had decifive proofs. The
South Downs, though in many refpeéts well {uited to
fheep, yet in thofe parts where the chalk is expofed, or
near the furface, the calcareous particles get intermixed
with the yolk or natural greafe of the fleece, and produce a
degree of, harfhnefs in the wool, which is very perceptible,
when it is manufa€tured into cloth: it alfo injures the felt-

3 M 2 ing

SHEEP.

ing quality of the wool. This is fo well known to the
Yorkfhire manufa&turers, that they always avoid the wools
grown on chalk foils, when they want a foft thick pile to
the cloth. The fine wool from the South Down fleeces is
chiefly ufed for light goods, fuch as kerfeymeres and peliffe
cloths, which require very little milling or felting. When
the South Down fheep are removed from chalk lands, the
wool may be grown remarkably foft, and pofleffes all the
good qualities of the beft native Englifh wool.

The action of the foil on the fleece was long known to
manufacturers, viz. that wools grown on argillaceous foils
were fofter, and proved better in the procefs of manufac-
ture, than thofe on calcareous foils. The caufe of this was
inyolved in much obfcurity, and generally fuppofed to be
owing to the quality of the herbage on different foils. Mr.
Bakewell, of Wakefield, in Yorkshire, in alittle tra@ «On
the Influence of Soil and Climate on Wool,’”? proved that
the influence of the foil on the fleece arofe from the aétion
of the minute particles on the furface of the fibre or ftaple.
«¢ Not only can this action affe&t the quality, but, impart
indelibly the colour of the foil to the wool. In part of
Gloucetterfhire the fleece acquires a deep orange colour
from the foil. In Hertfordfhire, and part of Warwickfhire,
and in every country having a red foil, the wool is inclined
to brownifh-red. Wools on chalky foils are diftinguifhed
by their whitenefs ; and in every diftrift in England the
action of the foil is evinced, by communicating its own
colour to the fleece. The colour thus acquired is as inde-
libly fixed in the wool as the colouring matter of an arti-
ficial dye, nor can its whitenefs be perfectly reftored by any
artificial procefs hitherto known.

« That the fame caufe can change the hardnefs or foftnefs
of wool, is proved from the different effeéts which argil-
laceous, filiceous, and calcareous foils are invariably found
to have on thefe qualities. This is perhaps no where more
clearly fhewn than in the northern part of Derbyhhire,
where the {trata are fo abruptly broken, that two adjoining
farms, feparated by a {mall brook, will not unfrequently be
found, the one upon lime-ftone, the other on a filiceous
grit or fand-ftone. The difference of the wool on thefe
two farms, from the fame breed of fheep, was fo diftin@ly
marked, that the grower always obtained a higher price
when grown upon the latter foil. ¢ My wool is grit-{tone,
and I expe& a better price than my neighbour,’ was the
language in common ufe, and the meaning was well under-
ftood by the buyer. In the procefs of feparating wool
from the fkin by the fell-monger, the pelts are fteeped
fome days in lime and water. The fofteft wools, when thus
expofed to the action of lime, lofe their diftinguifhing excel-
lence, and acquire all the hardnefs of wools grown on lime-
ftone foils.”’

To remedy this injurious effet of calcareous foils, Mr.
Bakewell recommends the praétice of the farmers in North-
umberland, and in North Britain, of anointing the fkin of
the animal with butter, in which a {mall quantity of tar is
melted to give it confiftence. In Northumberland this is
practifed with the fine-woolled fheep on the Cheviots ; and
the wool from thefe fheep bears a higher price in Yorkfhire,
in proportion to its relative finenefs, than any other Englifh
wool, on account of the fuperior foftnefs of the cloth made
from it. The ointment is alfo found to defend the animal
againit flies and fheep-ticks, and to be a prefervative againft
the feverity of the weather. ‘The only inconvenience is, that
the whitenefs of the wool is in fome degree afle&ted by it; and
it is not fuited for white ftoved cloth, or for any delicate co-
lours. Could any good and cheap fubftitute for tar be devifed,
there cannot be a doubt that the practice would be of great

benefit to the South Down fleeces on their native chalky
foils. It is, in faé, fimilar to what the Romans adopted .
with the Tarentine breed, which were frequently wathed,
and the fkins anointed with the dregs of olive-oil, mixed
with other ingredients. A fimilar treatment of all Englifh
fheep, after being thorn, would be found a mott effective
remedy againft flies and infeéts when the fkin is expofed :
it is alfo proved by experience to be a prefervative againit
the fcab.

The South Down breed, fo far as relates to the fleece,
will admit of confiderable improvement in the following par-
ticulars. Firlt; it might attain a degree of finenefsmore nearly
approaching that of the Merino fleece: fecondly, the fleece
might be grown more uniformly fine over the body : and
thirdly, almoft all the South Down fleeces have a few
grey or black hairs intermixed, which is a great defeé&t
where the goods made from it are intended to be ftoved
white. At prefent, the fineft part of the South Down
fleeces, called by the wool-ftapler the prime, does not bear
half the price of the prime Spanifh, or R wool, from the
beft Merino flocks. In the South Down fleeces very rarely
more than one-fourth part is of the beft quality ; but in the
Merino breed full two-thirds of each fleece will be of one
uniform quality, and that the prime or Rwool. In the
South Down fleeces, thofe parts from the buttocks and
fhanks will alfo be as coarfe as the coarfeft wool from
heavy fheep. Thefe defeéts in the South Down flecces are.
common to almoft all our native fine-woolled fheep, except
the Ryeland; but we conceive they admit of a remedy
without any injury to the form ef the animal, or the weight
of the fleece. If the opinion of an intelligent wool-ftapler
were firft taken on the qualities of the different fleeces of
thofe ewes from which it were propofed to raife a itock,
and fele&ting for them fome of the beft formed rams bred,
from South Downs and Merinos, called Anglo-merinos ;
from this progeny the moft perfe&t forms might be again
chofen: and if thefe were ftill too ftrongly marked with
the charaGter of the Merino form, another crofs with per-

fe& South Down ewes would produce a progeny from

which a race might be feleGted poffefling whatever was de-
firable in the carcafe, with a confiderable amelioration of the
fleece, both in the finenefs of the wool and the regularity
of the quality, over the greater part of the fkin. The
weight of the fleece would alfo be increafed, for the wool is
grown clofer and thicker on the Merinos than on any of the
Englifh breeds; and this property continues in the croffes
from that breed. ‘The advantage of employing an intel-
ligent wood-ftapler to judge of the quality of the fleeces
will be admitted, when we confider that a fibre of the fineft
wool is perhaps little more than the two-thoufandth part
of an inch in diameter; and that a variation from this,
which is too {mall to be vifible by the unpradtifed eye,
may occafion a difference in price not lefs than 40 fer cent.
Indeed, it is truly aftonifhing that the eye can dete& this
microfcopic difference unaided by inftruments. Nothing
but long and conftant pra€tice can fecure the facility of
determining the finenefs of wool; and the moft experienced,
dealer in Englifh fine wool, were he to difcontinue entirely
the examination of wool for three months, would not be able,*
at firft fight, to afcertain its quality and value to 15 or 20
per cent., {uppofing no change to have taken place in the
markets. Can it then be fuppofed that a grazier, who
has never acquired this fine fenfe of vifion, and to whom wool
is only an objeé of particular attention at one feafon of the
year, we fay, can it be poffible for fuch a perfon to be an
accurate judge of the quality of wool, and the comparative
finenefs of fibres ranging between the fifteen-hundredth ae
9 t

the two-thoufandth part of an inch? Yet many of our
-growers will decide, with the utmoft confi-
; their wool be finer or coarfer than it was
im the former year; or rather, they will decide that their
wool is always growing fiver.

th Down breed, in its improved flate, is likely
t moit of the Englifh fine-woolled breeds, except
he Cheviots in Northumberland, which are become
the feverity of the climate, on the elevated
parts of that county bordering on
This race we think much better fuited to fup-
coarfe-woolled fheep in the Highlands of Scot-
another of cm Bi i The Cheviot
deferibed by Mr. Culley, an intelligent farmer in
as ; the faces and legs are, in
ite: the bef kinds have a fine open countenance,
inent eyes; the body long, fore-quarter
i breaft, and breadth both there and
i fine, clean, {mall-boned legs; thin pelts;
of carcafe, when fat, from 1albs. to 18lbs. per
jer ; Aeeces from albs. to 3lbs. The qualities of the
are various ; fome of them contain a {mall
wool, which, as we have before remarked,
than any of our native Englifh wools. The
lord *s annual fhow in 1813, for the beit
from ary wool, was given to Mr. J. F. Smith,
piece of manufaGured from the prime part of the

__ In general, the quality of thefe fleeces might be much

by a judicious feleétion. The great defe@ is,
only, a {mall part is of the beit
Cheviot

: the
legs ; but thefe
at different times rah Heath fheep, to whom they

: eath fheep
and mixed breeds ; after which all the extenfive fine green
and Englifh borders from the fides of
the barren heaths of Lammer-muir are
Cheviot breed. The beft dind of thefe
valuable mountain-fheep, where the paf-
or contains a large portion of
that kind of herbage, which is the cafe with all the hills

ound where thefe fheep are bred; and the
alg, ire the border hills every where produce,
ppc fo well m fummer, as to enable them to
feverities of the winter.

of this breed of has been tly im-
sroved of years, but will fll sot of wk mica
ment. “ We cannot (fays Mr. Culley) expect the perfec-

fheep can be obtained

.

i

ee
> ci

tion of this breed of at once, it muft
proceed by flow gradation, as every other improvement hath

_ That breed of theep which brings the meft profit to the
farmer will always be preferred, but this objet is not to be
eae
. ’ an

Thefe qualities will see recommend them a the co
ut if to thefe qualities, fo effential to the fale of a moun-
‘ain farmer’s can be added a fleece of fine wool, a breed
of theep might then be obtained, the propereit for a hilly
ict of any we have yet feeu. There is little doubt but

this may be accomplifhed by proper felection, and probably

SHEEP.

the beft kind of Cheviot fheep, from their hardinefs, and

roducing a portion of fine wool, are the propereft flock
ES laying the foundation of fo defirable a change.””’ With
thefe fentuuments of Mr. Culley we entirely agree, and par-
ticularly in the propriety of fcledtin from the beit Cheviots
to lay the eae! a of a valuable itock of mountain theep,
which might fupplant the coarfe-woolled Heath theep in
North Britain. es fituation may be faid to have its
peculiar advantages for particular breeds of theep; and the
rage for improvement, and defire of change, have in fome
inftances been carried too far. There can be no doubt, that
the rich paftures on the eattern fide of England are better
fuited for heavy long-woolled theep than for South Downs
or Merinos, whilft it would be folly to attempt to ftock the
mountainous parts of Britain with the Dithiey or Lincoln-
fhire breeds. But many of the flocks in the uplands are
fufceptible of much improvement by feletion, without any
admixture, and in very expofed fituations it might not be
defirable to attempt improvement by introducing a lefs
hardy race. In dry and moderately elevated fituations there
are none of the fineft-woolled native or Anglo-merino breeds,
that might not be cultivated with advantage; but we are
well Rt 2 that with the prefent demand for, and price
of animal food, the breed which will fend into the market
the largeft quantity of good meat in the thorteft time, will
have the preference over any fuperior quality of the wool
alone. On which account the improvement of the South
Down breed, which combines both advantages, is perhaps
an objet the beft deferving attention, in all fituations fuited
for fine-woolled fheep, that are not too much expofed to
the inclemency of the climate.

A particular race of fheep exift in the Shetland iflands,
which produce a fleece more like that from the fheep on the
mountains of Thibet, than any of the European fheep with
which we are acquainted. From the report of Mr. Thomas
Johnfon, addrefled to the Britith Weol Society, it appears
that there are two varieties of Shetland fheep.

One of thefe varieties carry coarfe wool above and foft
fine below, and have three different fucceflions of wool
yearly, two of which refemble long hairs more than wool,
and are termed by the common people fors and /cudda.
When the wool begins to loofen at the roots, which gene-
rally happens about the month of February, the hairs or
feudda {pring up; and when the wool is carefully pulled off,
the tough hairs continue faft until the new aot grows up
about a quarter of an inch in length, then they gradually
wear off ; and when the new fleece has acquired about two
months’ growth, the rough hairs termed fors {pring up, and
keep root until the proper feafon for puiling it arrives,
when it is plucked off along with the wool, and is feparated
from it at drefling the fleece, by an tion called forfing.
The /cudda remains upon the fkin of the animal, as if it were
a thick coat or fence againft the inclemency of the feafons,
which provident nature has furnifhed for fupplying the want
of the fleece. See the preceding article Sueer.

The native or kindly breed, which bear the foft cottony
fleeces (as they are called), are rather of a delicate nature ;
their wool is fhort and open, and deftitute of a covering of
long hairs. Thefe foft-woolled fleeces are very often loft
or rubbed off, during the winter or early in the {pring,
which it is fuppofed might be prevented by clipping or
fhearing the fheep, in place of pulling off the wool, a bar-
barous praétice, tending to weaken the fheep and hurt the
cage of the itaple.

he Shetland theep are of various colours ; the filver-grey
wool is me, to be the fineft and fofteit, but the black,
the white, mourat, or brown, is very little inferior; it
is

SHEEP.

is all of the fofteft texture, fit for the fineft manufactory,
and in fome inftances has been found to rival Spanifh wool
itfelf: but the pure white is generally the moft valuable for
all the finer purpofes for which combing wool can be ufed.
For foftnefs and for luftre, no wool equals it ; and the flin,
with the fleece on, can be converted into a fur of very great
value, fome fpecimens of which have already been fent to
the China market.

They are in general very hardy. In the winter feafon,
when the ground is covered with fnow, they eat the fea-
weed very greedily, and often during long and fevere fnows
they have little elfe to live upon. Nature feems to have im-
parted to them a perfect knowledge of the time at which
this food may be procured; for immediately upon the tide
beginning to fall, the fheep in one body run direétly down
to the fea-fhores, although feeding on the hills feveral miles
diftant from the fea, where they remain until the tide returns
and obliges them to feek their ufual haunts.

It is to be regretted, that we know fo little of this pe-
culiar race of fheep, or of the time when they were intro-
duced, and the country from whence they came. The
wool, though intermixed with coarfe hairs, poflefles a molt
extraordinary degree of foftnefs, approaching, if not equal-
ling, that from the fheep of Thibet, and might, if proper
attention were paid to it, be applied with advantage to the
manufaCture of fhawls and other articles now imported from
the Eaft. None of the European wools which we have
feen, poflefs this quality in any degree to be compared with
that from the Shetland fheep. The circumitance of the fine
wool growing as down under a pile of coarfe wool or hair,
is not peculiar to thefe fheep. We believe that unmixed
fine wool is rather a product of cultivation than natural to
the animal in a wild itate. In the argali, as well as in nume-
rous animals, the inhabitants of cold countries, the fkin is
covered with a fhort fine down, and this is protected by a
covering of longer coarfe hair growing through the former.
By regular keeping and warmth, the coarfe hairs fall off in
many animals, and this has probably been the cafe originally
with all our fine-woolled fheep, many of which, if negleéted,
‘{hew indications of their original condition, growing coarfe
hair intermixed with the finer parts of the fleece. . Even in
the coarfeit woolled fheep of cold countries, fuch as the
Heath fheep in the Highlands of Scotland, we have often
feen a {mall portion of fine wool growing under the coarfe
fleeces with which thefe animals are covered. It appears to
be a beneficent provifion of the Author of nature, to ac-
commodate animals to different climates. European fheep
removed between the tropics, lancuifh and become fickly
from exceflive heat, and lofe their fleeces in the courfe ‘of
the enfuing year. They are afterwards covered with a thin
erop of coarfe fhort hair. We have feen a finely-fhaped ram,
of the European breed, brought from Louifiana, which was
entirely covered with white hair, as coarfe and fhort as that on
adog. We have no doubt, however, that in hot climates,
where fheep have the advantage of a mountain pafture, that
with care and proper fhelter thefe fleeces might be preferved,
but they would certainly be a ufelefs incumbrance. Fine
fleeces feem to be more peculiarly the produce of cool or
temperate climates; for it 1s obferved, in moft of our Eng-
lifh fheep, that the part of the wool or ftaple which 1s
grown during winter, is finer than that part which is grown
in fummer. Extreme heat and cold appear to have both an
effet upon the fkins-of fheep, to cover them with coarfe
hair ; but in cold climates there is alfo a tendency in the ani-
mal to produce a fine down underneath. It is not impro-
bable that the Shetland fheep may have been originally de-
fcended from the Tarentine breed, the ** molles oves,”? which

the Romans had introduced into Britain; their infular
fituation protecting them, in a confiderable degree, from in-
termixture. For, according to Dr. Anderton, though the
coarfe-woolled Heath fheep are introduced into thete ifles,
the native active fheep frequenting the more defolate wilds
at the greateft diftance from man, withdraw themfelves from
the others, and thus the breed is only partially debafed by
accidental flragglers. The whole fyftem of management, re-
{petting thefe fheep, is direétly the reverfe of what it fhould
be, and it is truly aftonifhing that they have preferved fo
long the peculiar foftnefs of the wool. Could thefe fheep
be introduced into more favourable fituations,-and proper
attention paid to them, we have no doubt that their wool
might be grown free from the coarfe hairs with which it is
at prefent intermixed; it would then be of far greater value
than the fineft Merino fleeces, as it might be applied to the
fabrication of fhawls, approaching in foftnefs to thofe of
Cafhmere.

We have now to defcribe the long-woolled breed of
fheep, which may be confidered as almolt peculiar to Great
Britain and Ireland; for though fheep of this breed are
found in Flanders, and fome other parts of Europe, their
number is inconfiderable ; and they no where exift with the
fame perfection of form, and producing the fame quantity
or quality of wool as in the united kingdoms. ‘Their fleece
is the envy of the other manufa€turing countries of Europe,
and can only be grown upon rich paftures. Long combing
wool, and the varieties, will be defcribed under the article
Woot; but it may be neceflary here to ftate that the
longer kind varies from fix to about nine or more inches in
the length of the ftaple, or filaments.
of this wool by the comb, the fibres are laid parallel ;
whereas in fhort-clothing wool, they are broken in all di-
rections by the cards.

Long wool is manufa€tured into fhalloons, camblets, mo-
reens, bombazeens, and various other articles; and a large
quantity is alfo manufaétured into what is called horfe-
millenery, confifting of girths, fringes, and other articles of
ufe or ornament inequipages. The coarfer kind makes the
warps for carpets.

Short combing wool is manufa@tured into hofiery.

The Lincolnfhire fheep may be confidered as the original
of our heavy fheep in England. Thefe, with the new Lei-
cefter or Difhley breed, have nearly fupplanted the other
varieties of long-woolled fheep. The Lincolnfhire breed

has alfo been generally fomewhat changed of late, by an |

In the manufa@ture. |

intermixture with the Leicefter breed. The original Lin- —

colnfhire fheep have no horns, and long carcafes ; the ewes
weighing from 14 lbs. to 20 lbs. fer quarter ; the three-year
old wethers from 20 Ibs. to 30 lbs. ‘The average weight of
the fleece is about 93 lbs., or three fleeces to the tod of
28 lbs. Some of the heavier fleeces weigh 14]bs. The

richer parts of Lincolnfhire will fupport five of thefe fheep _

on the acre; and when we take into account the price of
the wool, which in 1814 was 2s. per pound, it will be {een
that the fheep of this defeription are the moft profitable for

the lands to which they are fuited. The improvement made

in their form, by the mixture with the Leicetter breed, re-
duced the weight of the fleece; but the extraordinary de-
mand for heavy combing wool is inducing fome of the
farmers to return to their heavy breed. It is probable that
this kind of wool will not foon fall under 1s. 6d. per pound 5
and the production of a fleece, which weighs 10 or 12 ibs.,
muft be an objeét of attention to the grower, not lefs than
that of the carcafe. For though the wool from the Lei-
cefter breed is fomewhat finer, the weight feldom exceeds
7 lbs., and the difference of price is not more than about 2..

per

pertod of 2Sibs. The advantage of the latter breed con-

in being made fit for the butcher in lefs time: in this it
‘excels all the other breeds before known, At the time

mm Mr. Robert Bakewell of Dithley, in Leicefterthire,
‘dire&ted his attention to the improvement of theep, the
price of long wool was lefs than 44. per pound: the fleece was
a pe of little value to the grower, and Mr. Bakewell was

more t to common fenfe than the general prac-
ice of ty they felected for laughter ~~ part of
flock which was moit difpofed to fatten, as offering
an early profit ; the remainder were left to breed from
promifcuoufly, A confiderable part of England was then
uninelofed, and the flocks of di t proprietors being un-
avoidably intermixed, prevented a due regard to the im-
‘provement of the breed. Mr. Bakewell commenced his
improvements {ubfequent to the year 1760, and fucceeded
in exciting the attention of the public to the amelioration
of live-tock, by thewing the moft foeml method o<
‘complifhing this important object. The principal obj
which Mr. E i'hed in views ia hie improvement of dif-

rent animals, except horfes, was to produce the greateft

eight and value of fich, with the {mallelt expence of

wel,
_ Availing himfelf of the obfervations which he had made
op different animals, that certain jarities of form were
always attended by a difpofition to grow fat, and that ani-
it this difpofition from their anceftors; and if
free from intermixtures with other breeds, in

few ions the peculiar properties will
orm dine ae HT Bi of animal
regular permanent. He,
his own flock, and from the Hocks
theep to breed from, which poffeiied in the
that perfeétion of form he was defirous to
and perpetuate. By eieiowly crofling them, and
. electing the moft their progeny, he at length
uceeeded in forming the breed, which has been diftingui
by the name tee aeons Tubes hened s and
~~ Baving attained his obje&, he carefully guarded againit any
. uture intermixture with other breeds. This breed exceeds
ull others ey ign to fatten; and by crofling with
on i a very confiderable portion of the
-woolled theep in England have been greatly improved

: peer equpmanre at <oeia:fiaap, Rave bece well das
cribed Br Faller. an eminent grazier in Northumber-
d, who i the breed into that part of England,
by their i lively eyes, clean
flat backs, round (barrel-like)
very fine {mall bones, thin pelts, and inclination to
is probably owing
quality from obfervation
there is reafon to.believe extends y
pecies of domeftic quadrupeds. The Di

ly peculiar for its mutton being fat, but

P the fin of the grain: nat ay ar to the
atte sae aele oegemnolied. baceds, The weight of
e carcafe may be in general: |

2 years old, from 20 lbs. to 30 lbs.”

Mr. Culley at {8 lbs. ; but in Leicefterthire, we believe,
bawerage weight is not more than 6 or 7 Ibs., about four

2
*x peric

Se.

ed
re

SHEEP.

and five to the tod. ‘The wool is finer and thorter than
the Lincoln fhire, and a jon of it ts better (uited for the
hofiery trade than for thin goods, {uch as thalloons, &e. 5
but confidering the difference of weight, the fleece is not
fo profitable to the grower as that from the Lincolofhine
fheep.

There are two reafons for killing the wethers of the
Dithley breed at two years old: firit, they leave the moft

rofit; and, fecondly, if kept longer, they grow too fat
or genteel tables, It is very common for two-years old
wethers to cut four inches thick of fat op the ribs, and
from two to three inches all down the back. Even ewes of
this kind, which have bred and fuckled lambs ull July,
when killed about the Chriitmas following, will Siemeetie
mealure four or five inches thick of fat on the fides, and
two or three inches down the back, all the way from the
bead to the tail; and though theep of this breed are not
eminent for much tallow, yet ewes, under fuch circum-
ftances, generally produce from 18 lbs. to 24 lbs. of tallow
each. .This mutton is not fo inviting as the leaner kinds,
but it finds a ready market among the manufaGuring and
laborious part of - community.

The genes in different parts of England, who kad been
too igent refpecting the improvement of flock, no
ph te fenfible of the poflibility of forming a race of
fheep, that would produce a large weight of meat in a much

time than before known, than they became defirous

of introducing the breed; aud the tafte for growing fat

meat became generally adopted, and in many inflances
without proper regard to other confiderations. In fome in-
itances, fine-woolled flocks were crofled with this breed,
and it was vainly expe¢ted that they fhould preferve the
quality of the wool, and inereafe the carcafe at the fame
time. In other initances, the Leicetterfhire breed were in-
troduced on land only fuited for a lighter race of theep ;
and even where the paftures were fuitable, the propenfity to
fat was encouraged, until it became a difeafe, and the ani-
mal was fcarcely able to move under its own weight.
Whatever the advocates of this breed may advance in its
{upport, it cannot be contended that the mutton is equal
in flavour to that of the fmaller sheep.

The obje& of Mr. Bakewe!] was in thefe inftances mif-
taken: it was not to produce meat for the tables of the
rich, but to fupply {fubitantial nourifhment for the working
claffes. We have heard him fay, “a fmall quantity of this
fat meat, cooked over a large dith of. potatoes, is a good
dinner for a poor man’s family ; and this is what I propofed
in the feleétion of this breed.”

The increafed demand for animal food could not have
been fupplied had not fome improvement taken place, and
the heute clafles will ever prefer the fatteft meat. In this
refpect they refemble the North American Indians and the
back fettlers, who regard fat as the only nutritious part
of meat, and accordingly Volney defcribes the lean by a
name which fignifies meat bread. The rage for exceflively
fat meat has in fome degree fubfided, and the new Leicefters
are likely to be confined to thofe diitricts which are pecu-
liarly fuited for their growth, and the obje¢t of the grazier
will be directed to producing a large quantity of meat for
the confumption of the workyng clafles. Inftead of at-
tempting to improve the fine-woolled breeds by croffes with
a heavy race, it would be more judicious to purfue
fame plan of improvement with thofe breeds which Mr.
Bakewell attempted with fuch fuccefs in the heavy theep.

The improvement of the carcafe may, we are con-
vinced, be effected without injuring the quality or diminithi
the quantity of the wool. Of this Mr. Bakewell was

aware,

SHEEP.

aware, but the price of wool in England at the time of the
«American war (the period of his celebrity) was fo low,
that he ufed to fay, it would be defirable to grow fheep
without wool, and confine the attention to the carcafe ex-
clufively.

In fele&ting the moft profitable breed of fheep for a
farm, it can never anfwer to ttock hilly diftri@s with a
heavy race of fheep, and in fuch diftriéts the improvement
of the wool is an objeét more particularly deferving atten-
tion, becaufe we believe it would be poflible to grow an
equal weight of wool of a much finer quality than what
is produced by many of our coarfe-woolled breeds of fheep,
and particularly by the Heath fheep, which pafture the
mountainous parts of North Britain.

In rich paftures, weight of carcafe muft in a confider-
able degree fuperfede the improvement of the wool, at
leait fo far as relates to its finenefs; for the real intereft of
the grower of long wool is to produce a heavier fleece.
At the prefent price of wool, a Lincolnfhire fleece of twelve
pounds being more valuable than any other native Englifh
fleeces. To combine, therefore, the perfe@tion of form in
the Difhley breed with the heavy. fleece of Lincoln, is what
will beft reward the owners of long-woolled flocks.

There are, befides long and fhort-woolled fheep, numerous
flocks which produce wool fuited for the comb, but of a
finer and fhorter kind than the heavy combing wool. The
worfted yarn made from this wool is {pun foft, and manu-
factured into hofiery. A very confiderable quantity of
wool, fuited for hofiery, is grown in the county of Kent ;
but the breed of fheep which produce it, has not any dif-
tin& name, and appears to have originated from an inter-
mixture of the fhort-woolled fheep of the fouthern coun-
tiés with heavy long-woolled fheep. We believe there is
no country in Europe, which at prefent produces combing
wool of this kind equal in quality to that grown in Eng-
land. See Woot and Worstep.

Sueep, Stealing of, is now made felony without benefit
of clergy. See CatrTre.

By an ancient ftatute, no perfon fhall keep, at one time,
above two thoufand fheep; but lambs are not to be ac-
eounted fheep till they are a year old. (25 Hen. VIII.
c. 13.) Perfons exporting fheep fhall forfeit them, and
zos. for every fheep, &c. (12 Car. Il. c. 32.) And
perfons in the counties of Kent and Suflex, within ten
miles of the fea, are to give an account, in writing, after
fheep-fhearing, of the number of fleeces, to the next
officer of the cuftoms, &c. (9 & 10 W. III. c. 40.)
See Woot.

Sueep, Clatting of, in Agriculture, a term given to the
bufinefs of preparing the ewes of them for lambing in fome
places, which commonly takes place about a week before
the lambing feafon commences. In fuch cafes the ewes
are ufually driven into a pound, when the clatter, looker,
or fhepherd, draws them out fingly and feparately, turning
them upon their backs, and removes with the fhears the
locks of wool from the underfides of their tails, from about
their udders, and from the infides of their thighs. This
becomes neceffary, in confequence of the dirt and filth
which often adhere to the wool about thefe parts, efpe-
cially in moift growing {pring feafons, when the ewes are
affected with much purging. |The wool being removed in
this manner, not only_renders the parts more neat, but en-
ables the lamber, or perfon who has the care and direG@tion
of the bufinefs of lambing, to diftinguifh when the ewes
have lambed, by the mark or ftain which is generally left
on the back parts of the udders; as, if fuch marks were
not to occur, he would fometimes be at a lofs, as the

young ewes not unfrequently defert their lambs, and en-
deavour to efcape along with the other ewes, patturing as
unconcernedly as if nothing had happened to them.

Some think, that it would alfo be a good method at
this time to have the different ewes marked in a different
way about the face, in the order of their lambing, and to
have thofe of different forwardnefs put together into fepa-
rate fuitable paftures, to be taken care of in the moft
proper ways.

The barren ewes, or thofe not with lamb, are likewife
now diftinguifhed by the clatter, looker, &c. by their not
having any enlargement of their udders or their bellies, as
well as by their jumping and fkipping about in a nimble
manner; fuch being ufually turned off dire@tly upon the
fattening grounds. -

SHEep, Lambing of, the bufinefs of managing the lamb-
ing of the ewe flocks, which is very eflential and important,
though but little known or attended to in many places, even
where fheep are almoft the whole ftock of the farmer.
However, in confequence of this, and the employing of un-
ficilled perfons, much lofs is not unfrequently fuftained, to
the great injury and inconvenience of the fheep-grazing
farmer. In fome fituations, as thofe of the inclofed, dry,
and warm kind, and the more poor mountainous ones, as
well as the upland paftures and downs, fuch a very minute
attention to this bufinefs need not, perhaps, be beftowed,
as accidents lefs frequently occur, than on rich paftures or
marfhes, where the lambs are much expofed to danger and
deftru€tion from many caufes, unlefs very carefully attended
to at this time. The nature of the principles and pradtices .
which are neceflary in the bufinefs of lambing, are, in fhort,
yet much too confined and too little known to fheep-farmers
in general to be of any great advantage. The firft thing
which is requifite in preparing for this bufinefs, is the mak-
ing choice of proper dry warm fields and paftures for the
purpofe, and having them made as fafe and fecure as pof-
fible from the danger of aJl forts of accidents and incon-
veniences to the lambs. Where they have large wet open
expofed ditches, or any other fort of inconvenient fences on
their fides or other parts, they fhould be well guarded and
fecured by means of fuitable low dead or other hedges
being raifed on the fides of them, by the ufe of {mall light
hurdles, about two feet in height, with two racks, fixed
down around them or in the moft dangerous parts; by
placing bruth-faggots of a proper fize round the fides of
their banks, and ftaking them well down to prevent their
being difturbed by the winds and ftorms: by hanging old
fea-nets along their banks or borders; or by fome other
kind of cheap low defence, which the local nature of the
fituation may fuggeft. The nature of the paftures for this
ufe fhould conftantly be fuch as are fine and fhort in their
grafs, and neither of too poor nor too rich a uality, as in-
conveniencies are liabie to take place from each of thefe
flates.

It was formerly the pra€tice to have the lambing of the
ewe flocks performed on a great breadth of pafturé-land,
as two or three to the acre, or ina very thin manner, which
was extremely troublefome ; but it is now found that much
benefit attends its being done in a clofer or thicker Way, as
ten or twelve more to the acre, in fome cafes ; as it is not
only more convenient and fuccefsful, but far more profit-
able. By thus doing it in a narrow compafs, according to
the {tate of the grafs, the work is more fafely gone on with,
is more under the direction of the manager, and more con-
venient in cafe of difficulties arifing in it, while there is
much lefs danger of lofs among the ewes in confequence
of the nature of the keep, which is very material, as : is

often

r)

no means inconfiderable, efpecially in certain cir-
um “i and fituations towards the clole of the lambing
fome places it is not unufual, before the lambing takes
to provide a better fort of patture-field for the re-
eptic ah ach ewes as may chance to have twin-lambs,
food is required for them. This is beit when in
x the middle t of the lambing paftures, as the
and lambs, in that cafe, can be the molt readily and
ont atly removed, whereas in other circumitances there
often much trouble and difficulty caufed with the young
mbs, which fhould always be marked and removed as
y as they are enabled to walk.
The next ‘atory bufinefs, in fome fituations, is
of clatting the ewes, which commonly takes place a
time before the lambing begins ; but in many places

this is wholly neglected and thought quite ufelefs. See
KP, Clatting

The lambing time takes place at different periods in dif-
pren places, according to the nature of the fituation and
> circumitances, and often a week or ten days fooner
ter in the fame fituation, as the feafon may be more or
fevere, and the itocking of the land has been more
ght or more hard. But about the beginning of April is
r ly the beft. and mott general time. E lambing
; mo advantageous, where the circumitances of the
A will admit of . The feafon of lambing moltly con-
aues about a month, and in fome places, where lambers
employed without any lookers, two guineas and the
b-fkins are paid for that time.
In the aétual bufinefs of lambing, much care and atten-
lon are neceflary in the perfon who has the direétion and
gement of it. In all natural cafes of this fort the
fs that is done, perhaps, in general, the better, as nature
for the mott part effet the bufinefs in the fafeft and
proper manner. The chief difficulty, it has been faid,
in knowing when ewes thould be affifted, as young’
rfon 9 eer in this management are much too apt to.
rfere, which much mifchief and lofs not unfre-
uently proceed. The nature of the particular cafe, and
he workings of the ewes, fhould conitantly be the prin-
pal direGtors in this matter. Some conceive, that when
yes have been at work fome length of time, they fhould
p affited ; others, that when the lambs’ tongues are pro-
mded from the mouths, they fhould have affittance; but
of thefe rules is always to be depended upon.
are ftill others who think, that when the ewes rife
id walk off on being approached without any thing being
oat re uire no interference ; but that when
ey not rife, but appear a good deal fpent, t
ould have immediate afliftance. P cies alfo aa A
onfidereble force may be exerted in fuch cafes without
anger. But though there may be fome truth in the re-
it is always neceflary that much caution fhould be
where force is employed on thefe occafions. Befides
fomething may probably depend upon the {tate of
t feafons in this butinefs, as affiftance will be lefs neceflary

uch as than when they are warm. ‘The ewes
Id, never be meddled with in their lambing, in
there is an abfolute neceflity.

unnatural cafes of this kind, which vary very much
: mt inftances, according to the nature of the un-
part of the lamb which may prefent itfelf, and
equire the afliitance of proper perfons ; thofe who
re had the fulleft experience, and are the molt cool and
it will be the moft proper for performing the bufi-
» as where this is not the cafe, there will often be

3

&

x

2

SHEEP.

great lofs of lambs, as well as of ewes. In every cafe of thid
nature, where much force, er any other means are necel-
fary to be employed, very ~~ care and cicum{pedtion
fhould conttantly be ufed to have it exerted and done in the
moft gentle, dehberate, and fafe manner poflible, as other-
wife much danger and inconvenience may anfe, that might
have been avoided.

In fome inttances, where the lambs are apparently dead
when they are lambed, they may be recovered and reitored by
forcing air into their lungs in an eafy manner. This thould
however always be done almolt inftantly afterwards, other-
wife it feldom fucceeds,

As foon as the lambs are brought forth, they have com-
monly fome milk from their mothers given them, or are
allowed to fuck them for fome little time, which are fup-

ofed to increafe the affeGtion of the ewes for them; the
bs being at laft left as clofe by the nofes of the ewes as
poffible, which fhould be done quickly, that they may not
go a without noticing them. The lambs are always
greatly itrengthened and improved by the ewes licking them,
which they conitantly do, where they have a proper affee-
tion for them. When lambs droop and hang their heads:
immediately after they are lambed, they are bad and un-
favourable figns, as fhewing them to be in a weak and
dangerous {tate. The pra¢tice often made ufe of in fome
places, of putting the taibof the lamb, which is jut lambed,
into the ewe’s mouth, in order to promote her affection for
it, is very filly, and of no avail.

In the catching of all ewes in the lambing ftate, every
fort of exertion, trouble, aud fatigue, fo as vo injure them,
fhould be avoided as much as poffible, in order that they
may lamb, or be affifted to lamb, in a cool fuitable ftate.

During the time of lambing, the looker, or other perfon
who has the management, fhould be very careful and atten-
tive early in the mornings, and at other times, in looking
over the ewes and lambs, to fee that they are not injured
or loft by negleét in any way.

In Si where this bufinefs is carried on upon a large
feale, when every thing has been properly prepared and
got in readinefs, the lamber, or other perfon employed in
the management, begins his laborious and difficult under-
taking, by entering and going over the lambing paitures at
the time of day-break, with his lamb-hook in his hand,
that he may notice and examine the ewes, raife up fuch as
have lain down, and determine whether fuch lambs as are
dropped be capable of fucking, which is commonly readily
decided by the diftenfion of the belly. In cafes where
this laft is not able to be done, the ewes are either catched,
and the lambs fuckled, or the lamber is provided with
fome ewe’s milk in a bottle for the purpofe, a precaution
which is eflentially proper on many occafions, as when the
weather is fevere, wet, and itormy, in which circumitances
the lambs quickly perifh, if not fupplied with fuch food.
This attention often flrengthens the lambs in a wonderful
manner, and prevents much trouble in removing them and
the ewes to the pounds. The continuance of the affeétion
of the ewes is proved by the callings and noife they make.
The twin lambs are now ufually marked, to prevent con-
fufion, as the ewes frequently leave one of them, after
which they are not meddled or interfered with for fome little
time, as a few hours, or a day, as their ftrength may be ;
but as foon as they can walk, they are moftly removed with
the mothers into better keep. The ewes which have fingle
lambs commonly remain in the pafture-fields where they
have lambed, unlefs the number be great, in which cafe,
the lambs with the ewes are occafionally removed into the
pafture-fields, where they — to be kept wer

3

SHEEP.

the fummer. It is fuppofed, that by the above practice
the lambing paftures are fometimes lefs difcommoded, than
is the cafe where too great a number of ewes and lambs
are crowded together. Sometimes, when an ewe has loft
her lamb by any accident, and yet is deemed capable of
bringing one up, a twin lamb is given her. Whena weakly
lamb, however, is put to an old ewe, the milk is often too
{trong for it, and will fpeedily caufe its deltruCtion, by
{couring or in other ways; fuch lambs are likewife in-
capable of keeping the udders of the ewes properly drawn,
by which means much injury is frequently done to them.
Thefe ewes are therefore often better turned off for fatten-
ing, than being employed in this way. Various methods
are practifed with the ewes which have dead lambs, by
ufing fuch lambs fo as that their affeGtions may be increafed,
and the ewes be drawn into the pounds, and have other
lambs put to them. All fuch meafures, however, often fail.
The cuftom of running the ewes down to get them into the
pounds is always very bad, as frequently caufing their de-
ftruGiion. The ears of ewes being flapped down, and the
ewes not looking back, are in every cafe bad figns of affec-
tion, but the contrary good ones. Lambing pounds are
mottly fupplied with fuitable pens or coops for the con-
venience of fuckling the ftrange lambs in. And the coats
of the natural lambs are fometimes employed on the others.
Whatever is done in this way, muft, however, be done by
deception, and not force, as the ewes are very refractory.
Many other modes are had recourfe to in different cafes for

taming the refra€tory ewes, and caufing them to fuckle the

lambs in a proper manner.
It will now be neceflary for the lamber to be particu-

Males.
Cc —A
Times. Pee of Lincoln.
2 ‘ cotland.
From that of being lambed until eee Tae
that of weaning - =
From that of weaning until that Tees Wess
of the firft clip - 5 re gs. Ogs.
From that of the firft to that of Diapers alesis
the fecond clip - - -
From that of the fecond until? Young
that of the third clip - Wedders.

From that of the third clip fot Old sedders:

ward - -
From that of the fourth chip ever ) Full-grown
afterwards - - - fheep.

Such ewes as are broken ee

and refufe are denominated - Drapes and

Drape ewes

Such ewes as are neither with lamb
nor give milk, are faid to be

Thefe arbitrary names, which are given to fheep at different
periods of their exiftence, in different parts of the country,
ferve to guide the breeding and grazing fheep-farmers of
fuch places in their management with thefe animals.

SHEEP, Smearing of, the practice of falving or laying
them over with fome fort of fubftance of the un@uous kind,
for the purpofe of improving the wool, and preferving the
animals from difeafe. It is only had recourfe to in fome dif-
triés, and thofe moftly in the northern parts of the kingdom.
See Satvine of Sheep.

Raw unboiled tar, not mixed with butter, is fometimes

larly careful of the twin and other lambs, to fee that they
are regularly kept, and properly fuckled in all cafes, efpe-
cially thofe which are in a weakly flate, For this purpofe
fome milk of the cow or other kinds is often carried and
made ufe of by him, which prevents trouble afterwards.
In thefe intentions, it is proper to go over the fields twice
or oftener during the day ; and to be particularly attentive
in cold ftormy weather. All forts of accidents and dangers
are at thefe times to be looked to, and guarded againtt in
the moft cautious manner.

About the end of the firlt week of the lambing feafon,
one-half of the ewes will mottly have lambed, and more
than two-thirds of them probably at the termination of the
fecond, when the ewes may be brought into a lefs compafs,
and the lambing-field or pafture be cleared of all the twins
and moft of the fingle lambs, and they which are neceflary
may be had ready to cut, which in fuitable circumftances
is often done at this early period, by which the manager
will be freed from much of his future labour and
trouble.

By this fort of cautious attention and management in
the lambing of the ewe flocks, and the ufe of proper
forts of fhelter, a vaft faving of lambs and ewes may in
all cafes be made, and the interefts and profits of the
fheep-breeding farmer be very greatly aided and promoted.
See SHEEP.

Sueer, Names of, the feveral names which are given, ap-
plied, or appropriated to them, at different ages, in different
parts and places where they are much kept. Thefe are very
numerous, and of avery local nature ; but the following are
the greatett part of them.

Different Sexes. Females.
=) HS aa a
Dorfet. pee md Borders. Lincoln. Dorfet.
Purs. Lambs. Lambs, Lambs. Chilvers.
ayeny Hogs and
Gridlings. { Hoggits. } Hogs. Thraves. Thraves.
Gimmers
Shearlings. Ginmer.{ and
Sheeders.
Two-fhear. Counters.
Three-fhear. Fronters.
Ewes.

Crones in Norfolk and Suffolk.

in Lincolnfhire and fome other counties.

i Eild, or Yield in Scotland.

very dangerous and hurtful to fheep, efpecially rams, when —

laid on in large, or even moderate quantities. There are,
indeed, fome forts of tar which are very acrid, and blifter
fheep, caufing the wool to fall off, and the death of the
animals. When it is thin, and appears black on ftirring,
with an offenfive fmell, and cauftic acrid tafte, it fhould
never be ufed for fheep, efpecially without boiling, to de-
{troy fuch properties. The perfons engaged in the work of

{mearing often find proofs of the danger of this fort of tar, —

in the burning effects which it has on their fingers. Good
{mearing tar, itis faid, on being ftirred, has a thick, brown,

ropy

SHEEP.

eerenes and a more pleafant {mell, with a lefs
poe talle than the other kind. Tar thould probably
always be well mixed with butter in performing this fort of

work.
Snxer, Teeth of, the parts of the mouth of thefe animals
which their ages are often, in fome meafure, afcertained.
full-mouthed, they have ufually eight teeth of the in-
cifor kind in the lower jaw. ‘They throw up two fuch each
until this takes ata by which medhs their fucking

are difplaced or lolt. Sce Acx of Sheep, and Teer,
Siteer-Slearng. in Rural Economy, the bufinefs of clip-
iy or cuttin the coats or fleeces of theep, by means

conftruéted for the purpofe, which are termed
» It alfo forfetimes Favobes the feafon in which
i of work is ufvally performed, which was formerly,
and is eee neces + refent, a fort A cme The
operation in different ways by different perfons,
the belt mode is that of the circular, or round ab dees .
jnftead of the longitudinal, which is at prefent moft in ufe.
Te is ufually about June or July, according to
fituatien aud feafon, but should not be done either too early

‘or be too protracted, as injury and inconvenience may
attend either extreme. A ine ier is capable of clip-

» and up to twenty or
-five in the day; and more are frequently done by
_ very perfons. Great care fhould be taken not to cut
ick the animals ;. but where this accident happens in the
hern parts of the kingdom, they touch the part with a
ttle tar, or we ; andin Sweden it is often done with
train-oil and refin melted together. And in addition to
has been already obferved on this fe ty it may be
ftated, that much improvement has taken place in this art,
{pecially in the more fouthern diitriéts of the kingdom, in
sing ufe of the mode of clipping round the fheep, which
gradually extended itfelf from the northern diltriéts of
ifland ; by which lefs wool is loit by being left upon the
cep, and the bufinefs performed in a more expeditious, neat,
and convenient manner. It was much the practice formerly
9 clip lengthways of the theep, and in fome cafes in many
nt directions, according to the convenience of the per-
n who executed the work, by which means it was often
li done. Andin Ireland it has been ftated, that op 2 in
hort ftrokes, catching a bit of wool firft in one place and
nen in another; and that if they are not looked narrowly
er, they will leave many parts, fuch as the heads, tails,
d infides of the thighs, untouched.
We have, in {peaking of theep, noticed the moft proper
iods of performing this important operation ; and
e following remarks, b "aie: Poems an excellent theep-
in the county of t, with the comments of Mr.
ley, as ftated in the Annals of Agriculture, will thew
ie proper mode of managing the fheep in the time of {hear-
ng, as well as the manner of executing the bufinefs with
t fheep-mafters. It is itated by the former, that the
heep-fhearing in Romacy-Marth commences sbout Midfum-
» and finifhes about the middle of a who

tear firit, think efeape the effeéts of the fiy, and thofe
at fhear late, ap d they gain half a pound weight in
ry fleece, by the increafed per{piration of the theep. In

ly I wool has not the condition which it after-

ds acquires, but the hot weather occafions a good deal of

’ cement tata 2 In order to begin, a large pen
theep read the
four
time

led with coming of the fhearers, in
imber from to twelve, in proportion to the extent of
flock. The timeemployed is trom two to four days. The
ep are let into a pen, thirty or forty at a time, and
en taken out to be fheared, all except three, more are

out.

put in, becaufe one or two only left would be ag to jump
A boy keeps the gate, and the account of the num-
ber theared, with {mall leaden tellers, Thhefe thearers by
rofeflion differ much as to quantity and method of per-
ormance ; never begin early, but are fatished with eight or
ten hours thearing ; a good fhearer will thear ten an hour, a
badone feven. ‘Their emulation tends only to difpatch and
profit, not excellence of performance, and the theep are too
often pulled about ina rude and barbarous manner, and even
wounded by the thears with cuts of the length of three
or four inches, and the wool left unevenly thorn: tar, or
fome ointment, is then applied carelefsly by the boy, in or-
der to keep off the flies. The mafter’s office is utually to
give the pitch-mark, and when one field 1s finithed, the
—_ are returned, and others are in readinefs to take their
place.

The common mode of catching the theep is by the
hinder leg, drawing the animal backward to the adjacent
fhearing-place, the hand holding the leg to be low ;
when at the place it is turned on its hack. Or are
moved bodily, or one land placed on the neck, and another
behind, and in that manner walked along ; the firft, or com-
mon mode, he thinks the moft fafe. The parts of theep fed
on rich pattures, and flefhy, if handled hard, and bruifed,
are liable to fatal mortifications ; an accident which often
happens, on which account the pens upon fome lands are
obliged to be lined with woollens, or many would die
from bruifes. The price of fhearing is 18d. or 2s, a {core,
with a dinner, and 2s, 6d. or 1d. a fheep without vic-
tuals, but with drink, They vary much in different
places. A good’ winder will wind 400 fleeces a day,
at the fame price per hundred as the fhearer has per {core.
The method of fhearing—the left fide of the theep to the
fhearer’s left leg, his left foot at the root of the fheep’s tail,
and his left knee at the fheep’s left fhoulder. The procefs
commences with the fhears at the crown of the theep’s
head, with a ftraight cut alorig to the loins, returning to the
fhoulder, and making a circular fhear round the off-fide to
the middle of the belly ; the off hinder leg next: then, the
left hand holding the tail, a circular fhear of the rump to the
near buck of the fheep’s hind leg ; the two fore-feet are next
taken in the left hand, the fheep raifed, and the fhears fet in
at the breait, when the remaining part of the belly is theared
round to the near ftifle; laltly, the operator kneeling
down on his right knee, and the fheep’s neck being laid over
his left thigh, he fhears along the remaining fide.

However, on thefe ftatements Mr. Culley has made the
following praétical comments’; namely, that Mr. Price’s ob-
fervation is juft, with regard to the benefit arifing to wool
from being late clipped, and that it is confonant with the
opinion of the Lincolnfhire graziers and breeders, who have
paid more attention to the {ubje€&t, and underttand it better
than any other of the profeffion in this ifland : but very great
attention is required from the fhepherd to keep the
under the circumftances of late chpping, free from the 4
and maggots, alfo from the danger of being beaten by {mall
flies, which faften on thofe parts where the points of the
fhears have made the {malleft {cratch, But that, in regard
to fhearing feven or ten fheep in an hour, nothing can be
more abfurd and improper than fuch attempts, fince it is im-
poflible for the beft fhearer to clip the loweit number within
the time, and perform it well, as it ought to be done. Forty
years ago, the fame abfurd practice prevailed in Durham,
and particular men would clip fixty or feventy of that large
breed in a day; but the confequence of fuch improvident
hafte was, that befides imperfect fhearing, large pieces of
{kin were cut, particularly i the bellies of the thee

3N2

which,

SHEEP.

whicn, being conftantly peftered and tortured in thofe parts
by the flies throughout the fummer, fuffered much injury
in their health and condition, fome of them never recover-
ing. Several fheep have died immediately after fhearing,
owing, perhaps, to having their legs tied, which, with hur-
rying and tofling them about, brought on a colic or cramp,
putting a period to their exiftence in a moment. At that
time, in a flock of two hundred fheep, we feldom efcaped
without the lofs of one or two in a feafon; fince, in the
clipping of three thoufand and upwards annually, we have
not loft one thefe feven years. But, fays he, inftead of
fying their legs, and érying who could clip the mof per hour,
or day, we have wifely begun to ¢ry who could clip the def,
and from that change of fyftem, inftead of clipping fifty
fheep per day, we think it a fair day’s work to clip twenty-
five upon an average. Where fheep are clipped by the
great, and the men paid’for number done, thirty or up-
wards may be fheared in the day ; but our’s are done by the
day, without hurry, and fearcely wounding a fheep in the
day. Each fhearer makes his peculiar mark on the fheep,
red or blue, that bad fhearing may be deteGted ; an ufeful
ftimulus to exertion. And he thinks that the fheep may be
caught by the hinder leg, above the hough, but aot by any
means drawn backwards ; on the contrary, as foon as the
catcher has caught the fheep by the hough, he fhould draw it
backwards, until he can, with his left hand, reach the
threat, then, with the right hand behind its tail, he conveys
it along with eafe and fafety. He thus continues: thirty
years ago, it was the general practice in this county (North-
umberland), and fome old-fafhioned bigotted people adhere
to it ftill, to fhear the fheep thus; the clipper firft opened
the belly, and then, after tying all the four legs, fat down
upon a fack filled with ftraw, the fheep lying between his
legs ; when, in the moft awkward manner, he flafhed and
tore the fleece off, beginning at the neck, and going down
the left fide firft, finifhing at the right. Inftead of clipping
around the fheep, as at prefent, they then clipped them
moftly lengthways. The prefent method is to begin at the
back part of the head, in order to give room for the fhears
to make their way down the right fide of the neck, to the
open of the breaft. The man then fits down upon his right
knee, laying the head of the fheep over his left knee bent,
and beginning at the breatt, clips the underfide of the throat
upwards to the left cheek; then takes off the back of the
neck, and all the way down below the left fhoulder. He
then changes to the contrary fide, and makes his way down
to the open of the right flank. This done, he returns to
the breaft, and takes off the belly, after which it matters not
which fide he clips, becaufe being able to clip with either
hand, he meets his fhear-points exaétly at the middle of the
back, all the way, until he arrive at the thighs orlegs. He
then places the fheep on its left fide, and putting his right
foot over the neck, and the other forward to the undermoft
hind leg, clears the right fide; then turning the fheep over,
finifhes the whole.

Our price for clipping ufed to be one fhilling fer dozen,
and a gill of ale about ten o’clock, and another at four in the
afternoon. He fuppofes aman will have one fhilling and fix-
pence per dozen now; but we clip all with our own men,
moftly the fhepherds, many of whom now do it moft admi-
rably ;' and we have in general prevailed upon them to elip
with either hand; which is not only the eafieft for the
clipper, but enables him to do his work in the neateft and
moft complete manner.

Thefe remarks deferve the regard of the fheep-farmers in
other diftri@s, as well as’the following hint by Mr. Price,
It is, fays he, aftonifhing to fee a good fhearer handle a

fheep ; he ftudies its eafe, and the fheep feems delighted in
its fituation. This fhould always be the cafe with thefe ani-
mals, which are often much injured by coarfe management,
and the moft fober fteady men be con{tantly employed.

The fat fheep fhould always be fhorn earlier than thofe
which are lean. In the South Down fheep diftriét, a good
fheep-fhearer is faid to be able to fhear fifty fheep daily, for
which he has 2s. 6.3 or 1s. the fcore, and board. Great care
{hould at all times be taken not to injure the fheep im fhearing,
as the leaft cutis f{ometimes dangerous, though at others not.
In cafes of cuts, wax ointment or-well boiled tar mutt be
ufed, and the fheep have an open airy palture.

The very fame method is taken in fhearing the lambs as in
that of the old fheep, which, in many diftriéts, takes place
nearly at the fame time, or about the latter end of June and
the beginning of the following month ; fome fhearing them
immediately on their being weaned, but others fome little
time before, for the fake of allowing the old ewes to become
fat. See SHertine of Lambs.

The writer of the “ General Treatife on Cattle,” ftates,
that the royal flocks of fine-woolled fheep in Spain are
fheared in the beginning of May. There are fhearing-
houfes, each of which will contain twenty thoufand theep,
azd coft in building above five thoufand pounds tterling,
To fhear a flock of fixteen thoufand fheep requires one hun-
dred and twenty-five men, a man fhearing twelve ewes, or
eight rams, in a day. The theep are {weated previoufly to
being fheared, in a long, narrow, low gut, called the
f{weating place, where they remain a night, crowded as clofe
together as the fhepherd can keep them. The fhorn fheep
are permitted to go to paftureif the weather be fine, re-
turning home in the evening, to pafs the night within fhelter

‘of the walls, or in the houfe, if cold or cloudy ; by which

means they are brought by degrees to endure the open air.

And it is a point of great confequence in this bufinefs ta
have a perfon well converfant with the winding of the wool,
in order that it may be well performed, and look in a proper
manner to the buyer. In {ome places the wool is laid in a.
heap on being wound, and conveyed in the evening of the
fame day to the wool-lofts, or other depofitaries, Some
{tore their wool conftantly in upper chambers, as the moif-
ture which is produced by it on ground floors, when it is
continued there for any length of time, is fuppofed to be
very injurious to it, See Woot,

Surep-Fold, in Agriculture, a {pace of arable or other
land hurdled in for the purpofe of being manured, or a fort
of yard or other contrivance for the purpofe of confining and
keeping fheep in during the nights or in bad weather, in order
to afford them proteétion and fhelter. They are fometimes
fixed, being conitruéted of any convenient fort of light mate-
rials, fo'as to inclofe a {pace in proportion to the number of
fheep in the form of a kind of yard or fold, which is kept
conttantly well littered with fome fort of dry fubftance, fuch _
as ftubble, refufe ftraw, dry fand, &c. during the time the
fheep are folded and foddered in them, in order that as much
manure may be raifed as poffible. In fome cafes alfo, for —
the more perfect protection of the fheep, they have fheds ally i
round them, under which the fheep may lie without injury
from rain, fnow, or any fort of moifture. Thefe are ufually
termed /landing folds, and are either formed about the homes
ftalls, or in fome dry, rather elevated fituations, on the farms,
having the bottoms well laid with fome fort of material that _
is capable of keeping the fheep dry and clean, And in the
covered fold, or what is termed cotting, which is in ufe in
Herefordfhire, they are fometimes formed into different dis
vifions, fo as to contain certain numbers or kinds of fheep,

They are, however, in other cafes formed fo as to be
moveable,

means of wheels or other contrivances,
i t fituations according as they may be
See emrreee
a) is likewile fort of more imperfe& theep-
fold, which is formed by the planting of trees in different
methods, fo as to afford the animals a fort of protection
from the feverity of the winter feafon, as well as from the

exceflive heats of the fummer, Thefe are termed tree-folds,
and fometimes ion folds, from the manner in which they
are formed. Trer-Fold.

In the conflruétion of the fecond fort of theep-folds,
which were moltly formed in fome diflant parts of the farm,
in which cafes they were often denominated landing -out folds,
a and fimple method was had recourfe to by an excellent

in Suffolk (Mr. Macro). He inclofed a double
fold with thirteen dozen of old hurdles feven feet long each,
formed of wands, and raifed a haulm fence around them, com-
7 of upwards of fixty loads of wheat ftubble, the area of
fold being littered with about thirty loads more: in this
the flock were to be lodged where the field fold was unfafe, or
could not be from place to place, on account
of froft, fnow, or flood ; it is ftated, that he made
during the fame winter feafon, 493 loads of manure, im-
ing at the fame time the condition of his flock. The
Find, ee cblerve, lay at too great a diftance to be
_— from ie. s- fa He likewife —. that be-
he thou this plan, his fheep were always obli
lie i tet weather Lae a certain fheltered coe of he
where the fold manure was not only loft to his farm,
grafs on which the dung was heaped in fuch quan-
a4 became fo coarfe and four, that nothing would eat it ;
, exclufive of this injury, he ufed to lofe by mor-
tality, in a wet or fevere feafon, during yeaning time, amuch
number of both re and lambs, for want of the

’ "
than he ufuslly reared in one uring the period of his
farming bufinels. geet Peas 27

- And by the forming of thefe folds in any other cheap
eonvenient manner, fimilar benefits may be derived by the

theep-farmer.
~ In all thefe cafes the theep thould be littered down as above
often as neceflary, and be well fed, twice in the day at leaft,
with fuch food as has been provided, being let out during
the middle of the day, except when the feafon is very
lormy and fevere. It is ftated in the Annals of Agriculture,
that one hundred and thirty-four fheep confined in this way
or the period of fix weeks, and littered with five loads of
orty truffles = Saari Sey pounds : the trafs,
ade twenty-ei joads of manure, confuming two
Beef tn wah DEE Ga GaARE Git over th 7 he
a” t iority of thi of fold over that of t
maked ae kind, w therefore fufficiently obvious, and
may probably be had recourfe to at all feafons with fome
advantage. See Suxep, and Foupinc of Sheep. Alfo

f old tas been lately invented by Mr. Plowman

ing by hurdles ; and as the whole fold
at all times, it will be found pecu-
turnips on the land in frofty wea-
ufed. It is fated that a
firft inftance, will exceed that of hurdles,

given quantity of theep; but having had

‘
tt

SHEEP.

one in ufe nearly three years, he is fatisfied the faving
will be very confiderable; for, before he adopted this me-
thod of folding, he loft from thirty to forty nights folding
in the year, owing to the land being hard m dry fea-
fons; which renders folding almoft impratticable, as they
never can be fet without great labour and deftrution of
hurdles. He is alfo red of opinion, that the flock of

‘theep will be greatly increafed when this method of foldin

becomes more known ; and that it will enable many fm
farmers to keep from 50 to 100 theep, who are now de-
terred from it on account of the fmall quantity of feed they
have not anfwering to keep a man for that purpofe only ; but
by this plan, they may keep a boy at $s. or 3s. 6. per week,
who can attend on roc or 200 fheep, mt move the fold
himfelf without any afliftance. In heavy gales of wind it
frequently happens that the hurdles are blown down, and the
fheep of courle being at liberty to range over the crops do
incalculable malfchielo which cannot happen with this fold.
And in fome counties in England, where b are folded,
reat difficulties are experienced for want of outa for
them to feed off winter tares, &c. &c. as they root up
ftake or hurdle ; and having tried the experiment, he is
certain this fold will keep them in, and defy their attempts to
difplaceit. And an attonifhing quantity of time is Lived,
as a man can remove a fold to contain 300 fheep in five mi-
nutes, which by the old method frequently takes fome hours
to accomplifh. Many are now ufing folds from his model ;
and he received for the invention the gold medal of the So-
ciety for the Encouragement of Arte, &e.

It is farther remarked, that where the fold is wanted to be
ufed on very hilly ground, it muit be begun at the top and
worked down to the bottom for the eafe of removing it,
and then drawn up again with a horfe. This, however, he
has never had occafion to do, for his land is ploughed in a
contrary direétion, and he works the fold in the fame courfe
as the ridges. By this means the inconvenience is avoided
of crofling the furrows; and they are alfo a guide to keep
the fold in a ftraight dire@tion. With refpeét to the theep
getting under, he does not recolle& that circumitance to have
ever happened, nor does he conceive that any land, which is
cultivated, can be fo uneven as to admit of it.

This fheep-fold is twenty-one feet in length and three
feet eleven inches in height, being compofed of a top-rail,
and bars below paffed through uprights ; the whole moving
on low catt-iron wheels, and made ftrong, but in a light
manner.

Sueer-Hou/z, a fort of flight wooden building, conftru@ed
for the purpofe of containing and proteéting fheep in bad
weather, &c. Houfes of this kind are ufually made low,
for the fake of warmth in the winter, being moftly a third
part om than they have breadth; they fhould alfo be
fufficiently large for the quantity of fheep they are to con-
tain, The fides fhould be lined with boards, and the bottoms
be laid in an even manner with ftone or fome other material,
that the litter may be well impregnated with the urine of
the fheep. Avnd it has been advifed to have the fides expofed
to the fun, fet with lined moveable hurdles, that when it fhines
the whole may be laid open, to afford due refrefhment, and
give the an opportunity of feeding upon the patture
wherein they ftand. ‘They thould be well and fecurely co-
vered with fome fort of proper material upon the tops. They
are fometimes fixed in particular firuations, but in other
cafes, which is the more improved method, fo conftruéted
as to be capable of being removed as they may be wanted,
One of the latter kind, employed on the farm of the Hon.
George Villers, in Hertfordfhire, which is very complete,
is deferibed, with a plate, in the Corrected Agricultural Sur-

wey

SHEEP.

vey of that diftri&, lately publifhed by the Board of Agri-
culture.

In this fheep-houfe the wheels are fixed to the fides, being
fixteen inches in.diameter, and having an axle-tree to harnels
the horfe to, with weather-boarded flaps hung with hinges,
to turn up and button againit the fides when it is removed.
It has alfo folding doors to open when the fheep are let in
or out, and fixed weather-boarding, with cover-boarded
windows to open on hinges fideways, in order to put fodder
into the racks. Likewife a canvas roof, with open railing
for air.

It is obferved, that the length of the building is from
twenty feet to any length ; the width to be fuch as to en-
able the building to pais through the field-gates ; the wea-
ther-boarding and flaps to be made as thin as poffible, and
covered with pitch.

But how far the advantages of houfes of this fort may
compenfate the expences of conftruéting and keeping them
in repair, has not been fully fhewn ; nor has perhaps a fuf-
ficient number of trials been made to fhew the benefit of
confining fheep in covered houfes or folds, or whether the
economy of the animals is well fuited to fuch a fyftem.
Some circumftances of advantage attending the practice of
houfing fheep have certainly been ftated, but no fatisfactory
comparative experiments have, fo far as we know, been
made. And from the plan being little or not at all adopted
in many extenfive fheep diftriéts, and in others where it once
prevailed being either wholly in difufe or much on the de-
cline, as is well known to be the cafe in Gloucetterfhire
and the county of Hereford, there feems reafon at leaft to
prefume that it is not fo neceflary or fo well fuited to the
habits of the animal, nor even fo beneficial as has been fup-
pofed by fome writers on the fubje&. See Suezp, and
Foupinc of Sheep.

Houfes of this nature, for the purpofe of fheltering fheep
and lambs in bad weather, are formed in a very cheap and
fimple manner in Romney-Marfh, as may be feen in Price’s
account of the fheep-hufbandry of that diftri€t.

' Sueep-Hurdles, the flakes or fort of fence-gates which
are fet up fo asto confine fheep at the time of folding them
on arable land, or while they are feeding down, or upon
any particular fort of food. They are of feveral dif
ferent kinds, and either clofe or open; but the former are
in general to be preferred, as affording the moft fhelter. It
is obvious that the number required to inclofe a certain {pace
muit depend upon thelength. See Hurpte.

Sueep-Hu/bandry or Farming, that fort of farm manage-
ment which relates to or has fheep for its principal object.
There are various modifications of this fort of farming, de-
pending upon the differences in the circumftances of the
lands, their nature and fituations, as well as other local
matters. See SHEEP.

It is not improbable but that in this fort of hufbandry and
farming, the mofl benefit and advantage may often be de-
rived where there is a judicious intermixture and conjunc-
tion of other forts of management, as thofe of cultiva-
tion, cattle, planting, and fome others, fheep being con-
ftantly the great objet. By fuch means advantages are
afforded and brought forth in a great variety of different
ways to the individuals themfelves as well as the community
at large.

In this fort of farming management it is of much confe-
quence to have recourfé to the fixing upon fuch plans and
methods as are the beft and moft fuited to the ftate and na-
ture of the farms and markets for the fales of the animals.
In cafes where the farms are high, and of a cold expofed na-
ture, the wether fyftem may often enter largely into the

plan which is to be adopted. Where they are of the more
mixed nature, and confift of high, as well as low lands, they ©
may {ometimes be moft fuitably ftocked, ina partial manner,
with ewes and lambs, and with wethers. In thofe of the
more common fort, the breeding or rearing fy{tems, ac-
cording to circumi{tances, may frequently be the moit pro-
fitable modes. And in rich grafs land and mixed farms,
which are provided with parks and paftures, as well as arable
lands, the fheep-farmer may not unfrequently be tempted
to fatten the faleable part of his fheep-ftock, particularly
where the markets are convenient for him in refpe& to
diftance.

In all thefe forts of farms in this kind of hufbandry, the
breeds or kinds of fheep fhould always be feleCted and pro-
vided with a perfeét confideration of their nature, and the
management of the fheep be carefully direéted with the fame
intention. The means of difpofing of them fhould alfo be
well regarded. Many other circumftances likewife require
attention in this fort of hufbandry and management. ‘The
inquirer may find much ufeful information on the fubject of
Highland fheep-farms and fheep-farming, in the third volume
of the “ Tranfaétions of the Highland Society.”

Sneer-MMarks, and Marking, the marks and means of
performing thofe which are put upon fheep in different
ways and manners ; as by means of tar, ochre, reddle, wad,
and other fimilar fubftances, and by cutting the ears of the
animals in different forms and methods. ‘Thefe are ufeful
and neceflary to the fheep-farmer on many occafions and
accounts ; they ferve to diftinguifh his particular fheep and
flocks from thofe of others, to difcriminate the feveral dif-
fereut kinds, and to point out the various forts of manage-
ment which are neceflary with different kinds of fheep and
lambs, as well as to anfwer different purpofes in the fale of
them, &c. Jn the marking with tar, a tool or contrivance
having letters fixed to the end of it, is moftly made ufe of,
the initials of the name of the farmer being moft commonly
employed. With the other matters different methods are
taken; {uch as wetting and rubbing them on flates, ftones,
or other matters, and then marking the fheep with them in
the ways that may be thought neceflary. Sheep and lambs
are marked by thefe means in many different parts, as in
the faces, on the fides, the hips, and in feveral other places;
the work being mottly done according to the fancy of the
perfon engaged in it, or of the owner of the flock, often in
different curious modes and forms, as ftraight lines, curves,
circles, and a variety of other more out-of-the-way methods.
The marking of the fheep in the ears is performed by cutting
them witha fharp knife in different forms and manners, as in
that of a fork, an under and upper flant, an under and upper
{quare, an under and upper notch, a ftaple, an under and
upper flit, ftraight flit, a crop, acrop and flit, ahole, a hole
and flit, &c. All thefe feveral modes may be feen repre-
fented in Price’s Syftem of Romney-Marfh Sheep-grazing.

Marking fheep in the ears, in thefe or other methods,
forms excellent and corre means of diftinétion, for knowing
them by, in a variety of cafes and circumftances in fheep-
farming.

Dr. Lewis recommends the following compofition for
marking of fheep ; viz. melted tallow, with fo much char-
coal, in fine powder, {tirred into it, as is fufficient to make
it of a full black colour, and of a thick confiftence. This
mixture, being applied warm, with a marking-iron, on pieces
of flannel, quickly fixed or hardened, bore moderate rub-
bing, refifted the fun and rain, and yet could be wafhed out
freely with foap, or ley, or ftale urine. In order to render
it ftill more durable, and prevent its being rubbed off, with
the tallow may be melted an eighth, fixth, or fourth of its

weight

—" — 2a

weight of tar, which will readily wath out along with it from
the wool, Lewis's Com. Phil. Techn. p. 361.
Suner-Peas, the divifions made by {mall moveable
gates or hurdles, which are fet up to keep theep in fome
particular fituation, They are ulually formed on a dry
place, about the corners where different inclofures of the
ure kinds meet, fo as to be convenient for the whole.
are ufeful in examining and {electing the fheep, being
ided fo as to contain about three dozen fheep each, as
by this means they are always at the command ef the thep-
herd for any purpofes he may have in view. The bot-
ee Meni be firm and dry, fo that the theep may not be

Pens be Sones are likewife made and ufed in the

their own lambs fuck, as occafionally happens, and where
flrange lambs are put to them. ‘Two of the fide-boards of
aed of being lifted up and let down fo as
jut to admit the ewes; in which they move with difficulty,
lambs to beat them
thus find an opportunity
the ewes. Thefe pens are
very convenient in thefe cafes, two of which
are moftly kept in each lambing-ground or yard. See
Sueer- Pound.

Sneer-Pound, any fort of narrow inclofure for the con-
fining of theep. Pounds of this kind are of many different
forts, and ufeful for feveral different purpofes in the manage-
ment of theep-flocks, as thofe of lam ing, catching, forting,
and drefling them in different ways, &c. They fometimes
occupy e {paces of ground, but at other times are
op Sel =e extent.

EEP Rubbing-pofls, the {mall pofts and pieces of wood
which are fixed up in fheep-paftures for them to rub them-
felves againtt. They are fometimes fimple upright potts,
‘but at others they have crofs pieces put through them. They

me See Rus-

yt neceflary and ufeful to the an
Sueer-Shears, the thears ufed in clipping or fhearing of
p» They are frequently termed a. They are
: oehe peg bow iu the handle part, which caufes them
> open ds working with them. The handle part is
pitly about fix inches in length, and that of the blade about
3*but thears of this kind vary much in fize in different

| Sueer-Shin, or Pelt, the common covering by which the
fheep is furrounded and i

ies, ac-
i ,, Sheep pelts
an article of great utility and profit
to the ngers, or other per-
ir neighbourhood, under conftaut contraéts by the
ear, at different prices; as from the time of fhearing to
ichaelmas, at from 1, to 1s. 6d.; from that until Shrove-
; bm 24. to 24, Gd. ; and from Shrovetide to fhear-
ime again, at from 3s. to 3s. 6d. Something of this
od is purfued by the South Down theep-farmers in the
their fheep-fkins, as well as by thofe of feveral other
diftricts, by which great advantage often arifes.
P Wafbing-Hooks, the long-han hooks which
ufe of in wafhing theep in fome places. ‘The hooks
efe cafes fixed at the {mall ends of the long handles,
ral different forms, as in that of fomewhat the manner
3 that of twe — forts of half circles, with a little
4

SHEEP.

flraight portion in the middle, to which the handle is joined,
and, in fhort, quite flraight portions. © They are very ufeful,
im fome inilances, in guiding and direCling the theep in this
bufinefs,

Suner-Jard, any fort of inclofed yard or place in which

sm are confined and kept, either for the purpofe of bring-
ing forth their young, feeding, or fattening. ‘Thefe forte of
yards sre now eae — Br pretty general in many fheep dif-

triéts, as well as fome other places. They are made in fe
veral different ways, according to the nature of the fituation
and other circumflances ; and are often capable of being
formed in eafy, cheap, and convenient methods. See Suxer-
Fold, and wrap ap

It is ftated in the Agricultural Report of the County of
Oxford, that at Clifton, Mrs. Latham has one of the mot
complete theep-yards in it: a thed furrounds three fides of
it, iu which are racks and troughs for the fheep to take their
food from ; it is thirty-one yards in length and fixteen in
breadth; the theds being five yards broad. This theep-yard
does very well for two hundred ewes. ‘The ewes are ufually
brought into the yard from four to fix weeks before the
lambing-time, and continued in it until that is over, goin
out however in the day-time. This is {aid to be conan
as a very excellent method, but attention mutt be paid in it,
that the dung does not accumulate, as by its fermentatioa
the theep are fable to be injured, It fhould, of courfe, be
carted out in a repeated manner. When not removed fo
often as to prevent its taking on heat, it has alfo been found,
in Effex, to prove dangerous to lambing ewes, as well as
ewes and lambs.

The theds may be raifed on the fides of thefe yards fo as
to ferve as fences alfo. Stubble, haulm, and other fimilar
matters, may likewife be made to form warm walls as the
outfide fences of them.

All yards of this fort fhould be kept conflantly well
littered with fuitable fubftances of that kind, upon found-
ations laid with good earth, fand, or fome other proper
material.

In fome large theep diftri&ts, as the South Down, in Suffex,
the farmers have fometimes two or three of thefe yards, which
are well fheltered for the fheep to lie down in at night, in
very rainy and ttormy weather. In fome inftances a yard
of this nature, including the theds, comprehends a {pace of
not lefs than three hun and fifty-five {quare pons the
theds around which are about four yards wide. The whole
are kept, for the mott part, thoroughly well littered down.
They are commonly extremely warm, and found to preferve
many lambs in bad weather. The whole of the circum.
ference around them, in fome cafes, has a rack for contain-
ing hay.

2 the Dorchefter diftri& of the firft of the above counties,
natural grafs being extremely fearce, ftraw is given in large
quantities to fheep, as foon as ever the frofty mornings come
on ; barley-ftraw 1s had recourfe to in thefe yards, or in ftand-
ing pens 5 and afterwards bean and pea-{traw, which they are

fond of ; they pick off the pods and tops, and do very

with thefe oo Thefe forts of itraw are occa-
fionally carted to the field for their ufe ; and what they do
not confume, brought back to the yards; a pra¢tice which
is purfued to the faving a great many tons of hay. Such
dung as is made in this way is found to be very good.

Peas may likewife be applied in thefe igo or other
ways, in fattening lambs, the mothers of which are at turnips.
They are given in troughs, fix or eight weeks after the lambs
have been dropped. By the lambs having the Liberty of runnin
through the openings in the hurdles, where the field |
is followed, it is often fome time before they will take to ee

ort

SHEEP.

fort of food, but they moftly come on gradually, until a feore
will eat a peck a day. Peas are fometimes given in this
manner, till they reach fix fhillings a bufhel, and found to
anfwer. .A great many forts of food of thefe and other
kinds may be ufed with fuperior advantage for fheep in thefe
yards, and a vait fupply of good manure be provided at the
fame time.

Suerp-Clatter, in Rural Economy, a term applied in fome
fheep diftri€ts to the perfon who has the care of clatting the
ewes juit before the lambing-time begins.

SHEEP-Lamber, a name given to the perfon who has the
care and management of the ewe-flocks, which are under the
ftate of lambing, in fome fheep diftrits. It is of very great
advantage to a fheep-farmer to have a careful, {teady, active
lamber, unlefs he attends to the bufinefs himfelf, which is
always the beft way where it can be done; as few will be
found who are {ufficiently attentive and diligent at this pe-
riod, and, of courfe, much lofs may be fuftained. Where
perfons are hired for this purpofe, they fhould, it 1s fup-
pofed, be rather elderly than young, as being more expe-
rienced and lefs apt to be hafty, as the bufinefs is intricate,
tedious, and often fubject to much trouble, confufion, and
diforder, which ftand in need of a great deal of patience to
have them properly attended to and reétitied. 1f they are,
or have been lookers, it is fo much the better, but this is
far from being always the cafe, even in the principal fitua-
tions where fheep are kept. Inthe great fheep diftrict of
Romney-Marhh, it is the cuftom for the lambers to have the
fkins of the dead lambs'as a perquifite, which are ufually fold
at about 5s.. the dozen. This is certainly a bad practice,
as it tends to the making of rogues. The intere{t of the
fheep-mafter and his fervant, which ought to be the fame,
are feparated, as what is the lofs of the one is the gain
of the other, and much injury and difappointment refult
from it.

In the above great diftri& for fheep, it is ufual for the
lamber to go his regular rounds at four o’clock in the morn-
ing, and to continue with the ewes until about feven or eight,
returning to the fields until dinner-time ; then going off
again at one, and returning about five; fetting off on his
laft round at fix o’clock, when he does not return until
dark, There is indeed fometimes fo much to do, that he
cannot come home above once or twice a day: the lambing
fhould on no account be ever left until the lamber has every
thing in a fair way, efpecially at the time of night.

Suerr-Looker, the name of the perfon who has the
overlooking and management of the theep-flocks, in fome
diftri@s. Perfons of this kind fhould always be of careful,
fteady, active difpofitions ; with fufficient experience, and a
full knowledge of the different modes of fheep management.
See SHEPHERD.

SurEp Lambing-Hooks and Marks, the inftruments of
the hook and mark kind, which are made ufe of in laying
hold of the lambs, and in marking them, in particular cafes
and circumftances. In the former the handle is about feven
feet in length, the head, or circular open part, three inches
in width; the neck, or opening part to it, two inches and
one-eighth wide ; and the guide, or bill, fix mches and a
half in length. The latter have the hardles about feven
inches and a half long, with ftraight and curved or circular
marks at the ends, one inch and three-eighths in length, and
one inch and two-thirds in width, infide the circle. Thefe
inftruments are very ufeful on many occafions.

Surer Hay-Rack, that fort of rack which is provided
for the ufe of fheep in their confumption of hay and other
forts of fodder of the famenature. They are made in many
different ways, as open or covered on the tops, and boarded

or barred up alittle height at the bottom part, as well as
raifed on low wheels, or wholly without them.

They are ufually from about fix to nine feet in length,
and about two feet anda half in height ; the fpace for the
hay at the top about one foot ten inches, but which is fome-
times contraéted at the bottom fo as for the two fides to come
nearly together, ftanding out in the manner of common
horfe racks, The openings for the fheep to feed through
from three, four, or five inches to feven or eight. The
{maller they are the lefs lofs there will be, provided they are
{ufficient for the fheep getting at the fodder. The bars and
boards put at bottom in fome forts of thefe racks prevent
the animals getting into them. When formed with covers
and fereens for keeping the hay or other food, and the fheep,
while feeding, from being wet ; they are the moft complete,
efpecially if, at the fame time, they be provided with low
wheels, fo as to be capable of being moved from place to
place. In {mall racks, where wheels are put at one end, they
can be eafily moved about.

Thefe racks are of very great ufe and convenience on all
farms where fheep are kept in any quantity, See Rack.

Suerp Corn-Bin, any fort of trough or bin formed for
the purpofe of containing the corn, or any other fimilar kind
of food for fheep, either in fattening, or in other modes of
managing them, Bins or troughs of this nature are ufually
contrived in a light manner, fo as to be moveable on low
wheels ; having covers at fome height over them, fupported
from below by the ends and upright pieces in fomewhat the
roof-form, fo that the wet may be prevented from getting
to fuch provifions, and the fheep enabled to feed dry. They
are generally made very narrow, but of confiderable length,
the box or trough for the food having only the depth ofa
few inches.

Sheep-bins of this fort are very neceflary and ufeful in many
kinds of fheép management. ‘

Sueep-Dung, the manure afforded by fheep, which, by
means of proper folding in yards properly littered with f{lraw,
flubble, &c. may, in many cafes, be increafed to a confider-
able extent, fo as to render it an obje& with the farmer.
See Dune, Forpine of Sheep, and MANURE. :

Surrp-Drains, a name fometimes given to thofe fmall
drains which are frequently formed upon the more foft and
damp fheep-walks and paitures in different parts of the
kingdom, in order to render them in a {tate of greater dry-
nefs. ‘They are often made not more than two feet in width
at the furface, and one {pit and the fhovelling in depth.
They are moft {uited to that fort of wetnefs where the bot-
tom is of a clayey or tilly nature. Such fort of work can,
in fome places, often be done at three-halfpence the rood of
fix Scotch ells. Thefe drains fhould conftantly have a
gentle flope or declination acro{s the declivities of the
grounds on which they are made. ;

Surep-Farm, that fort of farm which is principally
conduéted under fome fyftem of fheep management. Many
fituations are fuited to fome branch of this hufbandry, which
cannot be converted to the purpofes of raifing grain or fat-
tening cattle, &c. See Suerp, and Farm.

The more dry the lands are, and the more fine and fhort the
grafs is which is upon them, the better and more proper and
{uitable they are, in general, for the purpofes of fheep-farms.
Where the fubitratum is of a lime-ftone quality, this 1s moftly
the-cafe, in the moft favourable degree. ’ But in many in-
{tances noqw, arable farms are likewile fheep-farms, to a very
confiderable extent ; artificial food beg grown and raifed
for the fheep-ftock in fufficiently {uitable proportions.
There is probably much advantage in this combination in
all cafes in+which it can be properly admitted. Sheep-

3 farms

SHE

animals, They
on the furface, with every fort of proper convenience for

oy wala ;

meEr-Leafe, a term applied to pafture-land appro-
to the feeding or fupporting of theep; or any fort
— on Which this kind of animal or live-flock

is
Snanr-Pafure, that kind of dry, firm pafture land which
is fuitable for the purpofes of grazing, feeding, and fatten-

fheep. Many forts of mouit land are not at all proper
= or adapted to this ufe, though well fuited for fome

forts of farm mana,

» crows, &c. They an-

» and where the fea-
a roportion of

with fand, as

Tathesonie 'B
point ween nto
Ballycaftle, not far from the remarkable rock, called
15'. + long. 6° r1'.
- alate! r ety
fome as in paftures,
silence of Bis tos Saintes

f liable to be burnt up in dry feafons.
faid to fucceéd with lefs moilture moft other
1s of a clofe-matted turf, where no
it be found a beneficial
Sone RASS. - -
in Natural Hiflory, a {pecies of fly-
nofes of an ei and itags, ar
cag of a two-winged fly.
the nofe in theep, and other
worms live, and attain
always full of a foft
worms with a pro
y large for their habitation;
uired their deftined

when the has been impregnated by the
nofe of a theep, or o animal, is
to depofit her eggs, in order to their

alifnieri, to whom the world
infe& clafs, is the firft who
origin of thefe worms.
had been, till that time, un-
were very early difcovered,
fteemed great medicines in

SHE

The fly, produced from this worm, has all the time of
its life a very lazy difpofition, and docs not like to make
any ule either of its legs or wings, Its head and corcelet
together are about as long as its body, which is compofed
of five rings, ftreaked on the back; a pale yellow and
brown are there difpofed in irregular {pots; the belly is of
the fame colours, bee they are there more regularly dif-
pofed, for the brown here makes three lines, one in the
middle, and oné on each fide, and all the intermediate
{paces are yellow ; the wings are nearly of the fame length
with the body, and are a little inclined in their pofition,
fo as to lie upon the body; they do not, however,
cover it, but a naked {pace is left between them; the
ailerons, or petty wings, which are found under each of the
wings, are of a whitifh colour, and perfeétly cover the
eas fo that they are not to be feen without lifting
up thefe.

The fly will live two months after it is firit produced,
but will take no nourifhment of any kind; and poflibly it
may be of the fame nature with the butterflies, which never
take any food during the whole time of their living in that
ftate. Reaumur Hutt. Inf. vol. iv. p. 552, &e.

Sueep-Scabious, in Botany. See Jasione.

Sueep-Shank, in Sea Language, is a fort of knot, or
hitch, caft on a rope, to shorten it as occafion requires ; °
particularly to increafe the {weep or length of a tackle,
by contra¢ting its runner, By this contrivance the body,

«to which the tackle is applied, may be hoifted much higher,
or removed much farther, in a fhorter time. Falconer.

Thus, if any weighty body is to be ‘hoitted into a thip, &c.
and it be found that the blocks of the tackle meet, or
block and block, before the objet can reach the top of the
fide, it will be neceflary to lower it again, or hang it by
fome other method, till the runner of the tackle be theep-
fhanked, by which the blocks will again be feparated to a
competent diftance. See Riccine, Plate I. fig. 16.

SHEEPCADE, in Agriculture, a name provincially ap-

ied to the large fheep-loufe.

SHEEPENT, or Sueeprscor, in Geography, a river of
America, in the diftri& of Maine, which runs into the fea,
N. lat. 43° 43’. W. long. 69° 38’.

SHEE PHAVEN, Wate: on the northern coaft of
the county of Donegal, Ireland, fituated weft of the Mul-
roy, and feparated from it by a long, and, in fome parts,
very narrow peninfula. ‘The furrounding country is moun-
tainous, and thinly inhabited ;. nor is there any town of
confequence in the neighbourhood. Dunfanaghy, near
Hornhead, is no more than a village, though ruins near it
feem to indicate that it was formerly much larger. The fili-
ceous fand found in this diftriét is of excellent quality for
making glafs, and it is carried to Belfait for that purpofe.
Under the article HonnHEAD, a promontory which forms the
weftern boundary of the harbour, we noticed, on the autho-

» rity of the late Dr. William Hamilton, in the Tranfactions

of the Royal Irith Academy, the effeét of drifting fands in
overwhelming the veitiges of cultivation ; and the change
thus produced in the appearance of a country. A fimilar
effect took place on the eaitern fide, which is thus defcribed
by the fame writer. “ About a*century ago, an elegant
elifce, according to the tafte of that age, was built on the
peninfula, between the harbours of Sheephaven and Mulroy,
which at prefent ftands * lke Tadmor of the Eait, the foli
tary wonder of a furrounding defert.’ The gardens are
totally denuded of trees and fhrubs by the fury of the
weltern winds; their walls, unable to fultain the mafs of
—r fands, have bent before the accumulated pref-
ure, and, overthrown in numberilefs places, have given free
30

SHE

paflage to this reftlefs enemy of all fertility. The courts,
the flights of fteps, the terraces, are all involved in equal
ruin; and their limits only difcoverable by tops of embat-
tled walls, vifible amid hills of fand. The manfion itfelf,
yielding to the unconquerable fury of the tempetft, ap-
proaches faft to deftruétion: the freighted whirlwind howl-
ing through every avenue and crevice, bears inceflantly
along its drifted burden, which has already filled the
lower apartments of the building, and begins now to rife
above the once elevated threfholds. Fields, fences, villages,
involved in common defolation, are reduced to one undittin-
guifhable fcene of fterile uniformity, and twelve hundred
acres of land are faid thus to have been buried, within
a fhort period, in irrecoverable ruin.’? N. lat. 55° 12!.
W. long. 7° 45’. Tranfactions of the Irifh Academy,
vol. vi.

SHEEPSCUT, a river of the United States, which
joins the Kennebeck E. of its mouth, and is navigable zo
or 30 miles. On the W. fide of this river is the excellent
port of Wifcaflet.

SHEEPSHEAD, a cape on the S. coaft of Ireland,
between Bantry bay and Dunmannus bay. N. lat. 51° 29!.
W. long. 9° 45'.

SHEER, a town of Candahar; 40 miles W. of Ghizni.

SHEER, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify pure, clean,
unmixed, as in the cafe of grain-feeds, and many kinds of
fubftances.

Sueer, in Ship-Building, the fore and aft curve or hang
of a fhip’s fides or deck.

Sueer-Draught, the plan of elevation of a fhip, on which
is defcribed the out-boards works, as the fheer-rails, wales,
ports, drifts, head, quarter, pot, and ftern, &c. The hang
or fheer of each deck infide, the height of the water-lines,
&c. See Suip-BuiLpInG, Plate I.

Sueer-Hooks, are large iron hooks ufed when a fhip
defigns to board another.

Sueer- Au/k, is an old fhip of war of 74 guns, cut down
to the lower deck, or nearly fo, and fitted in the following
manner, to fix or take out the lower matts of fhips in the
royal navy, as occafion requires. It has a malt fixed in
midfhips, about 33 inches in diameter, and 108 feet high,
fupported by fhores, the upper fhore 87, and the lower
fhore 81 feet long, and each 19 inches in diameter, their
heels refting againft the infide, abreaft the heels of the
fheers, which axe three in number, each compofed of two
pieces, 22 inches diameter, fcarted together in the middle,
to make 116 feet in height. The heels reft upon the
outfide, abrea‘t the maft; the heads unite, and are firmly
woolded together, and incline outwards, to hang over
the veflel whofe malts are to be fixed or taken out. The
fheers are likewife fupported by a derrick, which is 100
feet long, and 22 inches in diameter. The matt is further
fecured by fhrouds and {tays, and the fheers by ftays and
large tackles, from the matt to each fheer. From the head
of the fheers depend two large tackles, by which the
Jargeit mafts are raifed or lowered: the effort of thefe
tackles is produced by two capfterns, fixed on the hulk’s
deck for this purpofe. There is alfo a lefs-fized tackle for
matting {mall veffels. See Hux.

Sueer-Rails. See Ratt.

SueEER-Strake, the upper ftrake or ftrakes on the topfide
in midfhips. It forms the chief {trength of the topfide, and
is therefore thicker, and continued the whole length parallel
to the top timber-line and fcarfs at the butts between the
drifts.

Sueer-Wales, thofe ftrakes of thick ftuff in the topfide
ef three-decked fhips, which are wrought between the

g

SHE

middle and lower deck ports.
middle-wales.

Surer-Water, in Ornithology. See Suear- Water.

SHEER-BUCKS, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
Khoraffan ; 30 miles S.E. of Herat.

SHEERGOTTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
68 miles $.S.W. of Patna. N. lat. 24° 30! E. long.
84° 56!. ra

SHEERGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa; 30
miles N.W. of Ragoogur. N. lat. 24°40!. E. long. 77°.—
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gohud; 5
miles E. of Narwa.

SHEERING, or SuHeartinG, in the Woollen Manufac-
tures, the cloth-worker. or fheerman’s craft, or office ; or
the cutting off, with large fheers, the too long and fuper-
fluous knap, or fhag, found on the furface of woollen ftuffs,
fuftians, cottons, &c. in order to make them more {mooth
and even. :

Stuffs are fhorn more or fewer times, according to their
quality and finenefs. ;

Some ufe the phrale /heering of hats, for the pafling of
hats made of wool over the flame of a clear fire made of
{traw, or {pray, to take off the long hairs: others call
this flaming, and others finging. Other hats, as caftors,
femicaftors, &c. are fhorn, by rubbing them over with
pumice-ftone. See Har.

- SHEERING, or Shearing, in Sea Language, a term ufed for
the motion of a fhip, when fhe deviates from the line of the
courfe, either to the right or left, fo as to form a crooked
and irregular path through the water, either by reafon that
fhe is not fteered fteadily, or on account of the {wift run-
ning of the tide, &c. in which cafe fhe is faid to fheer, or
go a fheering. Hence, to Sheer off; is to remove to a
greater diftance.

When fhe lies at anchor, near port, &c. by reafon of
the fwift running of the tide-gate, &c. fhe is often faid to
be in danger of /heering home her anchor, or fheering afhore.
See Cuest-Rope.

SHEER MOHAMMED PETT, in Geography, a,
town of Hindooftan, in the cirear of Condapilly, on the
borders of Golconda; 21 miles W.N.W. of Condapilly.

SHEERNESS, a fea-port and market-town in the Ifle
of Shepey, and county of Kent, England, is feated at the
mouth of the river Medway, and has derived its origin
and importance from this circumftance. In the reign of
king Charles II. it was deemed advifeable to form a fort ©
here, to proteét the entrance to the river ; and in 1667 that
monarch, with an engineer and other officers, furveyed this
fpot, and dtrengthened the works. The Dutch, however,
fent a fleet to this point, deftroyed the fortifications, and
failed up the Medway, as far as Upnor caftle. After re-
turning again from this enterprife, the government direCted
fome fiona works to be formed here, becaufe the fpot was
deemed of great importance. A regular fortrefs was foon
conftruGed, and mounted with a line of large and heavy
cannon: and at the fame time feveral fmaller forts were
built at different ftations on the banks of the river. Since
that time Sheernefs has progreffively been augmented and
ftrengthened by new works, and now conftitutes a regular
garrifon. It is commanded by a governor, lieutenant-go-
vernor, a fort-major, and inferior officers : and the ordnance
eftablifhment is under the controul of a ftore-keeper, @
clerk of the cheque, and a clerk of the furvey. Adjoining
the fort is the king’s yard or dock, which has been made
{ubfequent to the former. This yard is chiefly ufed for
the repair of fhips that have been flightly damaged, and for
building frigates and fmaller veflels. A refident commif-

fioners,

Sometimes they are called

SHE

fioner, with two clerks, a mafler-thipwright, and other
officers, with labourers, are ftationed here.
A modern chapel Nas been creéted at the expence of
werument; but in ecclefialtical ntes and privileges this is
uborndinate to the parith church * Minion. According to
ulation reports of 1814, Sheernels was returned to
Seeias, inhabited houtes, and 96 uniuhabited ; and the
inhabitants, including the convicts in the hulks, and inde-
t of the garnfon, were ellimated at 1685. The
Bos ot the thips, called dreak-evaters, are occupied by about
feventy or eighty famibes, and altogether prefent a very
fingular appearance, the chimnics being railed of brick
from the lower gun-decks. ‘The market-day at Sheerrefs
Saturday, weekly.
P For a le Socal the garrifon and inhabitants of Sheer-
nels experienced a fearcity of freth water, the chief fupply
being brought in veflels ie Chatham; but it was deter-
mined by the Board of Ordnance, that an attempt fhould be
made to fink a well within the fort; and the execution of
this was entrufted to fir Thomas Hyde Page, an able engi-
peer, whofe kill and perfeverance were found fully equal to
the truft that had been repofed in him. The preenticn of
the materials, and the boring, to afcertain the different ftrata,
were o in April, 17815; and the finking of the well
was commenced in June following, The land-{prings, &c.
which y interrupted the pores of the work during
the re 8 or 150 feet, were exchided by regularly ftein-
ing the infide of the well; till, at length, the workmen
‘eame to an immenfe ftratum of chalk, which prevented
the further neceflity ofdteining, and enabled them to pro-
ceed with lefs inconvenience. They went on, however,
with caution; and having dug to the walt depth of
28 feet, the auger with oan they were trying the itrata
dropt down, and the water rufhed up with {uch velocity,
_ that the workmen could hard! te toni out ™” eter
alte to efcape drowning. In fix hours it rofe 189 feet,
Gs a fire Miwa -eraa witide aight act of the to ; and has
ever fince produced a never-failing fupply ; for, though con-
tantly drawn from, it has never been lowered more than
200 The quality of the water is fine and foft, and
‘its temperature ielostewtat warmer than commonly happens
in other wells. From this well, conjointly with that of
eenborough, not only the garrifon and inhabitants are
fupplied, but alfo the thipping which lie at anchor at the
nce of the Medway. (See Queensonoucu.) Halted’s
Tha. » &c. of the County of Kent, fol. 1. 8vo. edit.
v sae 1798.. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii.
E. W. Brayley, 8vo, 1806. :
SHEERPOUR, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar ;

SHEER in Ship- Building, are two matts or {pars, fet
: oe a up end of phe other, and there lathed
her with tackles depending from the interfeétion ; and

heels are {pread and lafhed, or cleated, to
nt their flipping. By this contrivance very heavy
ies are raifed, {i as the ftem, itern-frame, and the
pe-timbers of fhips: likewife fhips are malted by theers,
or have their malts taken out where there is no fheer-hulk.
3 in the Manege. See Cararison.
mal Sta a rope fattened to one or both
corners of a fail, to extend aud retain it in a par-
lar ftation. When a ship fails with a lateral wind, the
corner of the main and fore-fail are fattened by a

the are kept upright by guysextending each way from the _
ds. ‘The

SHE

tack and a theet; the former being to windward, and the
latter to leeward; the tack, however, is entirely diluted
with a ttern wind, whereas the fail is never (pread without
the afliflance of one or both of the theers. The itay tails
and ttudding-fails have only one tack, and one theet each ;
the ttay-fal tacks are always fatteved forward, and the
fheet drawn aft; but the thudding-tail tack draws the under
clue of the fail to the extremity of the boom, whereas the
fheet is employed to extend the inmoft. Faleoner, See
Sueats,

Suner, To bale home the. See Home.

Surer-dAnchor. See Ancor.

Sueer-Nails. See Nai.

Surer-Svo, See Sroprer.

SHEETING, a term fignifying the flooring of jointed
planks, under the lock-gates of a canal, and at the tail of

every lock and fluice, &c.

SHEFFIELD, Jouw, in Biography, duke of Bucking-
hambhire, fon of the earl of Mulgrave, was born in the year
1649. At the death of his father he {uceeeded to his title:
this was in the year 1658. Att an early age he difmifled his
governor, but {upplying the want by his own indultry, he
acquired a confiderable proficiency in literature. His mar-
tial ardour broke out at the age of feventeen, when he en-
gaged in the firft Dutch war as a volunteer. The indica-
tions which he gave of the love of pleafure, united with lites
rary talents, which had a peculiar value in the reign of
Charles II, rendered him a favourite at court, and he mate-
rally aflitted in the obtaining for Dryden the appointment
to the poft of laureat. At the commencement of the
fecond Dutch war, he was @ volunteer in the fleet. com-
manded by the duke of York, and was prefent at the battle
of Solebay, in which he behaved with fo much gallantry,
that on his return he was made captain of a fecond-rate fhip
of war. In the following year he was appointed colonel of
a regiment of foot under general Schomberg. In 1674 he
was decorated with the order of the Garter. He was, in

.1679, appointed lord-lieutenant of Yorkthire, and governor

of Hull, in which year he wrote a piece, entit “ The
Charatter of a Tory, in anfwer to that of a Trimmer.” In
this we have an avowal of his political principles, which
were thofe of the party in whofe name he wrote, and to
which he adhered during life. In 1680 he went out with
a force to the relief of ‘Tangier, then invelted by the Moors.
In this expedition he completely fucceeded, and with it
ended the military fervices of lord Mulgrave. On the ac-
ceflion of James II, he was chofen of the privy-council, and
made lord-chamberlain of the houfehold. He returned thefe
favours by a zealous attachment to his malter, which led
him to take a feat in the ecclefialtical commiffion ; but in
this he oppofed thofe meafures of the priefts which brought
on the {peedy ruin of that infatuated prince. Though
inimical to the revolution, yet he voted for the conjunét
fovereignty of king William with Mary. In 1694 he was
made marquis of Normanby ; potenithhandiog this, and his
admiffion into the cabinet, with a penfion, yet he till had a
great diflike to the king. On the acceflion, however, of
queen Anne, his former attachment to the court was revived,
and he experienced her favour by an appointment to the privy-
feal, and by other honours, which were terminated in 1703,
by a nomination to the dukedom of Buckinghambhire.
Jealous of the influence of the duke of Marlborough, he
refigned the office of ‘privy-feal, and remained out of office
feveral years, during which he built the houfe in St. James's
park, which has, during this reign, been the principal
refidence of the queen. yt the great change of the ery a
in 1710, he was again introduced, firit as fteward of the

30 2 houfe-

SHE

houfehold, and then as prefident of the council. After the
death of queen Anne he was an opponent of the court, and
employed his time chiefly in literary purfuits, till his death,
in 1721. ;

The duke had been thrice married, and each time to a
widow ; his lait wife was a natural daughter of James IT.,
by whom he had a fon. that furvived him. Following the
example of the court of Charles II., he freely indulged in
licentious amours; neverthelefs, it has been faid that he
had occafionally ferious thoughts of relizion, though pro-
bably not reftricted to any particular party. The following
is the epitaph which he compofed for himfelf: « Dubius
fed non improbus vixi: incertus morior, fed inturbatus :
humanum eit nefcire et errare. Chriftum adveneror: Deo
confido onanipotenti, benevolentiffimo : Ens entium miferere
mei.”? ‘This was infcribed on his magnificent monument in
Welttmintter Abbey, with the exception of the claufe refpect-
ing Chrift, which bifhop Atterbury rejeGted, thinking fimple
veneration a derogatory expreflion applied to the fecond
perfon inthe Trinity.

In the capacity of poet, the duke of Buckinghamfhire
does not rank very high; his compofitions are on a variety
of topics, of which, however, the chief is “ An Effay on
Poetry,”? which, according to Dr. Johnfon, contains judi-
cious precepts, which are fometimes new, and often hap-
pily exprefled, but with many weak lines, and fome ftrange
inftances of negligence. In his “‘ Eflay on Satire,’’ he
is {uppofed to have been affifted by Dryden, who, for fome
peculiarities in it, had the misfortune to be taken as the
real author.

The duke of Buckinghamfhire compofed two tragedies,
entitled “ Julius Cefar,’? and the * Death of Brutus ;’’
for the latter of which, at his requett, Pope wrote two
chorufles: of thefe Warburton fays, that they have the ufual
effe& of ill-placed ‘ornaments, they make the meannefs of
the piece more con{picuous. Inthe colleétion of the duke’s
works are likewife hiftorical memoirs, {peeches, eflays, &c.

SHEFFIELD, or Sheaffeld, in Geography, a large and
populous. market and manufa€turing town in the fouth
divifion of the wapentake of Strafford and Tickhill,
liberty of Hallamfhire, Weft Riding of Yorkhire, England,
is fituated at the diftance of 36 miles S. from Leeds, and
162 N.N.W. from London. The origin and remote hif-
tory of this town are totally unknown. In the 13th cen-
tury it was noted as a ftaple for articles of iron manufaCture.
Chaucer, who wrote in the reign of Edward III., men-
tions the “ Sheffield Whittle”’ in one of his poems. At that
period it was likewife diftinguifhed by a ftrong caltle, which
ftood at the north-eaft of the town, and is faid to have been
built during the fovereignty of Henry III. This caftle
defcended from the Lovetofts to the Nevils, lords Furnival,
and pafled from them to the Talbots, earls of Shrewfbury,
and fubfequently to the Howards, dukes of Norfolk, in
whofe family the lordfhip of the manor is ftill veited.
During the civil wars between Charles I. and his parliament,
Sheffield caftle fuftained a long fiege in the caule of royalty,
but eventually furrendered upon honourable terms, on the
roth of Auguft, 1644, and was foon afterwards ordered to be
demolifhed, which feems to have been done moft effectually,
as {carcely a veltige of it can now be difcovered.

Though Sheffield, as already faid, was confidered as a
ftaple for iron manufaCtures at a very early period, its trade,
for feveral centuries, was comparatively confined and pre-
carious, and confifted almoft entirely in the making of fheath-
knives, {ciffors, fickles, and {cythes. About the commence-
ment of the 17th century, an ordinary kind of tobacco-box
of iron, and Jews’ harps, began to be manufaétured here ;

1Q

SHE

and in 1625 the mafter manufacturers were firft incor-
porated by the ftyle of <¢ The Company of Cutlers of
Hallamfhire.”? This corporation is governed by a matter,
ele&ted annually, fix fearchers, and twenty-four affiftants,
and is the only body corporate yet exilting in Sheffield.
It was not, however, till after the year 1750, that this
town aflumed the rank it now holds in manufaturing
opulence. Previoufly to that period, none of the manu-
faéturers had extended their traffic beyond the limits of
Great Britain ; but in the fame year Mr. Jofeph Broadbent
opened a direét trade with the continent ; and in 1751, the
river Don having been rendered navigable to within three
miles of the town, that facility was given to exportation,
which has fince proved fo beneficial to its manufaéturing
interefts. ‘Soon afterwards Mr. Thomas Bolfover began
to plate brafs and copper buttons with filver; and in 1758
the filver plated manufa€ture was commenced on an exten-
five fcale by Mr. Jofeph Hancock, and has fubfequently
been profecuted with great advantage by a numerous clafs
of individuals. The opulence and population of the town
increafed from that time with great rapidity, and foon
gave rife to numerous conveniencies and improvements,
both ufeful andornamental. In 1760, the -firft ftage-coach
ftarted from Sheffield for London; and in 1762, the
theatre and aflembly-room were built by fubfeription. In
1770, the firft bank in Sheffield was opened by Mr. Roe-
buck ; and in 1786, the new market-place was formed,
about the fame time that Meflrs. Proétors erected the firft
fteam-engine grinding-wheel. In 1793, hackney coaches
were introduced; and in the fame year alfo was laid the
foundation of the General Infirmary. ‘Thefe circumiftances ©
are ‘mentioned, becaufe they are calculated to difplay the
progreflive benefits refulting from fuccefsful indultry and
ingenuity, the contemplation of which can {carcely fail to
excite pleafurable emotions in every breatt. i
To notice particularly the various articles manufaétured
at Sheffield of late years, would occupy too confiderable
a {pace to admit of the attempt. The two great divi-
fions of them are into cutlery and plated goods, each of
which branch out into numerous ramifications. The
manufacture of the latter is almoft entirely confined to the
town, and comprehends a great diverfity of articles: fuch ©
as tea-urns, coffee-pots, tankards, cups, candlefticks, and
other pieces of table furniture. The cutlery divifion em-
braces the making of edge-tools, combs, cafes, buttons,
fenders, files, anvils, joiners’ tools, lancets, forks, hafts,
ink-ftands, nails, knives of every defcription, .fciffors,
{cythes, fickles, awl-blades, bellows, &c. to which we fhall
only further add the refining of fteel. Many of thefe
manufaGiures are carried on in the country, as well as in
the town, efpecially in the villages and hamlets of Alter-
cliffe, Bentforeen, Brightfide, Butterthwaite, Carbrooke,
Darnal, Dyfon-Holmes, Dungworth, Ecclesfield, Greeno-
fide, Grimesthorpe, Hallam, Miln-houfes, Newfield-Green,
Owlerton, Pittf{moor, Stannington, Shiregreen, Upper-
Heeley, Wadfley, Woodfeats, &c.; all of which are
fituated within feven miles of Sheffield. Befides the above
manufaétures, theré are in the town and its vicinity feveral
extenfive founderies for iron, brafs, and white metal.
Sheffield occupies a fine eminence at the confluence of
two rivers, the Sheaf, whence the name of the town is
derived, and the Don. In former times the houfes were —
entirely built of ftone; but for the laft century they have
been chiefly compofed of brick. There are few towns
which furpafs it in the regularity of its ftreets, many of
them running in a dire line, and difplaying a feries of
uniform and refpectable edifices. Sheffield extends gee
ami

SHE

mile in ye from north to fouth, and nearly as much
breadth, from eait to welt. Ace to the pee
cenfus of 1811, it contains 7927 houles, and 35,840
ats, being an increafe of 4526 perfons fince 1801,
the date of the preceding report, notwithilanding the re-
| tardation its manufacturing profperity has fuftained during
eventful period. According to Gofling’s Te of the
made in 1732, there were 32 ftreets in Sheffield at
time: in 1771 thefe were increafed by 25 new itreets ;
ind in 1792, feventeen additional ttreets had been made.
Shefficld is not particularly diftinguifhed by the fupe-

e

#

rity of its public buildings, which are rather calculated
purpofes of utility than for thow, The principal of
are the Town-hall, built in 1700, Cutlers’-hall, the
: Infirmary, the allembly-room, and theatre, and four
ches belonging to the eftablifhment. Neither the
own-hall nor ’-hall deferve attention as architec-
be seg but the infirmary and theatre are hand-
. The former, commenced in 179% ftands

welt fide of the town; and in refpeét of fituation,
aid, and comfortable treatment, may vie with
fimilar inftitution in Great Britain. The latter,
ies the fame building with the aflembly-room,
s in Norfolk-itreet. The four churches are Trinity
t. Paul’s, St. James’s, and a chapel belonging to
of Norfolk’s hofpital. Trinity church, anciently
ed St. Peter’s, is the parifh church of Sheffield, and
‘to have been erected as carly as the reign of
On the fouth fide of the chancel is the Shrewf-
ich contains four monuments to the

ches, Sheffield contains feven meeting-houfes for Pro-
diffenters, one for Unitarians, two for Methodilts,
and a Roman Catholic chapel.

fo ye 29970! The* buildin
See Pe alg

lodation o: men, \
of whom receive five fhillings a-week, with clothing and
Here is alfo an hofpital founded by Mr. Thomas
a merchant of London, in 1703, for poor cutlers?
; likewife a free mar-fchool, and two charity-
ols ; one for boys, another for girls.
The other objeéts of a public kind which remain to be
ticed are, the mili barracks, fituated at the north-
tern extremity of the town; and the bridges thrown
er the Sheaf and the Don. ‘That upon the latter river
alled Lady’s bridge, from a religious houfe, which for-
ftood near it, and was dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
built in 1485s but underwent great alterations and
> 1762.
two market days, weekly, Tuefday and
firft for corn, &c. and the fecond for
There are alfo fith-markets on Monda
1 Thurfday, and two annual fairs, one on the firit
efday after Whitfun week, and another on the 28th of
vember. A new market-place, with extentive and com-
01 bles and other conveniencies, was formed and
td here Aug. 31, 1786. Sheffield fupports a weekly

stn
“et w a ;

SHE
new{paper, called the Iris,"’ which is edited by Mr, James
Montgomery, the author of “ The World before the
Flood,” cod olbae interetting poems,

The fcenery in the vicinity of this town may be cha-
raGterized as romantic. It is furrowunded by lofty hills,
commanding fine views over a populous and variegated
country, t the diftance of about a mile and a half to the
ealtward, fland the ruins of Sheffield manor-houle, the ancient
feat of the earls of Shrewfbury, where cardinal Wolfey
was feized with the difeafe which terminated his life about
a week afterwards, at the abbey of Leicelter. Wharncliffe
park, the feat of the honourable James Archibald Stuart

ortley, fituated on the river Don, fix miles to the north-
weit of Sheffield, is equally remarkable for the elegance of
its manfion, and the lane of the furrounding grounds.
In the neighbourhood of Sheflicld are fome alum mines;
and at Wickerfley, near the town, is a quarry, which fap-
plies the manufaGturers with gtibd-Reaeet r the finer articles
of cutlery. Aiikin’s Defeription of the Country round
Manchetter, 4to. 1795- Magna Britannia, gto. 1703.
Camden’s Britannia, fol. edit. 1789. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, 8vo. 1812, Gentle-
man’s Magazine, April and September, 1764.

SHeErrizLp, atown of America, in the itate of Vermont,
and county of Caledonia, containing’ 455 inhabitants:—
Alfo, a town of the ftate of Maflachuletts, in the county of
Berkshire ; incorporated in 1733, and containing 2439 in-
habitants. It is traverfed by Houfatonic river, which
fupplies water for feveral mills and river-works. South
mountain extends along the whole length of the town, on
the E. fide of the river.

SHEFFIELDIA, in Botany, Forlt. Gen. t. 9, was fo
called by Forfter in honour of the Rev. Mr. Sheffield,
whom he defiguates as the chief betanift at Oxford. This
a eg was, we believe, one of the companions of the

lufirious Banks, in the early part of his {tudies, and re-
tained to the lalt a love of the {cience, though without
having materially contributed to its advancement. He was
living as a fellow of a college, at rather an advanced age, in
1788. The genus in picion is now funk in Sauotus ;
fee that article

SHEFFORD, in Geography, a market-town in the
parith of Compton, hundred of Clifton, and county of Bed-
ford, England, is fituated at the diftance of ro miles 5.E.
from Bedford, and 41 miles N.N.W. from London. . It was
formerly a place of much more importance than at prefent,
and had a large weekly market on Friday, which has now
become almoit nominal. Still, however, it pofleffes the ad-
vantages arifing from four annual fairs, held on the 23d of
January, Eaiter Monday, the 19th of May, and the roth
of O&ober. The two firtt ufually afford a large fupply of
theep and cows; the third is lefs important ; and the fourth
is now only a holiday fair. Shefford is a chapelry, having
diftiné& Sonn of its own, and maintaining its own poor.
Here is a Roman Catholic chapel, endowed with an annual
flipend left in trult for that purpofe. According to the
oo epernd returns of 1811, this town contained 123

oufes and 536 inhabitants.

In the parifh of Flitton, and at the diltance of about four
miles from Shefford, is Wre(t Park, the feat of baronefs
Lucas, as reprefentative of the family of the Greys, earls
and dukes of Kent. In its prefent Hate the houfe retains
little appearance of antiquity, having been at various times
sdecondl cach Eedbrained.. it baciiaits a large collection of

rtraits, forming nearly a complete feries of all the mem-
ae of the noble family juft mentioned, from Henry, earl
of Kent, one of the peers who fat on the trial of Mary,

gueeco

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queen of Scots, down to the prefent time. Here are like-
wife feveral portraits of the Crew family, and others ; among
which are fir Randolph Crew, lord chief juftice of the court
of king’s bench; a fine piéture of Thomas lord Crew, by
fir Peter Lely; Nathaniel lord Crew, bifhop of Durham;
and the late lord chancellor Hardwicke.

The garden attached to this manfion exhibits a fpecimen
of the oid ftyle of arrangement and ornament, modified and
improved by the celebrated Brown, who formed the ferpen-
tine canal, which nearly furrounds the garden, and is fup-
plied by a {pring rifing near the houfe. -At the fpring-
head is a cold bath, over which is a building, defigned by fir
William Chambers, in imitation of a Roman temple. The
late duke of Kent, who was very partial to this refidence,
adorned the gardens with obelifks, and other buildings,
particularly a magnificent banquetting houfe, which termi-
nates a fpacious avenue in front of the houfe. Lyfons’s
Magna Britannia, Bedfordfhire, gto. 1806. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. i, by John Britton and E. W.
Brayley, 8vo. 1803.

SHEFNAL. Sce Suirrnat.

SHEHERON, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak; 15 miles E. of Kermanfhaw. ;

SHEHERVERD, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 30 miles S.W. of Sultania.

SHEHOUN, a town of Syria, under the jurifdiction
of an independent aga, anciently called «* Cappareas ;”’ 18
miles N. of Hamah.

SHEHRBAN, or SHEREBAN, a town of the Arabian
Irak, on the Diala; 50 miles N. of Bagdad. N. lat. 34°
8’. E. long. 44° 5!.

SHEHRIGHERD, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 33 miles W.S.W. of Kom.

SHEHRISTAN, a town of Perfia, in Khoraflan ; 210
miles W. of Herat. N. lat. 35° ro! E-long. 56° 20/.—
Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chufiltan, or
Kuziltan; 50 miles N.W. of Schiras.

SHEIB, a lake of Egypt; 48 miles E.N.E. of Cairo.

SHEIDEK, a mountain of Switzerland, in the S.E.
part of the canton of Berne; 10 miles S.E. of Inter-
lacken.

SHEIK, or Scuerrx, in the Oriental Cufloms, the perfon
who has the care of the mofques in Egypt: his duty is the
fame as that of the imams at Conftantinople. There are
more or fewer of thefe to every mofque, according to its
fize or revenues. One of thefe is head over the reft, and
anfwers -to a parifh-prieft with us, and has under him, in
large mofques, the readers and people who cry out to go to
prayers; but in {mall mofques the fheik is obliged to do all
this himfelf. In fuch it is their bufinefs to open the mofque,
to cry to prayers, and to begin their fhort devations at the
head of the congregation, who ftand rank and file in great
order, and make all their motions together. Every Friday
the fheik makes an harangue to his congregation. Pococke’s
Egypt, p- 171.

Sueik-Bellet, the name of an officer in the Oriental
nations.

In Egypt the fheik-bellet is the head of a city, and is
appointed by the pacha. The bufinefs of this officer is to
take care that no innovation be made, which may be pre-
judicial to the Porte, and that they fend no orders which
may hurt the liberties.of the people. But all his authority
depends on his credit and intereft, not his office: for the
government of Egypt is of fuch a kind, that often the
people of the leaft power by their pofts have the greateft
influence ; and a caia of the janizaries, or Arabs, and fome-
times one of their meaneft officers, an oda-bafha, finds means,

SHE

by his parts and abilities, to govern all things.
Egypt, p. 161.

SHEIKHAUT, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 8
miles N. of Iflamabad. i

SHEIKH-UL-JEBAL, Dominions of, or lord of the
mountains (commonly called the old man of the mountain)
comprifed the whole of that elevated tra in the province
of Azerbijan in the Perfian empire, which runs parallel
with the courfe of the Kizilozein and the greater part of
Ghilan. When deftroyed by Holaku, the Houtleines, or
Affaffins, poffefled upwards of 100 ftrong-holds; but the
refidence of the prince was generally confined to the caltles
Roudbar and Allah Ahmaut, both of which are fituated in
the Kohr Caucaufan, near Kazween.

SHEIKPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 28
miles E. of Bahar. N. lat. 25° 9!. E. long. 86° 3/.

SHEIMERS, a town of New Jerley ; 34 miles N.W.
of Morriftown.

SHEK Aszape’, a town of Egypt, anciently called 4n-
tinde; 8 miles N. of Abu Girgé.

Surk Abdalla, a village of Syria, in the pachalic of
Aleppo, where are fome fprings of water; 20 miles S.E,
of Aleppo. ‘

Suex bu Ennur, a town of Egypt; 7 miles S. of
Benifuef.

SuEK Ammer, a town of Egypt, fituated on the Nile;
17 miles N. of Syene.

Suk Embadé, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of
the Nile; 16 miles S.S.E. of Girgé. ;

SHEK Eredi, or Haradi, a town of Egypt, on the E.
fide of the Nile.
who after his death is faid te have been metamorphofed into
a ferpent, which never dies, and is confulted as a phyfician ;
8 miles N.N.E. of Achmim.

Sux i] Etman, a town of Egypt, on the Nile; 7 miles
S.S.W: of Cairo. f

Suex Fadlé, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile; 10 miles S. of Abu Girgé. pat

SHEK Zeineddin, a town of Egypt, on the ieft bank of
the Nile; 3 miles N. of Tahta.

SHEKEL, Suexte, Sheckle, Siclus, an ancient Hebrew

Pococke’s

filver coin, which was originally a didrachm, but, after the —

Maccabees, about the value of the Greek tetradrachm, or
four Attic drachmas, or four Roman denarii, allowing the
drachma and denarius to be of the fame value; and, accord-
ing to Mr. Raper’s valuation of the drachma at 91.286,
equal to 37°.144. See Drnarius and Dracum.

In the Bible, the fhekel is fometimes alfo rendered /olidus,
and fometimes /luter.

The Jewifh doétors are in great doubt about the weight
of the fhekel; and it is only by conjeéture, and by the
weight of the modern fhekel, that the ancient one is judged
equal to four Attic drachmas. ;

Father Souciet has deferibed feveral of thefe fhekels in
his Diflertation on the Hebrew Medals. By the way he
obferves, that the third and fourth parts of a fhekel, de-
{cribed by Waferus, de Ant. Numb. Heb. are counterfeits
of that author. :

The Hebrew fhekel, according to F. Merfenne, weighs
268 grains, and is compofed of 20 oboli, eacn obdlus
weighing 16 grains of wheat. This, he fays, is the juft
weight, as he found by weighing one in the French king’s
cabinet.
have been filed or clipped.
he has weighed feveral, and always found them near the
weight of a Roman femuncia, or half ounce. Mr. Raper
infers from various confiderations (fee Dracu™), that the

meay

Here is the tomb of a Turkifh faint, .

He adds, that fuch as come fhort of this weight
Bifhop Cumberland tells us, —

SHE

Mean didrachm, of 133 troy grains, mult be very near its

_ weight, and its half, or 664 grains, that of the Attic
d « The weight of the thekel would therefore be
x 4 = 266 troy grains.

are of opinion, that the Hebrews had two kinds
thekels, the common, or profane thekel, called didrachma ;
the thekel of the fanfuary; which lait they will have to
be double the former, By this expedient they think we
may get clear of fome difficulties occurring im Scripture,
where things are mentioned as of incredible weight ; parti-
that lage where it is faid, that every time Abla-
is hair, the weight of which uled to incom-
mode him, he cut off the weight of two hundred thekels,
But Villalpandus will not hear of fuch a dittinétion ; nor
do bifhop Cumberland, M. Morin, Greaves, &c, take the
inion to have any foundation. The profane thekel, or
fekel of four mas, they agree, was the fame with
the facred thekel ; and it was only called by this laft name,
becaufe the flandard of it was kept in the fanéteary by the

8.
Greaves a prehends, that the spiaxorra apyvpx, or 30
of filer, which were given to Judas, as the reward
of his treafon, were 30 thekels. Some modern writers, he
fs, imagine they were 3° denarii, and others, that they
were ftriginta libre, or triginta talenta. Greaves’s Works,
vol. i. p. 257) note m ;
Tt is maintained by feveral, that the Jews had alfo a gold
thekel, ficlus aureus, of the fame weight with the filver one ;
and valued at 1/. 16s. 6d. fterling.
The thekel is fuppofed to have been firft ftruck in the
‘Defert, on the footing of 100 to the Attic mina, weighing
160 tea of wheat, and current for 10 geratis, or oboh ;
but that ee be firuck of double that weight.

Some will have el to be the oldeft piece of money
in the world, as being in ufe in Abraham’s time; but this
$s not coined, or ped, nor had any other value be-
its ivtrinfic worth.

‘Xenophon mentions fhekels as current in Arabia; and
Du-Cange {peaks of others ftruck and current in England.
Pinkerton, in his Eflay on Medals, (vol. i. pe 291.) fug-
Re , that the Hebrew thekel, and alfo the brafs coins, with
Samaritan charaGters, were not moft of them later than the
Chriflian era, and y the fabrications of modern Jews.

any rate, the fame impreffion of a fprig on one fide, and
vafe upon the other, runs through all the coins of that
yarbzrous nation; and the admiflion of but one of them is
ightly efteemed to be almoft a difgrace to a cabinet.
SHEKIDJEK, in Geography, a town of Grand Bu-
tharia ; Go miles N.W. of Saganian.

Ay eg A rly of er in Dooab ; 60
files W. of Canoge. N. lat. 27°9'. E. long. 79° 2'.

SHELAH, a town of Agatic Ticker, is Natolia, near
s¢ Black fea; 12 miles N. of I{mid.
_SHELAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Far-

tan, near the Perfian gulf ; 1s miles $.S.W. of Jarom.
‘SHELBURN, a town of America, in the province of
Vermont, and county of Chittenden, on the E. fide of lake
plain, containing 987 inhabitants.
SHELBURN Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of New Hol-
d, between Ox and Cape Grenville.
SHELBURNE, fometimes Port Rofeway, a Sea-
rt town of Nova Scotia, at the head of a bay, in the
W. part of the province. At the conclufion of the
Nerican war, this place was made the feat of royalty, and
defigned to ereét many buildings here, and in 1783 it
tained above 600 families: but being negleGted and un-
le to defend. themfelves, many of them afterwards left

SHE
the town ; 90 miles W. of Halifax. N. lat. 43* 50. W.
long. 63° 15". °

Suecsunne, a town of America, in the province of
Maflachuferts and county of Hamphhire, contaming 61 m-
habitants; 98 miles W. of Botton.—Alfo, a town of New
Hampthire, in the county of Cors, incorporated in 1769,
and containing 176 whabitants,

SHELBY. Sce Suessy.

SHELDAFLE, a name ufed in feveral parts of the
kingdom for the chaffinch,

SHELDON, Gitnext, in Biography, archbithop of
Canterbury, was born in 1598, at Stanton, in Staflordthure.
His father was a menial fervant of Gilbert, earl of Shrewt-
bury, though defeended from an ancient family in Staflord-
fhire. The fubje¢t of this article took his name from the
earl, who was his ee. Having laid the foundation of
a good education, he was entered of Tnnity college, Oxford,
in 1613, and after taking the ufual degrees was elected fellow
of All Souls’ college, in 1622. When he had taken orders
he became chaplain to lord keeper Coventry, who made ufe
of his fervices on various important occafions. As a reward
for thefe fervices he prefented him with a prebend of Glo-
celter, and recommended him to his majefty, as one ex-
tremely well verfed in political affairs. When he had taken
his do¢tor’s degree, in 1634, he was elected warden of All
Souls’ college. He was alfo chaplain in ordinary to the king,
and clerk of the college, and was in the road to farther pre-
ferment when the civil wars broke out, and checked his ca-
reer. He was a zealous adberent to the royal caufe, at-
tended the king on various occafions, and rendered himfelf
obnoxious to the parliament: on which account he was
ejected from his wardenfhip, and imprifoned for fix months.

o his liberation, he retired to his friends in the country,
and from his own purfe, and the contributions of others,
he fent frequent fupplies to Charles II. during his exile.
On the reftoration he received ample rewards for his fuffer-
ings and fleady loyalty, being reitored to his offices, and pro-
moted to the fee of London.

The conference between the epifcopal and prefbyterian
divines in 1661, was held at the Savoy,. in bifhop Sheldon’s
lodgings. On this occafion he is accufed by the oppofite
party of want of fairnefs, and he rejeGted the propofal of
an amicable difcuffion, and infifted that the Prefbyterians
fhould firft bring in writing all their objections againft the
liturgy, and all the additions which they propofed. He did
not appear often at the conference, and never entered into
difputation, yet he was known. to have had the principal
fhare in the determination. To conciliate was not ‘his ob-
je&; he was refolved to carry his point by power: when it
was debated in council in Augutt 1662, whether the a& of
Uniformity fhould be pun¢tually executed that moath, or be
f{ufpended for a time, bifhop Sheldon pleaded againft the
fufpenfion, and carried the council with him. “ If,’’ fays
his biographer, ‘in thefe and other inftances he appears too
much the political churchman, in public fpirit and muni-
ficence he fuflained, after an exemplary manner, the cha-
rater of a great prelate. He expended large fums upon
the epifcopal houfes of the fee of London, and being in
1665 tranflated to that of Canterbury, he rebuilt the brary
at Lambeth, and made many acditions to its contents.’”

On the removal of lord Clarendon from the chancellor-
fhip of the univerfity of Oxford, he was chofen to fucceed
him in December 1667, and he immortalized his name in
that univerfity by the ere€tion, at his fole expence, of the
celebrated theatre at Oxford. Of this a& bifhop Lowth fays,
“ Munus dignum auétore—quod cum intueor et circume
fpicio videor mihi in ipfa Roma, vel in mediis Athenis, an-

tiquis

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tiquis illis, et cum maxime florentibus verfari.”? This edi-
fice was opened in July 1679, and almoft immediately after
the archbifhop refigned the chancellorfhip, and retired from
all public bufinefs: during the latter part of his life he
chiefly refided at Croydon. He died at Lambeth, on the
gth of November, 1677, in the Soth year of his age.

This prelate appears to have been more attached to the
duties of morality, than to the profeffion of any particular
dogtrines of religion: to young men of rank his advice
was always this: ‘ Let it be your principal aim to become
honeit men, and afterwards be as devout and religious as
you will. No piety will be of advantage to yourfelves or
others, unlefs you are honeft and moral men.’’ Burnet fays
that “* he feemed not to have a deep fenfe of religion, if any
at all, and {poke of it commonly as an engine of govern-
ment, and a matter of policy ;’’ but he allows that he was
a very generous and charitable man. From his own books
it appears, that from the time of his becoming bifhop of
London till his death, he expended for public and charitable
ufes 66,o00/. He publifhed a fermon at the thank{giving
for the king’s reitoration. He was intimate with Chilling-
worth, and found means to overcome his {cruples refpecting
fubfcription to the articles of the church of England.

SHeLpon, formerly Hungerford, in Geography, a potlt-
town of America, in the {tate of Vermont, and county of
Franklin, containing 883 inhabitants; 14 miles E. of lake
Champlain.

SHELE, a river of England, in the county of North-
umberland, which runs into the Tyne, near its head.

SHELF, a term ufed by the miners in many parts of
England, to exprefs a diftintion of the inner ftructure of
the earth, fo little known to philofophers, that they have
no. word to exprefs it by. Thefe workmen fometimes alfo
exprefs it by the term /a/ ground, or faj? country. What
they mean by this is, that part of the earth, which they
find lying even, and in an orderly manner, and evidently
having attained its primitive form and fituation, unmoved by
the waters of the general deluge, while the circumjacent,
and upper ftrata, have plainly been removed, and tofled
about.

It is evident to reafon, that there muft have been a very
violent concuffion of the fuperficial part of the earth, in the
time of its being covered by the waters of the deluge ; and
experience as much evinces this asreafon. Before this con-
cuflion it appears probable, that the uppermoft furface of
mineral veins, or loads, did in moft places lie even with the
then furface of the earth. The remains of this furface,
found at different depths ip digging, the miners exprefs by
the word /he/f.

In this concuffion of the waters covering the whole earth,
its natural furface, together with the uppermoft furface of
thofe mineral veins, were then in many places loofened, and
torn off; and the earth, and with it the mineral nodules,
called /hoad-/tones, were carried down with the defcending
waters from hills into the adjacent vallies, and fometimes
into the ftreams of rivers, by which they were wafhed to
yet greater diltances from their original place. On'this de-
pends the method of training mines. Phil. Tranf. N° 69.
See TRainine.

SHELFY, or Srary. Soil, in Agriculture, that fort
which ts chiefly formed of a kind of thin laminated, brittle,
flaty material, or which has it much mixed and incorporated
with its other earthy parts. It is a prevailing fort of land
in fome diftriéts; this fort of rotten flaty matter being
largely intermixed with the light loamy mould that confti-
tutes the earthy parts of it.

Where the fubfoil or fubftratum is a fchiftus, or foft

SHE

flate, as is the cafe in fome places in Cornwall, there is
great difference, in point of fertility, in the land, accordin
as the difpofition of the laminz is more flat, ‘or the con-
trary ; as when flat, the furface is more retentive of the
manure which is employed ; but when on the edge, what is
called a greedy or hungry fort of land is formed, that per-
mits the manure to be wafhed down through it in too ready
a manner, and be loft. See Sort. ;

SHELL, Tesva, in Natural Hiflory, a hard calcareous
crult, ferving to cover and inclofe a kind of animal, hence
called teffaceous. See ConcuoLoey and TErsTAcEoLocy.

SuELts, Collecting and cleaning of. See ConcnoLocy.

SHELLS, Figures and Colours, Sc. of. It is obferved,
that river-fhells have not fo agreeable or diverfified a colour
as the land and fea-fhells; but the variety in the figure, co-
lours, and other charaéters of fea-fhells, is almolt infinite.
The number of diftin@ f{pecies we find in the cabinets of
the curious is very great ; and doubtlefs the deep bottoms
of the fea, and the yet unfearched fhores, contain multi-
tudes more, yet unknown to us. Even the fame fpecies
differ in {ome degree in almoft every individual, fo that it is
rare to find any two fhells which are alike in all refpects.
Bonan. Recreat. Ment. et Ocul. p. 49.

This wonderful variety, however, is not all the produce
of one fea, or one country; the different parts of the world
afford us their different beauties. Bonani obferves, that the
moft beautiful fhells we are acquainted with come from the
Eaft Indies, and from the Red fea, This is in fome de-
gree countenanced by what is found to this day; from the
general obfervations of the curious, it feems that the fun,
by the great heat that it gives to the countries near the line,

exalts the colours of the fhells produced there, and gives ©

them a luftre and brilliancy, that thofe of colder climates
always want; and it may be, that the waters of thofe vatt
feas, which are not fubje€t to be weakened by frefh rivers,
give a nourifhment to the fifh, that may add to the brilliancy
of their fhells..

The fhores of Afia furnifh us with the pearl oyfters and
{callops in great perfe€tion, About Amboyna are found
the moft beautiful {pecimens of the cabbage-fhell, the arro-
foir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oytters, or echinated
oyfters.. Here alfo are found a great variety of extremely
beautiful mufcles, tellinz, and volute ; fome fine buccinums,
and the fhell called the Zrhiopian crown, in its greateft per-
feGtion.

The doulia, the murices, and the caflandrz, are alfo found
on thefe coafts in great beauty. Many elegant {nails and
fcrew-fhells are alfo brought from thence ; and finally the
ferapion and {pider-fhells. Huft. Nat. Eclairc. p. 168.

The Maldive, and Philippine iflands, Bengal, and the
coaft of Malabar, abound with the moft elegant of all the

{pecies of {nails, and furnifh many other kinds of fhells in_

great abundance and perfeétion. as

China abounds in the fineft {pecies of porcelain fhells, an
has alfo a great variety of beautiful {nails. ;

Japan furnifhes us with all the thicker and larger bi-
valves; and the ifle of Cyprus is famous above all other
parts of the world, for the beauty and variety of the patella,
or limpet, found there. :

America affords many very elegant fhells, but neither in
fo great abundance nor beauty as the fhores of Afia.

Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have befide, from the fame place, fome good porcelains,
and a very fine fpecies of dolium, or concha globofa, called
from this place the Panama purple fhell. One of the moft
beautiful of the cylinders is alfo known among our na-
turalifts under the name of the Panama hhell. \ ee

About

i
4

{
H

the buccinum kind, and the Midas car is found principally
about this place.

Jamaica, and the ifland of Barbadoes, have their fhores
covered with porcelains, chame, and buccina; and at St.
Domingo there are found almott all the fame {pecies of thells
that we have from the Eait Indies, though they are lefs beau-
tiful, andthe colours more pale and dead. The pearl oytter

alfo on this coalt, but fmaller than in the Perfian
. ‘At Martinico there are found in general the fame
as at St. ney Je but yet lefs beautiful.
Nags Canada ale the re —— and the as
country with mufcles o elegant
red colours; fome ei u4 ee
mee ai and thin; others are
of Newfoundlan
: the principal kinds found there are mufcles of feveral
fome of which are of confiderable beauty.
( there are many mother-of-pear! fhells,
but they are not of fo brilliant colours as thofe of the Perfian

The ifland of Magellan, at the fouthern point of America,
furnithes us with a very remarkable {pecies of mufcle, called

» Which is all over white: the women make
and the people of the Levant adorn their

The coatt a ewe mE is very rich in fhells: we find
there a vait variety of the large porcelains, many of them of
beauty; and the aux maris, or fea-nut, is very fre-
Befide thefe, and many other fhells, there are
on this coatt all the {pecies of nautili, many of which

Canary Ifles are found to abound with a vatt variet
fome other fhells ; and we we

incipally have from thence are the purpurz, porce-

_ The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a great

iety of thells, and many of very remarkable e and

; oe the whole, however, greatly inferior

9 thofe of Indies. The Mediterranean abounds
more in fhells than the ocean.

Corfica is famous beyond all other places for vaft quan-
~ Vou. XXXII. . .

SHELLS.

tities of the pinne marine, and many other very beautiful
fhells are found there. Lifter, Hilt. Conchyl.

About Syracufe are found the gondola thell, the alated
murex, and a great variety of elegant {nails, with fome of
the dolia and nerite.

The Adriatic fea, or gulf of Venice, is lefs furnithed
with thells than almoft any of the feas thereabout. Mufcles
and oylters of feveral {pecies are, however, found there,
and fome of the cordiformes or heart-thells; there are alfo
fome telling. About Ancona there are found vatt numbers
of the pholades buried in ttone, and the aures manne are

articularly frequent about Puzzoli. Bonani. Reereat.
Ment. et Ocul.

The ports of Marfeilles, Toulon, and Antibes, are full
of pinne marine, mufcles, telling, and chame. ‘The coatts
of Bretagne afford great numbers of the conche anatiferx
and pouflepieds; they are found on old rotten boards, on
fea fubitances, and among clutters of {punges. The other
ports of France, as Rochelle, Dunkirk, Breit, St. Maloes,
and others, furnith oytlers, excellent for the table, but of
the common kind, and of no beauty in their thells; great
numbers of mufeles are alfo found there ; and the common
telling, the onion-peel oyfters, the folens, and conch ana-
tifere, are alfo frequent there. At Granville, in Lower
Normandy, there are found very beautiful peétens, and fome
of the cordiformes, or heart-fhells. Our own Englith ceatts
are not the leaft fruitful in fhells, though they do not pro-
duce fuch elegantly painted ones as the p

About Plymouth are found oyiters, mufcles, and folens,
in great abundance ; and there, and on moit of our other
fhores, are numbers of the aures marine and dentalia, with
poten; which are very excellent foud ; and many elegant
pecies of the cham and telling are fifhed up in the fea about
Scarborough, and other places.

Ireland affords us great numbers of mufcles, and fome very
elegant fcallop fhells in great abundance, and the pholades
are frequent on moft of our fhores. We have alfo great
variety of the buccina and cochlez, fome volute; and on
the Guernfey coait a peculiarly beautiful {nail, called thence
the Guern/ey-/nail.

The coats of Spain and Portugal afford much the fame
{pecies of fhells with the Eaft Indies, but they are of much
ainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty. Hitt. Nat.
Eclaire. p. 172.

There are, according to Tavernier and others, fome rivers
in Bavaria, in which . ee are found pearls of a fine water.
About Cadiz there are found very large pinne marinz, and
fome fine buccina.’ The ifles of Majorca and Minorca afford
a great variety of extremely elegant thells. The —
marine are very numerous there, and their is
wrought into gloves, itockings, and other things. The
Baltic affords a great many beautiful fpecies, but parti-
cularly an orange-coloured pecten, or {callop fhell, which
is not found iu any other part of the world.

The freth-water fhells are found much more frequently,
and in much ter plenty, than the fea kinds; there is
fearcely a pond = ditch, or a river of freth water, in any part

coaits of of the world, in which there are not found vaft numbers af

thefe fhells with the fith living in them. All thefe thells are
{mall, and they are of ver fitele beauty, being ufually of
a plain ve aah brownie colour. Our ditches afford us
chame, ina, nerite, avd fome patelle; but the Nile,
and fome other rivers, furnifhed the ancients with a {pecies
of tellina, which was large and eatable, and fo much fuperior
to the common fea tellina in flavour, that it is commanly
Maprany san peine of aalink vapie, ia, the royal éellina, -

3 re

SHELLS.

We have a {mall {pecies of buccinum common in our
frefh waters, which is very elegant, and always has its oper-
culum inthe manner of the larger buccina ; a {mall kind of
mufcle is alfo very common, which is fo extremely thin and
tender, that it can hardly be handled without breaking to
pieces.

The large frefh-water mufcle, commonly called in England
the horfe mufcle, is too well known to need a defcription,
and the fize of this gives it a difference from all other frefh-
water fhells.

SHELLS, Poli/bing of. (See Concnotocy.) This is an
art of no long itanding in the world, in its prefent per-
feGtion ; and as the love of fea-fhells is become fo common
among us, it may not be difagreeable to the reader to find
fome inftructions in executing fo pleafing a method of adding
to their natural beauty, the rules for which are at prefent fo
little known, though the effeét of them be fo much efteemed.

Among the immenfe variety of fhells which we are ac-
quainted with, fome are taken out of the fea, or found on
its fhores in all their perfe€tion and beauty; their colours
being all fpread by nature upon the furface, and their natural
polifh fuperior to any thing that art could give. Where
nature is in herfelf thus perfect, it were madnefs to attempt
to add any thing to her charms; but in others, where the
beauties are latent and covered with a coarfer outer fkin, art
is to be called in, and the outer veil being taken off, all the
internal beauties appear.

Among the fhells which are found naturally polifhed are
the porcelains, or cowries, the caflanders, the dolia, or
conch globof or tuns, fome buccina, the volutes, and the
cylinders, or olives, or, as they are generally though im-
properly called, the rhombi; excepting only two or three,
as the tiara, the plume, and the butter-tub rhombus; where
there is an unpromifing film on the furface, hiding a very
great fhare of beauty within. Though the generality of the
fhells of thefe genera are taken out of the fea in all their
beauty, and in their utmoft natural polifh, there are feveral
other genera, in which all, or moft of the fpecies, are taken
up naturally rough and foul, and covered with an epidermis,
or coarfe outer fkin, which is in many rough and downy, or
hairy. The telline, the mufcles, the cochlee, and many
others, are of this kind. The more nice colleftors, as na-
turalitts, infift upon having all their fhells in their native and
genuine appearance, as they are found when living at fea;
but the ladies who make colleétions hate the dilagreeable
outfides, and will have all fuch polifhed. It would be very
advifeable, however, for both kinds of colle€&tors to have the
fame fhells in different {pecimens, both rough and _polifhed ;
the naturalift would, by this means, befides knowing the
outfide of the fhell, be better acquainted with its internal
characters than he otherwife could be, and the lady would
have a pleafure in comparing the beauties of the fhell, in its
wrought ftate, to its coarfe appearance as nature gives it.
How many elegancies in this part of the creation muft be
wholly loft to us, if it were not for the affiftance of an art
of this kind! Many fhells in their native ftate are like
rough diamonds, and we can form no jult idea of their
Beaune till they have been polifhed and wrought into
orm.

Though the art of polifhing fhells is a very valuable one,
yet it is very dangerous to the fhells ; for without the utmoft
care, the means ufed to polifh and beautify a fhell often
wholly deftroy it. When a fhell is to be polifhed, the firft
thing to be examined is whether it have naturally a fmooth
lurface, or be covered with tubercles or prominences.

A fhell which has a fmooth furface, and a natural dull

12

polifh, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with a piece
of chamoy leather, with fome tripoli, or fine rotten ftone,
and will become of a perfectly bright and fine polifh,
Emery is not to be ufed on this occafion, becaufe it wears
away too much of the fhell. This operation requires .the
hand of an experienced perfon, that knows how {uperficial
the work mutt be, and where he is to ftop ; for in many of
thefe fhells the lines are only on tke furface, and the wear-
ing away ever fo little of the fhell defaces them. A hell
that is rough, foul, and crufty, or coyered with a tartareous
coat, mutt be left a whole day fteeping in hot water; when
it has imbibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed
with rough emery on a itick, or with the blade of a knife,
in order to get off the coat. After this it may be dipped in
diluted aqua fortis, {pirit of falt, or any other acid; and
after remaining a few moments in it, be again plunged into
common water. ‘This will greatly add to the {peed of the
work. After this it is to be well rubbed with linen cloths
impregnated with common foap ; and when by thefe feveral
means it is made perfeétly clean, the polifhing is to be finifhed
with fine emery and a hair-brufh. If after this the {hell
when dry appears not to have fo good a polifh as was defired,
it muft be rubbed over with a folution of gum arabic ; and
this will add greatly to its glofs, without doing it any fort
of injury. The gum water mutt not be too thick, and then
it gives no fenfible coat, only heightening the colours. The
white of an egg anfwers this purpofe alfo very well; but it
is fubject to turn yellow. If the fhell has an epidermis,
which will by no means admit the polifhing of it, it is to be
dipped feveral times in diluted aqua fortis, that this may be

eaten off ; and then the hell is to be polifhed in the ufual way -

with putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine
brufh. When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours,
the fhells mult be fteeped in-hot water, and after that the fkin
worked off by degrees with an old file. This is the cafe with
feveral of the cylinders, which have not the natural polifh of
the reft.

When a fhell is covered with a thick and fatty epidermis,
as is the cafe with feveral of the mufcles and telline ; in this
cafe aqua fortis will do no fervice, as it will not touch the
fin ; then a rough brufh and coarfe emery are to be ufed ;
and if this does not fucceed, feal-fkin, or, as he workmen
call it, f/h-/Rin and pummice-ftone, are to be employed.

ae mae a Pe which will not ane way to
any of thefe means, the only way left is to plunge it feveral
times into {trong aqua fortis, till the {tubborn cruit is wholly
eroded. ‘The limpets, auris marina, the helmet-fhells, and
feveral other fpecies of this kind, muft have this fort of
management ; but as the defigm is to fhew the hidden beauties
under the cruft, and not to deftroy the natural beauty and
polifh of the infide of the fhell, the method of ufing the aqua
fortis muft be this; along piece of wax muit be provided,
and one end of it made perfeétly to cover the whole mouth of
the fhell ; the other end willthen ferve as a handle, and the
mouth being {topped by the wax, the liquor cannot get in
to the infide to {fpoil it ; then there mult be placed on a table
a veffel full of aqua fortis, and another full of common
water. j ‘
The fhell is to be plunged into the aqua fortis ; and after
remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken out, and plunged
into the common water. The progrefs the aqua fortis
makes in eroding the furface is thus to be carefully obferved
every time it is taken out; the point of the fhell, and any
other tender parts, are to be covered with wax, to prevent
the aqua fortis from eating them away ; and if there be any
worm-holes, they alfo muft be {topped up with wax, pha

_ wife

a

‘ SHELLS.

wife the aqua fortis would foon eat through in thofe places,
When the ated dippings into the aqua fortis thew that
the coat is fufficiently eaten away, then the hell is to be
wrought carefully with fine emery and a brush; and when it
is as high as can be by this means, it mutt be wiped
clean, and rubbed over with gum-water, or the white of an
. In this fort of work the operator mult always have
Be cestion to wear gloves, otherwife the leait touch of the
fortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow ; and
Chea, if it be not regarded, will eat off the fkin and the
onils,

Thefe are the methods to be ufed with hells, which require
but a moderate quantity of the furface to be taken off ; but
there are others which require to have a larger area Ai

off, and to be uncovered deeper ; this is called entirely fealing
a thell. This is done by means of an horizontal wheel of
lead or tin, impreguated with rough emery ; and the Mell is
wrought down in the fame manner in og Bm ol are
wrou the lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, how-
Sia his the Pelorni this weit ond nicety ; very often
thells are cut dewn too far by it, and wholly fpoiled; and
avoid this, a coarfe vein muft be often left flanding in

down at
After the thell is thus cut down to a proper degree, it is
by the

to be with fine tripoli, or rotten ftone, with
a ad pret turned

fame machine as the leaden
one, or Les common method of working with the hand

with the ingredients, when a hell is full of tubercles,

or which mutt be preferved. It is then im-
to ufe the ; and if the common way of dipping
be fortis be attem the tubercles, being harder than

be eat through before the ret is
fufficiently fealed, and the thell will be {poiled ; in this cafe
and patience are the only means of effecting a polith.
’s-hair pencil muft be or in aqua fortis, and
is the intermediate eer is fhell 3 be wetted,
Se aero ; this is to be often repeated,
a moments the fhell is always to be plunged
flop the erofion of the acid, which would other-
a deitroy the beauty of the thell.
has i taken off the foulnefs of the thell,
polithed with emery of the fine® kind, or with
means of a {mall ftick, or the common polifhing
isa tedious troublefome thing, i
chin oyfters and murices, oe ae other
are te be wrought ; and what is wortt of all is,
has been employed, the bufinefs is
itill remain feveral places which
‘not be reached by any inftrument ; fo that the thell
over with gum-water, or the
of an egg afterwards, in order to bring out the co-
give a glofs: in fome cafes it is even neceffary to

1:

REPRE Eo > gee a2 8°
at
!

be

we hear of new fhells in the cabinets of

eat a ne as Fates ~

polifhed appearance o others we! own. ‘o

reader errors of this kind, it may be
the moft remarkable fpecies thus ufually

add
onyx-fhell, or volute, called by us the purple or

violet-tip, which in its natural fate is of a fimple pale
brown, when it is wrought flightly, or polithed with jut

the fuperficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow ; and
when it is eat away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-white,
with the lower part blueith: it is ui this flate that it is called
the onyx-thell; and it is preferved in many cabinets in its
rough ftate, and in its yellow appearance as different {pecies
of thells.

The violet-fhell, fo common among the curious, is a
{pecies of porcelain, or common cowry, which does not sp-
pear in that elegance till it has been polithed ; and the com-
mon auris marina thews itfelf in two or three different forme,
as it is snore or lefs deeply wrought. In its rough ftate it is
dufky and coarfe, of a pale brown on the outfide, and pearly
within: when it is eaten down a little way below the fur-
face, it thews variegations of black and green; and when
fill farther eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within
and without.

The nautilus, when it is polifhed down, appears all over
of a fine pearly colour; but when it is eaten away but to a
{mall depth, it appears of a fine yellowith colour, with
dufky hairs. The burgau, when entirely cleared of its
coat, is of the moft beautiful pearl-colour ; but when only
flightly eroded, it appears of a variegated mixture of green
and red; whence it has been called the parroquet-thell.
The common helmet-fhell, when wrought, is of the colour
of the finelt agate; and the mufcles, in general, though
very plain fhells, in their common ‘appearance, become ver
beautiful when polifhed, and thew large veins of the molt
elegant colours. The Perfian fhell, in its natural ftate, is
all over white, and covered with tubercles; but when it has
been ground down on a wheel, and polifhed, it appears of a
prey colour, with {pots and veins of a very bright and

ighly polifhed white. The oe at in general, become
very different when polifhed, moft of them fhewing very
elegant colours ; among thefe the tortoife-fhell limpet is the
principal; it does not appear at all of that colour or tranf-
parence, till it has been wrought.

That elegant fpecies of fhell called the junquil-chama,
which has (inh fo many judges of thefe things into an
opinion of its being a new f{pecies, is only a white chama,
with a‘reticulated furface; but when this is .polifhed, it
lofes at once its reticular work and its colour, and becomes

ly {mooth,. and of a fine bright yellow; and the
violet-coloured chama of New England, when worked
down and polifhed, is of a fine nilk-white, with a great
number of blue veins, difpofed like the variegations in
agates.

The affes ear-fhell, when polifhed, after working it down
with the file, becomes extremely glofly, and obtains a fine-
rofe-colour all about the mouth. Thefe are fome of the
moft frequent among an endlefs variety of changes wrought
on fhells by polifhing ; and we find there are many of the

ateft beauties of this part of the creation which
muit have been loft, but for this method ef fearching deep
in the fubftance of the fhell for them.

The Dutch are very fond of fhells, and are very nice in
their manner of working them: they are under no reftraint,
however, in their works, but ufe the moft violent methods,
fo as often to deftroy all the beauty of the thell. They file
them down on all fides, and often take them to the wheel,
when it muft deftroy the chara&ters of the f{pecies.
Nor do they ftop at this, but, determined to have beauty at
any rate, they are for improving upon nature, and frequently
add fome lines and colours with a cil, afterwards cover«
ing them with a fine coat of varnifh ; fo that they feem the
natural lineatione of the arr’ The Dutch cabinets |

342 s

SHELLS.

this\nieans made very beautiful, but they are by no means
to be regarded as inftru€tors in natural hiftory. There are
fome artificers of this nation who have a way of covering
fhells all over with a different tinge from that which nature
gives them; and the curious are often deceived by thefe
tricks into the purchafing of them as new fpecies.

There is another kind of work beitowed on certain {pecies
of fhells, particularly the nautilus ; this is the engraving on
it lines and circles, and figures of {tars, and other things:
this is too obvious a work of art to fuffer any one to fuppofe
it natural. © Bonani has figured feveral of thefe wrought
fhells at the end of his work ; but it is miferably throwing
away labour to do them: the fhells are fpoiled as objects of
natural hiftory by it, and the engraving is feldom worth any
thing. They are principally done in the Ealt Indies.

Shells are fubje&t to feveral imperfections: fome of thefe
are natural, and others accidental ; the natural ones are the
effeG of age, or ficknefs in the fifh. ‘The greateft mifchief
happens to fhells by the fifh dying in them. ‘The curious
in thefe things pretend to be always able to diftinguifh a
fhell taken up with the fith alive, from one found on the
fhores: they call the firft a living, the fecond a dead fhell,
and fay that the colours are always much the fainteft in the
dead fhells. When the fhells have lain long dead on the
fhores, they are fubje& to many injuries, of which the being
eaten by fea-worms is not the leaft: age renders the fineft
fhells livid or dead in their colours.

The fineft fhells are thofe which are fifhed up at fea, not
found on the fhores. The other natural defects of fhells are
their having morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts
where there fhould be none. When the fhell is valuable,
thefe faults may be hid, and much added to the beauty of
the {pecimen, without at all injuring it as an objeé& of na-
tural hiftory, which fhould always be the great end of col-
leGting thefe things. The cavities may be filled up with
mattic, diffolved in fpirit of wine, or with ifinglafs: thefe
{fub{tances muft be either coloured to the tinge of the fhell,
or elfe a pencil dipped in water-colours muit finifh them up
to the refemblance of the reft, and then the whole fhell
being rubbed, over with gum-water, or with the white of an
egg, {carcely any eye can perceive the artifice: the fame fub-
{tances may alfo be ufed to repair the battered edge of a thell,
provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And
when the excrefcences of a fhell are faulty, they are to be
taken down with{a fine file. If the lip of a fhell be fo bat-
tered, that it will not admit of repairing by any cement, the
whole mutt be filed down to an evennefs, or ground on the
wheel.

SHELLS, Fofil. See ConcHoLocy and PrTRiFactTIoNs.

Shells are frequently found under ground, in places far
remote from the fea, in mines, and even on the tops of
mountains; but how they fhould come thither is a thin
that naturalifts are greatly divided about. The moft ufual
and eafy opinion is, that thofe parts have been formerly fea,
or, at leaft, have been overflown thereby ; and many even
go back as far as the grand deluge for this. Others take
thefe to be the natural places of their birth or formation,
fome of them being found little other than crude clay,
others of the fame texture with the rock to which they
grow, though others feem of as abfolute a fhelly fubftance
as any in the fea. In effet, they fay, thefe may be only
fo many different gradations of nature, which can as well
produce fhells in mines as in the fea, there being no want
of faline or earthy particles for the purpofe; nor is there
apy. Breas difference between fome forts of {pars and fea-

ells.

Dr. Lifter judges, that the fhells fonnd in ftone quarries

were never any part of an animal, and gives this reafon for
it, that quarries of different ftone yield quite different {pecies
of fhells; different not only from one another, but from
any thing in nature befides, which either fea or land does
yield. ‘This opinion has been fince proved erroneous, and
all thefe bodies to have been really once parts of living ani-
mals. See Fossiis, dventitious, MARINE Remains, and
Formed STones.

Of thefe fhells, fome are found remaining almoit entirely
in their native ftate, but others are yarioufly altered, by
being impregnated with particles of ftone, and of other
foflils; in the place of others there is found mere {tone or
{par, or other native mineral body, exprefling all their
lineaments in the greateft nicety, as having been formed
wholly from them, the fhell having been firft depofited in
fome folid matrix, and thence diffolved by very flow de-
grees, and this matter left in its place, on the cavities of
ttone and-other folid fub{tances, out of which fhells had
been diffolved and wafhed away, being afterwards filled up
lefs flowly with thefe different fub{ftances, whether {par or
whatever elfe: thefe fubftances, fo filling the cavities, can
neceflarily be of no other form than that of the thell, to the
abfence of which the cavity was owing, though all the nicer
lineaments may not be fo exattly expreffled. Befide thefe,
we have alfo in many places mafles of ftone formed within
various fhells ; and thefe having been received into the ca-
vities of the fhells, while they were perfe@tly fluid, and
having therefore nicely filled all their cavities, muft retain
the perfe&t figures of the internal part of the fhell, when
the fhell itfelf fhould be worn away, or perifhed from their
outfide.. The various f{pecies we find of thefe are in many .
genera as numerous as the known recent ones; and as we
have in our own ifland not only the fhells of our own fhores,
but thofe of many other very diftant ones, fo we have alfo
many {pecies, and thofe in great numbers, which are in
their recent ftate, the inhabitants of other yet unknown or
unfearched feas and fhores. .

The cockles, mufcles, oyfters, and the other common
bivalves of our own feas, are very abundant; but we have
alfo an amazing number of the nautilus kind, particularly
of the nautilus grecorum, which though a fhell not found
living in our own, or any neighbouring feas, yet is fonnd
buried in all our clay-pits about London and elfewhere ;
and the moft frequent of all foffile fhells in fome of our
counties, are the conche anomiz, which yet we know not
of in any part of the world in their recent ftate. Of this
fort alfo are the cornua ammonis and the gryphite, with
feveral of the echinite and others. :

The exact fimilitude of the known fhells, recent and foffile,
in their feveral kinds, will by no means fuffer us to believe,
that thefe, though not yet known to us in their living ftate,
are, as fome have idly thought, a fort of lufus nature.

It is certain, that of the many known fhores, very few,
not even thofe of our own ifland, have been yet carefully
fearched for the fhell-fifh that inhabit them; and as we fee
in the nautilus grecorum an iaftance of fhells being brought
from very diftant parts of the world to be buried there, we
cannot wonder, that yet unknown fhores, or the unknown
bottoms of deep feas, fhould have furnifhed us with many
unknown fhell-fifh, which may have been brought with the
reft ; whether that were at the time of the general deluge,
or the effe&t of any other cataftrophe of a like kind, or
by whatever other means to be left in the yet unhardened
matter of our ftony and clayey ftrata. Hill’s Hitt. of
Foff. p. 616.

Foffile fhells are found to be of great ufe in manuring
land. See Manunine.

4 They

SHELLS.

‘They are much ufed in France for this fe ; and Mr,
Reaumur treats of their effeéts in fertilista, the earth
very fully, concluding his ufeful account off thefe fub-
ances by obferving, that it is much more eafy to account
for the manner of their aéting upon land, than for the
manner of their coming where they are found, It has been
the favourite fyftem of our Dr. Woodward, that all thefe
fhells were remains of the usiverfal deluge, which
having overflowed the whole earth, might eafily iow them
fm all places; but Mr. Reaumur has much more rationally
accounted for their coming vo thofe parts of France, where
are found at this time in fuch vaft abundance, by care-
ing the courfe of the beds of them, fo far as known
eafily proving that all that extent of country,
are found, may have been once overflowed
a deluge ; it being the very track that a
waters, let in at one part of the oye

> , in order to getting out at another.

20.
Arabian, a name given by fome to a fpecies of
not becaufe if is found on the coalt of Ara-
becaufe its lines and variegations are fuppofed to
the figures of Arabic characters.
Suet, Aurora, a very remarkable {pecies of thell-fihh,
cabinets of the curious. It is of the figure of
having a head, wings, and tail, and is of a flame-
i uch of its beauty, » to art and
the thell is an o of a peculiar variation of
one ; the head of the bird is the
ge ; the wings are the body of the fhells ; and
a peculiar procefs, like that of the marteau, only
@ .

naturally of a dufky brown on the outfide, and
when its coat is taken off, it

rou
Caterpillar. See Turso.
name given to the balanus marinus, a

the multivalve kind, with an o
frequently found fixed to the bottoms of: thips,
other things covered with fea-water. See BALANus and

or Cup-fbell, a {pecies of the balanus.

Lf
HL
§

za
Fre
H

om.

oe
FE
;

HI
E

HE

re?
ra
Ea

i

Es

the and are of fuch odd figures, that they
reprefent fome of the Arabic, or, as others fancy, Chinefe

a {pecies of the voluta.
Dog-tooth, a {pecies of dentalis.

See Auris.

Englith name for a very beautiful
d fpecies of voluta, called by the French /a /pe-

f igure pag Sai fomewhat to-

fo called from its {pots refembling thofe of a
rd. There are three kinds of this, one {potted with
ck, another with w, and another with red.

‘Suevt, Leveret, a name given by many to a fpecies of
celain-thel refembling a young hare in colour.

Suet., Lightning, a name given by fome authors to a
F neg of murex, with variegations on its body, refembling
the pictures we commonly fee of flathes of lightning.

Suit, Map, the name given by fome to s peculiar {pe-
cies of porcelain-thell, the figures on which reprefent the
lines on a map.

Suet, Needle. See Cenrnonia and Neepir.

Suri, Noah's Ark. See Noan.

Suert, Oyfer, See Overen.

Suett, Old Wife, the name given by fome to that
fpecies of chama, which the French alfo have called wiclle

ridée.

Suerr, Onion, a {pecies of oytter.

Suir, Pipe. See Ewrarium.

Suxri, Saddle, the name of a {pecies of oyfter, which
in fome degree reprefents a faddle in its thape.

Suevr, St. James's, a name giver by writers on fhells to
a very beautiful {pecies of variegated peéten.

Suerr, St. Michael's, a name given by authors to a {pe-
cies of peéten, or feallop-fhell. It is of a bright yellow
colour. ,

SHELL, Scorpion, the name of a f{pecies of murex,
much sepucaction to the nature of tee {pider-thell. This
is a common fhell in cabinets ; it is of a yellow colour, and
very deeply ridged, and full of tubercles ; there arife from
the lip of the fhell five large {pines, or, as they are ufually
called, fingers, and two others, which are very much bent,
the one from the head, the other from the tail ; thefe are very
a mag radiated with white, and a fine violet colour on the

ps.

Suexr, Screw. See Tunso.

SHELL, Smaill-pox, a name given to a remarkable kind of
concha venerea, or porcelain-fhell, the protuberances on the
furface of which are fuppofed to reprefent the puftules of
the {mall-pox. There are two fpecies of this thell, the one
white, with flattifh protuberances, the other greenifh, with
more elevated ones.

SHELL, Snake, the name given by many to that beautiful
{pecies of porcciain-fhell, the {pots of which reprefent thofe
of a {nake’s fkin.

Suewr, Spider. See ARANEA.

SHELL, Strawberry, a name given by collectors of fhells
to a very beautiful {pecies of cordiformis, {potted with {mall
round red f{pots.

SuHett, Swallow, a name given by authors to a {pecies
pd ra which in fome degree reprefents the figure of a

bird flying.

SueExt, Tiger, the name of a fpecies of porcelain, or
aon venerea, fuppofed to reprefent the {pots on a tiger’s

SHELL, Toe. See Potricipes.

Suet, Tortoife. See Tortoise.

Suey, Trumpet. See Trumper.

Suet, Jurban. See Tursan.

SuHevr, Turnip. This i3 a {pecies of fea-thell, by others
called the radi/b thell; it is exaétly of the thape of a tur-
nip, and is of the dolium, or concha globofa kind. Thofe
a have called it the radifh fhell, allude to the great
black round-rooted radifh, not to our common radifh.

Suewr, Turtle, the name of two {pecies of hells. See
Murex and Votura.

SHELL, in Agriculture, a term applied to a hard, and as
it were flony covering, with which certain fubftances and
animals are defended, and thence in the latter cafe called
fhell-fifh. Itis obferved that the waft beds of foflile thells
found at great depths in the earth, as well as thofe found

lying

SHELLS.

lying on the fea-fhore, make an excellent manure for cold
clayey lands. See Sanp and Cray.

It is hkewife a term applied to the light calcined pieces of
calcareous ftones, which have been converted into lime ; and
alfo to the rind of turnips feooped by fheep, which are
moitly applied to the purpofe of feeding the ftore-fheep.
See Lime and Turnies.

SHELL-Apple, in Ornithology, an Englifh name for the
loxia or crofsbill, given from his manner of fplitting an
apple, and feeding on the kernels, leaving the fhell of the
pulp untouched.

SHELL-Drake, a common Englifh name for the tadorna.

Suett-Fi/h, a colleGtive name for fifhes naturally inclofed
in fhells. ‘Thefe animals are in general oviparous, very few
inftances having been found of fuch as are viviparous.
Among the oviparous kinds, anatomifts have found that
fome fpecies are of different fexes in the different individuals
of the fame f{pecies, but others are hermaphrodites, every.
one being in itfelf both male and female: in both cafes their
increafe is very numerous, and fcarcely inferior to that of
plants, or of the moft fruitful of the infe& clafs. The
eggs are very {mall, and are hung together in a fort of cluf-
ters by means of a glutinous humour, which is always placed
about them, and is of the nature of the jelly of frogs’
{pawn ; by means of this they are not only kept together
in the parcel, but the whole clutter is faftened to the rocks,
fhells, or other folid fubttances, and thus they are preferved
from being driven on fhore by the waves, and left where
they cannot fucceed.

SuHELL-Gall-Jn/ed, an infe& of the gall-infe& clafs, fome-
what refembling thofe which are called the boat-fafhioned
ones, but differing in this, that as the two ends of that fpe-
cies are not very different in form, in this kind one of the
ends is fharp and pointed in comparifon with the other.

It has its name of fhell-infec&t from the refemblance it bears
to a mufcle-fhell ; as it is, in its whole form, not unlike one
of the two fhells in which the common fea-mufcle is in-
clofed, but the pointed end of this infe&t is much more ex-
tended in length than the fmaller end of this hell.

This {pecies is extremely {mall, and may be eafily miftaken
for the minute cafe out of which fome fmall infe& has
efcaped; or in another ftate, for the neft in which -fome
fmall infe& had depofited its eggs; but if the affiftance
of the microfcope be called in, they will eafily be difcovered
to be true gall-infeéts, even as foon as they are hatched from
the eggs. This f{pecies, at its full growth, i§ fo {mall, that
it requires good eyes to difcover it : it is brown, very {mooth,
and polifhed on the furface, and much of the colour of the
bark of fome trees; it has ufually an edge of a cottony
matter, vifible where its fides touch the tree, and its eggs
are always depofited on a fine cottony bed ; the young ones
are white, flat, and have two {mall horns, and fix legs; in
this ftate they are known to be of the gall-infe&t clafs, not
by their likenefs to their parent, but to the young gall-
infe&s of other {fpecies. They march about very brifkly for
fome time after they are hatched, and after that fix them-
felves, and then begin to grow, and by degrees alter their
form, tillthey at length are of the fame fhape with their
parent. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. tom. iv. p. 69, 70.

SHELL-Marle, in Agriculture, a fubftance of the marly
kind, which is of a flaky or fhelly nature. Though Mr.
Marfhall has not feen-this material made ufe of in any of
the fouthern parts of this country, he fuppofes it highly
probable, that inthe more northern counties it may be found in
confiderable quantity ; and that in different parts of Scotland,
it isin common ufe asa manure. Andheconfidersit as ufually

found in low moift fituations, under what is termed bog-
meadow, a fort of half-reclaimed morafs ; namely, tough,
coarfe fward, formed upon a depth of black moory earth,
which re{ts on the marle: this being, in fome inftances, feve-
ral feet in depth. In refpe& to appearance, the colour is
nearly white. Its confiftence, in the pit, is that of foft
curd, roughly broken; with the perceptible remains of
{mall fhells interfperfed among it ; and generally with fome
portion of earthy particles. It was found by analyfis, that
one hundred grains of a fpecimen taken in 1793, from the
extraordinary pits on the eitate of Auchtertyre, belonging
to the late fir William Murray, on the fouthern fkirts of the
highlands of Perthfhire, yielded eighty-two grains of cal-
careous earth: the refidue being brown earthy matter,
mottly, it is probable, animal mould, with a flight intermix-
ture of vegetable fibres. One hundred grains, taken from a
pit in Strath Tay, within the central highlands, yielded
feventy-four grains of chalk; the refidue being fimilar to
the above. The fearch for this {pecies of marle is fo obvious
and eafy, that nothing but unpardonable negleét can fuffer
a quantity of it to remain within’ an eftate (fituated in a.
country where it is known to abound) unknown to its ma-
nager. Wherever, in vallies and dips of furface, level
water-formed lands (whether they are already {warded over,
or yet remain in a ftate of morafs) are found, there infert the
borer : not in one place only, but in various parts of it, that
no hollow receptacle of marle may be miffed by the farmer.

And with marles of the foffile kinds it is remarked, that
where, by analyfis, the proportion of chalk is found to be
{mall, as not more than one-third of the whole; if the
earthy matter with which it is combined appears to:
be of a rich fertilizing nature, fuch marle becomes, he
thinks, a proper fubjeét of trial in the field. And a good
method for making this fort of trial, is to fpread the marle,
at a leifure time, as in winter, or the early part of fummer,
upon grafs-land ; and catching a favourable opportunity,
when the foffil is in a mellow friable ftate, between wet and
dry, to break down and fpread the lumps, with the roller
and harrow, to give freedom to the grafs, and an opportu-
nity of gathering off the ftones and rubbifh, which may
have been carried on with the marle ; and in order that fum-
mer fhowers may wafh the finer parts of it down into the
foil, while it is open to receive them ; repeating the opera-
tion as often as it may be required. And he knows no better
method than this, by which to apply marles, on a large
{cale, in praétice.

SuHeLL-Sand, a name given by the farmers, in fome parts
of England, to the fragments of fhells found on the fea-
fhores, and ground to a fort of powder, fo that they refem-
ble fand. See Manurine.

There is alfo another kind, ufed as this is, in fome parts
of Cornwall, and compofed of fragments of a fort of ten-
der white coral. This 1s found principally about Falmouth,
and is called by the fame name of fhell-fand, though very
improperly. All the kinds are of great ufe in agriculture, —
but they are differently efteemed by the farmers, as they —
are more or lefs rich, which they know by their colours :

the reddifh kind is efteemed moft of all; next to this the —

blue is judged the beft, and after this the white. Such
as is dredged up from under: the water, is always found
better than fuch as is found dry on the fhores; and fuch as —
is entirely compofed of fhells is to be chofen, rather than
fuch as has fragments of ftone among it, which is a very
common cafe. See Sanp, and Shelly SAND.
Suetu-Toothed, in the AManege, an appellation given toa
horfe that from four years old ta old age, naturally, and ~
ai without —

SHE

any artifice, beara mark in all his fore-teeth, and
ps that hollow place with the black mark,
called in French germe de few, i.e. the eye ©
infomuch, that at twelve or fifteen he appears with
of a horfe that is not yet fix; for in the nippers
horfes, the hollow place is filled, and the mark
towards the fixth year, by reafon of the wearing
About the fame age it is half worn out in the
ing teeth, aud towards the eighth year it difappears in
corver teeth: but after a fhell-toothed horfe has
he marks ftill equally in the nippers, the middling,
corner teeth ; which proceeds from this, that baring
teeth than other horfes, his teeth do not wear, an
Ses elem ie black {pot, eo Lbs
Among the Polifh, Hungarian, and Croatian horfes, we
a a great many of them hollow-toothed, and generally
mares are more apt to be fo than the horfes,
Suet, in Artillery. See Bom and Morrar. .
—- Suxces, Moefage, are howitz-hhells, within which are in-
clofed a letter, or other papers; the fuze-hole is flopped up
with wood or cork, and the hells are fired into a garrifon or
cam .
SHALL of @ Block, in Mechanics, is the outer frame or
cafe, in which the theave or wheel is contained, and traverfes
Su = in Ship- Building, in a bomb
eLL-Room, in Ship-Building, a compartment in a .
-veilel, fitted up with throng thelves, excavated fo as to re-
ceive the bomb-fhells when bap db epanticah aioe
m fire.

f

—— a

a

anit

ree

=

, a {mall ifland near the coait
N. lat. 34° 50’. W. long.

fey *
a ee nasrplensronh in'tha ges at
q 2 A ¥ - 89° 15’.
PHIELL Abani tobe af Mewocs’ ax the cofera
de of Rabat, in N. lat. 34° 3'.

ai

rat ne

Mabometans. Shella was probably the Carthaginian metro-

is on the coalt of the qcean. Various Roman and ancient

African coins were frequently dug up here, but their high

price induced the Jews to imitate them, and thus to deceive
ateurs, and hence has arifen a fufpicion even of the an-
‘iques themfelves. The place is now in a ftate of decay ;

4miles E. of Salee. ,

oe Point, 7 cape of the Ifle of Man, form-
the N. y bay.

SHELLDRAKE Rivers, a river of Canada, which

mans into the river St. Lawrence, N. lat. 50°20’. W. long.

os oe ‘o!. i

“SHELLENBERG, tain ¢

by the Swedes, and ftrongly fortified in the 30 years’ war;
‘miles N.E. of Donawert. J

_SHELLIFF, the Chinala of antiquity, a river of Africa,
d the moft confiderable in the kingdom of Algiers, which

fes in the northern fide of the Atlas, and runs into the Me-
N. lat. 36° 10! E. long. 0° 24'.

LNESS,

N. lat. 51° 22!.

a the E. end of the ifland of

epey- ies: 0° 50’.
/SHELLUHS, a clafs of the inhabitants in the domi-
ms of the emperor of Morocco: they occupy the Atlas
oustains, and the various branches of them S. of Morocco;
wing general eeeereen pethe eck part, oScepidn
ulb dry like the Berebbers, though differing from in

a mountain of Bavaria, occupied

SHE

their language, drefs, and manners. They fubfift almof
wholly on Affoua (barley meal made into gruel), ad barley
roatted or granulated, which they mix wih cold water when
travelling, and they call it “ Zimata.’’ They occafionally
indulge in the ufe of “ Cufeufoe,’’ a nutritive farinaceous
food, made of granulated flour, and afterwards boiled by
fleam, and mixed with butter, mutten, fowls, and vege-
tables. Many families among them are faid to be defeended
from the Portuguefe, who formerly poflefled all the ports on
the coaft, but who, after the difcovery of America, gra-
dually withdrew thither, Ealtof Morocco, near Dimenet,
on the Atlas mountains, there is {till remaining a church,
having inferiptions in Latin over the entrance, {uppofed to
have been built by them, which, being fuperititioully re-
ported to be haunted, has efcaped deftruGiion. Their lan-
guage is called Amazirk.

SHELOPGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic; 18 miles N.W. of Tricolore.

SHELTER, in Agriculture, a term applied to the means
of affording warmth, and procuring prote¢tion for lands and
live-ftock in fituations which are too much expofed to ftorms
and inclement feafons. This is moftly accomplithed by the
ufe of trees, which fhould be chofen of the moft pro
fhapes and kinds for effe€ting the purpofe, as thofe which
are the moft branchy from the ground, and the moft per-
manent and clofe in their foliage. The fir tribe, the holly,
and the beech, are probably the moft {uited to this intention,
though there are great numbers that may be made ufe of in
this way.

Proper fhelter has the effet of producing much improve-
ment in land, trees, plants, and live-ttock. See SHELTERING
Plantations. e

Suerter J/land, in Geography, a {mall ifland at the E.
end of Long ifland, in Suffolk county, New York, about
five miles from E. to W., and feven from N. to S. It is
fertile, and contains about 8000 acres ; it was incorporated
in 1788, and is faid to contain 201 inhabitants. It furnifhes
cattle, fheep, and poultry.

SHELTERING P anrations, in Agriculture, the
means of guarding and protecting them, fo as to promote
the growth and A sacra of the young trees. This is
frequently neceflary, and of very great utility. In fome
very expofed fituations, trees cannot indeed be raifed to an
advantage without it. The bufinefs is performed in dif-
ferent manners, according to their nature and circumftances.
See PLantation.

SHELTERS, Horizontar. See Horrzonrac.

SHELTIE, the name of a fmall, but ftrong kind of
horfe, found in the ifland of Zetland, commonly called Shet-
land. 1n the country, the price of one of thefe horfes was
formerly about a gujnea.
SHELVES, in Sea Langua
to any dangerous fhallows, ss banks, or rocks; lying
i ately under the furface of the water, fo as to
intercept any fhip in her paflage, and endanger her de-
ftru@tion.

SHELVING-Roaps, in Rural Economy, are fuch as
are formed in a fomewhat fhelving manner, either on both
fides from the middle part, or in the whole from fide to fide.
It is 2 mode that forms a great improvement in making roads
in different fituations ; as a greater travellable breadth is
gained without ruts being formed. Avnd it is particularly ap-

licable in making the fide long roads on the deciivities of
Kills, &c. See Roan.

SHELVINGS, in Agriculture, a name applied to the
moveable fide-rails of a waggon or cart, which are occa-
fionally put on for top loads,

SHEMEN,

¢, a general name =

SHE

SHEMEN, in Geography, a town of Curdiftan; 44
miles N.W. of Kerkuk.

SHEMIUM, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raflan; 10 miles N.W. of Herat.

SHENANDOAH, a county of Virginia, bounded N.
by Frederick, and S. by Rockingham. It contains 13,646
inhabitants, of whom 1038 are flaves. Its chief town is
Woodftock.

SHENANDOAH, or Shenando, a river of Virginia, which
rifes in Augufta county, and after running a N.E. courfe
of about 200 miles, joins the Patowmack in about N. lat.
38° 4', juft before the latter burfts through Blue Ridge.
This river is compofed of four brayches, S. river, Middle
river, N. river, and Shenandoah, which, though the {malleft
branch, gives name to the united ftreams. It is navigable
about roo miles, and might be rerdered fo threugh its
whole courfe, at a {mall expence. When this is done, it
will convey the produce of the richeft part of the ftate to
Washington.

SuEenanvoau Valley, a valley which extends from Win-
chefter in Virginia, to Carlifle and the Sufquehannah in
Pennfylvania, chiefly inhabited by Germans and Dutch.

SHENANGO, a town of Pennfylvania, in Crawford
county, containing 727 inhabitants.

SHENAW, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S. of Kirch
Schlag.

SHENCOTTY, a town of Hindooftan ; 45 miles N.E.
of Travancore.

SHENECTADY. See Scuenectapy.

SHENGANA, atown of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
25 miles S.S.W. of Madura,

SHENKAFELD, a town of Auttria; 5 miles W. of
Freyttadt.

SHEN-SEE. See Cuenst.

SHENSEN, in Rural Economy, a term applied, in fome
diftrias, as Devonthire, to dried cow and horfe-dung, which
is laid up and ufed as fuel for the winter feafon.

SHENSHIL, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
right bank of the Nile; 2 miles N. of Achmim.

SHENSTONE, Wit1am, in Biography, a poet of
celebrity, was born at Hales Owen, in Shropfhire, in the
year 1714. His father was an uneducated gentleman
farmer, who cultivated an eftate of his own called the
Leafowes, which the fon afterwards rendered celebrated.
William received the elements of inftru€tion from a village
dame, whom he has finely defcribed in one of his poems.
After this he was fent to the grammar-{chool at Hales
Owen, whence he was removed to that. of a clergyman at
Solihull, from whom he not only acquired folid learning in
claflical knowledge, but a cultivated tafte. In 1732 he was
entered of Pembroke college, Oxford, where he did not
make a large acquaintance, but he was one of a few who
met at each other’s rooms to read and examine the beft works
in Englifh literature. Here it was he difcovered his poetical
genius, and produced fome compofitions of confiderable
merit, and he had thoughts of taking his degrees, and pro-
ceeding to ftudy for a profeflion, but coming, by the death
of his father, into the full poffeffion of his paternal pro-
perty, he gave himfelf up to literary eafe, and rural retire-
ment, abandoning at once all intentions of active purfuits ;
hence his biographer jultly remarks, ‘* that nothing is more
unfaveurable to the exertion of thofe energies which lead to
a ufeful and honourable {tation in fociety, than the early pof-
feffion of a fortune jutt fufficient to gratify prefent wifhes,
and preclude the neceflity of immediate entrance into any vi-
gorous courfe of aétion.’? An acquaintance which Shenftone
formed with Mr. Graves of Mickleton, in Gloucefterfhire,

SHE

infpired him with an affe&tion for that gentleman’s fifter ;
but the paffion of love, which, in fome minds, operates as 2
ftimulus to enterprize, feems to him to have waited its force
on plaintive elegies, and other effufions of fentimental
poetry. To one {pecies of employment, indeed, he was
probably animated by his vifit to Mr. Graves,—that of
rural embellifhment,—which he afterwards beftowed on his
favourite place of the Leafowes, with a talte that conduced
more to his celebrity than his comfort.

In 1737 he printed, but without his name, a {mall volume
of juvenile poems, which obtained {carcely any notice. In
1740 he came to London, and was introduced to Dodfley,
who printed his poem of “The Judgment of Hercules,’’
dedicated to lord Littleton. This was followed by “ The
School-miftrefs,”” of which the heroine was the village
dame already referred to. This is thought, by fome very
re{pectable critics, to ttand at the head of Shenitone’s com-
pofitions.

Shenftone, from this time, devoted himfelf to improving
the piéture{que beauties of the Leafowes, and fometimes
exercifing his pen in effufions of verfe and profe. The ce-
lebrity of this place led him into expences which his fortune
was unequal to, and he was perpetually under the preflure
of poverty ; which, with the deficiency of regular employ-
ment, and the perpetual defire of doing more, and appear-
ing better off, than his means admitted,. preyed on his
{pirits, and rendered him the miferable inhabitant of the
Eden which his tafte and genius had created. Grey has de-
{cribed him in the following fentence, which may in fome
refpeéts be rather a caricature likenefs. ¢* Poor man! he
was always wifhing for money, for fame, and for other dif-. .
tinGtions ; and his whole philofophy confilted in living againit
his will in retirement, and in a place which his tafte had
adorned, but which he only enjoyed when people of note
came to fee and commend it.”’ It has been thought a mat-
ter of furprize, confidering his conneétions, that nothing was
done to place him in eafier circum{tances. Application was
faid to have been made to lord Bute to procure him a pen-
fion from the privy purfe, but before the wifhes of his
friends could be realized he died. This event took place
in February 1763, when he was in the soth year of his
age: he was interred in the church-yard of Hales Owen.

Of his poetical compofitions many were inferted in Dodf-
ley’s colle€tion of original pieces ; and after his death, his
«¢ Works in Verfe and Profe’’ were publifhed in two vols.
8vo. in 1764, anda third volume, confifting of ‘ Letters,”
was publifhed in 1769. ‘‘ Of his poetry,” fays the critic,
“ the general opinion was almoft uniform ; it is regarded as
commonly elegant, melodious, tender, and correét in fen-
timent, and often pleafing and natural in defcription, but
verging to the languid and feeble,.and never exhibiting
either the powers of the imagination, or the energy and
f{plendour of dition, that charaéterize compofitions of the
higher order. His profe writings difplay good fenfe and a
cultivated tafte, and contain juft and fometimes new and
acute obfervations on mankind.””

SHENUZAN, in Geography, a town of Candahar ; 42
miles E. of Ghizni. ‘

SHEPEY, J/e of, an ifland within the liberty of the
fame, lathe of Sway, and county of Kent, England, is
fituated near the mouth of the river Thames, and is feparated
from the mainland by a narrow arm of the fea, called the
Swale, which bounds it on the fouth, while the eftuary of
the Medway, and the German ocean, bound it on the weft,
north, and eaft. It is uncertain by what name this ifland
was known to the Romans; for though Ptolemy, in his
Geography, mentions two iflands in this part of Britain FEL

the

r SHE

the appellations Toliapis and Counus, he does not defcribe
either of them fo precifely as to identify it with Shepey,
Hence this fubject ts a matter of difpute among our mott
eminent antiquaries; Camden and Batteley contending for
; and Lambarde, Leland, and others, for Counus.
Saxon times it was called Sceapige, or the ifland of
from the great numbers of that animal which were
ured u it, whence origiated, by corruption,
by which it is now diftinguifhed. Baxter, in his
— the word Malata, remarks, “ Vervecum Pa-

ff

5

F
%

Gs
E

tria, or the ifle of theep, now named Shepey. ‘This is cor-
mote called by the book of Ravennas, Malaca, by the Bri-
tons Vervex ;" but thele obfervations are rathor conjectural
than well authenticated.

P
2

Shepey, including the {mall adjoining ifles of
and Harty, which lie . the fouth-eatt file of it,
ures about 32 miles in circumference, being about 11
long and fix broad. On the fouthern fide the lands
flat and marthy, but the interior is diverfified by hills,
ee ts a range of cliffs, extendin
Thefe cliffs are chiefly pane. |

HUE:
it

» Sh ,
which let them to the copperas
the poor inhabitants to collect the
ftones, which are continually wathed
SeeitDher oF tiptedess, and amy cOendinon
oblong, &c. Their external covering
is a ferraginous coat ; and within they are of a ftriated tex-
ture, commonly radiated from a centre. The ludi Helmontii
i i They are in general of a com-
preffed form, from twelve inches to two feet and a half long,
and covered with a thick cruit of indurated clay. Where
the clay is moft tenacious, felenites are found of ay Ny
petrified wood, retaining t =
in of oak, are likewife met wet thefe

and on the fhores; alfo a vaft number of fruits; but as
are always faturated with pyritical matter, they foon
pieces. Animal remains have likewife been found
many different kinds ; as the thigh-bones, tufks, and
of elephants; two f{pecies of tortoifes; the heads,
of fith; the teeth and vertebrz of fharks ;
&c.

i

of it brackifh, though be-
are a few fprings,
they rife near the fea, the waters of
and freth. The air is generally

; wire of fubftance live

1 its environs, the reader will however of courfe ex-
it from this obfervation, where there are many gentlemen
! in the government fervice conftantly relist. See

water which flows between this iland and the main
ox. XXXII.

SHE

land is called the Swale, and the two extremities of it the
Eaft and Wett Swale, It reaches about twelve miles in
length, and is navigable for thips of two hundred tons bur-
then, This water feems formerly to have been accounted
a part of the river Thames, and to have been the ufual, as
being the fafeft, paflage for the thipping betweeo London
and the North Foreland. reason l Sandwich is fre-

uently {tiled by our ancient hiflorians Lundenwic, or the
Thames mouth, being the name given to it by the Saxons,
and the town of Milton is faid by them to fland on the
fouth bank of the Thames, Leland in particular fays, in
his Itinerary, “ that towne flands on ap arm of the
Tamife ;” and he {peaks of the point againit * Quinbo-
rough entering into the mayne ‘Tamys.”

The ufval paflage to this ifland is by a ferry, called King’s
Ferry, for carriages, horfes, cattle, and paflen The
ferry-boat is moved forward by a long cable, of about one
hundred and forty fathoms, or more, which being faftened
at each end acro{fs the Swale, ferves to move it forward b
hand. On the fide oppofite to the ifland there is a f
houfe of ftone, in the room of one formerly ereéted by one
George Fox, who having ftaid a long while in the cold
waiting for the boat, and being much affected by it, built
it to fhelter others from the like inconvenience,

The very convenient fituation of the [fe of Shepey for the
devaftating purfuits of the Danes, occafioned it to be made
their accultomed rendezvous ; and they fometimes wintered
here during the courfe of the ninth century. The iwhabit-
ants were then but few, and chiefly congregated in the neigh-
bourhood of Miniter, where Sexburga, ae ae of Ercombert,
king of Kent, had founded a nunnery, which, after being
feveral times plundered by the invaders, was at length, in a

at meafure, ccirerens and the nuns difperfed. The
tumuli in the lower or fouthern part of the ifle, and
which are termed coterets by the country people, are fup-
pofed to cover the remains of different Danith chiefs, who
were flain in battle during their piratical incurfions. The
years which have been particularly recorded as thofe wherein
thefe marauders were moft active here, are 832, 849, 851,
and 854: in the year 1016, king Canute is faid to have
colleéted the feattered remains of his army in this ifle, after
his defeat in the vicinity of Otford, by Edmund Ironfide.
Hatted’s Hiftory and Antiquities of Kent, 8vo. 1798.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii. by E. W. Brayley
and John Britton, 8vo. 1806.

SHEPHERD, in Agriculture, a labourer or other perfon
who has the care and management of a flock of theep. Itisa
bufinefs that requires chuck icaess attention, and knowledge
of the various methods of treating animals of, this kind.
Mr. Bannifter thinks, that it is neceifary to have for this em-
ployment a rae who is well fkilled in the nature and ma-
nagement of fheep, and hath been brought up in that em-
ployment from his infancy; who is fober, diligent, and
good-natured ; qualities effentially neceffary in a thepherd,
who, although he may feem to live a life of indolence, whea
contrafted with the more laborious fervants of the farm, need
rarely to have a minute’s time hang heavily on his hands, if
he will be attentive to his bufinefs, which will furnifh him
with fufficient employment ak a9 the day, particularly
in the lambing feafon, or where there are two folds at work;
nor will he want opportunity for the exercife of his patience
and good temper in his attendance on the fheep, which are
ee animals of great obftinacy and perverfeneis, and

ich have often paid the forfeit of their lives to thefe innate

pa where the fhepherd was a man of morofe and furly

ifpofition. It is faid that on the continent they have

{chools wherein young a are inflruGted in the ne-
3

ceflary

SHE

ceflary knowledge of their bufinefs, as well as the anatomy
and phyfiology of fheep, the food and treatment proper for
them in different feafons, and the nature of their difeafes,
and the common operations refpeGting them, efpecially re-
garding the parturition of the ewes, &c. And in the Ge-
neral Treatife on Cattle, it is remarked, that the method of
encouragement, adopted in fome diftriéts, of allowing the
thepherd to poffefs a {mall flock, or as many ewes as his
means will allow, is probably one of the molt powerful. It
gives him that fteadinefs appertaining to property, and is
an additional and {trong incentive to the attainment of
knowledge in his bufinefs. A fhepherd fhould be naturally
ative, both in body and mind, clear-headed and clear-
fighted ; fuch an one, for inftance, as can diftinguifh the
individual countenances of a numerous flock, and running
over them with his bodily and mental eye, inftantly give
the exact number and condition; or perceive at a glance, a
bird’s neft in the thickeft quickfet. Fond of animals and
attractive to them, the latter quality of which is well known
to inhere in fome perfons; poflefling a mufical voice and
fhrill whiftfe ; hardy, patient, watchful ; fatisfied with little
fleep, and temperate in drink. It is conceived that he ought
never to be fuffered, if he profefs, to praétife phyfic, nor
any but the moft eafy and common operations, a farce that
too often ends in a tragedy ; for if of two evils we ought
to choofe the leaft, the office of medical praétice had better
devolve on the mafter. | And for his comfort in the fevere
weather, in fome fituations, the moveable wooden houfe on
wheels may be of ufe. Alfo that he ought to be clad dur-
ing winter, with fubftantial woollen next his fkin, from his
feet upwards, as the belt defence againft thofe rheumatic
ails to which he muft be neceffarily fubje@ ; and he fhould
always go provided with the initruments proper to his pro-
feflion, ready for immediate occafions, namely, fciflors, knife,
fteel, fleam, falve-box, &c. And in folding, as the fhep-
herd will have the flock perpetually under his eye, the firft
writer thinks, he will be capable of judging with certainty
and precifion refpeCting the {tate of every individual, fo that
the earlieft remedy may be applied to every diforder, and fuch
fheep may be turned out of the fold which are found not to
be able to go through their work without manifeft injury to
their health; and if a fheep or lamb be feized with a dan-
gerous and incurable malady, to kill and drefs it immedi-
ately ; for it is one part of the bufinefs of a fhepherd to be
fo far fkilled in the butcher’s trade, as to be able to flaughter,
flea, and drefs a fheep on oceafion. Farther, that a good
thepherd will be careful that his flock be driven late to
old of an evening, and releafed early in the morning from
their confinement, in order that they may enjoy the eoolett
parts of the day on the food. He will be cautious that
they are allowed a fufficient time to graze in the uplands pre-
vious to their being driven into the fold, that they may retire
to reft with full bellies, by which the quantity of the dung
and urine will be confiderably augmented. He will like-
wife be careful in reviewing the hurdles, and providing that
thefe are fixed in the ground, leit by any accident they
fhould be thrown down during the night, and the flock by
thefe means get into mifchief, or intermix with other fheep ;
he will count his fheep regularly every evening when he drives
them to the fold, and take a frefh tale in the morning, when
he turns them on their feed; he will, previous to difmiffing
them from the fold, worry them gently round the fame, in
order to caufe them to dung and ttale plentifully, that the
manure may be left in the field, otherwife the greateft part
of the trundles will be dropt on the road, or carried on to
the marfh, where lying thin, this dreffing can do but little
fervice, and where in truth it is net wanted ; he will beftow

SHE

a particular attention on every individual in his flock, and for
thofe which fhew any appearance of being ftung by the fly,
he will be prepared with a pair of fheers to ae away the
wool from the part, and having taken out the maggots, will
anoint the place with a mixture of train-oil and brimftone ;
but if flightly attacked, he will deftroy the maggots by
{trewing on them powder of white lead; and if any of the
flock fhould haply break with the {cab, a diforder to which
folding fheep are continually fubjeét, and which feldom fails
to fhew itfelf in the {pring and fall, he will be provided with
a proper remedy to keep it under, and prevent the contagion
from {preading. See Scap.

It is likewife thought, that one fhepherd will be able to
look after three hundred fheep.

In refpe& te the neceflity of a dog, as an affiftant to the
fhepherd, Mr. Lawrence thinks, that it has of late very
rationally become a queftion among the moft intelligent
fheep-mafters ; it may probably be thus fettled,—there can
be no occafion for fuch aid, nor any neceflity for incurring
the danger of it, amidft convenient inclofures, or where
quiet breeds of fheep are kept, and where it is made an ob-
ject to render them tame and docile: and if upon extenfive
wattes and mountain diftriéts, the fervice of dogs cannot
well be difpenfed with, it ought to be made a main point,
that they be trained early to a kindnefs for the fheep, and to
view them rather as their companions, than their prey; a-
thing which he knows by experience to be moft ealy ; and
he alfo knows that {uch dogs are infinitely of the greater ufe,
as the fheep, far from dreading or fhunning, will run to
them, in cafe of need, for prote€tion; and he has often
witnefled the careffes and gambols of thefe and the lambs, ©
with a delight which he never experienced in the combats of
animals.

SHEPHERDS of Egypt, Shepherd kings, or royal Shepherds,
in Ancient Hiflory, the denomination of a clafs of inhabit-
ants of a part of Egypt, concerning whofe origin, place
of abode, and migration, ancient and modern writers have
entertained different opinions. Some fletches of their hif-
tory will be found under the articles Aurirm, Cusu, Dis-
PERSION of Mankind, and Eeypr. The learned Bryant
has publifhed, befides feveral notices that occur in his
« Analyfis of Ancient Mythology,”’ an elaborate ‘“ Difler-
tation”’ on this fubje€&t. Differing from others concerning
the fituation of the land of Gofhen, (fee GosHEN,) he con-
ceives it to have been the Nome called the Arabian, from
the Arabian fhepherds who had formerly fettled in thofe
parts, and held them for many years, and denominated by
the LXX, Vecsey tng AgeBixs. The province of Arabia, fays
this author, was one of the three moft remarkable nomes,
the other two being thofe of Bubaftus and Heliopolis.
Thefe three nomes were contiguous to each other, and
towards the fummit of Lower Egypt. The nome of Helio-
polis, according to his ftatement, was a Mediterranean
diftri@ ; and confequently the two provinces, or that of
Phacufa (i.e. the Arabian nome), and that of Bubaftus,
that are always mentioned with the former, were fo likewife.
Phacufa, mentioned by Strabo only as a village, was the
province at whofe fummit the Nilé was firft divided, where
{tood the city of Cercafora. It was called the Arabian
nome for the reafon above-mentioned, and had for its metro-
polis Phacufa, and the places fituated upon its borders were
Babylon, Heliopolis, and Heroum. From Syncellus we
learn, that Egypt had been in fubjeGtion to a three-fold race
of kings, who are termed the Aurite, the Meitrei, and
the Egyptian. The Aurite were the Arabian fhepherds
and their kings, who reigned here a confiderable time,
maintaining themfelves by force ; till, after many spa hae

they

SHE
they were finally expelled by the natives. According to
Manetho, the whole body of this'people bore the —
of Hukfos, that is, royal thepherds ; the firft fyllable, in
the facred dialed, fignifying a ding, and the latter, in the
language, fignifying a /b-pherd; and by a compo-
Bebe ar thele all was bon Bet the word Hukfos, Thefe
ple are faid to have been Arabians, Jofephus further
us from Manetho, that the fhepherds maintained
themfelves in Egypt sti years. At lait the people of

Upper E rofe in oppofition to them, and after fome
time eisai them Sai couheer However, on their de-
iz me en afraid of going towards Aflyria, and
ater to the country called afterwards Judea,
and built Jerufalem. We learn alfo, from the fame au-
ity, that another clafs of co fojourned in Egypt in

the of Amenophis; and that they were treated as
flaves by the prince of the country, becaufe they were in.
feéted with leprofy. As their number very much in-

people ing to each of the two clafles now mentioned
were chee phe: the firft thepherds were lords
and conquerors ; others were fervants, to whom was

affigned the which the former had evacuated. The
latter were tfrelives, as appears from the name of their
leader and lawgiver, Mofes; and the former were Arabians,
who are faid to have come from the Eatt: and they are,
without doubt, the Aurite, who founded the city Auris or

have
chief

uine
fource whence their reign flowed. The two principal
were Ur or Aur, and Babylon: in
built two of the fame name in
Egypt. Wherever they refided, they introduced the Tzeba
Scena, with the worthip of

honoured at Heliopolis and Memphis,
are faid to have built. The true name

other than the Cufsans ; and they have been ity
fhepherds, becaufe all the primitive Arabians were

_Nomades, or = Thefe becoming lords of
the country, btedly chofe art which was the
| ig and their profeffion lead them to the

and for pafturage ; in refpeét of which Gofhen had not

n y the worhhip which they fettled in thefe parts ;
ie cities they built ; an ibainies WAI they beque to

Winee. According to the Mofaic account, the land
Gothen is tedly {aid to be in the land of Egypt,
Hin the belt of the land ;” and yet the LXX call it

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Tivgis re Agafias, which could be owing te no other reafon
befides its being the land of Culhan, (Gofhen,) which was
interpreted Arabian; for in Arabia it was not fituated.
Hence it has been concluded, that the place where the
children of Mrael refided in Egypt was the principal Ara-
bian nome, at the extreme and highelt part of Lower Eyypt,
called Cufhan.

This was the land to which the childres of [frael fuc-
ceeded, after it had been abandoned by its former inhabir-
ants; but it is uncertain at what interval. It appears wo
have been an unoccupied diltrict ; and as it was the bett of
the land, there is no accounting for its being unoccupied
but by the feceflion of the Cufxans, whofe perty it had
lately been. Accordingly Mavetho exprefsly affirms, that
the fecond fhepherds tucceeded to the places which had
been deferted by the former; and he moreover fays, that
the city Abaris, which had been built by the firft herd
king, was given to thofe of their body who were em
in the quarries.

Bryant fuggeils, that the migration of the thepherds was
about the time of Serug or Nahor: and this is the time
when archbifhop Uther {uppofes it to have happened, who
refers it to the year of the world 1920, according to the
Hebrew computation, in the 1o1it year of the life of Serug,
the 7th from Noah, and in the 42d year of Terab, 88 years
before the birthof Abraham. Bifhop Cumberland fuppofes
that the fhepherds invaded Egypt A. M. 1937, in the time
of the fame patriarclis, according to the Hebrew chronology.
Our author has alleged feveral arguments to prove, en
the Arabian fhepherds were diitin& from the Ifraelites, and
prior tothem. When the Arabians came into Egypt, the
are faid to have been 240,000 in number, whereas the Ifracl.
ites were but 70 perfons. The former took pofleflion by
force, the latter were invited, and had a grant of all that
they poilefled. The one held the people in flavery; the
others were themfelves enflaved. The Arabians were
driven out of the land; the Ifraelites were not fuffered to
depart. See Bryant’s Obfervations and Inquiries, &c.
Cont. 1767.

Sueruern’s //lands, in ab we See New Hesrives.

Suernenn’s Dog, a variety of the common dog, ufed in
guarding flocks, or driving herds of cattle. See Doc.

SHeruern’s Needle, or Venus's Comb, in Botany. See
Scanpix.

Suepuern’s Pouch, Burfa pafloris, a common weed in
moft parts of England, which propagates itfelf fo fatt
by feeds, as not to be eafily cleared x oe they are per-
mitted to fhed ; for fo fait do the feed ripen, and the plants
come up, that there are commonly four or five generations
of them in a year; they cannot, therefore, be too carefull
rooted out of a garden or field. It is early, and laits moh

art of the year. It may be deftroyed by frequent plough-
ing, and preventing its going to feed. Inthe Linnxan fyflem,
this is a fpecies of the thla/pi.

This is an officinal plant; its juice has been reputed
aftringent and vulnerary, and as fuch is ufed againit hx.
morrhages, dyfenteries, diarrhoeas, &c.

The country people apply it to cuts and frefh wounds,
and fome hold it of great virtue when made up into a cata-
plafm, and applied to the wrifts againft tertians and quar-
tans; but Dr. Lewis obferves, that he could ive no
pungency or aftringency, either in the leaves of this plant,
or in the extraéts made by water and reétified {pirit, and that
a decoétion of them ftrikes no degree of bl fs with fo-
lution of chalybeate vitriol. Hence he infers, that there
feems to be no foundation for the ftrong ftyptic virtues, for
which this herb has been generally recommended by writers

3Q2 in

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in the materia medica, or for the acrid inflammatory power
which fome (probably mifled by its botanic affinity with
muitard, and {ome other acrid vegetables) have afcribed to
it. Lewis’s Mat. Med,

SHEPHERD’s Staff, or Shepherd’s Rod. See TEazur.

SHEPHERDSTOWN, in Geography, a pott-town of
America, in the {tate of Virginia, and county of Jefferfon,
on the S. fide of Patowmack river. Its fituation is agree-
able and healthy, and the neighbouring country fertile and
well cultivated. It is faid to contain 1033 inhabitants,
chiefly of German extraCtion.

SHEPHERDSVILLE, a poft-town in Bullet county,
Kentucky ; 640 miles from Wathington.

SHEPPECK, in Agriculture, the provincial name of a
prong or fort of hay-fork, employed in fome places.

SHEPPEY, in Geography. See SHEPEY.

SHEPREVE, Jonny, in Biography, an Englith poet,
was bern in Berkfhire, and educated at Corpus Chrifti
college, Oxford, where he took his degrees in arts, and be-
came Hebrew profeflor about the year 1538. He hada
mott furprifing memory, and was one of the moft learned
men in his time. He died inthe year 1542. His works
are “ Summa et Synopfis Novi Telt.’” &c.; “ Hippolytus
Ovidiane Phedrz refpondens,’’ &c. Wood.

SHEPTON MALLET, in Geography, a market-town in
the hundred of Whiteftone and county of Somerfet, Eng-
land, is fituated about five miles E. from the city of Wells,
and 115 W. by S. from London. This town has been
long celebrated: for its manufaéture of woollen cloths and
knit ftockings, which affords employment to upwards of
2000 perfons refident in the town or its vicinity. Ed-
ward II. granted a charter for a market to be held here on
Monday, weekly; but it is now kept on Friday ; befides
which there is an annual fair, called Silver-ftreet fair, which
takes place on the 8th of Auguft. The market-place is
remarkable for a very curious ftone crofs, which appears,
from an infcription upon it, to have been ereéted in the
year 1500, by ‘ Walter Bucklond and Agnes his wyff.’’
It confifts of five arches, f{upported by pentagonal pillars,
with an hexagonal column in the centre. From the roof,
which is perfeGtly flat, rifes a lofty pyramidal fpire, adorned
with Gothic niches, and crowned with an oblong entabla-
ture, on which are reprefented figures of our Saviour on
the crofs between the two malefators ; alfo thofe of feveral
faints. Lands of confiderable value are appropriated for
the repair of this fingular ftru€ture. The church here
is a large and handfome edifice in the pointed ftyle of archi-
te€ture, and compofed of a nave, chancel, north and fouth
fide aifles, and tranfept, with a tower at the weft end, orna-
mented with effigies in niches of the Virgin Mary, St. Peter,
and St. Paul. The pulpit and font are each cut out of
one folid ftone, and from the rudenefs of their workman-
fhip would feem to be of very great antiquity. In two of
the windows ate fome remains of painted glafs, difplaying
the mutilated effigies of knights Templars, faid to repre-
fent the two Williams Mallet, who had commands in an
expedition to the Holy Land during the reign of king
Henry II. The monuments in this church are numerous,
but none of them are particularly remarkable, either for
their ftyle of execution, or for the charaéter of the perfons
they commemorate.

Shepton Mallet, in_ancient times, formed part of the
manor of Pilton, which king Ina gave to the abbey of
Glaftonbury; A.D. 705. At the time of the Conquett it
was held from the abbot by Roger de Curcelle ; but foon
afterwards paffed into the pofleflion of the barons Mallet,
from whom it derived the latter part of its name, Aftera

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variety of changes, this manor was divided into two moie-
ties, one of which came to the crown, and was annexed to
the duchy of Cornwall, to which it {till belongs. The
other moiety became the property of the family of Sherfton.

Shepton Mallet is noted as the birth-place of three men
of diltinguifhed talents and learning ; viz. Hugh Inge,
D.D. archbifhop of Dublin, and chancellor of Ireland,
who died in 1528; Dr. Walter Charleton, an eminent
phyfician, and author of Chorea Gigantum, or an account
of Stonehenge, who died in 1707; and Simon Browne,
a learned diflenting minifter, celebrated for his controvertial
writings againft Woolfton and ‘Tindal, who died in 1732.

The parifh of Shepton Mallet is of {mall extent, but
populous, containing, according to the parliamentary re-
turns of 1811, 1129 houfes, and 4638 inhabitants. Within
its bounds are fituated the county Bridewell, and a large
parifh workhoufe. The Hiftory and Antiquities of the
County of Somerfet; by the Rey. J. Collinfon, F.S.A.
Ato. vol. iii, Bath, 1791.

SHERARD, Wix.1am, in Biography, a very learned
and munificent botanift, on whom the titles of prince and
Meecenas of botany have been, more jultly than ufual, be-
ftowed, was the fon of George Sherwood, (for fo it feems the
name was written by the father,) of Bufhby, in Leicefterfhire.
He was born in 1659 ; educated firft at Merchant Taylors’
{chool, and then at St. John’s college, Oxford, where he
entered in 1677. He fubfequently became a fellow of this
college, and took the degree of Bachelor of Law, Decem-
ber 11, 1683. Being appointed travelling tutor, fuc-
ceffively, to Charles, afterwards the fecond vilcount Town-
fhend, and to Wriothefley lord Howland, fon of the mur- -
dered lord Ruflel, who in 1700 became the fecond duke of
Bedford, Sherard made two fucceffive tours through Hol-
land, France, Italy, &c. returning from ‘the laft, as we
prefume, not much before the year 1700, when his laft.
mentioned pupil was twenty years old. Dr. Pulteney fup-
pofes him to have come back in 1693, led perhaps by the
date of Ray’s Sylloge Stirpium Europearum, printed in 1694,
to which Sherard communicated a catalogue of plants
gathered on mount Jura, Saleve, and the neighbourhood
of Geneva. Thefe were probably colleéted in his firft
journey ; for it fhould feem by Collins’s Peerage, that the
lord Howland, fo created on account of his union with the
heirefs of the Howland family, was married to her in May
1695, when he was little more than fourteen years of age.
He was made a peer June 13, 16953 ‘¢ after which,” fays
Collins, «* he travelled into France and Italy.”? So youth-
ful a bridegroom was, doubtlefs, beft in the hands of his
tutor, in a diftant country from his, {till more youthful,
fpoufe. The fubje& of our memoir is faid to have fulfilled
his truft to the fatisfa€tion of both the noble families who
confided in him. His vifit to his friend fir Arthur Rawdon,
at Moira, in Ireland, was apparently made in the interval
of thefe two foreign journies. Long before either of them,
he had travelled over various parts of England, and pro-
ceeded to Jerfey, for the purpofe of botanical invettigation ;
and the fruits of his difcoyeries enriched the publications
of the illuftrious Ray ; fee that article. ,

Botany was ever the prominent purfuit of Sherard in
all his journies. He cultivated the friendfhip and corre-
fpondence of the moft able men on the continent, fuch as
Boerhaave, Hermann, Tournefort, Vaillant, Micheli, &c.
He is univerfally believed to have been the author of a
12mo. volume, entitled Schola Botanica, publifhed at Am-~
fterdam in 1689, and reprinted in 1691 and 1699. This
is a fyftematic catalogue of the Paris garden. Its preface,
dated London, Nov. 1688, is figned 5.W.A., whic te

rence

French writers have interpreted Samuel Wharton, Anglus,
under which name the book occurs in Haller’s Bidliotheca

Botanica, v. 1. 643. But as no one ever heard of fuch a
botanift as Wharton; and the preface in quettion difplays
objects and acquifitions of one of the firft rank, who

F

could certainly not long remain in obfeurity, the above initials
heen to meen William Sherard, to whom alone in-

with or without a fignature, that preface could belong.
Tea writer is deferibed as having attended three courfes of
‘Tournefort's ee in 1686, 87, and 88, all
which a f
of 1688 he ¢ eferibes himfel

t at Paris. In the fummer

wed him to perufe the manu-
or bbe of his Paradifus Batavus, to examine his
and to compofe a Prodromus of that work,
which is fubjoined to the little volume now under our con-
All this can apply to Sherard only, who be-
Hermann’s book itfelf, and who in its
Geneva in 1697, appears under his
of himfelf as having long enjoyed
communications of that emixent man,
a and talents he juftly commemorates, and of
literary ces, as well as of his bota-
principles, he gives an account. Dr. Pul
to have been written during a thi
thor to the continent; but we prefume him to
the young lord Howland, and confe-
sancana "tie Royal i
communi to the Society, in 1700, a
ive to the making of Chinefe or Japan varnithes,
i in the Philofophical Tranfactions, v. 22.
ion which it contains was fent by the Jefuits

Arse agate mami and probably obtained by
our au’

at Florence.

public walk of life, becom-
ing one of the commiffioners for fick and wounded feamen
at Portfmouth, and about the year 1702, or foon after,
s fent out as Britifh ulto Smyrna. Here his bota-

was
nical tafte met with frefh gratification ; nor was he neglect.
of other sneer {cience or literature. He vifited

new volcanic ifland, near Santorini, which rofe out

however, inued to be his leading objeé.
at Sedekio, near Smyrna, where he could with
refign himfelf to the contemplation of plants,
he began that great herbarium of which we ‘hall

i
z

i

con-
tour

elite
iH

great ex nor ftored with extenfive
ti Many of the latter indeed

thirty-two years, have difap at-
could obtain from Greece, and the
he here carefully preferved; and

is faid to have

of continuing it, and
ven to have made fome

in that arduous under-
. to his native country in 1718.

after his return he received at Oxford the degree of

ris

ee Dr. Sherard revifited the continent. Vaillant

4 in a declining itate of health, and died in May

; SHERARD.

1722. Previous to his deceafe he concluded, through the
mediation of Sherard, the fale of his manuferipts and draw.
ings of Parifian plants, to Boerhaave, who publithed in
1727 the {plendid Botanicon Parifienfe. ‘This work, though
not free from imperfeétions in the diftribution of ite ma-
terials, would doubtlefs have been far lefs correét, but for
the fuperintendance of Sherard, who patled a fummer with
Boerhaave in revifing the manufeript. Our great botamit
had already rendered s more important fervice to his
favourite {eience by bringiag with him from Germany, ia
Auguft 1721, the Brine. | Diivenrus (fee that article).
By a comperifon of dates, it appears that Sherard made
feveral vifits to the continent. He went from Pars to
Holland in 1721, and thence with Dillenius, the fame
year, to England. He ttayed fome time with Boerhaave
again in 1724, or perhaps 1725. We know not precifely
w or where it happened that be was, like Linnzus in
Norway, in danger of being fhot for a wolf, or a thief, by
fome half-humanized rultic, akin to the thief-takers and
Oxfordthire juttice, who feized upon another illuflrious
botanift, of our time, as a highway-man.

What principally attached Sherard to Dillenius, was
the fimilarity of their taftes refpeéting thofe intricate tribes
of vegetables, now termed cryptogamic. To thefe the at-
tention of both had long been direéted, and hence origi-
nated the cultivation, which this line of botanical ftudy
hes received, from that period, in England and Germany.
This tafte, however, was not exclufive ; for thefe friends
and fellow labourers left no department of botany unim-
proved. James Sherard, feven years younger than his
brother, who had acquired opulence by medical practice,
firft as an apothecary, and then as a phyfician, in London,
hada great fondnefs for the fame purfuit, and reared at his
country feat at Eltham, a number of exetic plants, from
every climate. Hither the more learned fubject of our
prefent article frequently reforted. He had acquired af-
fluence by his public appointments, but his ityle of living
was fimple and private. Devoted to the cultivation of
knowledge in himfelf, and to the diffufion of that of others,
he lent his aid to all who required it, without coming for-
ward confpicuoufly asan author. He afliited Catefby with
information and with money, to bring out his Nataral Hif-
tory of Carolina, though neither that work, nor the Hortus
Elthamenfis of Dillenius, appeared till fome time after his
deceafe, which happened on the 12th of Auguit, 1728,
when he was 69 years of age. Of the place of his inter-
ment we find no mention. His brother died Feb. 12, 1737,
aged 72, and is buried in Evington church, near Leiceiter,
with his wife, whofe maiden name was Lockwood, by whom
he had no children.

The mott ottenfible and {plendid fervice to botany, though
it for a long time yielded but little fruit, was rendered by
the will of Dr. William Sherard, who left 3000/. to found
and fupport a botanical profeflorfhip at Oxford, of which
we have fpoken under the biograplucal article Dittenrus.
He bequeathed to this eftabli{hment his choice botanical
library, his ample herbarium, and the manufeript of his
Pindx, the completion of which he intended fhould be one
of the objeéts and duties of the new profeffor. We have
already expreffled our doubts whether the failure of the
latter, in this point, were any great lofs to fcience. Never-
thelefs, the manufcript, as Sherard left it, would probably
have been a great acquifition to the world, and might ftill
be worthy of publication. 1 aecomplifhed more
appropriate, rhaps more difficult defigns ; but e
{cientific = hose sor his fucceflor for forty rene
Sherard has fometimes been blamed for excluding

from

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from his profefforfhip, and it is ufual to hear a complaint
at Oxford, that this order of men has no infere/? therein.
If by interett is meant the acquifition of a very moderate
{tipend, which only one can enjoy, the complaint is juft :
but furely the more important intereft of a whole univertity
confifts in having this, or any other, {cience taught in the
beft manner. Sherard therefore would have done much
more wifely, inftead of limiting the appointment at all, to
have left it open, like the Cambridge profeflorfhip and gar-
den, to all the world; and to have placed the choice in
the hards of thofe who would perceive their own advan-
tage, and probably feel fome fenfe of duty, in not making
any profellorfhip a finecure or a job.

The herbarium of Sherard is perhaps, except that of
Linnzus, the moft ample, authentic, and valuable botani-
cal record in the world. In it may be feen original {peci-
mens from Tournefort, and all the writers of that day,
named by themfelves, accompanied by remarks, or by
queries fcarcely lefs inftru€tive. He collected alfo copies
of original drawings, from botanilts whofe f{pecimens were
not to be had, fuch as Plumier. The moft rare, and even
unique, books are to be found in his library, as the firft
volume of Rudbeck’s Campi Elyfii. (See Ruppeck.) All
thefe. precious collections are {till in good prefervation,
though the noble ftone building, originally conftructed to
receive them, was facrificed a few years fince to public con-
venience, that the adjoining {treet might be widened.

The name of Sherard has been commemorated by Vail-
lant, in fome plants referred by Linneus to Verbena.
Dillenius eftablifhed a Sherardia, which has remained ; fee
the next article. Pulteney’s Sketches of Botany. Hal-
ler’s Letters, and Bibl. Bot. Aikin’s Gen. Biog. S.

SHERARDIA, in Botany, fo named by Dillenius, in
honour of his munificent and learned patron William Sherard.
(See the laft article.)—Dill. Giff. append. 96. t. 3. Linn.
Gen. Pl. 50. Schreb. 67. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 574.
Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 171. Prodr, Fl.
Grec. Sibth. 86. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 234. Jufl. 196.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 61. Gertn. t. 24.—Clafs and order,
Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Stellate, Linn. Ru-
biacee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, {mall, with fix teeth,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube cylin-
drical, various in length; limb flat, in four acute deep feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments four, inferted into the top of the
tube, between the fegments of the limb; anthers roundifh,
two-lobed. /Pi/?. Germen inferior, oblong, two-grained ;
ityle thread-fhaped, divided at the upper part; ftigmas
blunt. Peric. none. Fruit oblong, crowned, feparating
lengthwife into two parts. Seeds two, oblong, convex at
the outfide, flat on the other, each crowned with three
points.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, funnel-fhaped, fuperior.
Seeds two, naked, each crowned with three teeth.

1. S. arvenfis. Blue Sherardia, or Little Field Madder.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 149. Willd. n. 1. Fi. Brit. n. 1. Engl.
Bot. t. 891. Curt. Lond. fafce. 5. t. 13. Fl. Dan.
t. 439. -(Afperula fiore carneo, acuto folio; Barrel: Ic.
t. 541.)—A\ll the leaves whorled. Flowers terminal.—Na-
tive of cultivated or fallow fields, throughout Europe, from
Sweden to Greece, flowering all fummer long. The root
is ‘annual, fibrous, fmall. Herb generally hairy. Stems
feveral, branched, leafy, angular, {preading in every direc-
tion, from three to five inches long; mott flender at the
bafe. Leaves {preading, moftly fix in each whorl, elliptical
or obovate, pointed, entire, rougheft at the edges and
keel, Flowers from four to fix or eight, ina little ter-

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minal umbel, enveloped in the uppermoft whorl, which
confifts of more leaves than the reit. Calyx of two three.
cleft acute leaves, afterwards enlarged, and forming a
creft, or crown, to each feed. Corolla purplith-blue, with
a flender tube, much exceeding the calyx.

2. S. muralis. Wall Sherardia, Linn. Sp. Pi. 149.
Willd. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. v. 2. 13. t. 115,
(Galium murale; Allion. Pedem. v. 1. 8. t. 77. f. 1.
G. minimum, feminibus oblongis; Buxb. Cent. 31. t. 30.
f, 2.)—Stems diffufe, Leaves four in a whorl, or in pairs,
{preading. Whorls two-flowered. Stalks of the fruit re-
flexed.— Native of old walls, and rocks, in Italy and the
Levant. Found in Crete by Dr. Sibthorp. Annual,
about the fize of the former, decumbent, and rough, but
the /eaves are fmaller, fometimes fix, fometimes but two,
ufually four, in a whorl. /owers axillary, oppofite, mi-
nute, fhorter than the leaves, ftalked. Corolla yellow,
with a fhort tube. uit reflexed, of two hifpid, oblong
feeds, ttarting from each other in the middle, meeting at
top and bottom, their crown, or ¢alya, hardly dif-
coverable.

3. S.ere@a. Upright Sherardia. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth.
v. 2. 14. t. 116. (Afperula muralis verticillata minima ;
Column. Ecphr. 302. t. 300. A. verticillata luteola;
Bauh. Pin. 334.)—Stems ere&t. Leaves four in a whorl,
or in pairs, deflexed. Whorls many-flowered. Fruit
nearly ereét. Native of rocks and walls, in Italy and the
Archipelago. Annual, ereét, and more flender than the
laft, a {pan high. he fhorter deflexed /eaves, numerous
flowers, and ere fruit, diltinguifh this fpecies clearly,
though Linnzus confounded its fynonyms with his muralis.
The crown of the /eeds is equally obfeure in both, and the
habit of the plants anfwers better to that of the genuine
Valantie, though the fru@ification differs. They but ill
agree with Sherardia; yet their fruit will not allow them to
be referred to Galium. :

4. S. fruticefa. Shrubby Sherardia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 149.
Willd. n. 3. Swartz. Obf. 46.—Leaves four in a whorl,
linear-lanceolate, revolute. Stem fhrubby.—Gathered by
Ofbeck in the ifland of Afcenfion. The /fem is woody,
branched, leafy, ftraggling or proftrate, and the whole
plant has the afpeét of Lrnodea montana (fee ErNopea) 5
but is diftin@&. Leaves an inch long, rather downy. Calyx
of only four teeth. Corolla white, as long as the germen.
Swartz juitly obferves, that this {pecies but ill accords with
Sherardia, being intermediate, as it were, between Diodia
and Spermacoce.

SuHerarpra is alfo a name given by Pontedera to the
genus of plants, called by Linnzus galenia.

SHERARIB, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Bergoo; 115 miles S.W. of Wara.

SHERAVEND, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Ghilan, onthe Cafpian fea; 20 miles S. of Aftara.

SHERBET, or Suerpir, a compound drink, firft
brought into England from Turkey and Perfia, confitting
of fair water, lemon-juice, fugar, amber, and other in-
gredients.

Another kind of it is made of violets, honey, juice of
raifins, &c. ;

The word /herbet, in the Perfian language, fignifies plea-
fant liquor.

SHERBORNE, or SurreourNne, anciently called
Sareburn, in Geography, a market-town and parifh in the
hundred of that name, county of Dorfet, England, is
fituated in the vale of Blakemore, near the borders of So-
merfetfhire, at the diftance of 16 miles W. from Shaftef-
bury, 18 N. by W. from Dorchelter, and 117 Weg

rom

from London. It is a town of very high antiquity, but its
origin is not precifely afcertained., Baxter contends that it
was the Arianus, or Aranus of Ravennas, deriving its name
from “ Arian Uilc, Argenteus Fluxus Aqux,”’ or “ Fons
Clarus.”” This opinion, however, is rendered extremely

oub by the total abfence of all thofe appearances
which almott invariably characterize the {cites of Bratith or
, n towns. It feems, therefore, more probable that it
had its commencement in Saxon times, and germinated from
igious houfe, founded here foon after the convertion of
the Saxons to Chriftianity. This monattery was richly en-
dowed by feveral of the kings of Wellex, puticeldy by

Cea and the great Alfred. After the Conquelt, it
was railed to the rank of an abbey, and the abbots were

d fpiritual barons, and in confequence were fre-
quently (ummoned to affift in the parliament or great council
of the nation, At the diflolution, its revenues were rated,
according to Speed and Dugdale, at 612/. 14s. 73d. per

iftinguifhed, in ancient times, as

——. fee, having been conftituted fuch
divifion of the Scents of Wiuchetter,

ft bithop of this diocefe was Aldhelm,
nephew to Ina, who is reported to have been a man oa
raord| is
by different writers,
i The

y

probable view of the - ~t

in number, n fided a period
titel canen thetachen Alte

the Great, and

1 purfuits. In his time the fee of
the counties of Dorfet, Bucks,

Wilt 1
after his death, the three latter counties were {eparated from

or Godwin, earl of Kent, and the monks of

however, in effeGing its re-
viz. in 1075, to Old Sarum,
the council at London, which
bifhops’ fees fhould be transferred from
the moft important town in each diocefe.

the great eagernefs of Herman to quit Sherborne,
reafonably be inferred that it was become 2 town

for; it being ftated by hif-
the Danes, under king
of his vindictive excurfions through this

an epifcopal feat had
a:thin Strata it appears to
ies ; but in the time of Le-

decreafed, and

SHERBOKNE.

now the filk and linen manufactures conftitute the principal
employment of the inhabitants,

Sherborne, though neither a borough by charter sor
prefeription, on one occafion fent members to parliament,
m the reign of Edward Il, At that time the aflizes were
regularly held here; but fince the reign of his fuccetlor,
that practice has only been occafional, as in cafes of =
demical diforders, or otherwife. The general quarter fef-
fions for the peace, however, are ftill held here once a year,
on Tuefday after the clofe of Eafter, The market-day
here is Saturday, weekly ; and there are fairs annually on
Wednefday before Holy Thurfday, 16th and 18th July,
and the firit Monday after 10th O¢tober.

The church of Sherborne, which is the only public
building within the town of any importance, is a large and
magnificent ilru&ure. It is built in the form of a crofs,
and entirely of free-ftove. The original edifice was the
work of bifhop Aldhelm. But no part of that building
probably now remains, as it has undergone frequent altera-
tions, and in the time of king Henry V1. was almoft wholl
rebuilt. Hence, though difplaying various ftyles of archi-
tecture, the greater part of it is in the pointed ftyle of that
age. The moft material exceptions to this remark are the
pillars fupporting the tower, the fouth porch, and the
chapel of our Lady, all of which are of early Norman origin,
and the large lancet window at the eaitern end of the chapel
north of the chancel, which, with fome {maller fragments in
other parts, feem to be of the fame date with Salifbury
cathedral, viz. about the year 1220. Ill the later parts
of the church are richly ornamented with tracery work,
vine leaves, and flowers. The piers between the windows
on each fide are fupported by light flying buttreffes ttretch-
ing Over the fide aifles. The roof is of ftone, and fup-
ported by numerous groins {pringing from the fide aifles ;
and between the tracery work is a number of fhields
bearing different arms, with rofes, portcullifes, and cut
devices. This church was made parochial after the diffolu-
tion of the abbey, to which it previoufly belonged. It con-
tains the afhes of many perfons of dikin@tion and among
others thofe of Ethelbold, king of Weflex, and his brother
Ethelbert. The only modern monuments of note are thofe
of John, earl of Briftol, who died in 1698, and of a fon and
daughter of William, lord Digby. On the latter are in-
{eribed the following beautiful Tine by Pope.

“ Go, fair example of untainted youth,

Of modett reafon, and pacific truth ;
Compoied in fuffering, and in joy fedate,
Good without noife, without pretenfion great.
Go, juit of word, in every thought fincere,
knew no wifh but what the world might hear.

* Of gentleft manners, unaffeéted mind ;

Lover of peace, and friend of human-kind.
Go, live, for heaven’s eternab year 1s thine ;
Go, and exalt thy mortal to divine.

And thou, too clofe attendant on his doom,
Bleft maid, has haftened to the filent tomb,
Steer’d the fame courfe to the fame quiet fhore ;
Not parted long, and now to part no more :
Go, then, where only blifs fincere is known,
Go, where to love and to enjoy is one.

Yet take thefe tears, a relief, :
And, till we thare your joys, forgive our grief.
Thefe little rites, sana he bee!» receive ;
Tis all a father, all a friend can give.”

Thefe lines, as printed in the different editions of Pope's
works, vary very materially from the original. —

SHE

Befides the eftablifhed church, there were formerly in Sher-
borne two meeting-houfes for diflenters; but at prefent
there is only one, fituated in Long-{treet. The other public
ftru€tures here are the market-houfe, the work-houfe, an alms-
houfe, and a free grammar-{chool. The alms-houfe was
formerly a religious hofpital dedicated to St. Auguitine, and
has a chapel attached to it, which appears to have been ereéted
in the fifteenth century, and contains a very curious ancient
painting upon oak in high prefervation. This piéture con-
fifts of three pieces, reprefenting three of our Saviour’s moft
remarkable miracles, and is chara¢terized by Mr. Hutchins,
in his Hiftory of Dorfetfhire, as ‘* very beautiful, and evi-
dently executed by a mafterly hand.’’ The free grammar-
f{chool was founded and endowed by king Edward VI., and
the government of it velted, by charter, in twenty principal
inhabitants of Sherborne. At prefent, there are two matters
attached to this fchool, who mult be clergymen, and gra-
duates of one or other of the univerfities. The buildings
occupy the {cite of part of the ancient abbey, fome con-
fiderable portions of which are {till {tanding. The plan of
education adopted here is fimilar to that of Eton. There
are likewife in Sherborne two charity-{chools on a contraéted
{cale, three benefit focieties, two for men, and one for wo-
men; and an inftitution of rather an uncommon kind, called
the Green Girls’ Society, which, from its excellent tendency,
deferves to be more generally adopted. It was eftablifhed in
1771. The members pay into it a {mall fum weekly, and wear,
till they arrive at a certain age, green gowns and ftraw hats.
When a girl attains the age of eighteen, fhe is at liberty to
leave it, and if married before fhe is twenty-five, is entitled to
12/. on her wedding-day, and 1/. on the birth of her firft child.
If unmarried till twenty-five, fhe is then entitled to the firft
fum, provided fhe has lived a fober and virtuous life, other-
wife her claims are forfeited to the fociety. The founder of
this inftitution was the late Mr. John Toogood.

The parifh of Sherborne extends about three miles and a
half in length, and two miles and a half in breadth, and con-
tains, according to the population cenfus of 1811, 597
houfes, and 3370 inhabitants, of whom above 2000 refide in
thetown. The late eminent Dr. Jofeph Towers is generally
{tated to have been born at Sherborne, but we know from
authority that he was-not even a native of the county.

In a hamlet, or fuburb called Caitleton, about half a mile
eaftward from the town, {tood the ancient cattle of Sherborne.
This fortrefs was built by Roger, third bifhop of Salifbury,
and occupied a rocky eminence on the north bank of the river
Ire. The area contained within the deep fofle, which inclofed
the whole works, meafured about four acres inéxtent. Few
cattles furpaffed this in ftrength and magnificence of {truc-
ture. It was one of the three, ereéted by the fame bifhop,
which William of Malmfbury mentions among the wonders
of the world. It was of an o€tagonal form, and had feven
courts, with ftrong battlements furrounding it, and was built
after the plan of a{pider’s web. It had alfo a tower at each
angle, there being fixteen in all without the citadel, and ap-
pears to have been in every refpect admirably calculated for
fecurity and defence ; for if any one of the courts were fcaled
or taken, the foldiers in the gallery above would fo annoy
the aflailants with their arrows and other miffile weapons,
as to render it impoffible for them to retain poffeflion of it.
But notwithftanding the ftrength and importance of this
caflle, it does not appear to have been the fcene of any
events of intereft in the hiitory of the kingdom, till the reign
of Charles I., when it was one of the firlt befieged by
the parliament, and one of the laft which abandoned the
caufe of the king. Since that time it has been gradually

6

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falling into ruin, fo that only a few fragments of it now
remain.

The manor of Sherborne was very early granted to the
fee, and continued attached to it, during its fucceflive re-
movals, till the reign of king Henry VIII., who compelled
bifhop Piers to alienate it to the crown. Queen Elizabeth
granted it to fir Walter Raleigh, on whofe unjuit execution
by king James I. it was feized and given to the favourite
Carr, notwithftanding the interceffion of various diftin-
guifhed individuals to obtain it for the family of its great,
though unfortunate poffeffor. It afterwards became the
property of fir John Digby, whofe defcendants ftill continue
to enjoy it. The Hittory and Antiquities of the County of
Dorfet, by John Hutchins, M.A., 2d edition, corrected
and improved by Richard Gough, efg. and John Bowyer
Nichols, efq. vol. iv. fol. 1815.

SHERBURN, a market-town in a parifh of the fame
name, partly within the liberty of St. Peter of York, and
partly in the upper divifion of the wapentake of Barkfton
Ath, Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, England, is fituated at. the
diftance of 14 miles S.W. fromthe city of York, and 181
miles W. by N. from London. The market is held on
Friday weekly, but is little frequented, and there is only
one annual fair, onthe 25th of September. This place was
formerly, however, much more important, and was diftin-
guifhed by a palace belonging to the archbifhops of York,
of which not a veltige now remains. It is only at prefent,
therefore, remarkable for a particular {pecies of plum called
the Winefour, which grows in the vicinity. Sherburn town-
fhip, according to the parliamentary returns of 1811, con-
tains 188 houfes, and g58 inhabitants.
land and Wales, vol. xvi. by John Bigland, 1812.

SHERBURNE, Epwarn, in Biography, an ingenious

Beauties of Eng--

writer, was born in London in 1618, and educated under |
Farnaby ; after which he went abroad, but returned in |
1641, and fucceeded, on the death of his father, to the _

office of clerk of the ordnance. He was imprifoned for
fome time by the parliament, and, on his recovering his

;

liberty, joined the king, whom he ferved with fidelity and*
great bravery, by which he fuffered confiderably in his —

eftate.
where he was created matter of arts.
recovered his fituation under government, was knighted,
and made commiflary-general of the artillery. He died im
1702. He tranflated Seneca’s tragedies, the Sphere of
Marcus Manilius, and other works, into the Englifh lan-
guage, and was author of a volume of poems.

SHERBURNE, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in
Chenango county, New York; containing 1282 inhabitants.
—Alfo, a town in the ftate of Maffachufetts, and ifland of
Nantucket. The ifland contains 6807 inhabitants. (See
Nantucxer.)—Alfo, a town in Middlefex county, Maf-

fachufetts, containing 770 inhabitants; 18 miles S.W. of |

Bofton.—Alfo, a town of Herkemer county, New York;
containing, by the cenfus in 1796, 483 inhabitants.—Alfo,

After the battle of Edgehill he went to Oxford, —
At the reftoration he ©

a town of Rutland county, Vermont; containing 116 in= —

habitants.

SHEREBATOF, Prince; in Biography, a learned
Ruffian nobleman, who publifhed feveral works in his own
language, the chief of which is “ The Hiftory of Ruflia
from the earlieft Times,’’ which is faid to be well arranged,
and faithfully drawn up.

Mr. Coxe, in {peaking of this —

writer, fays, feveral perfons have publifhed colle@tions of
{tate-papers and other documents, but the honour of com- —
pofing a complete hiftory of Ruffia is probably referved for —

prince Sherebatof; who, if we except Mr. Muller, has

contributed

SHE

contributed more than any other perfon towards illuflrating
the Ruilian annals, This learned nobleman is editor ot
* A Journal of Peter the Great,” in 2 vols, 4to., which
found in the archives, and publithed by order of the
emprefs; of * The Ruflian Hiitory, by an ancient Aanalitt,

from the Beginning of the Reign of Vladimir Monomaca
in 1114 to 14723" * The Life of Peter the Great,’? in
the R age, firft publithed at Venice, which the

prince reprinted in 1774, and, according to his ufual cuf-
tom, enriched with many hiftorical obfervations. Of his
Hittory, already shared to, our author fays, “ I have
reed the German tranflation of this performance, which ap-
: ‘to me a molt valuable addition to the hiftory of obs
North. The author has had accefs to the imperial ar-
chives; he draws his information from the mott ancient and
' fources, is particularly exact in quoting his

ranges the events in a chronological ferics

and
with picuity.”” Coxe’s Travels, vol. in.
SHERET. is Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
_ in the government of Trebifond ; 30 miles S.W. of ‘T're-

' SHEREZUR, or Suenzoun, or Scherezur, a town
of Curdiftan, the capital of a government, and refidence of
a Turkith + 150 miles N. of Bagdad. N. lat. 35°
46. a ge
' SHERIBON. Cuenisox.

SHERIDAN, Tuomas, in Biography, was born pro-
bably about the year 1684, in the county of Cavan, w
his parents lived in fuch a ftate of indigence, as not to be
able to afford him the advantages of a liberal education ;
but being obferved to give early indications of genius, he
the notice of a friend to his family, who fent him
to the of Dublin, and contributed towards his fup-
while he remained there. Afterwards he proceeded
to a dogtor’s and took orders, and fet up a f{chool

Dublin, whi ee ee
putation Comb apenas morals
eaten oe he oe re literature. He
not appear to — any confiderable preferment ;

with procured for him, in 1725, a
worth about 150/. pein

of rifing in the church: for being at Cork on the rift of
Auguit, the anniverfary of the king’s birth-day, be preached
for the day is the evil thereof.”
was fpread abroad: he was ttruck
— to the lord-lieutenant, and for-
e afterwards changed his living for

» which by the knavery of the farmers,
in the neighbourhood, fell in
He willingly refi it for the
where he might have lived well ; but

he thought unhealthy, and bein
his parifhioners, he fold the {choo

and having {pent the money, he fell into
and died September roth, 1758, in the 55th

i He is thus charaéterized by lord Corke :
i {choolmatter, and in many iitances
adapted to that ftation. He was deeply verfed in
and in their cuftoms and
f nature, which ab-

indolence of body, and careletinefs of for-
not over-itrit in his own con-

t he the morals of his {cholars, whom
0 the univerfity remarkabl grounded in all
plied Jeattinigy ahd not ill in Ged in the focial

of li was flovenly, indigent, and cheerful.

&

SHE

He knew books much better than men, but he knew the
value of money lealt of all, In this fituation, and with this
difpofition, Swift fattened upon him as upon a prey, with
which he intended to regule himfelf, whenever his appetite
fhould prompt him.” Dr. Sheridan publithed a profe
tranflation of Perfius, to which he added the bett notes of
former editors, together with fome very judicious ones of
hisown. He alfo tranflated the PhiloGetes of Sophocles.

Suenipan, Tuomas, fon of the preceding, was born at
Quilea, in the county of Cavan, in Ireland ; and he had for
his god-father dean Swift. The early part of his education
he received from his father, who afterwards fent him to
Weiltmintter fchool, and at a time when he could very ill
afford it. Here, upon examination, he attraéted notice ;
and although a mere ftranger, he was eleéted a king's
{cholar, on account of his merit. But their maintenance
fometimes running fhort, the do¢tor was fo poor that be
could not add fourteen pounds, to enable his fon to finith
the year ; which if he had been able to have done, he would
have been removed to a higher clafs, and in another year
would have been fent off to a fellowthip at college. Being
thus recalled to Dublin, he was fent to the univerfity, where
he obtained an exhibition, and in 1738 he took his degree
of M.A. Having no intereft in the church, nor the means
of preparing himfelf for one of the liberal profeffions, he
refolved to feek a fupport on the tage.” He was received
with great applaufe, and in a fhort time became manager of
the Dublin theatre; in which capacity he fuccefsfully un-
dertook the curbing of that licentioufnefs, which had long
— with an almoft unlimited empire behind the fcenes,
and the putting a {top to the liberties daily taken by the
ame men with the female aétrefles. During eight years

r. Sheridan poileffed this important office of manager of
the Dublin theatre with all the fuccefs, both with refpe&
to fame and fortune, that could well be expeéted, when an
unfortunate circumitance led him to oppofe the withes of
the public, which obliged him to withdraw from the ma-
nagement of the theatre, and even to quit the country.
He continued in England till the year 1756, when he re-
turned to Dublin, and was again received on the ftage with
the higheft applaufe ; but he did not continue long in that
fituation, being oppofed and ruined by rival aétors.

In 1757 he publifhed a plan, in which he propofed to
the Irifh the eftablifhment of an academy, for the accom-
plifhment of youth in every qualification neceflary for a
gentleman. In the formation of this defign he included
oratory, as one of the eflentials; and in order to give a
itronger idea of the utility of that art, he opened his plan
to the public in fome orations, which were fo well written,
and fo admirably delivered, as to give the higheft proofs of
the ability of the propofer, and his fitnefs for the office of
f{uperintendant of fuch an inititution, for which poft he had

himfelf. Neverthelefs, though the plan was, in a
meafure, carried into execution, Mr. Sheridan was excluded
from any fhare in the conduc of it. He now came again
to England, and delivered leGures on elocution and oratory
in the theatres of Oxford and Cambridge, to very numerous
audiences, and with the higheit reputation. From thence
he again came to London, where he was engaged as an
actor and a leGturer. In 1778 he publithed “ A pro-
nouncing Diétionary of the Englifh Language ;” and after
this he became a manager of the Drury theatre, under
his fon, the t Mr. Sheridan, who was then one of the

tentees. died in Auguft, 1788. His works are as
ollow: 1. “ A Didtionary of the Englifh L eee
2. “ Leétures on the Art of Reading.” 3. “ Britith
Education, or the Source of the Diforders of Great Bri-
tain.” 4, “ A Diilertation on the Caufes of the Difficulues
3k whick

SHE

which occur in learning the Englifh Tongue.” 5. « A
Courfe of LeGures on Elocution.”? 6. « The Life of
Swift,’’ prefixed to an edition of his works, edited by Mr.
Sheridan. 7. °* Elements of Englith.”? His wife Frances,
whofe maiden name was Chamberlaine, was a very in-
genious woman, and was author of a novel, entitled
“ Sidney Biddulph ;?? a moral romance, entitled * Nour-
jahad ;’’ «* The Dilcovery,’”? a comedy ; and another, en-
titled «* The Dupe.’’ She died at Blois, in 1767.

SHERIDAN, the late Mrs., was daughter of the excellent
mufician, Mr. Linley, fo well known at Bath, by his pro-
feffional merit as a matter, by the beauty and talents of his
family, and by his vocal compofitions, particularly his
Elegies. If this were a place to celebrate the beauty and
faf{cinating manners of Mrs. Sheridan, we could dwell upon
them as long as on her voice and mufical talents; but to
thefe we mutt confine ourfelves. There was a brilliancy, a
fpirit, and a mellifluous {weetnefs in the tone of her voice,
which inftantly penetrated the hearts of her hearers, as much
as her angelic looks delighted their eyes, Her fhake was
perfe&, her intonation truth itfelf, and the agility of her
throat equal to-any difficulty and rapidity that was pleafing.
But in Handel’s pathetic fongs, in Purcell’s “ Mad Befs,”
in the upper part of ferious glees, or whatever vocal mufic
had impaffioned words to exprefs, fhe was fure to make
them felt by every hearer poflefled of intelligence and
fenfibility.

She knew mufic fo well, that fhe was fure to do jultice to
every kind of Italian compofition, as much as a foreigner
eyer did to a language not her own; though the energy and
accent given by the natives of Italy, particularly in recita-
tive, is ever comparatively deficient in the beft fingers of all
other countries; as nothing but a long refidence, early in
life, ina foreign country, can acquire the correét pronunci-
ation of its mufic, any more than of its language. It was
obferved by Sacchini, who heard Mifs Linley fing at Ox-
ford for the laft time, that if fhe had happened to have been
born in Italy, fhe would have been as much {fuperior to
all Italian fingers, as fhe was then to thofe of her own
country.

SHERIF, in the Egyptian Orders, the relations of Ma-
homet, the fame tribe of perfons called emir by the
Turks.

The word is Perfian, and fignifies great or noble; and
thefe perfons have the privilege of being exempt from ap-
pearing before any judge but their own head ; and if any of
the military orders are obliged to punifh them for any mif-
demeanor, they firft take off their green turban, in refpect
to their character ; and the fame is done even when they are
punifhed by their own magiltrate.

The fherif, fherriffe, or fcherif of Mecca, is the title of
the defcendants of Mahomet by Haffan ibn Ali. Al-
though this branch of the polterity of Mahomet has never
attained to the dignities of caliph or imam, it appears to
have always enjoyed the fovereignty over mott of the cities
in the Arabian province of Hedsjas. The family of Ali-
Bunemi, being one branch of the defcendants of Haflan ibn
Ali, and confifting of at leaft 300 individuals, enjoys the fole
right to the throne of Mecca. This family is likewife fub-
divided into two fubordinate branches, of which fometimes
the one, fometimes the other, has given fovereigns to Mecca
and Medina, when thefe were feparate ftates; but the
Turkih fultan is indifferent about the order of fucceffion in
the family, rather wifhing to favour the {trongeft, that he
may weaken them all. As the order of fucceflion is not
abfolutely fixed, and the fherriffes may all afpire alike to
the fovereign power, this uncertainty of right, aided by the
intrigues of the Turkith officers, occafion frequent revolu-

SHE

tions. The grand fherriffe is feldom able to maintain hime
felf on the throne; and it {till feldomer happens, that his
reign is not difturbed by the revolt of his neareft relations.
The dominions of the fherrifle comprehend the cities of
Mecca, Medina, Jambo, T'aaif, Sadie, Ghunfude, Hali,
and thirteen other lefs confiderable, all fituated in Hedgjas.
As thefe dominions are neither extenfive nor opulent, the
revenue of their fovereign cannot be confiderable. He finds
a rich refource, however, in the impofts levied on pilgrims,
and in the gratuities offered him by Muflulman monarchs.
Every pilgrim pays a tax of from 10 to 100 crowns, in pro-
portion to his ability. ‘The Grand Mogul remits annually
60,000 rupees to the fherriffe, by an aflignment on the go-
vernment of Surat; but fince the Englifh have made them-
{elves matters of this city, and the territory belonging to it,
the nabob of Surat has no longer been able to pay the fum.
The power of the fherriffe extends not to fpiritual matters :
thefe are entirely managed by the heads of the clergy of
different fe€ts, who are refident at Mecca. Rigid Mufful-
mane, fuch as the Turks, are not very favourable in their
fentiments of the fherriffes, but fufpeét their orthodoxy,
and look upon them as tacitly attached to the tolerant fect
of the Zeidi. See ScuEnir.

SHERIFF, or Suire-REvE, an officer in each county of
England, of very great antiquity ; his name being derived
from the two Saxon words /cire, province or fhire; or rather
from fciran, to divide, and gerefa, grave, reve, or prefed ; the
fheriff being denominated from the firft divifion of the king-
dom into counties. ;

He is called in Latin vice-comes, as being the deputy of
the earl or comes, to whom the cultody of the fhire is faid .
to have been committed at the firft divifion of this kingdom
into counties: but the earls being afterwards unable, by
reafon of their high employments, and attendance on the
king’s perfon, to tranfaét the bufinefs of the county, the
labour was committed to the fheriff ; who now performs all
the king’s bufinefs in the county ; and though he be {till
called vices-comes, yet he is entirely independent of, and not
fubje& to, the earl : the king, by his letters patent, commit-
ting cuffodiam comitatus to the fheriff,

Sheriffs were formerly chofen by the inhabitants of the
feveral counties ; in confirmation of which, it was ordained

. by 28 Edw. I. c. 8. that the people fhould have eletion of

fheriffs in every fhire, where the fheriffalty is-not of inherit-
ance ; for anciently in fome counties the fheriffs were here-
ditary, 2s judge Blackftone apprehends they were in Scot-
land, till the itatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43. and itill continue in
the county of Weftmoreland to this day : the city of London
having alfo the inheritance: of the fheriffalty of Middlefex
velted in their body by charter. This election, fays the
fame author, was, in all probability, not abfolutely vefted
in the commons, but required the royal approbation. For
in the Gothic conftitution, the judges of their county-
courts (which office is executed by our fheriff ) were elected
by the people, but confirmed by the king ; and the form of
their eleGtion was thus managed: the people, or incole ter-
ritorii, chofe twelve eletors, and they nominated three per-
fons, ex guibus rex unum confrmabat. But with usin Eng-
land, thefe popular eleétions growing tumultuous, were
put an end to by the flatute g Edw. II. ft. 2. which enact-
ed, that the fheriffs fhould from thenceforth be affigned by
the chancellor, treafurer, and the judges, as being perfons
in whom the fame tru{t might with confidence be repofed.
By ftatutes 14 Edw. III. c. 7, 23 Hen. VI. c. 8, and
21 Hen. VIII. c. 20, the chancellor, treafurer, prefident of
the king’s council, chief juftices, and chief baron, are to make
this eleétion on the morrow of All-Souls in the exchequer :
and the king’s letters patent, appointing the new feta
2 fe

SHERIFF.

ufed to bear date the firth day of November.
12 Edw. IV. c. 1.

And the cuftom now is, which has obtained fince the
time of H. VI. that all the judges, together with the
great officers, meet in the exchequer chamber on the
_ morrow of All-Souls yearly (which day is now altered to
the morrow of St. Martin, by the laft aét for abbreviating

term), and then and there propofe three perfons
to the king, who afterwards appoints one of them to be hheriff.

This cuftom of the twelve judges propofing three perfons,
feems borrowed from the Gothic conttitution before-men-

i

twelve nominees were firtt elected by veel ee themfelves ;

king, by his ive, may name whom he pleafes to be

scape me hep ap nereng ne ch unded

on a very parti eint ear of queen Elizabeth,

~ when, by reafon of the plague, there waves Michaelmas

at Weitminiter, {© that the judyes could not meet

in eraftine animarum, to nominate the fheriffs; upon

which the queen named them herfelf, without fuch previous

aflembly, appointing for the mott part one of the two re-

ing in the laft year’s lift. And this cafe, fo circum-

is the only anthority in our books for making thefe
extraordinary thenffs.

However, it muft be acknowledged, that the pra@tice of
eccafionally naming what are c: pocket-fheriffs, by the
ox - Snare sn ra pn y continued to

reign of hi t majefty, IT. in which, fa
Blackfone, few, if any, emi ane ascend "
- By four feveral itatutes it is enaGted, that no one hall be

i he have fufficient land within the fhire to

{t has been judged, that an attorney is exempted from the
pet by reafon of his scteudsnce = the courts
eftminiter.
By 2 Geo. III. c. 20. no » during the time he is
‘acting as a militia-officer, thall be obliged to ferve the office

rotetant ana eg paper pe by the Toleration
obligation of complying with the requifition of
Corporation aét, and who can plead their non-compli-
and fufficient excufe, are not compel-
ferve this office, nor of courfe to pay any fine for
refufal. seek ecm Letters to Blackitone, ed. z, and

iculai containing lord Mansfield’s {peech
etearear hye fins posh on the caufe between the city of
‘London and the diffenters, when the houfe affirmed the unani-
mous judgment of the commiffioners’ delegates, who delivered

coud teva day the sth of July, 1762, after hearing

council June rith, 1799, amending an adt of A the
om fheriff, &c. fhall be es

.

twenty marks towards the maintenance of the
of the feveral prifons within the city, together with
ufual fines. If, however, he thall afterwards take upon

f writ; therefore,

him the office of an alderman of the city, he fhall be “
to the faid office of theriffalty, notwithitanding the fore-
mentioned payment.

The theriff, before he exercifes any part of his office, and
before his patent is made out, isto give fecurity in the king’s
remembrancer’s office in the exchequer, under — of
1oo/., for the payment of his proffers, and al! other profits
of the theriffwick ; he mutt alfo take the oaths of allegiance
and abjuration, and all, except the theriffs of Wales and
Chefter, an oath appointed by 3 Geo. I. cap. 15. feet. 18.
for the due execution of their o This oath may be ad-
miniftered in purfuance of a writ of dedimus poteflatem. —

Sheriffs, by virtue of feveral old flatutes, are to continue
in their office no longer than one year: and yet it hath been
faid, that a theriff may be appointed durante bene ito, or
during the king’s pleafure, and fo is the form of the royal

til a new fheriff be named, his office can-
not be determined, unlefs by his own death, or the demife of
the king.

‘Ant be 1 Ann. ft. 1. ¢. 8. all officers appointed by the
preceding king may hold their offices for fix months after
the king’s demife, unlefs fooner difplaced by the fucceflor.

We may farther obferve, that by 1 Rich. II. c. 11. no
man, that has ferved the office of theriff for one year, cam
¥ compelled to ferve the fame again within three yeare

ter.

The power and duty of a theriff are thofe that belong to
him as a judge, asa keeper of the king’s peace, as a minif-
terial officer of the fuperior courts of juftice, or as the king’s
bailiff.

In his judicial capacity he is to hear and determine all
caufes of forty fhillings value and under, in his county-court ;
and he has alfo a judicial power in divers other civil cafeg.
He is likewife to decide the eleétions of knights of the hire
(fubje& to the controul of the houfe of commons), of coro-
ners, and of verderors ; to judge of the qualification of voters;
and to return fuch as he fhall determine to be duly eleéted,
but incapable of being eleGted himfelf for the county, &c.
of which he is returning officer.

As the keeper of the king’s peace, both by common law
and {pecial commiffion, he is the firft man in the county, and
fuperior in rank to any nobleman therein, during his office.
He may apprehend and commit to prifon all perfons who
break the peace, or attempt to break it; and may bind
any one in a recognizance to keep the peace. He may, and
is bound, ex officio, to purfue and take all traitors, murder-
ers, felons, and other mifdoers, and commit them to gaol for
fafe cuftody. He is alfo to defend his county againft an
of the king’s enemies when they come into the land; and,
for this purpofe, as well as for keeping the peace and pur-
fuing felons, he may raife the po/e comitatus.

However, by the exprefs directions of the great charter,
the theriff, together with the conftable, coroner, and certain
other officers of the kiug, are forbidden to hold any pleas
of the crown, or, in other words, to try any criminal of-
fence ; for it would be highly unbecoming, that the execu-
tioners of jultice thould alfo the judges; fhould im-
poie as well as levy fines and amercements ; fhould one day
condemn a man to death, and perfonally execute him the
next.

Neither may he aét as an ordinary juftice of the peace
Fanny | the time of his office, for this would be equally
inconfiftent, he being in many refpeéts the fervant of the
juttices.

In his minifterial capacity, the theriff is bound to execute
all procefs ifluing from the king’s courts of juflice. In the
commencement of civil caufes, he is to ferve the writ, to ar-
reft, and to take bail: when the caufe comes to trial, he

3R2 mult

SHE

muit fummon, and return the jury ; when it is determined,
he muft fee the judgment of the court carried into execu-
tion. In criminal matters, he alfo arretts and imprifons ; he
returns the jury; he has the cultody of the delinquent ;
and he executes the fentence of the court, though it extend
to death itfelf.

As the king’s bailiff, it is the fheriff’s bufinefs to preferve
the rights of the king within his bailiwick ; for fo his county
is frequently called in the writs. He mutt feize, to the
king’s ufe, all lands devolved to the crown by attainder or
efcheat ; muft levy all fines and forfeitures ; muft feize and
keep all waifs, wrecks, eftrays, and the like, unlefs they be
granted to fome fubjeét ; and muft alfo colle& the king’s
rents within his bailiwick, if commanded by procefs from
the exchequer.

To execute thefe various offices, the fheriff has under him
many inferior officers, an under-fheriff, bailiffs, and gaolers,
who muit neither buy, fell, nor farm their offices, on for-
feiture of soo/, 3 Geo. I. c. 15.

The under-fheriff ufually performs all the duties of office,
few excepted, with regard to which the perfonal prefence
of the high fheriff is neceflary. But no under-fheriff fhall
abide in his office above one year by 42 Edw. III. c. 9, and
if he does, by 23 Hen. VI.c. 8. he forfeits 200/.; and no
under-fheriff, or fheriff’s officer, fhall praGtife as an attorney
during the time he continues in fuch office, by 1 Hen. V.
c. 4. But thefe regulations are evaded; by practiling in the
names of other attornies,and putting in them deputies by way
of nominal under-fheriffs.

The under-fheriff, before he enters upon his office, is to
be {worn, by, 27 Eliz. c.12.. And by 3 Geo. I. c. 15.
fe€t. 19. it is enaéted, that all under-fherifls of any counties
in South Britain, except the counties in Wales, and the
county palatine of Chetter, fhall take an oath for the due
execution of their office. Blackft. Com. b. i.

SHERIFE’s Court. See County Court, and Mayor’s
Courts.

SHERIFF’s Tourn, or Turn. See Turn.

SHERIFF, dppofal of. See APPosAL.

SHERIFFS, [ues on. See Issuzs.

SHERIFF, in Commerce. See XERIFF.

SHERIL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir, on the Euphrates; 20 miles E.
ef Anah.

SHERILLA, a town of Africa, in Kaarta.
14° 29. W. long. 6° 25).

SHERLING, or Suirtine Lambs, in Rural Economy,
the practice of cutting or fhearing the fhort woolly coats or
coverings of thefe young animals in the fummer feafon,
about the time at which the old fheep are clipped. Both
the term and the cuftom are common in the northern diftriéts,
though they are fcarcely known in the more fouthern parts
of the ifland. Probably the greateft part of the lambs
which are brought to Smithfield market, as well as of thofe
which are bought by the butchers of the metropolis, are
never fherled or freed from their coats, by which a very
great individual as well as national lofs is fuftained. Per-
laps the lambs are more faleable when kept in their full
coats. The pratice is, however, worthy of being more
attended to in all fituations.

The clipping or fhirling of the lambs in fome diftriéts
has, however, been confidered as injurious, by the opera-
tion’s hurting the growth of them; though no fuch effeét
has been difcovered to take place in the South Down fheep
tract of the county of Suflex, or thofe of many other parts
of the north. The profit in che above diftri€t is, however,
thought to be trifling, or fuch as only to repay the ex-
pences, and a little more; but it has a tendency to improve

N. lat.

SHE

the wool, and caufe it to throw out a more luxuriant ftaple,
See Woot.

SHERLOCK, Witutam, in Biography, an eminent di-
vine in the Englifh church, was born in London in 1641.
He was educated at Eton, and thence he went to Peter-Houfe,
Cambridge, where he applied himfelf with much affiduity to
his {tudies, obtained a good reputation, took orders, and
officiated.as a curate mllithe year 1669, when he was pre-
fented to the rectory of St. George’s, Botolph Lane, Lon-
don. He ttood high in charaéter among the London clergy,
when he publifhed «« A Difcourfe concerning the Knowledge
of Chrift, and our Communion with Him,”’ being intended
as a confutation of the Antinomian doétrine, which brought
upon him feveral antagonifts, againft whom he vindicated
himfelf with judginent and zeal. In 1680 he took the de-
gree of D.D. and in the following year he obtained a pre-
bend in the cathedral of St. Paul’s. The difcovery of what
was called the Rye-houfe plot, having called forth the fpirit
of loyalty, Dr. Sherlock appeared as an aflertor of the doc-
trine of non-refiftance, in a work entitled ** The Cafe of
Refiftance to the fupreme Powers ftated and refolved ac-
cording to the Doétrines of the Holy Scriptures.’ In this
piece he maintained that the authority of the fovereign was
in his gerfon, and not in the /aw :—that he does not receive ~
his authority from the laws, but that the laws receive their
power from him ;—and that it does not become a man who
can reafon at all to talk of the authority of the laws in de-
rogation to the authority of the fovereign power. From
thefe flavifh principles he did not m the lea{t fwerve, even
after the acceflion of James II. had {till more endangered
the public liberties and religion of the country. His notion -
of paflive obedience did not, however, prevent him from op-
poling Popery, for he was among the firft who, in thofe
times, engaged in controverfy with the Papifts, in which he
wrote a great number of tracts.

After the revolution, Dr. Sherlock for fome time re-
mained firm in his high monarchical principles ; and refufing
to take the caths to the new government, was fufpended
from all his preferments, among which was the matterfhip
of the Temple. It was during this fufpenfion from his
labours as a preacher, that he publifhed the treatife on
‘‘ Death,”? to which he is chiefly indebted for celebrity as
an author. It was entitled ‘¢ A Praétical Difcourfe concern-
ing Death,” and few works have been more popular among
all clafles. It went through thirty editions in a fhort {pace
of time, has been printed in all fizes and forms, and has
been applauded by the mott able critics. |

Not long after the publication of this work, Dr. Sher-
lock’s feruples with re{pe€t to government gave way; he
took the oaths, and was reinftated in all his preferments.
This ftep of courfe expofed him to the cenfure of the party
with whom he had iong aéted, and to vindicate himfelf he
publifhed a piece, entitled «« The Cafe of the Allegiance due
to fovereign Powers ftated and refolved.”” In 1692 he pub-
lifhed his ‘* Vindication of the Doétrine of the Holy and
Ever-blefled Trinity.’? In this he maintained that there
were three eternal minds, which expofed him to the charge of
tritheifm ; it did not, however, prevent his promotion to the
deanery of St. Paul’s, on the recommendation of Dr. Tillot-
fon, who was raifed to the archbifhopric of Canterbury.

This rife in the church exafperated {till more thofe who
were already indifpofed againit him for his defertion of his
former principles, and Dr. South publifhed in 1693, ‘* Ani-
madyerfions upon Dr. Sherlock’s Book, &c.’? An eager
controverfy followed, in which the univerfity of Oxford took
part, by cenfuring in a public decree the hypothefis of Dr.
Sherlock, as maintained by a preacher at that place. The
contelt being carried on with great acrimony, the king, at

5 the

. SHE

the defire of the bifhops, interpofed with a prohibition of
ufe of new terms in the explication of the dottrine of
‘Trinity,

In 1704 Dr, Sherlock publithed “A Difcourfe on the
Immortality of the Soul,’’ in which he made an attack on
Locke’s opinion concerning innate ideas. He died in 1707,
in the 67th year of his age. After his deceafe, his fermons,
which had been printed during his life, were colleéted, and
with others printed in two volumes, 8vo.

» Swexrock, Ttromas, a diftinguifhed prelate, and fon of
the ing, was born in London in 1678. He received

hus education at Eton, and from thence he removed
to Catharine-hall, Cambridge, about the year 1693. In pro-
cefs of time he became a fellow of that fociety, entered into
a orders, and upon the refignation of his Taher in 1704)
he fuceeeded to the office of matter of the Temple. In the
i RE exerted himfelf with fo much fuc-

FF

glith divines have acquired fo high a repu-

it oratory, in the qualities of ftrength and
folidity of reafoning, and forcible and manly eloquence.

_ He commenced of divinity in 1707, and in 1714

maiter of Catharine-hall Being promoted to

Chichefter in 1726, he foon after made his

ye in print, as a champion of the eftablifhment,

indication of the Corporation and Teit Ads, in

t Bangor’s Reafons for the Repeal

of them.”? This was a age to by the worthy prelate, and

i i y the dean.
next work was entitled “The Ufe and

Fi

promoted to the fee of Bangor, in which he
fucceeded his antagonift Hoadly, as he did, in 1738, in that
of Salifbury. Asa member of the upper houfe, he took
an in i a fupporter of

active in its debates, and was alwa
eel a . He was con-

in parliament, as a great authority in ecclefiaftical
law, and frequently led the judgment of the houfe; and
reputation which he had in the epif-
that upon the death of archbifhop Potter,
1747) he was offered to fucceed him in the fee of Canter-
ay waits decid on monet oe but after-
accepted ndon in 17

he refigned the maiterfhip of the Temple, and 4
ve for an active fervice : he
his limbs and but {till retained

is underftanding, was capable of reviling
a volume of fermons: this was followed by
ich are in high eftimation. ‘The bifhop died

1 . of his
" SHERMA, or Cuznaa, in + a province of
kingdom of Morocco, which lies ween ti PR

a town of America, in the ftate of Con-
of Fairfield, containing inhabitants.
SHERMANSLL, a town uf Afiatic Turkey, in Na-

tolia; .48 miles W. of Burfa.

« SHERONA, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of

NSHERRINGHAM, in Bigrpiy, a compoter of fongs

in » acom
dun Vil. which have been
in

that we

SHE

SHERSHELL, in G raphy, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Algiers, generally fuppofed to be the city called
Jol, and by the younger Juba named Ce/area, in compli-
ment to Auguitus. ‘his town, whea Dr, Shaw faw it, in
the year 1730, was in great reputation for making feel,
earthen veflels, and f iron tools as are wanted in the
neighbourhood : but a few years afterwards (1738) it was
entirely thrown down by an earthquake. ‘The ruins upon
which this town was fituated, are not inferior in exteot to
thofe of Carthage ; and we may likewife conceive oo {mall
opinion of its former maguificence, from the fine pillars,
capitals, {pacious cifterns, and beautiful Mofaic pavements,
that are every where remaining. They have a tradition,
that the ancient city was defiroyed, as the new one was
lately, by an earthquake ; and that the port, formerly very
large om commodious, was deftroyed by the arfenal and
other adjacent buildings being thrown into it by the fhock.
The cothon, or artificial harbour, that had a communica-
tion with the weltern part of the port, is the belt proof of
this tradition: for when the fea is calm, and the water low,
(as frequently happens after ftrong fouth or ealt winds,) all
over the area of it fo many maily pillars and pieces of great
walls may be feen, that it cannot well be conceived how
they fhould come there without fuch a concuflion. The
— is nearly of a circular form, of 200 yards in diameter ;

ut the fecureft part of it, which, ull of late was towards
the cothon, is now filled up with a bank of fand, that daily
increafes. However, there {till lies in the mouth of it a
{mall rocky ifland, which at prefent is the main thelter and
defence again{t the northern tempelt. N. lat. 36°35’. E.
long. 2° 30/.
HERVEND, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 32 miles N. of Confar.

SHERWOOD Forest. See Suirewoop Forg/.

SHERZOUR. See Suerezur.

SHESBEQUIN, a pott-town of America, in Luzerne
county, Penn{ylvania; 80 miles N.N.W. of Philadelphia.

SHESHME-BAND, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segeitan; 50 miles W.S.W. of Ferah.

SHESHMESHA, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Khorafan ; 35 miles W. of Tabas-Kileki.

SHETABAVA, a town of Hindooltan, in the Carna-
tic; 40 miles S. of Tanjore.

SHETERU, a town of Hindooitan, in Coimbetore ;
5 miles N.W. of Erroad.

SHETLAND Istanps. See Zettanp [/land:.

SHETLAND-Sheep, in Agriculture, a breed of fine-woolled
fheep peculiar to the Shetland iflands. See Sueep.

SHETUCKET, in Geography, a river of America, in
Conneéticut, formed by the junction of Willomantic and
Mount Hope rivers, which after running E. a few miles
purfues a Boes courfe, and uniting with Quinnabang”
river difcharges itfelf into the Thames in the fouthern part
of the townthip of Norwich.

SHEVADY, a town of Hindooftan; 8 miles W.N.W.
of Pullumnare.

SHEVAGUNGA, a town of Hindooltan, in Myfore ;
25 miles N.W. of Bangalore. N. lat. 13°6'. E. long.

av: iB

SHEVAGURY, a town of Hindooitan, in Madura; 15
miles N.W. of Coilpetta.

SHEVALORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Marawar ;
8 miles N.W. of Trumian.

SHEVALPETTORE, a town of Hindoottan, in Ma-
rawar; 32 miles N.N.W. of Ramanadporum.—Allfo, a
town of Hindoottan, in the province of Madura; 35 miles
S.S.W. of Madura.

SHEVA-

hal ig

SHEVAPORUM, a town of Hindooftan, in the coun-
try of the Nayrs; 15 miles E. of Tellicherry.

SHEVGUNGA, a town of Hindootftan, in Marawar ;
20 miles S. of Tripattore.

SHEVITOON Inp1ans, Indians of North America.
N, lat. 47° 30!, W_.long. 164° 45!

SHEW-Box for Prints. See CAMERA.

SHEWAGE. See Scavace.

SHEW-BREAD, in the Jewifh Economy. The Hebrew
(Exod. xxv. 30.) £5135 DONS, ale; ewes, fignifies literally
“‘ bread of faces, or of the faces.’? This denomination was
given to the loaves of bread, which the prieft of the week
placed every Sabbath-day on the golden table in the fanc-
tuary, before the Lord. Thefe loaves were of a fquare
form, with four faces, as the rabbins fay, and were twelve
in number, reprefenting the twelve tribes of Ifrael. They
fupplied the place of thofe which had been expofed the whole
week, and none could lawfully eat them but the priefts.
This offering was accompanied with frankincenfe and falt.
Of the firft fruits and tenths prefented by the Ifraelites to
the priefts, the latter took that which was neceflary for
making the fhew-bread, and for fupplying the fervice of
the temple with any thing elfe which it was their duty to
furnifh.

SHEWIN, or Sewsy, in Ichthyology. See Grey.

SHGIGATCHEE, in Geography. See SGIGATCHEE.

SHIAB, a town of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
jas; 84 miles S.E. of Calaat al Moilah.

SHIANDAMANGALY, a town of Hindooftan, in
the province of Tinevelly ; 10 miles S. of Tutacorin.

; SHIANSHIA, a town of Egypt; 25 miles S. of Man-
ora.

SHIANT Isranps. See Suarnv.

SHIBBOLETH, or Sissotetu, a Hebrew word
which fignified fpica, or an ear of corn. It was ufed by
way of diftinguifhing the Ephraimites from the men of Gi-
lead. For the latter having killed a great number of the
former, fet guards at all the pafles of Jordan; and when an
Ephraimite, who had efcaped, came to the water-fide, and de-
fired to pafs over, they afked him if he was not an Ephraimite ?
If he {aid no, they bade him pronounce Shibboleth. But
he pronouncing it Sibboleth, according to the manner of
the Ephraimites, and thus not enunciating the firft letter,
was killed on the fpot: on this occafion, 42,000 Ephraim-
ites were killed. By thus not diftinguifhing between the js
and the {%, the {chin and the fin, they expofed themfelves
to this maflacre: hence the terms have been ufed to denote
the trivial grounds on which contending parties, particularly
in theological difputes, often differ, and proceed to think ill
of, and aétually to perfecute, one another.

SHIBKAH, in Geography, an extenfive falt-plain of Al-
giers, overflowed in winter, but dry in fummer ; 10 miles S,
of Oran.

SHICARAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Diarbekir; 18 miles W.S.W. of Hazou.

SHIDES. See Suinctes.

SHIEL, Locu, in Geography, a lake in the parifh of Ard-
namurchan, and county of Invernefs, Scotland ; extending
ten miles in length, and two in breadth. Near its centre
rifes an iflet, called [Mand Finan, which contains the ruins
of a chapel dedicated to the faint of that name. This lake
difcharges its waters into the Weftern ocean at Caftle Tioram,
by the river Shiel. Statiftical Account of Scotland, by
fir John Sinclair, vol. ii. 1792.

SHIELD, an ancient weapon of defence, in form of a
poy buckler, borne on the arm to fend off lances,, darts,

u Cw

SHI

The form of the fhield is reprefented by the efcutcheon
in coats of arms.

The fhield was that part of the ancient armour on which
the perfons of diftinGtion in the field of battle always had
their arms painted; and moft of the words ufed at this time
to exprefs the {pace that holds the arms of families, are de-
rived from the Latin name for a fhield, /cutum. The French
efeu, and efcuffion, and the E.nglith word, efeutcheon, or, as
we commonly {peak it, /cutcheon, is evidently from this
origin; and the Italian /cudo fignifies both the fhield of
arms, and that ufed in war. ;

The Latin name clypeus, for the fame thing, feems alfo
to be derived from the Greek word yAugey, to engrave ; and
it had this name from the feveral figures engraved on it,
as marks of diftinétion of the perfon whé wore it.

The fhield in war, among the Greeks and Romans, was
not only ufeful in the defence of the body, but it was alfo a
token or badge of honour to the wearer, and he who re-
turned from battle without it, was always treated with in-
famy afterwards.

People have at all times thought this honourable piece of
the armour the properett place to engrave or figure on the
figns of dignity of the pofleflor of it; and hence, when
arms came to be painted for families in after-times, the
heralds always chofe to reprefent them upon the figure of a
fhield, but with feveral exterior additions and ornaments, as
the helmet, fupporters, and the reft.

The form of the fhield has not only been found different
in various nations, but even the people of the fame nation,
at different times, have varied its form extremely-; and
among feveral people there have been fhields of feveral forms ~
and fizes in ufe, at the fame period of time, and fuited to
different occafions.

The moft ancient and univerfal form of fhields, in the
earlier ages, feems to have been the triangular, vulgarly
called the heater fhield, from its refemblance to that in{tru-
ment of houfewifery. This we fee inftances of in all the
monuments and gems of antiquity : our own moft early mo-
numents fhew it to have been the moft antique fhape alfo
with us, and the heralds have found it the moft convenient
for their purpofes, when they had any odd number of figures
to reprefent; as if three, then two in the broad bottom
part, and one in the narrow upper end, it held them very
well ; or if five, they ftood as conveniently, as three below,
and two above. Moft of the monumental figures of crofs-
legged knights are armed with triangular fhields, which ara
generally a little convex, or curved in their breadth; their
upper extremity terminated by a line parallel to the horizon,
and their fides formed by the interfe¢tion of the fegments of
two circles. Such are generally reprefented on ancient feals
and windows: fometimes, though not often, their furfaces
are flat. - On the infide of the Norman fhields were two or
more loops of leather, or wooden handles, through which
the arm and hand were patled, when the fhield was brafed,
and prepared for ufe; at other times it was carried by a
leathern thong worn round the neck. The other form of a
fhield, now univerfally ufed, is {quare, rounded, and pointed
at the bottom: this is taken from the figure of the Sam-
nitic fhield ufed by the Romans, and fince copied very gene-
rally by the Englifh, French, and Germans. See TARrcEr.

The fhield, though it was not entirely relinquifhed fo
long as the ufe of the long and crofs bows continued, feems
to have undergone fome alteration in its form ; the triangu-
lar, or heater fhield, gradually giving place to thofe of a
circular or reGtangular figure. Shields were firft left off by
the cavalry ; they were, however, ufed in the army of king
Edward I., at the fiege of Karlaverok, in the year - ie

art

|

a SHI

|) A.fort of thiclds was worn by the Scots at the battle of
- Maflelborough, in the firit year of Edward VI, Shields or
bucklers feem to have been ufed in aflrays and private quar-
rels, by perfons in the civil line, as late as the reigns of Eli-
wabeth and king James 1, ‘I'he common appellation for a
quarrelfome or fighting fellow about that period was a {wath-
buckler, that is, a breaker or clather of bucklers. Maurice,

of Orange, was a great advocate for the thield, and

even attempted to revive the ule of it, His company of

Dutch guards was armed with targets and roundels, and he
formed a plan of exercife for them. The target and
broad { were the favourite arms of the Scotch High-

landers as late as the year 17.46, and even after. Swords and
bucklers were anciently borne before great military officers,
as ia of their dignity: thofe carried before Ling Ed.
ward III. in France, are thewn in Weitminiter Abbey. The
thield borne before the commandant of the forces on board
the Spanifh Armada, is preferved in the Tower, and a {word
was borne before the bi of Norwich, as commander of

for this ufe.
have the like general form
of thields, but they are round at the bottom, without the
int ; and the Germans, befide the Samnite fhield, have two
— much in ufe: thefe are, 1. The bulging
iftinguithed by its {welling or bulging out at the
2. The indented fhield, or thield chancree,
a number of notches and indentings all round its
ufe of the ancient thield of this form was, that
ferved to ret the lance upon, that it might be
thraft ; but this form being lefs pro-

receiving armorial figures, the two former have
more ufed in the heraley of that nation.

:

rREEE
than
:

t
2F

Another form of thield its name roundel, or
rondacha, from its circular figure ; it was made of ofiers,
boards of light wood, ropes,’ covered with lea-

finews or
ther, plates of metal, or ftuck full of nails, in concentric cir-
cles, The fhields and roundels of metal,

attle-
axe. moft roundels are convex, we meet with
many that are —! but thefe have commonly an umbo.
The placed as in the fhield and target. The
roundel feems, in many inftances, to refemble the Roman
For another form of thield, fee Pavats.

Befides this different form of the fhields in heraldry, we find
them alfo often diftingui by their different pofitions, fome
of them ftanding and others ftanding various ways, and
a different degrees; this the heralds exprefs by the word

, ing, they feeming to be hung up, not by the
the right or left corner. The wrench eall
ecu , the common antique triangular ones
ancien. re nus oy pm ys and the rea-
_ for exhibiting the thield in thefe figures in heraldry
in the ancient tilts and tournaments, they who were

at thefe military exercifes, were obliged to hang up
thields, with their armories or coats of arms on them,
it at the windows and balconies of the houfes near the

2a, Se ed or the barriers of the
ind, if exercife was to be performed in the field.
who were to fight on foot, according to Columbier,

fhields hung up by the right corner, and thofe who
to fight on berledeck, had theirs hung up by the left.

SHI

This pofition of the thields in heraldry is called cowehe by
fome writers, though by the generality pendant.

It was very frequent in all partsof Europe, io arms gives
between the eleventh and fourteenth centuries ; but it as to
be obferved, that the hanging by the left corner, as it was
the token of the owner's being to fight on horfe-back, fo it
was efteemed the molt honourable and noble fituation ; sod
all the pendant thields of the fons of the royal family of Scot.
land and England, and of our nobility, at that time, are
thus hanging from the left corner. The hanging from this
corner was a token of the owner’s being ef noble birth, and
having fought in the tournaments before ; but no fovereign
ever had a thield pendant any way, but always ere¢t, as they
never formally entered the lilts of the tournament.

The Italians generally have their thields of arms of an
oval form; this feems to be done in imitation of thole of
the po and other dignified clergy ; but their herald,
Petro BanGo, feems to regret the ule of this figure of the
fhield, as an innovation brought in by the painters and en-

vers, as moit convenient for holding the figures, but
| egal to the honour of the poffeilor, as not repre-
fenting either antiquity, or honours won in war, but rather
the honours of fome citizen, or perfon of learning. Some
have carried it fo far, as to fay that thofe, who either have
nv ancient title to nobility, or have fullied it by any un-
worthy aétion, cannot any longer wear their arms in fhields
properly figured, but were obliged to have them painted in
an oval or round fhield.

In Flanders, where this author lived, the round and oval
fhields are in the difrepute he {peaks af ; but in Italy, be-
fides the popes and dignified prelates, many of the firit fa-
milies of the laity have them.

The fecular princes, in many other countries, alfo retain
this form of the thield, as the moft ancient, and truly ex-
preflive of the Roman clypeus. Nifbet’s Heraldry, p. 12.
Componille, Herald.

Suiecp, in Heraldry, denotes the efcutcheon, or field
whereon the bearings of the armoury are placed. See
Escurcueon.

SHIELDRAKE. See Taporwa.

SHIELDS, Wittiam, in Biography. Though this
mufical profeflor, for the happinefs of his acquaintance,
ftill ranks with the living, and we can tell our contempo-
raries nothing concerning his worth and talents which is not
already well known, yet as his name has penctrated into
Germany, and has furnifhed an article in Gerber’s Conti-
nuation of Walther’s Mufical Lexicon, we cannot refift
Se the account given of his compofitions in that
work.

Suretps, North, in Geography, a market-town and fea-

rt in Cattle ward, county of Northumberland, Eng-

d, is fituated near the entrance of the river Tyne, on its
northern bank, at the diftance of half a mile W.S.W. from
the town of Tynemouth, and 279 miles N. by W. from
London. This town is indebted for its origin to the monks
of Tynemouth priory, who erected a number of houfes here,
and encouraged the Laxiement of thip-owners and tradefmen,
early in the reign of Edward I. Ae at the fame time
formed a harbour here for lading and unlading of fhips, and
eltablithed a weekly market and fairs; but the exercife of
thefe privi having been difputed by the corporation of
Newecaille, they were inhibited by a decreet of the itinerant
judges. From that period it continued to be a mere fifhing
village till the middle of the feventeenth century, when new
efforts were made to render it an important fea-port, for
which purpofe its fituation is admirably adapted. Cromwell,

who then held the reins of government, with the confent of
parliament

SHIELDS.

parliament paffed an act, in which it was ordered, « that
fufficient and well-fenced ballait-fhores, quays, and tteaths,
be built at Shields,” and « that North Shields be made
a market-town: two days in the week, for the relief of the
country and garrifon of Tynemouth, and for all the great
confluence of people and fleets of fhips.’?

In confequence of this a&t, North Shields would foon
have become a place of great commercial importance; but
on the reftoration, the rights claimed by the corporation of
Newcaitle were refumed ; and North Shields was deprived of
its markets and fair. From that time every mean which a
narrow andilliberal policy could devife, was employed to re-
tard the growing profperity of this port; but towards the
conclufion of laft century, many of the unjuft reftridtions
which formerly fubfilted were removed, and the different
trades permitted to be followed without moleftation. . It
was only, however, in the year 180g, that North Shields
obtained the privilege of holding a weekly market and fairs,
by petition of the inhabitants to the duke of Northumber-
land, as lord of the manor of Tynemouth, in which the {cite
of North Shields is included. The day of the firft opening
of the market was ufhered in with great rejoicings, and at
noon a falute of cannon announced the completion of the
long wifhed-for event. The market-day is Friday, and the
fairs are held on the Jatt Friday in April, and the firft Fri-
day in November.

North Shields, from thefe circumftances, and the patriotic
exertions of the duke of Northumberland, is become, in
the courfe of a few years, a large and populous town. It
contains many handfome ftreets, and two elegant fquares, be-
fides the market-place, lately formed, which may rival any
provincial market-place in the kingdom. On one fide is a
{pacious quay, with a crane for the delivery of goods,
where fhips of 300 tons burthen may difcharge or take in
cargoes with perfect fafety. Another fide is adorned with
a noble ttone building, which is now ufed as an inn, and is
furmounted with the Percy arms. North Shields, forming
part of the parifh of Tynemouth, has no parifh church,
but it poflefles feveral chapels of eafe, and meeting-houfes
for almoft every clals of diflenters. The other public
itructures and eftablithments here are a theatre, a difpenfary,
and a large fchool-houfe, erected by fubf{cription, in com-
memoration of the royal jubilee, where a great number of
boys and girls are educated on the Lancaftrian plan. Here
are likewife many well-condu@ted and flourifhing benetit fo-
cieties, an afylum for fick and friendlefs feamen, and a lying-
in-hofpital. A fubfcription library has alfo been opened in
North Shields, and is faid to contain an extenfive colleGtion
of valuable books.

The harbour of North Shields is calculated to accommo-
date 25co fail of fhips; and in {pring tides, veflels of 500
tons burthen ean pafs the bar without danger. The veflels
belonging to this port, exclufive of {mall coafters, are {tated
in the * Hiftorical View of Northumberland,”’ to amount to
1000; but this number, we prefume, includes the {hipping
of Newcaitle and South Shields alfo, of which North Shields
may juttly claim one half. One great inconvenience com-
plained of by the commercial intereft here and at South
Shields, is the want of an independent cuftom-houfe ; which
obliges the captains of all veffels failing from this port to
clear their fhips at Newcaltle, a diftance of ten miles up the
river.

The principal tradé of North Shields, as of the river
Tyne generally, confilts inthe exportation of coals to Lon-
don, and other parts of the eaftern coaft of England ; but
fome veflels are likewife employed in the Baltic and Ameri-
can trade; and during the late wars, a great number was

hired to government for the tranipart fervice. ‘The manu-
factures eftablifhed here are chiefly fuch as depend upon the
fhipping interetl, as fhip and boat-building, rope and fail-
cloth making, brewing, baking, &e.; but there are likewife
in North Shields a foundery for ca{t iron, an extenfive tan-
nery, one f{kinnery, a tobacco manufactory, a glove manu-
faétory, and five’ hat manufactories.

The feamen of this port are frequently very riotous and
turbulent, when they want a rife of wages, or are in any
way diflatisfied with the condué of the fhip-owners. In
thefe inftances they have generally ated upon a regular

plan ; forcing every failor to remain on fhore, and preventing -

any veflel from proceeding to fea until their demands were
complied with. An alarming combination of this kind was
formed in the months of September and Oober lalt, (1815,)
and threatened fuch ferious confequences, as to render go-
vernment interference neceflary, when order was happily re-
ftored without bloodfhed.

North Shields, according to the parliamentary returns of
1811, contains 804 houfes, and a population of 7699
perfons,

For fome further account of this port and the adjoining
country, fee the articles NewcasrLz, Tyne, Tynpmouru,
‘and South Suierps. A Hiftorical and Deferiptive View of
the County of Northumberland, &c. two vols. 8vo. New-
cattle, 1812.

SureLps, South, a market-town and fea-port in the parifh
of Jarrow, eaft divifion of Chelter ward, and county pala-
tine of Durham, fituated dire@tly oppofite to North Shields,
at the diftance of 21 miles N.N.E. from the city of Dur-
ham, and 278 N.N.E. frem London.
it Owes its importance chiefly to the coal trade and fhipping
intereft, but the proportion of manufactures carried on here
is greater than at the former town. Abont fifty years ago
this place poflefled upwards of two hundred faltpans, but
that branch of bufinefs has greatly declined, and others of
higher importance are {ubftituted in its ftead, as fhip-building,
and>the manufaGture of glafs, foap, &e. South Shields
was conftituted a market-town by bifhop Trevor, in the
year 1770. The market-day is Wednefday, and there are
two annual fairs, on the 24th of June and the 4th of Sep-
tember. The veflels belonging to this port amount to about
300 in number. The church, which is a chapel of eafe un-
der Jarrow, is evidently a {truéture of great antiquity ; the
ftyle of its architecture being that of the Anglo-Norman
era. Some antiquaries are of opinion that there was a Ro-
man ftation at the point of land near South Shields, which
forms the fouthern entrance into the Tyne, and the conjec-
ture is certainly probable, though by no means authenticated
as a fact, :

South Shields, like North Shields, has-of late years
greatly increafed in population and extent; but it is defti-
tute of many of the advantages poflefled by the other.
Here are, befides the eftablifhed church, feveral diflenting
meeting-houfes ; alfo feveral benefit focieties and charity-
{chools. The petty feffions for the ealt divifion of Chelter
ward are held in the town-houfe here, which isa refpectable.
building, fituated in the centre of. the market-place. Mott
of the ftreets of this town, however, are narrow, and the
houfes very indifferently built. According to the parlia-
mentary returns of 1811, it contains 528 houfes, and a po-
pulation of goo1 perfons.

About two miles to the weftward of South Shields is the
village of Jarrow, celebrated for its monaltery, which was
originally founded about the year 685 ; but has fince been
frequently rebuilt. his religious houfe was dedicated to

Like North Shields, .

St, Paul, and appropriated to the reception of Benedictine, _

monks,

SHI ,

monks. Its remains, together with the church of Jarrow,
eccupy the fammit of an elevated ridge, but difplay litte
am of notice. The Hittory and Antiquitics of the
County Palatine of ee at W. Hatchinfon, 40.
1775. Beauties of England and Wales, vol, vi, by E. W.
Brayley, and Joho Britton.
FFNAL, a market-town in the parifh of Shiffnal,
hundred of Brimitrey, and county of Salop, England, is
fituated at the diitance of 19 miles E. by S. from Shrewl-
bury, and 143 miles N.W. from London, The market.
da Lore is Friday weekly, and there are fairs on the
of Avguit and the 2ad of November. The petty fel-
divifion of the hundred are held here ; but
this town is a trifling place, the whole
our townthips, con-
to the parliamentary returus of 1811,
and 4061 inhabitants.
HIFT, a term in Mufc, ufed for conduéting the hand
of the violin, and iniftrumen

:

on ts with a
neck,
By moving the left hand a little towards the bridge, and
the firft finger where the fecond was, on the fecoud
ing of the violin, in the natural pofition of the hand, it
will produce C inftead of B, and the little finger will then
epee Se euien See Sone Ae Cae and this is called
half thift. The frit, or whole thift, is placing the firft
finger where the third was, in the natural pofition of the
hand, which will produce D on the fecond firing, and the
een bane on ite Se. The next movement of
the towards the bridge is placing the firft finger on E
of the fecond firing, when the little finger will give its
oétave on the firft firing, and this is the hhift ;
each thift commanding all the intermediate notes of an
oftave to the firft finger. By this means a half, a whole
note, or any number of notes, upwards

ote

a ey peony dl atime A rea-
at thefe fhi See alte tc ol korn, sel aes
i ing the -board well. At

prefeat (1809) folo parts for the violoncello are writ-
ey § +. lied to difpofin

% » in Ship- Building, a term applied to di the
butts of the — &c. fo that Reema irate 4
nee wacenetmhacin pelrig’ 9d © we to ain the moft
ftrength. The planks of the » in Britith-built fhips
of war, have a fix-feet fhift, with three planks between
‘each butt, the planks run twenty-four feet >

In the merchant-fhips, have a fix-feet hi

with only two planks between each butt, making but

planks in len The thift of the ti is
from three feet to ten feet fix inches in length, according to
the fize of the hi ‘

SHIFTED, in Sea Language, denotes the ftate of a
fhip’s ballatt or cargo, when it 1s fhaken from one fide to
the other, either by the violence of her rolling in a turbu-
ine See, OF Dey ma easaare diary incteation ination to one fide, when

a of fail. This circumitance rarely

great preffure

unlefs to thofe cargoes which are {towed in bulk,
Se eee
: a to ip’
parti oe regen Ot kine the Cee

$8) in Ship-Building, the aét of fetting off
length of the co garg thip, fo peg Din
uce a

ee Suirt,) Replacing old ftuff with new et called
XXXII.

SHI

Sairrimd a Tackle, in Sea Language, the a@ of remov-
ing the blocks of,a tackle to a greater dillance from cach
other, on the obje@ to which they are appled, in order to
give a greater feope or extent to their purchafe, This ope-
ration is otherwife called Aecting.

Suivrine the Helm, ws altering its pofition from one fide
to the other, or from one fide to midbhips.

Susevine the Veyal, or Meffenger, - eta its pofition
on the capitern, fo as to heave in the cable from the flarboard
or larboard fide.

Suvrixe of Plants, in Gardening, the bufinels of re-
moving plants in pots, from {maller into larger ones, &c. to
give a freth earth or mould. It is neceflary occafionally,
in all plants in pots, to aflifl them with larger ones, accord-
ing as the advanced growth of the particular forts renders it
proper ; and at the fame time to fupply an additional propor-
tion of frefh earth about the root-fibres of the plants, to
promote their growth: and fometimes, for the application
of frefh compott, either in part or wholly, from the plants
having remained long unremoved, and the old earth in the
pots being much decayed, or on account of fome defect of
growth in the et plants.

In regard to the neceflity of fhifting, it is, in fome de-
gene according to the advancing growth of the different
orts of plants: fome forts of a itrong free growth require
fhifting once every year or two: others, more moderate
growers, or of more fettled growths, once in two or three
years; and-fome large growing kinds, which are advanced
to a confiderable fize, having been occafionally thifted, in
their increafing growth, from {maller into larger pots of
different proportionable fizes, and fome from large pots into
tubs of ein ao dimenfions, as large plants of the Ame-
rican aloe, orange, and lemon-tree kinds, &c. in that ad-
vanced ftate, fometimes only need occafional fhifting once
in three or feveral years, ~ ially when the pots or tubs
are capacious, containing a te fe of earth, and are
occafionally refrefhed with fome new compolt at top, and a
little way down, round the fides about the extreme roots.
And in fome {mall flow-growing plants, as in many of the
fucculent tribe, fhifting them once in two or three years may
be fufficient ; other forts want shifting annually into larger
pote according as they advance in a free growth, as the

rdy and pe kinds of herbaceous and fhrubby plants,
&c. And fome of the tender annual flower-plants, culti-
vated in pots, and forwarded in hot-beds, being planted firit
in {mall pots, want shifting, in their increafing growth, into
larger fizes, once or twice the fame feafon, as from April
to the beginning of June, when being fhifted finally into the
requifite full-fized pots, they remain during their exiitence.
But though large-grown plants, either of the fhrub or tree
kind, as well as other plants of large growths, after being
finally {tationed in the fulleft-fized large pots and tubs, fuc-
ceed feveral years without shifting, they fhould in the inter-
val have the top earth loofened, and down round the fides
to fome little depth, removing the loofened old foil, and
filling up the pots, tubs, &c. with frefh earth, fettling it
dicks a moderate watering.

The ufual feafon for occalional fhifting fuch plants as re-
ces it, is principally the fpring and autumn, as from

arch to May for the {pring fhifting ; and from Auguft to
the end of September for the autumn ; though in plants that
can be removed with the full balls of earth about the roots,
it may be occafionally performed almoft at any time ; how-
ever, for an fhifting, the {pring and autumn are the
mott f feafons, ata omg then fooner ftrike freth
root; and many forts p y in the {pring, by having
the benefit of “4 fame growing feafon, and that of fum-

3 mer.

SH tf

mer. In performing the bufinefs, it is moftly proper to re-
move the plants from the fmaller to the larger pots, with the
balls of earth about the roots, either wholly, or fome of
the outward old earth, the dry or matted radical fibres only
being carefully trimmed away, fo as not to dilturb the prin-
cipal roots in the bodies of them, as by this means the plants
receive but little check in their growth by the removal.
Sometimes, when any particular plants, fhrubs, or trees,
&c. in their pots, difcover by their tops that they are in a
declining ftate, as probably the defect may be either in the
root, or the old balls of earth, it may be proper to fhake
all the earth entirely away, in order to examine the roots,
and to trim and drefs them as the cafe may require, re-
planting them in entire frefh compoft or mould.

And in preparing for this fort of work, where neceflary
to give larger pots, &c. it is proper to provide them of
fuitable fizes, in fome regular gradation larger than the
old ones, according to the nature and growth of the plants,
the whole being placed ready, with a proper quantity of
frefh compoft earth, in proportion to the number and fize
of the plants intended to be fhifted: then let thofe plants
intended to be removed with balls, be taken out of their
old pots feparately, with the whole balls or clumps of earth
about the roots as entire as poffible ; and when large, or
tolerably full, with a knife trim off fome of the outward
loofeft earth, and the extreme fibres of the roots; but when
{mall, and adhering together compaétly, the whole may be
preferved entire ; and in either cafe, where there are very
matted, dry, or decayed fibres furrounding the balls, they
fhould be trimmed as it may feem neceflary: in thofe of a
frefh lively growth, the loofe ftraggling parts only fhould
be cut away. The requifite pruning, trimming, or drefl-
ing in the heads or tops, fhould alfo be given where it may
feem proper, according to the ftate of growth, and the na-
tural habit of the different plants; but many forts require
little or none of this fort of attention.

Then having prepared the intended pots for the reception
of the plants, by placing fome pieces of tile or oytter-thell,
&c. loofely over the holes at bottom, and laid in a little frefh
earth, two, three, or four inches deep, or moré, according
to the fize of the pot, the plant fhould be fet in with its
ball of earth, as above, filling up around it with more frefh
mould, raifing it an inch or two over ‘the top of the ball;
and giving dire@tly a moderate watering, to fettle the earth
clofe about the ball and roots regularly in every part, in a
proper manner: in fuch cafes where the ball in particular
plants appears very compactly hard and binding, it may be
proper to loofen ita little, by thrufting a fharp-pointed ttick
down into the earth in different parts, giving it a gentle
wrench, to open the earth moderately ; or fometimes it may
alfo be proper to trim away fome of the old earth on the top
and fides, then planting it as above, and filling up round and
over the ball with frefh earth, and watering it afterwards.

Alfo, in fhifting hardy or tender, fhrubby, fucculent, or
herbaceous plants, when any appear of a fickly, weak, or
unhealthy growth, it may be advifeable to clear off a confi-
derable part of the outward old earth from the balls about
the roots, or, in fome cafes, to fhake it wholly away, that
the defe€ts in the growths, occafioned either by faults in
the roots or in the earth, may be removed by pruning out any
decayed or bad parts of the roots, and replanting them
wholly in frefh earth. _

And fometimes particular forts of plants in pots require
fhifting, more for the advantage of having frefh earth, than
‘for want of new, or larger pots; and asin this cafe fome of
the fame pots may be itill of an eligible fize to repot them in,
thefe pots fhould be well cleaned from all the adhering parts

Z

SHI

of the old earth, and be replenifhed with entire new, at the
time of repotting the plants ; which being removed out of
their pots, either with the entire balls about the roots, and
part of the old mould cleared off all round, to admit of a
larger portion of frefh earth in the pot at replanting ; or in
fome, appearing of an infirm or declining habit, the whole
balls of old earth difplaced clean to the roots ; then having
furnifhed the pots with frefh earth, the plants fhould be re-
placed in them, filling up the pots regularly with a fufficiency
of the fame frefh mould, and finifhing with a moderate
watering to fettle the whole clofe about their roots.

Likewife after fhifting, when the plants are not watered
at the time, a moderate watering, both to the earth in the
pots to fettle it clofe about the roots, and in moft forts
highly over the tops or heads of the plants, fhould be given,
in order to wafh off any foulnefs ; then the pots of plants
fhould be fet in their refpective {tations in the garden, &c.:
the hardy kinds, if warm funny weather, may be placed
in a fhady border for two or three weeks, till they have
ftruck frefh root in the new earth : the tender forts fhould be
difpofed in their places among the green-houfe and ftove-
plants, or to have the benefit of fhade in the middle of hot
funny days, till frefh ftruck, or probably fome of the more
tender particular forts may require to be plunged in a hot-
bed or bark-bed, efpecially fome of the ftove kinds : fome
principal forts of the more curious or tender green-houfe
plants, in order to expedite their frefh-rooting more effec-
tually ; and fometimes tender annuals in hot-beds, potted
in their early young growth, may require to be replunged
in the hot-bed to frefh ftrike, and forward them till June ;
but generally all the full ground or open air plants only re- -
quire a little occafional fhade in hot dry weather the frit
two or three weeks, and fome fhifted with full balls about
the roots, only need occafional watering ; afterwards, on
the whole, both the hardy and tender kinds fhould have re-
peated moderate waterings given them, according to their
kinds. .

SHIFTS, fuch parts of a farm as are allotted for the
reception of either ftock or crops. It is alfo a term ap-
plied to the rotations of cropping lands: thus we have
three, four, five, and fix-courfe fhifts. See Courfe of
Crops.

SHIJASCHKOTAN, in Geography. See SyaskuTAn.

SHIITES, in the Hifory of Mahometan Seés, were the
opponents of the Khareyites; fee that article. This name
properly fignifies /e@aries or adherents in general, but is pe-
culiarly ufed to denote thofe of Ali Ebn Abi Taleb ; who
maintain him to be lawful caliph and imam, and that the
{upreme authority, both in fpirituals and temporals, of
right belongs to his defcendants, notwithftanding they may
be deprived of it by the injuftice of others, or their own
fear. They alfo teach, that the office of imam is not a
common thing, depending on the will of the yulgar, fo that
they may fet up whom they pleafe ; but a fundamental affair
of religion, and an article which the prophet could not have
neglected, or left to the fancy of the common people ; nay
fome, thence called Imamians, go fo far as to affert, that
religion confifts folely in the knowledge of the true imam.
The principal fe&ts of the Shiites are five, which are fub-
divided into an almoft incredible number ; fo that fome un-
derftand Mohammed’s prophecy of the feventy odd feéts, of
the Shiites only. Their general opinions are, 1. That the
peculiar defignation of the imam, and the teftimonies of the
Koran and Mohammed concerning him, are neceflary points.
z. That the imams ought necefflarily to keep themfelves
free from light fins as well as more grievous. 3. That
every one ought publicly to declare who it is that he ad-

heres

—_ m oe

SHI
heres to, and from whom he feparates himfelf, by word,
deed, and en t, and that herein there fhould be no
diffimulation. But in this latt point fome of the Zeidians, a

z

fo named from Zeid, the fon of Ali, furnumed Zein al
and grandfon of Ali, diflented from the

of the Shutes. As to other articles, wherein they
not, fome of them came pretty near to the notions

the Motazalites, others to thofe of the Mothabbehites,
others to thofe of the Sonnites. Among the latter of
med al Baker, another fon of Zein al Abedin’s,

to claim a place: for his opinion as to the will of God
that’ God willeth fomething é us, and fomething
that he willeth from us he hath rewsaled to us ;
he thought it flerous that we fhould
thoughts about thoke thioge which God willeth
thofe which he willeth from us: and as to

« decree, he held that the way lay in the middle, and
there was neither compulfion nor free liberty. A tenct

the Khattabians, or difciples of one Abu’l Khattab, is
to be omitted. Thefe maintained paradife to
than the pleafurcs of this world, and. bell re to
thereof, and that the world will never decay:
tion being firft laid down, it is no wonder they
went » and declared it lawful to indulge themfelves in
drinking wine and whoring, and to do other things forbidden
~ and alfo to omit doing the things commanded

the law.

Many of the Shiites carried their veneration for Ali and
his defcendauts fo far, that they tranfgreffed all bounds of
reafon and decency ; though fome of them were lefs extra-
vagant than others. The Gholaites, who had their name
from their exceffve zeal for their imams, were fo highly
tranfported therewith, that they raifed them above the de-
mtd created beings, and attributed divine properties to

3 tranfj on either hand, by deifying of mortal
Thal Br Shatin eat for one while they
liken one of their imams to God, and another while they
liken God to a creature. The feéts of thefe are various, and
i ions in different countries. Abd’allah
had been a Jew, and had aflerted the
of Jofhua the fon of Nun,) was the ring-leader
of one of them. This man gave the followin utation
to Ali, viz. Thou art Thou, 1. ¢. thou art God: and here-

ites became divided into feveral {pecies ;
fome maintaining the fame thing, or fomething like it, of
_ Ali, and others of fome of one of his defcendants ; affirm-

of

STesepra rye y EL
ti te

:
:
i

tna ad what they cll of Ha defcent of
d on his creatures ; meaning thereby that God is prefent
and piakawith every tongue, and a

Se deat ew Seid
and the Ifhaki cn that {piritual fubitances ap-
grofler bodies ; > 2

in this manner. They alfo affert that God
in the form of certain men ;

7 their form, {poken
‘tongue, and made ufe of their hands, for which pert

SHI

form God appeared, with whofe hands he created all thingty
and with whofe tongue he publithed his commands; and
therefore they fay he was in being before the erestion of
heaven and earth. In fo impious a manner do they loom to
wreft thofe things which are faid in fcripture of Chrift, by
applying them to Ali, ‘Thefe extravagant fancies of the
Shiites, however, in making their imams partakers of the
divine nature, and the impiety of fome of tho imams in
Inying claim thereto, are ra far from being peculiar to this
feét, that moft of the other Mohammedan feGs are tainted
with the fame madnefs; there being many found among
them, and among the Sufis efpecially » who pretend to be
nearly related to heaven, and who boaft of ftrange revela-
tions before the credulous people. To this account of the
Shiites of the firft ages we fhall {ubjoin a brief mention of
the great fchifm at this day fubfifting between the Sonnites
and the Shiites, or mtr’ fe of Ali, and maintained on
either fide with implacable hatred and furious zeal. Though
the difference arofe at firft on a political occafion, it has,
notwithitanding, been fo well improved by additional circum-
ftances, and the {pirit of coutradiGtion, that each party de-
telt and anathematize the other as abominable heretics, and
farther from the truth than either the Chriflians or the Jews.
The chief points wherein they differ are, 1. That the Shiites
rejeét Abu Becr, Omar, and Othman, the three firft caliphs
as ufu and intruders ; whereas the Sonnites acknowled,
and refpeét them as rightful imams, 2. The Shiites pre
Ali to Mohammed, or, at lealt, efteem them both equal ;
but the Sonnites admit neither Ali, nor any of the prophets,
to be equal to Mohammed. 3. The Sonnites charge the
Shiites with corrupting the Koran, and negle¢ting its pre-
cepts; and the Shiites retort the fame charge on the Son-
nites, 4. The Sonnites receive the Sonna, or book of tra-
ditions’of their prophet, as of canonical authority ; where-
as the Shiites reje€& it as apocryphal and unworthy of credit.
And to thefe difputes, and fome others of lefs moment, is
principally owing the antipathy which has long reigned be-
tween the Turks, who are Sonnites, and che elaine, who
are of the fe€t of Ali. Sale’s Koran, Introd.

SHILACON, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the
E. fide of the Nile; 8 miles N. of Cairo.

SHILL, in Agriculture, provincially to feparate the
rind, hufk, or fkin, as of oats, or other crops. It alfo
fignifies the turning a {mall portion of milk into curd.

SHILLAY, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the W.
coaft of the ifland of Lewis; 5 miles W.S.W. of Toe
Head. N. lat. 54° 48’. W. long. 7° 14.

SHILLELAH, a town of Algiers, anciently Tura-

ilum ; 10 miles S.W. of Burg Hamza.

SHILLER-Srong, or Suitien-Spar, in Mineralogy,
the diallage metalloide of Haiiy, a mineral nearly allied
to ferpentine. (See Serpanrine.) It is confidered by
fome mineralogifts as a cryftalline variety of that rock ; in
which it generally occurs, either in beds or diffeminated

Its colour is commonly olive , with a fhini luftre,
Genil which is fometimes femiametalitc. ‘The pl teens Bom

with joints in one direétion : it yields to the knife. In the
icinity of New Radnor, in Wales, there is a rock of this
i intermixed with iteatite.

SHILLING, an Englith filver coin, equal to twelve
pence, or the twentieth part of a pound.

Froherus derives the Saxon /cilling, whence our /billing,
from a corruption of ; proving the derivation b
feveral texts of law, and among others, by the twenty-ath
law, De annuis legatis. Skinner deduces it from the Saxon

ild, feield, by reafon of the efcutcheon of arms upon it.

Bihhop Hooper derives “ean the Arabic /checle, —

$3 .

SHILLING.

fying a qeight ; but others, with greater probability, de-
duce it from the Latin fcilicus, which fignified in that lan-
guage, a quarter of an ounce, or the forty-eighth part of a
Roman pound. In confirmation of this etymology, it is
alleged, that the fhilling kept its original fignification, and
bore the fame proportion to the Saxon pound, as ficilicus did
to the Roman and the Greek, being exactly the forty-
eighth part of the Saxon pound; a difcovery which we
owe to Mr. Lambarde. Explicatio Rerum et Verborum
in Legg. Sax. voc. Libra.

Others fay, that the fhilling was at firft a German appel-
lation, /chelling ; coins of which name had been {truck at
Hamburgh in 1407.

However, the Saxon laws reckon the pound in the round
number at fifty fhillings, but they really coined out of it
only forty-eight ; the value of the fhilling was five-pence ;
but it was reduced to four-pence above a century before
the Conquett ; for feveral of the Saxon laws made in Athel-
ftan’s reign, oblige us to take this eftimate. Thus it con-
tinued to the Norman times, as one of the Conqueror’s laws
(Legg. Sax. p. 221.) fufficiently afcertains ; and it feems
to have been the common coin by which the Englifh pay-
ments were adjufted. After the Conqueft, the French
folidus of twelve-pence, which was in ufe among the Nor-
mans, was called by the Englifh name of fhilling ; and the
Saxon fhilling of four-pence took a Norman name, and
was called the groat, or great coin, becaufe it was the
largeft Englifh coin then known in England.

The groat, from the French gros, a large piece, was in-
troduced by Edward III. in 1354, and continues, though
not in common circulation, to this day. The half-groat, or
two-pence, is of the fame date and continuance. In Scct-
land, about the year 1553, were firft coined teftoons, or
fhillings, bearing the butt of the queen, and the arms of
France and Scotland on the reverfe: they being of the
fame intrinfic value as thofe of England, were then worth
four fhillings, and the half-teftoon two, Scottifh money.

It has been the opinion of bifhops Fleetwood and Gib-
fon, and of the antiquaries in general, that though the
method of reckoning by pounds, marks, and fhillings, as
well as by pence and farthings, had been in conftant ufe
even from the Saxon times, long before the Norman con-
queft, there never was fuch a coin in England as either a
pound or a mark, nor any fhilling or teftoon, till the year
1503, 1504, or 1505; but in the twentieth year of king
Henry VII. (A.D. 1505,) a few filver fhillings, or twelve-
pences, were coined, being about one-half the fize of the
modern fhillings, or forty out of a pound weight of filver,
which were fair and broad pieces. Thefe, however, it is
faid, have long fince been folely confined to the cabinets
of colleétors.

Mr. Clarke combats this opinion, alleging, that fome
coins mentioned by Mr. Folkes, under Edward I. were
probably Saxon fhillings new minted, and that archbifhop
Aelfric (Gram. Saxon. p. 52, at the end of Somner’s
Saxon Diétion,) exprefsly fays, that the Saxons had three
names for their money, viz. mancufes, fhillings, and pen-
nies. He alfo urges the different value of the Saxon fhil-
ling at different times, and its uniform proportion to the
pound, as an argument, that their fhilling was a coin; and
the teftimony of the Saxon gofpels, in which the word we
have tranflated pieces of filver, is rendered fhillings, which,
he fays, they would hardly have done, if there had been no
fuch coin as a fhilling then in ufe. Accordivgly, the
Saxons exprefled their fhilling in Latin by /iclus and ar-
genteus.

He farther adds, that the Saxon fhilling was never ex-

prefled by /olidus, till after the Norman fettlements in Eng
land: and howfoever it altered during the long period that.
elapfed from the Conqueft to the time of Henry VII. it
was the moft conftant denomination of money in all pay-
ments, though it was then only a fpecies of account, or
the twentieth part of the pound fterling : and when it was
again revived as a coin, it leflened gradually as the pound
fterling leflened, from the twenty-eighth of Edward ITI.
to the forty-third of Elizabeth. Clarke on Coins, &c.
Pp. 120. 152. 155. 200. 376.

Silver farthings ceafed with Edward VI., but the filver
half-pence continued the fole coins till Charles II. ‘The
filver penny was much ufed to the end of the reign of
George I., and fo far from being no where to be found, as
Hume affirms (Hift. vol. vi.), is fuperabundant of every
reign fince that period, not excepting even the prefent
reign of George III.

In the year 1560, there was a peculiar fort of fhilling
{truck in Ireland, of the value ef nine-pence Englith,
which pafled in Ireland for twelve-pence. The motto
on the reverfe of thefe is, POSUI DEUM ADJUTOREM
MEUM.

Eighty-two of thefe fhillings, according to Malynes,
went to the pound, they therefore weighed twenty grains
one-fourth each, which is fomewhat. heavier in proportion
than the Englifh fhilling of that time, fixty-two of which
went to the pound, each weighing ninety-two grains feven-
eighths ; and the Irifh fhilling being valued at the Tower
at nine-pence Englifh, that is, one-fourth part lefs than
the Englifh fhilling, it thould, therefore, proportionably
weigh one-fourth part lefs, and its full weight be fomewhat -
more than fixty-two grains; but fome of them found at
this time, though much worn, weighed fixty-nine grains.
In the year 1598, five different pieces of money of this
kind were ftruck in England for the fervice of the king-
dom of Ireland.

Thefe were fhillings to be current in Ireland at twelve-
pence each ; half fhillings to be current at fix-pence; and
quarter fhillings at three-pence.

Pennies and halfpennies were alfo ftruck of the fame kind,
and fent over for the payment of the army in Ireland.
The money thus coined was of a very bafe mixture of
copper and filver; and two years after there were more
pieces of the fame kinds ftruck for the fame fervice, which
were ftill worfe ; the former being three ounces of filver
to nine ounces of copper; and thefe latter only two ounces
eighteen pennyweights, to nine ounces two pennyweights
of the alloy. Simon’s Irifh Coins.

The Dutch, Flemifh, and Germans, have likewife their
fhilling, called /chelin, /chilling, fealin, &c.; but thefe, not
being of the fame weight or finenefs with the Englifh fhil-
ling, are not current at the fame value. See ScHrLLING
and SKILLING.

The pound Flemifh in accounts is divided into twenty _
fhillings, and fubdivided into twelve groots or pence Flemifh.
The coins in Holland are good fhillings, or efcalins, and
half ditto, at fix and three flivers; unftamped or bafe fhil-
lings reckoned at five and a half ftivers, and called fefthalfs.
At Hamburgh, accounts are kept in fhillings, fixteen of
which are equal to a mark, and each containing twelve
pfenings; and fometimes in pounds, fhillings and pence
Flemifh ; the pound being equal to twenty fhillings, and
the fhilling equal to twelve-pence or grotes.

The Englifh fhilling is worth about twenty-three French
fols; thofe of Holland and Germany about eleven fols and
a half; thofe of Flanders about nine. The Dutch fhillings |
are alfo called /ols de gros, becaufe equal to twelve gros.

aly

SHI

- SHILLUK, in Geegrapty, a town of Africa, in the
i Seanaar, on the E. fide of the river Bahr-el-

and not far removed from it. This town is built
y, and its inhabitants are idolaters, They have no
ing than bands of long grafs, which they pals
waift and between the thighs. ‘They are all
thofe of both fexes thave their ao A The
Shilluk have the dominion of the river, and take
in fuch articles of traffic as pals
fe people, who ailume importance from
river, are reprefented as hofpitable

EVEZES
cue

4

who come among them in a peaceable manner,
and as never i chet to whom they have once avow-
ed fri ip; W. of Sennaar.
2 Se in Seripture Critici/m, a term that occurs

prophec concerning the Mefliah
concerning he presen and applica-
iblical commentators have differed in opi-

Hee
ye
FI

FF}
EG :

i
f
#
a

fignification ; whereas the
is, } We» hey to whom it is;
whom if, wis. the /ceptre, BS; 2 amroxdlas; he
it is referved, as it is in the original beit edition
LXX verfion, as Juftin Martyr long ago affirmed,
» and as it now ftands in the Alexan-

MS. if this be the true meaning, it plainly re-
3 for whom the fceptre was
people were to be gathered.
render Shiloh the profperor
» from > 5y75 all
But the moit probable
as the au of Mordecai’s Letters, (Mr.

: =r ig ga iven us by the very learned and
judicious Dr. Hunt, praleioc of Arabic at Oxford. He

Pee

sx

fisk
ps

re
ia

|

RE
i
28

underftands the true of the word Shiloh to re-
main in the Arabic NY, liberavit, fubduxit ab
exitio. According to this etymology, Shiloh

deliverer from diltrefs and deftruction ; a title,
Chrift, the Lord of life, and
If it thould be objected to this
ge () is wanting between the /chin
he obferves, that in Samaritan copy
ix. 10. the word is written without

ife in one of the moft ancient He-
rc. Kennicot has confulted on this
have pretended, in order to evade
is text, that the fceptre departed
advent of Chritt, by io falling into

is

re
Fa

i
; HI
P

is
gr
if

~

rit
EE
-

i

that the {ceptre is not arted from Ifrael ;
That iti fll in the bande

hath dominion fhall not be taken away from
a {cribe from his children’s children, until the

SHI

time when Chrift thall come, whofe the dominion is; and
him fhall theypeople (or nations) obey.’’ Aod the Jerufa-
lem Targum fays, * Kings thall not ceale from the houfe of
Judah, nor do@tors that teach the law from his children’s
children, until the time that Chrilt do come, whole kingdom
is; and all the kings of the earth thall be fubje4& unto him ;"
fo that both the Targums confine the fenfe to this ; that the
peoples (4. «. both Jews and Gentiles) fhould gather unto
and obey Chrift; or, in other words, that the perfon here
f{poken of thould be the prince that fhould reign over all;
Teordona Gren, as the im 4 fay in this H and that this
fhould happen before Judah fhould ceafe to be a kingdom :
which is verified by fact. Ben Merdecai’s Letters, Letter iv.

Suton, or Silo, in Ancient Geography, a famous city of
Ephraim (Jofh. xviii. xix. xxi.), 12 miles diftant from She-
chem or Sichem, according to Eufebius, or 10 mis accord-
ing to Jerem, and cet, according to both, in Acraba-

tene. In Jerom’s time this city was ruined, sothing re-
maining but the foundation of the altar of burnt offerings,
which had been ere&ted when the tabernacle was there. t

Shiloh, Jofhua aflembled the people to make the fecond dif-
tribution of the land of fee (Jofh. xviit. 1, 2, 3-)
Here the tabernacle of the Lord was fet up, when the peo-
ple were fettled in the country. (Jofh. xix. 51.) The ark
and the tabernacle of the Lord continued at Shiloh, from
A.M. 2560, when it was fet up by Jofhuz, to A.M. 2888,
B.C. 1116, when it was taken by the Philiftines, under the
adminiftration of the high-prieft Eli. At Shiloh Samuel
began to prophefy. (1 Sam. iv. +) Here the prophet
Abijah dwelt. (1 Kings, xiv. 2.) Jeremiah foretold that
the temple of Jerufalem fhould be reduced to the fame con-
dition as Shiloh was. (Jer. vii. 12. 14. xxvi. 6. 9.) After
the return of the ark out of the country of the Philiftines,
inftead of returning it to Shiloh, it was taken to Kirjath-
jearim. (1 Sam. vi. 21.) Mr. Roland conjeétures, that
from the name Shiloh, Paufanias (1. vi. c. 24.) took occa-
fion to fay, that Silenus, the companion of Bacchus, was
buried in Paleftine. Benjamin of Tudela affirms, that the
tomb of Samuel was to be {een here.

SHIM, in Agriculture, a tool of the tillage kind, ufed
in breaking down and reducing the more {tiff and heavy
forts of land, as well as cutting up and clearing them from
weeds, They are made in different forms and conitru@tions,
to fuit different purpofes. In the Hertford Agricultural
Survey by the Board of Agriculture, the writer remarks,
that a tool of this kind is in ufe by Mr. Calvert, of Albury,
which differs from thofe ufually employed, in which the
cutting-iron or plate, which for the work it is adapted for,
as that of cutting up weeds on two-bout or four-furrow
Effex ridges, or of cleaning land without ploughing or
burying the foil, is a {mall fegment of a large circle. It
difpatches a ridge at a time, and is an implement that per-
forms its bufinela well, and which deferves the notice of the
tillage-farmer in other places. It is readily altered for flat
work, and is faid to be had recourfe to by other farmers with
fuccefs in the fame diltrict. Mg

And an ufeful tool of this fort has alfo been recom-
mended by Mr. Young, in his Annals, the hint of which be
took from the Berkfhire one, and to which the beam and
block is capable of being applied. In a wide interval, the
three fhares may be worked on a level. Between the rows
of cabbages, earthing up, the two external fhares may
be fet to cut the weeds that are apt to rife on the fides of
the ri without difturbing too much earth, and the
centre funk to f{crape the bottom of the furrow, The
centre one may alfo be worked alone, between narrow rows.
In forging the fhares of all thims, he has well obferved, =

SHI

the blackfmith fhould be careful to give them tendency
enough into the ground, by bending them downwards: for
want of this caution, he has found many of them to work
badly. ‘The wheel in the beam counteraéts this tendency
fufficiently when at work.

Thefe tools fhould be upon all tillage farms, in all their
different and beft conftructions,

Summ Potatoe, a tool of the fhim kind, ufed for cleaning
potatoe crops.

SHIN, Locn, in Geography, an extenfive lake in the
county of Sutherland, Scotland. This lake extends above
20 miles in length, but no where exceeds two miles in
breadth, and feldom above a mile and a half. The banks
are finely covered with natural wood, particularly the
fouthern bank. It is conneéted with the Northern ocean,
at Dornoch Frith, by the river Shin, which abounds with
falmon, and forms feveral falls in the fhort courfe of eight
miles. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. xi.
1794.
7SHINAAS, a {mall town of Perfia, in the province of
Lariftan. This and Boftana lie between Linga and Cape
Boftana; but though they are {mall towns, they afford
fome refrefhment. Linga, the chief town of the piratical
tribe of Joafmis on the Perfian fhore, is fituated clofe to
the fea, in N. lat. 26° 33', about eight leagues from Kifhm.
It has a fecure road, where fhips may ride out a north-weit
gale in five fathoms water. Cape Boftana forms to the
ea{tward the roadftead of the town of Mogoo, which is one
of the moft fecure in the gulf; and this roadftead has to the
weftward the point improperly called Cortes. This road-
ftead is capable of holding the largeft fleets.

SHINDAN, a mountain of Perfia, between the pro-
vinces of Adirbeitzan or Azerbijan and Ghilan.

SHINGARIN, a town of Africa, in the country of
Sahara, where falt is found ; g miles N. of Walet.

SHINGEIAT, a town of Africa, in the country of
Bergoo; go miles W. of Wara.

SHINGLE, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied
to the thinnings of fir and other timber trees, in the northern
diftrié&ts, and which are of much ufe for various purpofes in
farming, as the making of fences, &c.

SHINGLE, a fubftance found and colleé&ted on the fea-
beach, or fhore, which is ufed for feveral purpofes, as bal-
lafting of fhips, filling furface hollow drains, protecting the
foundations of embankments, and other fimilar ufes. See
Surrace Drain, and Surrace Draining.

It is faid to be a very valuable fubftance for the ufe of
filling drains, as being particularly durable in its nature.
In the county of Suffex, as well as in Effex, much of it is
made ufe of in this way; in the former, under the deno-
mination of fea-beach, or beach.

SHINGLE Shoal, in Geography, a fhoal in the Englith
Channel, near the coatt of Hampfhire. N. lat. 50° 38!.
W. long. 1° 26!.

SHINGLES. See Suamstzs.

SuinGxes, or Shides, in Building, {mall pieces of wood,
er quartered oaken boards, {awed to a certain fcantling, or
more ufually cleft to about an inch thick at one end, and
made like wedges, four or five inches broad, and eight or
nine inches long. They are ufed in covering, efpectally for
churches and fteeples, inftead of tiles or flates.

This covering is dear; yet where tiles, &c. are very
{earce, and a light cover is required, it is preferable to
thatch. If made of good oak, and cleft, not fawed, and

well feafoned, fhingles make a fure, light, and durable
covering.

; SHI

The building is firft to be covered all over with boards,
and the fhingles then nailed thereon.

-Suineres, in Medicine, the popular appellation of a
veficular eruption, which appears on the trunk of the body,
extending generally half round, like a belt: whence pro-
bably the term is a corruption of the Latin word cingulus,
or cingulum, fignifying a belt. It is the herpes xofler of
medical writers, the Greek word, Cworxe, having the fame
fignification. It is fometimes called fimply zona, or zofler.
For the defcription and treatment of this curious and harm-
lefs, though fometimes painful, affeGtion, fee Hrrrxs
Zofter. See alfo Bateman’s Praétical Synopfis of Cutan.
Difeafes, p. 226.

SHINGLING, in the Jron-/WVorks, in many parts of
England, is the operation of hammering the fow, or caft
iron, into blooms. The tongs, ufed for holding the iron in
this operation, are called fhingling-tongs, and the iron to
be thus wrought is called a loop.

SHINING Mowunrains, in Geography, mountains that
bound Louifiana on the weft, which, though little known, :
are {uppofed to terminate in N. lat. 47° or 48°; whence
{pring a number of rivers, that difcharge themfelves
into the North Pacific ocean, Hudfon’s bay, the waters
which lie between them, or the Atlantic ocean. They are
aifo called the “* mountains of bright ftones,’’ on account
of the immenfe number of large cryftals fhooting from the
rocks, and f{parkling in the rays of the fun, fo as to be feen
at a great diftance. ;

SHIOBERT e/ Yemeni, a town of Egypt, on the right
bank of the Nile; 8 miles S.E. of Mehallet Kebir.

SHIONKAN, a town of Pegu; 8 miles N. of Sirian.

SHIP, a general name for all large veflels navigated
with fails. Among people unacquainted with marine dif-
tin€tions, this term has a very vague and indifcriminate
acceptation. In the fealanguage, however, it is more par-
ticularly applied to a vellel furnifhed with three mafts, each
of which is compofed of a lower maft, topmaft, and top-
gallant maft, with the ufual rigging and appendages thereto
belonging.

The fieur Aubin defines a fhip, a timber building, con-
filting of various parts and pieces, nailed and pinned to-
gether with iron and wood, in fuch form, as to be fit to
float, and to be condu€ted by wind and fails from fea
to fea.

The invention of fhips is very ancient, and, at the fame
time, very uncertain. Mythologifts attribute it to De-
dalus, and pretend that the wings he invented to fave himfelf
withal from the labyrinth of Crete, were nothing but fails,
which he firft gave to veffels, and with which he eluded the
vigilance and purfuit of Minos. Others give the honour to
Janus, on the credit of fome ancient Greek and Latin coins,
on one fide of which is reprefented his double face, and on
the reverfe a fhip. Liaftly, others look on Noah to have
been the firft fhip-builder.

The moft celebrated fhips of antiquity are, that of Pto-
lemy Philopater, which is faid to have been two hundred
and eighty cubits (¢.e. four hundred and twenty feet) long,
thirty-eight broad, and forty-eight high: it carried four
thonfand rowers, four hundred failors, and three thoufand
foldiers. ‘That which the fame prince made to {fail on the
Nile, we are told, was three hundred and twelve feet long,
forty-five feet broad, with a maft one hundred and twenty
feet high. Yet thefe were nothing in comparifon with
Hiero’s fhip, built under the direGtion of Archimedes, on
the ftru@ture of which Mofchion, as we are told by Snellius,
wrote a whole volume. ‘There was wood enough employed
in it to make fixty gallies. It had all the variety of apart-

ments

Ld

‘ SHIP.

’

/ ments of a palace: banquetting-rooms, galleries, wardens, peditions of great diftance; fince thefe veflels are ufvally
fith-ponds, tlables, mills, baths, a temple of Venus, &e. excellent for keeping sud fufaining the fea.

Tt was encompalled with an iron rampart, and eight towers,
with walls and bulwarks, furnithed with machines of war,
particularly ove, which threw a floue of three hundred
pounds, or a dart twelve cubits long, the fpace of half a
mile; with many other particulars related by Athenzus.
Deipaofophitt. tin. v. p. 204, &e. ed, Caufab. Lugd.

1 .
K nip is undoubtedly the noble!t machine that ever was
vented, and confifts of fo many various parts, that to form
idea of its importance and qualities will require the at-
tention of the gent n and the artift.
All thips at firft were of the fame form, whatever ufes
were defigned for ; but the various ends of navigation,
of which were ‘better anfwered by one form, fome by
foon gave occafion to build and fit out fhips, not
in fize, but alfo in their conftruction and
as trade gave occafion to the fitting out large
different binds of merchant-fhips, fo fhips of war
to preferve them to their juft owners.
y improving ftate of fhipping, in the lait

has with the vancement of
other Aone Mot tiechenient fcience. For, prior to

period, even our firit-rate fhips, now equal in perfec-
of any te, were then extremely de-

fective, want os made =< magnitude
highly obje@tionable. Thefe difadvantages been gra-
dually fince the ufval pier ty of inftabiliry ae
the dimenfion enlarged, and the praétical
management familiarized; and they
efj thofe that have mott ftability, admirable fhips in
Sod Gemde) heats ws Soyo. ay ote perealy oe
A as are, are ma-

ce? Gk their erabeticns aif! gemerslly Sande’ with

Second-rate , or thofe about ni guns, have too
generally whale dsfoes in their pia per iy which con-
tribute to inftability, arifing from want of that capacity

i { ffefs. The French, on this
have difcontinued this clafs of thippi

a

ee

|

tu aH

are now, in ral,

the oF , ‘
oo Boccia Bayar will be found hereafter
under SHrp-BUILDING, is fhip may be confidered as
the firft of its clafs, from its great length and fuperior

i
i

i
2

! liftinguifhed as line-of-batt!
is gonezal to fice the mo8 powerful exi-

About ten years ago an addi-
lieutenant was appointed to the line-of-battle fhips.
See Rare. : ‘

Fourth-rate fbips are thofe of fifty guns. They may be
petore k peeae = toe but moft

the foreign colonies, or on ex-

Fijith rate [hips are frigates of from forty-four gues to
thirty.two puns UPON one dec k, and even to filty gupe in
America, ( betny reltadted formerly to vellels of war with
one deck); aod though too weak to fuffer the thock of
a line-of-battle, they are very ufeful to accompany fleets, to
lead the convoys of merchaot-thips, to protect colonial
commerce, to cruize in different fations, or to be fent ex-
prefs with neceflary intelligence and orders.

The forty-four gun frigate being the molt powerful, and
mott valuable of this clafs, has induced us to give a plate of
one, fo conftruéted as to have all the qualities whuch can

flibly be united in one thip; for having but one deck,
ae breadth and height are fo proportionable to her length,
that fhe may be brought down in the water to that depth
which is allowed to be the beft failing trim for fhips in

ral. Ships of fifty and thirty<ight guns have four
leutenants. See Rare.

The fixth-rate includes all the {maller clafs of veflels in
the navy, except the yacht, fire-thip, sand bomb-veflel;
they are claffed as fifth-rates, to increafe the pay ; the former
by way of diftin@tion, the latter on account of the dangers
to which they are expofed. Frigates of twenty-cight,
twenty-four, and twenty guns, are in this clafs; but thofe
with the thirty-two gun fhip, in the former clafs, are fo
inferior to the forty-four and thirty-fix gun frigate, as not
to deferve notice nor continuance by a great maritime power.
Ships of twenty guns, and all veflels upon the eliablithment
of floops of war, Save two lieutenants. See Rare.

The large floop of war and brig are very ferviceable
veflels to cruize againit privateers, contraband trade, and for
{mall convoys. Some of the latter have lately been built in
this country, and are admirably adapted for good fea-boats,
as well as good failers; their upper works being light, all
unneceffary top-hamper avoided, having a fnug flern, and
apparently every good quality that can be expected in a
vetfel of this defeription.

One of thefe veflels, the Raven, upon being fitted for
fea at Woolwich, under the dire&tions of her very ingenious
and aétive commander, captain William Layman, had,

ably to his recommendation and withes, among other
oo. the two foremoft ports clofed up, and the guns
taken away; in lieu of which was fitted in midfhips, im-
mediately Seca the fore-mait, a fixty-eight pounder car-
ronade upon a fixed traverfe carriage, fo as to fire in almoft
every direétion clear of the gunwale ; and, in lieu of the
two ftern-chafers, a carronade of the fame power, u an
inclined plane abaft. The wonderful acceflion of force
derived from thefe alterations, andthe t advantages to
be derived from them in chace, Mp ocleginge
coaft, &c. are too obvious to need comment.

Ships in the royal navy are commanded by poft-captains
to 22 guns; floops by mafter and commander.

The following Table furnifhes a correé lift of the dimen-
fions of fhips of different rates. See Rarg, under which
article a lefs perfe& table is inferted.

SHIP.

Three Decks. Two Decks. Frigates. Sloop. Eatt Welt}
| India | India }
rft 2d 4th Ships. |Ships.
Rate. laReteal 3d Rate | Rate 5th Rate. 6th Rate.
| | SS
Guns} tro | 98 |. 80 | 74 | 50 | 4o 38) | SiG Ae ore nas
Length from the} | Ft. In. | Ft. In.) Ft. In. | ft. In. | Ie In. | Ft. In. | Fe In. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Fe. Io. | Pt. In. jf. In.}
fore-fide of the |
rabbet of the
itern-polt to the | i
aft-fide of the
rabbet of the $|205 0 |185 0 |187 2 180 o154 © |160 3 154 3 |137 0 \118 © j110 2 }165 63124 oj
{tem, on the gun
or lower deck,
or between the
perpendiculars in
merchant-fhips - J
Length of the keel ;
re conaage ee Clay Tod|152 631154 1ok|148 of127 32135 33]129 113/113 24) 98 73) go 84|134 0 |100 o
Extreme breadth 53 7] 510} 50 103} 48 8) 41 11] 40 8 | 39 82] 38 o| 31 G | 29 g | 42 0 | 320
Depth in hold =124.. 0)| 21620. 7M TO) Noet7 SOR Ts On Ta) Vows ial etOmsm MEOHON te ONlETA5o,
Burthen in tons, !
builder’s — ton- ¢ | 254753, |211053) 212527 |18644$| 11892%| 1189 | 108933 | 86932! 52023 | 427.2%, | 1257 | 544
nage - -
o No. Ibs. | No. lbs.| No. Ibs. |No. Ibs. | No. Ibs. |No. Ibs. No. Ibs. | No. lbs. | No. lbs. No. Ibs. No. lbs.
5 Gun-deck -| 30 32 | 28 32! 30 32 |28 32] 26 28,
Bee Middle-deck - | 32 28 | 30 24, — — — — — = — =— (26 18
£™S 9 Upper-deck - | 32 24 | 30 18] 32 28 |30 24] 28 18 | 30 24] 28 18 |28 18] 24 12/18 x2} 10 18
& & | Quarterdeck | 12 12] 12 9] 14 9/12 9| — |1012|40 g|10 9
FSI UForecaftle -{| 4 12] 2 9 4 9/4 9) — An l2)]tarAs nO EZeO
Totals -|110 102 80 74 54 44. 42 40 24 18 36

Yacht, as a veflel of ftate, is ufually employed to convey
princes, ambafladors, or other great perfonages, from one
kingdom to another, or even kings, to take pleafure in;
of which our prefent gracious majefty was very fond.
The Royal Sovereign yacht was launched for the particular
fervice of his majefty at Deptford, in the year 1804; a
fhip whofe exterior and interior are of incomparable beauty,
but whofe ornaments, {plendid as they are, will {carcely be
confidered by the artift as more than adequate to the
beauties of her form; and her qualities as an excellent failer
and good fea-boat, from experiment, ftand unrivalled.
We have, therefore, given a plate of this excellent veffel,
by a quarter of an inch {cale.

Yachts, as may be expected from the purpofes for which
they are defigned, are the moft beautiful of all veffels which
navigate the ocean ; nor are their fuperb embellifhments.and
ftately apartments their higheft excellencies. They are
models, in which may be feen a combination of the beft
principles of the art.

The fre/bip differs but little in its outer conftruc-
tion from a floop of war. She may be built light and
very clean for faft failing; but the inner part is very dif-
ferently fitted, in the manner defcribed under the article
Firg-Ship.

The bomb-vefel is particularly conftru€ted for throwing
fhells from a mortar. They are built very ftrong, and firmly
ridered; are ufually fitted with two bomb-beds, which are

6

platforms ‘or ftrong frames of thick {tuff and timber, laid
tran{verfely over large beams, and are rabbeted and folidly
bolted all together. The mortar-bed, or carriage which
carries the mortar, traverfes on a large iron pivot, in the
centre of the bomb-bed, in a circular excavation. The
fides of the bomb-bed, round the mortar, are fitted with
{trong cheeks of oak, of an o€tagonal form ; in every fquare
of which are driven two ring-bolts, for traverfing the mor-
tar in any direGtion. The bomb-bed underneath, to fup-
port the fhock in throwing the fhell, has three ranges of
large pillars, fix in a range, tenoned at the head and heel
into large carlings fore and aft the bed, along the middle
and fides, which are fcored on the riders below, and into
the beams above the pillars, ftanding double in the middle
of the bed athwart-fhips.

A ftrong compartment, called the fhell-room, is built
round the outfide of the pillars. See SHELL-Room. See
alfo Boms-Vefels and Ketcu. ;

Suip, Armed. See Arm.

Sup, Guard, is a vellel of war appointed to fuperintend
the marine affairs in a harbour or river, and to fee that the
fhips which are not commiffioned have their proper watch
kept duly, by fending her guard-boats around them every
night: fhe is alfo to receive feamen who are impreffed in
time of war. ;

Sup, Hofpital, a vellel fitted up to attend on a fleet of
men of war, and receive their fick or wounded ; for which

purpofe

SHI

perpele her fhould be high, aad her ports fuflicieatly
gti her ought alfo to run upon the upper deck,
end that the beds or cradles may be more com-
modioufly placed between decks, and admit a free paflage
the air, to difperfe that which is offenfive or corrupted.
Suir, Lee-ward. See Lee-ward Ship. »
Smur, Merchant, a veilel employed in commerce, to carry
i tip various forts from one to another.
Merchant thipping, in general, being {carcely definable
difting » we cannot {peak Sich that de; of
precifion of them as of thofe of the royal navy; becaufe their
relpeétive forms and dimenfions are dependent, almott entire-
ly, on the local practice or ideas of their refpedtive owners or
conitrucors, ofe belonging to
ft, and are very
8 of merchant

F

The Ealt India thip (Plate X11.) has been actually
built, and found upon trial to anfwer every purpofe expected

from her.
of a very fine model, being lefs burthenfome
i ies are employed in the Straits’ trade ;
untry trade, for carrying of
of tter for fize, the largelt of
PRIVATERRS.

a veflel employed to carry arti or naval
ule of a flee’, fs, or ay

that it is highly necef-
fhips fhould be cleared of
air; for it has been found by frequent experience, that
air fhut up, and confined in a clofe place, without a fuc-
ceffion and freth fupply of it, becomes unwholefome, and
anny a ‘ laa arly fo, if pe
water be pent up it. But it grows fti
worle, if fuch an air as this is made ufe of in: eipration j
ea is, ren pe moitter » eal a and phlogitticated,
y ungs.
Prete bat in different a according to the
different gto in which Eo ba gc are obferved oe
i in and caverns of
in prifons or clole houfes,

in where people are fhut up
with heat and naftinefs; but moft of all in large thips, in
which, with the tench of water in the hold, many men

crowded up in thofe quarters, all the mentioned cir-
in ucin mifchiefs than
any of them fog

E
f
i

- For an account of
. Sutton’s contrivance for clearing the holds of thips of
bad air contained in them, aa aa I,

re

wv

mixture ufed
of thivs i
rofi melted d the brimftone is ftirred

D are and the brimftone is
them; one nea pag forty pounds of brimftone
ferve for a vetlel of one hundred and forty tons. See
y.

_ Yo prevent thips, whofe bottoms are worm-eaten, from
ing, this method has been propofed. Caulk well the
Siac tiies Si the wacker. {paces between

fo as the main gun-deck. The pitch bein
You. scott, . . .

and the out and infide planks, with boiling aco t

SHI

put in very hot, will run iato the {malleft cranny, and make
the thip as tight asa bottle. There will be a0 room left for
vermin, as rats, &e.; and the pitch will ferve for other
ufes when taken out, therefore the expence will be but
{mall. Phil. Tranf. N° 476. p. 372.

For the laws relating to thips, &c. fee 4a of Englifh
Navication. See alfo Parionr, Maninens, and Navy.

Sur, bulk, burden, captain, clerk, company, corporal,
flag, grounding, mafler, mine, regifler, rigging, run, /beathing,
Squadron, flay, fleward, warp, away, weather, in
reference to a thip, {ce the refpeétive articles.

For further particulars refpeéting thips, the reader is re-
ferred to the article Suip-sviL pine.

Suir, To, in Sea Language, is uled either adtively, as to
embark any perfon, or put any thing aboard fhip; or paf-
fively, to receive any thing into a fhip; as we thipped a
heavy fea, &c.

To fbip alfo implies to fix any thing in its place, as*te fbi
the oars ; fo /bip the {wivel guns, i.¢. to fix them in
fockets, &c.

Sup of Pleafere, among the Ancients.
MEGUS.

Sup, inthe Salt Works, is alarge ciftern, out of which
the falt-pans are {upplied for boiling.

This ciftern is built clofe to the faltern, and is made
either of wood, brick, or clay; and it ought always to be
covered with a fhed, that the fea-water, contained in it,
may be kept clean from foot, and other impurities, and not
mixed oak frefh water in rains; and it muft be always
placed fo high, that the water may eafily run out of it into
the pans, to fupply them for boiling.

Sup Guns. See Cannon.

Snip Cove, in Geography, a cove of Queen Charlotte’s
found, in the fouthern ifland of New Zealand. This har-
bour, according to captain Cook, is not inferior to an
found, either for convenience or fafety. It lies on the
fide of the ifland, and is the fouthernmolt of three coves,
that are fituated within the ifand of Motuara, which bears
ealt of it. Ship Cove may be entered either between Mo-
tuara and a long ifland called by the natives Hamote, or
between Motvara and the weftern fhore. In the lait of
thefe two channels are ledges of rocks, three fathoms under
water, which may be eafily known by the fea-weed that

ws upon them. S. lat. 41° 10’. E. long. 175° 6'.

Sup J/fland, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Mexico, near
the coalt of Weft Florida, nine miles long and two broad.
It preduces pine-trees and grafs, and has a tolerable well of
water. N. lat. 30° 5’. W. long. 88° 48'.—Alfo, a {mail
ifland of Upper Canada, in lake Erie.

Suir Point, a cape on the coaft of North Carolina. N.
lat. 35° 59’. W. long. 76° 30’.

SHIP BUILDING. or Naval ArchiteGure, is the art
of conftru@tiing and raifing, or building that noble fabric
called a hip.

This {cience, or whatever relates to navigation, is, with-
out doubt, one of the moit important and mott ufefal employ-

See THAa-

of ments of the human mind; efpecially in a country whole

marine is its bulwark, and its commerce the admiration, and,
we may add, the envy of the world.

Neverthelefs, the ‘Gientifc part of fhip-building has been
too much negleted ; and although fome few years have
elapfed fince mathematicians (particularly in France) have
laboured with fome fuccefs, yet their difeoveries are fo much
enveloped in profound calculations, that fhip-builders, in ge-
aaa em fearcely been able to derive any advantage from

It muft be allowed, that an exact knowledge of the
-r tree

SHIP-BUILDING.

true principles upon which the conftruétion of fhips, fo as
to anfwer the particular purpofes of war or commerce, is
founded, muft conduce to remedy all the prefent defects, to
render the theory more perfe&, and enable the Englifh
artifts to become as eminently {kilful in the {cientific, as
they now confeffedly are in the prattical branches of fhip-
building.

In order to fmooth the way in a {cience thought fo incom-
prebentible, our readers mutt be made familiar with the
feveral draughts and plans requifite to conitruét and raife fo
noble a body of archite€ture ; for the proportional fize of
every part muit be laid down, from whence the form and
dimenfions of the feveral timbers, and every particular part
that enters into the conttruGtion, are to be obtained. There-
fore, as a fhip has length, breadth, and depth, three dif-
ferent plans at leaft are neceflary to reprefent the form of
the feveral parts of her; as in the fheer-draught, Plare I.
of Ship-building, which comprehends the /heer-plan, the body-
plan, and the half-breadth plan.

The fheer-plan, or, as it is called in civil architeCture, the
plan of elevation, is a vertical feétion, pafling through the
veflel in its whole length, or fore and aft. Upon this plan
the length and depth of the keel are reprefented, alfo the
height and rake of the ftem and ftern-poft ; the fituation
and height of the midfhip and other frames ; the water-
lines ; heights of the decks, gun-ports, and wales; the centres
of the maits; the fituation of the channels; length and
depth of the head and rails, quarter-galleries, rudder,
&e. &e.

The body-plan, or plan of projection, to the left of the
fheer-plan, is a tranfverfe fe€tion of the fhip at the midfhip-
frame, or broadeft place perpendicular to the keel. The
feveral breadths, and the particular form of every frame-
timber, are defcribed on this plan. Now as the two fides
of the hip are, or fhould be, exaétly fimilar to each other,
it is therefore unneceflary to reprefent- both: hence the
frames contained in the fore-body, between the midfhip-frame
aod the ftem, are defcribed on the right-hand fide of the
middle line, and the aftermoft frames on the left of the faid
middle line.

The half-breadth or jloor-plan, under the fheer-plan, and
parallel thereto, or as it is frequently called, the horizontal
plan, contains the feveral half-breadths at every frame-
timber, at the different heights of the water-lines, main-
breadth, top-fide, ribband-lines, &c.

The confideration of thefe three principal plans is fo
much the more important, as it comprehends a fufficient
knowledge of the figures of all veflels. For although thefe
three plans do not really determine the figure of the veffel,
and may belong to an infinity of different kinds, yet all
thefe differences cannot exceed certain limits fufficiently con-
fined ; fo that whatever idea we might form of the figure of
the veffel, it cannot deviate confiderably from the truth.

In order to explain this better, we will proceed to con-
ftruct the fheer-draught, Plate I.; and here the nature, and
all the properties of the veffel, according to her defign for
war or commerce, muft be taken into confideration, upon
which the whole theory of the art depends: fuch are, capa-
city, ftability, velocity, and eafe in the fea or at anchor.
Thefe properties are not to be adopted merely from fpecu-
lative theory, but from thofe that have a€tually been demon-
{trated by repeated experiments. That our readers may
have the cleareft conception of the various parts of a
fhip, reprefented by the plates of the 74-gun fhip, we
will endeavour to defcribe them in as familiar a manner as
poffible, introducing alfo all that is neceflary to be known as
we proceed. ‘The 74-gun fhip is preferred as the medium

between the firft-rate and the frigate, and is efteemed the
moft ufeful of all others.

Therefore, the firft thing to be determined is the length
on the gun-deck; and here fufficient diftance muft be
allowed for the ports, which are fifteen in number, three
feet five inches wide, or fore and aft, each, fo aa to have
a fufficient diftance between each port for working the
guns, which is about feven feet eight inches; likewife
room forward, between the foremoft-port and the ftem, for
the manger ; and alfo abaft the after-port, to the tranfoms:
ae confidered make the length on the gun-deck 180
eet.

Draw therefore, asin fheer-plan, Plate I., a ftraight line,
which reprefents the upper edge of the keel, and in naval
fhips the upper edge of the rabbet (Ealt India fhips and
merchant-fhips in general have the rabbet in the middle of
the keel), leaving under this line fufficient fpace for the
main and falfe keels, feale, and half-breadth plan. Upon
this line fquare up a perpendicular towards the right hand,
leaving a fuflicient {pace to reprefent the head, and call it
the foremof{t-perpendicular ; then, at 224 inches abaft it, -
{quare up the after-perpendicular, which is 180 feet, by
one-eighth of an inch to a foot, or the length on the
gun-deck, from the aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem to the
fore-fide of the rabbet at the ftern-poft. Below the upper
edge of the keel, and parallel thereto, fet down two feet
for the main and falfe keel, and under it draw the fcale of
equal parts, of one-eighth of an inch to a foot, and from
this fcale fet off all the following dimenfions. Obferve,
draughts in general are drawn from a {cale of one quarter
of an inch to a foot, but this, for convenience, to one- .
eighth.

The length between the foremoft and aftermoft perpendi-
culars, in merchant-fhips, is given from the aft-fide of the
ftern-polt, at the height of the wing-tranfom, to the fore-fide
of the item, at the fame height.

The ftem, or fore-boundary of the fhip, may now be drawn,
and a fegment of a circle for its lower part has long been
confidered as the beft form for dividing the fluid; therefore,
fix its centre fo that the aft-fide of the rabbet (which is in
the middle of the ftem, towards the upper part) may inter-
fe€t the foremoft-perpendicular at the height of the gun-
deck: thus, fet aft from the foremoft-perpendicular, as in
Plate I. upon an horizontal line, 24 feet above the upper
edge of the keel, 24 ft. 3 in. ; and from thence, as the centre,
draw an arc of a circle from the upper edge of the keel-
line, and another arc 18 inches before it, from the fame
centre; then will the moulding, or fore and after-fides
of the ftem, be reprefented: fweep likewife the rabbet,
as in Plate 1.; then fet up 36 feet for the height of the
head of the ftem, and at that height fet forward 15 inches
from the foremoft-perpendicular ; from thence draw a faint
curve, to interfeé&t with the foremoft fegment, and the
fore-part of the ftem will be fhewn: continue upwards an-
other parallel thereto, and the aft-fide or whole {tem is com-
pleted, except the lower end or boxing, which will be de--
termined hereafter. ;

The itern-poft, or after-boundary under water, may be
next drawn; thus, fet up from the upper edge of the keel-
line 26 ft. roin., which is the upper fide of the wing-tran-
fom at the after-perpendicular, and upon that line fet aft
from the perpendicular 1 ft. 10 in., and upon the upper edge
of the keel, fix inches before the after-perpendicular; then
a line drawn through thefe points will reprefent the aft-fde
of the ftern-poft ; another line, drawn at fourteen inches be-
fore the aft-fide of the ftern-poft, at the wing-tranfom, and

at two feet one inch on the upper edge of the keel, will re
IT the

the aft-fide of the rabbet ; and another line paralle! four inches
before it (or at the thicknefs of the bottom plank) is the
fore-fide of the rabbet, which will interfeét the after-perpen-
dicular at the wunadeck. Thus far the it at prefent.
_ Having fixed on the length of the gun-deck, i next
gpa dimenfion to be confidered is the main-breadth, and
in thips of war in geveral, is about three-cleveoths of

the faid length for their moulded breadth, and ia merchant-
ips about three-twelfths of their length ; excepting cutters
fmaller veflels. The moulded breadth given in Plate 1.

| of the 74-gun thip, is 48 feet.
| Before we it will be neceflary here to remark,
chat much has faid in regard to the breadth to be given

to a veflel in refpeét to her length, and in what part of that
Sette eIG NUN te lien ny as baieg, tho fathion of che greaiel
_ of the whole veflel, its true fituation becomes an object
im” °

Theofe who would diminith the breadth have alleged,

» that a narrow veflel meets with lefs refiftance in
paffin the water, and by increafing in length, the
- veflel will drive lefs to and the water-lines confe-
quently be more delicately to divide the fluid; thata
long narrow oo will require lefs {ail to gain velocity, confe-

4

quently the will be lower, the rigging lighter, and the
veflel navi by fewer hands 7: sp i em a fhip’s
being b at the line of tion will admit of being nar-

rower on the floor, i at the fore and after parts ;that
being broader it can carry more fail, and more readily rife
the waves than a narrow one. The breadth, and its

ati when i on, require much {kill in nar-
rowing therefrom, as we approach the keel, particularly
forward and aft, to give that form to the body under water
that thal! beit anfwer in dividing the fluid, enable her to
carry the ae ale ry iently out of the water,
give a free paflage to the rudder,

that the may readily anfwer her helm.

Now to prevent the veflel pitching, the fore-body mutt
ards Ginak Untlica’bcarings Gmcll catch the weSdl ia its

is, the harpin fhould increafe in breadth up-
wards, and the bow be fo formed, as rather to throw off

fea than pitch or bury in it: a long floor, with little rifing
afore and abaft, the difplacement of the fore-body to be duly

to plunge her bows {till deeper
Seciehas eilinleiden!: tho foes pollige of the water to

In order that the thip fhould fteer well, and quickly an-
Im, the wing-tranfom mutt not be placed too low,

wing of the floor, or half-breadth of the rifing, not

ee et? Na eee the eset
~ may taper handf into
ecdiier dear i

water-line, as they

nearer the keel, may have thei pertretaatt ek
as may be foes by refer i
I. It is alfo evident, that the prompt effe& of the
ina meafure on the cleanne/s of the
r iat the fluid fhall have an unim paflage
, whereby its inclination fhall have the greateit effort
water, :

SHIP-BUILDING.

That a thip may carry her guns well above the water, a
long floor ine tn will be necellary, and not much rfiag 4 the
midihip-frame fhould be very full, ae futtocks acarl
ftraight, upper works very light, avd kept as low as
fible, and the wing-tranfom not placed too high.

To make a thip carry her guns well above water, carry
much fail, be a fatt — and likewife fleer well, are four
fuch rare qualities, as are hardly to be waited in the fame
vetlel, becaufe it would require a very full bottom and great
breadth to gain the two former qualities, and lefs breadth
and a fharp or clean bottom to gain the latter; but of we
confider that a full fhip will carry more fail thao a fharp
one, we may perceive the poflibility of fo conttruGing the
body, as to pollefs thele qualities, and they may be fo
united, that each of them may be difcerned in fome degree
of eminence, for it is not poflible that all of them can be
united in one body to a + of perfeGtion; we mutt,
therefore, while we retain a portion of each, give the fupe-
riority to that which is molt confiftent with the purpofes for
which the veffel is peculiarly defigned.

Hence it is plain, that judicioufly placing the midhip-
bend is of the utmott ee spe in the conftru@tion of
fhips’ bodies; and its being placed nearer forward, will,
confequently, make the fore-body more full, and will bett
anfwer every purpofe, efpecially that of velocity; and
although it is plain, that by fo doing the entrance of the
thip will be more full, and prefent apparently more abfolute
force againit the refifting medium, than when the midfhip-
bend is placed nearer to the middle of the thip’s length, yet
by placing it more forward, the body will decline hori-
zontally fo much the quicker, and part of the effe¢t of that
refiftance, caufed by the lateral preflure of the water, will
be leffened, which mutt certainly be of more fervice to the
velocity, thaa what is loft by making the fore-part of the
fhip fomewhat fuller, and this feems to promife the connection
of capacity with velocity, the two great objects to be pur-
fued in the formation of fhips’ bodies under water. In ad-
dition to this, by carrying the midthip-bend forward, a thip
will fteer better, and the rudder have the more cammand to
bear up the fhip in a gale of wind ; for when a thip is under
a prefs of fail, the water is forced up at the bow above the
horizontal, and the bow likewife prefled down, which
amounts to nearly the fame, with refpeét to her helm, as if
the fhip was trimmed by the head : again, ships that carry
their helm amidfhips in light winds, require it more a-wea-
ther when the wind blows.

After all that has been written concerning the placing
of the midthip-bend, all agree to place it before the middle
of the length, or about Giye-twelfths of the length abaft the
foremott-perpendicular ; but in Plate I. which thip has ttood
the teft of experiment, it was placed at 69 feet abaft the
foremoft-perpendicular, confequently this is the broadeft part
of the hip, called the midfhips, or dead-flat, known by this
charaéter @, and where all the heights in midfhips are fet
up. From @ the {tations of all the timbers may be fet off ;
but it will only be neceflary to {quare up a icular at
the joint of every frame-timber, their diitance being double
that of the room and fpace, which in Plate I. is two feet
nine inches.

The dead-flat in Plate 1. is a fingle timber, and the per-

i . marked q, the middle of it: therefore, for the
joints of the annexed frames fet off before @, two feet nine
inches for the joint of (A), and two feet nine inches abaft 5
for the joint of (1), {quare up perpendiculars from ae
edge of the keel; then from (A) continue fetting off
feet fix inches for the joints of frame B, C, D, to X, in the
fore-body, and the fame diftance abaft (1) for the joints of

le frame

SHIP-BUILDING.

frame (3), 2, 4, 6, to 36 in the after-body, as fhewn in
PlateI. Now @, (A), (1), (2), and (3), are called
flats, as they are the timbers which are placed in the flat
part of the {hip amidfhips, have no bevellings, and confe-
quently do not partake of the rifing.

The lower height of breadth is an imaginary line, not
only to afliit in the conftru€tion of the body, but a line
confining the greateft breadths in the fhip, all fore and aft,
and fhould next be determined upon. Its height at @ is
21 feet 3 inches above the upper edge of the keel ; and that
the faid height of breadth fhould be higher afore and abaft
is only reafonable as a referve, to be a fupport to the veffel
when heeling by the preffure of the wind upon the fails ;
for when a {hip is clofe-hauled by the wind, and lies much
over, the weather-fide would lofe much of the breadth,
whereas, on the contrary, the lee-fide would then gain con-
fiderably, and meeting with a greater refiftance, be enabled
to carry the greater fail; therefore forward at the rabbet of
the {tem its height is 29 feet, and abaft at the counter-
timber 29 feet 6 inches ; and all the heights between fhould
form a fair curve, like the ticked line in the fheer-draught,
Plate I.

It may here be remarked, that flat-floored fhips do not
require their height of breadth to be raifed fo high forward
and aft, for by their conftruction they are ftiffer under fail,
and carry their weight of cargo low down.

The body below the lower height of breadth may now be
formed, as the frames or bends, when put together, and the
joint placed to the fore-mentioned perpendiculars, the fides
of every port will be formed fo as to cut none of the prin-
cipal timbers, and are fo difpofed as to weaken the fhip as
little as poffible. Now as capacity, velocity, &c. depend
upon the figure of the immerfed part of the body, and be-
caufe the properties which every fhip ought to poflefs are,
in a manner, fubverfive of, or in oppofition to, each other,
as before obferved, the great art certainly is fo to form the
body, that none of the defired qualities fhall be omitted,
giving, at the fame time, preference to that which is moft
required. In fhips of war, capacity, ftability, velocity, and
ftrength, are effentially neceflary ; the firft and fecond we
fhall endeavour to prove by calculations hereafter ; the third
may be affirmed, as the veflel was actually built, and anfwered
that purpofe ; and the laft is now fo well eltablifhed in the
Britifh navy as to need little addition.

The half-breadth plan muft be next drawn: thus, draw
a ftraight line below the fheer-plan, as in Plate I., the whole
length of the fhip, and parallel to the upper edge of the
keel, which line will reprefent the middle line of the fhip,
at any height pafling fore and aft, or lengthwife ; ob-
ferving to keep the faid middle line fufficiently below the
feale, fo as to admit of the main half-breadth line coming
clear of it.

Then fquare down from the fheer-plan all the perpendi-
culars or joints of the frame-timbers, to the middle line of
the half-breadth plan, and likewife the foremoft and after-
perpendicular. The main half-breadth line may now bedrawn,
by fetting-off from the middle line in the plan the follow-
ing half-breadths at each refpective timber; thus, at @,
24 feet ; at F, 23 feet 112 inches; at H, 23 feet 11 inches;
at K, 23 feet 10 inches; at M, 23 feet 54 inches; at O,
23 feet ; at Q, 22 feet 2 inches; at S, 20 feet 4 inches ; at U,
17 feet 6 inches; at XK, 12 feet 6 inches; and to end this
line at the fore part, let the height of the breadth-line in the
fheer-plan, where it interfects the aft-fide of the rabbet at the
ftem, be fquared down to the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, and likewife the fore part of the ftem: upon the lines
Jaft fquared down, fet off the half-fiding of the ftem from

the middle line and parallel thereto, which is ten inches ;
then, with compafles, take the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
which is four inches, and defcribe the rabbet of the item by
the triangle fhewn in the half-breadth plan; from thence a
fair curve line drawn through the half-breadths fet off, forms
the half-breadth line to @. In the fame manner fet off the
half-breadths abaft «3, and draw in the remainder of the
half-breadth line, as the ending of it abaft will be defcribed
hereafter.

Obferve, the various curves reprefented on the feveral
plans ufed in fhip-building, except where they are fegments
of circles, fuch as the fore part of the main half-breadth, &c.
are drawn by fmall pliable battens confined thereto by
weights, or by thin moulds made of pear-tree veneers, whofe
edges are made to geometrical curves of all kinds.

Now the main half-breadth line being drawn, we have a
half fection of the fhip lengthwife at the broadeft place,
that is at the height, and in the direction of the lower height
of breadth line in the fheer-plan, Plate I.

The immerfed part, or body of the fhip under water, mutt
be next formed, and the capacity of the veffel afcertained,
before the upper works, or that above the water, need come
under confideration; it is therefore neceflary to defcribe in
what manner the feveral forms of fhips’ bodies are to be con-
ftruéted. In the royal navy, the midfhip parts of the body
of fhips are formed by fegments of circles called {weeps ;
fuch are the lower and upper breadth-fweeps, floor-fweep,
and reconciling-fweep, their feveral centres being given by
lines, except the reconciling-f{weep, whofe centre is without
the limits of the draught. The lower-breadth and floor-
{weeps are joined by the reconciling-{weep, and make a fair ‘
curve from the lower height of breadth to the rifing-line,
by which the floor-fweep is governed; then, by drawing a
{traight or curving line from the upper edge of the rabbet
of the keel to touch the back of the floor-fweep, the form
of the midfhip part of the body below the lower height of
breadth will be complete.

Obferve, the floor-fweep forms the body at the floor-
heads, particularly along the midfhip part of the body, and
is limited by an horizontal line above the keel in the body-
plan, and its diftance above the keel at the midfhip-timber
is called the dead-rifing. The rifing of the floor m the fheer-
plan is a curve line interfeCting the dead-rifing at the mid-
{hips ; and in flat-floored, or burthenfome fhips, it continues
nearly parallel with the keel for fome diftance afore and
abaft the midfhip-timber ; and all the timbers, where the
rifing is parallel with the keel, are called flats, as before
obferved. The rifing-line, which governs the floor-{weeps, is
not the leaft interefting of the feries, becaufe it exhibits, on
many points, general deductions, and tends to’eftablifh theo-
ries which may ferve to direct future obfervations ; and the
method of conftruéting the midfhip-floors of fhips, where ve-
locity is preferred, by lengthening the radii of the floor-
{weep forward and aft, is preferable te the rifing-line, as
ufed in conftru€ting merchant-fhips for burden, where the
radii of the floor-fweeps all fore and aft are of the fame
length as at the midfhip-timber ; becaufe by the former me-
thod, every floor-timber from the dead-flat is graduated by a
larger circle. By the latter method, not only the conftruc-
tion, but the laying-off the fhip is facilitated, becaufe in any
fhip conftruéted by the fame length of radii, we may venture,
fo far as the rifing-line is continued, not only to form all the
lower part of the fhip on the draught, but alfo on the mould-
loft-floor, without running any ribband or horizontal lines
till that part is finifhed. Again, this method affords a
greater affiftance, as by it the floors may be conftruéted alk
fore and aft ; but the floors near the midfhips only can be

conitructed,

SHIP-BUILDING.

conftrudted, when the radii of the floor-fweeps alter much

nor the half-
the curves as firit

ESehy of tas Rip. Again, the quicker this carves the le

n, the quicker this curve is, the lefs
Z will the hip ies | oid tion h it may be fuppofed,
when the rifing-line is formed in the fheer-plan, and likewife
i » itis reafonable to expect a fair body, yet we
cannot be certain of its ae that form of body which
is intended agreeable to the ufe which the thip is de-

figned for, unlefs b uently defigning of bodies we can
form an exaa idea 2 sonal Phaehore the young

improve hi drawing bodies conftruéted
-line of thips of different erties till he forms
udgment a perfeét idea of this mode of conftruc-
ftance, if it be required to make the thip cleaner,
rifing-line in the fheer-plan, and narrow its half-
h; and where it may be required to make the thip fuller,
he rifing-line in the -plan, and increafe its half-
breadth ; which fufficiently proves that the rifing-line is as
variable as the different forms of hips’ bodies may require.
= for ae hg ae of ay or _ ter plate va
7 w is > an o the frigate o
paps eck. nell fy ehh ied agate at
method of conitru€ting the lower parts of fuc
peer eh gem thofe that require fome provifion or
of body to affift them in taking the ground. The
and aft the body is affifted by the rifing-
more merit a3 will be in = conftruGtion, and
T certainty o ucing a fair body: notwith-
all this, fome Paice ir ciativsiad Svihot any
floor-fweeps, which mutt be the cafe in very tharp bodies,
fuch as cutters, &c.
It may be further obferved, that the rifing-line cannot,
from its nature, be formed by any regular proportional
r _ from which th Sat he hiegnpmellteensars
impropriety; nor can it conttru to any
ion, unlefs thips of different clafles were built ex-
fimilar to each other, becaufe the rifing-line in fhips of
thofe which are conitruéted for velocity, though
— conftruGtion of the lower part ef each thip,
|

cannot u ips of the fame
~ chalga aka gth

¢
fe

lhe

i

&

ef

a

if required y 3 as in the laft cafe
of the mi but every part of
differently formed, which will be clearly

the plates of the 74 and fhips,
plate ofthe India thip; i was found to an-

ing was formerly a method of conftruétin
of thips’ bodies, b the mould being made
idfhip-bend, which, with the addition
mould all the timbers below the
‘ But fince pili cs

to its prefent perfection, t re)
t ing, for the following reafons, has been juitly
‘aid afide. For by whole-moulding, no more is narrowed at
the floor than at the main-breadth, that isto fay, the curves
each are kept parallel; nor muit the rifing-line in the

& °
f
ri

A
it

theer-plan lift any more than the lower beight of breadth ;
which, according to the form of fome midfhip-bends, would
make a very ill-conitruéted body; for by continuing that
nearly forward and aft, the (hip would not only be incapable
of rifing in a heavy fea, but be deprived in a great meafure
of the more advantageous ufe of her rudder. Neverthelefs
this method is ftill continued in the formation of boats.
Proceed now to draw the plan of projeétion, or body-
lan, thus; continue the line at the upper edge of the keel
yond the after-end of the theer-plan, as in Plate 1., and
{quare up a perpendicular for the fide-line of the fore-body,
obferving to keep it clear of the ftern ; from that perpendi-
cular fet off 48 feet, the thip’s main breadth at dead-flat,
and {guare up another perpendicular for the fide-line of the
after-body, and equally between both f{quare up another
SN NE which 1s the middle line to both ies re-

ctively ; then the line prolonged from the u edge of
the keel is the bafe line of the body-plan. Draw in the
horizontal lines, as may be feen in the body-plan, Plas 1.

at the lower heights of breadth, by transferring their heights
from the fheer-plan at the feveral frame-timbers: thofe before
the dead-flat, kee up in the body-plan to the right of the
middle line, which are to reprefent the fore-body, and thofe
heights abaft dead-flat, to the left band for the after-body.
Then from the half-breadth plan take the main half-breadth of
each frame, and fet it off from the middle line in the body-
plan, upon its correfponding height of breadth-liue ; and
from thence fet off towards the middle line the length of
their refpetive lower-breadth fweeps: thus, to defcribe the
midfhip-timber, or dead-flat, extend the compafles to 18 feet
Ginches, the radii of lower-breadth {weeps at dead-fiat, and
draw part of a circle downwards, interfeting its main
breadth at its horizontal height.

Then the centre heights of the floor-{weeps in the body-
= muft be taken oul the curve-line reprefenting their

ights in the fheer-plan, which at dead-flat will be found to
interfe&t the upper edge of the keel; but in the body-
psn its height at dead-flat is 11 feet 6 inches, and there an

rizontal line is drawn to the diftance of the centre, or its
half-breadth from the middle line, and all the heights of
centres are refpectively fet apwards above this line, on per-
pendiculars {quared upwards at the half-breadth of the centre
of each floor-{weep of its correfponding frame or timber, as
taken from the half-breadth plan ; and the reafon for not
keeping the faid curve-line or heights in the fheer-plan as in
aa batroplar, is becaufe it would interfere with the curve-
lines above. Now by infpecting Plate I. it will be readily
feen, that by raifing the heights of thofe centres in the fheer-
lan, confequently in the body-plan, and by narrowing their
falf-breadths in the half-breadth plan, their centres would be
brought nearer the middle line in the body-plan, the floor-
rifing would become quicker, and the fhip have lefs bearing,
and vice verfa, more full and burthenfome: thus muit the
rifing and narrowing of the centres be adjuited till the body
of the veffel has the capacity required for whatever fervice
fhe may be defigned.

But asin this mode of contruction the centres only, and
not the length of the floor-fweeps, are given, a diagonal rib-
band mutt be drawn in the half-breadth iy asin Plate l., by
fetting off from the middle line at @, 16 feet; at B, 15 feet
g inches ; at D, 155 feet 5 inches ; at F, 15 feet 1 inch; at H,
14 feet 7inches; at K, 14 feet; at M, 13 feet 4aninch; at
O, 11 feet 11 inches; at Q 10 feet 4 inches; at S, 8 feet
6 inches; at U, 6 feet 1inch; and at X, 2 feet 5 inches.
Then in the after-body fet off at 2, 15 feet 114 inches; at
4 15 feet 10h inches ; at 6, 15 feet g inches; at 8, 15 feet 6
inches ; at 10, 15 feet 4 inches; at 12, 15 feet 2inch; at Me

14 feet

SHIP-BUILDING.

14 feet 11 inches; at 16, 14 feet5 inches ; at 18, 14 feet ; at
20, 13 feet 35 inches; at 22, 12 feet 5 inches ; at 24, 11 feet
7 inches ; at 26, ro feet 5 inches ; at 28, g feet 1 inch ; at 30,
6 feet 7 inches; at 32, 5 feet 10 inches; at 34, 4 feet; and
at 36, 2 feet.

Now to end this diagonal, it muit be drawn in the body-plan
thus ; fet up the middle line from the bafe 12 feet 2 inches,
and on the befe, from each fide of the middle line, 11 feet
9 inches, then draw the diagonal ticked line, as fhewn in
Plate. In draughts, diagonal lines are diitinguifhed by
red ink. Then in the body-plan draw the half-fiding of the
ftem in the fore-body, and the half-fiding of the {tern-poft in
the after-body : for the latter fet up 26 feet above the bafe,
and at that height fet off from the middle line to inches in
the half-fiding of the pott at the head, and 9 inches in the fore-
body, the half-fiding of the ftem at that height ; and on
the bafe line 74 inches from each fide the middle line, the
half-tiding of poft and item at the heel; then draw ftraight
lines to each {pot fet off, and the half-fiding of the {tern-poft
and {tem will be reprefented in the body-plan. Now to
complete or end the diagonal line on the half-breadth plan,
its height or interfection at the poft and {tem muft be taken
in the body-plan, and transferred re{peétively to the fore-
fide of the rabbet of the item, and aft-fide of the rabbet of
the poft in the fheer-plan, and from thence let them be
{quared down to the middle line of the half-breadth plan ;
then take with compafles the half thicknefs of the poft and
ftem in the body-plan, in the direétion of the faid diagonal
line, and fet them off refpectively from the middle line in
the half-breadth plan, on the lines latt fquared down; and
from the interfeétion as a centre, {weep an arc towards the
midfhips, with compafles opened to the thicknefs of the
rabbet taken diagonally ; then a fair curve drawn through
all the fpots as above fet off, touching the back of the arcs,
will form the diagonal line at the floor-heads, as fhewn in the
half breadth plan, Plate I.

Now may the timbers, as far as the floor-fweeps are ufe-
ful, be completed in the body-plan below the lower height
of breadth, beginning at dead-flat: thus, take the half-
breadth of the floor diagonal at @ in the half-breadth plan,
and fet it down the diagonal from the middle line in the
body-plan ; then take the half-breadth of the floor-fweeps
in like manner, and fet it off from the middle line in the
body-plan on the horizontal line before drawn at its height,
and from the interfe€tion extend the compaffes to the half-
breadth of the fluor diagonal, and {weep an arc upwards
from the dead-rifing, which is fix inches at @; then with the
reconciling-fweep, which is of a long radius compared with
the others, unite the lower-breadth {weep and floor-{weep
together ; for the more the midfhip-frames deviate from the
fegment of a circle, the lefs will be the rolling motion of the
fhip ; unite the floor-fweep with the upper edge of the rabbet
of the keel with a curve or ftraight line, and the midfhip-
timber will be formed below the lower breadth. Inthe fame
manner may be formed the frame-timbers B, D, F, H, and
K, in the fore-body, and 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, to 24 in the after-
body, by fetting off the half-breadth of each frame’s diagonal
as at @, their correfponding heights of breadths, main half-
breadths, and centres of each f{weep, as before dire&ted, and
by reconciling the lower-breadth {weeps and floor-{weeps
together, and ending them into the rabbet at the keel ; thus
the midfhip part of the body will be formed from K for-
ward to 24 abaft.

Hence it may be readily conceived, that bodies full or
fharp, either for burthen or velocity, may be con{truéted by
altering the radii of the different {weeps ; and unlefs bodies
af fhips could be conftruéted from fome geometrical

figure, a more certain method than the above cannot be
iven.

The body being thus far formed, that is from K forward
to 24 abaft, proceed to prove it by horizontal lines, and
finifh the remaining part forward and aft. Thefe lines
are generally called water-lines, as the fhip’s bottom at the
furface of the water, {uppoting the keel kept parallel there-
to, would be of the fame figure as thofe lines reprefented in
the half-breadth plan, with the addition of the thicknefs of
the bottom plank in that direétion. The upper one is called
the load-water-line, or line of floatation, when the veflel is
{uppofed fit for fea, which will be treated of more particularly
hereafter ; the other water-lines may be equally divided be-
tween the upper or load-water-lie, and upper edge of the keel
or rabbet. Although a fhip may draw more water abaft than
forward for hér beft failing trim, yet to keep the feveral
water-lines horizontal, or parallel with the upper edge of the
keel, is the mot ufeful in conftru€tian; and the water-lines,
as reprefented in the half-breadth plan, form curves, limiting
the various half-breadths of the fhip at the heights of their
correfponding lines in the body-plan. They are every
drawn with green ink, but in Plate I. with correfponding
dotted lines, and are reprefented by ttraight lines in the
fheer-plan ; and if parallel with the keej they will be hori-
zontal lines in the body-plan, but if the veffel is to be con-
ttruéted to draw much more water aft than forward, the
water-lines will not of courfe be parallel with the upper
edge of the keel; then, owing to their various heights at each
timber in the fheer-plan, they wil] form curves at thofe —
heights in the body-plan, and the more they vary from an
horizontal line, the leis accurate will the limits of their half-
breadths be defcribed in the halt-breadth plan.

In Plate 1. the upper horizontal water-line is 20 feet
above the lower edge of the keel; and between that and the
upper edge of the rabbet of the keel, are equally divided
four more water-lines, as in the fheer-plan, The water-lines
may now be drawn in the half-breadth plan from the body-
plan, as far as the timbers are there formed; thus, continue
the water-lines aft from the fheer-plan acrofs the body-
plan, then take off with compafles, or a flip of paper and
pencil, their various half-breadths from the middle line, to the
places where the feveral timbers interfect each water-line, and
fet them off on their correfponding timbers from the middle line
in the halt-breadth plan; then to end each water-line {quare
down where they interfe¢t the fore-part of the rabbet at the
{tem, and aft-part of the rabbet at the ftern-poft in the
fheer-plan to the middle line of the half-breadth plan ; then
take the half-fiding of the ftem and the {tern-poit at each
water-line from the middle line in the body-plan, and fet
them refpeétively on the lines lat {quared down from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan; from thence, as the
centre, with compaffes opened to the thicknefs of the bottom
plank, make a fweep, the back of which is the ending of the
line. Then complete the fore and after ends of each water-
line with curves, as in the half-breadth plan, avoiding all in-
fleéted curves or hollow water-lines at the fore part, as they
may be drawn by arcs of circles, although their centres may
be without the limits of the plates 6f fhip-building.

Now the whole of the body may be completed under the
lower height of breadth, obferving to {weep each timber
below its height of breadth, as before directed; then by
taking off the half-breadth of each timber, where they in-
terfeét the water-lines from the middle line in the half-
breadth plan, and fetting them off on their correfponding
water-lines from the middle line in the body-plan, curves
pafling through thofe {pots will {hape the timber; but to

end them into the rabbet, or complete the heeling, the a
mu

be the
he bafe line from each
of the keel, and alfo 18 inches below the bafe
fquared will reprefent the thwartthip fe¢tion of
midthips; then, with compatles opened to the
the bottom plank, fix one lg where the keel
fs the bafe line, which is the upper fide of the rabbet,
an arc within the keel to interfeét the fide, and
that interfection { another are upwards; then a
drawn within thole ares, reprefents the rabbet of
midthips, and all the timbers along the midthips,
rabbet opens, end where the rabbet interfeéts the
3 but wheo the rabbet opens by the umbers rifing
rd and aft, they will end over the back of the {weep
inver of the rabbet. The timbers near the after-

the mult be ended agreeably to the tapering of
which tapers in the Gling from frame 24 to 15
at the after-end; this mutt be fet off from the middle
the half-breadth plan, and the half-fiding of the keel
timber, and fet off on the upper edge of the
middle line in the body-plan ; then fet within
of the keel the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
the timber. But as the frames in the fore-body
the flem, their heights muft be taken in
R they interfe& lower part of the
and thofe heights fet up in the body-plan upon the

f-thicknefs of the flem; then with compafles opened to
the thicknefs of the bottom plank, fix one leg in the heights
ft fet off, and fweep a circle within the fiding, and the
cel paffes over the back of the circle, and the rabbet com-
pleted by a fquare applied to the line of the timber, fo as
to interfect the height fet up, as fhewn in the plan of the

ore-body, A

im te a further proof of the correétnefs of the after-
ody, draw four or five dicular fections, or, as they are
ommonly called, Sache Nast; but firit prove the heels of
e after-timbers by the bearding-line, thus; reprefent the

og Fat thus, fet off nine inches
de of the middle line, being the

CAPER TELE

i

rE
21

7
i
i

f-thicknefs of the dead or rifing wood in the body-plan,
by drawing a icular from eee bafe line to the head of
ftern-pott. from the bafe line take the heights

|
. the after-timbers crofs the half-thicknefs of the dead
wood, and fet them up from the upper edge of the rabbet
| their correfponding timbers in the fheer-plan ; then draw
curve through thofe heights, to break in fair with the fore-
fide of the on the ftern-poft, and this curve will re-
| prefent the beardiny-line in the fheer-plan, and limits the
of the after-timbers, as far as they cut off or fay
_ againit the dead-wood.
. heels of the timbers being found to agree with the
ie fairnefs of its curve (obferve, the

in’ the delineation of the feveral
that the variety of curved lines
ig them, but are even as
its centre, as moft of the lines in the
curves, but many of their
for application ; and the fairnefs re-
dierent curve unites no angle may
iso to prove the after-timbers by the
uttoc fquare up from the bafe line in the
er-body plan five equally divided between
outfide of the wing-tranfom, and the half-thickoefs of
dead-wood ; that 1s, the outer buttock-line at 1 5 feet

> inche the intermediate four at 3 feet 2 inches

heights at the firft buttock-line, or that
pot, at the interfeGtion of each timber from the

fine in the after-body, and fet them up from the upper
ge of the rabbet on the correfponding timbers in the theer-

SHIP-BUILDING.

plan; and to end the buttock-lines, the upper fide of the
wing-tranfom and margin-line muft be drawn in the feveral
plans; thus, fet up 26 feet 10 inches for the height of the
upper fide of the wing-tranfom in the theer and body-plans,
drawing a horizontal line at the fern poll and scrofs the bod \e
ne ; then from the middle ling fet off 16 fret 6 inches, the half

readth of the wing-tranfom, and at that place fet down, below
the upper fide of the wing-tranfom, fix inches, and {weep the
arc, whofe centre will be in the middle line ; and the round-
up of the upper fide of the wing-tranfom will be reprefented
as in the body-plan, Plate 1; from the fame centre {weep
another arc fix inches below the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom, which is called the margin-line. ‘Then, in the half.
breadth plan, {weep in the round aft or aft fide of the wing-
tranfom ; thus, fquare down from the theer-plan the fore-
fide of the rabbet of the iteru-polt, where it cuts the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom, to the half-breadth plan, and upoa
the line fo fquared down, fet off the half-breadth of the
wing-tranfom from the middle line, and at that place fet
forward feven inches, and {weep the are reprefenting the
round aft of the wing-tranfom, the centre of which is in
the middle line.

Draw an horizontal line at fix inches below the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom in the fheer-plan, and upon it
f{quare up the round forward of the wing-tranfom from the
half-breadth plan ; and from thence draw a line to the upper
fide of the wing-tranfom at the rabbet of the polt, and the
upper fide of the wing-tranfom will be thewn, both to its
round down and forward in the fheer-plan. Transfer the
height of the margin-line from the body to the theer-plan,
and there draw a line parallel to the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom laft drawn, and unite them at the fore part of t
wing-tranfom by a line parallel to the rabbet of the poft.
The margin-line muft next be fhewn in the balf-breadth
plan, by fquaring it down from the fheer-plan, and making
it a parallel curve to the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom ;
the diftance, however fmall, being equal to the rake of the
rabbet of the poit, in the depth of the margin at the aft-fide
of the wing-tranfom. The margin-line being drawn in every
plan of Plaie I. proceed to end the buttock-lines in the theer-
o— thus, take the diftance of the buttock-lines {quare

m the middle line of the body-plan, and fet them off the
fame from the middle line in the half-breadth plan, drawing
lines parallel thereto from the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom
to the after fquare timber, which will reprefent the buttock-
lines in the half-breadth plan: then, where thofe lines inter-
fe&t the margin-line in the half-breadth plan, {quare up {pets
to the margin-line in the fheer-plan, which {pots will give
the true ending of the buttock-lines, alfo {quare up the in-
terfeétion of the buttock-lines with the water-lines from
the half-breadth to the fheer-plan; then transfer all the
heights of the buttock-lines, where the timbers crofs them in
the body-plan, to the fheer-plan, as before directed, and draw
fair curves through all the {pots fet off to the endings, and
the after part of the fhip will be reprefented in the theer-
plan, as cut by thofe perpendicular fections, as in Plate 1.

Now if the buttock-lines make fair curves, the after-
timbers will be proved correét, and likewife the water-lines
abaft in the half breadth plan; but if the buttoek-lines to
be made fair curves deviate from the {pots as fet off, then
muft the timbers be altered accordingly, and confequently
the water-lines. But as a further proof as to the correét-
nefs of the buttock, or that part of the body clofe aft,
{quare up one or two imaginary or proof-timbers, equally
between the after frame-timber 37 and the wing-tranfom at
the fide, as reprefented by the ticked lines in the theer-plan,
Plate 1. Then take the heights on a perpendicular from
the upper edge of the keel in the theer-plan, where or

proof.

SHIP-BUILDING.

proof-timbers interfeé& the buttock-lines and bearding-line,
and transfer them to the body-plan above the bafe line upon
each correfponding buttock-line, and half-thicknefs of the
dead-wood ; take alfo the half-breadth of the proof-timbers
where they interfe& the water-lines in the half-breadth plan,
and transfer them to their re{peétive water-lines in the body-
plan; but though the proof-timbers crofs the {tern-polt, their
heels may be fet off, as before directed for the after-timbers ;
then if the {pots fo fet off produce fair curves, as the ticked
timber fhewn in the body-plan, Plate I., we may conclude
that the after-body is fufficiently proved and its fairnefs ac-
curate. The fore-body may be proved by vertical feCtions,
in a fimilar manner as defcribed above, only their ending will
be determined by fquaring up their interfe€tions with the
main-breadth line, from the half-breadth plan to the fheer-
lan.

3 Having completed the form of the body thus far, it will
be neceflary to afcertain the capacity and ftability of the
part immerfed, as in all fhips of war there is a fixed height
for the lower fill of the midfhip port above the load-water-
line, allowing for fix months’ ftores, provifions, &c. to be
on board; and the capacity fhould be fimply adequate for
this purpofe; for the nearer this is approached unto, the
more merit is due to the conftruétor: it fhould not be more,
to avoid fuperfluous expence in the building, and the addi-
tional men required to navigate her; nor fhould it be lefs,
from an obvious general infufliciency to anfwer the required
purpofes: the bias fhould rather lead to increafe than di-
minifh in capacity. In fhips for commerce, an exact eftima-
tion of their capacity is more frequently required to regu-
late the port duties, and the contraéts between merchant
owners and builders, than to infure their ftability, a fixed
line of floatation, and faft failing, as the charge may be re-
gulated by their ability to fupport it, and their load-water-
line may be confiderably varied, without any hurtful inter-
ference with other effential qualities.

Let us at prefent fuppofe the 74-gun thip, Plate I. as
floating upon the water in equilibrium, and the upper
water-line upon a level with the furface of the water, by
which the fhip is divided into two parts, the one above and
the other under the water, which we call the immerfed part
of the body. In order to judge of this ftate of equilibrium,
in which we fuppofe the vetlel to be, it is neceflary to take
into confideration all the forces which at upon the veflel :
and firft the weight of the whole veffel prefents itfelf, by
which it is preffed down vertically in a line pafling through
the centre of gravity of the veffel. This force muft there-
fore be counterbalanced by all the efforts which the water
exerts upon the furface of the immerfed part, and confe-
quently it will be neceflary to determine the preflure that
each particle of the immerfed furface fuftains from the water,
which requires refearches very embarraffing, and a long feries
of calculations: but the following confiderations will eafily
lead us to the defired end.

As the veflel occupies in the water, by its immerfed part,
the cavity formed by the body under the upper water-line,
let us compare this cafe with another, the above cavity being
filled with water: it is at firft evident, that this mafs of
water will be in a perfect equilibrium with the water that
furrounds it; and it is alfo plain, that this mafs fuftains
from the part of the furrounding water, the fame efforts
which the veffel fuffers from it. ['rom whence we fee, that
thefe efforts of the water balance the weight of the mafs of
water which we have juft fub{tituted in the place of the
veffel. Therefore, fince thefe fame efforts fuftain alfo the
weight of the whole veflel, it follows that this weight is
precifely equal to the weight of the mafs of water which
fills the fame cavity as formed by the body of the veflel

I

under the upper water-line; or rather, whofe volume is
equal to the volume of the immerfed part of the veffel.

Here, therefore, is the firft great principle upon which is
founded the theory of the floating of bodies that {wim upon
the water. It is, that the immerfed part muft always be
equal in yolume to a mafs of water, which would have the
{ame weight as that of the veflel: and it is from this prin-
ciple that we determine the true weight of a veffel, by
meafuring the volume of its immerfed part in the water ;
for then, by reckoning 64,375 lbs. avoirdupois for each
cubic foot, we fhall find the weight of the veffel exprefled
in pounds.

However, this principle, only, is not fufficient to deter-
mine the ftate of the equilibrium of the veflel; another muft
be ftill joined to it, and which we fhall find with the fame
facility. We have only to confider in Plate I. the centre of
gravity of the mafs of watér under the upper water-line ;
then we fhall eafily conceive that all the efforts of the furround-
ing water are in equilibrium with a force equal to the weight
of the mafs of water difplaced by the bottom under the
upper water-line, which fhould aé in a perpendicular direc-
tion through the centre of gravity of the faid mafs of water
downwards: therefore, in order that the veflel may be in
equilibrium with the fame efforts, it is neceflary that the
centre of gravity of the veflel be in the fame vertical line
in which the centre of gravity of the immerfed part is found.
For that purpofe we have only to mark within the veilel the
very point where the centre of gravity of the immerfed
part would be, if it was compofed of an homogeneous mat-
ter, and this point we fhall term the centre of cavity.

Now the ftate of the equilibrium of any veflel will be de- —

termined from thefe two principles: 1ft, that the immerfed
part muft be equal in volume to a mafs of water, whofe
weight would be equal to that of the vellel ; and, 2dly, that.

the centre of gravity of the veflel, and the centre of cavity, —

fall in the fame vertical line, which is the vertical axis of the
veflel. With refpe& to the centre of cavity, it is evident
that it muft always fall below the load-water-line; and if the
immerfed part fhould preferve, in defcending, every where
the fame furface, or that it had either a prifmatic or cylin-
drical figure, then the centre of cavity would fall in the
middle of the vertical axis between the load-water-line and
the keel. But if the extent diminifhed uniformly from the
load-water-line to the keel, and it at laft terminated in a
right line drawn through the keel, equal and parallel to
the load-water-line, then the elevation of the centre of cavity
would be two-thirds of the immerfed part above the keel ;
and if the fame immerfed part fhould terminate in a point
at the keel as a pyramid reverfed, then the centre of cavity
would be three-fourths of the immerfed part above the
keel ; but with refpeét to the centre of gravity of the veflel,

it may fall either above or below the load-water-line, accord- _

ing as the lading fhould be diftributed throughout thé body
of the veflel. Thus in Plate I. of fhips of war in general,
where the guns conftitute a confiderable part of the weight,
fince they are placed above the water, the centre of gravity
will be fituated above its furface.

The bottoms, or immerfed parts of veffels in general not _

ftritly agreeing with any of the above-mentioned geome-
trical forms, it will be neceflary to guage the form of the
immerfed part of the veffel’s bottom, or, which is the fame
thing, the quantity of water difplaced by the bottom; the

weight of which, as before obferved, is equal to the weight _

of the fhip, its rigging, provifions, and every thing on board.
If, therefore, the exadt weight of the fhip when ready for fea
be calculated, and alfo the number of cubic feet of water.
difplaced by the fhip’s bottom below the load-water-line,
it will then be known if the load-water-line is properly

placed

= a

tf

| Carpenter, gunner, and boat{wain’s ftores

SHIP-BU

placed on the draught. However and difficult the
calculations neceflary to afcertain the capacity, ttability,
&e, of thips may be, it mult be allowed that it wil ears
the utmoft care in the execution, to find the exaét dimenfions
of the feveral fections of the thip from the draught, (efpe-
cially as every dimenfion in the thip is forty-cight times

than their fimilar ones on the draught, fuppofing it
to be drawn by a quarter of an inch feale to a foot), as an
error of a quarter of an inch in the draught, which is only
the forty-cighth part of a real inch in the fhip, will oceafion
an error of 110,592 cubic quarters of an inch in the hip,

An Eftimate of the Weight of the 74-Gun Ship, Plate \.,

ILDING.

oo the error be in all the three dimenfions, ez. length,
adth, and depth, Great precifion, indeed, muit be uled
to mealure to a quarter of an inch in Plas 1., feeing it is
only drawn, for convenience, to an eighth of an inch feale
But as thefe calculations cansot be made with too great
an exaétoe!s, the body had better be expanded on the mould-
loft floor to the full fize, and then the various dimenfions
may be taken very accurately, -

he eftimated weight of a 74-gun thip, as fitted for fea,
with fix months’ provifions on board, is given in the follow-
ing table,

as fitted for Sea, with Six Months’ Provifions, Guns, &c.

| Feet. | ‘Tons. | Pounds.
, Weight of the Hull, a
Oak timber, at 57.8125 Ibs. to the cubical foot - ; . ‘ - | 47859 | 1236 | 208
Elm timber, at 37.5 to the cubical foot - . - - . - 462 7 | 1645
Fir timber, at 34.25 to the cubical foot - . ‘ ‘ % -| 4397 | 67 $17
» braces, &c. &c. . a ~ 2 . < “ | 20 | 1748
Tron bolts, nals, &c. &c. . in 7 : - d . 28 a
. - . - - - - - - - - 2 1
Pitch, tar, oakum, paint, &c. &c. : a : > c : 4 13 |
Fire-hearth in galleys, &c. &c. - - : - - = < | 21 330
2 Ounces, N° 1000, weight 85
Copper-theathing of 13 Ounces, _—1820, 134 12 |_728
‘ 18 Ounces, 83, 5 ;

. Weight of the Furniture.
‘Complete fet of maits, yards, booms, &c.

TL -

eee SO wth foare
Cables, hawfers, &c.
Anchors, with their
Blocks, pumps, and

ftocks, &c.
boats

~
Guns, with their carri = : -
| Powder and balls, -barrels, &c. —- -
Implements for the guas, powder, Kc. —- -

Weight of the Officers’ Sto

| hea” Weight of the Men, &c.
"600 men, including the officers and their effets -
Di alt, iron and te - .

RECAPITULATION.

Total weight

Ibs

°

| ; b Cs

32

with the fpare gear

Weight of the Guns and Ammunition.

Weight of the Provifions. °
|

Provifions for fix months for 600 men, water, calks, &e. &e.

res.

4 . 7 = - 95

° t = ‘ : 300

395 |

= = rd 7 600 |

/

|
4 4 e é ay 1390 | 686
. - - - -| 192 | 312
+ ~ ~ 4 37 211 | 1429
- - . - - 21 560

- © = - “ 395

~ : - - . 600 |
. - - - - 2810] 745
30 By

SHIP-BUILDING.

By the preceding eftimate, we find the 74-gun fhip, Pi. 1.
weighs, when brought down to her load-water-line, 2810
tons 745 pounds, that is to fay, when fitted for fea, with
fix months’ provifions on board. It may now be known,
with fome degree of certainty, if the upper water-line on
the fheer-draught, Plate I., be properly placed, only by
reducing the immerfed part of the bottom into cubic feet ;
for, if the 74-gun fhip, when brought down to the load-
water-line, weighs 2810 tons 745 pounds, ‘the quantity of
water difplaced mult alfo be 2810 tons 745 pounds, or
6,295,145 pounds. Now a cubic foot of falt-water being
fuppofed to weigh 64,375 pounds, we fhall therefore
find, that if we divide 6,295,145 by 64,375, the quotient
will be 97,788 folid feet, which is the contents of that
volume of water which fhe mutt difplace correfponding to her
weight.

Di/placement or Capacity.

The folid contents of a fhip’s bottom, were it any regular
figure, might be ealily calculated geometrically ; but as its
curves are fo various, the following-rule, by approximation,
may be near enough for practice.

Take the half-breadths of every other frame, and double
them, from 26 to O, in the balf-breadth plan upon the upper
water-line ; then find the fum of thefe, together with half
the foremoft frame O, and aftermoft frame 26. Now, the
frames being equidiftant, multiply that fum by 11 feet,
the diftance between every other frame, and the produé is
the area of the water-line contained between the frames
26 and O; then find the area of that part of the water-line
afore O, and abaft 26, by taking the half-breadth of every
timber, and proceed as before, and multiply by 2 feet

inches ; find alfo the area of the ftem, knee, and gripe,
before the foremolt-timber, alfo the area of the ftern-polt and
rudder abaft the after-timber ; then thefe areas being added
to the firft found, will be the area of the furface of the
whole water-line. Note, the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
as taken in that direGtion, muft be added.

The areas of the other water-lines may be found in the
fame manner: then the fum of all thefe areas, except the
uppermott and lowermott, of which only one-half of each
mutt be taken, being multiplied by 3.6 feet, the diftance
between the water-lines (thefe lines in the fheer-plan being
alfo equidiftant from each other), and the produ& will
be the folid content of the fpace contained between the
lower and upper water-lines.

Add the area of the lower water-line to the area of the
upper fide of the keel; multiply half that fum by the
diftance between them, the produ will be the folid content
of that part between the lower water-line and upper edge
of the keel. }

The folid contents of the keel muft be next found,
by multiplying the area by its depth; then the fum of
thefe folid contents will be the number of cubic feet con-
tained in the immerfed part of the bottom, below the upper
water-line.

The reafon of the above rule will be obvious, by refer-
ring to the article STEREOMETRY 5 for there, to find the
folid contents of any irregular body, the area of the fur-
faces muft be taken by ordinates (and fuch are the joints
of the frames of a fhip), and thofe furfaces multiplied by
the depth or depths (and fuch are the water-lines), which
give the folid contents required.

The application of this rule, in finding the cubic feet
eontained in the bottom of the 74-gun fhip, below the
upper water-line in Plate I.

7

Area of the Upper Water-Line.

: Fu In.
{frame 26 is 43 ft. 8 in. the half of which is 3 “
| frame 22 2 5 : = 3 - 45 41
frame 18 - - - - - - 47017
w | frame 14 5 ~ = o a ~ S48 Yow
- | frame 10 - - e = 5 - 48 8
E } frame 6 = = = = = - 48 8
5 \ frame 2 - = - = = = 48° 8
» | frame (1) - - - - - a 48)%) °8
& | frame B - - - - - - 48 8
frame T° - - - - - - 48 8
frame KK - - - - - SilptyAole gt no)
Lframe O is 46 ft. 2 in. the half of whichis 23 1
SOI)
x by the diftance between the frames —- hight ©
Area between 26 andO_ - - - = STIDAS 93
: : icemaein =
frame 26 is 43 ft. Sin. the half of whichis. 21 10
timber 27. = - = nts cab eters Vee a7)
frame 28 - = - - = = 42a 2
% | timber 29. - = = és = SAL OS
aa | frame 30 - = = o = iO eet
3 d timber 31 - - - - - - 38 6
ive frame gs? 2)eal = = = = 3) 2) S
2 timber 33. - - - - - ~ 34 10
&, | frame 34 - - - - - See it
timber 35 - - - - - - 2 2
frame 36 = = - - - = LQ) oz
timber 37 is 5 ft. 2 in. the half of whichis 2 7
i” 379.6
_ x by the diftance between the timbers - 2 KG
104 7s
Area of the poft and rudder - - - ro fe.
Area abaft 26 - - SEG eu = TOs sn
: Rigen.
{frame O is 46 ft. 2in. the half of whichis 23 1
timber P - - - - - a iS ae
So | thamenn Ones - - - - SB 2
rm] 5
ney |tabealasto I 6 E - - - - SHIT OS
> | frame S at WEN - - - - 38 10
& <timber TT - - Se = SAG NS)
O |frame OU - - - - - Suir
<= | timber W - - - - - E216 Sole
Et (ifeamer exe = = - = - Sh ergy
timber Y - - - - - One
half the ftem Soe erty = mS ca OR oLTO
: BO wis)
x by the diftance between the timbers - - 2 9
q 870 I0
Area of the knee - - - May Sado
Area beforeO - - - - - - 873 10
Area abaft 26 - - - = = TOSS ini /D
Area between 26 and O = = : 5794. 3
Area of upper water-line - - - 7721 10
Area

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Fourth Water-Line.

frame 66'S go ft 4b. the half of which fs 2
frame 22 3
fen i . ec .
frame 1 ol ° — * - -
frame § m ° . ° 8
frame 6 - . - é ‘ z 8
Pee OEP fa. os : ca © 8
frame (1) - “ = = = . 8
frame ee ee s
frame F Sanh - - - . S
frame K . - . 10
frame O is 43 ft. 0 in. the half of which is 6
x by the diftance between the frames - -
Areabetween26andQO - - - - 5513 9
ee od Sai .
7 e 2
eee Eye ee 10
See 4
Op eer °
mer i= =| Ze +
ire te yee
frame 34 — - . = ~ - z 8
timber >: py Thal Spee eRe sad = 1
frame - - - - - - . 7
timber 37 is 2 ft. 2 in. the half of which is I
11
x by the diftance between the timbers 9
64
Area ofthe poftand rudder - et i4
nar ee Vee eee 7
In.
ee a en which $
Q AE ines intae a. G 10
- - - - call = 4
eas a tee, SS
T - - - - - - 4
O, , 9 10
WwW - - - - - 8
timber ¥ is 4 ft. 6 in. the half of which 3

—_
s

Area of the Third W ater. Line.

Fy.
frame 26 is g4 ft. oin. the half of whichis 17
frame 22 é “4 A s B ~ 39
frame 18 - - - 44
% | frame 14 a si . 3
& | frame 10 : 7 a 7 43
RJ frame 6 - . ° : - 43
gE ) frame 2 . ° - - 43
uy | frame (1) - ° ° : : 43
& | frame B - - pls t 43
frame F - ° - . 43
frame K : 41
(frame O is 37 ft. 4 io. the half of which is is 18
461
x by the diftance between the frames - in
Ares between 26 and O = - - - g0o72
Fe
(frame 26 is 34 ft. oin. the half of whichis 17
timber 27 > - - - 32
oo ea i ar - 40

= | timber 29 - ~ “ u = 2
aaeiape 30 - ‘sh - - - - 24
S j timber 31 - - - = -, 21
ee aie a |
2 | umber 33 = = - - i2
= hh galt i :
timber 35_—s - = , s s = 0
frame 36 - . Se
(timber 37 is 1 ft. 6 in, the half of ia is 0
201
x by the diftance between the timbers - 2
Area abaft 26 - er 2. ee
Area of the poft and edie dee bes nie ne
564
Fu
frame O is 37 ft. 47: tn balipt mbich | 18
timber P “dogs 35
= | frame 4 = «| =i aly 32
= | timber - = - - = 29
iH frame S a - < - - 26
5 ) timber T - - - - - 22
npamase U - = .> = - 17
a timber W_- - - - - 12
frame X ~ = - , 3
timber Y is 1 ft. ro in. the half of which oO
198
x by the diftance between the timbers - 2
545
Area of the ftem and knee ee I
Area before O SF eee Oe
Area abaft 26 - - - = a = 564
Area between 26 and O-~ - “ ~ - 5072
Area of the third water-line - os >a 6rBg

3U 2

Sete e mew Or OF

~

~-
“O09 ROAR Ww wF

Senile. eo

“
ole

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Second Water-Line.

Fe. In.
(frame 26 is a ft. roin. the halfof whichis 12 5
frame 22 - - - - =! 32 2
frame 18 = = = 2 ‘a = 36> 0
ws | frame 14 = = = - - SOUZA 1K)
= | frame to = = = = = -" 39 2
3 ) frame 6 ty = = : = SUZ) 5)
=) frame 2 - = - = - = 39° 6
a )frame (1) - = = = = - .39 6
& | frame B = - = = : =) 20 it 4)
frame F - - = ~ = = 38 10
frame KX < 36 Oo
Lframe O is 28 ft. 8i in. the half of evhichize 1S) U4eiara
; 404 7
x by the diftance between the frames - Tile tO
Area between 26 and O - - - “5 WAZA GON ES
Htagedne
(frame 26 is 24 ft. 10in. thehalfofwhichis 12 5
timber 27 = = - s S £ i22mo
frame 28 - - = - = - 19 Oo
s | timber 29 - = - - - - 15 10
S | frame 30 - = = 5 e =) engi A:
3 | timber a = = = = a =) rong
& 5 frame = = ss s = eee fey I
w | timber d é = = = = - =) ON a
Palpirarie (4 ce dof oo Whe atiecel ON ae Ae
timber 35 —- = = - - =) SSI.
frame 36 - = = = - =, faeths 2
(timber 37 is 1 ft. 6in. the halfof whichis o 9
Hilo ed
x by the diftagce between the timbers = 22.49
322. 28
Area of the rudder and poft - - - 9 6
Area abaft 26 - - - - - 331 . 84
Ft. In.
(frame O is 28 ft. @in. the half of which is 14 4
ss | timber P - - - - - Sie 6
S | frame Q - - - - - = 23a O
3 ! timber R = = = = 4 = I9+ ©
& ; frame S - - = - - =n LO) 2)
o» | timber T . - - - - =) 12) <1
&, | frame U 8. 8
| timber W is 4 ft. o in. the half of mich Fa his NS)
120, (8
x by the diftance between the timbers - 3G)
231 tO
Area of the {tem and knee - - - 5) aro)
Area before O = - - - - 227 ee
Area abaft 26 Sri hie - - - CXS til verte}
Area between 26andO - - - e aaO 8 Men

Area of the fecond water-line - - -

A\rea of the Firft or Lower Water-Line.

Ft. In.
(frame 26 is ro ft. oin. the half of whichis 5 o
frame 22 - = - = = - 20 2
frame 18 ~ - = = 5 =o Gums
| frame 14 ~ = = = = - 30 4
S | frame 10 - - = = = = 3235 \'6
3 frame 6 - - = = = =) (3366) 4
i )) frame” 2 - = = = = - 33. 8
o | frame (1) - - = = = = 33. 8
fi | frame B - - - = = - 32 10
frame F - - - - - SINC)
frame K - - 26 6
{frame O is 17 ft. o in. the half of pinche re Gees
AO
x by the diftance between the frames - Hie AC)
Area between 26 and O ~ - - 3461 4
Fu Jn.
frame 26 is 10 ft.oin. the halfof whichis 5 o
timber 27. - = = = & eh s sp
frame 28 - = = = = = 7A O
fo: |itimber:2Q) oc) tr tate el ee
< |frame 30 - = = = = ER FETS)
fa) yj timber gr) = = S 5 2 Seto
& 9) frame BON ow oh en Mee ro ea be
2 timber 33 = - - - - SN oo
fi | frame 34 © - - - - - aire 2
timber 35 —- - - - - SPN eee Ko)
frame 36 TT
{timber 37 is 1 Be 4. in. the half of Sinan i820) 1, (8
, 47 43
x by the diftance between the timbers - 29
130. 33
Avea of the rudder and poft - - - 9 0
Area abaft 26 - - - - 5 Ligghn (3S
Ft. In.
w» (frame O is 17 ft. o in. the Mae of whichis 8 6
i,q'timberP = = Pee aatat'8
3 | frame Q - - - - - a UM 2
&<timberR - = i) ee Sty es ORCS
- | frame S - - - - - Lyin o
= | timber T= 4m 4.
= (frame U is 1 ft. roin. the half of Higa 15 NOMS

Sif 54.
x by the diftance between the timbers - 741)
157. 8
Area of ftemand knee - see = Cece
Area before O - = < = = t64) .15
Area abaft 26 Ss = z = E 139 638
Area between 26andO - - - - 3461 4
Area of the lower water-line - - - 3764 8]
Area

SHIP-BULLDING.

Area of the Upper Side of the Keel.

Fi. Ie,
Length on the fide or of the keel
vu epg pthread reaiallndaed 177 Ee
Multiplied by its thicknefs - - - - 48 6
Area of the upper fide of the keel = > 268 59
Difplacement of the Bottom.
Fr. In
the area of the upper water-line 3860 11
area of the fourth water-line — - 70523
area of the third water-line - 6ikg 5
area of the fecond water-line —- s119 gg
area of the lower water-line = - 3764 «= Bi
Half the area of the upper fide of keel 132 104
26114.0729
x by diftance between the water-lines 3-6
94010.6624
am di ee ena)
Cubic feet difplaced 94542.162
x by pounds in a cubic foot of falt-water 375
, 6086151 Ibs.
As the eftimated weight of the fhip, with every thing on

the upper water-line, as with the keel, is placed too
difplacement is only equal to 6,086,151 lbs.
Therefore proceed to find if the of the fhip is con-

this let the centre of cavity, or centre
einaetG hues we may dicen hat pro-
‘the fore-part of the thip bears

Method of finding the Centre of Difplacement or Support.

The centre of gravity of a thip, fuppofed homogeneous,
and in a flate of equilibrium, is in a perpendicular feGion,
pafling through the keel, and dividing the thip inte two
equal and fimilar parts, at a certain diltance from the flern
and altitude above the keel.

To afcertain the centre of difplacement, or centre of
gravity, of the immerfed part of a thip'’s bottom, in a tate
of equilibrium, begin by determining the centre of gravity
of the upper Beruaky | feétion, or water-line ; and as the
two fides are equal and fimilar, the middle line may be con-
fidered as the axis of the equilibrium, in which the centre of
gravity of that furface is to be found; and as the furface of
the upper water-line, and fo of the others, has been already
divided into equal parts, aud the breadths taken at the
feveral timbers or ordinates to find the difplacement, we
have only to obferve that the {paces between thofe timbers
are here confidered as fo many parallelograms, the centres
of gravity of which parallelograms will form a fyftem dif-
tributed on the middle line.

Then to find the centre of gravity of the fyitem, in refpe&
to the aft-fide of the rudder, which is aflumed for the firft
term of the momenta, we need not find the centre of gravity
of each parallelogram, but divide the whole furface into
three feCtions, and multiply their {ums, as before, *by the
diftance between the ordinates, and the produé will be the
area of each fection.

‘Then to obtain the fum of the momenta of all the ele-
mentary parts of the furface, multiply the breadth of each
erdinate into its diftance from the axis of the momenta, or
firft ordinate ; then take the fum of all thefe produéts, and,
by multiplying this fum by the diltance between the ordi-
nates, we fhall have the fum of all the momenta of the
elementary parts of the furface; which, divided by the fum
of thevordinates, will quote the diftance ef the centre of
gravity of the whole furface from the axis of the mo-
menta.

Laftly, the areas of the feveral planes or furfaces, and
their momenta, being found, divide one by the other, and
the quotient will be the diftance of the centre of gravity of
the whole feGtion from the aft-fide of the rudder,

Operation

SHIP-BULLDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Upper Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 37, its firft ordinate.

Diftant . Products.
Fe. In. from 37. Ku. In.
Half of 37 ordinate is’ 2 7
Whole of 36 - - 19 2 Mult. by r = 19 2
aerial duseae hus, 2 — 54 4
habe RrereinelS jo 3 = 96 3
See hee OA Gp ION, et
92) DES Sean se. O oS Ray ©
BEM OE) Ge eS) (0) Cy fess 4a vie)
Bomar ea AO O TZ COMO
29) WHRIe, WaT) Mio S320
ZERGHS He) MUA 2 Ou— "70 FO
Zit (RN ERA STS TO) —1 aan s
Halfiof 7260940 <1 S22 Vr i — 2A OMe
Sum - 379 6 Sum 2384 5
Multiply by 2 gdift.betweenord. 2 9
Areas - 1043 74

Divide*by the fum of the ordinates -

plo

379 6) 6557 1

Centre of gravity - 17 34

Diftance of the ordinate 37 front the nee fide } 6

of the rudder - 9
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 24 OF
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the

fection of the rudder and {tern-pott fom b only

the aft-fide of the rudder is - -

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firft ordinate.

Diftant Produéts.
Ft. In, from 26. Ft. In.

Half of 26 ordinate is 21 10
Whole of 22. - - 45-11 Mult. by 1 = 45 11
18 Sepa 2= 95 2
7 ee Mines Jog 3 = 145 0
TOh) Bec oaesOn 1S 4 = 196 8
OM Soult eG} 5 = 243 4
2 ict mete AS UES 6 —B202)50
(0) Ce pesey ert} 7 = 340 8
1a oe isha its tees Shetoyy! 1,
F Oh) Caley Kejueuts) 0) /=/438) 40
als) 48) io = 480 ©
Haltiota One n2 35 TU 3) OnE
Sum - 26 9 Sum 2920 O
Multiply by 11 o dift. betweenord. tr o

Area - = 5794 3

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 526 9) 32120 0

Centre of gravity - 61 5=
Ditftance of the ordinate 26 from ‘the Aes fide]

of the rudder - = 4 5 off Sil (©
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 98 52)

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,
from O, its firlt ordinate.

: Diftant Produéts.
Ft. In. from O. Pes Tne

Half of O ordinateis 23 1
WiholetofsP> | =) =) 645) 2) Mult) bya — eee
Qs sone AB) he ZOO:
Rei =i \\ ce Oe == 1a
S =.) =i Vg8into FA ee vi LD
ce) + =) gOmO 5 i= aUB ONO
We ae = rt 6) =) 1901 10
We se = eens 7 908 2) 19)
Pearman CY hb re) al lye)
Y=) feat eas On 96 io
Half of Stem - = - © 10 iia) Fy 9 A
Sum - 316 8 Sum 41224 7
Multiply by 2 gdift.betweenord. 2 9g

Area - 870 10

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 316 8) 3367 7%

Centre of gravity - “ 10 7
Dittance of the ordinate O an ie aff cal rs8

of the rudder = a EY vanes 59 0
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 168 47%
Centre of gravity of knee before the ftem is Io
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the

feétion of the knee, before the aft-fide of \ 186 6

the rudder, is - < - oe ite

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Ee. © In: Ft In:
Avea of the after-plane 1043 74
1043 7% Mult. by 24 of itsmomentum = 25067 9
Avrea of the midihip-plane 57943
5794 3 Mult. by 98 53 itsmomentum = 570612 64
rea of the fore-plane 870 10
870 10 Mult. by 168 74 its momentum = 146844 3%
Area of rudder and poft 10 15
1o 1% Mult. by 3 5 itsmomentum = 34 4%
Area of the knee 3 o
3. 0 Mult. by 186 6 its momentum = 559 6
4921 10 Whole areas. Sumof momenta 743118 72

Now sfagu38 ft. 72 in. iigided by 74721 ft. 10in. gives
96 ft. 22 in., the dittance of the centre of gravity of the
whole feétion of the upper horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation

To find the ceatre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 47, its firit ordinate me

Diftant Products
Fr, Tn, from a7. Fi ly

Half of 37 orcinate i s 8.»

Whole of 36—- 3 7 Mut. by 1 = 8 7
\ ae ra 2s 26 2
Me-.- 9 8 $= 39 ©
33 - - 4 4 4= 97 4
ae © = 38 4 sm iat §
ae = 3b 4 6 = 188 o
mer &% 7 = 238 o
29 us ee 8 = 290 8
ae> a7 10 9 = 34° .

mm» | Se 10,= 391

Half of a> 6 2 i= of 10

um =. 288 1 Sum 1998 5
Multiply by 2 9 dilt. between 29
Aras 794 O64

Divide by the {um of the ordinates - 288 11) 5495 73

Ceutreof gravity - - - - - 1

Dittaace-of the ardisaia 37 from the aft-fide . 7

the rudder a bes Bhi tha. fax 9

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 25° OF

Dilanse of the conte of gearity of the
fection of the rudder and pot fom b six
the aft-fide of the rudder is_ - a &

To find riley centre of Cae of the plane between 26

and O, from 26, its firit ordina

e Diftant Products.
, Fu hk. from 26. Fr In.

Half of 26 ordinateis 20 2
Ras <b) oh? Mult. by 1 = 43 3
| Meee 2= 8% §
1g. at 220748 3 = 137 43
2 Ee) re - : 44> 186 8

ae th be = 23
= cape EWR Ti Pc sahouee
(9) 15 high 8 w= 326 8
Ba. tirg 8 = 373 4
LS -. = 1 4hi8 9 = He °
mm | SU 10 io = 4 4+
a 6 iu = 336 6
Sums; ‘Ol Sum 2784

Multiply by a © de gees oct. 11 ro

Ara - 5513 9 9
iby the fam of the ordinates - $01 3) 30633 7§
re of 1
iftanc of the rnte 26 from ibe ae :
© of the rudder 7 } i
of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 98 13

SHIP-BUILDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Fourth Horiwontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,

from O, its firft ordinate.

Diftent Produfis.
Fu. Ia, from O Fu. te
Halfof O cecingts | is 21 6
Whole of P 41 8 Mul. by 1 = 4: 8
R - = $39 10 2= 79 8
- - 37 4 3= 112 0
S. - - & 4 4= 137 4
Eie- = 9.'¢ 5 = 150 ©
Be - = 26.16 6 = 155 ©
We - + 26.0 7 = 140 0
mee ~- ss 8 8 = 101 4
HalFofe Yuu. - ae 9 = 2% 3
Sum - 265 5 Sum 7
Multiply by : g dilt. between ord. — :

Area - 729 10}

Divide by the fum of the'ordinates -

Centre of oe -

Diftance of the ordinate Oo from te aft ide
of the rudder - : .

Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder

Centre of gravity of the feétion of the ftem
and knee before Y is - = See

Diftance of the centre of gravity of the
fe&tion of the knee, before =e -fide of }
the rudder, is = = = ih

265 5) 2577 4%

g 84

158 oO
84

cs

167

184 =F

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Er. In. Fe.» Ini
Area of the midthip-plane 5513 9
5513 9 Mult. by 98 1j its momentum = g41G03 74
Area of the after-plane 194 6
794 6% Mult. by 25 9} its momentum = 20475 54
Area of the fore-plane 729 103
729 103 Mult. by 167 8Lits momentum = 122409 10
Area of rudder and pot 10 14
1o 14 Mult. by 3 5 itsmomentum = 34745
Area of the ttem and knee 4 0
4 © Mult. by 1841 its momentum = 736 4
| 7052 3% Whole areas. Sumof momenta 684659 9}
Now 684659 ft. 9j in. divided by 7052 ft. 3$ in.
97 ft. 1in., the diftance of the centre of a A ge

whole yeep of the fourth horizontal water-line from the

aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation

SHIP-BUILDING.,

Operation for the Plane of the Third Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 37, its firft ordinate.

Diftant —- Produéts.
Fr. Jn. from 37. thin.
Half of 37 ordinateis o 9g
Whole of 36 -) + 3) (@pMult. by) 1 == 203606
B55 = = 6.0 Qs 12, ©)
SAE Tynan eee Sp Sy 83}
B34 =. io) setae 4= 49 8
23% =) ee ha OOo
SER) ley va: 2 Cy 1276
30M i eat Os eS ue 6
ZO) ima es 2a S92 2009
28°O, =| =) 30) 9 = 270 19
gC = st 32S @ 1) =) 76) ©
Halfiofs 26 ma8 - Im © Tt 907, (©
Sum - 201 6 Sum 1476 6
Muitiply by 2 g dill. between ord. 2 9
Areas a 554 Is

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 201 6) 4060 4%

Centre of gravity - zo 12

Diftance of the ordinate 37 Grom ie ee fide) 6

of the rudder S 1 x = 9
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 26 102
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the

fe&tion of the rudder and ftern-poft from t 3 5

the aft-fide of the rudder is - Sic

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firft ordinate.

Diftant Produéts.
Ft. In. from 26. Ft. In.
Half of 26 ordinate is 17 0
Whole‘of 22 - - 39 1x Mult. by 1 = “39 «1
18) Cee 41 Ho 2a OZ
14 Se SOYA 2 S8r oe AGL a)
TO) spe) Oy 4g 2 Aves 2S
6 oy IN EAS) A718 pa eZ OMA:
20) =OLLOSY “ining 6/= 262 .o
2) ae cree 8 7 = 305 8
Se eS i se 8 = 349 4
2 Se in bla Coa 9 = 391 6
KS =O p= Peas TOR— 4 TOMS
Halfof O —- = 18 8 Te— "| 205 14:
Sum - 461 2 Sum 2569 10
Multiply by Ir odilt.betweenord. 11 0
Area = 5072 10

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 461 2) 28268 2

Centre of gravity - 61 32
Diftance of the ordinate 26 leon ie aft- fide 1

of the rudder - 4 5 aK Sia
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 98 33

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,
rom OQ, its firft ordinate.

Diftant Produdts.
Ft. In. from O. Ft. In.

Half of O ordinateis 18 8
Whole of P | - 35) 2. Maltby anemic ez
Q =e i) ZrO) == 05) ty
ROE = 8-20) 56 ZS s) 16
tS) =" "= “E264N6 A == ile)
a Memon 6 3730 ©) OO,
Gi 9% j=) Bagh as Gr— eG) 10.
WY "=; 7=" "12 Ho Gee Luh
x Se BO See 2A O
Half of Y an = Oo It OF ols
Sum 198 3 Sum. 6277
Multiply ibe 2 gdilt.betweenord. 2 9

Area’ = 545. 25

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 198 3) 1725 10%

Centre of gravity — - 8 8

Dittance of the ordinate O irom the af cidey eee
of the rudder = EY 5 apes 5
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 166. 83
Centre of gravity of enh and knee before Y is o 6
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the
feGtion of the, knee, from the aft-fide uit 183 3
the rudder = = 4 & L

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

tip! Lins Etae Aline
Area of the after-plane 554 14

554 1% Mult. by 26 ro2itsmomentum = 14903 7%
Area of midfhip-plane 5072 10
5072 10 Mult. by 98 34 its momentum = 498616 103
Area of fore-plane 545 24
545 2% Mult. by 166 83itsmomentum = go88r 7%
Area of rudder and poft 10 15
to. 1% Mult. by 3.5 itsmomentum = aya) 7s
Area of {tem and knee 1 2
1 2 Mult. by 183 itsmomentum = 213. Os

Whole areas. Sum of momenta

6183 5 604650 65

Now 604650 ft. 6£in. divided by 6183 ft. 55 in. gives
g7 ft. g3 in., the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole feGtion of the third horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

Operation

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 57, its firit ordinate.

To find the centre of ity of the plane between 26
Gul'Gy Henan eG, ite Gel Coats,

Diftsnt — Produits.
Ft. In from 26. Fe. Io.
Half of 26 ordinate is 12 .
Whole of 22, - - 32 2 Mult. by 1 = 32 2
C6 Ef FS>2gG"' o Sim 1 tg
14 - - 37 10 afc 2x8 "6
OS Seierwiyy iz 4= 156 8
6° = Oe NeqpwG 5°= 197 6
SP - moteagp 6 6 = 237 oO
ie)’ = Fe O99" G 7 = 276 6
B= sheng 8 = 314 8
caer < 86 to 9 = 349 6
BK steece: to g6: 'o 10 = 360 0
eT ee 11 =497-8
Sums- 4°04 7 Sum 2267 2
Multiply by 11 odift.betweenord. 11 ©
Area - 4450 5

by the fum of the ordinates - 404 7 ) 24938 10
a 7

_Nyeeg > Soigabeamel |
eee aie So os ss « 37 ©
of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder oe ot

Vou. XXXII.

SHLP- BUILDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Second Horixontal Water-Line.

| ‘To Gnd the centre of gravity of the plane before O,

from O, its firlt ordinate.

Dithan Prodadie, Ditters Produéts.
Fu. Ia. "from 87. Fi. Io Fu. le from O. Fu. te.
Half of 37 ordinate is 0 9 | Half of © ordinate is 14 4
36 - - 2 2 Mult. by 1 = 2 2 | WhokofP ¢- - 25 6 Mult. by 1 = a5 6
ech - 3 © a= 60 R 23 0 z= 46 0
—= ° * § $e 1 9 - 3 0 $= $7 9
33 > - 6 1 4 24 4 Ss - 16 2 4 >= 64 .
32 - 8 4 sm 40 5 = - 20 5.& 60.0
oe = = 1 8 6= 61 6 U 8 8 6= 53 0
Salat) =| 4g -4 7= 93 4 | Halfof W 2 0 7 = 14 oO
- + tg to 8 = 126 8
28 eiveiz9 ‘02 9 = 471 0 Sum - 120 8 Sum 319 2
sy = a8 0 10 = 220 0 Multiply by 2 go diit.betweenord. 2 9g
Halfof 26 - - 2 § n= 136 7 —_—--
Areas - 331 10
Sum - 17 Su 894 9 ‘ —— ———.
Multiply by 2 gdift. between ord. 2 g | Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 120 8)877 84
Aras - 322 24 Centreof gravity - - - - - 7 3%
— ——| Diftance of the ordinate O from the oped ue
Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 117 2) 2460 63| oftherudder - - - - - 5
Centreof gravity - = - Pe = > 21 Centre of gravity from aft-lide of the rudder 165 3%
Diftance of tie ordinate 37 fram the aft-Gde 6 ——-
ofthe rudder - - - - - 9 | Centre of gravity of the ftem and knee
: ———_| _ before wv 7 a Sie SS 3
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 27 g | Diftance of the centre of gravity of the
fe&tion of the flem and knee from the 179 6
Diftance of the centre of ity of the aft-fide of the rudderis - - - -
feétion of the rudder and fom} gis
the aft-fide of the rudderis - - -

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Fe In. - Fr. Ja.

Area of the after-plane 322 24

24 Mult. by 27 g its momentum
Area of the midthip-plane 4450 5

4450 5 Mult. by 98 7$ itsmomentum = 438968 74

Area of fore-plane 331 10

$22 eS

331 10 Mult. 165 34 itsmomentum = 54842 4}
Area of rudder and poft g 6
9 6 Mult. by 35 itsmomentum = 32 5h
Area of the ftem and knee 5 10
5 10 Mult. by 179 6 itsmomentum = 1047 1

Sum of momenta 503831

5119 94 Whole areas. oF

Now 503831 ft. o4 in. divided by 5119 ft. gg in. gives

ft. 45 in., the Fe ed of the centre of a of the
whole feétion of the fecond horizontal water-line from the
aft-fide of the rudder.

3X Operation

SHIP-BUILDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Firft or Lower Horizontal Water-Line.

To find the centre of gravity of the plane abaft 26,
from 37, its firft ordinate.

Diftant —Produds.
Ft. In. from 37. Ft. In.
Half of 37 ordinateis o 8
Whole of 36 - = - Ee VENI t aby tye et
Cis cre I 10 Z— as
mat, ees 3= 6 7
CER siete ts} A TOG}
62 fe mre BG GS ay i
Ch hie AT = AA o
Ete Y So) 4 10 7 ao eto
29h) (=m aL 8 = 47 4
280 ai TO OC) Sey 6)
As eal vialacs 8 2 Ws) SS Gt 43
Halfof 26 - - 5 0 NU RAO
Sum - 47 43 Sum 344 11g
Multiply by 2 gdift.betweenord. 2 9
Area = 130 33

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 47 44) 948 78

Centre of gravity - 20 of
Diftance of the ordinate 37 loo me aft-fide } 6

of the rudder = = le oe 9
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 26 of
Diftance of the centre of gravity of the

fe&tion of the rudder and itern-poft fom b Sans

the aft-fide of the rudder is - Syme

To find the centre of gravity of the plane between 26
and O, from 26, its firft ordinate.

Diftant — Produdts.
t. In. from 26. Ft. In.
Half of 26ordinateis 5 o
Whole of 22, - - 20 2 Mult. by 1 = 20 2
TO kon 2 OS eS Gey A
Pe ONG fore SSeS
TO} ema 2. nO Agi 12 OPO
On a=) gots 5) 166) 28
2 ee MPL NN) Gy 120210
(Cp Ro aerate ee dp t2R 5S
Bion 3z LO 8 = 262 8
15 9, Scape 3 eco) 9 = 288 o
TG See ee ASRS TOs—-205. NO
HalfiohOy = - "8 6 1 ==" 93" 0
Sum : 14 8 Sum 1806 o
Multiply by 11 odift.betweenord. 11 0
Area = 3461 4

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 314 8 ) 19866 o

Centre of gravity - 63 14
Diftance of the ordinaté 26 carn ae ASSAD

of the rudder = = = Pia 57)
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 100 1

bole

To find the centre of gravity of the plane before O,
from O, its firtt ordinate.

Diftant Produéts.
Ft. In from O Ft. In.

Half of Oordinateis 8 6
Whole of P - - 14 8 Mult. by r= 14 8
OR van Tan Rees Zea
RE ye te 9 8 2a ZOO
S Sip ai Ghent) Aa eo
EO weary re 4 4 RS 2
Halon, SU =) = oO II G= 5G
Sum Boa Sum 231 7

Multiply oy 2 gdift.betweenord. 2
Area - 15a to

Divide by the fum of the ordinates - 57 4) 339 2

Centre of gravity —- 5 It
Diftance of the ordinate O cont tlie aft fide ) a are
of the rudder x 2 = 3 5
Centre of gravity from aft-fide of the rudder 163 11
Centre of gravity of the ftem and knee a 4

before Ul) | = - - -
Diftance of the centre of gravity BE the

feGtion of the fem and knee from s the 176 &

aft-fide of the rudder - -

Areas of the feveral planes, and their momenta.

Et. In. Ft In.
Area of the after-plane 130 32
130 33 Mult. by 26 gf its momentum = 3487 83
Area of midfhip-plane 3461 4
3461 4 Mult. by 100 1 itsmomentum = 346566 6
Area of the fore-plane 1578
157 8 Mult. by 163 11itsmomentum = 25844 2%
Area of rudder and poft 9 o
9 © Mult. by 35 itsmomentum = 30 9
Area of ftem and knee 6 54
6 5% Mult. by 1761 itsmomentum = 1137 23

3764. 83 Whole areas.

Sum of momenta 377065 103

Now 377065 ft. 103 in. divided by 3764 ft. 8Z in. gives
roo ft. r3in., the diftance of the centre of gravity of the
whole feétion of the firft or lower horizontal water-line
from the aft-fide of the rudder. .

Operation

SHIP-BUILDING.

Operation for the Plane of the Keel, Ge.
To find the centre of gravity for the plane of the
keel, &c. .
The |

on the upper fide or plane of the
keel, the aft-fide of the radii, i “| rpc
Multiplied by its thicknefs edo 1 6
Areaofthe ple - - - + -+- 265 9

Dittance of its centre of gravity from the
sere the rudder, being equal to “i 88 7
Now 265 feet 9 inches, multiplied by 88 Feet 7 inches,

q< taclee pane 23540 feet 1 inch.
centres of gravity of the fix planes having been
found, the diftance of the centre of gravity of the whole
bottom of the thip, from the aft-fide of the rudder, is ob-

From the principles already explained, the diftance of
the centre of gravity of the bottom, from the aft-fide of the
ual to the fum of the momenta of an infinite

SreattD ee, Gikek es ee foes by the Ciidity of the bor
3 or, which is * olidity of the bot-
tom. KP. coved fleaed ese dla Ase than fix we
mutt conceive their momenta as the ordinates of a curve,
whofe diftances may be the fame as that of the horizontal

Now the fum of thefe ordinates, or planes, except the
firft and latt, of which take but half, being multiplied by.
their dittance, gives the furface of the curve ; of which any
ordinate whatever reprefents the momentum of the hori-
zontal at the fame height as thefe ordinates ; and the

i

whole furface will reprefent the fum of the momenta of all
the horizontal planes.
Area of the Planes. Momenta.
Half of the In. Fe es
be: ee iI $715§9° '3
All the fou - = 7052 3 684659 95
third wm so" 6183. 5 604650
fecood - + 5119 503831
firft - + 3764 85 = 377065 1
Half the keel aS 132 10 11770
Sum - - - - 26114 ©§ 2553537 4%

Now 25 7 feet
§ of an Pag
centre of gravity of
of the ;.

The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom may
be thus found,

To half of the plane of the keel and half of the upper
horizontal plane, add all the iotermediate plancs, and mul-
tiply them progreflively as before, taking the upper fide of
the keel for the axis the momenta ; n that jum bein
multiplied by the diftance between the planes, and divi
by the fum of the planes, taking half of the firtt and laft,
gives the height of the centre of gravity of the bottom
above the kee

£5 tastes, divided by 26114 feet
O} inches, the dittance of the
bottom of the thip from the aft-fide

Ares ofthe Planes. _Diiflant —-Prediudhs,

Fi, In. from Keel. Ft. Io.

Half of the keel 132 104
Allthe lower - 3764 8} x by1 = 9764 8]
fecond - 119 9g 2 = 10399 7
third - 6183 5 3 = 18550 4h
fourth - 7052 3 4 = 28209. 3
Half the fifth - 3860 11 5 = 19304 7
Sum » - 26114 OF 80068 st

Now 80068 feet 53 inches, divided by 26114 feet
§ of an inch, gives 3 feet 3 of an inch; which, multiplied by
3-6 feet, the diftance between the horizontal fections, gives
11 feet 4 of an inch, the height of the centre of gravi
of the bottom of the fhip above the under fide of the keel.

The height of the centre of gravity of the bottom of the
fhip, and its diftance from the aft-fide of the rudder, being
found, the thip being aces in an upright pofition, the
centre of gravity will neceilarily be in the pe i longi-
tudinal feGtion, {uppofed to divide the fhip in two equal and
fimilar parts at 97 feet 93 inches, the diftance of the centre
of gravity of the bottom of the fhip before the aft-fide of the
rudder, which comes between the frame 6 and 2 in the after-
body. It may now be afcertained whether the fhip will be
in her nat pofition when floating at the upper hori-
zontal line, or conitruéted to fail on an even keel. Thus,
feparate the difplacement of that part of the bottom before
the centre of gravity or fupport, and fee how it agrees with
that part of the bottom, abaft it, as we may then examine
the Bierence, if any, as in the following examples.

3X2 Find

SHIP-BUILDING.

Find the Difplacement or Solidity of the Bottom before the Centre of Gravity or Support, which is ¢ ft. 33 in
abaft Frame 2.

Water-lines. WTerenslinee
Gr ——__—_—_- Ea Ta and Keel.
Upper. |* 4th, | 3d. 2d. Lower.
Fe. In. Ft In. |) Feo In.) | Fe In.|! Fe. In. rt. : Feet.
Halfof 2 is 24 4, 23 4] 21 9/]*19 o| 1610} 24 4 |Upper water-line half the area 1764.7080
Whole of (1) 48 8 46 8) 43 8) 39 6 33 8] 46 8 |Fourth do. -wholearea 3271.2291
B 48 8) 46 8) 4g 8) 1) Bq) “4l) 32 10 43° 8 |Third | do. - - 2888.4374
1y 48 8 46 8] 43 6] 38 10] 32 ©] 39 6 |Second — do. - - 2402.9166
K 48 oO} 145 10] 41 8 | 36 0] 26 61 33 § \Lower:. (do. = - 1817-7916
Half of O 23 1; 21 6 a8 Sel rail Ss anG o 9g! |Keel - half the area 56.
241 5| 280) 8) |(202) TE | Tool moh Onma! aS Ohi 12200.0927
TE) Ol MiP Ey NO) Mert Oli omtinO lien Lilo) 5 33/Area between 2 and the centre
— ——_——_ of gravity - i 999-474
2655 7/2537 4.2342 4 \2065 3]1653 8 mt
870 10) 729 103! 545 24] 331 Io) 157 8 13200.5667
Areas beforeO 3 0 4:0; 1 2 5 Lol VOmiss x by diftance between water- 6
i= yal aa ——_—_—_|—_——__ lines - - } 3°
Areas - 3529 5/3271 23/2888 s4\2402 11/1817 93] 999-474) oe
47522.0403

‘Solidity of keel before centre 238.5
Solid feet difplaced before the centre of fupport 47760.5401
Solid feet difplaced abaft the centre of fupport 46779-2177

The after part lefs than fore part - 983-3224,

Find alfo the Difplacement or Solidity of the Bottom abaft the Centre of Gravity or Support, which is 5 ft. 85 in.
afore Frame 6.

z E
Water-lines. Water-lines

and Keel.

— a —

Fr. In. Feet. t
24 Upper water-line half the area 1828.5416]
46 Fourth do. whole area 3267.72915
43 Third = do. - - 2812.75 |}
39 6 |Second do. - - 2282.375 |
33 Lower do. - - 1578.427 |
° Keel - half the area 69.
| 130 188 3 11839.8227|
Il 5 83|Area between 6 and the centre t Pecicaner st
of gravity -> Ua Ne l
1439

130 12912.2827}
x by diftance between water- Gal
9 lines ro gee 3

Ft.

Half of 61s 24
Whole of to
14
18
22
26

_

of “Muboono:

6
I

i
2
i
2

Areas abaft
26

_

Areas 3 1578 5:|1072.460 46484.2177}
Solidity of keel abaft centre 293-

Solid feet difplaced abaft the centre of fupport 46777.2177}

Solid feet difplaced before the centre of fupport — 47760.5401

Solid feet difplaced by the whole bottom 94537-7579]

SHIP-BUILDING,

By the refult of the above calculation it appears, that the
after-part of the bottom has a minus of g84.3224 feet, its
contents being 25.3334 lefs than the fore- ; and was
the thip to be conttructed to fail on an even keel, it would
be neceilary to fill the after-part half the difference, or

1.6612 feet, and reduce the fore-part until it had loft the

quantity ; but to alter the after-part of the thip from
its t conftruétion, or to make it fuller, would retard
her velocity, and prevent the water collapfing at the rudder ;
for the run of a thip thould be neither too fine nor too full,
but fo conftruGed that the column of water fhould exaétl
meet upon the flern-poil, then the rudder will have its fi
power, The quarter above the load-water-line fhould be
jo full, to fupport the Rig vin rifing forward to a fea,

alfo to a her to feu

To regard to the failing trim of a veflel, it is the decided
opinion of moit {cientific men, that thips or veflels of the
larger clailes thould always be fo conftruéted as to {ail on,
er nearly on an even keel, that is, fo that the fhip, when

for failing, fhould have her keel parallel to the fur-
face of the water ; therefore, by as much as the effort of the
wind on the fails and mafts in forcing the fhip through the
water has a conitant ten to deprefs the bow, fo much
fhould the thip be trimmed by the ftern, as that will be found
moft ad us both to their failing and fteering.

Many think it inconfiftent to conttruét a fhip to fail on
an even keel, and yet to place the midfhip-bend or greateit
breadth very forward. A thip fo intended to fail, ought, as

conceive, when ecled, to have an equal bearing fore
aft, in order that, before the ballait is ttowed, fhe may
be on an even keel ; and think that the ballaft, if not
ually fore and aft, muft inevitably ftrain the theer of

i convinces us it is not ma-

7.

i nS

|

or no damage if carefully ftowed. >
Some fhips are too clean abaft, and require to fail by the
3 becaufe have no bearing for fifteen or twenty
aft, till the buttock is brought well into the
ven then, for want of being fuller lower down,
buttock, the over-hanging of the
ftrain the fhip, and occafion her to tremble, till
t fea, with ipa force, ftrike the buttock as

1
i

Fr
r

f

Lee
4]

7
:

u

ie

to fhips that o} Sacto TOR Torbe toes bythe
account of their Galalicicaoy abaft, it is the opi-
i to be well with the
middle of the thip’s length,

E
oh
i
E
5;
»

rue
tx

f

E
4

~~

defiyned by the conftru@or to fail by the tera, Fading the
refult rather in favour of an even keel, the 74, Plow L,
was fo conftruéted, as molt likely to anfwer every purpole.
By that means the water-lines were drawn parallel to the keel,
and were thereby more ufeful as well as more properly placed
to form the body ; for when the fquare timbers, and the
water-lines, being {quare to the timber, properly agree with
each other, and are fair curves, the ribband-lines, or any other
feétion, will likewife be fair, or as fair as they fhould be,
allowing the preference to the water-lines and {quare timbers.

When water-lines are not defigned to be parallel to the

keel, the draught is generally formed Py. ribband-lines, be-
caufe the water-lines diflering in height at every timber,
require the {quare timbers to 3 formed before their height
can be fet off, and when the water-lines are run, if not ap-
proved of, much of the work mult be done over again, the
water-lines being more regarded than the ribband-lines ; for
many ships are conftruéted by ribband-lines only, which fecm
to produce fair curves, yet forward, and aft efpecially, they
ad a unfair body, which is detrimental to velocity.

Small veffels, as cutters, &c. draw much more water aft
than forward, and their bows are more full in preportion to
the after-part ; nor would it anfwer fo well were their line
of floatation nearly parallel with the keel, but {preading as it
does aloft, efpecially towards their bow, the bow meets the
fluid in a more flanting diretion, and experiences far lefs
refiftance ; and the depreffion of the flern, with the impulfe of
the aftermoit fails, caufes a proper counter-balance, and pro-
pels the veffel through the water with greater velocity than
if otherwife conitructed ; for the after-part of thofe veffels
is generally very clean or tapering, which neceflarily con-
tributes to make the veflel weatherly, and caufes it, under
judicious management, to turn as it were on a pivot.

A hhip may be built to a precife draught of water, by which
the conftru€tion will be founded upon true principles; but
when a fhip is not built to one precife draught more than
another, it will be a very difficult, and one of the moft com-
plex quettions in fhip-building to determine this point. It
may be imagined that no more is neceflary than to make the
fhip {wim in the water, fo as to be capable of carrying the
greatett fail ; but when a fhip is very deep in the water, it will
gesty increafe the refiftance, and confequently retard her
ailing ; hence a long fhip will draw lefs water than a fhort
one, which is a property, and the refiftance at the ftern
being lefs, the will therefore ti fafter. The refiftance, how-
ever, muft be calculated, not abfolutely, but relatively, and in
proportion to the fail fhe {preads.

In thips of war, the load-water-line muft be governed by
the height of the lower ports above the water in midhips ;

‘and this we find in line-of-battle fhips fhould invariably be
from five to fix feet, in frigates from fix to feven feet, and in
floops, cutters, &c. from four to five feet.

Ships for commerce are generally conitru¢ted to carry a
certain cargo, and their principal dimenfions are determined
according to the trade for which they are particularly de-
figned ; therefore the line of floatation, or load-water-line, ts
not confined in them fo exaétly to a certain height.

Ships of the line, from long praétice, have been found to
fail beit when inclined one ees or rather more, by the
ftern. Thus, the 74-gun thip in Plate I. load-water-line,
when fitted for fea, was 20 feet forward and 21 feet abaft;
therefore it only remains to be afcertained, whether the
whole dif] ment of the bottom under the load-water-line
agrees with the eftimated weight of the thip, &c. when fit for
fea, by multiplying the mean area of the load and upper
horizontal water-lines by fix inches, the mean depth, and add-
ing it to the difplacement already found; as in the follow-
ing operation.

,

Arez

SHIP-BUILDING.

Area of the Load-Water-Line.

Yt. In. Ft. In. Ft. In.
Half the ftem - - is 0 10 Hialfof ordinate O is 23 3 ~+Hialfof ordinate 26is22 &
inl OMS ISR od O13 27 aan
X19) 6 eager? 28 42 6
Wi 26036 Bag 4: 29 41 10
Whole of ordinat T 36 re oe ae sertag é
Thole of ordinate 3 4 : on I
S 30 Aa Whole of ordinate 6 on é Whole of ordinate 4 33 ZB
R42 3 Io 49 4 33 36 33
Q 43 8 14 49 © 34 34 3
apis UE, 45m 18 48 9 35 30 OF
Half of ordinate (DireAg ying 22)" AGY NG 36 23 «4k
Half of ordinate 26 22 1 Half of ordinate Ooi mnie
7 _ --—_—__ —.
Area of the knee - ; 5 Z 533 Ǥ 3905 3
x by diflance between the i tro /itea of poft andrudder 10 4
322 9 ordinates - - , _
x by diftance between ae —_—— HOTS WIG
ordinates - - 9 5870 4 x by diftance between
= Ills 4% the ordinates - i aiueo
887 63 887 63 pba
— Area - - 1115. 45
Area of the load-water-line is = = = - 7873 3%
Ayvea of the upper horizontal line is - - - 7721 10
2)15595 Ta
Mean area - - - - - - W797 Oe
Multiplied by mean depth - - - - 0 6
Gives folid feet - - - = - - 3898.776
Which multiplied by pounds in a cubic foot of falt-water 64.375

Gives
Number of pound

s difplaced below upper horizontal line

Divide by pounds in a ton - a =

Total difplacement of the fhip under the load-water-line -

We now find that the 74-gun fhip, Plate I., load-water-
line, is not only properly placed with regard to her beft fail-
ing trim, but the difplacement alfo agrees with the eftimated
weight of the whole fhip when fit for fea, which was 2810 tons
745 lbs., or exceeds it by 18 tons 430 lbs., which is better ;
as the bias fliould rather lead to increafe than diminifh in
capacity, and favours any little inaccuracies in the admeafure-
ments; though furely there is little room for error in either
extreme, if proper attention be paid to the fubje@. In like
manner may, therefore, the weight of any other fhip be
found ; and, by reducing the difplacement of the bottom into
cubic feet, we may always afcertain if the load-water-line -
in the draught be properly placed.

Stability, or Stiffne/s.

The ftability or ftiffnefs of a fhip comes next under con-
fideration, being a quality no lefs effential to the fafety of navi-
gation than capacity ; and without which a fhip is totally
difqualified for the purpofes of war, being unable to ufe her
guns with effect, or carry a prefs of fail in cafe of emergency.

Before we proceed further, the following particulars, as
they relate to veflels at reft, or in motion, fhould be defined.

The centre of cavity, or di/placement, already mentioned,
4s the centre of gravity of the volume of water difplaced
by the immerfed part of the fhip’s bottom; and is alfo the

4.

250983.725
6086151.678

2240)6337135-403

2829 tons 175lbs.

ee

centre of all the vertical force that the water exerts to fup-
port the veffel; for as heavy bodies by their gravity endea-
vour to approach the centre of the earth in a vertical line,
pafling through their centre of gravity, tending direétly to-
wards the centre of the earth ; fo the preffure of fluids endea-
vours to carry bodies in a vertical line tending from the centre
of the earth towards their furface, and pafling through the
centre of gravity of the immerfed part, which forces them
towards the furface ; fo alfo in any immerfed body at reft thefe
two oppofite forces coincide in the fame vertical line, a€ting in
a quite contrary direétion to one another. Thus, every float-
ing body is neceflarily {upported, or prefled upwards, by the
fluid with a force equal to its weight, or preflure downwards,
otherwife no body could remain at reft on a fluid, but would
afcend or defcend as the prevailing force determined : and the
moments of all the forces with which a floating body prefles
ona fluid, and the moments ofthe forces of the fluid which
fupports the floating body, are equal and contrary, and are
refolved into the fame right line, perpendicular to the plane
of the fluid. But as this centre depends upon the fhape of
the body immerfed, it of courfe varies with every inclmation
of a fhip ; and whilft the centre of cavity goes fatter, and fur-
ther over to the fhip’s fide in her motions, fo as to keep with-
out the perpendicular of the centre of gravity, the fhip will
be fupported; and the water will aét upon the centre of

cavity

eavity in the immerted body with more or lefs power, in pro-
portion to its dittance without the centre of gravity, to bring
the thip upright, where the acting force or power ceales
which occafioned the veilel to heel.

The fine of fupport is the vertical or perpendicular line

vity, and inter.

to pals act lee centre of
a a to the keel of the veffel through
the meta

the point, centre. For if a floating body is
inclined by any power which does not change the pate of
its centre of ity, the line of fupport = wae arily pafs
between that and the centre of gravity ; and the force
or moment of that power is msbeothe waht of the float-
ing body, iplied into the diltance of its centre of gravit

from the line of fupport. Avs the line of fupport muit 2

i :
between the centre of gravity and the power applied to heel
the vetlel, the moment of shee power, ie rim ta multiplied

into i the meta-centre, is equal to the mo-

_ ment of its gravity, or the weight of the floating body mul-

the diftance of the centre of gravity below the

the veflel would upfet, as the power and gravity
are at fide operating to ineline it ; but if it pailes
to the lee-fide of that power, the veflel wi

that effect; and if the

to
and gravity be not equal, the body
more or lefs, as the

will not remain at reft, but will incline

at : ae from the centre of
vity to upport, multiplied into the weight of
Shs wells to the masfere of the Sab eof the ealicl or ite
effort to redrefs itfelf when inclined, and that its ftability is

The meta-centre ufually fignifies a point to which, if the
see A pee” oa a floating body be raifed, the {malleft
lateral effort make it incline. It is plain, that in an ho-
phere, the meta-centre, and centre of
int or centre of the

:
:

centre of ity muft, by no means, be
the wan duit tonnes if it were the veflel Lee ae
‘This centre, which has likewife been called the /bifting centre,
upon the fituation of the centre of cavity, for it is
ered aie pling through he cnt of gravy
a centre 0! i
perpendicular ric ery

fagttt
Hf

is alfo the centre of all the forces, or momenta,

i

i:

:
:
ig

i uneafy.
meiosis that pot pon which a veffel
de |e tan is centre is always

H 's when the centre of gravity is
with, or below the of the water; but whenever
centre of i above the water’s furface, the centre

vrei
axis of a thip is an imaginary line, which
from head to ftern through the centre of

Bre kagtdinal
.

to
ity of a thip, is that point by which
A ps be hates alincwt pent Garin

SHIP-BUILDING.

The tranfverfe axis is an imaginary horizontal line, pathog
athwarthhips through the centre of gravity.

The vertical axis is an imaginary perpendicular line,
drawn though the ceatre of gravity when the veflel ie =
equilibrium,

It is about thefe axes that every thip or veilel in motioe
may be fuppofed to turn. In rolling, fhe may be fuppofed
to ofcillate on the /ongitudinal axis; in pitching, on the
tranfoerfe axis ; aad in working, &c. to turn on her wer-
tical axis. .

From conttantly obferving that the performance of thips
at fea depends materially on their flability, both maval archi-
tedts saddle ators mut, at all times, be defirous of dif
covering in what particular circumflances of conttructioa
this property confilts, and according to what laws the fta-
bility is affected by any varictics that may be given to theu
forms, dimenfions, and difpofition of contents; which are
determined, partly according to the fill and judgment of
the conitructor, and partly, in fome veilels, as we thall thew,
by adjuftments after the veflel is afloat. ;

The form of the immerfed body, and the weight of the
thip, are the chief terms in the compofition of i ability, and
they are only to be attained, in the requilite degree, by full
dimenfiens near the load-water-line, with fufficieat capacity.

At firft fight, it is certain that all the weight above the
load-water-line helps to make the fhip crank, and, of confe-
quence, the lighter the upper works the ftiffer the thip,

Conftructors may vary the form of a fhip chiefly m three
dimenfions, that is, in the length, breadth, or depth: let us
examine how far enlarging of thips, in any of thefe particu-
lars, will contribute toward making them carry fail, or, in
other words, gain ftability ; for although the wind may, in
one fenfe, be faid to conititute the power by which thips are
moved forward in the fea, yet if it aéts on a veilel ient
of ftability, the effe& will be to heel the thip rather than to
propel it forward ; ftability is, therefore, not lefs neceflary,
than the impulfes of the wind are to the progreflive motion
of veflels.

If the /ength only, without altering the other dimenfions,
be enlarged, the centre of gravity and the meta-centre will
continue the fame height, and her ftability in refpect of incli-
nation to one fide will increafe in proportion to the weight of
the fhip ; and as the weight generally increafes or diminifhes
in proportion to the length, we may fay that in fhips that
differ only in length, their ftability will be in proportion to

Yet although an increafe of length would enable a thip to
the moit fail, confequently {ail faiter, it muft not be
carried to an extreme; becaufe if fo conitruéied, a thi
would neither tack nor veer fo quickly ; neither would the li
or rife in a fea like one fhorter ; fhe would itrain more, and be
very liable to have the fea break over her. The influence of
the rudder may be weakened, and may even be totally loft.
The greateit judgment is therefore required in pees
the length, which may be proportionally greater in tho

ips that lly navigate in the {moother feas, or are not
laden.
ned altering the harry the ftability is materially affected ;

by enlarging it we
we lole a Seal oft
that

increafe of weight, and of confequence ftability, will

be double the increafe of the breadth ; and adly, the addi-

tional weight will aét with fo much the greater force, as the

length of the lever is i , or as the meta-centre is

ifed, and the height of that point is augmented in _

portion to the fquare of the breadth: hence the itab -
wi

SHIP-BUILDING.

will be increafed in proportion to the cube of the breadth ;
for example, without altering the other dimenfions, let the
breadths be doubled, we thereby double the weight, which,
by acting upon the arm of a lever, double the length will be
quadruple, fo the fhip will acquire eight times the ftability.

Thus we fee an increafe of breadth will produce an in-
creafe of ftability ; for a fhip that is broad and fhallow has
much more {tiffnefs than one that is narrow and deep ; but
the failing of the fhip may be much retarded, as fhe certainly
would be leewardly under little fail, which ought to be par-
ticularly guarded againtt, efpecially in conftruGting large fhips
of war. The expence in the building would alfo be ma-
terially increafed, according to the ufual mode of computing
the tonnage, as may be readily feen in the next fection.

If the depth only is increafed, without enlarging either the
length or breadth, all the ftability that can be gained will be
in the ftowage. To increafe the depth or draught of water
would lower the centre of gravity, and increafe the weight ;
this would operate againit velocity, becaufe the refiftance is
as the quantity of water to be removed; or nearly as the
area of the thwartfhip feGtion of the immerfed part of the
body at the midfhip-bend. It would at the fame time render
the immerfed body of a figure lefs proper to feparate the
line of fupport from the centre of gravity, fo that the effeé&
on one fide would be in fome meafure deftroyed on the other ;
and, by lowering the centre of gravity too much, the fhip
would labour exceffively, and endanger the maits, too large
a draught of water being both dangerous and inexpedient.

Ships having a fufficient degree of ftability arifing from
their conftruction, will certainly fail fafter than others, which,
in order to carry the fame quantity of fail, require to be
ballafted witha much greater weight ; for the latter, fo bal-
lafted, will be much more liable to roll than the former.

The following circumftance will prove, that inftability in
the conftruGtion cannot be retified to any confiderable de-
gree by the ftowage, although, on the contrary, that the
itability of many fhips, however perfeé in conftruction, may
be materially injured by improper trim, or an injudicious
mode of ftowage.

And, firft, as there is nothing of more importance to the
well-being of a fhip than its {tability, it will not be improper
to mention an opinion which prevails with feamen in general,
that the ftability depends chiefly on the itowage of the hold ;
and at the fame time, in order to fhew that a very great change
in that refpe& will produce a very trifling difference in the
{tability, we fhall quote a profeffional author of great merit,
M. de Romme, in his book L’Art de la Marine, page 105.
s¢ As to the pofition of the centre of gravity, no doubt it
may vary, but the limits to which it is confined are very
ftraight, efpecially in thips of war. An example in the Scipio,
of 74 guns, armed for the firft time in 1779, was hardly in
the road before fhe was fufpected of inftability. It was im-
portant in time of war to clear up thofe doubts, and to make
the neceflary experiments to prove this dangerous defeat, if
it exifted. Firft, the lower-deck guns were run out on one
fide, while houfed on the other, which heeled the fhip thir-
teen inches ; the fhip’s company were then ordered to their
quarters at the fide the guns were out, which increafed the
inclination to twenty-four inches. After thefe eflays the
fails were fet, and in fine weather the fhip was found fo crank,
as to render the ufe of the lower-deck guns difficult and
dangerous: thus, her inftability being proved, fhe was or-
dered to port to be remedied.

<«« Opinions were divided as to the caufe of the defe& ;
fome imagining it to proceed from the form of the hull;
others from the ill arrangement of the charge. The firft
engineer was ordered to attend at Rochfort, and direé& the
choice of meafures to give the Scipio, as well as two other

6

fhips, the Pluto and Hercules, built from the fame plan, the
ftability they wanted. He judged that new ftowage would
remedy the defect, and his opinion was adopted by the ma-
rine council. The Scipio was unloaded, and charged anew,
under the direGtion of the chief engineer. In the Get charge
fhe had 84 tons of iron, and 100 tons of ftone ballaft, and
was re-loaded with 198 tons of iron, and 122 tons of ftone
ballaft ; and as her draught of water, or difplacement, could
not be altered, it was neceflary to diminifh 130 tons of water
to preferve the fame line of floatation; by this means 136
tons were placed, in the fecond loading, eight feet lower
than in the firft ; yet when the fhip was completed with the
new diltribution of her charge, fhe was found precifely as
deficient as before, inclining twenty-four inches, with the
men at quarters, and the guns out. She was afterwards
doubled with light wood, a foot thick at the extreme
breadth, and ten feet under water, decreafing to four inches
length and depthways.”’ ;

M. de Romme very judicioufly obferves, that the defect
of inftability was not fo much owing to a want of extreme
breadth, as feveral other 74-gun fhips had had the fame, or
even lefs, but in diminifhing the breadth at the plane of float-
ation too quickly forward and aft, which at once leffened
the capacity and pofition of the line of fupport.

A French 36-pounder weighs, with carriage, &c. 42
French tons, and their increafed length caufes their centres
of gravity, when run out, to be removed 44 feet ; fo that
the moment produced by running out the lower-deck guns
of a French 74, the oppofite fide houfed, is more than
double the moment for an Englifh 74, in the fame cir-
cumitance. 4

It is certain this change of place in the centre of gravity,
which lowered it nearly five inches, muft have contributed
to increafe the ftability, and have occafioned nearly a dif-
ference of three inches in the greateft inclination ; but as the
experiment where the men are ftationed at quarters is liable to
fuch irregularity, an error of this magnitude is to be ac-
counted for from the men running to the fide, to mark more
ftrongly the defe& of a bad fhip.

Secondly, the ftability of many fhips, however perfect in
the conitru€tion, may be materially injured by an improper
trim, or an injudicious mode of ftowage; for was the
centre of gravity raifed too high by the weightieft part of
the cargo being placed uppermott, the fhip would not only
be rendered incapable of carrying a fufficient quantity of
fail, but in danger of being overfet ; and was the cargo lead,
or any other fuch weighty body, and placed too low in the
hold, the centre of gravity would confequently be fo lowered
as to endanger the fhip’s rolling away her mafts. When a
fhip is fo loaded, as that her centre of gravity is carried too far
forward, the fhip will pitch and labour heavily ; and when
too far off, fhe will occafionally be expofed to the dangerous
circumftances of a pooping fea, &c.

As it is of the utmoft importance to the well-being of a
fhip to afcertain its ftability, the greateft attention muft be
given, in the conitruétion, to the finding of the exaét dif-
tance, between the meta-centre and centre of gravity, that
every fhip requires, according to ther form; the maximum
of which is, that the fhip fhall not, by the length of lever,
either become too ftiff, or be fubject to fudden motion or
rolling ; nor, on the contrary, from the lever’s being too
fhort, the veflel is unable to. carry fail. Therefore, in the
conftru€tion, to afcertain the height of the meta-centre
above the centre of gravity of the immerfed part of the bot-
tom, the half feétion of the load-water-line muft be taken
as was divided to find the difplacement. Then the fum of
the cubes of the half feétions, or ordinates, is to be multi-
plied by the diftance between them, and two-thirds of the

produét

SHIP-BU
eae are to be divided by the immerfed part of the bottom
the hi
ee te evident, that while the feétion at the water-line

ILDING.

is the fame, and the volume of the immerfed part of the bot
tom remains alfo the fame, the altitude of the meta-ceatre will
remain the fame, whatever may be the form of the bottom,

Operation.

~~

10084.09

: 67707407
| x by diitance bows
the ordinates

: Sum 186195.35

_ | Sum of the produds

The above operation gi 4 feet inches, the height
ite Jeitnatetel dian the ¢ ent of te of tint
merfed part of the bottom of the 4rgan thip, Plate 11.

fee how the above Bar. nck in determining

Seeeahametiiinen Sctignrriocietstenta
; experiment ; for (particularly in

c ing of thips) that agrees with experiment is enly

Draught of) afore = ae Sgagate
water abaft
‘Gun-deck port in midthips above the water |

‘Heeled by the guns only
itto by the men at quarters

Pes ond Lengths of | Names and Lengths of
the Ondinates at the Cubes of the the Ondinates at the
~water Line, iu Fees Ordinatee. \Load-water- Line, in Feet
Decimal Parts. o | and Decimal Parts,

| Names ond Lengths |
Cubes of he the Ordinetes at the Cubes of the
Ondinates, |Losd-witer-Lane,in a Ordinstes.

end Deciaal Paris.

12568.02 22.75 11774-49
21,83 10403.06
21.12 9420.57

19.58

18.18

16.02

13.25

9-75

5-33

Stem = 0.83

12568.02 Knee 0.79

107 64.44

168942.64
x by diftance between eens 1% by diftance between
275 the ordinates - :

the ordinates = -
1858369.04 Sum -
144732-55
186195.35

2189296.94
2

3)4378593-88

Cubic feet of falt-water difplaced by the bottom 98436.07) 1459531.29(14 ft. oj in.

$1426.31
12

977115.72
y11gl.0g
8

729528.72

to be regarded. We are in this particular indebted to the

late admiral Levefon Gower, who dire&ted feveral experi-

ments to be made to try the relative ftability of the fallow,

ing thips of war, by heeling them with their lower-deck

guns out on one fide, and houfed on the other; and after-

wae with their men at quarters, the guns remaining as
ve.

4/5
Not menitioned.

a4 % 11

SHIP-BUILDING.

As the inclinations of the Bronfwick and’ Bedford are
omitted in the firft experiment, we fhall only compare the
relative ftability of the other three fhips, which are quite
fufficient to explain every thing neceflary to be remarked on

the fubje&t. It is to be regretted that the firft inclination of
the Brunfwick was omitted, as it comes the neareft to
Plate I.
The eftimated weight € Formidable 3150
or difplacement oH Barfleur * 33 ‘of Tons.
the - - -tUBombay Caitle 2700

* The difference of the draught of water of the Formidable
and Barfleur, 142 inches, gives at leait 210 tons difference
in the weight. Both hips have fimilar dimenfions nearly,
and are {upported on an even keel.

Thefe three fhips have the fame number and weight of guns
on the lower gun-deck ; therefore the moment of the guns,
whether quite exaét or not, does not fignify, as any error
will not have a partialinfluence. We fuppofe each gun and
¢arriage together to weigh three tons, and allow three feet
removal when the gun is run out; and as there are 14 guns
run out in each fhip, the equal moments for them 1s 3 x
3 X 14, or 126 tons at three feet: the weight on one fide
the balance is 42 tons, at three feet diftance from the fup-
port; and on the other, in the Formidable, 3150 tons, at
48 hundredths of an inch (lefs than half an inch), which
will be found to balance 42 tons at three feet :—for the
Barfleur 3360 tons, at 45 hundredths of an inch, which will
balange 42 tons at three feet ; for the Bombay Caltle 2700
tons, at 56 hundredths of an inch, which will balance 42
tons at three feet.

Having found the diftance each centre of gravity is fe-
parated from the line of fupport, which is in thefe {mall
inclinations the fame as the fine of the angle; the cofine,
or diftance of the centre of gravity from the meta-centre, is
eafily known, and will be found to be, for the

Ft") In.
Formidable’s centre of gravity’ - 3 519 below the
Barfleur’s - - SDB) Sha eo ciety

Bombay Cattle’s = Oita Ah, OSes

‘When the Formidable and Barfleur were farther inclined
by the men at quarters, the Barfleur continued to have one-
feventh more ftability than the Formidable; which proves
that the Formidable’s centre of gravity was above the line
of floatation ; for otherwife, as her immerfed body was bet-
ter calculated to feparate the line of fupport from the centre
of gravity than the Barfleur’s, fhe would have inclined lefs
proportionably, if the centre of gravity had not aéted
againft her ftability : too tons of iron ballaft at the keelfon
would have only increafed her draught of water fix inches,
and have given her more ftability than the Barfleur,
leaving her the advantage of fix inches more height for her
ports, and nearly 34 feet fquare lefs refiftance at her mid-
fhip-bend. Thus it is demonftrable, that thofe fhips fhould
have no more fhingle ballaft than is neceffary for the ground
tier, and fhould have above 200 tons of iron; nor would
there be any danger of their being labourfome, as their
centre of gravity would be but at the line of floatation or
load-water-line. The fame regulation fhould prevail with
the firft-rates. E

The Bombay Caftle is certainly {tiff enough, yet no doubt
her lower deck might have been placed fix inches higher
without any detriment whatever to the fhip, and her ports
would of confequence have been at areafonable height from
¢he water.

In Plate I. we find, by the preceding calculations, that the

centre of gravity of the immerfed part of the bottoin wag
above the under fide of

Ft.) In.
The keel = 5 5 5 3 é 11 of
The meta-centre above the faid centre of gravity 14 9%
25 10%

the load-water-line at the centre of cavity,

And the centre of gravity is four inches above
; 20 10F
which makes it

Centre of gravity below the meta-centre = 5.0

Which we find exceeds the Bombay Caftle’s ; and the ports
in Plate I. are five feet eight inches above the water.

By the above experiment we obferve, that the guns being
run out on one fide and houfed on the other, inclined the
fhip to a certain point, and at the fame time there was an
exact equilibrium between the momentum of the guns, and
the whole weight of the fhip on each fide the line of fup-
port in the direction of the vertical effort of the water. The
centre of gravity of the fhip is in the fame vertical line with
the meta-centre when the fhip is in an horizontal pofition g
and the more the fhip inclines, the more will the centre of
gravity of the fhip be removed from the vertical line of the
meta-centre, or line of fupport. Hence it is plain, that
the diftance of the centre of gravity from the line of fup-
port is always in proportion to the fine of the inclina-
tion ; at leaft when the inclination is but fmall, as before
obferved. Now, if that diftance, and likewife the whole

weight of the fhip, be known, we have alfo its momentum, ‘

or the relative force with which that weight a¢ts in endea-
vouring to right the fhip, and bring her again into an hori-
zontal pofition, and which is the meafure of her ftability ;
but fince both the fituation, and likewife the weight that
produces the inclination, are known, we may thence know
if the momentum of one be equal to that of the other, and
thereby eafily difcover if the centre of gravity be in that very
point we propofe. '

The fuccefs of the above experiment (which might be
rendered very ufeful if more frequently tried) depends on
the nicety to be obferved in taking the exaét quantity of the

“angle of inclination: to attain this, a level line for the fen-

fible horizon of the fea may be ufed, or, what is much better,
a plumb-line faftened to the head of the matt, taking its dif-
tance from the heel of the maft, both when the fhip is up-
right, and likewife when fhe heels. "The plumb-line feems to
be the moft convenient, becaufe we have thereby immediately
the proportion in which the centre of gravity recedes from
the vertical line of the meta-centre, which will always be in
proportion to the diftance of the plumb-line from the heel
of the matt. During the whole time of the operation, it is
neceflary to be very careful to render all the circumf{lances
abfolutely thé fame, fo as to be well affured the inclination
is produced only by the momentum of the guns, &c.

We may in this manner prove the centre of gravity of the
74-gun fhip, Plate I., knowing the height of the meta-
centre; for, having the quantity of the weight producing
the inclination, (which is the fame as the above,) and ex-
amining the dittance of the centre of gravity from the line
of fupport in which the effort of the water exerts itfelf, we
have alfo its momentum, or its relative force, which is
equal to the whole fhip, fince thefe two exaétly balance one
another ; fo that it is only dividing this momentum by the
whole weight of the fhip, and the quotient will give us the
diitance a the centre of gravity of the fhip from the line
of fupport, or vertical line of the meta-centre.

For the Bombay Caltle of 74 guns and 2700 tons, in
eftimating

SHIP-BUILDING.,

i weight or difplacement, it was found, that 56 Then multiply the length of the keel for tonnage by
ns balanced 42 tons at three feet ; a the extreme beeedth. and om produét by half gin
by the following operation, that 53.445 breadth; then dividing by 94, the quotieot will be the
anch in Plate 1. will balance 42 tons at burthen, in whet may be denominated builder’s tonnage.

1,, difplacement 2829 tons 175lbs. = Calculation of the burthen in tons of the 74-gun thip,

itt
4
sf

if
Fe

paap-or8 X $3445 = 151200.0 > 1200 = 126. Plate 1,, according to the common rule.

¢ now fiad that the diitance of the centre of gravity is Fu Ie
removed from the line of fupport 53.445 hun of an Length from the fore-fide of the fem, at
inch, After this, it will be eafy to dilcover how far the the height of the upper deck, to the 3
igoutre of gravity is below the meta-centre, fince there will aft-fide of the main-poil, at the height 183 9%
be the fame proportion betwixt the dittance of the plumb- of the upper fide of the wpe
line from the heel of the matt, and the height of the matt,

- - : Fu tn.
t the diftance of the centre of gravit
line of topper. et diadteathalie nek. rts of the —— ee

;

Hs

112 feet, multiplied by 53. 85.8 + 1200 = : ;
gfe Sadlnaiipditence of thceaoe of somtyibaetie The nna of the wing.
meta-centre nearly agrees with the calculation above given. which produces for every { 5 6;
Tonnage or Burthen. ahinchss - - -
By the tonnage of a hip, is meant to convey the idea of
the eight of the then to carry from her light 34 98 5+ gt
al: aap sary mts B Length of the keel for tonnage . . 148 ©
Pie Tee deca iertete a cua Meet cae is AS
’
by calculation, is a queltion of equal importance and diffi- a
axe 0 at i f : a chis a oo Multiplied by half the extreme breadth - 24 4
chant or ter of the of the thip for his pivigea p
purpofe ; cultomary rules are given for com. 0! toes | SS ie AEE
Pet teow hon fale of fips, “74 po! ae 5 nn Burthen in tons, according to the age 186434
to fix upon any general rule which fhall be very exa&, be- —— 7
caufe it depends net only on the cubical dimenfions of the

tom, but alfo on the feantling uf her whole frame; _ Eftimate, thewing the real burthen of the 74-gun fhip,
in fhort, on the weight of every article tocomplete the Plat: I.

thip ready to receive on board her cargo. The weight , , E ; Tom, Ie,
timber is variable ; the fcantling of the frame being no The weight of the thip at the aeoonieg } 1397 2198

; { ugt kof wee ' Bie ga s
following rules for computing the tonnage ofafhipare The weight of the furniture, including aL
commonly waged and sane ee a between the contrator thetheathing - - - - i ——
pou de

and , ee
and will be found to be quite unconneéted with the above The weight of the thip at her light) = 8. ogg
definition of a thip’s tonnage ; for as the depth is out of water-mark - > < 7

1 tractor

and great depth, which make againtt ftability, and confe- The weight of the fhip at the Joad water- 2829 175
injure the velocity : on the contrary, great breadth ia? =." 5
and dey se From which dedu& the wei

ELE
4

re
ee

ght at the)

will be found more advantageous to the ; 1582 998
builder : thus are the interefts of the two parties oppofitely _light water-mark f ping

inte ealeiet Sipe eatvied £0 theses. Real burthen 1246 1417

— are exceedingly injurious to the conttruétion of Burthen n tons, according to the age 1864 762

monrale -«- + - «© «©

The general Rules for meafuring the Tonnage of Shi —

in the Repel Nowy and the Merchants’ Service. sd Pens. «ees ws ee 617 1585

ee eS ee eee ry

h of the upper deck, or middle deck, in three- By the above it may be readily feen, that the 74-gun
deck fhips, and another perpendicular from the aft-fide of hip (Plate 1.) will not carry the uumber cle te
the height of the wing-tranfom, In mer- rated for, by 617 tons 1585 lbs.; and hence the impro-

the noitperpendicular is let fall from the priety of fuch a rule beiug made general, as it will always

fore-fide of the item, at the height of the we ae found greatly to increaie the tonnage of fharp-built
iculars, dedu€t three- veflels; while thofe that are full-built, as fhips in the Fait

nen ie entene tedin that is the thicknefsof the India Company’s fervice, will carry a great deal more,
plank on each fide to the moulded-breadth,) We shall, 2 Eig calculate the tonnage of the Eaft India

and likewife as many 24 inches as the wing-tranfom isabove ship (Plate XII.) both ways as above, in order to prove
the upper edge of the and the remainder is reckoned py oe el ge en ig a GA pl
the length of the keel for tonnage, as well as to fhips of war,

3Y2 Calculation

’

SHIP-BUILDING.

Calculation of the burthen in tons of the Eaft India fhip,
( Plate XII.) according to the common rule.

Feet.
Length from the fore-fide of the ftem, at)
the height of the upper fide of the |
wing-tranfom, to the aft-fide of the 159
main-poft, at the faid height of wing-
tranfom, is - - - ==
Th Feet. ,
ree-fifths of the extreme
breadihiie =" oCemenaignitzzso092
The height of the wing-
tranfom is 24 feet, which
produces for every 24 5
inches - - Swe
27.6998 27.6998
Length of the keel for tonnage —- - 131.3
Multiplied by the extreme breadth - 37-8333
atte 4967-5122
Multiplied by half the extreme breadth - 18.9166
Divided by 94 - -° - = = » 93968.
Burthen in tons, according to the com- ae
mon rule - a ae : bs i it 9995

Eftimate, fhewing the real burthen of the Eaft India
fhip, Plate XII.

Tons. lbs.
The weight of the fhip at the launching
draught of water 2 é Se 748 1071
The weight of the furniture, including
the fheathing = - Han ij af 62 1782
The weight of the fhip at her ae 811 613
water-mark = e A ay ts
ate meen oe the ip a ‘Het load Water: 2029 9597
From which dedu@& her weight at the
light water-mark - = > a 811 613
Real burthen - - - > - 1217 2224
Burthen in tons, according to the com-
mon rule, as above - - - I 999, 1477
Difference - cs s = - » 218 747

We now find that the Eaft India fhip will carry 218 tons
%47 lbs. more than fhe is rated for by the common rule;
which, it plainly appears, is in confequence of her body
being formed fo full; and the greater the contraft between
full and fharp bodies, the greater will be the error in the
tonnage caft by this rule; which fhews the impropriety

. of the erroneous method prattifed for cafting a fhip’s
tonnage.

Hence it is obvious, that no dependence can be placed
on the common rules for afcertaining the true ton-
nage of veffels. Indeéd we neither have, nor expect to
have, any rule that fhall be quite exa&t; becaufe the ton-
nage depends not only upon the cubical dimenfions of the
fhip’s bottom, but alfo on the weight and {cantling of her

whole frame. For inftance, a fhip built at Archangel of
fir, will carry confiderably more than another of the fame
plan in every refpeét, built at the Havannah of live oak ;
nor is there a greater difference in fome fhips, when the
weight of every thing which properly makes a part of the
fhip, as to the faitening, &c. &c. is confidered. We mutt,
therefore, be contented with a rule that approximates nearer
to the truth; and fuch is the following, propofed by the
late Mr. Parkyns, of Chatham-yard.

Rule 1. For fharp Jhips, particularly thofe of the royal
navy.

ft. Take the length on the gun-deck, from the rabbet
of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft, or between the
perpendiculars. Then take 34ths of this length, and call
it the keel for tonnage. .

zdly. ‘To the extreme breadth add the length of the gun-
deck, or length between the perpendiculars. Then take
asd of this fum, and call it the depth for tonnage.

3dly. Set up this depth from the limber-ftrake ; and, at that
height, take a breadth alfo from out to outfide of the plank
at dead-flat, and another breadth between that and the
limber-ftrake : add together the extreme breadth and thefe
two breadths. Take one-third of the fum, and call it the
breadth for tonnage.

Lattly. Multiply the length for tonnage by the depth for
tonnage, and the product by the breadth for tonnage, and
divide by 49. The quotient will be the burthen in tons
nearly.

The following trials have been made, to prove the accu-
racy of this rule.

Tonnage

by the Tonnage | Tonnage

Ships’ Names. Guns. | King’s or pee era

Sate Rule. on board.

ule.

Victory - | 100 2162 1839 1840
London - go 1845 1575 1677
Arrogant - 74 1614 1308 1314
Diadem - 64 1369 1141 965
Adamant - 50 1044, 870 886
Dolphin - | 44 879 737 758
Amphion - | 32 667 554 549
Daphne - 20 429 329 374

Rule 2. For jbips of burthen, or commercial fhips in
general.

1ft. Take the length of the lower deck, from the rabbet
of the ftem to the rabbet of the ftern-poft. Then take 31ds
of this length, and call it the cel for tonnage.

2dly. To the extreme breadth add the length of the
lower deck. Then take .2,ths of the fum, and call it the
depth for tonnage.

3dly. Set up this depth from the limber-ftrake ; and, at
that height, take a breadth alfo from out to outfide of the
plank at dead-flat ; take another at two-thirds of this height,
and another at one-third of the height: add the extreme
breadth and thefe three breadths together, and take one-
fourth of the fum for the breadth for tonnage.

Laftly. Multiply the length for tonnage by the depth
for tonnage, and the produét by the breadth for tonnage,
and divide by 36.6666 or 363; and the quotient will be the
burthen in tons.

The following trials, among many others, fhew that this
rule does not deviate much from the truth.

Granby,

‘ M te |
. a

pa. i ors |
Rule, oa board, |
1179 4179
1053 1064
266 | 289

:

254 277

p-frame, and that product by the
fip draws when loaded; divide this

ing a feale of folidity, by which may
i water difplaced at any given
and the wept to bring the /bip on to
water
pts {eale for any thip, it is requifite,
inftance, to calculate the quantity of water dif-
aa by the bottom, below each water-line, and by the
in the fame manner that we have already done for the
74-gun thip ( Plate 1.) ; for which thip, as the areas of the
feveral water-lines are already calculated, a f{cale of folidity
readily Cee gate follows :
a ) parts, to reprefent tons, as the
oa Tamang et IV.; sah prcthes to topwebant ett

as that below it. The larger thefe {cales, the
more exaé will be the performance.

¥

Water-Lines, &c.
Reteeie tan brelnad G® wclerse
Between the firft and fecond water-lines
Between the fecond and third water-lines
Between the third and fourth water-lines
Between the fourth and fifth water-lines

*
fet off the tonnages from the above table upon the
rrefponding water-lines, &c. in Plate XIV. fg. 1, thus:
upon C, - aan fide of the » fet off,

the feale of tonsy equal to Cc. n the line D, or lower
28 lke. valto Dd. Upon

upon their or gs water-Hnes: then through the
points Cc, Dd, Ee, Fh Ge, H 4, draw the curve AS,
: the foldity of difplacement at any

ag fone 615 lbs., taken from chief

SHIP-BUILDING.

Draw the line A B, reprefenting the lower fide of the
keel; and at A fquare up a perpendicular. ‘Then fet up
from A B, the depth of the keel and falfe keel from the
theer-draught, Plate 1. ; likewife all the water-mes, D, E,
F,G, H, as thewn in Plate X1V. Ag. 1, parallel from the
line A B.

The following table is formed by the preceding cal-
culations

Thus, the firft column is obtained merely by firit infertin
the depth of the keel and falfe keel, and adding, {uccet-
fively, the dittance each water-line is apart.

The fecond column is obtained by firlt taking, from the
foregoing calculations, the cubical contents of the keel and
falfe keel, which is 531.5 feet, as fhewn in the table at C.

Then find the cubical contents between the upper fide of
the keel and lower water-line, by finding the mean area, and
multiplying it by the diftance of the water-line above the
keel, which is 3.6 fect, and we have 7254-881, the dif-
placement between the lower water-line and the keel: add
this number to the former, and the whole will be 786.381,
the difplacement at the lower water-line, or D.

Again, find the mean area of the firlt and fecond water-
lines 4442.2655, and multiply it by the diftance between
the water-lines (3.6 feet), and add the produét to the
former. The fum will be 23778.537, the difplacement at
the fecond water-line, or E.

In like manner, find the mean area of the fecond and third
water-lines, and multiply it by the diftance between. Add
the produé& to the former, and it will produce 44124.387,
the difplacement at the third water-line, or F. Thus pro-
ceed with the reft.

The third column is to be filled up by multiplying each
line of the fecond column by the weight of a cubical foot
of fea-water (64% lbs.), and dividing the produ by 2240,
the number of pounds in a ton; which will, of wee’ 5 give
the weight in tons and pounds, as in the table.

Water difplaced in

Lbs.

615
1113
1728
1335

Tons.

23778-537
20345-850
44124-3587
23824.350
67948.737
26593-425
94542-162

-
BAW BEOwWHY Pp
AF ADAN ANAAO

For example, the 74 (Plate I.) draught of water, when
launched, was 13 feet forward and 17 feet abaft; which
gives 14 feet 3 inches at dead-flat, or midthips, the fhip’s
ief fupport in this light ftate. Take, therefore, 14 feet
3 inches from the {cale of feet, and fet it up parallel from
the line AB, or lower fide of the keel, to interfeé&t the
curve of difplacement, as at Ii. Take the neareit diftance
from the interfeGtion of the curve to the perpendicular A H,
and apply it on the fcale of tons, and it gives 1550 tons
1120 But by the eftimate, the weight of the thip, at
her launching draught of water, was 1377 tons 2198 lbs.,
which me § the above by 172 tons 1162 Ibs. ; but that

may

SHIP-BUILDING.

may be eafily accounted for, by the weight of anchors,
cables, men, ballaft, &c. as additional weight in the fhip
at that time. Take 1377 tons 2198 lbs., the weight of the
hull exclufively, from the feale of tons, and fet it off from
the perpendicular line A H, along the line A B, or bafe;
whence fquare up the perpendicular K £, to interfeét the
curve of difplacement. That depth we find by the fcale of
feet to be 13 feet 4 inches, a difference of 11 inches, ac-
counted for as above.

Now to prove the real burthen of the fhip by this feale of
difplacement, we have found, by the eftimate, that the
fhip, with her furniture, &c. difplaces 1582 tons 998 lbs.
at her light water-mark. Take 1582 tons 998 lbs. from
the {eale of tons, fet it off as before, and raife the perpendi-
cular L/ to interfe& the curve of difplacement ; and ano-
ther perpendicular at 2829 tons 175 lbs., taken from the
feale of tons, which is the weight of the fhip at her load
water-line, as L/. Then take the diftance between the
two perpendiculars laft drawn, and apply it on the tonnage
{cale, and we shave 1247 tons nearly, the real burthen, as
before fhewn by calculation.

Again, take the height where the perpendicular L/
interfeéts the curve of difplacement, and apply it on the
icale of feet, and we have 20 feet 6 inches, the medium
height of the load draught of water, which was 20 feet for-
ward, and 21 feet abaft.

Now the perpendicular L being the utmoft limit of the
quantity of water, expreffed in tons, difplaced by the bot-
tom .of the fhip, when fhe is brought down to her load
water-line, it is evident, from what has been already faid,
that if the number of cubic feet of water which the fhip dif-
places, when light, or, which is the fame, the number of
cubic feet below the light water-line, be fubtra&ted from the
number of cubic feet contained in the bottom, below the
load water-line, the quotient will be the real burthen or
tonnage.

Any other cafe to which this fcale may be applied is
obvious, particularly to merchant-fhips. Let it be re-
quired to find the number of cubic feet difplaced, when the
draught of water is 17 feet 7 inches, and the additional
number of tons required to bring the fhip down to her load
water-line.

Take 17 feet 7 inches from the fcale of feet, and fet it
up upon the perpendiculars A N and LJ, above the bafe
line A B, and draw an horizontal line through thofe {pots,
interfeting the curve of difplacement at 0; from thence
drop the perpendicular Oo. Take the diftance 0, in the
horizontal line, to the perpendicular A N, and apply it on
the tonnage fcale, it will meafure 2205 tens 1706 lbs., the
difplacement anfwerable to that draught of water; and the
meafurement from 9, taken to the perpendicular LJ, applied
on the tonnage feale, will give 623 tons 708 lbs., the addi-
tional weight neceflary to bring the fhip down to the load
water-line. Again, 623 tons 708 lbs. added to 1582 tons
998 lbs., give 2205 tons 1706 lbs., as above, and thus it is
proved that the perpendicular Oo is equally diftant from
the perpendiculars M m and L/.

The meafurement of the tonnage might be facilitated, by
drawing the tonnage feale reverfed on the bafe line A B,
and at the load water-line, as in the plate.

Now if the draught of water be required, correfponding
to any weight intended to be put on board, it may be
readily known as follows.

Find the given number of tons, fuppofe 928, in the feale
on the line m/, through which drop a perpendicular to
interfeét the curve of difplacement, as at Pp; and at p
draw an horizontal line. Now the ‘perpendicular diftance

between the bale line A B, and interfeion of p, being ap- |
plied on the feale of feet, will give 19 feet, the draught of
water required.

Many ufeful difcoveries may be made by blocks or
models of fhips, and with as great certainty as by the niceft
calculations; for it muft be allowed, as before obferved,
that in calculating from a draught drawn from a quarter
of-an inch feale, it will be liable to fome inaccuracies, which
cannot be obviated in prattice, by reafon of various little
alterations which may be made in laying off the fhip in the
mould-loft ; confequently the draught and the fhip will, in
thofe points, difagree. And likewife, upon ftri€t exa-
mination, we fhall be enabled to find, that there are not
many fhips that have both their fides exaétly equal in every
refpect.

Let the block, or model, be conftru&ted to a feale of
one-quarter of an inch to a foot of the correfponding parts
on the fhip; and care fhould be taken to provide the wood
as light and dry as poffible.

The model being accurately conftruGted, it may be alfo
proved by fufpending it by a line, faftened to a hook in any
part of a ftraight line, drawn from the middle line of the
{tem to that of the ftern-poft. This hook may be moved
forward and aft to different places in the middle line, and a
weight may be fufpended from the upper part of the middle
line, on the poft. If the two fides be exa@tly of equal di-
menfions, and homogene, they will then be of equal weight.
A plane paffing through thefe three lines, whatever part of
the middle line the hook be in, will likewife pafs through
the middle line of the keel, ftem, and poft: therefore, if
the model ftands this proof, it will be as true to work from —
as the niceft calculations.

The model, having ftood this teft, may be fufpended by
the fame line, or filk, in different pofitions, until it points
out the centre of gravity ; which will be found, when the
block hangs in a ftate of equilibrium. ‘This practice is,
doubtlefs, very fimple ; but it will be found very convenient.
Further, the model being fufpended by the hook, the lines
hanging at the ftem and poft correfponding to their middle
lines, and to that which fufpends the block, we may hold a
batten out of winding with the line that fufpends it, and,
with a pencil, draw a line upon it. A plane pafling
through this pencil line, at right angles to the keel, and
pafling likewife through the line that fufpends the block,
will likewife pafs through the centre of gravity, which,
therefore, mu{t be fomewhere in this plane. Again, move
the hook to fome other part of the middle line, and let the
block be fufpended from that point; draw alfo another
pencil line, out of winding with this laft line of fufpenfion,
and the interfeétion of the two lines will give the height of the
centre of gravity above the keel, and likewife its diltance
from the poft and ftem; and if the hook be moved to any
other part of the middle line, and a pencil line be drawn as
before, it will likewife interfect in the fame point; or, let
there be ever fo many points affumed in the middle line, and
the block fufpended by each, and pencil lines drawn, they
will all interfe& in the fame point; and as the centre of
gravity will always be in that plane, which pafles through
the middle line of the keel, {tem, and poft, it may with
certainty be marked on the draught. : t

This will certainly require the greateft nicety; but, if
well executed, it will agree with that found by calculation,
provided the dimenfions be taken very exaétly, and likewife —
from a true {cale of equal parts.

By the fame model may be found the true tonnage of a
fhip, thus: Let the light and load water-lines be marked on
it; then put the model in water, and load it until the ce

ace:

SHIP-BUILDING.

face of the water is exaétly at the light water-line ; and let

it be fulpended until the water drains off, and then ——

Now, fince the weights of fimilar bodies are in a triplicate

ratio, or as the cubes of their homologous dimenfions, the

of the thip, when light, is, therefore, — to the

w& of the cube of the number of times the thip ex-

its model by the weight of the model, which is to be

reduced to tons. Hence, if the medel is conitructed to a

of an inch feale, multiply the weight of the model

the cube of 48, (one-fourth of an inch being equal to

weth of a foot,) or 110592, which will give the weight of

the thip. If the multiplicr be ounces, the produd will be

ounces; if pounds, it will be pounds: and it is to be re-

E samp —S aes ight of a model of the

uppofe weight of a of the 74

( Péate 1.) to be 32 Ibs. 13 pm oi when brought down
to the light water-line.

The cube of 48 = 110592
Multiplied by - 32 Ibs. 13 drachms
Produces - 3544560 lbs. = 1582 tons 880 lbs.

The aa of the fhip at her light water-mark, within
i
Again, let the model be loaded, until the furface of the
eek J Pig opre
the weight o p is to be found by the
prcodes rule; then the difference between the weights of
thip, when light and loaded, is the tonnage required.

Upon the Efforts of the Water to bend the Vefl.

Here we can do no better than quote Watfon’s tranfla-
tion of Euler upon the Théorie, &c. des Vaifleaux; to
which book we refer our readers for a further illuftration of
the ing particulars, and to Atwood on the Stability

« When we that the preffure of the water upon the
ede ht,

7
Ly
b

(ce ener ween paatipcaart earth pore 4
ftrong, the veffel would run the rifk either of being broken
or of fuffering fome alteration in its figure.
veffel is in a fituation fimilar to that of a rod
. 2.), which, being aéted upon by
the forces Aa, Cc, Dd, Bd, may be maintained in equi-
1 it has serps mer. metsd {tiffnefs ; but
as foon as it begins to give way, we fee that it mutt bend
in a convex manner, fince its middle would obey the forces
Cc and Dd, whilit its extremities would be a€tually drawn
ee ae Bé.
« The is generally found in fuch a fituation ; and
fimilar efforts continually aét, whilit the vetlel is im-
d in the water, eee Oe
the bad effeét a flrain. It is, therefore, very
t to inquire into the true caufe of the accident.
_ For this purpofe, let us conceive the veffel divided into
(Oa teen yes ramet gated vertical axis
_ of the veffel, in which both the centre of gravity, G, of the
whole vetlel, and that of the immerfed part O, are fituated ;
that one of them will the head part, and the other
; of the ftern ; each of which we fhall coufider feparately.
“Let g be, therefore, the centre of gravity of the entire
Netight: of the firft, and e that of the immerfed part cor-

peaenting. In the fame manner, let y be the
2. 3

centre of

*

pravity of the whole itera part, aod w that of its immediate
portion, ;

« Now it is plain that the head will be a¢ted upon by the
two forces g m and e a, of which the firft will prefs 1 down,
and the latter puth it up. Jn the fame menner, the fhern
will be prefled down by the force y u, and pulhed up by the
force wax: but thefe four forces will maintain themiclves in
equilibruum, as well as the total forces reunited in the poimts
G and O, which are equivalent to them; but wlulit neither
the forces before nor thofe abaft fall in the fame direétion,
the veflel will evidently fuftain efforts tending to bend the
keel upwards’? (called Aegging) “ if the two points o, w, are
nearer the middle than the two other forees g mand ys. A
contrary effeét would happen if the points ¢ and «v were more
diftant from the middle sa from the points g and y ;’’ called

Sagging.
“ Bot the firft of thefe two cafes ufually takes place in al-

mott all veflels ; fince their hollow has a greater breadth to-
wards the middle, and becomes nore and more narrow towards
the extremities ; whilft the weight of the veflel is, in propor-
tion, much more confiderable towards the extremities than
at the middle. From whence we fee, that the greater this
difference becomes, the more alfo will the vetlel be fubje&
to the forces which tend to bend its keel upwards; it is,
therefore, from thence that we mult judge how much flrength
it is neceflary to give to this part of the vellel, in order to
avoid fuch a confequence.

« If other circumitances would permit, either to load the
veflel more in the middle, or to give to the part immerfed a
greater hollow towards the head and ttert, fuch an effeét
would no longer be feared: but the deftination of moft
veflels is entirely oppofite to fuch an arrangement ; by which
means we are obliged to ftrengthen the keel as much as may
be neceflary, in order to avoid fuch a-difatter.””

Having now inveftigated the centre of gravity of the
difplacement, meta-centre, and centre of gravity of the
whole fhip, with other particulars, and laid down all that
is requifite to be attended to, in that refpect, for the con-
ftruétion of a thip’s body under water, we shall, in the
next feétion, proceed to complete the remainder of the fheer-
draught.

To complete the Conflruftion of the Sheer-draught. Plate 1.

Having found that the difplacement of the fhip at the load-
water-line gives the thip fufficient ftability to keep the lower
ports 5 feet 10 inches above the water, we may proceed to
draw all the decks in the theer-plan, beginning with the
lower, or gun-deck. The height of the lower fills of the
gun-deck ports fhould be 2 feet 4 inches above the gun-deck
plank, which is four inches thick ; confequently the upper
fide of the beam along the fide mutt be 2 feet 8 inches below
the fills; add fix inches to that for the round-up of the
beam ; and the under fide of the gun-deck at the middle line
in midthips will be 22 feet 2 inches above the upper edge
of the keel ; at the foremoft-perpendicular fet up 24 feet, aud
at the after-perpendicular 24 feet 8 inches; then a fegment
of a circle drawn through thefe three heights will reprefeot
the under fide of the gun-deck at the middle line. (‘Thefe
kinds of {weeps are drawn by thin veneers of pear tree wood,
called {weep-moulds, itruck from a loug radius on purpofe, or
by adrawing-bow.) Now fet up four wches, the thicknefs of
the ink plank, above the line lait drawn, and let another
ak a parallel thereto, and the gun-deck will be de-
feribed at the middle line in the fheer-plan.

Next proceed to draw the upper deck ; fet up 7 feet
2 inches, being the height from the upper fide i ag
decks plank to the under fide of the upper deck p oa

SHIP-BUILDING.

the middle line, through which heights draw a curve parallel
to the gun-deck, and another curve three inches parallel
above it, and the upper deck will be reprefented at the
middle line ofthe fheer-plan.

The ftern-timbers fhould be next drawn, to fhew the bound-
aries of the fheer-plan above the wing-tranfom. Set up
above an horizontal line drawn at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line four feet, upon a perpendicular
6 feet 10 inches abaft the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom,
which will be the height and knuckle of the lower counter at
the middle line; from thence draw a curve, about fix inches
hollow, to the upper fide of the wing-tranfom, where the
fore part of the rabbet of the ftern-poft interfeéts it ; and
that curve will reprefent the lower counter at the middle
line.

In the fame manner, fet up the height of the upper
counter 7 feet 5 inches, upon a perpendicular nine feet abaft
the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, which will be the height
and knuckle of the upper counter at the middle line; then
drawing a curve about one inch hollow from thence to the
knuckle of the lower counter, the upper counter will like-
wife be defcribed at the middle line.

Having the upper and lower counters drawn at the middle
line, the upper part of the ftern-timber is ftraight above
the upper counter, and mutt be drawn as follows :

Set up 23 feet $ inches, upon a perpendicular 14 feet abaft
the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, as before, and then drawing
a ftraight line from the knuckle of the upper counter, to
pafs through the faid fpot, the upper part of the {tern-
timber will be fhewn at the middle line, by which the rake
of the {tern will be defcribed.

As the ftern rounds two ways, both up and aft, (or for-
ward from the timber already drawn, ) the ftern-timber at the
fide muft alter fo much from that at the middle line, and
therefore remains to be reprefented. Set down from the
knuckle of the upper counter on its perpendicular 9 inches,
and draw an horizontal line before it at that place, and fet
off thereon 15 inches from the faid perpendicular, which
will be the knuckle of the upper counter at the fide the
g inches is the round-up, and the 16 inches the round-aft at
the upper counter. Then proceed in like manner for the lower
counter, by fetting down g inches, and forward 15 inches,
and the knuckle for the lower counter at the fide will be pro-
duced ; then, by drawing a curve from the knuckles at the
fide (fimilar to the curve or hollow at the middle line), ob-
ferving the lower counter at the fide is drawn to interfeé the
touch of the wing-tranfom at the fide, the fide ftern-timber
only wants the upper part to complete it. But as the
ftraight line, which remains to be drawn for the upper part
of the fide-timber, fhould not be parallel to that at the mid-
dle line, the following method will determine the exact rake
thereof.

Draw a ftraight line at pleafure, as the ticked line under
the body-plan, on which fet off the breadth of the ftern at,
the upper counter, or 13 feet 4 inches, equally on each fide
of the middle line ; and there fquare up a perpendicular on
each fide: fet up from the ftraight line 16 inches, the
round-aft of the upper counter on each perpendicular, and
draw a fegment of a circle that fhal] interfeét thofe fpots
and the {traight line at the middle, and the round-aft of, the
ftern will be defcribed at any part of the breadth above the
upper counter: thus, take the breadth of the item at the top
timber-line, which is 24 feet 8 inches above the wing-tran-
fom, which is 24 feet, and fet it off equally on each fide the
middle, to where it fhall interfe&t the round-aft under the
body-plan; thence draw a line parallel to that firft drawn,
and the diftance betweenthe two lines, 134 inches, is the

diftance that the fide-timber will be from the middle-timber :
on an horizontal line, at the height of the top timber-line,
draw a ftraight line through the laft {pot fet off to interfec&
the knuckle of the upper counter at the fide, and that will be
the rake of the fide counter-timber, as fhewn by the ticked
lines in the fheer-plan, P/ate I.

The rake of the ftern-timbers being determined, proceed
to finifh the decks. Set up from the upper fide of the upper
deck 6 feet 10 inches at the middle ftern-timber, and 6 feet
8 inches fore part at frame 8, and above that 3 inches,
drawing curves as before, and the quarter-deck at the mid~-
dle line will be reprefented.

Proceed in the fame manner with the round-houfe abaft.
Set up from the upper fide of the quarter-deck 6 feet 8 inches
at the middle ftern-timber, and 6 feet 6 inches at fore part
or frame 24, and above that 24 inches. The forecaftle
forward is reprefented in the fame way, by drawing curves,
one parallel to the upper fide of the upper deck 6 feet 7
inches above it, and another at 3 inches from the beak-head
to frame D.

All the decks having been drawn, reprefenting their
heights at the middle line; their heights at the fides differ
from the former, agreeable to the round of the beam in
the breadth of the fhip: to do which correétly, take the
round-up of the beam of its refpective deck, fay the
gun-deck, 6 inches, and fet it up in the middle of any
{traight line, fo that the half-breadth in midfhips at the
height of the gun-deck may be fet off on each fide on the
line. Then raife the fegment of a circle that fhall interfe&
the round-up at the middle, with the fpots at the breadth,

and the round-up of the deck will be defcribed at any part of ©

its breadth. Thus, take the half-breadth at the height of
the deck at any timber in the body-plan, and fet it off
equally from the middle of the round-up till it interfeéts the
curve ; whence draw a line parallel to that firft drawn, and
the diftance between the laft line to the round-up in the
middle is what the beam rounds at that place: thus may the
round-up be taken at as many timbers as may be found ne-
ceflary, and fet below the under fide of the deck, at its re-
{peétive timber in the fheer-plan ; then a curved line pafling
through thofe fpots, will reprefent the deck at the fide; but
obferve, that the decks are to have a fufficient round abaft,
to correfpond with the round-up of the ftern above the
lights, and that the additional round wanted to be fet down
at the fide line. ,

The fheer or top timber-line may be next drawn, by fet-
‘ting up its height in the fheer-plan afore in midfhips, and
abaft: thus, at timber X forwards, 37 feet 8 inches; at @
in midfhips, 35 feet 4 inches; and at the fide {tern-timber
abaft, 41 feet 6 inches: then, by drawing a curve through
thefe fpots, as in P/ate I. the fheer of the fhip, or top-timber
line, will be reprefented. es

The ports may now be drawn in the fheer-plan, thus :
draw two curves in pencil parallel to the deck at the fide,
fore and aft, adding the thicknefs of the deck to that already
drawn, as that reprefents the under fide of the deck, or
upper fide of the beam. The gun-deck ports are to be
2 feet 4 inches from the upper fide of the gun-deck plank to
the upper fide of the lower fills, 2 feet 8 inches deep,
and 3 feet 5 inches fore and aft, or from the fore to the after
fides, which may now be fquared up between the lines laft
drawn ; placing the fore-fide of the foremoft port 1 foot
5 inches abaft timber X, and 3 feet 1 inch only on athwart-
fhip line ; the aft-fide of the after-port to be 14 inches
afore timber 32, and the fore-fide 3 feet 5 inches afore
it, or in the clear ; and the remaining 13 to be 7 feet 7 inches

afunder. In the fame manner draw in the upper deck ports,
which

~ er

iy A eo See

te

mere
a

f
:

SHIP-BUILDING.

which are from the plank to the port-fill 1 foot 11 inches, 2
feet 8 inches deep, and fore and aft sfatanen bi peost

anecs
as (hewn un the theer-plan, Plate I, The ports
quarter-deck, eet 7 Te and foreeailic, mutt be
hereafter where there is a vacancy between the dead-
admit of them, oblerving to place them as nearly as
equal dittances.
the heights, round-up, &e. &e. of the other
wish compatles, in like maoner as the gun-
from the given dimenfions ; and by apply-
feale of feet, much repetition will be avoided,
deck being drawn, draw a line parallel
timber-line, and another line three inches above
the thicknefs of the plank-theer, corre{pond-
of the round-houfe, fo as to make both
-way ; fo will the extreme height of the
deferibed abaft: the plank-fheer, which com-
the height of the fide to the fore part of the quarter-
is four feet four inches to the under fide above the
top timber-line, and parallel thereto. The fore part abreaft
the main-maft hances down eleven inches for feven feet abaft
the y er fore part of the quarter-deck.
i may now be drawn, the under fide of which
feet ten inches above the top timber-line, and parallel
from the hance of the plank-fheer at the main-matt

obit

FFs

E
+

4
!

fs
i-
g

Fe
i
fi

f

to the quarter — rae Cane
inches deep, wa to the un wn,
ie teenie deat eiRansdeah tee naloasth, ad
ftops with a {croll upon the theer-rail at the gangway. The
ee rae hen lnceas:davps, snd
parallel to the top timber-line from the cat-head to the

» The plank-theer and theer-rail at the fore

i
2,
Af

f
Se
i

delineate the height of the top-fide there :
lank-theer is two feet nine inches
» and the under fide of the drift-
foot eight inches, and turns off with fcrolls at the
of the forecaftle, but in other refpedts the fame as
ane’ the of late years, to have fe
in the navy to uare
of ferolls or hances of any kind. :
the fhip being thus far complete, we
utmoit extent of the theer, as {een on

in the finishing parts, as the

main wales by fetting up their
of the ftem or fore part, above the
feet 6inches, in midfhip or dead-
at timber 23 feet, and draw
that, and parallel
another curve at 4 feet 4 inches, the breadth

draw in the channel wales, fet up as before, at the
of the ttem 30 feet 2 inches, in midhhips 27 feet

Speen nnpnn net dens its di below the

bifais
HEE
-
q

i
7

Pai
Hi
itt
J

a
3
8
FFs
iH

;
4
F

!
iF
Be

F
3
e
4
&

it is drawn parallel to the top-timber

and dead-eyes can be drawn, the
and raking of the maits muit be determined ; their
on ing fixed upon in proportion to
us; the centre of the fore-
inches the aft-fide of the ftem, or
diameter before the one-ninth of the length on the

bile
e
!

7
:
+ al

foot ten inches, the upper fide and its’

guo-deck; the centre of the main-malt 1o1 feet 4 inches
abaft the aft-fide of the flem, or half ics diameter abaft the
five-ninths of the length of the gun-deck ; and the ceetre of
the mizen-malt 27 feet before the rabbet of the flera-polt,
or half its diameter before the one-feveuth of the leagih of
the gun-deck. ‘The centre being fixed, the fore-mait rakes
aft (or inclines from a pe! wlar with the keel) one-
eighth of an inch in every yard of ite length ; the main-malt
oi aft one inch in every yard in the length ; and the migen-
matt one inch and a half in every yard of its leagth, es drawn
in the fheer-plan, Plate I.

Now draw the channels, placing their upper edges next
the fide in a line with the upper edge mem fheer-rail ;
or, which is much better, fince the rails on the fide are dif.
continued, rather lower down, clear of the feam. ‘The
fore channel to be 36 fect long, and fo placed as to take
the anchor-lining and bill-board for flowing the anchor at its
fore end, thus: get the length of the anchor to the bill, or
extent of the arm, and allow for the cat-block; then with
that diftance {weep upwards from the channel-wale to the
channel, from the outer end of the cat-head nearly, and the
curve that the bill of the anchor is fuppofed to make, wi
give the middle of the lining: the aft-fide from the
may be perpendicular, and the fore part follow the curve
made by the anchor. ‘The bill-board may then be carried
upwards from the upper fide of the channel to the top of
the fide. The anchor-lining commences at the upper fide
of the bolfter, which reits on the channel-wale, and is long
enough at the fore part for a man to ftand upon.

The main channel is 29 feet 6 inches long, placed in the
fame range as tlie fore channel, and its fore-cnd before the
centre of the maft about fix inches.

The mizen channel is 16 feet 4 inches long, placed like
the former, but is more convenient when placed, as it now
is, above the quarter-deck ports.

The dead-eyes may now be drawn, obferving to place
them in fuch a manner that the chains may be fufficiently clear
of the ports. All the preventer-plates muit be fo placed
on the channel-wales, of fuch a length, that the centre
of the chain-bolt may come about fix inches below the upper
edge, and the preventer-bolt about four inches above the
lower edge of the channel-wales. The dead-eyes in the main
and fore channels are fixteen inches in diameter, and eleven
in number in the fore and twelve in the main, though lately
another is added ineach. In the mizen are feven, of eleven
inches diameter; the centre ef the foremoit dead-tye is
placed at or juit abaft the centre of the maft, and the centres
of the others are {paced fo as to clear each other about
three inches, which will admit of four dead-eyes between
each port. It muit alfo be obferved to give each of the
chain and preventer-plates a proper rake ; that is, to let them
range in the direétion of t uds ; which may be done
in the following manner: draw a pencil line upwards at the
centre of each malt, upon which fet off its h to the
lower part of the head; then, by drawing itraight lines from
that height, through the centre of each dead-eye, the direc.
tion of each chain will be obtained by the direction of its
correfponding line. The dead-eyes for the backitays are fo
fimilar to the former, that it need only be obferved, that
for the raking of them, the height of the top-matt to its
head mutt be added to the lower matt, and that they are fixed
at the after-end of the chsanel, or on tlools, + Spr rr
above the channels, as in fheer-plan, Plate I.

The quarter-deck and forecaitle ports can now be deter-
mined, as they muift be placed clear of the throuds, and

afunder, or nearly fo, as circumilances will admit :
thus, there are enteten 7am on the forecaftle, ar
$ y

' SHIP-BUILDING.

by the timber-heads there fhewn, having alfo a timber-head
between. But the pra€tice now is to have a rail upon the
heads of the timbers, and the fides birthed up on each fide
to the under fide of the rail between the ports, and only
three or four timber-heads run up, one in particular before
the bill-board for the fhank-painter. On the quarter-deck
are feven ports of a fide, and four on the round-houfe,
placed as clear as poflible of the fhrouds, as fhewn in fheer-
plan, Plate I. F

The cheit-tree for hauling home the main-tack muft be
placed near the after-end of the fore channel, or half the
length of the main-yard before the centre of the main-
matt, and drawa from the top of the fide down to the
upper edge of the channel-wale.

The fteps on the fide may next be drawn: they mutt be
placed at the fore part of the main drift or gangway, about
three feet in length, fix inches afunder in the clear, and five
inches deep : the upper ftep to be eleven inches from the
top of the fide, continuing the others to the upper edge of
the wale.

To complete the fheer-plan, the head and ftern only remain
to be drawn, which are as ufeful as ornamental. Therefore
we will proceed with the head, thus: draw the beak-head
or its boundary aft, by raifing a perpendicular fix feet
abaft the aft-fide of the ftem, at one foot eleven inches
above the deck at the fide, or draw an horizontal line at
the fame height as the upper deck port-fills : the horizontal
is the flat of the beak-head, and the perpendicular continued
up to the rail above the forecaftle, reprefents the fore part of
the beak-head, and will likewife determine the foremoft
end of the forecaftle. Since Plate I. has been engraved,
the beak-head in the navy feems to be done away, and the
bow continued to the top of the fide, as in the Eaft India
fhip, Plate XII. It may be ftronger thus, but the beak-
head was very ufeful. Let 15 feet 6 inches, the length of
the head, be fet off from the fore part of the ftem, and
there draw a perpendicular which will determine the fore
part of the block or figure; draw another perpendicular
at 3 feet ro inches abaft the former, which is the moulded
breadth of the figure, and boundary of the hair-bracket at
the upper part. Before the height of the figure can be
afcertained, the bow{prit muft be drawn, thus: fet up
4 feet 6 inches at the aft-fide of the ftem, above the upper
deck, for its middle line, and {tive or raife that line 5 inches
or 5% inches above an horizontal in every foot forward; then
fet off 1 foot 54 inches above and below this middle line, and
draw lines parallel thereto, and the bowfprit will be repre-
fented in the fheer-plan, PlateI. Now the upper part of
the block for the figure can be determined, as that fhould be
at leaft fix inches clear of the under fide of the bowfprit,
which fhould pafs the under fide of the foremoft upper deck
beam, and itep in the partners on the eun-deck a convenient
height for the after part of the manger, as in the board
works, Plate1V. of Ship-building.

The cheeks are next to be drawn: fet up the height of the
lower cheek at the ftem, which is 25 feet at its under fide,
above the rabbet of the keel, and draw the after-end to the
fheer, and the fore part with a handfome flight, fo as to
break in with the perpendicular at the fore part of the figure;
then fet up from the under fide of the lower cheek, 3 feet
5 inches at the ftem for the under fide of the upper cheek ;
draw the after-end rather more than the fheer, and the fore
part with more flight than the lower cheek, fo as to make a
handfome curve line with the fore part of the hair-bracket.
From the under fide of the lower cheek, fet up at the fore
part of the ftem 7 feet 11 inches, which is the upper fide
ef the upper rail, and draw the bag of it, or the part

immediately before the ttem, nearly horizontal, or to the
fheer of the flat of the beak-head, it agreeing to that
height. The fore-end fhould curve upwards, fo as to appear
parallel with the upper cheek, or nearly fo; and to form the
after-end, draw a curve from the bag to break in fair with
the beak-head line.

Now the moulding of the upper rail and fiding of the
cheeks may be drawn, and as they taper all their length re-
gularly, fet off 1 foot above the lower fide at the after-end
of the cheeks, which is 5 feet abaft the fore-fide of the ftem
on the fheer, and 7 inches at the fore-end, or about 8 feet
6 inches before the ftem. Then the moulding of the upper
head-rail, which is 1 foot, muft be fet off abaft the beak-
head line, or fore-fide of the rail, and drawn parallel thereto
from about 5 feet below its head, (which muft range with the
under fide of the rail above the forecaltle, or fix inches
higher than the range of the other timber-heads,) and from
thence to taper to fix inches at the fore-end, which comes
to the hair-bracket, which is a continuation of the upper
cheek, andruns in a handfome ferpentine line up the back of
the figure, as high as where the fhoulder of the figure is
{uppofed to come; at which place it terminates with a
{croll. The upper part of the figure or block is formed,
by continuing the line from the brea{t or fore part of the
figure to the top of the hair-bracket, obferving to keep
the upper part fix inches clear of the under fide of the
bowfprit, as before obferved.

The head-timbers may now be drawn, placing the ftem-
timber its thicknefs, which is 7 inches, before the ftem, and
to ftand perpendicular from the upper fide of the lower
cheek to the under fide of the upper rail.
timber to be 8 feet before the ftem, and to itand parallel to
the ftem-timber, or rake half its thicknefs at leaft, which is
24 inches, which will produce a lighter appearance in the
head : the middle timber is placed equally between the two
former, and is fix inches thick. Another timber is fome-
times placed abaft the ttem-timber, at the fame diftance as
the one before it, the heel of it ftepping on the upper edge
of the lower rail. The length of the block for the figure
fometimes terminates by a perpendicular line at the heel of
the foremoft head-timber; the lower cheek ends there, or
is continued higher up the figure, and finifhes with a
{croll. The hair-bracket alfo continues down to the heel of
the figure.

The head-timbers being’drawn, the middle and lower rails
may be drawn by dividing the fpace between the upper fide
of the upper cheek and under fide of the upper rail equally
at every head-timber ; then drawing curves to pafs through
the moulding depth of each rail, equally fet off from the
above {paces, which moulding depth is 63 inches at the
{tem, and 44 inches at the hair-bracket. The after-end of
the lower rail may terminate where it touches the fide. Be-
fore the rail above it can be finifhed, the cat-head muft be
drawn, letting it project from the aft-fide of the upper part
of the main or upper rail to rake forward, fo as to ftand
f{quare with the bow, or nearly fo, and to {tive upwards 54
inches in every foot of its length, which is 8 feet.6 inches
without the bow ; obferving that the under fide is to fay
on the plank of the forecaftle at the fide: the upper fide
may be drawn parallel to the under fide at 1 foot 45 inches,
its depth: the knee or fupporter under the cat-head forms
afair curve to the after-end of the upper middle rail, as in
fheer-draught, PlateI. The knee or fupporter under the
cat-head lately hangs perpendicularly, or nearly fo, and the
rail ends againft the tide.

The knee of the head may next be drawn; it 1s to pro-
ject from the breaft of the figure about four inches ; thence

‘ draw

The foremoft «

draw the fore of the knee, with an agreeable ferpen-
tine line to ite breadth from the item, which Qould not ex-
ceed two feet on a fquare at the load-water-line ; then, by
continuing the fame line downwards, narrowing more and
more till it approaches the gripe, and drawing i more dif-
tant from the ftem, to about four feet in the broadelt place,
let the lower part break in fair with the under fide of
the falfe keel, a it terminates with the fore foot or fore
part of the keel, which will be next deferibed. The gam-
i come between the head-timbers, and the bob-
fore part of the knee, and the hawfe-holes
cheeks are to be 2 feet 6 inches up from the
foot 3 inches in diameter, as fhewn iv the
I. See Haww/e-Aoles, hereafter defcribed.
reprefeating the upper edge of the keel,
6 inches, its depth, and draw a line parallel
the whole length, which is 1 foot 2 inches
to the aft-fide of the flern-poit, and the

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the ftem, called the boxing, {quare
the keel from the under fide to the fore-
thence {quare it to the aft-fide of
The boxing, or lower part of the
fet aft from the line lait {quared
and draw a perpendicular to half the depth
keel, and from thence continue a line forward, paral-
to the lower of the keel, one-third the length
of the {carf, which will meet the fore-fide of the ftem and

ag a it.

oe falfe keel, which is fix inches deep, may be drawn by
a
end of it may continue about three inches before the main-
keel, By a h to the fore part of the gripe.

The Teste a

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ve an horizontal line, at the upper
fide of the peng irinon at the middle. (Obferve, the
heights of the will be fet up above this line, for the
; taining which, with every particular relative
is referred to the fection Laying.

ou,

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w
ward parallel to the fheer to 16 feet 8 inches, its length ; its
i ev atcailh ae ihe
: f the quarter-piece may next be drawn, as the

a

iteps on the after end of the middle itool, by

line to the aft-fide at 14 inches, its fiding.
Draw \ rim-rail, as before dire¢ted, at 15 feet
3 inches, the height of the up fide at the fore-fide of the
quarter-pi PE Ga Me eke, ite inna. In the fame
manner draw the upper itool-rail, its upper fide being 19 feet
5 inches up at the quarter-piece, = ag forward
42 feet 8 inches. Above this rail is the upper

ifhings the

upper rail of which ranges with the height of the plank-

fheer, with another rail below it at g inches iw the clear: the
; rail pe be about 34 » and the other 4 inches.
tthe upper of the finifhing is 2 feet 8 inch t of

SHLP-BULLDING.

the upper ftool-rail, and finifhes at the fore part, as mebe
theer-draught, Plate 1, The boundary, or fore part of the
upper gallery, is 11 feet 7 inches on the run of the middle
rim; from theace a line is drawn upwerds, parallel to the
quarter-piece. Between the middle flool-rail and the mm
above it, the fore part is agen co by a curve, ‘The length
or boundary of the lower y is 15 feet 6 inches on the
lower rim; from thence a line is drawn upwards, parallel to
the rake of the fide ttern-timber. Now the lights and
munions, which are three in each gallery, _ be equally
{paced ; the lights in the lower gallery to be 2 feet 9 inches
in the clear on a {quare, and the munions about 11 inches
each; the lights in the upper gallery 2 feet 4 inches in the
clear on a {quare, and the munions about gf inches each ;
obferving to keep their lower fides up from the rail, about
5 inches the lower ones and 4 inches the upper ones for
the water-table, and their upper fides about 4 inches clear
of the under fides of the itool-rails above. Draw the
lower ftool-rail along the quarter, which is a continuation
of the lower counter-rail, as the middle rim is of the upper
counter-rail, at the outfide of the quarter-piece, from whence
they are to be continued their length parallel to the fheer,
and that will be the height of thofe rails, as viewed on a
level. The height of the lower. counter-rail, at the fide
abaft, is 3 feet 4 inches, and from thence continued parallel
to the rim-rail above: to its length, which is 13 feet, fet
down 104 inches, its depth, and draw it aveliel to the

ss 8 fide.

he lower finifhing is 2 feet 3 inches deep below the
lower ftool, and its aces formed by curves, fo as to
have a light airy appearance, with a ftook nearly in the mid-
dle of its depth.

The foot-fpace rail may be 94 inches deep, and rabbets
on the ends of the flat of the quarter-deck. The breait-
rail is gi inches deep, and its upper fide is 3 feet 2 inches
above and parallel to the other, both projectin 2 feet
6 inches on a {quare to the aft-fide at the middle from
the midthip ftern-timber. But to complete the balcony,
quarter-piece, and taffrail, as fhewn in the fheer-plan, the
reader is again referred to laying-off the ttern, and Plate X.

The birthing of the lower counter may be reprefented by
drawing a curve 4 inches parallel abaft the aft-fide of the
counter-timbers, from the knuckle to the tuck-rail, which
covers the margin on the wing-tranfom, and projects its
thicknels 94 inches. Draw hewits the birthing of the
upper counter, which is 24 inches thick, and p 1 to the
itern-timbers. Above the upper counter-rail draw in the
thicknefs of the middle munion, which is 3 inches, and pa-
rallel to the middle ftern-timber, and continued upwards to
the arch-board over the lights, which is about 44 inches
deep.

Phe rudder may now be reprefented in the fheer-plan, ob-
ferving, that the head is continued above the upper deck,
high enough to receive a tiller about four inches abeve the
deck ; thea allow for two hoops above the hole, making
the upper part of the head 2 feet 6 inches above the deck.
Continue upwards the aft-fide of the {tern-pott, which repre-
fents the fore-fide of the rudder, from whence its breadth or
aft-fide is fet off; and as this fhould not be more nor lefs
than fufficient to direét the courfe of the vetlel, the com-
mon prattice is to make the breadth at the heel, or lower
end, one-eighth of the main breadth, which will be fix feet
for fhips having a clean run abaft ; but for merchant-thips,
or thofe conftruéted chiefly for burthen, it may be one-
feventh. The height of the lower hance may be fixed at
the load-water-line, or about fix inches above it, and its
breadth there fhould be five-fevenths of the breadth at the

3Z2 heel,

SHIP-BUILDING.

heel, back included ; fet forward from thence to inches, or
reduce the breadth to 3 feet 5 inches. The upper hance may
be at one-third the height of the lower hance, and the breadth
of the rudder there fhould be five-fevenths of the breadth
at the lower hance, or 3 feet 1 inch; there reduce the breadth
5 inches, which makes it 2 feet 8 inches, from whence a
{traight line may be continued to the head, which is 2 feet
4 inches fore and aft, or larger, if the piece will admit of it :
each hance fhould be reduced with mouldings, as in fheer-
draught, Plate I., and 34 inches drawn parallel to the aft-
fide, to reprefent the thicknefs of the back. The heel of
the rudder, at the fore part, fhould be g inches fhort of the
under fide of the falfe keel, and 11 inches atthe aft-part,
the fole included, which is 6 inches deep.

The pintles and braces may be now reprefented, placing
the upper brace about four inches above the wing-tranfom,
that the {traps may clafp round the ftandard on the gun-
deck. The fecond brace fhould be fo placed as to fatten
on the middle of the gun-deck tranfom. The lower brace
may be placed 15 inches above the upper fide of the keel,
and the intermediate ones, four in number, to be equally
placed between the two latter, making feven in all. The
length of the braces may be governed by a ftraight line
drawn from the third brace, which fhould be 4 feet 6 inches
afore the rabbet of the poft to the lower one, which is to
be fix feet. ;

The length of all the itraps of the pintles, which come
upon the rudder immediately above the braces (except the
thicknefs of the bur or faucers), may extend within four
inches of the aft-fide: the pintles are 3} inches in diameter,
and all 14 inches long, except the lower one, which is 2
inches longer. ‘The itraps of the braces and pintles are
five inches broad.

The length and breadth of the rudder being reprefented
in the fheer-plan, Plate 1., it is evident the breaks or
hances are merely to reduce the breadth as it rifes towards
the head, the greateft breadth being only required below
the water, where it feels the motion of the fhip.

The fluid, in pafling to the rudder, exaétly follows the
outlines of the bottom; and fuppofing the rudder to make
an angle of 45 degrees with the keel, it may be readily feen,
by the water-lines abaft in the half-breadth plan, that the
immediate fhock it receives from the water increafes as it
approaches to the load-water-line, where they become nearly
at right angles with the fide of the rudder in that pofition,

and this holds good, whatever angle the rudder makes with the.

keel; hence fome are of opinion, that the rudder fhould be
made broader near the line of floatation, and narrower towards
the keel; but the prefent method of making the rudder
with increafing breadth downwards, is only in proportion
to the obliquity of impulfe the water a¢ts againtt it near the
keel. It muit be obferved, that the above force ftrikes the
rudder obliquely, and only {trikes it with that part of its
motion which, according to the fine of incidence, forces it in a
contrary direction, with a momentumwhich not only depends
on the velocity of the fhip’s courfe, by which this current
of water is produced, but alfo. upon the extent of the fine
of incidence. This force is by confequence compofed of
the fquare of the velocity with which the fhip advances,
and the {quare of the fine of incidence, which will necef-
farily be greater or {maller according to circumftances ; fo
that if the veffel increafes her velocity three or four times
fatter, the abfolute fhock of the water upon the rudder will
be nine or fixteen times ftronger, under the fame incidence ;
and if the incidence is increafed, it will yet be augmented in
a greater proportion, becaufe the fquare of the fine of inci-
dence is more enlarged,

Amongtt the feveral angles that the rudder makes with
the keel, there is always one pofition more favourable than
any of the others, as it more readily produces the defired
effect of turning the fhip, in order to change her courfe.

If the angle of the rudder with the keel is greater than
45 degrees, the action of the water upon the rudder will in-
creafe, and at the fame time oppofe the courfe of the fhip
in a greater degree ; becaufe the angle of incidence will be
more open, fo as to prefent a greater furface to the fhock
of the water, by oppofing its paflage more perpendicularly.

If, on the contrary, the angle is leflened to 30 degrees,
the rudder will receive the impreffion of the water too ob-
liquely, for the angle of incidence will be more acute, fo
that it will only prefent a {mall portion of its breadth to the
fhock of the water, and by confequence will only receive a
feeble effort. Thus it appears, that between the effects which
refult from the water’s abfolute effort, there is one which
always oppofes the fhip’s courfe, and contributes lefs to her
motion of turning, whilft the other produces only this move-
ment of rotation, without operating to retard her velocity.
Hence we may conclude, that when the water either ftrikes
the rudder too direétly, or too obliquely, it lofes a great
deal of the effet it ought to produce. Between the two
extremes there is, therefore, a mean pofition, which is the
moft favourable to its operation, viz. the angle 45, or
between that and 42 degrees. See Watfon’s Euler, p. 130.
See alfo RuppEr.

It is evident, that the fore part of the rudder, as high up
as the head of the poft, muft be trimmed on each fide, to
the middle of its thicknefs, (which is the fame thicknefs as
the aft-fide of the ftern-poft, or rather lefs, as it need not
proje& the poft when the helm is hard over,) to the greatett
angle the rudder is propofed to make with the keel: how-
ever, the common method is to fet off two-fifths the thick-
nefs of the rudder from the fore part on each fide, and
from thence trim it ftraight through to the middle of its
thicknefs, or, what is better, to leave the middle to the con-
vexity of the pintles, rather than a fharp edge. By this
method the rudder may be put over to the angle of 50 de-
grees, which is more than is neceflary, and it is very feldom
that the tiller, owmg to its length, can be put over fo far
to the fide as to allow of the rudder making an angle of
more than 45 degrees, which angle is quite fufficient.

When the above angle, or what is technically called the
bearding, is wholly taken from the fore part of the rudder,
the main piece is very much wounded by letting on the upper
pintle; but this of late years has been greatly remedied, by
taking half the bearding from the aft-fide of the ftern-poit
at the head, and from one to two inches on the heel; of
courfe the rudder is bearded fo much the lefs. This, alfo,
will greatly affift the converfion of the ftern-poft.

The bearding on the rudder is reprefented by the fhading
on the fore part of the rudder, and the bearding on the pott
by the ticked line in fheer-plan, Plate I.

The rudder, which is reprefented in the fheer-draught,
Plate 1., and is as at prefent ufed in. the navy, having its
axis of rotation in the centre of its pintles, which are paral-
lelto the aft-fide of the ftern-poft, caufes a fpace, confider-
ably greater than its tranfverfe fe&tion, to be cut in the coun-
ter for the rudder to revolve in, which would be impervious
to the waves, were it not defended by a coating of tarred
canvas, nailed in fucha manner to the rudder and counter, as
to cover the whole fpace required. But the ill effects of
having fo large a fpace fo ill guarded, have proved very dan-

gerous.

It was to remedy this defe&t that round-headed rudders
of late years have been adopted in many merchant-hhips,
particularly

SHIP-BUILDING.

particularly thofe in the fervice of the Eatt India Com-
PerTthe round-headed rudder is reprefented in the heer-plan of
the Eat India thip, Plate X11., which confiits in making the
upper part of the rudder above, and fome inches below the
in the counter, cylindrical, and giving that part, at the

axis of rotation may by that means be the line pafling, as

next below the counter, and from thence upwards through the
axisof the cylindrical part, or head, in order that the tranfverfe
feétion at the counter may be a circle revolving upon its cen-
tre: in which cafe the {pace of half an inch is more than
ufficient between meee and the aes ine confe-
uently the neceflity of a rudder-coat entirely done away.
it forefeen, that if the rudder was by any acci-
this alteration might endanger the tearing
of counter, the hole is made from two to four
round, according to the fize of the thip,
feétion of the cylindric part of the rudder,
is eafily covered over with a wooden rim, about
ick, and of fufficient breadth to nail to the
Seer
re) in ° 2,

away with the vidios, leaving the coun-

circumftances, in as fafe a ftate as it would
be, agreeable to the prefent form of making rudders in the

to conceive that the braces cannot be carried u

-

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5

It — be readily feen, that to bring the axis of ro-
= much

Plate 1. to the body-plan, and draw an hori-
ine, at each height, acrofs each refpective body.
Now the breadth of the ship at this height determines
the tumbling-home of the top-fide, which fhould not be
too much, as » a8 it creates an unneceflary con-
fumption® of croo or compafs-timber, or an extra-
t waite of large timber, which muft be much weak-
by being cut acrofs the grain. Again, great ad-
be derived from having little or no tumbling-

the fides, as it gives more room upon deck, a
to throuds, additional fecurity to the matts,

the thip fliffer, a much better fea-boat, and in
fafer, fironger, and better. On the contrary, it
argued, that by the top-fide tumbling-home, par-
fhips of war, all the weight of guns, &e.
load-water-line, may thereby be brought
nearer to the middle line, when of courfe the thip will be
lefs ftrained by the working of her guns alfo ; but others
have endeavoured to prove, that by the weights being equal
counterpoife each other, and do not
ftrain thip, whatever diftance they may be removed from
the middle line. Again, the top-fide narrowing or tumbling-
home, as it approaches the top of the fide, particularly in

2

i

HE

a
ze

fhips having two or three guu-decks, the fmoke of the lower
guns in adtion lefs annoys thofe on the decks above.

In Plaie 1, the top-tumber breadth in midthip is four feet
lefs than the main breadth, coufequently the top-fide tumbles
home two feet on each fide, 2nd may be fo continued in the
half-breadth plan parallel to the main breadth, from frame
22 abaft to i forward; then from the middle line at K fet
up 21 feet 11 inches; at M, 21 feet Binches; at O, 21 feet
G6 inches; at Q, a1 feet; at 5, 20 feet 4 inches; at U, 19
feet ; and at the beak-head, 17 feet: at 24, in the after body,
20 feet 7 inches; at 26, 20 feet; at’28, 19 fret 6 inches;
at 30, 18 feet g inches; at 32, 18 feet; at 34, 17 feet 2
inches ; at $6, 16 feet ; then to end it abaft, fquare down to
the half-breadth plan the interfection of the top timber-line
at the fide counter-timber in the fheer-plan, and fet up, a
before, 12 feet. Then a fair curve-line drawn through
thefe fpots, reprefents the top-timber half-breadth.

Transfer the top-timber half-breadths from the half-

breadth plan to their correfponding horizontal lines at the
top timber-line from the middle line in the body-plan. Now
the timbers may be formed above the lower height of
breadth in the body-plan, thus; transfer the upper height of
breadth-line from the fheer-plan to the body-plan, drawing
thereat horizontal lines ; then fquare up the timbers already
drawn to interfe&t the upper height of breadth refpectively ;
open the compafles to 15 feet, the length of the upper-
breadth {weeps, and fix one foot on each line lalt drawn ;
then from the lines, as fquared up, defcribe an are of a
circle upwards at each timber; then draw at 42 a curve to
the hollow of the top-fide, touching the back of the upper-
breadth f{weep, and the breadth at the top timber-line, thus ;
the timber at the top-fide is fermed in midthips, to which
let a mould be made from the upper height of breadth up-
wards, continuing the fame hollow of top-fide fome feet
above the top timber-line at -&, by which mould all the tim-
bers of the top-fide, except two or three quite aft and for-
ward, may be drawn, and both bodies completed to the top
of the fide, by moving the mould at each timber graduall
upwards, fo as to make a fair line with the upper breadth
» touching the breadth at the top timber-line.
e foremott frames, as X, U, and S, towards the top
of the fide, curve outwards, or the contrary way to thofe
abaft them; becaufe the breadth at the top timber-line pro-
jets the main breadth below, by which the anchor is hove
up clear of the bow. From their breadth at the top timber-
line, fquare up a perpendicular line to the top of the fide,
which produces a fudden angle or knuckle at the top
i from whence they are called dnwck/-timbers.

From the fheer-plan thanales the heights of the top-fide to
their refpective timbers in the body-plan, and draw a curve
line through thofe heights, and the top of the fide will be
saprefented in the body-plan. Then, to prove that the heads
of the timbers make a fair longitudinal curve, transfer their
half-breadths at the height of the top-fide in the body-plan
to their refpedctive timbers in the half-breadth plan ; ce is,
from frame D forward, and from 10 abaft ; if they produce
fair curves, the top of the fide is correét.

Now the fide ftern-timber may be drawn in the body-plan,
thus: transfer the height of the wing-tranfom, lower coun-
ter, up) counter-knuckles, top timber-line, and top-fide,
from ‘fide itern-timber in the theer-plan to the after
body-plan, and draw an horizontal line at each height ; draw
likewife two horizontal lines, equally fpaced, between the
wing-tranfom and lower counter-knuckle, and one equally
between the upper counter-knuckle and the top timber-line,
Transfer the Teit-breadths of the fix after-frames, where
they are interfe€ted by the above horizontal lines, to their

corre-

fw
Tt

SHIP-BUILDING.

correfponding timbers in the half-breadth plan,.and draw
curves through the above half-breadths, fome diftance abaft
the after-frame ; then {quare down where the feveral heights
interfect the fide ftern-timber in the fheer-plan, to the
half-breadth plan on their correfponding lines, and from
thence transfer the feveral half-breadths to their correfpond-
ing heights on the body-plan; then, by drawing curves
through thofe half-breadths, the fide {tern-timber will be re-
prefented.

The main half-breadth and top-timber half-breadth lines
may now be ended ‘abaft in the half-breadth plan: thus,
{quare down from the fheer-plan, where they interfeé& the fide
ftern-timber, to their correfponding lines in the half-breadth
plan ; alfo, where they interfe&t the middle ftern-timber in the
fheer-plan, fquare them down to the middle line in the
half-breadth plan; then, with a radius in the faid middle
line, {weep an are of a circle to interfe& the fpots lalt
fquared down, which will reprefent the round-aft of the
ftern at the main half-breadth and top timbéer-lines in that
direction.

In a fimilar manner may be drawn the round-up of the
ftern at the knuckles of the lower and upper counter in the
body-plan, by transferring the heights of the lower and upper
knuckles, at the middle itern-timber in the fheer-plan, to the
middle line in the body-plan; their height at the fide being
fet up before; then, with a radius from the middle line in
the body-plan, {weep a fegment of a circle to pafs through
each height, and the round-up of the itern, at each counter,
will be reprefented asin the body-plan, Plate I.

Apron, or Inner Stem, &c.

The apron may now be drawn in the fheer-plan, by conti-
nuing a line parallel to the aft-fide of the ftem, at twelve
inches, its moulding from the head of the ftem, to about
feven feet abaft the boxing, by which it will give fhift to the
{carfs of the item, as reprefented by the ticked line in the
fheer-plan, Plate I.

The cutting-down, or height of the upper fide of the
floors in the middle fore and aft, is reprefented by the ticked
line at the following heights; viz. at @,and from frame D
to 8, 1 foot ro inches; at F, 1 foot 10% inches; at H,
2 feet J aninch; at K, 2 feet 2 inches; at M, 2 feet 54
inches ; at O, 2 feet rrd inches; at S, 4 feet 6 inches; at
U, 6 feet 6 inches ; at 10, 1 foot 10% inches ; at 12, 1 foot
iI inches; at 14, 2 feet; at 16, 2 feet 1} inch; at 18, 2
feet 2 inches; at 20, 2 feet 6 inches; at 22, 2 feet 10
inches; at 24, 3 feet 2 inches; at 26, 3 feet 104 inches;
at 28, 4 feet 75 inches; at 30, 4 feet 11 inches; at 32,
7 feet 7 inches; at 34, 10 feet 14 inch, above the upper
fide of the keel; then a curve line drawn through thofe
heights, will fhew the cutting-down.

The depth of the fee//on is alfo reprefented by a line
eighteen inches above, and parallel to the cutting-down, into
which forward is fearfed the /fem/on, which is continued
upwards to the under fide of the gun-deck hook, and nearly
parallel to the apron, it being ten inches moulded at the
head. ‘he after-end of the keelfon is completed by the
tternfon-knee, which fcarfs into the keelfon, and runs
up the fore fide of the tranfom tothe under fide of the carl-
ing under the gun-deck beams, as fhewn in the fheer-plan,
Plate 1. Sometimes a knee is introduced in the dead-wood,
as fhewn in the fheer-plan, which fays again{t the inner pof?,
which is fifteen inches moulded at the heel, and one foot at
the head at the under fide of the gun-deck tranfom.

Nature and Ufe of the Timbers, when canted.

Hitherto we have confidered the timbers as having their
5

planes athwartfhips, or at right angles, fquare to the keel,
and have confequently called them /guare-timberse But the
cant-timbers have their planes inclined forward from the keel
in the fore-body, and the contrary way, or aft, in the after-
body, or canted, as fhipwrights term it.

That the reader may clearly underitand the nature of the
cant-timbers, obferve in the half-breadth plan, Plate I.,
where the joint of cant-timber U interfeéts the middle line ;
at which place fuppofe it hung on a hinge, moving fore and
aft ; and alfo imagine the line drawn for the cant-timbers
on the half-breadth plan to reprefent the upper edge of a
furface, of a fufficient breadth to form the fhape of the faid
cant-timber from the middle line in the body-plan; fup-
pofing the horizontal view of that furface to be reprefented
by that one line. It immediately follows, that the furface
mult ftand perpendicular to the upper edge of the keel, fimi-
lar to a door {winging on its hinges; and, if we draw the
moulding fhape of the cant-timber, according to what is
laid off in Plate VII. fig. 3. upon this furface, from the
keel to the top of the fide (not moving its pofition), and
then cut it out, we fhall have the true pofition of the cant-
timber, as in its place on the fhip, which will ftand in a per-
pendicular direétion ; we may alfo, fuppofing it to be hung,
iwing it or cant it either forward or aft, and it will ftill main-
tain its perpendicularity with refpe& to the keel.

The canting of the timbers is of great utility, as it
afliits the converfion of the timber, and -likewife greatly
contributes to the ftrength of the fhip in the fore and after
parts. For in the firft place, were all the timbers of the
bow and buttock to be continued fquare, as thofe of the
{quare body, though the fcantlings of the {quare timbers on
a {quare fhould be equal to the fcantlings of the timbers, if
canted, yet the bevellings of the bow and buttock-timbers
would be fo great, that the confumption, in fome places, in
order to get the timbers clear of fap, would be greater by one
half than that in the timbers when canted. And, fecondly.
by canting the timbers gradually from athwartfhip line, we
thereby bring each timber nearer to.a {quare with the planks
of the bottom, which is not only the beit pofition to receive
the faftenings of the planks, &c. but the timbers are alfo
better able to bear thofe faftenings.

We may now proceed to cant the timbers of the fore-
body, fo that they may itand as {quare to the curvature of the
bow as poflible; which will not only greatly leflen the be-
velling, but will very much ftraighten the moulding fhape of
the timbers; by which means they will be much ftronger,
not fo liable to be gram-cut, and having lefs compafs, the
converfion will be greatly aflifted.

Therefore determine on the cant of the foremoft timber,
which is y, by fetting forward two feet one inch on the run
of the main half-breadth line before the perpendicular of X,
and its heel nine inches abaft the perpendicular of U, on
the {tepping-line, which is three inches nearer the middle line
than the bearding, or half-thicknels of the dead-wood, and
draw the ticked lme marked cy in the half-breadth plan,
Plate. 'Yhe after cant-timber of the fore-body may be
before the foremoft fquare timber O two feet nine inches
on the main half-breadth line, and the heel on the ftepping-
line two feet five inches before O, on the ticked line marked
cp)» Grawn as before; then may the intermediate cant-
timbers cg, ¢7, cs, ¢ t, c w, cx, be drawn, with their joints
to interfect their relpective perpendiculars as far as U, at the
main-breadth-line : then cw and c x equally between cw and
cy: draw the ticked lines reprefenting each cant-timber
from thence to their heels, which are all equally {paced on
the ftepping-line, between cp and c y. P

The Haw/e-pieces can now be determined on and drawn a

the

a

SHLP-BUILDING,

the half-breadth » the fides of which may iland parallel
with the middle line, or canted {quare with the bow, which
will leflen their heels and bevellings, and affift their con-
verfion, as before obferved, by the cant-timbers ; their num-
ber may be four, befides the dnigds-Aead, which comes next
the item, unlefs the apron is fided more than the flem, which
cannot be the cafe when the rabbet is in the middle; as that
has now become general, a filling about fix inches fided is
yed next the fem, which makes it unnecellary to cait the
shead above the flem to receive the bowfprit, In
half-breadth plan, Pla I. the knight-head is drawn
next the flem, therefore fet off from the item one foot four
i its fiding at the top-timber line or head; before
is introduced a thort timber, which fhortens the heel
knight-head and hawfe-picces, not that the heels are
to be gotten fo low — as to fay againit it, for
i runs down low enough to take a bolt
hook, it is reckoned fufficient, the

with a chock. From the ftem, at
the cant y, fet up the fiding of the
heel, which is thirteen inches. 1a the fame manner fet off the

perigee

Fie
af
ie

to be all alike 1 inches, as inthe
be

: beets ag fhould Be fo
pieces as little as ble ;

fo that the middle or moras
in the joint of the firit and fe-

cond inet pes of the outer hole in the joint of
the third fourth hawfe-pieces. The holes to be in dia-
er the pipes are let out, .17 inches, and in diftance

other are 18 inches, to which lines may

lan to extend from the thick-
lank, and in a fore and aft
iddle line of the gun-deck at

be drawn in the half-breadth
nefs of the outfide to the infi
ireGtion, fo as to crofs the

_ the main-malt. Sometimes, to avoid wounding the hawfe-

Pw

pieces too much, middle pieces are introduced in wake of
the holes fided, about fix inches lefs than the diameter of
the holes; then, by cutting three inches on the fides of the
ha i between the holes, thofe hawfe-pieces become
Te ad more fided, and are wounded proportionally,

The hawfe-holes may now be reprefented in the fheer-plan,
thus; fet up their height above the gun-deck, which is two
ight inches, to their under fides, then their diameter
ae aaah wil be clear of the clamps above ; then,
with a proper ftive outwards, we {hall find them about fix
inches above the fide of the lower cheek, which will
(uflaiend. dnthance of under the hole for the

£

i
:
;
:
;
4

TE

:
.,

continue them to the outfide of the a

in the heer are, {quare up from
where they interfe& the fore part of
cant-timbers in the after-body may now be drawn,
deyencing, on them ; in order to which we

ine on cant of the fafhion-piece ; there-

ing the round-aft of the wing-tranfom reprefented
half-breadth plan, and likewife an horizontal line at
height of the wing-tranfom, fet off Gxteen inches, its

fi
:

i

‘

i

Hi

s
9

*

moulded breadth, at the fide on the horizontal loc, which it
the tation of the aft-fide of the fathiou-piece ; then, to de-
termine on the cant of it, the fhape of the body mutt be con-
fidered, for the more it is canted the ttraighter will be the
timber, and fquare with the plank of the buttock, coufe-
quently ftronger and much eafier obtained.

Therefore, let the heel of the fathion-piece at the aft-lide
be nine inches on the ttepping-line in the hall bana
before perpendicular 34, and drawing a ftraight line from
thence to the fore-fide of the wing-tranfom, as above, the cant
of the fathion-piece will be deferibed, and will be found
fituated in the bett manner poflible to anfwer the before-
mentioned purpofes.

The cant of the fathion-piece being reprefented, the cant
of the timbers befere it may be eafily determined ; let 29 be
the foremoit cant-timber in the after-body, which, on the
main half-breadth line, may be equally {paced between the
after {quare-timber 28, and the perpendicular 30, and its
heel on the ftepping-line be one foot nine inches abaft 28,
drawing a fraiche line, as before; the other caut-timbers

ween 29 and the fafhion-piece, which are A Snot $8
€ 32) © 33, ¢ 34,¢35, and 36, may be equall aced on
4 ‘es Solve -* the hag likewite oo 4 be half-
breadth line, drawing Itraight lines as before, which will in-
terfeé their perpendiculars as far aft as 34 onthe main half-
breadth line ; thus the cant-timbers in the after-body will be
reprefented as in the half-breadth plan, Plate I.

The line drawn for the cant of the fathion-picce repre-
fents the aft-fide of it, as before obferved, which lets on to
the ends of the tranfoms ; but, in order to affift the converfion
with regard to the lower tranfoms, there may be two more
fafhion-pieces abaft the former; therefore the foremoft
fathion-piece, or that which is already drawn in the half-
breadth plan, only takes the ends of the three upper tranfoms,
which are the wing, filling, and deck-tranfoms ; the middle
fathion-piece takes the three next, and the after fathion-piece
the three lower ones; therefore fet off in the half-breadth
the fiding of the middle and after fathion-pieces, which is
12 inches each; then draw lines parallel to the foremolt
fathion-piece at the fidings, and the middle and after fafhion-
pieces will be reprefented in the half-breadth plan.

The fathion-pieces and tranfoms may now be reprefented
in the fheer-plan; as the thwarthhip appearance of the
fathion-pieces limits the length of the tranfoms as they ap-
pear therein: fquare up from the half-breadth plan, where
the fafhion-pieces there interfeé the ftepping, the horizontal
or water-lines to their re{peétive water or horizontal lines,
and flepping-line, in the fheer-plan; but as the foremoft

ion-piece runs up three or more feet, if to be gotten above
the wing-tranfom, an horizontal line at the head, and three
more between that and the load-water-line, fhould be drawn
from the body to the half-breadth plan, in pencil, as they may
be rubbed out afterwards, and the interfeétion of the fathion-
— fquared up as before ; then curves drawn through the
pots as {quared up will reprefent the thwarthip appear-
ance of thesfafhion-pieces in the fheer-plan, as in Plate I.

The height and fiding of all the tranfoms may now be
drawn in the theer-plan, thus ; fet down 13 inches below the
horizontal line reprefenting the upper fle of the wing-
tranfom already drawn, and draw a line parallel thereto,
which will thew the fiding or under fide of the wing-tranfom
as far forward as the fafhion-piece.

The filling-tranfom is the next, which nearly fills up the
vacancy between the under fide of the wing-tranfom and
upper of the gun-deck plank, and may 4 re ted
by drawing two parallel lines under the wing-tranfom to its
fiding, which may be ten inches, if it will allow two inches

between

SHIP-BUILDING.

between its upper fide and the lower fide of the wing-tranfom,
and four inches from its lower fide and the gun-deck plank.
The deck-tranfom muft be governed by the gun-deck, let-
ting the under fide of the gun-deck plank reprefent the up-
per fide of it ; draw another line at fourteen inches, its fiding
parallel to the upper fide, which will complete the gun-deck
tranfom. The tranfoms below the gun-deck, which are fix in
number, are all eleven inches fided, and are reprefented by
drawing horizontal lines from the fore-fide of the rabbet of
the {tern-polt ; the three upper ones to the middle fafhion-
piece, and the lower three to the after fafhion-piece, keeping
each of them about three inches afunder for a free circulation
of air. Every means fhould be taken to preferve them, as
they are more difficult to fhift than any timbers in the fhip.

The itern-poft may now be completed, by drawing the
fore-fide thus ; fet forward upon the upper fide of the keel
three feet from the line, reprefenting its aft-fide, and likewife
twenty inches at the head, which may be three feet above
the wing-tranfom, which will admit of the tiller to be three
inches clear of the helm-port tranfom, and two inches from
the under fide of the beams above ; then a ftraight line drawn
from the heel to the head to the dimenfions fet off, will
reprefent the fore-fide, obferving not to draw the fore-fide
of the pott through the tranfoms.

The inner poff may be drawn by fetting off before the
main pott fixteen inches, its fize at the upper edge of the
keel, and thirteen inches at the head, which comes no higher
than the under fide of the gun-deck tranfom ; then, by draw-
ing a line, as before, for the fore-fide of the main poft, the
inner poft will be reprefented as in the fheer-plan, Plate 1.

To Defign the Perpendicular View of the Stern.

In defigning the perpendicular view of the tern, there will
be an opportunity of feeing whether the knuckles of the
counters are fo difpofed, that the lower and fecond counters
are in proportion to the reft of the ftern: at the fame time,
whether the heights of the decks, which, in the prefent
draught, Plate I. are {prung abaft fufliciently to give depth
to the lights, as well as for other conveniencies to make a
well-proportioned ftern.

Draw an horizontal line at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line, in the fheer-plan, body-plan, and
likewife for the ftern underneath the body-plan, as the batis
of the ftern, from which all the heights will be fet up or
transferred. Continue down thereon the middle line of the
ftern from the body-plan, and drop perpendiculars from the
knuckles of the fide counter-timber in the body-plan, to the
bafe line in the plan of the ftern, and then draw the fide
counter-timber on each fide the middle line, the fame asin the
body-plan above, and the round-up of the upper and lower
counter at the knuckles of each timber. Having the form
of the fide counter-timbers in the plan of the ftern, fet
within them the fcantling of the timber, and draw their
infides.

The lower and upper counter-rails being drawn in fheer-
plan, try if the under fides at the midfhip-timber project
enough to bury their re{peCtive counter-planks, thus ; {quare
aft a line from each counter at the knuckle, and on thofe
lines fet aft from the knuckle the thicknefs of the counter-
plank, fay three inches at the lower counter, and one quarter
more, that the moulding may not come to a fharp edge.
The lower counter-plank may be increafed to four inches,
its general thicknefs. Proceed in the fame manner with the
upper counter, its birthing being two and half inches thick.
This will fhew how much the fight-part of the rails will be
on a level view below the knuckles of the timbers. ‘Then
transfer their height to the plan of the fern at the middle,

and keep them parallel to the knuckles to the outfide, fuffi-
cient for the projection of the quarter-galleries, as in plan
of the ftern, Plate I.

Take the height of the under fide of the quarter-deck at
the aft part of the middle ftern-timber in the fheer-plan, and
fet it up in the plan of the ftern at the middle line; then
round the quarter-deck in the ftern, asreeable to the upper
counter-rail, in the following manner : take the height from
the upper counter-rail, in the plan of the ftern, to the quar~
ter-deck at the middle line, and fet it off in the direGtion of
the fide-timber at the infide. This makes the quarter-deck
round more than the upper counter-rail, and adds life to the
ftern ; for the upper part of the lights in the {tern fhould be
parallel to the tranfom. As, if they were to round by the
fame mould as the upper counter-rail, the bars in the fafhes
next the fide would be longer than thofe in the middle line,
and would appear as if the top of the lights rounded lefs
than the upper counter-rail. Draw in the upper part of the
lights about an-inch and half below the under fide of the
quarter-deck tranfom, and their lower part about fix inches
above, and parallel to the upper counter-rail, which will
allow fufficient depth for the water-table. . Set off within-
fide the itern-timbers, in the plan of the ftern, the thicknefs
of the clamps, and the projection of the cornice in the cabin,
and let that be the fide of the lights.

Then determine on the breadth of the munions, allowing
fufficient for the weights and pulley-pieces, and divide the
fafhes, fix in number, equally.

Now, as well-proportioned lights are great ornaments }n
fterns, having the breadth of the lower part of the lights in
the clear, let their depth be at leait one-third more than the «
faid breadth ; fet off upon the rake of the ttern-timbers, in.
the fheer-plan, and transfer that to the plan of the ftern,
which makes a good proportioned light. Set off likewife
the mock-light in the aft part of the quarter-gallery the
fame fize as the reft.

Then to rake the fafhes regularly from the middle to the
fides, continue upwards the middle line and the outfide of the
fide ftern-timbers in the plan of the ftern, till they interfeGt at
the faid middle line ; then from their fpaceings at the lower
part, the fides of the lights may be drawn to their heads, or
upper part, with a ftraight batten fixed at the interfeQion of
the middle line. In the fame manner may all the interme-
diate itern-timbers be drawn to their fiding in the middle of —
each munion from the wing-tranfom to the under fide of the
quarter-deck, likewife the fhorter ones that make the fide of
the counter-ports, and thofe under the middle of the lights
to the upper counter-rail. At about half the breadth of the
munions from the mock-light, place the infide of the quarter-
piece; then fet off at the heel fixteen inches, its moulded
breadth, and continue upwards the outfide of the quarter-
piece, as before, for the lights. In the middle of the. quarter.
piece, or nearly fo, place the outfide of the gallery, which
determines the projeétion of the gallery from the fide.
Draw in the plan of the {tern the foot-{pace rail, its under
fide to be about an inch and a half below the aft part of the
quarter-deck, and parallel thereto to the outfide of the
quarter-piece ; likewife draw the breaft-rail, transferring its
height from the fheer-plan at the after-part, and fet it up at
the middle line as in the plan of the ttern, and rounding it, as
defcribed for the quarter-deck, to the infide of the quarter-

iece. Then let the round-houfe deck be drawn in the plan
of the ftern as direéted for the quarter-deck, which will de-
termine the lower part of the taffrail, as the necking-moulding
fhould be kept an inch and a quarter below the round-houfe
tranfom. Then may the boundary, or upper part of the
taffrail and quarter-pieces, be finifhed as in the plan “a the
ern,

SHIP-BUILDING.

flern. In the farboard quarter-piece is defigned the aft
, Which is at the middle of the quarter-
r-plan ; therefore it will be proper to draw
the the middle of the quarter-piece, and the fore-
fide of the taffrail, upon the theer-plan. Thus, take the
from the level line at the upper fide of the wing-
in the plan of the ftern, to the lower part of the

jece, or u fide of the upper counter-rail, and
Dhewife - ieee ences as may be found neceflary, to get
form, and fet them up in the theer-plan, drawing
Sq up the {pots on the quarter-piece and
the round-aft of the flern on a level; then take
gives at each {pot fquared up, and fet it off
midfhip flern-timber on their corref{ponding level
theer-plan. This produces the ticked line that
drawn in pencil in the theer-plan, thewing the middle
- and fore-fide of the taffrail. Take the
whore and draw the aft-fide of the taffrail and
t

2
A

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-pi i wives to the middle line of the quarter-piece,
the taffrail, and draw likewife the fore.fide of
iece parallel to the middle. By the fame me-
thod, the thwarthhip view in the fheer-plan of the
of the taffrail, and infide of the quarter-piece.
<-F in the plan of the ftern of the upper
at the outer part, and fet it up in the fheer-plan,
But to find how much the after-end
fore the knuckle of the upper counter
fide-timber, the round-aft of the u counter-rail
down on a level, as in the half-breadth plan ;
end of the faid rail {quare from the middle
ftern, on to the round-aft {quare from
ligh

filed;
Ree cree
ie
r

of the
ine in the half-breadth plan; then {quare it up to

on the level line laft drawn. Delgs the lower
rim, with the ts and munions, as in the half-
this

i
F

i

which is a continuation of the upper counter-
will determine the length of the in the
‘ake the heizht in the plan of the ftern to the
at the of the quarter-piece, and tranf-
of the quarter-piece in the
and lower of the lights in the

E birth of the outfide of the gallery,
fheer. , at the ticked line, for the

i Defign the lower finifhing as
height and round-
counter-rail, as before defcribed, at its
draw all the rails and lights, as fet up
-plan, from thence forward, agreeable to the fheer
to their boundary, or fore part of the quarter-

» the upper finifhing being defigned in the fheer-
plan, transfer their heights, and complete ioatter gallerys

as drawn in the quarter-piece in the plan of t

ftern, Plate 1.: the aft-fide of the rudder, counter-ports, and
helm-port tranfoni, may alfo be drawn.

To Defign the Plan of the Head.

. Continue forward the middle line of the half-breadth plan,
Upon it fquare down the fore-fide and aft-fide of the figure
ee gener wae upon thofe Knes fet off the half.

7 draw main rail to its half-breadth appearance,
: fet off the fiding of the after-end of the main rail
m the outfide of the at the top-timber half-breadth,
the fore-fide of the beak-head in the half-breadth plan ;
alfo the fiding of the fore-end from the outfide of the

the fore-end being {quare down from the fore-part of
eeVoy. XXXII. -

He
FF
i

fheer-plan.

eet ieeetes
Fibstseits
en Be
fe + z

a

the hair-bracket in the theer-plan ; obferving, however, to
add to the fiding the thicknefs of the lining: then, by
drawing ttraight lines to thofe {pots, the balf-breadth plan
of the main rail will be reprefented as in Plase 1.

Square down from the theer-plan the head-timbers, where
they interfeet the under fide of the main-rail, to the
middle line of the half-breadth plan ; likewile {quare down
the fore and after-fides of the knight-head, and draw the
half-breadth line at the upper fide of the beak-head-flat, and
the thicknefs of the outfide plank.

Square up from the middle line in the half-breadth plan
the head-beam, fo as to let aft about two inches upon the
tlem; and fquare up likewife the crofs-piece clofe to the
aft-fide of the foremoft head-timber, to which and the head-
beam the main rail is fecured by kuces on the aft-fide.

Draw the moulding fize of the upper cheek as you fee
the ticked line in the Ralf breadth plan, then the half diame-
ter of the bowfprit parallel to the middle line; and alfo the
fore and aft carling as much without the bowfprit as the

mmoning may lead down clear of the bow/{prit, and out-
ide of the upper cheek.

The feats of eafe, no lefs than two double ones, fhould
be placed the moft conveniently, as fhewn in the plan. The
remaining {pace of the flat of the head may be compofed of
ledges: and, laitly, may be drawn the boomkins, which
{pread the Fite tack, thus ; fquare down from the centre of
the fore-maft from the fheer-plan to the middle line of the
half-breadth plan, and from that interfe€tion draw a line
forward, to form an angle of thirty-fix degrees with the
faid middle line ; and upon it fet off half the length of the
fore-yard ; then draw in the boomkin parallel to the line re-
prefenting the fore-yard braced up fharp, and it will come
nearly over the middle head-timber on the main rail, its
heel refting againit the knight-head; the length may be
afcertained by a line drawn from the fore yard-arm at the
outer end.

The round-houfes, or feats of eafe for the officers, are
clearer fhewn in the plans of the upper deck and forecaftle ;
which plans and draught of the inboard works will be de-
figned hereafter, the fheer-draught plate being completed.

To Defign the Difpofition of the Frame. Plate Il.

The utility of a plan of this defcription requires but little
explanation ; as it is evident, upon infpeétion, that it exhi-
bits the difpofition and fhift of every timber, and confe-
quently affords the means of difpofing of every piece to the

teft advantage, both with refpeé to the ftrength of the

ip, and to the converfion of the timber ; and, moreover,

of preparing every piece for its proper fituation, before the
fhip comes on the itocks, with the greatelt facility.

The frame-timbers are formed into bends, as before
obferved, by the union of firft futtocks, fecond or middle
futtocks, third and fourth futtocks, with top-timbers,
which are feverally fcarfed together and bolted. Some-
times the frames are fayed clofe together, or pyr for
air; thofe that are feparated have dry pieces of oak fayed
between them in wake of the bolts; thefe fhould all be
fplit out before the planking is brought on, that a free paf-

age may be given for the circulation of air.

i the difpofition of the frames in their feveral flations,
they ftand Oo pei one on each fide of every gun-deck
port, by which the fides of e middle and upper deck
port are likewife provided for. hus, one fourth futtock
and one long top-timber will form the fide of every. gun-deck
port in two-decked fhips, and the fide of every upper deck
port in three-decked fhips. A long top-timber and a

4A fourth

SHIP-BUILDING.

fourth futtock will, in like manner, make the fides of the
middle deck ports in three-decked fhips, and the fides of
upper deck ports in thofe of two decks.

With refpe&t to the frame-timbers, it is, in the firft in-
ftance, of the greateft confequence to the itrength of a
fhip, that they fhould be cut as little as poffible by the ports
on each deck, fcuttles, fcuppers, &c.; and, fecondly, that
all the timbers defigned to make the fides of ports, are, or
fhould be, continued, if poflible, without fcarfing, up to
the top of the fide. Thofe timbers, however, in the fudden
turn of the body, having fo much compafs in their length,
and others which run up to receive the rough-tree rail having
too great a length to be otherwife obtained, mutt be admitted
to fcarf, as fhewn inthe difpofition, Péare II.

Thofe timbers that run up to make the fides of quarter-
deck ports, forecaflle ports, or to the rough-tree rail,
fhould, if poflible, be made of timbers ftanding up on the
upper deck fills, over the upper deck ports. The fide
along the waift, between the ports, may be filled in with
fir timber, laid fore and aft, and dove-tailed into the
frames.

All timbers in the range of the fore and main channels
fhould run up to the top of the fide; and the filling-timbers
between each frame are all to be equally fpaced between the
frames; and all the openings between the range of the chain
and preventer-bolts are to be filled in folidly with dry oak-
fillings, as are alfo thofe over every gun-deck and middle
deck ‘port, that there may be folid boring in wake of the
port-rope-pipes, and muzzle-lafhing eye-bolts ; alfo behind
iron knees and ftandards. But as fillings of this kind inter-
rupt the free paflage of the air, let a hole, one inch and up-
wards, be bored throughout their length. All fillings
fhould be charred, or burnt.

All fhips fhould be as light as poffible in their upper
works, confiftently with the fervices for which they are in-
tended ; and, as the frame fhould not be incumbered with
more fhort timbers than are abfolutely neceflary, two
timbers over each point are fufficient. ‘The frame will be
adequately full, and every purpofe anfwered, when timbers
are provided to form the gallery doors, and to fill in the
quarters from the after-frame to the fide ftern-timbers ;
and forward, from the foremoft frame to the hawfe-
pieces.

Having confidered the feveral fubje&ts above-mentioned,
transfer from the fheer-draught, Plate I., the keel, likewife
the ftem and ftern-poft, with the tranfoms, and ftepping-
line for the heels of the cant-timbers, the under fide of the
decks at the fide, alfo the ports, the plank-fheers, rough-
tree rails, and beak-head ; then the fide ftern-timber.

Square up from the half-breadth plan, Plate I., the
joints and fidings of the cant-timbers, where they inter-
feét the water-lines, main and top-breadths, and plank-
fheer, to their refpeétive lines in the fheer-plan, as Plate I.
at c, w, in the fore-body, and at c, 32 in the after-body,
Thus may their thwartfhip appearance be transferred to
the difpofition, Plate II. In the fame manner may be
{quared up the thwartfhip appearance of the knight-
head and hawfe-pieces, which may likewife be transferred
as the reft, and alfo the hawfe-holes.

The height of the heads of all the timbers may now be
taken above the bafe line in the body-plan, Plate I., and
transferred to their refpeQive timbers above the upper edge
of the keel, in Plate II]. Curves being drawn through
thofe heights, will fhew the head of each timber on a per-
pendicular view in the difpofition.

Now fquare up in the difpofition the fidings of all the

timbers between the cant-bodies; and as the upper deck
ports are lefs fore and aft than thofe of the gun-deck, the
upper part of the frame-timbers mult be opened fo much
from the joint. The frame-timbers may now be marked
with their refpective names, likewife the fingle timber dead-
flat, where the body turns to shift the floors, as they are
always under-bevelled.

The fore-fide, or moulding of the fide ftern-timbers, may
be drawn, and the gallery doors from the. fheer-plan,
Plate 1. Then the fills, and all the timbers neceflary to
frame the quarters abaft frame 36.

The ports being drawn, their fills may all be reprefented ;
making the upper fills in wake of the chain-bolts much
deeper. Then the blocks through the fide fhould be drawn,
that the long timbers may not be provided, and afterwards
cut afunder by thofe blocks; namely, the main tack-block
between D and B, the fore fheet-block between 4 and 6,
and the main fheet-block between 24 and 26.

The fourth futtocks being the longeit timbers in the fhip,

and, from their fhape, very difficult to be gotten of the —

whole length, efpecially for fhips which have much tumble-
home, or even long enough to run up fo as to make the
fide of the upper deck ports, particularly forward and aft, the
fides of fuch ports fhould have their fourth futtocks fcarfed
together with a hook and butt, as at fourth futtock 26 in
the difpofition, Plate I1., giving fhift to the port and each
other: or, if preferred, the fcarf fideways, as reprefented
at fourth futtock O.

The third futtocks that come under the gun-deck ports,

are to be continued upwards to the under fide of the fill, |

as at D. But when the third futtocks, owing to their:

great compafs, cannot be gotten fo long, they may be
{carfed, as at 4, obferving always to get them longer than
the regular fhift.

The defign of Plate II. is to have at one view every
timber on one fide the fhip, that the utmoft care may be taken

to reduce every timber to the fhorteft length admiffible ; as, _

in a difpofition of this kind there is every opportunity of fo
doing ; and likewife of pointing out and converting to the
belt advantage the moft {earce and valuable timber.

The Defign of Expanding the Bottom and Top-fide. Plate III-

The defign of expanding the bottom and top-fide, is to
have the lengths and breadths of all the planks at one view,
that the planking may be fhifted agreeable to the lengths to
be obtained, fo as to run no hazard of beginning with a fhift
of planking that could not afterwards be contmued. For
the planking of a thip is a branch fo very material, that, un-
lefs it be judicioufly performed, it will unavoidably be very
injurious to, or ‘fubvertive of, thofe good qualities that might
be expected from the fuperior conitru€tion of the fhip.
The planking ought, therefore, to be particularly well
performed: as, in the proper fhifting, faftening, and caulk-
ing, the goodnefs of every part of the materials for that pur-
pofe fhould, confequently, be very carefully infpected.

The length of plank is a very great obje&t to be confi-
dered; and, in the fhifting, it is principally to be obferved.
For Englifh plank it is allowed, and hath generally been
found to anfwer, that if three whole planks be wrought
between every two butts on the fame timber, and all the butts
to have a fix-feet fhift, or be in diftance from each other
fix feet, the planks will only be twenty-four feet long : this
fhift is generally followed, excepting for the wales, &c. for
fhips of every clafs in the royal navy. But as Englifh oak-
plank, having fufficient breadth at the tops in that length,

has become exceedingly fcarce, merchant-fhips have the —

planks

os thifted of various lengths, according to their thick-
g as two and a half and three-iach plank to have a fix-feet
fhift, and wo ks between ; and four-inch plank and
to have a five-feet thift, and three planks between
two butts on the fame timber, It is poflible, how-
to have a very bad fhift, and yet have three flrakes be-
two butts on the fame timber: that is, when
one above another in a regular manner, like
as the upper butts, or thofe in the top-fide, are
ie, to give way, all below would be inclined to
the thip begins to break her fheer amidthips,
molt that the butts afore and abaft would yield
ly; therefore, let one of the butts, between
adouble thift, or extend twelve feet ; then will the
of the butts before mentioned be prevented, and

the be twenty-four feet long.
and the butts
ports and each
fome of the planks in midfhips fhould
fhift ; that is, fhould over-launch three
in large thips, to make one butt an-
pper. To affitt the converfion,
ont aps fe top and butt. When the wales
ft of four ftrakes, have a fair feam in the middle ;
let the two lower flrakes

7

or diminithing ftrakes, from the lower edge
» the thicknefs of the bottom plank, being of

wrought top and butt, and fhould be fhifted
of soph the regular lengths of the

lt

plank as foon as poffible.
‘The plank of the bottom is Englith oak-plank ; as low as
the light -mark, and below that, may be Eait country
of uality. The i is worked
ty. -feet len at . Now, to
to work Eait country plank to advan-

wae? Mg ate that the thift 2 a

eerih ante esta
asi as , not bein
on one taba, but to make an

drawing the butts having no lefs than a fix-feet

the fhape
brought into the
t from f{nying as
ips, it would be
ftem without too

fhift
ur feet, whereas coun
yt Bity fer confequnty, the beh
ift at firft, or one of fort

SHIP-BUILDING.

much fny. It is, therefore, cuflomary to work in the
bow of fach fhips a drop-ftrake wext wader thx wale, or
more, if necellary, and a flecler at about four frakes

under it; by which means all the Mrakes that come us (he
rabbet will be of fufficient breadth, In order to take out
the fny, bring the fleeler well forward. In mofl 7 .

anke

drop-ltrake abaft, clofe up under the wgle, afliils the p
very much ; and to peo a fair edge, be careful not to
work too broad on the ag sana ms
The plank of the top-fide rs generally wrought in paralle
aie therefore phe ae pa J be more than nine
inches broad. ‘The top-fide, being cut by the ports, drifts,
&c. requires the greatelt flrength to be given to it in fhifting
the plank ; as no butt thould be placed immediately over or
under a port, unlefs there are two planks between. The
lanks in wake of the main-mait fhould have a three-port
ift: the others, afore awd abaft, may have a two-port
fhift. As it is flronger to butt between the ports, it may
be allowed fufficient to have a fhift of 5 feet 6 inches, where
a plank comes between; or five fect, where two come be-
tween. But there fhould not be lefs than a fix-feet thift where
no plank comes between. The channel and theer-wales, 19
large fhips, fhould work down to the ltops of the ports im
midthi ; and, where the fheer lifts forward and aft, thould
work down to as many ports as may leave fufficient tlop,
and afford wood to receive the port-hooks, letting the wood
fo worked down be continued fix inches each way beyond the
{tops of the ports; thence to hance one foot to the regular
breadth: but, by all means, let plauks run through, if they
hold but five inches after the ftops are cut, fo as that the
port-hooks will clear the feam; for planks, however broad,
working down to the ports, make that part no itronger than
any other.

‘orward in wake of the hawfe-holes, the planks fhould
be fo wrought as to have the feam to cut the plank as
little as poflible by the holes; and care muft be taken that
no feams come behind the cheeks.

The theer-itrakes, as they are the greateft ftren of
the upper part of the top-fide, fhould have their butts dif-
with the utmoft care, in order to produce the greateft
between the drifts, and give the ftrongeit thift to

each other. They are wrought of parallel breadths, with
hook and butt fcarfs about four feet long between the
drifts. The butts afore and abaft may be {quare, efpecially
behind the channels, which fhould be of Englith oak. The
others, owing to their great lengths, muit be of Eait coun-

bferve ; if the channel or fheer-wales are in three ftrakes,
two of them may be wrought top and butt, to affiit the
converfion.

In planking the infide, attention mult be paid that the butts
of the clamps, {pirkittings, and ftrings in the wailt, thould
give fhift to the butts outfide. :

Clamps, when wrought of a fingle itrake, fhould have
hook and butt {carfs about four feet long.

Gun-deck clamps and {pirkittin fhould have a three-port
fhift in midhhips, as fhould likewife thofe of the middle and
upper deck. Clamps and {pirkittings, when wrought in

flannel, two ftrakes, may work top and butt, and one butt of the

latter is to come in wake of the pump-dale fcupper.

The clamps of the lower deck cannot be wrought towards
after part of the thip, agreeably to the hang of the
fo as to admit of the after-beain’s coming home to
as it would wound them too much, or produce

4A2 . However

SH1IP-BUILDING.

However defirable a three-port {hift may be with regard
to ftrength, planks of that length are hard to be gotten ;
therefore, to add fecurity to a two-port fhift, let the plank
below or above the butt be douelled into each timber next
the butt, and likewife edgeways, keeping the douls clear of
each other.

To defign on a plan the body of the fhip, fhewing the
lengths and breadths of all the planks as near as is required
for practice, will be found by experience to be neceflary ;
for when the fhip is planking, without a plan of this fort to
aflift, it is requifite to girt the body in feveral places, to
know the number of ftrakes the bottom will require, in
order to work the planks of each quality’ of an equal
breadth, and likewife to know the diminifhing of the
breadths of the planks forward and aft. To do this fatis-
faGtorily, without a plan, is attended with much incon-
venience and trouble. It alfo affords an opportunity of not
only fhifting the work before it be immediately wanted ; but
by having the whole fhift of the bottom and top-fide before
you at one view, you have a better opportunity of feeing
whether the butts are fufficiently clear of each other, which
is better than feeing them on the fhip’s fide. And when
the fhip is planking, if there fhould be any lengths which
may prove difficult, you may, by referring to the plan, fee
if the butt can conveniently be altered, without prejudicing
the fhift that is not wrought ; fome part of which it is likely
may be altered to conform thereto.

The bottom may be expanded by the horizontal or water-
lines, alfo by the ribband-lines; therefore, from the fheer-
plan, Plate I., may be taken the {tation of all the timbers,
and the lower edge of the rabbet of the keel, from the aft-
tide of the rabbet of the ftern-poft, to as far forward as the
rabbet of the keel continues ftraight, that is to timber M ;
likewife the fcarfs of the keel; all of which are to be fet
off on the plan of expanfion, as in Plate III. Then to ex-
pand the fquare body, transfer the heights of the upper and
lower edge of the main-wale, channel-wale, fheer-{trakes,
upper and lower fides of all the ports, the height of the
decks at the fide, and under fide of the plank-fheer, from
the fheer-plan, Plate I., to the body-plan. Transfer from
the body-plan the half-breadth of the timbers at the upper
and lower edge of the main-wale, channel-wale, fheer-ftrake,
and under fide of plank-fheer, to the half-breadth plan, and
draw in the lines to their half-breadth ; which being done,
apply to thofe lines, and alfo to the horizontal or water-lines,
narrow flips of paper, confining them thereto by needles or
{mall pins, from dead-flat forward to fquare timber O, and
from thence abaft to 28; marking upon each flip of paper
the {tation of every timber, and its refpeCtive water-line, &c.
as girted.

In the fame manner, girt the timber dead-flat in the body-
plan, Plate I., from the infide of the rabbet of the keel to
the under fide of the plan-fheer or gun-wale; then mark
upon it the heads of the timbers, water-lines, upper and
lower edges of the wales, and ports; likewife the decks at
the fide and under fide of the plank-fheer. ‘Then fquare
up the ftation of dead-flat, as fhewn on Plate III.; and
upon that line fet up the middle of the rabbet, to which
{pot fix, with a needle, the fpot correfponding thereto on
the flip of paper that girted dead-flat; then upon the line
mark off from the faid flip the water-lines, heads of the
timbers, upper and lower edges of the wales, ports, &c. In
the fame manner proceed to girt every {quare timber in the
body-plan, Plate 1., marking thereon the name of its re-
fpeCtive timber, Then fix the fpot marked for the middle
of the rabbet of each girt, to the middle of the rabbet of
ats refpeCtive timber in Plate III.

9

Now fix the girt of each water-line, &c. as taken from
the half-breadth plan, to its correfponding height, as marked
on dead-flat, Plate III.; then ftretch each girt, obferving
it does not pucker, in fuch a manner that the ftations of the
timbers, as marked on the girts of the water-lines, &c. and
their corref{ponding heights, as marked on the girt of each tim-
ber, may interfeét each other; then with needles confine them
in that fituation, and make dots at every interfeGtion, which '
will reprefent the expanded heights and lengths of all the
water-lines, main-wales, &c. in the {quare bodies. Fair
curves may then be drawn through all thefe dots, which
will fhew the fquare bodies expanded from 28 aft to O
forward.

Then, to expand the cant-bodies afore and abaft, proceed
to draw in pencil the joints of the cant-timbers in the body-
plan, Plate I.; thus, lay a flip of paper in the dire¢tion of
each cant-timber in the half-breadth plan, and mark on it
their interfeétion at each wafer-line, main-wale, channel-
wale, ports, fheer-flrake, and plank-fheer; alfo the middle
of the rabbet of the keel and ftem, and middle line. Then
transfer each timber fo marked to the body-plan, Plate 1. ;
and mark on each correfponding line their half-breadths
from the middle line ; then curves drawn through thofe {pots
will reprefent the joint of each cant-timber from the keel
to the top of the fide. In the fame manner draw the
fides of the fhort timber before cant y.

The thwartfhip view of the joints of all the cant-timbers
being reprefented in the fheer-plan, Plate I., fquare up from
the half-breadth plan the fore-fide of cant y and the tim-
ber before it, and likewife the fides of the hawfe-pieces,
where they interfe& the water-lines, main-wale, &c. to their ©
correfponding lines in the fheer-plan. Then drawing lines
in pencil through the fpots fo fquared up, the thwartthip
view of the hawfe-pieces, and the cant-timber before y, will
be alfo reprefented in the fheer-plan.

Now draw in pencil the fore and aft view of the hawfe-

‘pieces in the body-plan, Plate 1., by fetting off their fiding

at the heads and heels from the fide of the ftem, and draw
ftraight lines to interfeét the fore-fide of cant y and the tim-
ber before it ; then transfer the height of the heels from the
fheer-plan, where they cut off again{t the foremoit timbers,
to the fame timbers in the body-plan, as in Plate VIII. Lay-
ing-of B, figs. 1 and 2.

Transfer the heights of the main-wale, &c. where they
interfe€t the joint of the cant-timbers in the fheer-plan,
Plate J., to their correfponding timbers in the body-plan.
Then with flips of paper girt the cant-timbers, as before,
for the fquare ones, marking all the heights fet off, and
the heels where they cut the ftem forward and thofe abaft
on the keel. :

Likewife girt each water-line, main-wale, &c. from {quare
timber O, in the half-breadth plan, round to the ftem, mark-
ing thereon the joints of all the cant-timbers, the fides of
the hawfe-pieces, and ftem; then girt the ftem in the fheer-

lan from M, marking O, the heels of all the cant-timbers,
and the heights of the water-lines, wales, &c.

Then place the girt of the ftem on Plate I1I., confining
it at M; and likewife fix all the girts of the cant-timbers
in the fore-body, confining their heels refpeétively to their
ftations on the ftem; alfo the girts of each water-line,
wales, &c, confining them refpe@tively at fquare timber O;
then move the whole till they all agree, that is, the ends of
the water-lines, &c. are to agree with their refpective heights
on the girt of the ftem, confining them with pins till the
whole of the fore cant-body agree, and as much as poflible
let them lie fmooth, without puckering. Then may be
marked on the plan the proper edges of the flips of Beets

whi

SHIP-BUILDING.

which will reprefent the mouldin of the cant-timbers,
the water-lines, wales, &c. Likewile mark the heads of
the timbers, as taken from the body-plan, as the flips now
lie, which heads may be drawn when the flips of paper
aretaken up.
age fidin all the ashore may then be drawn from
i edges, and the openings thewn where re-
wired for os to make the fides of a. obferving to
the heels of the cant-timbers on the flepping-line.
operation of expanding the after cant-body is fo
to the above as not to need repetition ; therefore, fup-
cant-body to be expanded as far aft as the
and ftern-timber, there only remains to be ex-
ing of the tranfoms.
lines being drawn in the feveral plans of
i i of

sige
i ve
Ef

H

F

:
2
¥
a
oh
b
fl
3

mark

of the
down the after dicular to the half-breadth
fet off each tranfom on its corre{pond-
ttock-line, and the rabbet on the half-thicknefs of
Then draw curves through thofe fpots, till they
the aft-fide of the fafhion-pieces, and the moulding
edges of the tranfoms will be pons) area in the half-breadth

pencil the tranfoms and buttock-lines, where
the fafhion-

gE
i
4

it
i

Fes
g

wou bam Hee of » aS before, and extend one
round the aft-fide of each fathion-piece in the body-plan,
Plate 1.; and mark thereon where the upper fides PP the
and buttock-lines crofs them. Then place other
flips round mextoaniong ogee of the tranfoms, below the
meen in the half-breadth plan, marking the aft-fides
of fafhion-pieces againit at tranfoms cut off, and
the feveral buttock-lines, as alfo the fide of the ftern-poft,
which is the extreme length of the
Then extend other tips, of pape’
buttock-lines in the fheer-plan, Plate ‘es

is the end of the buttock-lines and planks alfo.
place the flips of paper as on Plate II1., thofe for the
oer olga
mar their ts, to

thofe for the buttock-lines and mouldin pd of
Rie sears Gade: des S coetaaties

i ts agree and fo confine

pins: Ce ay sislps of the flips of per,
will give the ex of the moulding of
tranfoms, and likewife the buttock-lines as they

fi

REAER EE
styl
: i

the art of the wing-
tranfom, which makes the flern-frame complete. ‘

rabbet of the
age ace Plate I.

F

» and mark on the
rabbet of the keel, the three

the lower edges of the decks,

lower water-lines, and the lower edye of the lower tranfom j
then place the flip of paper asin Plas LIL, keeping the
{pot for the lower edge of the rabbet well with its cor-
refponding {pot on the keel; and move the flip of paper,
till’ the a te the water-lines and lower aoe H gto
tranfom agree with their extremities; then, by marking
the edge, a poft will be deferibed, and the boundary of
the planks below the tranfom.

the operation may be performed by the ribband-lines, ae
well as by the water-lines, as before obferved ; but in that
cafe, the cant-timbers mult have been drawn in the body-
pom Plate 1., on the {quare as well as on the cant, to
evel through their proper heights, which was omitted, to

revent confufion: neverthelefs the lower ribband is repre-
ented in Plate LIT,

The whole fide being now expanded, the planks of the
bottom and wales may all be reprefented, agreeable to the
foregoing directions. Likewife, on the top-fide we have
an iy tga of feeing the diftance of every feam from the
port-fills, whereby you may judge whether it is better to
cut down upon Af flrakes for the ports, or to work the
ftrakes fomewhat broader, to corre{pond with the ftops of
the ports. This thould be carefully examined, otherwife
you will be under the neceflity of making a bad fhift in the
top-fide ; or be forced to cut fo low down upon the lower
ftrake, that the bolts, which are driven through the lower
fills, will be of little ufe; and alfo to cut up fo much for
the upper part of the ports, that there will not be left fuf-
ficient wood for the port-hooks to bear the weight of the
porta inconveniencies which ought to be well confidered,

fore it be too late to alter them.

The ftrength of the thip, with refpec&t to keeping her
from breaking her fheer, chiefly depends on the fhift of the
planks from the water to the gun-wale, of which the greateft
care fhould be taken to make the beft poffible, agreeable to
the ufual lengths of the planks ; and likewife that the infide
plank, efpecially the ftrake above and below the ports,
fhould be fhifted as clear as poflible of the outfide ftrakes.

The longer the planks in the top-fide are wrought, the

muft be the work ; but then it would be imprudent
to work longer than the ufual length of the planks, becaufe
when the thip wanted repair, you would be forced to
cut plank on purpofe, and thereby work green ct in-
ftead of feafoned. The breadth of the planks fhould be
confulted, before you determine on the number of ftrakes
in the top-fide, as before obferved; for if the planks are
rather narrow, the top-fide will look the neater, and be
equally as ftrong, if not bored too much,

To defign the Profile, or inboard Works of the 74-Gun Ship.
deck Obferwations on the iaboard Works of Ships in general.
Plate 1V.

Sometimes the inboard works are drawn in the fheer-plan
of Plate 1. ; but when fo drawn, they appear fo confufed,
that the beft and readieft method is to appropriate a draught
for that purpofe, as Plate 1V., in which every particular
will be more clear and confpicuous.

To conftru& this draught, it will be neceflary to take
from the fheer-plan of Plate I. the fale, keel and fearfs,
ftem, flern-poft, rudder, counter-timbers, fathion-pieces,
tranfoms, cutting-down line, keelfon, apron, ftemfon, all
and centres of the mafts ; alfo the drifts, plank-
theer all fore and aft, the joints of the frame-timbers, and

the dg -y
he ftations of the beams are next to be confidered, and
fhould be fo difpofed as to come one under, and one be-
tween, each port, or as nearly fo as poflible, aed nn
ot

SHIP-BUILDING.

other works of the fhip, as the hatchways, ladder-ways,
matt-rooms, &c.; but where a beam cannot poffibly be
placed under a port, or too wide apart, then a beam-arm,
or half-beam, fhould be introduced to make good the de-
ficiency.

To difpofe of the beams, as in the profile, Plate I1V.,
draw a fine pencil line under the deck-lne at the fide, and
parallel thereto, to the moulding of the beams, which is for
the gun-deck, 16 inches; upper-deck, 12 inches; quarter-
deck and forecaftle, 84 inches ; and round-houfe, 6 inches.
Then place the firft beam of the gun-deck under the middle
of the firft port, or nearly fo ; the fecond between that and the
third, which takes the heels of the bow/prit-ftep ; the aft-
fide of the latter to be 3 feet 10 inches before the centre of
the fore-matt ; the fore-fide of the fourth to be 2 feet 6 inches
abaft it ; the aft-fide of the fifth to be 10 feet g inches abaft
the centre of the fore-maft, againit which are the fore riding-
bitts; the aft-fide of the feventh to be 21 feet 10 inches
abaft the faid centre, which takes the after riding-bitts ;
the fixth comes equally between; the aft-fide of the tenth
beam plumbs the after-part of the forecaftle, or nearly fo,
and makes the fore-fide of the fore-hatchway, which is
4 feet 10 inches fore and aft, and is made by the eleventh
beam ; the ladder-way between the ninth and tenth beam is
3 feet 2 inches in the clear; the aft-fide of the twelfth beam
is 5 feet 8 inches abaft the fore-hatchway ; and the fore-fide
of the thirteenth r1 feet: between thefe two beams are let
down the fore-jeer capftan-itep. The fore-fide of the
feventeenth beam is 5 feet 8 inches before the centre of the
main-maft, and makes the aft-fide of the main-hatchway,
which is 8 feet fore and aft, and is made by the fixteenth
beam; the eighteenth beam is g feet g inches in the clear
abaft the feventeenth; and the nineteenth 4 feet 10 inches
in the clear, which makes the after-hatch; the aft-fide of
the twenty-firft beam is 12 feet abaft the after-hatch; and
the twenty-fecond 5 feet 6 inches in the clear abaft it, which
takes the ftep of the main-jeer-capftan; from the twenty-
third to the thirtieth are about 4 feet’ in the clear afunder.
Between the twenty-third and twenty-fifth is the ladder-way
to the cock-pit, and hatch to fpirit-room ; and the twenty-
fixth beam fhould be placed exactly under the centre of the
mizen-maft, all the beams having any thing attached to
them being particularized. . The intermediate ones may be
equally {paced between them; and their fidings, which are
16 inches, may now be fet off, and each beam be drawn.
But as beams are feldom made of lefs than two pieces, the
lips, which are four inches, had better be added to the fiding.

On the upper deck the firft beam is placed under the beak-
head, to receive the tenons of the beak-head ftantions ;
the fecond beam mutt be fo fixed, as not to be too much
wounded by the bow{fprit ; the third and fourth about 2 feet
6 inches in the clear on each fide the centre of the fore-
maft; the others, particularly thofe that have pillars under
them, fhould be ftationed over thofe of the gun-deck ; from
the fifth beam to the tenth is let up in the middle 2 inches of
the fore-hearth carling, which is 12 inches fquare ; between
the tenth and the eleventh beam is the fore-hatch over the
gun-deck, abaft which is a ladder-way, and next abaft it
the capftan; the feventeenth beam takes the topfail-fheet-
bitts on the aft-fide; and the next beam before makes the
fore-fide of the main-hatchway, before which is a ladder-
way about 4 feet 6 inches in the clear. The eighteenth
beam on the fore-fide takes the main jeer-bitts, and the next
abaft makes the after-hatchway ; between the twenty-firft
and twenty-fecond is the capltan-room, which fhould be at
leaft 5 feet 8 inches in the clear, to admit the capftan. From
the twenty-fecond to the twenty-fifth are gratings, and a

Age)

ladder-way to the gun-room, &c. The tranfom abaft
{cores in to the ftem-timbers.

The quarter-deck beams having no framing of carlings and
ledges as the others below, require nearly twice the num-
ber in the fame length, and a greater round-up, otherwife
they would be apt to bend with their own weight.

The length of the quarter-deck is determined by having
the aft-fide of the foremoft beam about four feet before the
centre of the main-mait, and in general receives the tenon
at the heads of the main-topfail-fheet-bitts ; the fecond beam
is about 4 feet 6 inches abaft the centre of the main-maft,
and receives the tenon at the heads of the main-jeer-bitts ; of
late thefe bitts are clear of the beams above the riding bitts ;
the other beams, in general as far aft as the mizen-maft, are
kept about 2 feet 8 inches in the clear afunder. Between
the third and fourth beams is a fcuttle on each fide for the
top-tackle; from the feventh to the eleventh are gratings ;
and between the eleventh and twelfth a ladder-way for the
officers. Fourteen and fifteen are placed about 1 foot
10 inches on each fide the centre of the mizen-matt ; and the
thirteenth 3 feet 6 inches before fourteen, fo as to receive
the tenons of the fteering-wheel ftantions in the middle ;
the twenty-fourth beam is fo placed as to receive the tenons
of the munion of the fcreen-bulk-head, and fometimes
rounds aft for the bulk-head to follow the round-aft of the
ftern, or nearly fo. Againft the fore-fide of the ftern-
timbers, and fcored aft into them, is a tranfom like the
deck below, but having a balcony: the deals run aft to
form the fame.

The forecafile beams fhould be four more m number than
there are in the upper deck, in the length of the forecaftle ;
and where a wide opening occurs, fuch as the maft-room, a
half-beam fhould be introduced, to make good the deficiency.
The cat-beam is fo placed that the ftantions of the beak-
head-bulk-head may face on the fore-fide 14 inch; and when
the cat’s-tail comes in upon the forecaftle, and is fecured
thereon, it muft be three-feet fided, as it requires a rabbet of
five inches on the aft-fide to receive the ends of the deals ; but
of late years the cat’s-tail comes in under the beams, which
greatly affifts the converfion of the cat-heads, and makes
more room on the forecaftle, and confequently the beam
need be no larger than the others, whereby a great weight
is taken off this part of the fhip. Between the tirft and fe-
cond beam is a ladder-way about three feet inthe clear. The
third beam is-two feet before the centre of the fore-maft ; the
fore-topfail-fheet-bitts come on the fore-fide, and the heels
upon the upper deck. The fore-fide of the fourth beam is
three feet aR the centre of the fore-maft, which allows for
the fore-jeer bitts to come on the fore-fide of the beam ; and
their heels fhould caft outwards fufficient to lead the fore-
tack aft clear of the galley. From the fixth to the eighth
beams are the gratings over the galley ; on the fore-fide of
the ninth beam is the {cuttle for the fire-hearth funnel; be-
tween that and the tenth, the fteam-grating over the boiler ;
and on the after-beams was a cupola, or belfry for the bell,
but that of late has been removed to the fore-part of, the
quarter-deck, between the main-topfail-fheet-bitts, in the
royal navy. ;

The round-houfe beams ave {maller than thofe of the quar-
ter-deck ; therefore, let the number of beams on the round-
houfe be two, or more, in number than in the fame length
of the quarter-deck. The round-houfe fhould always have
a great round-up, both for ftrength and convenience. :

With regard to placing the round-houfe beams, we have
only to attend to the foremoft ftantion of the fteering-wheel,
fo as to receive the tenon at the head: the mizen-matt
mutt alfo have a beam about 20 inches on each fide the

centre.

the maft is a {mall pai He rather’
mizen-topfail-fheets ; and over the mi the captain's
companion with glafs-fathes; but lately Giami-

of glafs are let into the deck, which are found more
convenient. The intermediate beams may be placed equally
» letting the beam over the fereen-bulk-head
round.aft, agreeably to the quarter-deck

of the feveral decks, as taken from the fheer-
being deferibed, thole of the orlop only
therefore, fet down from the upper fide of the guo-
7 feet 1 inch, for the upper fide of the orlop
the platforms forward and abaft are laid
deal or plank, they may be kept fo much be-

the em beams, that is, from fo to
and from the twentieth to the after-beam,
is immediately under the twenty-feveuth beam of the

the orlop round-up 24 or 3 inches in
fhould be direaly a Fie fe of the
the forward, which

be equally ~redhgeerd firft and third. Be

an .
the tenth > praptenas beams is fhewn the capitan-
&e.

:

fF
L

gE ils
aa iil

i

(
$
2
i
:
i
f

ftand Pa ed with the body, but
under the guo-deck per deck lay with the
deck ; there is likewife a hook under the hawfe-
i extend from the aft-

iva us clear. Inthe well is the ftep for the
main-maft, and the pumps on each fide ; and adj g
well, on the fore and after-fides, are fhot-

two feet in the clear. On the fore-fide of the twentieth beam

fide of the tweaty-fecond beam ; and on the fore-fide of the
third beam is the after-bulk-head of the coal-hole,
and the which extends to the

of the powder-room,
the es Sg or after-beam. The orlop
cannot extend further or fufficient fpace would not be
left fer the bread-room. On the fore-fide of the after-beam
of the gun-deck is a bulk-head, which terminates the bread-
abaft it to the tranioms is called

-bulk-head is a
are fpaced abaft the

Plate 1V.. is reprefented the method of
ote: daaph pote rome cel by knees and riders,
as ufed was engraved ; but owing to the

together have been
hereafter, under the

a

SHIP-BULLDING.

head of improvements and projeBed improvements in the bwildang
of foi. See Suasrivurs,

Hanging and lodging-knees of wood of a kindly growth
is certainly the beft mode of connecting the fides and beams
tegether. ‘The addition of breadth snd top-riders, parti-
cularly in wake of the mafts, and three or four in the waill,
where they rake much, and fo crofs fevera! of the timbers,
mutt certasly iliffen the fide; but this may be more necef-
fary in repairs than in new thips, if the hanging-knees are
of a good growth, a5 before obferved: but by no means
to difpenfe with a hanging-knee to introduce a rider, but
only when they can clear each other, as the gun-deck beam
fifteen and upper deck beam fourteen, then it may be al-
lowed to be very itrong. Obferve, whenever a rider comes
in the throat of a lodging-knee, it can only be made of
iron.

In the bold it is cuftomary to place four floor-riders, one
under the beam at the aft-fide of the fore-hatehway, and
the after one under the beam abaft the main-malt; the next
under the beam before the main-maft, and the other midway
between that and the fore-hatchway. The floor-riders ex-
tend about twelve feet on each fide beyond the keelfon, and
about one foot four inches {quare.

Lower futtock-riders are from five to fix in number, one
on the fide of each floor-rider, and ove or two abaft the
after floor-rider. Their length is from the fide of the keel-
fon, to give about eight-feet fhift to the

Second, futtock-riders, which extend from the floor-rider
head up to the under fide of the orlop-beam, and are about
one foot two inches {quare.

Third futtock-riders are in length from the head of the
lower futtock-rider to the under fide of the gun-deck beam,
and {core on to the fide of the orlop-beam 14 inch with
a dove-tail, and are in fize the fame as the fecond futtock-
riders. Obferve, in fhifting the riders, that they come clear
of the pumps and of each other, otherwife they mutt caft
fideways, as at the nineteenth beam of the orlop.

A long carling 14 inches deep and 12 inches broad, is
{cored up two inches on the under fide of the fix after gun-
deck beams, or to the beam before the mizen-matt, and
conneéted to the fternfon-knee by an iron plate on each
fide at the after-end, the bolts being driven through and
clenched on each plate alternately.

The inboard works being deferibed in’ profile on the fe-
veral decks, it is neceflary alfo to reprefent them on the
plan of each deck.

Inflru&iions for defigning the Plans of the Decks. Plates V.
and VI.

Transfer from the theer-plan, Plate I., the heights of
each deck at the fide, at every timber, to its corref i
timber in the body-plan ; then upon each plan draw a mi
line, and therefrom {quare up the {tations of all the timbers,
as taken from the fheer-plan.- Next transfer from the body-

lan the half-breadth of each timber at the height of

intended to be drawn, and fet them off on each fide
the middle line, at its corre{ponding timber and plan ; but
in Plates VI. and VI*. half the deck only is fented ;
then transfer from the fheer-plan, where the deck inter-
feéts the aft-fide of the ftem and ftern-poft at the rabbet,
as in Plate VI., and on thofe lines fet off half the thick-
nefs of the ftem and ftern-poft. A curve drawn through the
half-bresdths as fet off, ending in the rabbet afore and

abaft, will .ayey the outfide of the timbers; then with-
in that line fet off the moulding of the timbers, and draw-

ing another curve thereto,

g ives the boundary of the deck
at the fide, and determines

length of the beams.
Upea

SHIP-BUILDING.

Upon each plan fquare down the fides of the ports and
beams, and centres of the maits and capftans, from the profile,
Plate IV.

Thus far the plans of the decks are general; but as each
deck is very differently fitted, it is neceflary to have a half-
plan of all at leaft, and what little difference there may be
on the oppofite fide, let the explanation fuffice.

In the plan of gun-deck, Plate V., is fhewn not only the
upper fides of all the beams, and the method of tabling
them together in two or more pieces, as then cuftomary, but
now douelled inftead of tabled ; thofe in midfhips, being the
longeft, are made of three pieces ; and thofe where they are
fhorter, as at the twenty-fixth beam, are in two pieces:
thofe in three pieces have the middle piece fcarfed to each
arm. The method of conneéting the fides with hanging and
lodging-knees is likewife fhewn in this plan, with the iron
lodging-knee behind the rider, (engraved hanging by mif-
take, ) as at the fifteenth and fixteenth beams. The beam-
arms at the main-hatchway and matt-rooms are reprefented
as tabled into their adjoining beams, the feventeenth and
eighteenth. The framing of the deck to receive the flat
having three tier of carlings, nearly all fore and ait, with a
fufficient number of ledges let into them parallel with the
fides of the beams, is alfo reprefented here. The framings in
the middle are the maft-partners; thofe for the fore-matts to
be formed by the ftandard againft the fore-fide of the fore
riding-bitts, the infide of which muft be kept balf the dia-
meter of the maft, and five inches more for the wedging, and
toextend from the bitts to the ftep of the bowfprit: the crofs-
chocks, which frame the maft-hole athwartfhips, are to be
eight inches thick, and kept at the fame diftance on each fide
the centre of the maft, and rabbet into the partners : the matt-
hole is made eight fquare, but now circular, by corner-pieces
rabbetted to half their thicknefs into the partners and crofs-
chocks: on the fore-fide of the fifth beam is a cap-{cuttle
about two feet fquare, and another abaft the fixth beam for
handing up cartridges, &c. from the magazine. The fore
riding-bittsare 1 foot 8 inches fquare, and placed four feet afun-
der, or two feeton each fide the middle line: the after riding-
bitts are of the fame fize, and placed 4 feet 6 inches afunder,
and the ftandard againit their fore-fides extends to the fore
riding-bitts: the crofs-pieces abaft the riding-bitts are 1 foot
6 inches fore and aft, and two inches lefe deep, and the face-
pieces on their aft-fides are of elm fix inches thick. The
framing of the fore-hatchway and ladder-way confilts of
coamings 1 foot 6 inches above the beam, that is, the lower
piece to be g inches deep and 10 inches thick, and the upper
piece g inches deep and 7 inches thick, douelled together,
and {pread in the clear 4 feet 8 inches ; and the head-ledges
to be 7 inches thick, fcored and tailed into the coamings,
and to round-up above the latter, -after the rate of 23 inches
in fix feet of length. The capftan-partners are here framed
as on the upper deck ; but as this method of lowering the
fore-jeer capttan is difcontinued, let it be framed as the main-
jeer capftan. The main-maft partners are framed fimilar to
the fore partners, the carling being 1 foot 5 inches broad,
and 1 foot 6inches deep. ‘The chain-pumps are reprefented
on the plan as fitting the pump-cafes through the maft-part-
ners, and the back-cafes without ; the {fprocket-wheel and
{pindle-work in brafs rhodings or gudgeons, let into the
top-fail-fheet and jeer-bitts, and the winches alfo in the pump-
pillars. The main-hatchway is 6 feet 4 inches athwartthips,
and fitted with coamings and head-ledges as the fore-hatch-
way. The after-hatchway is the fame as the fore-hatchway.
The ftep for the main-jeer capftan is 1 foot 10 inches broad,
and 1 foot 6 inches deep, to be fcored down between beams
21 and 22, and lap thereon 8 inches aboye the beam, with

broad carlings on each fide to receive the bolts of the palf-
rim; in the middle of the ftep is an iron cap to receive the
fpindle. The hatch to the {pirit-room, and ladder-way to
the cock-pit, are framed as the fore-hatchway.. The mizen
ftep to be 1 foot 8 inches broad, and 1 foot 4 inches deep,
and {cored down between beams 25, 26, and 27, two inches.
The bread-room feuttle, which is 2 feet 4 inches {quare,
is on the larboard-fide, and is framed with coamings and
head-ledges, with a cap or top as high above the deck as at
the hatchways: on the ftarboard-fide abaft is a fcuttle
about two feet fquare over lady’s-hole, and another 14 inches
f{quare over the fcuttle to the magazine. On the gun-deck,
in the middle of the three or four after-beams, is a ftandard,
fided 12 inches, the upper end to fay againft the tranfoms,
as high as the helm-port tranfom.

A ftrake without the coamings at the main-hatch is re-
prefented, the binding-ftrakes all fore and aft, which are
to ftrengthen the decke, as they are weakened by the hatch-
ways, therefore the butts fhould be fhifted clear of them: in
the inner ftrake are driven the ftopper-bolts. Forward is
fhewn the moulded fize of the deck-hook and eaking,
alfo the plan of the hawfe-holes and manger, with the
ftantions.

On the fame plate is drawn the plan of the orlop, with its
feveral conveniencies. On the fore-platform, which extends
from the fore-peek to the fore-hatchway, is the boat{wain’s
cabin on the larboard-fide, with fuch another for the car-
penter dire€tly oppofite ; and before each is a ftore-room, to
hold their refpeétive ftores ; before the boat{wain’s ftore-room
is a fail-room ; between the fore riding-bitts are two doors,
one leading to the light-room paflage on the larboard-fide,
and that on the ftarboard-fide to the magazine and gunner’s
ftore-room. Clofe before the heel of the larboard fore-
moft riding-bitts is a cap-feuttle, inclofed, to hand up filled
cartridges ; and on the oppofite fide a flat {cuttle to the
magazine, likewife inclofed: at the end of the light-room
paflage is a {cuttle to the light-room: abaft the riding-bitts
are {cuttles to the boatfwain’s, gunner’s, and carpenter’s
ftore-rooms under the orlop. The fore-hatchway is of the
fame fize, and immediately under that on the gun-deck, but
has only a flat framing round it, to take the hatches that
cover it. The beams of the orlop are rabbetted on each edge
to receive the flat, which is only oak boards 14 inch thick as
far as the after-platform. ‘The midfhip fail-room now ex-
tends from the main-hatchway to the fore-hatchway, and is
framed round with pillars upon a carling ten inches deep; and
as the capftan-room is not ufed, the gunner’s cabin is made at
the fore-part. The main-hatchway is of the fame fize as
that over it, and is framed round as the fore-hatchway. ‘The
well is not inclofed, as fhewn on the plan, but at prefent is
laid over with gratings. The after-hatchway is of the fame
fize as the hatch over it, and framed like the others. Be-
tween the beams 21 and 22 is a double hatch to the {pirit-
room, and one next abaft it to the coal-hole. Qn the fore-
fide of beam 23 is the bulk-head of the cock-pit, and abaft
it inclofed are two fcuttles, one to the powder-room the
other to the light-room.

Onthe larboard-fideabaft is the fteward’s room, abaft which
is the bread-room; and the interval between the fteward’s
room and light-room bulk-head is the fteward’s bed-place and
racks for ftowing cheefe: next before the fteward’s room is
the purfer’s cabin, before that the flop-room, and next to
that a compartment for the marines? clothing. From the
fteward’s room, to nearly forward on each fide, are the wings,
or an open {pace about 4 feet 6 inches from the fide, fufficient
to {wing a mall, if neceflary, to plug up fhot-holes in the time
of action, From the fteward’s room to the marines’ clothing

13

birthed up with a bulk-head of 14-inch deal, aod the fame
the boatfwain’s cabin forward, and between thole
, flantions and whole deal battens or lattice-werk, On
_ the flarboard-fide, oppofite to the tteward’s room, &c. is the
captain's flore-room, dottor’s cabin, and firit licutenant’s

flore-room ; and between the captain's ftore-room and paflaye

+

s

to a is fitted a difpenfary for the doctor.

: a this plan it is cuftomary with a different coloured ink
| to draw the plan of the works in the hold; and to dittin-
ge them on the plate, they are reprefented by fine ticked

Under beam 1 is a bulk-head for the boundary of the a
with its plan, and alfo the magazine-lights,

fpla-Loards, (to throw the rays of light more

ine). The ine is {urrounded by a itrong
ideas inch » the edges rabbetted to; .
of which is
joint,

}
Bi

F

doubly lined with flit deal, fo as to
on the outfide with lit deal and a thick

SERGE
iit
3

i

ul

: the
is tf-dnch deal, ised on the under de. The bulk head

ut

i
:
Fr

is as it is where.
__are filled, (hence its name, ) for greater fecurity : as it is clofe
abaft the lights, glafs fahhes extend acrofs, with a
let Repeiesietitiapes end c compere belied thon
a@ compartment
for faves of barrels. The powder-barrels are ftowed

upon dunnage over the pallating flat, which is

parted off from the filling by an open bulk of ftantions

and battens. ines are now only fitted up to receive
_ barrels with idges already filled.

Abaft the magazine are a ftore-room for the boat{wain ; on
_ the larboard-fide, in midfhips, a ftere-reom for the er,
and under that a fhot-locker ; and on the flarboard-fide a

is the plan of the well,
Under the fore-fide of

room, for lady’
On Plate VI. is reprefented the half. of the quarter-
deck, ced and forecaitle, likewife half-plan of the
up. 4
| Gn the pian of the deck is fhewn the beak-head ftan-
‘tions, fides are to receive the bulk-head: the
midfhip ftantions to be about 2 feet 6 i 3 on each fide
_ ‘the middle line, and 12 inches fquare as high as the flat of
the beak-head ; tenon at the heel into the foremolt

of the wu and receive nto their outfides the
tenon of the carling, which is gf the fame fize as the
i eeconnmerane come Sith she fst-cll the

i Nyy salem ight as the lower fills of the

The midthip fantions to be 64 inches {quare above the
* Wow. XXXII. '

SHIP-BUILDING.

collar-carling ; the other Mantions, which are four in sumbeg
on each fide, are all 64 inches {quare, and face aft 3ths of an
inch into the cat-beam;: the two outer Mantions are placed
afunder to the {pread of the round-houfes, and thould be
kept far enough out that the funnel may come clear of the
fide ; the third flantion from the middle line mufl be {paced
fo as to make the bow-chafe port; the next flantion within
makes the head.door ; on the midfhip-fide of the head.door
isa fcuttle, with « flap hung over it to lead in the fore-tack.
The heels of all thefe Mantions tenon isto the collar-carling
with a double-ftop.

The framin Km fore-maft partners are fhewn, as before
direéted, for the main partners ou the gun-deck, on the out-
fide of which are the heels of the fore-theet and jeer-bitts ;
the heel of the former to {pread fufliciently from the middle
line to lead the fore-tack clear of the galley, having a theeve
fitted into it for that purpofe. Abaft the fore ners
an cants for the galley, which is inclofed abaft by two

rs.

The fore-hatch and ladder-way to be framed, as dire€ted
on the gun-deck, with coamings ten inches broad, and pine
inches above the deck, and head-ledges fix inches thick ;
next abaft are the fore-jeer capflan partners, to be feven
inches thick, their ends let down into a framing fimilar to the
hatchway (orto have their ends {quare, and fhut in with the
deck), and bolted eronas the beams and carlings, and their
edges to be rabbetted to flop the caulking. The ladder-way,
main hatchway, main-mait partners, after-hatch, main-jeer
capitan partners, gratings, and ladder-ways, are all framed
as before defcribed.

On this plan the flat of the deck is reprefented, and the
feveral butts thifted: clofe to the fide are the water-ways,
five inches thick, and the firft ftrake of oak, which is cut
off between the riders ; the next four ftrakes are alfo Englith
oak in the wear of the s, fhifted in fhort lengths, and
anchor-ftock, or top and boit, to affift the converfion. The
reft of the deck is three-inch Pruffia deal, except the binding-
ttrakes, which are the fecond and third, without the main
hatch-coamings, and under the forecaftle: the deals muft
be fo fhifted as to work their whole lengths, or great waite
will occur, that is, 30, 36, and 40-feet lengths. mizen
partners are framed with a carling ou each fide, and corner-
ial h as the beams, and the flat round them is oak,

inches thick.

Clofe up under the beams is reprefented the tiller, as fitted
with the horn-hoop over the end, for keeping up the tiller-
rope in the {weep, and a hoop abaft it, with eyes in it,
through which the rope is reeved, to be fet up taught by
tackles hooked to the eye-bolts ; further aft, at the after-
end, are iron rods, which are hove taught by a {crew-nut, to

the tiller aft. At the fore-end, on the upper fide, is

an iron k, which traverfes on the {weep, and keeps

up the fore-end ; the rope traverfes round the {weep in a

» and is led up to the wheel on the deck above by

i fitted at the end of the fweep, and the blocks afore
the matt reprefented by the ticked line.

Sometimes abaft, where the fide is to round to have
riders, iron ftandards are fitted, as on beams 26 and 27.

On the beam, before the mizen-matt, is the bulk-head of
the ward-room, fitted with double doors on each fide.

The knee under the cat-beam prevents the hanging of a
door at the aft-fide of the round-houfes forward: they are
therefore inclofed with a bulk-head, and a door on the aft.

Papen, On Secakhe 5 ewe (v0 wes Ge e
te was woaseredl)> the conftru@tion of the

SHIP-BUILDING.

with the chafe-port and upper part of the round-houfes ;
alfo the plan of the cat-head, cat’s-tail, and the knee abaft
the cat-head. Between the cat’s-tail and the fore-matt is
framed in midfhips a ladder-way, and round the fore-matt
are the fore-top-fail-fheet and jeer-bitts, with their crofs-
pieces; on the fides of the bitts the cheek-blocks, or
they muit be provided very large, to receive all the fheeves
neceflary for fheets, braces, &c. Abaft the fore-maft, on
each fide, is a {cuttle for the top-tackles to lead through to
hook to an eye-bolt on the upper deck. Over the galley,
in midfhips, are framed the fteam-gratings; and between
them coamings for the chimney-funnel. At the aft-part
of the forecaftle are reprefented the belfry bitts, with the
knees to fupport them; and over the breaft-beam are fhewn
the foot-rail and ftantions, as then ufed, but now difcon-
tinued.

Along the waift into the fide, inftead of gang-boards, as
formerly, the deck is continued: from forward to aft feven
feet three inches from the fide ; likewife the flat is continued
along the midfhips, five feet three inches on each fide the
middle line, except an opening over the main-hatchway.

Upon the plan of the quarter-deck is fhewn the plan of
the breaft and foot-rail over the breaft-beam, with their
ftantions, now rendered unneceflary by continuing fo much
of the deck along. On each fide of the main-mait is a
flat fcuttle for the pumps to. be paffed through ; and on the
aft-fide of the beam abaft the mait are the brace-bitts. Abaft
the brace-bitts, on each fide, is a flat {cuttle, for leading
through the main top-tackles to an eye-bolt driven in the
upper deck. From the feventh beam to the twelfth the {pace
is framed for gratings, and a ladder-way, as before directed,
five feet four inches in the clear. Between the fourteenth and
fifteenth beams are fixed the tteering-wheel and its ftantions ;
in the next opening is the mizen-maft: the partners are
formed with thick-ituff, as at the upper deck. On the
beam abaft the matt is the bulk-head of the lobby and bed-
place ; and on the twenty-firft beam the bulk-head of the
captain’s cabin: between thefe bulk-heads are a fore and
aft bulk-head that part the lobby and bed-place; and on
the twenty-fourth beam is the f{creen-bulk-head. The
latter is unneceflary when there is no walk or balcony
abaft.

A plan of the round-houfe is not wanted, as, befides its

beams and ports, there are only the mizen-top-fail-fheet-bitts 7

on the fore-fide of the beam before the maft, and taffrail-
knees abaft: when an open itern, illuminators inftead of a
companion are let into the deck,

Explanation of the Methods of Laying-off all the Parts of a
Ship onthe Mould-loft Floor, preparatory to the aéual Build-
ing of the Ship.

The fheer-draught, Plate I., being completely drawn
upon paper, moftly to a feale of a quarter of an inch
to a foot, as before obferved, or forty-eight times lefs
than the real fize of the fhip, it remains to expand it to
that fize on the mould-loft-floor ; but the latter is feldom
long enough to admit the laying-off of any large veffel in
one length ; in fmall mould-lofts they muft of courfe lay-
off in three or four lengths. Indeed, to lay-off in one
length would caufe unneceffary walle of time ; for many of
the joints of the timbers, or perpendiculars of the fore-body,
an{fwer alike for the after-body.

Laying-of. Plate VII.

Plate A may be faid to reprefent the mould-loft-floor in
miniature, by the fame fcale as Plate 1.5 but here, to pre-
vent confufion, the different plans are fhewn feparate, but

on the floor in the grofs: the feveral plans are laid off one
over the other, which, to the practitioner, is perfectly clear.

The mould-loft-floor being cleared, begin by ftriking a
{traight line from one end to the other, as A A in the above
plate, in diftance from the fide of the loft as much as the
keel is deep. This line will reprefent the upper edge of
the rabbet of the keel in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, above which
all the heights are to be fet up, and it will reprefent alfo
the middle line of the half-breadth, plan, fig. 2.

Proceed now to lay-off the fore-body, by transferring
from the fheer-plan, P/ate I., and ereGting from the line A A,
to the right-hand, the feveral perpendiculars or joints of
the frames @, B, D, F, H, K, M, O, Q, S, U, X; and
the foremott-perpendicular, and likewife frames 2 and 4
abaft @. This mutt be accurately done, fo as not to exceed
the room and {pace.

Now defcribe the ftem, as in Plate VII. fig. 1, fuppofing
it of the full fize, by fetting up from the line A A the height
of the centres from Plate I., and the neareft diftance thereon
from the adjoining perpendicular, as at Q,Q; by which
radius the fore and after fides are {wept, likewife the rabbet
in the middle, from the keel upwards to §. Then fet up
the height of the head, or upper part, and its diftance forward
from the neareft perpendicular ; then, by pinning a batten
to the {pots laft fet off, and to the curves already {wept, the
ftem will be formed likewife.

Transfer from the fheer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the
lower and upper height of breadth-lines from the line A A,
as in Plate VII., from the perpendicular 4 to the ttem;
then, by pinning a batten to thofe heights, produce the fair
curves E and F. :

Let the outlines of the fore body-plan, Plate VII. fg. 3,
be reprefented, that is to fay, the middle line by the line
AA; the bafe line, or upper edge of the keel, by one of the
perpendiculars ; then will the outfide line, R L, be parallel
tothe line A A: at the moulded breadth at dead-flat (as few
mould-lofts are broad enough to admit the height of the
timbers as in the plate,) ftrike in the half-fiding of the
ftem S from the middle line.

The main half-breadth line may now be laid off, by trans-
ferrimg it from the half-breadth plan, Plate I., to its cor-
re{ponding timbers on the floor, from the line A A ; and to
end this line at the ftem, take the height in the fheer-plan,
ig. 1, where the lower height of breadth-line interfe€ts the
aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem, and transfer it to the
middle line of the body-plan, fic. 3; and from thence take
the half-thicknefs of the ttem, and fet it up from the middle
line of the half-breadth plan upon a line {quared down from
the aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem, at the lower height of
breadth in the fheer-plan. Then, by pinning. a batten to
the feveral half-breadths fet eff, and to its ending at the
ftem, we form the fair curve D, as in Plate VII. fig. 2, or
main half-breadth line.

Obferve, when the batten is pinned, to look along it
ftriGtly, and fee that its edge produces a fair line: this mult
be always underftood, and therefore need not be repeated.

Transfer from the fheer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the |
centres for the radius of the floor-fweeps of the fore-body —
on to the floor, and by pinning a batten thereto, produce the
line B, in fig. 1.

Transfer from the half-breadth plan, Plate I., the rifing
half-breadth, or narrowing of the floor-{weeps of the fore-
body, and by pinning a batten thereto, produce the line B,
in fig. 2.

Transfer from the fheer-plan, Plate I., the heights of the
top timber-line to the floor; and fhould the floor not be
broad enough to admit the whole heights, fet them up

their

SHIP-BUILLDING.

( their refpedtive timbers from fome — line, as AA,
allowing the addition of twenty feet; then, by pinning «
batten to thofe heights fet up, produce the curve I,

Plate VA. fg. 1.

Transfer fon the half-breadth plan, Plate 1., the top-
timber half-breadth on to the floor, and by pinning a batten
to the feveral half-breadths fer off, the curve C, in Plate V 11.
Sg. 2, will allo be reprefented.

Then, having marked ——— “ _—— with their
re{pedtive names, proceed to the fore-body, fixing on
fome convenient part of the floor, making the line AA,
Plate VII. fig. 1, ferve for the middle line M, Plate VII.
Fe. 3 and one of the perpendiculars for the bafe line, or

of the keel, as before obferved. The diagonal

+ arte are not only ufed in laying-off the body
on the floor, and taking the bevellings of the feveral timbers,
but are of incipal ufe in the aétual building ; for at

ir ftations ribbands and harpins, which keep the

E
H
4

the bearing of the body in mid-
conveniently ilivee! by conyverfion of the
abaft, it is not of fo much con-

taken at this diagonal to as far
tends.

inches to two feet, ac-
below the floor-head C ; it
- in midth;
vellings are alfo
a fore and aft, from which it is

lower diagonal, marked A in Plate VII. figs.
Seah A ebcinld ecaeeelly ta the achddle between soothed
oil User Mend vat which place the lowelt bevellings of
the

D in Plate VII. figs. 3 and 5, is
the floor-head and firft fut-

the thip,

§
?

i

3

ee
Eg
e

i
F
Bi
&
<8
Es

efi

A
T23
a
g

i

af

5

futtock-ribband. Bevellin;
A ie toge and aft.
op mer G in Plate VII. figs. 3

futtocks, alfo the

Bi Plate VIL. figs. 3 and 5, is

of the double futtoeks afore and abaft the floors, and is
therefore called the frend futiock-head; it thovld be
{paced about feven feet above the firlt or lower futtock head,
in order to give fuflicient fearf or thift to the lower part of
the third futtocks. Bevellings are alfo taken at this dia-
gonal, all fore and aft,

The diagonal marked H in Plate VIL. figs. 3 and 5, is
fituated in midthips in the middle, between the fecond
futtock-head and the third futtock-head, at which place a
ribband and harpin are necell for the fecurity of the
third futtocks, and hence called the third futtock-ribband.
Obferve, the harpin is placed low enough at the fem that
the wales may be worked before it is taken down, or it may
fly up like the others, and not come home to the ftem.
Bevellings are alfo taken at this diagonal, all fore and aft.

The diagonal marked I in Plate VII. figs. 3 and 5,
terminates the heads of the third futtocks, is thereforc
called the third futtock-bead, and thould be {paced about
feven feet above the fecond futtock-head, fo as to give the
fame fhift to the fourth futtocks as the other futtocks have.
Obferve, fuch third futtocks as come under the guo-deck
ports, muft be continued upwards to the under part of the
ports, if poflible to be gotten. Bevellings are alfo taken
at this diagonal, fore and aft. -

It muft be obferved, that the diagonals for the ribbands,
as above defcribed, mutt all be drawn in pencil on the body-
plan, Plate I.

A ribband and harpin are alfo placed all fore and aft below
the gun-deck and upper deck ports, and one likewife at the
top timber-line, as at M, N, and O, Plate VII. figs. 3 and 5,
which, with the ribbands and harpins before menti

the whole framing of the fhip together to its true

Having defcribed the diagonals, and ftruck them acrofs
the fore-body on the floor, as in Plate VII. fig. 3, the fe-
veral timbers may be completed, by firft transferring the
lower height of breadth-line E from the theer-plan, Plate VII.
Jg- 1, from @ to X, to the fore body-plan, fg- 3, and
ftriking horizontal lines at each of thofe heights acrofs the
bodyipian, as at K ; then transfer the main half-breadth of
each timber from the half-breadth plan, fg. 2, upon their cor-
refponding heights from the middle line of the body-plan,
Jig: 3. Then S taking the radius or length of the lewer
breadth {weep from the fore body-plan, Plate I., of timber
dead-flat, fet it off upon its lower height of breadth line,
and it will {weep it downwards nearly as low as the fecond
futtock-head: in the fame manner{preceed with all the
timbers to Y.

Take off the half-breadths of each timber in the fore
body-plan, Plate I., from the middle line on the di
floor-ribband, as far forward as X, and fet them up
the middle line of the half-breadth plan, fg. 2, upon their re-
{pective timbers ; then, to end it at the item, transfer the height
where it interfeéts the half-thicknefs of the ftem in the body-
plan, fig. 3, to the fore part of the rabbet of the ftem in the
theer- i . 13 from thence {quare it down to the middle
line of the half-breadth plan, fg.2. Take the half-thicknefs
of the ftem in the inl figs sence tion i and
fet it up from the middle line o half- breadth plan, fg. 2,
i uared down; and from thence fweep an
of the bottom plank taken on the di
part of which arc is the ending of the
the floor-ribbands. Then, by pinning a batten to
half-breadths, and to the back of the are or
a = floor-ribband will be inva

‘ame manner proceed wi ribbands or di
: 4Ba as

SHIP-BUILDING.,

D, F, and H, fg. 3, a8 you find ticked from @ to the ftem
in the half-breadth plan, fg. 2, to their refpeCtive diagonals
in the body-plan, fig. 3.

Set up 11 feet from the bafe line in the body-plan, figs. 3
and 5, and {trike a line parallel thereto, which is the height
of the centre of the floor-{weep at dead-flat. Then take the
heights in the fheer-plan, fg. 1, for the centre of the floor-
{weeps B, from B to K, and fet them up in the body-plan,
fig» 35 above the centre at dead-flat, and at each height ttrike
Jevel lines. Then take the half-breadths in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 2, of the centres of the floor-fweeps B, and {et
them off on their correfponding heights from the middle
line in the fore body-plan, fg. 3. Then, with a radius at
the centre inthe body-plan, to its correfponding half-breadth
on the diagonal floor-ribband, {weep the curves of the feve-
ral timbers at the floor-head, from @ to K.

Having {wept in the various curves below the lower
height of breadth, and at the fleor-heads, pin a batten to
the half-breadths, as fet off on the diagonals for dead-flat,
and the back of the above {weeps ; continue it with a {mall
curve or hollow from the {weep at the floor-head to the
rabbet of the keel, which completes that timber from the
lower height of breadth to the keel. The fame procefs
will complete all the timbers. With regard to the heeling
of the timbers exaétly, {et off the half-thicknefs of the
keel from the middle line in the body-plan, fg. 3, on the
bafe line, and parallel thereto to its depth; then with
compaffes, opened to the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
{weep two arcs, fo as to form the triangle at the outfide on
the upper edge, and it will be readily feen that the timbers
along the midfhips will end/at the outfide of the rabbet ; but
as they approach forward, they will end on the infide of the
rabbet; and as the keel tapers at the fore-end, they mutt be
heeled fufficiently within the keel to admit the thicknefs of
the plank: then to heel the timbers that rife on the ftem,
transfer their heights where they cut the outfide of the
rabbet of the {tem in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, to the half-thick-
nefs of the ftem in the body-plan, jig. 5; from thence, with
compafles opened to the thicknefs of the bottom plank,
fweep an arc inwards, the back of which is the ending of
the timber, and a line {quared from the timber to the height
fet off on the outfide of the ftem reprefents the rabbet in
that dire€tion.

The fore-body being completed below the lower height
of breadth, the upper part, or top-fide, may be laid off by
transferring the upper height of breadth line F from the
fheer-plan, fig. 1, at each timber from dead-flat to X, to the
body-plan, fg. 3, and ftriking level lines acrofs at each
height. Continue upwards each timber parallel to the
middle line, from the lower to the upper height of breadth.
Then, with the radius of the upper-breadth {weep taken
from the body-plan, Plate I., {weep upwards every timber
from its ref{pective upper-breadth line, from dead-flat to O.

Transfer the height of the top timber-line I, from the
fheer-plan, fig. 1, at every timber, to the fore body-plan,
Jjg- 3, and trike in level lines at every height ; then take
the top-timber half-breadth from the half-breadth plan,
jig: 2, at every timber, from dead-flat to X, and fet them
off from the middle line of the body-plan, fic. 3, upon their
refpective heights. Then, by a mould made to the hollow
or tumbling-home of the top-fide, and upper-breadth fweep
at dead-flat, and a few feet above the top-timber-line, every
timber from dead-flat to‘1O may be formed on the floor by
lowering or raifing the mould fo as to agree with the upper-
breadth {weep, and the half-breadth, as fet off on the top
tamber-line, But the timbers before O muft gradually par-

5

take of the hollow of top-timber X, which falls outwards
confiderably from a perpendicular at its main-breadth, though
parallel to the middle line above the height of the top
timber-line to the top of the fide, which mult be transferred.
from the fheer-plan, fig. 1, to each timber re{pectively in
the body-plan, Plate VII. fig. 3. Pin a batten to thofe fe-
veral heights, which will form the curves O and P, as in
Jig. 3- ‘Take {quare from the middle line in the body-plan,
jig: 3, the half-breadths of all the timbers at the top of the
fide, and fet them up on their correfponding timbers from
the middle line in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2; feeing that
it makes a fair curve. The fore-body may now be {aid to
be laid off above the main-breadth, which completes the
whole of the {quare fore-body, fig. 3.

The correct height of the knuckles of the timbers at the
beak-head requires fome attention; for if they were carried
too high, the fheer of the fhip muft be lifted; or, if kept
too low for the fheer, the timbers muft be reduced to raife
the knuckles: therefore determine what part of the fheer-
ftrakes fhall come well with the knuckles ; for if the knuckle
was to come in the middle of either fheer-{trake, the fore-
fhift of it muft then be wrought, taking a large piece
of timber and much labour. In Plate VII. the upper edge
of the fheer-ftrake is well with the knuckle. Another
copfideration to be taken into this account is the lifting the
fheer forward, that it may have the fame appearance on the
fhip as is defigned on the draught; for if not lifted gra-
dually fome inches higher towards the ftem, the curvature of
the bow will make it appear to drop below a fair curve.

To know how much the fheer of the fhip requires to be
lifted forward has fometimes been refolved in this manner.
Prolong the fheer of the wale before the {tem in the fheer-
plan, jg. 1, at pleafure ; then pina batten to the round of the
bow at the main half-breadth, in the half-breadth-plan,
jig. 2, and mark on the batten the ftations of the {quare
timbers and the fide of the ftem ; then pin the batten te the
fheer of the wale in fg. 1, keeping the {tations of the tim-
bers, as marked on the batten, well with thofe near dead-flat,
where they will not alter; then mark the other timbers, and
the ftem on the fheer of the wale-line prolonged, and level
them aft, to interfeét their correfponding timbers and the
{tem ; then a batten pinned to thofe interfeétions will give
the curve for lifting the fheer of the fhips round the bow.
But as the forms of the bows of {hips are fo very different,
it cannot be recommended as an undeviating rule, and there-
fore muft be referred to praCtice ; however, it is requifite to
make an allowance for it in the laying-off of all fhips, as the
decks, fheer-ftrakes, and confequently the knuckles of the
timbers, all partake of this neceflary additional height.

The {quare body afore dead-flat being now laid-off, pro-
ceed to lay-off the after-body abaft dead-flat: but it is only
neceflary to point out {uch differences as occur at the ex-
tremes of the fhip, the midfhip part being fimilar in both
bodies,

On the mould-loft-floor it is cuftomary to fet off as many
of the perpendiculars abaft the fore-body already laid off, as
to have fufficient room for the ftern-polt, ufing as many of
thofe in the fore-body as will anfwer to the regular room and
{pace of the timbers, which will be as far as B, which will
extend in the after-body as far as 14, confequently from 14
ftrike up from the line A A all the remaining perpendiculars
to 36.

Srrike in the aft-fide of the ftern-poft on the floor from
the fheer-plan, P/ate I.,and the aft-fide of the rabbet ; and
{trike a line parallel thereto, on the fore-fide, to the thicknefs
of the bottom plank.

Transfer

a

¢

SHIP-BUILDING.

"Transfer from the theer-plan, Plate 1., the heights of the
centres of the floor-f lower and upper heights of
breadth, top timber-line, and top of the fide, as betore.

Transfer from the half-breadth plan, Plate 1., the half-
breadths of the floorfweeps, main half-breadth, and top-
timber half-breadths. But to end the main-breadth, and
likewife the top-timber half-breadth in the half-breadth plan,

2, the fide-counter-timbers mutt be laid off in the theer-
and body-plan, and where they interfect the fide-
Se oe amet the fheer-plan, muit be fquared down to

the .

Tn the plan offehe after-body on the mould-loft-floor, its
middle line is made by the fide-line of the fore-body, confe-
omy. the bodies at the lower part crofs each other. This
’ have appeared very confufed in the plate, but it
<a a maxim in laying-off on the floor to ufe as few

as — . .

The lower height of eye tee. and the centres

» Sig. 5» — ooh be ob-

i

if
7
t
Ss
z

true ending of every

A
Sg: 5» is laid off in the
y at dead-flat, even

far laid off on the floor, it is
ethe moulds, and take the bevellings of all the
{quare body ; that is, from O forward to 28

a
&
g,
F

Pat
tH!

directed

|

A s
f
z

H

Moulds for the Timbers in the Square Bedy.

,, The moulds for the midthip floors are generally made ff
nm

manner: take fir-board, about three-

and fay it to the
to the fides of the

Thefe two moulds may then be united together at the
middle line by hinges, fo as to thut together, and be more
handy for ufe,

The cutting-down line being transferred from the theer-
plan, fy. 1, to the floor, as st M, Plate Vil. fig. 1, take
its height above the upper edge of the keel at every floor
from dead-flat to O, and fet them up the middle line of the
mould from its lower edge, and fquare them acrofs, marking
exch floor’s name refpettively. tis one or two battens ho-
rizontally acrofs, from the cutting-down board in the middle
to the foremoit floor, as braces, to preferve the mould from
racking. The mould is now finithed for moulding the floors
of the 1 Pre thus far.

Now lay the blank fide of the mould upwards in the after.
body, fig. 5, and mark thereon, as before, the moulding
edges of as many of the after-floors from dead-Hist as the
mould will contain, and the heights of their cutting-down,
which will be found to extend to 21.

Then to the floors from 22 to the after-{quare floor 28,
another fimilar mould muft be made.

The lower futtock-moulds are belt made of feafoned board
of the above thicknefs, the outer edge being fayed to the
frame-futtock, and the infide edge to the adjaming filh
from a few inches within the fide of the keel to the
futtock-head. Then when the mould is in its , mark
thereon the fide of the keel, lower diago A, floor-
ribband B, firlt futtock-ribband D, and frit futtock-head E ;
ora fhorter way, the diagonals numerically, rf diag. 2d diag.
&e.

But if faving of ftuff and time be confidered as an objeét,
make the edges of the mould fay to the two adjoining frames,
and fet down {pilings to the correfponding fillings at every
diagonal, and alfo at the head and heel.

he fecond futtock-moulds may be next made fimilar to
the above, from the floor-head to the fecond futtock-head,
marking thereon the heel C, firft futtock-nbband D, firit
futtock-head E, fecond futtock-ribband F, and fecond
futtock-head G.

The third furtock-moulds may be next made in the fame
manner from the firit futtock-head to the fecond futtock-
head, marking thereon the heel E, fecond futtock-ribband
F, fecond futtock-head G, third futtock-ribband H, and
third futtock-head I.

The fourth futtock-moulds differing in their thape, and
being much longer than the others, the belt and readieft
method is to fay this mould to dead-flat, from the fecond
futtock-head to the top of the fide, and two or three feet
longer, as the heads run higher afore and abaft dead-flat.
The infide of the mould towards the upper part may be made
to the feantling line, but at the heel, and a tew feet above it,
fhould be made as broad as poflible; fo that by this one mould
rs be moulded nearly all the fourth futtocks in the fore-

ly. Lay the mould in its place at desd-flat, and mark
thereon the heel G, third fut sribband H, third tuttuck-
head I, lower and upper heights of breadths K and L, gun-
deck port-fill M, upper deck port-fill N, top timber-line O,

and top-fide P.

Next place the wpper part of this mould to the foremoit
fourth futtock, O, Tete {quare body, and it will be found
to fay from the main-breadth upwards (as it will ‘likewife
fay to all the timbers between O and dead-flat, in conte-
quence of the radii of the upper-breadth {weeps being all
of one length) ; then, while the mould is in this pofition, if
it covers part of the timber from the mam-breadth
downwards to the fourth futtock-heel, the fourth futtock
of this timber may be moulded by this mould, as it may then
be confequently marked on it ; but if not, then the —

mu

SHIP-BUILDING.

muift be moved to the next timbers aft, placing it after the
fame manner, until the timber is found to which it will
mould, as defcribed above: while the mould lies well to the
timber above the breadth, take its corréfponding third fut-
tock-mould, keeping the heel of the third futtock-mould well
with the heel of its timber, then rafe or mark its moulding
edge on the fourth futtock-mould. In the fame manner place
it to the other timbers, marking thereon its correfponding
third futtock, at the fame time marking all the refpective
heights of the ribbands, &c. as at dead-flat. Obferve, fhould
the mould not fay towards the head of fome of the foremolt
timbers, (as the tumble-home is lefs forward abaft than in
midfhips, ) meafure the diftance from the mould to the line of
the timber on a fquare, and mark it on the mould ; this being
done to all the intermediate timbers, they may be faid to be
complete on that fide ; and when fo done, it will be neceflary
to have a {mall hole bored fquare through the mould at every
firmark, or height, upon every timber, by which means the
true fhape of the timbers, and places of the firmarks, may
be transferred to the other fide of the mould, and likewife
upon the timbers when moulding.

In the fame manner mutt be formed another mould to
dead-flat for the timbers in the after-body, marking thereon
all the timbers it will take. 'Thofe timbers of the fquare
body afore or abaft the timbers already marked on the mould
made to dead-flat, on account of there being more compafs
at the heel, may be marked upon one mould to each body,
proceeding as before, only making the lower end of the
mould fufficiently broad to take the moft compafs timbers
thereon. But fhould the heels differ fo much as to caufe
the lower end of the mould to be cumberfome ; in that cafe,
make moulds to each timber, as defcribed above.

The top-timber moulds may be made in the fame manner
as thofe for the fourth futtocks, from the top of the fide to
the heel I, or third futtock-head.

Method of taking the Bevellings of the Timbers in the Square
Body.

The moulds for the timbers of the {quare body being made,
it is neceflary to fhew in what manner their bevellings may
be taken; for, until then, the timbers which have bevellings
cannot be cut out. :

Providea bevelling-board for the floors, in breadth as much
as the floors are fided ; and, in length, fufficient to take all
the floor-bevellings thereon, as Plate VII. fig. 8. The firlt
bevelling to be taken is from the cutting-down line for trim-
ming the throat of the floors ; but from dead-flat to floor E,
they will be found to be fquare, or as far forward and aft as
the cutting-down is parallel with the keel. They will be
all reprefented by a{quare line on the board. Then, for the
throating of floor F, apply the ftock of the bevel to the
perpendicular, or joint below the cutting-down line, and the
tongue well with the cutting-down line M,as at N, Plaie VII.
Jig. 1, and that will give the bevelling for the throat of floor F.
Proceed in the fame manner with every floor, till all thofe
bevellings be taken and marked on the board, as a, fig. 8,
diftinguifhing them by writing their refpeCtive names, as
toE, F, G, H. &c. te O. Thefe will be all ftanding bevel-
lings, both in the fore and after-bodies. In the next place,
the bevellings for the outfides of the floors muft be taken,
which are always under-bevellings in both bodies, in confe-
quence of the floors being always placed on that fide of the
joint from which the body declines; thefe bevellings are taken
at the lower diagonal 4, fg. 8, the fecond diagonal, or floor-
ribband, c, fig. 8, and floor-head d, fig.8. To take thefe
bevellings, fet off the fiding of each floor from its joint, or
perpendicular, on each diagonal in the half-breadth plan,

Plate VII. fig. 2, (obferving, as before, that the floors in
the fore-body are before the joint, and thofe in the after-
body abaft it,) the diagonal formed by the heads of the
timbers being laid off in the half-breadth plan, as far as the
{quare bodies, for that purpofe, as at M, fg. 2; then take
the diftance of each diagonal on the fiding line {quare from
the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and fet them down
on their correfponding diagonals from the middle line in the
body-plan, making fpots in Plate VII. fig. 3. Then fix
one leg of a pair of compafies on thofe {pots of the lower
diagonal, beginning with the firft floor before dead-flat
that has any bevelling, which is A, and, with the other leg,
{weep the neareft diftance to the line of its corre{ponding
timber. That will determine when it is within a fquare in
the breadth of the bevelling-board; and fo proceed with
every floor alternately to O, as at 4, Jig. 8; thus the bevel-
lings may be taken for every floor at each diagonal, and be
thence marked on the board, as Plate VII. Jig. 8.

In the next place provide bevelling-boards, one for each
futtock, and one for the top-timbers, obferving that the
breadth of each board correfponds with the fiding of its
refpeétive futtock and top-timber; then, to take the be-
vellings for each, we mutt aét as before explained for the
floors ; only obferving which futtecks are {tanding bevel-
lings, and which are under: for futtocks that have ftanding
bevellings, the fiding of the timber mutt be fet off upon each
diagonal, abaft the joint of its refpeétive timber in the fore-
body half-breadth plan, and before the joint in the after.
body, and fo contrarywife for thofe which are under-be-
vellings.

Therefore obferve, that floors have under-beyellings, lower -
or firft futtocks ftanding bevellings, fecond futtocks under,
third futtocks ftanding, fourth futtocks under, and top-
timbers ftanding bevellings. The bevellings of each may
now be taken at every diagonal for every timber, and marked
on their refpeétive boards, the fore-body on one fide, and the
after-body on the other.

The bevellings to be taken for each futtock and top-
timber are as follow: for the Jower or firft futtocks, lower
diagonal a, fecond diagonal or floor-ribband 4, third dia-
gonal or firft futtock-ribband c, and firft futtock-head d,
Plate VII. fig.7. For fecond futtocks, floor-head, which is
fecond futtock-heel, third diagonal or firft futtock-ribband,
firft futtock-head, fourth diagonal or fecond futtock-rib-
band, and fecond futtock-head. For the ¢hird futtocks, firft
futtock-head, which is the third futtock-heel, fourth dia-
gonal or fecond futtock-ribband, fecond futtock-head, fifth
diagonal or third futtock-ribband, and third futtock-head.
For the fourth futtocks, fecond futtock-head, which is fourth
futtock-heel, fifth diagonal or third futtock-ribband, third
futtock-head, main-breadth, port-fill-line, top-timber-line,
and tep-fide. For the top-timbers, third futtock-head, which
is the top-timber-heel, main-breadth, port-fill-line, top-
timber-line, and top-fide. The bevellings for the main-
breadth, and all above, may be taken from the half-breadth
plan, by fixing the ftock of the bevel to the joint of the
timber, and moving the tongue to the refpective half-
breadth lines. ;

It is neceflary, in the practical application of the moulds, .
to have the fize of the timbers the moulding-way ; this muft
be either fet off on the bevelling-boards, or on the moulds.
As the latter may be reckoned the beft way, firlt fet off the
fcantling of the timbers the moulding-way at every head,
&c. at dead-flat ; thus, at the top of the fides, 6 inches,
Plate VIL. fig. 3 ; at the upper deck ports, N, ro inches ; at
the gun-deck ports, M, 114 inches; at the third futtock-heads,
I, 112; at the fecond futtock-heads, G, 124 inches ; at ans

G) ir

firh futtock-heads, E, is inches oy Sony » floor-heads, C,

13%. Then pinning a batten to all thofe {pots, making it

Boss soe eee Ha of dead-flat at the middle line, will

Te feantling-line, or inner edge of timber dead-flat ; then
the fize or moulding at the head or heel of every tm-

and fet off on their refpective moulds,

to mould the \ mould is laid on the timber,
i xe of the intended floor is brought to-

in the piece fafficient
which be no lefs than fixteen inches,
and aft, as the flrength may require.
is done, if a fufficient wood to mould
agreeably to its line on the mould, which is readily
i ane the piece correfponding with the

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on and ere obferving whether there is
fufficient to mould the infide agreeably to the {cant-

abo {pots
picuous on the i

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off on

diagonals to apply the bevellings.

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the cutting down, and rafe by the
Sea tlce ie ccomslcosMag!
if any, below the feating is made good by

futtocks except the fourth, the mould
be laid off to the outer edge of the piece ; and if
sa near enough to mould to allow for
i sees bevellings outfide and infide, rafe by
mould likewife the firmarks, head, and heel ;

nesene edge fet off the fcantlings {quare

{pe&tive se

AF
‘fe
: F

FFL
L

mitted.

The futiock-moulds are laid upon the piece, and
fhould be in perce! pofition (as indeed all moulds
fhould : ings) ; then fee that the piece forms
the line on the mould of the timber intended to
by making a hole with a gimblet through the
various firmarks belonging to the main-breadth ;
at the fame time, that the piece is ftri€ily con-
he mould above. When both are
i iece fufficient for
infide and out as
may be completed b
third futtock-mo

i
x

H
E

futtock-moulds have {pi-
the difference in the tumbling-
mould lies upon the piece,
found to anfwer, it muft be feen that the
of the piece an{wers to the {piling marked upon
heel may be finifhed as be-

the given fcantlings, and pin the

SHIP-BUILDING.

fore ; but the upper part above the upper-breadth {weep
muft be completed by a mould made to the top-timber
hollow. ‘The top-timber line marked thereon mutt be placed
to that givea by the fourth futtock- mould, with its ed
there fixed to the fpiling, and its heel to the back of
upper-breadth {weep ; its edge may be then rafed by, and
the fourth furtock will be formed up to the head er top of
the fide from the moulding-edge ; fet off the (cauhing
at the different firmarks, and the top-timber hollow place
to thofe {pots will form the inner edge of the fajd fourth
futtock, and fo will the timber be completed.

Top-timlers are moulded fo much like the fourth futtocks,
as to render a further defeription unneceflary,

The moulds for the {quare body being Gaithed, proceed
to make moulds for the flem, ftern-poft, &c. The mould for
the flem is made to the lines reprefenting the fore and after
fides, or moulded breadth, from the head to the heel; but
in pieces, according to the number the ftem is to be com-
om ed of. The rabbet is defcribed on the mould, or repre-
ented by the batten that forms the aft-fide being made pa-
rallel to the thicknefs of the bottom plank ; but if the rab-
bet comes in the middle, a batten of this defcription mutt
be nailed on the mould, agreeably to the rabbet in Plate VIL.
Upon this mould mutt be marked the heights of all

s, likewife of the harpins and cheeks, by an hori
line at cach height acrofs the mould. Some mark every two
feet above the upper edge of the rabbet of the keel upon
this mould, There fhould be a A Beg line, or, in
other words, a {quare line to fet the ftem by, which may be
the perpendicular of the gun-deck.

"The flern-poft mould is made to the lines reprefenting the
fore and after fides of the ftern-poft, from the head to the
heel, and a batten to the rabbet; then, acrofs the mould
may be marked the height of the upper fide of the wing,
filling, and deck-tranfoms at the middle line, alfo the
heights of the harpins. Another mould is alfo made for
the bearding-line on the pott, the aft-fide of which mutt be
fayed to the bearding-line from the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom down to where the bearding-line interfeéts the fore-
Bees inner polt, and the fore-fide of the mould to the
fore-fide of the inner poft; then upon the mould mutt be
marked the ftations of the upper fides of all the tranfoms,
marking their re{pective names thereon. By many, the ufe
of this mould is fuperfeded by marking the whole of the
heights, &c. upon the ftern-pott mould.

other mould may be made to the thwarthhip beardin

of the ftern-poit, thus: fquare down the interfection of —-
water-line, with the fore-fide of the inner poit in the theer-
plan, to its corref{ponding water-line in the half-breadth plan ;
then take the feveral half-breadths from the middle line in
the half-breadth plan, and fet them off from a ftraight line at
their correfponding heights in the fheer-plan ; and a curve
made to pafs through thofe {pots will be the thwarthhip
bearding of the oll, at the fore-fide of the inner poit,
from the middle fine, to which the mould is to be made;
the fame may be done, and a mould made to the fore-fide of
the ftern- h. .

A mould fhould be made to the dead-qwood abaft, which is
limited on the upper part by the cutting-down line, on the
lower part by the upper edge of the keel, the after end by
the fore-fide of the inner poft, and the foremott end by the _
aft-fide of the after-floor. The mould for the dead.
is reprefented on it; and fo hkewife are the feveral pieces
that compofe the whole, as they can be gotten fo as to give
fhift to each other. Upon this mould are faftened battens,
with one edge ftraight to the middle line: they correfpond
with the ftations of the fquare timbers ; and the ether edge

is

SHIP-BUILDING.

is hollowed to the moulding of the timbers, which gives the
half-thicknefs of the dead-wood below the ftepping or
bearding-line, as marked on the mould, as all above that line
the déad-wodd is trimmed perpendicular to the fiding of the
keelfon. To make this mould more conveniently, it may be
made in two parts, feparating lengthways at about half its
depth.

To Lay-off the Cant-timbers; Plate VII. Laying-off; Plate A.

The neceflity and utility of canting the timbers. forward
and aft, have been already explained in conftructing of the
fheer-draught, PlateI. But that the reader may have as
clear an idea as poflible of the defign of the cant-timbers,
and their difpofition when canted, obferve then in the half-
breadth plan, Plate VII. fig. 4, where the lines reprefenting
the joints of the cant-timbers, as transferred from the fheer-
draught, Plate I., interfect the middle line, there may be fup-
pofed the hinge of a door; and the lines for the cant-timbers
may be fuppofed to reprefent the door, which may be
fwung forward at pleafure ; fo that if the fhip was on an even
keel, the fides of the cant-timbers (though trimmed to their
proper form) would become perpendicular, fimilar to the
door ; or fuppofing the form of the cant-timber was drawn
on the door and fawed out, it would be perpendicular as
before. The diagonal ribbands are fimilar to the cant-
timbers in this refpeét: and as the cant-timbers at the
middle line become perpendicular, making one ftraight fec-
tion in the direGtion of the cant-timbers; fo the cant-rib-
bands at their interfetion of the middle line in the body-
plan, jig. 3, become horizontal, that is, parallel to the keel
at the middle line all fore and aft, provided that the ribbands
for the fore and after bodies meet at the middle line, as the
floor-ribbands do in fig 3. Or otherwife, as the cant-timbers
are reprefented by a door that is hung perpendicular, fo may
the cant-ribbands be reprefented by any plain furface, like
the flap of a table, that may be hung horizontal to the fide
of aroom; then will the fide of the room become the middle
line of the fhip, equal to the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 2, and the flap of the table may be canted down
to the direction of the diagonal lines in the body-plan, fig. 3.
To underftand it clearly, {uppofe the edge of the flap of the
table to be cut in the form of one of the diagonal ribbands
laid off in the half-breadth plan, fig. 2; let it be the floor-
ribband: then within the floor-cant-ribband in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 4, is the {quare or horizontal ribband B,
which is the form or diftance from the middle line which
the flap of the table makes when canted down, as in fg. 3.
The cant-ribband in the half-breadth plan, fig. 4, 1s the
fame as the flap of the table, if lifted up till its level, fhew-
ing the extreme half-breadth of the fhip, were it cut in the
direGtion of the cant-line in the body-plan, fig. 3. The
cant-ribband in the half-breadth plan, fig. 4, 1s the proper
line to make the mould to for the harpin. But the inter-
feGtion of the cant-timbers in fig. 4, with the cant-ribband,
is not the proper ftation of the timbers; becaufe the cant-
ribband is now raifed from its proper place, and the timbers
remain as before. Therefore, where the cant-timbers crofs
the {quare ribbands, fquare them up to their corref{ponding
cant-ribbands, as may be readily feen in fig. 4, which are
the proper ftations of the cant-timbers on the harpin-
moulds. For if the flap of the table, which is the cant-
ribband-line, and hinged at the middle line, was to fall down
in its proper place, it would then be exaétly underneath the
long ticked line B, which is the {quare ribband. ‘The fta-
tions of the {quare timbers on the harpin-mould will make
no alteration, becaufe the mould falls in the direGtion of the
fguare timbers, Strike a ftraight line from the mnterfection

of the cant-timber with the middle line, to their correfpond-
ing ftations on the harpin-mould; as at cant-timber S,
Jig. 4. This will give the direétion as the cant-timbers ftand
on the harpin-mould. :

Before we proceeed any further in laying-off the cant |

timbers, the fore cant-body, that is fgs. 3 and 4, fhould be
proved by the {quare timbers and water-lines, as far aft as
timber M at leaft; for it is poffible that the ribband-lines
may have a fair appearance on the floor, and yet not produce
a fair body in the fhip; but if the water-lines and ribband-
lines agree, there need be no fear of producing a fair bow,
as the lines cannot be altered after the cant-timbers are
laid off.

Therefore, transfer the water-lines from the body-plan,
Plate I., to the body-plan on the floor, and then they may
be all run from timber M, and ended forward, as directed
in the conftruting the fheer-draught, PlateI1. Thefe lines
laying with a more acute angle with the timbers, any un-

fairnefs in the body is more readily feen; but when |

the ribband-lines and water-lines produce fair curves in
fg. 4, and likewife fair timbers in fig. 3, we may pro-
ceed to lay-off the fquare ribband-lines, which may be done
in the following manner: mark on the edge of a batten
the diftances taken fquare from the middle line of the
fore body-plan, fig. 3, to where the floor-ribband interfeéts
each of the fquare timbers O, Q, 5, U, X and Y. Then
fet them off from the middle line on their correfponding
timbers in the half-breadth plan, fg. 4. The ending of it
may be performed as the ending of its correfponding dia-
gonal or cant-line, with only this difference, that, inftead
of taking the half-breadth of the ftem in the direction of
the diagonal line, it muft be taken fquare from the middle
line in the body-plan, fig. 3, to where the floor-ribband in-
terfe@ts the half-bréadth of the ftem. Then, by pinning a
batten to the {pots on the timbers and to the ending, is
produced the curve B, or fquare ribband No. 2, marked on
the floor S 2, and its correfponding ribband C 2, meaning
{quare 2 and cant 2, which fave a multiplicity of words ; and
it may be underftood more clearly as we proceed, than by
exprefling the ribbands by their proper names, as floor-
ribband, &c. Then, by proceeding in the fame way with
the reft of the diagonal or cant and fquare ribband-lines,
they may be all defcribed on the floor, as at A 1, B 2, C 3,
D4, and E 5, Plate VII., fig. 4. :

Now proceed to the operation, where the cant-timbers in
Jig. 4. interfe& the fquare ribbands A, B, C, D, and E, or
I, 2, 3, 4, and 5. Take the neareft diflance or {quare from
the middle line, and fet them off fquare from the middle
line to intenfe& their correfponding ribbands in the body-
plan, jig. 3, and from thence level out lines at pleafure, as
may be feen in fg. 3.
middle line in fig. 4, in the direCtion of the cant-timbers, to
the interfetions of the fquare ribband with the cant-timbers,
and carry them to their corre{ponding timbers in the body-
plan, fig. 3, fetting them off fquare from the middle line
on the lines before levelled out. This will give the {pots for
the timbers, and likewife the proper ftations of the harpins

to be croffed on the timbers. Uap
Square up from the half-breadth plan, jig. 4, where the
cant-timbers crofs the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood H,
to the bearding-line R in the fneer-plan. Likewife from
fig» 4, where the cant-timbers crofs the main half-breadth
line, port-fill line, top-timber half-breadth, and half-breadth
at top-fide, let them be fquared to their correfponding lines

in the fheer-plan.

Take the heights in the fheer-plan, where the cant-timbers
crofs the bearding-line, likewife the lower and upper main-
breadths,

Then take the diftance from the |

fhews how much bevelling the timber

SHIP-BUILDING.

bdreadths, the ape line, the top timber-line, and top of
the fide, and them in up the body-plan, fe » ttriking
lines a to the kets line ; sam take Pak diftance
iddle line in the half-breadth plan, Ag. 4, in the
direétion of the cant-timbers, to the line for the half-breadth
Sayre ateach timber, and fet them off from the
middle line in re . 3 on the heights fet up for
the bearding. This wi ay te of the cant-timbers
on beatin -line.
Take the dikence from the middle line in the half-breadth
plan, Ae + in the direGtion of the cant-timbers, to the main
,

-fill half-breadth, top-breadth, and top-
St
the line,

off in the ae € ay 3, fquare from
a likewife the proper heights
oa : age

on their correfponding ts. ‘This will
which the curves of the timbers are

To Lay-off the Bevellings of the Cant-Timbers,
the bevelling of cant-timber w be required, and this
as the procefs is alike. Strike a line
abaft the joint of cant w, in the half-
he feantling of the timber, which
f the bevelli Square a
line,
fiding of the timber w in the half-
breadth plan, as at fs 4 then take the nearelt diftauce
i line, from where the ticked line
{quare ribbands A, B, C, &c. and fet it
{quare from the middle line in the body-plan, fg. 3, on
each correfponding ribband, in the fame manner as was done
joint of the timber, and level them out on each fide
stn ribbands, becaufe the diftance taken off in
i i i fs. will fometimes
jagonal. Then take
diftance from the fquare line, which croffes the middle

8

TESS
m
2
é
5

PA
AG
HA
Pros
ere:
i
i
Ay
Be
be
Fie
54°

fame ticked line, in fg. 4, inter-
of the dead-wood, {quare it up to the
the mr Oy and transfer that height to

. + a
to the line for the half-
direction of the ticked

i
Fe

F
PE

Where the fame ticked line,

line, {quare it up

height of breadth line in the theer-plan, and

height to the body-plan, fg. 3. Then take
are

ereetert
BEF 5
HL
t
He
SF2s
e
z
E
fe

F

which, taken with compatles, to the joint at every ribband,
uires at each place
the bevelling-board t is, if the ticked
¥ i ge of the timber, come within
the joint of the timber (or nearer the middle line), then the

of the timber would be fo much within (or under

from) a {quare, confequently the ticked line without the
joint will be fo much without (or ftanding from) « fquare.

Figs. hem 6, exhibit the form of the fethion-piece and
cant-timbers of the after-body, which being laid off and
bevelled in the fame manner as cant-timber « in the fore-
body, it is ufelefs to explain them; neverthelefs, cant-tum-
ber 35 is completely laid off, that it may be referred to at
leifure. It may be neceflary to add, that the greateft pains
are required to prove the correétnefs of the after-body, sot
only by the water-lines, but by the vertical fe¢tions or but-
tock-lines, and by introducing one er more {quare timbers
abaft 36, to prove the buttock quite aft, and hence called
proof-timbers. When thefe are all found to agree, it will
not only produce a fair cant-body, but likewife a fair tlern-
frame. See Plate 1X. Laying-off S;

Obferve, the diagonal H, fg. 5, or third futtock-
ribband, ends upon the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, which
requires the following method to end it. ‘Transfer the
height from the line A A, or upper edge of the keel,
where the diagonal H interfe¢ts the margin-line of the
tranfom in the body-plan, fig. 5, to crofs the margin-line in |
the fheer-plan ; and where it crofles, f{quare it down to the
margin-line in the half-breadth-plan, fz. 6; then take the
diftance from the middle line in the body- plans fs. 5 in the
direétion of the diagonal H, to where it interfeéts the
margin-line of the wing-tranfom, and fet it off from the
middle line in the hall breadicleisien; fg. 6, on the line
{quared down from the margin-line, which ends the diagonal

, or third futtock-ribband. To end it as a fquare rib-
band, take the neareft diftance, or {quare, from the middle
line in the body-plan, fig. 5, to where the diagonal H inter-
feéts the margin-line, and fet it off {quare from the middle
line, fig. 6, to interfecét the margin-line there ; and if truly
Snatel down for ending the cant-ribband, the ending of
the fquare ribband will alfo interfeé& the margin-line at the
fame place in fg. 6.

Moulds are generally made to each timber, or futtock, in
the, cant-bodies ; and in croffing or marking them, it muft
be obferved, that the ftations of the heads and ribbands are
where the lines levelled out interfe& the lines of the cant-
timbers. On the heels of the double futtock and half-
timber moulds, nail on a batten to the ftepping and fide of
the dead-wood, by which the heel is to be cut off. To
perform this, fet off on the half-breadth plan, fg. 6, the
thicknefs of the itepping, or dead-wood, above the Resi
line, which may be the half-thicknefs of the keelfon, from
and parallel to the middle line, as there ticked ; then from
the middle line in the half-breadth plan, fg. 6, take the
diftance in the dire@ion of the cea to he ticked line,
and fet it off in the middle line in the body-plan upon the
line levelled out for the heel of the fame cant-timber; and

batten at any certain height above the keel, and carefully
croffed on the fide of the timber, when trimmed to corre-
fpond to a line gotten upon the dead-wood at that fame
height above the keel, will be the fureft and beft method
ing the cant-timbers to their exa@ height on

f thip.

Bi

wife abaft it, as Plate VII. fig. 9. Begin with

fide of cant-timber u, fig- 4: the heel-bevelling is the

to be taken, which gives the direétion to trim the heel of
4

SHIP-BUILDING.

the futtock the fore and aft-way, or faying to the dead-
wood; therefore, the outfide of the dead-wood being parallel
to the middle line, apply the ftock of a bevel in the direc-
tion of the joint of cant-timber w in the half-breadth
plan, and place the tongue well with the middle line, or
at the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood, as at F, fg. 4,
letting the tongue teach forward, which will be an under-
bevelling, and may be thence marked on the board. The
bevelling of the heel, to trim it to the ftepping or bearding-
line, is next taken. Thus, where the joint of cant-timber z
interfe&ts the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood, in jig. 4;
fquare it up to crofs the bearding-line in the fheer-plan ;
and, at that place, let the tongue of the bevel be placed to
the bearding-line, teaching forward, and move the ftock
till it is perpendicular, as at O in the fheer-plan, which
will give the above bevelling, which may be the next marked
on the board.

The outfide bevelling of the heel is beft obtained by
trimming the heel parallel to the infide, where it fays to the
fide of the dead-wood, to the thicknefs of the itepping.
Then, to take the bevelling at the lower diagonal, fix one
leg of a pair of compafles in the line of the cant-timber w,
in the body-plan, fg. 3, where the level line interfe€ts, and
extend the other leg to the ticked line, reprefenting the fore
edge of the timber u, {weeping it till you get the neareft
diitance, and that will fhew how much the bevelling is
within or without a fquare in the breadth of the bevelling-
board; if the former, the ticked line muft be towards the
middle line of the joint, and of courfe the latter without it ;
then do the fame with the diagonal lines, and the bevellings
of each, fo taken, may be marked on the board.

To take the bevellings at the main and top-breadths, and
at the port-fill line between them, apply the ftock of the
bevel to the joint of the cant-timber w, in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 4, as at G, and place the tongue in the direction
of the refpeétive half-breadth lines, as at top-breadth, ob-
ferving to let the tongue teach forward: thefe bevellings
are fet off on the board, as taken, and the whole kept at
a regular diftance of about three-quarters of an inch on the
left-hand fide of the board; and, to complete them, mark
their refpeétive names and fore-fide of cant u, as a, fis. 9-

The bevellings may now be taken for the aft-fide of
cant z; but the operation is performed like the former, only
obferving that the fquare line at the heel comes withinfide
of the middle line of the half-breadth plan, and lkewife
when the bevel is applied to take the bevellings at main-
breadth and above, the tongue of it muft teach aft;
thefe bevellings may then be marked on the fame fide of the
board below the others, and the board for cant-timber uz
will be complete, as 6, Plate VII. fig. 9.

in like manner may the bevellings be taken for cant-
timber 35 at the aft-fide, and marked on another board,
as a, fig. 10; likewife for the fore-fide, as 4, Jz: 103 and
fo on for all the other cant-timbers, both on the fore and
after cant-bodies, and alfo for the fafhion-pieces, and marked
on their refpeétive boards.

Making the Moulds, and taking the Bevellings of the Harpins,
Plate VEI. Laying-of, Plate A.

The ribbands to which the harpins are conneéted reach
along the fhip fore and aft ; but in the wake of the cant-
bodies, or at the fore-and aft parts of the fhip, they are
termed harpins, and are trimmed to the fhape of the fhip’s
body by moulds and bevellings from the mould-loft. The
reader, in the foregoing fection, being made acquainted
with the nature of canting the ribbands, it may only be
neceflary to obferve, that the ribbands at the port-fill line

x

would be placed better about eight inches below the upper
fide of the lower fill, fo that they may be let out above the
ribbard ; and lkewife the ribband at the top timber-line
fhould be fo placed, that one of the fheer-ftrakes fhould be
wrought before it is diflurbed. ‘T’his is commonly a larger
ribband, like that at the floor-head, to keep the top-fide
fair.

The harpin-moulds are made of fir-board, to the dia-
gonai or cant-ribband lines in the cant-bodies, figs. 4 and 6;
from the {tem or ftern-poft, to the adjoining {quare timber,
as O and 28, to be about feven inches broad; and as they
lie in their places on the floor, mark the {tations of the
cant-timbers upon them thus. Where the cant-timbers
interfeét the fquare ribbands, fquare them up to their cor-
refponding cant-ribbands ; then itriking a {traight line from
the interfection of each cant-timber, at the middle line of
the half-breadth plan, to the correfponding flations laft
{quared up, will give the dire€tion of the cant-timbers as
they ftand with the harpin-mould, as at cant-timber s, fig. 4.
The method of taking the bevellings is at every iquare
timber, which muft be likewife marked on the harpin-mould
before it is difplaced. The ftations of the fquare timbers
make no alterations, becaufe the harpin is lowered to its
cant in a perpendicular dire€tion. Fix the ftock of a bevel
in the dire¢tion of the diagonal, fay the upper one, or third
futtock-ribband H, in the body-plan, fig. 3, and the tongue
againft the outfide of the fquare timber O; then mark it
on a board (the beard to be as broad as the harpin is deep
or fided), and fo on with the other fquare timbers before

O, marking each of them, and its refpeétive timber, as.

before; then fix the ftock of the bevel upon the fame
harpin-line in the body-plan, fig. 3, and the tongue againit
the fide of the flem, and mark that likewife upon the board ;
and by that bevelling the foremoft end of the harpin mutt
be trimmed, to fay againft the ftem. The fore and aft
part of the harpin againit the ftem is obtained by the foot,
or {well on the fore-end of the harpin-mould, which is cut
off well with the half-thicknefs of the ftem, taken dia-
gonally, and parallel to the middle line, in the half- breadth
plan, fg. 4. Another bevelling is taken and applied over
the end, after it is cut off to the fore and aft-line, and be-
velled againft the flem, thus ; fix the ftock of a bevel upon
the horizontal line of the harpin upon the ftem, and teach
the tongue down the aft-fide of the rabbet; then mark it
on the board, and the bevellings are completed. ‘To com-
plete’ the harpin-mould, {quare down from the fheer-plan,
where the fore-fide of the rabbet of the {tem crofles the
upper fide of the harpin, to the mould on the half-breadth
plan, and make a firmark, which being kept to the fore-
fide of the rabbet of the ftem on the fhip, is the guide to
fix the harpin to.

To Lay-of the Hawfe-Pieces, Plate VIII. Laying-of B.

This plate reprefents the lines on the floor, as before
obferved, but made feparate here for clearnefs. The hawfe-
pieces, in figs. 1 and 2, are fuppofed to ftand perpendicular
when in their places, and their fides to look fore and aft.
They may be called fquare timbers, only they look fore
and aft, inftead of athwartfhips. This being the firft
method of laying-off the hawfe-pieces, will be eafieit under-
ftood. :

Strike in ftraight lines as much afunder, and parallel to
the middle line in the half-breadth plan, jg. 3, as the
knight-head and hawfe-pieces are to be fided, marking them
K, H, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Where the edges of the foremoft cant-timbers, marked
EF in the half-breadth plan, fig. 3, crofs the water-lines,

main-

SHIP-BUILDING.

main-breadth, and level line, at their heads A, fquare them
up mre to any of the {quare timbers, to their correfpond-
ing lines in the theer-plan, Ag. 1, and likewile do the fame
with the bearding-line, which will give the ending of the
timbers on the beardiny-line ; then, > pinning a batten to
thofe fpots, this thews the thwartfhip view of thofe cant-
timbers ae in their places, as F G.
Where the lines for the kuight-head and hawfe-pieces,
the half-breadth plan, Ay. 3, crofe the water-lines, main-
breadth, and heads, let them be likewife (quared up to

their correfponding lines in the theer-plan, Ay. 1; a batten
pinned to thofe making a fair ines the edge
rafed or chalked by, gives the form of the kmight-head
and hawfe-pieces, and thews them in their proper places ;
and where t for the knight-head, and 1, 2, and 3
hawfe-pieces, the de of the thort cant-timber,
before cant y, in the half, h plan F, fg. 3, let them
be {quared up to » of the timber,
io tha Maen able . 13 likewife the heel of hawfe-

F the of «, which gives the
Eee ofthe hight and hawe-pisce

The midthip of the knight-head conneéting well
with the fide of the ftem, the rabbet being in the middle of
it, makes the the rabbet the fore-fide of the

But when the rabbet is not in the middle of

connects well with the fide of the apron
confequently the bearding-line ts

the

at the fide of the flem, in
d transfer them refpectively to the theer-plan,
3 then, by pinning a batten to re we have

SEY; bel Babe tiatngc the harpins

knight-head and hawfe-pieces, where
cant-timber in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, are
perpendicular, in which direétion they mult be
fay againit the fide of the cant-timbers F and G.
now be made of inch-board to the lines
and 1, 2, 3, and 4 hawfe-pieces

in the » 1, from the heads to the heels, and the
ieioubllorat oe GQe'dl m-the dreAinn of the

the knight-head and hawfe-pi alf
wie-pieces, alfo
a me
to bevellings, as may be
i tg Sere Sh harpish
the harpins to on the thip.
ner oe prnpetrler ne

ing of the hawle-piece,
board to the knight-head,

each hawle-piece, or
on one board, if not thought unhandy, as fig. 4. The

body-plan,

i
Ef
:
F
>

the bevelling at
them, when the heel is cut off and
bevelling, the foremoft edge of cant

onthe fquare, as i, and on the cant, as 4,

body-plan, fig. 2, as the joint of any of the cant-

timbers were in Plate VI1.; and fo mult likewile the fore
edge of the cant-filling before y, the latter being introduced
only to fhorten the heel of the kuight-head and foremott
hawle-pieces. Then ftrike in the y-plan, Ag. 2, the
fiding of the knight-head and hawfe-picces parallel to the
middle line; aud where the moulding edge at the heel inter-
fects the fquare edge, or fore aft view of the cant.
timber, asi inthe body-plan, fig. 2, level it out to interfed
the cant edge 4. To do this with lefs trouble, take the height
in the theer-plan, fig. 1, of the heels of the knight-head and
hawfe-pieces at their interfeétion of the thwartthip view of
the fore edge of the cant-timbers, as F and G, fet them
up inthe body-plan, on their refpeétive cant edges, marking
them up perpendicular; then place the flock of the level
againtt the perpendicular lines, and the tongue to the cant
edge of the timber, as G for the knight-head, and F for
hawle-piece 4, which will give the exa@ bevelling to be
applied on the keel when cut off for the counter ing of
he knight-head or hawfe-pieces.

The fide of the kuight-head and hawfe-pieces being pa-
rallel to each other, they will ferve, in the theer-plan, is 1,
for the bevellings of each other, fimilar to parallel lines laid
down for the cant-timbers; for, as much as the mouldi
edge of the hawfe-piece, 1, is within or abaft the mouldi
edge of the knight-head, from the head to the heel, fo much is
the bevelling of the knight-head within or under from a
{quare, in the diftance between the knight-head and the
hawle-piece, 1, in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 3; therefore
with compafles {weep the neareft diltance at each harpin,
&c. from the moulding edge to the after edge of the knight-
head and each hawfe-piece, as may be feen at hawfe-piece 4,
in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, and fet it within a {quare upon the
board, asat ¢, fig. 4; and fo on for the others.

The bevellings of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, if
taken from the water-lines, main-breadth, &c. in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 3, would be found to alter but little ; yet
they are not fo true in their application as when taken on a
fquare.

But was the counter-moulding bevelling at the heel cor-
reGtly fet off, and another at the head for the knight-head,
then the mould for hawfe-piece 1, being kept well at the head
and heel, and to its proper he sett, mutt bes tic counter.
mould the knight-head exa@ly, if the knight-head could be
gotten long enough to ca the heel, or if the chock
was ~ a Fm it was moulded, and the knight-head pro-

ided.

ie the fame manner, the mould that is made to the mould-
ing edge of the hawfe-piece 2, would counter-mould the
hawfe-piece 1, and fo on of the reft.

There = no neceflity to run the water-lines in the half-
breadth plan, fg. 3, on purpofe to lay off the hawfe-pieces,
becaufe ae A 4 feticient aL of icine harping pair
run; for in the half-breadth plan, Jig- 3, where the koight.
head and hawfe-pieces crofs the {quare harpins, let them be
fquared up to their correfponding harpins in the fheer-plan,
Jg- 1, which will give the exa& form of the knight-head
and hawfe-pieces ; and, if the work is correé, will agree
with the former by the water-lines.

To Lay-off the Haww/e- Pieces, where the Sides are required to look

Sore and aft, ddd be fided lef at the Heels.
Every timber in the thip which is fided ftraight, muft
appear, either in plan or elevation, as one ftraight live ;
therefore it is neceflary, before any operation can be per-
formed, to have a clear idea of the difpofition of the timber
when in its place. The hawfe-pieces are intended to look
fore and aft, that is, at any a height the fides of
4C2 them

SHIP-BUILDING.

them are to be parallel to the middle line ; but as the heels of
them are to be fided lefs than the heads, they will confe-
quently be nearer the middle line; therefore they will not
appear in a ftraight line in the half-breadth plan, fig. 7, a8
they did in fig. 3, and cannot be viewed in a ftraight line,
unlefs by fuppofing them really in their places in the body-
plan, fg. 6.

Proceed. to difpofe of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces
as in the body-plan, fig. 6, where they will appear ftraight
lines. The moulding edges are the thin lines, except the
outfide of hawfe-piece 4, which is intended to be laid off,
in order to get the bevellings of No. 4 hawfe-piece.

The thwartfhip view of the foremoft edge of cant-timber
y, and the cant-filling before it in the half-breadth plan,
jig 7; which the knight-head and hawfe-pieces end againft,
muft be {quared up and reprefented in the fheer-plan, fig. 5,
as in the preceding operation.

The fore and aft view of the foremoft edge of cant-
timber y, and the cant-filling before it, both on the fquare
and cant, mutt be laid off as 4, 7, in the body-plan, fg. 6, as
before explained.

Now proceed to lay off the hawfe-pieces, or to fhew the
form in which they will appear in the half-breadth plan,
fg-7- The knight-head is already laid off, becaufe it is the
fame as the half-thicknefs of the ftera in the half-breadth
plan, fg. 7- Therefore take the diftance {quare from the
middle line to the heels of the hawfe-pieces, where they
interfe&t the fore and aft view of the cant-timbers 7 and G
in the body-plan, fig. 6, and fet them off {quare from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan, fig. 7, on the edges
of the cant-timbers F and E; which gives the heels of the
hawfe-pieces in fig. 7. ‘Cake the diftance fquare from the
middle line in the body-plan, fig. 6, to where the hawfe-pieces
crofs the harpins, A, B, C, D, and E; and fet them off
{quare from the middle line, on their correfponding fquare
harpins in the half-breadth plan, fig. 7. Likewife, in the
fame manner take the half-breadths in the body-plan, fg. 6,
for the main breadth and the harpin at the head; and fet
them off in the fame manner as before in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 7. Then pin a batten to thofe fpots, and mark
the curves in the half-breadth plan, fg. 7, which fhews the
form they will appear in, were you right over them, and
looking down upon them ; occafioned by the different curves
of the body when cut by thefe feGtions.

The next operation will fhew the form of the body, fup-
pofing it to be cut by the different feCtions of the hawfe-
pieces, to which form the moulds are to be made to trim the
hawfe-pieces. Proceed in the following manner :

Where the hawfe-pieces 1, 2, 3, and 4, in the half-
breadth plan, fg. 7, crofs the {quare harpins c, a. e, f, and
g3 and likewife the main-breadth B, and harpin above
A; let them be {quared up to their corre{ponding harpins
in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, where they end againft the edge of
the cant-timbers F and E in the half-breadth plan, fig. 7:
they may be likewife fquared up to interfe& the thwartfhip
view F and G of thofe cant-timbers in the fheer-plan, fg. 5,
to give the heels of the hawfe-pieces. But this is not fo
true, as to take the heights of the heels where they interfect
the fore and aft view of the cant-timbers z and G, in the
body-plan, fig. 6, and transfer them to the fheer-plan, fig. 5,
on the thwartfhip view of the faid timbers F and G ; this is
the proper height of the heels; yet if both ways agree, it
fhews the truth of the work. Then pin a batten to thofe
{pots fquared up, and mark the curves 1, 2, 3, and 4; this
gives the moulding edges of the hawfe-pieces, and fhews
them as they appear whien in their places. This method is
ufually practifed when required to be Jaid off in this manner,

and will fuffice for praétice ; but by explaining the fituation
of thofe at prefent laid off, it will fufficiently fhew they are
not exaét, therefore we fhall point out a method the moft
accurate. :

Confider the hawfe-pieces as they are now laid off, and
as they appear in the fheer-plan, fig. 5 ; you there fee the
exa&t form of them, fuppofing them to be in their places,
and that you are looking level at them. You may therefore
obferve the exaét form of the harpins, when you are looking
level at them, where they appear at their proper heights :
confequently, then, you have the exaét length and form
of the hawfe-pieces only as they appear in a level view.
And becaufe they do not ttand perpendicular, you cannot
have the exaé& length nor form properly to mould them.

In order to fhew the proper method that may be depended
on, lay-off the moulding edge of hawfe-piece 4, or the
outfide of No. 3, which will make the moft difference, be-
caufe it ftands moft froma perpendicular.

There mutt be fuppofed one given point to work from ;
therefore, it being the moft proper, let it be the heel.
Strike the level line from the heel in the body-plan, fg. 6, to
the heel in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, as f If the hawfe-
piece 4 was not laid off in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, the
moulding edge muft be gotten up, as before, from the
half-breadth plan, fg. 7. Therefore, as it is, ftrike lines
upwards, perpendicular from the feparate harpins in the
fheer-plan, fig. 5, where the moulding edge of hawfe-
piece 4 interfe€ts them. Then take the diftance from
the heel of No. 4 hawfe-piece, in the body-plan, fy. 6,
to each harpin, main-breadth, &c. taken in the direc-
tion of the moulding edge of hawle-piece 4; and fet
them up perpendicular from the heel of hawfe-piece 4,
in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, on the lines before fquared up, at
their correfponding harpins: then pinning a batten to thofe
{pots, mark the curve in fg. 5, which will give the exact
moulding of the hawfe-piece, and the heights for the
{tations of the harpins to be crofled on the hawfe-piece
moulds.

Though the exa& and proper method to lay-off the
hawfe-pieces is defcribed by laying off No. 4, the explanation
muft fuffice for this, being too minute to be drawn on the
plate. Yet the firft method is not entirely to be condemned,
as they are fhewn in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, becaufe it makes
fo little difference in the moulding, that the error is not to be
regarded in the praétice. The greateft difference it makes is
in the length, which, in No. 4, does not make it two inches
longer. But the certainty of the latter method being the
mott correét, muft be proved by working at extremes ; that
is, fuppofe the head of hawfe-piece 4 to ftand where it is in
the body-plan, fig. 6, and the heel to be fixed at the middle
line, then, if laid off by both methods, the difference would
be readily feen, which method is beft to be depended on.

The moulds for the knight-head and hawfe-pieces are made
to the lines in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, as before directed.

The dewellings, fuppofing the hawfe-pieces to be properly
laid off in the fheer-plan, fig. 5, are taken in the fame manner
as was fhewn in fig. 1 ; for though they do not appear in the
fame manner in the half-breadth plan, fig. 7, yet in the
fheer-plan, fig. 5, (their fides looking fore and aft,) you there
fee the form of them fquare from the plans of their fepa-
rate fides: therefore the diftance, as they appear from each
other in the theer-plan, fg. 5, at each harpin, is the proper
bevelling of them, agreeable to their diftance from each
other taken at their correfponding harpins in the body-plan,

10.
ites the heels of the hawfe-pieces ftep on the thwart-
fhip view of the cant-timbers in the fheer-plan, fig. 5; ane

them

-———

SHIP-BUILDING.

them u — ular; which gives the difpofition of

the heels the hawfe-pieces to AL atest the fore-fide of
each cant-timber. y

welling of the heels of the hawfe-pieces mutt likewife

he fame as in Ay. 3; for though in the half-breadth

plan, Ag. 7, the form of the moulding edges of the hawie-

appear in this view, yet the fides of them, at level

are exaétly fore and aft ; therefore the bevellings to

trim the heels to fay againft the fide of the cant-timber, is

for all the bik pieces, and muit be taken with the

the bevel looking fore and aft, or parallel to the

middle line, as is exprefied by the bevel G, which is applied

the half-breadth plan, fig. 7, to take the bevelling of

pera

To take the bevelling of the heel, to be applied when the
is trimmed by the lait bevelling, in order to counter-
mould the hawfe-pieces, transfer the heels of the hawfe-
ieces from the theer-plan, Ag. 5, to the cant-timber in the
ary taking the bevelling of the hawfe-
a dicular line, to which apply
and the tongue to the fore cant-edge,
as at ¢, fg. 6. This gives the bevelling of the heel, in ca
to counter-meuld the hawfe-pieces.
As the moft accurate method of moulding the hawfe-
i has been treated of, it is requifite it fhould be fo re-
ipecting the difpotition of the heels, and the bevelling of the
heels. As the bevelling of the heel is fhewn for No. 4
hawfe-piece, the following will explain the difference that
may be expeéted, if the hawfe-pieces were required to be
rt frp parame Snir atin OE the Waty wore re-
Yee ~ oaecale height on the hawf he
up an i ight on wie-piece 4, int
heceiaie . 6, and fuppofe it to be the height euish the
in interfeGts it; then take that height from the
wie-piece No. 4, in the direction of the line of
iece, and fet it up perpendicular from the heel of
No. 4 hawle-piece, in the theer-plan, fig. 5. Take the diftance
fquare from the middle line at the propofed height in the
body-plan, afte and fet it off fquare from oe

ree up to the ae
ine in — . 5, and ftrike the line from
Saye ane ecryred oj bane » which gives the

Bt
y i fore-fide of cant-

From the {pot before mentioned in the half-breadth plan,

- 7, take the diflance to the middle line in the direction of

cant-timber, as E, and fet it off from the middle line in

Cohan sp a Jig. 6, on the ticked level line, and draw it

heel of the timber ; which is the proper line to

which the ftock of the bevel fhould be applied to take the

bevelling of the heel, in order to counter-mould the hawfe-

i The explanation of the above mutt fuffice, as it

interfere with the method laid off, but alfo

be too minute to be deferibed on the plate.

the hawfe-pieces in the half-breadth plan, fg. 7,

a eee fk a> favre them >
ponding can ins, as at 4, which gives

fatione of the ha i ins ;

Dot the direétion of the hawfe-pieces to be marked on the

will be fore and aft, as well on the cant-

ich lie level : fuch are the ins at

in their places; becaufe thofe harpins are thewa in the half.
breadth plan, Ag. 7, as they really sppear when they are um
their places.

To Lay-off the Haw/e- Pieces when canted.

The method of laying off and difpofing of the hawfe-
pieces when canted, is the moft complete of any, as it is the
beft for the ftrength of the thip, and will likewife affiit the
couverfion of the umber ; for by canting them, they will not
only be diminifhed at the heels, whereby a lefs piece of
timber will make them, as in the foregoing method, but the
bevellings will be lefs acute ; and as the canting and diminith-
ing of chen at the heels are performed by one operation, they
confequently muft appear as ftraight lines when viewed in the
half-breadth plan ; and, as before obferved, that all timbers,
when canted nearer to a {quare with the body, add more to
the fecurity of the plank, and the timbers are not wounded
fo much by that fecurity. ‘The canting of the hawfe-pieces
is alfo fome advantage to the hawfe-boles ; for although the
hawfe-holes are generally cut nearly parallel to the middle
line, yet canting of them leaves ae | wood at the outfide of
the hawfe-hole, which is the fartheit from the middle line,
as it is the wearing fide of the haw{e-hole.

Difpofe of aedecieces in the half-breadth plan as in
fe. 11, on which plan they will be ftraight lines, fimilar to
thé cant-timbers. Strike in likewife the fore-fide of the
cant-timbers marked E, F, as before, egainft which the heeb
of the hawfe-pieces are to be cut off.

Lay off the thwarthip view of the hawfe-pieces and fore-
fide of the above cant-timbers E, F, in the theer-plan, fg. g,
in the following manner. Where the fore-fide of the cant-
timbers E and F in the half-breadth plan, fg. 11, crofles
the half-thicknefs of the dead-wood C, {quare them up to
the bearding-line in the fheer-plan, fig. 9, and in the fame
manner proceed at everywater-line, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6; like-
wife with the main-breadth and harpin at the beak-head :
then pin a batten to thofe {pots, and mark the curves, as
F, G, which gives the thwartfhip view of the fore-fide of
the cant-timbers the hawfe-pieces heel againit.

In the fame manner proceed with the hawfe-pieces : where,
in the half-breadth plan, fg. 11, they interfeét the water-
lines, main-breadth, and harpin above, {quare them up
to their correfponding lines in the fheer-plan, fg.g ; and
where they interfect the fore-edges of cant-timbers F and F
in the half-breadth plan, fg. 11, {quare them up to interfeé&
the thwartfhip view of the faid cant-timbers, as F and G in
the fheer-plan, fig. 9. This fhews the exa@t height of the
heels of the hawfe-pieces, where they ftep againft the cant-
timber, when they are in their places. Then by pinning
batten to all the {pots {quared up, mark the curves 1, 2, 3,
and 4, which will give the exaét thwartfhip view of the
hawfe-pieces, fuppofing they were in their places; but as
the fides do not look fore and aft, thefe are not the proper
lines to make the moulds to ; but will be ferviceable here-
after, to Rt the proper height of the ins to be crofled
upon the hawfe-piece moulds. The moulding edge of the
knight-head is the aft-fide of the rabbet of the ftem.

here the knight-head and hawfe-pieces interfeét the fore-
fide of the cant-timber, marked E in the half-breadth plan,
Jig. 11, fit a batten in the direction of the line of the om, wn
head, or hawfe-pieces ; mark thereon the points where they
are interfected by the water-lines ; and fet them off from the
middle line in the body-plan, fig. 10, on their correfponding
water-lines. Then take the heights, where the heels of the
knight-head and hawfe-pieces interfect the thwarthhip view
of cant-timber F in the theer-plan, fg. 9, and transfer them
to the middle line in the body-plan, fy. 10
Having

SHIP-BUILDING.

Having the lower height of breadth and harpin at the
beak-head laid off in the fheer-plan, fig. 9, take the heights
where they interfe& the thwartfhip view of the knight-
head and hawfe-pieces, and transfer them to the body-plan,
Jg- 10. Then take the diftances in the half-breadth plan,
fig. tt, from the interfeGion of the knight-head and hawfe-
pieces, with the cant-timber marked E, to the main-breadth
and harpin at the beak-head, taken in the direGtion of the
line, and fet them off from the middle line in the body-
plan, fg. Io, on their correfponding lines, marking {pots.
Then by pinning a batten to thofe fpots, mark the curves
K, H, 1, 2, 3, and 4, which are the proper moulding edzes
of the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, and confequently thofe
to which the moulds are to be made. Now to give the direc-
tion for cutting off the heels to fay againft the fide of the
cant-timber, the mould of No.4 hawfe-piece muft be cut
off well with the middle line in the body-plan, fig. 10 ;
but as the knight-head and the other hawf{e-pieces cut off
againit the timber, before that which No. 4 heels againtt, take
the height in the fheer-plan, fig. 9, where the heels of the
knight-head, and 1, 2, 3 haw{e-picces interfe@t the thwartfhip
view of the foremoft cant-timber at G, and transfer them to
the body-plan, fig. 10; and where they interfeét their re-
{pective hawfe-pieces, there {trike up a perpendicular line, as
at No. 3 hawle-piece, which will alfo give the dire€tion to
cut off their heels again{t the faid cant-timber.

But now, fince they are laid off by the water-lines, the
proper ftations of the harpins below the main-breadth can-
not be marked on the moulds. Therefore the level thwart-
ihip view of the harpins mutt be laid-off in the fheer-plan,
Ji§- 9) a8 before, which is the exa&t height of them when they
are in their places; confequently, then, the points where they
interfeét the thwartfhip view of the knight-head and hawfe-
pieces, fhew the exact height to be transferred from the fheer-
plan, fg. 9, to their correfponding lines in the body-plan,
Jig. 10, which gives the exa& {tations of the harpins to be
croffed on the knight-head and hawfe-piece moulds.

The bevellings are to be taken thus: {trike a line in the
half-breadth plan, fig. 11, to the fiding of the knight-head
and hawf{e-pieces, as was done for bevelling the cant-timbers,
as the ticked line at No. 4 hawfe-piece, it being the cleareft
to be underftood.- Then f{quare a line at the heel, where
the moulding edge of No.4 hawfe-piece croffes the cant-
timber marked E. Then take the diftance from the {quared
line in the direétion of the fiding or ticked line to the feparate
water-lines, where they interfeét the ticked line, and fet them
off from the middle line in the body-plan, jig. 10, on their
correfponding water-lines. Where the ticked line in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 11, interfects the cant-line E, {quare it up
to interfect the thwartfhip view F, in the fheer-plan, fig. 9,
as marked with a itar, and from thence transfer it tothe body-
plan, fg. 10, as far as the middle line. Then take the diftance
from the {quared line at the heel in the half-breadth plan,

Jig. 11, to the cant-line E, in the dire@ion of the ticked line,
and fet it off from the middle line in the body-plan, fz. 10,
at the height laft mentioned. Continue the ticked line or
fiding of the hawfe-piece to interfe& the water-lines 1, 2,
and 3, in the half-breadth plan, fig. 11; then take the dif-
tance from the fquared line at the heel to thofe water-lines
in the direction of the fiding or ticked line, and fet them off
from the middle line in the body-plan, jig. 10, on their corre-
{ponding water-lines to the left hand, which ferves to prove
the {pot at the heel by continuing the bevelling edge to the
loweft: water-line. Where the ticked line or fiding of the
hawfe-piece 4, in the half-breadth plan, fg. 11, interfe¢ts the
main half-breadth and beak-head harpin, {quare them up to
their correfponding lines in the fheer-plan, fig. 9, and trans-

fer them to the body-plan, fig. ro, ftriking level lines. Then
take the diftance from the {quared line at the heel in the
half-breadth plan, fig. 11, to the main half-breadth and
beak-head harpin in the direction of the fiding or ticked
line, and fet them off from the middle line in the body-
plan, fig. 10, on their correfponding heights, which gives
the {pots to which a batten muft be pinned, and the curve
marked out thereby will be the bevelling edge of the hawfe-
piece 4; and at whatever diftance the bevelling edge in the
body-plan, fg. to, 1s from the moulding edge of the hawfe-
piece 4, fo much is the hawfe-piece under froma fquare in
the diftance from the fiding or ticked line, to the joint of
the hawfe-piece in the half-breadth plan, fig. 11.

The bevel G, as fhewn in the half-breadth plan, fig. 115
gives the direGtion to cut off the heel. When the heel is cut
off, in order to find the bevelling of the heel to counter-
mould the hawfe-pieces, the fore-fides of the cant-timbers, as
E and F, in the half-breadth plan, fiz. 11, mutt be laid off in
the body-plan, fig. 10, which may be done by the water-lines.
Then transfer the height of the heel of the hawfe-piece
No. 4, from the fheer-plan, fig. 9, where it cuts the thwartthip
view of the cant-timber marked F, to its corre{ponding
cant-timber in the body-plan, fig. 10, and {trike a perpendi-
cular line ; to which apply the ftock of a bevel, and the
tongue, to the cant-timbers, as at M; the fame likewife for
hawfe-piece No. 1, as at L, and fo on for the others. This
gives the exact bevelling to be applied when the heel is cut
off, in order to counter-mould the hawfe-pieces, if it fhould
be fo required. The bevellings of No. 4 hawfe-piece are all

taken at their heights, as may be feen in the body-plan, ;

jig. 10, and marked on the bevelling-board, as at @ in fig. 12 :
the faid heights to be all crofled upon the hawfe-piece
mould.

To Lay-off the Hawfe-Pieces by the Square Harpins wher

canted.

The fquare and cant-harpins being of neceflity laid off in
the half-breadth plan, fig. 11, it is neceflary to explain the
method of laying off the cant-hawfe-pieces by the {quare
harpins, which are marked c, d, e, f, g, in the half-breadth
plan, fg. 11... The point where the knight-head and hawfe-
pieces interfeét the fore-fide of the cant-timber marked E in
the half-breadth plan, fg. 11, is fuppofed to be in the
middle line in the body-plan, fig. 10, which middle line will
ferve for laying off the knight-head and hawfe-pieces, as it
did for the foregoing operation by the water-lines. By being
laid offin the fame body-plan, fig. 10, it willbe a convincing
proof that both methods may be depended upon, becaufe
they will be found to agree, as near as can be expected on
fo {mall a feale as the plate.

To explain the laying off the knight-head and all the
hawfe-pieces would be too tedious; (though they are all
laid off the fame in the body-plan) ; for by laying off and
bevelling the hawfe-piece No. 4, the ticked lines (which
are transferred from the fheer-plan, fig. 9, to the body-plan,

Jigs 10, In order to give the proper ftations of the harpins
on the hawfe-piece moulds, when laid off by the water-
lines) will now be proved to agree with the operation by
the harpins. ‘ :

Now the knight-head and hawfe-pieces are intended te
be laid off together by the harpin-lines. There’ is no ne-
ceflity to lay-off the thwartfhip view of them im the theer-
plan, fg.g; but the thwartfhip view of the fore-fide of
the cant-timber they heel againft will be wanted, to find the
height of the heels. Having the level height of the har-
pins laid off before in the fheer-plan, fig. 9, where the

fore-fides of the cant-timbers, marked E, F, interfe&t the
{quare

fquare harpins ¢, d, 4, f,g, in the half-breadth plan, fg. 11,
them up te ernst ins in nt a
St 9 This gives the thwarthhip view of the cant-
; and if tthe work be true, it will anfwer the fame
as by the waterdines. The exact height of the heels thould
be ’ we the reft of the work; and as
the lines of the hawle-pieces in the half-breadth plan, Ay. 11,
are continued abaft the fore-fide of the cant-timbers, a6
E, F, to interfect the {quare harpins ¢, d,¢; then by hav-
(anne the body-plan, Ay. 10, beyond the middle line,
the batten is continued to the {pots beyond the middle
on thofe ) it would interfect the middle line at
the _— of the heel of the hawfe-piece.
to hawle-piece No. 4, a8 Taid off by the
a laid off by the level or {quare har-
moulding edge interfetts the fore-

pian fs. 11, fquare it up to interfect the thwarthip view
,

in the theer-plan, fig. 9; and transfer that height to the
middle line in the r-plan, fg. 10. This gives the heel
of the hawfe-piece No. 4, y fimilar to the method by

the water-lines.

Obferve in the half-breadth plan, fy. 11, where the hawfe-
i the {quare harpins, and from thence
take the neareft diftance to the middle line ; and fet them off
on refpective

Cpe font temps» 11, from the in-
of the hawfe-piece No. 4, with the cant-edge
it interfeéts each of the {quare har-

pins, in the direétion of the line for the faid hawfe-piece ;
middle line in the body-
refpective level lines before men-
3 obferving to fet off the diftance to the left hand of
en taken abaft ps ar E. be gives
{pots the mouldin wie-piece No. 4;
Rapier eax hangin a be cook

manner to find the {pots for the
cart eee pte pot mites oy
harpin are found in

the water-lines. aa
is laid off in the very fame way as the
cone ee only the diftance taken in the direction of
i or fiding-line is taken from the {quared line at the

i of its interfection at the cant-cdge E, in the
half-breadth plan, fg. 11. The plate will thew that the
ri between the water-lines and har-

ight-head and hawfe-
1 we need {quare up the in-
of them with the fquare harpins to the cant-har-
in the fame manner as was done

5

© To Lay-off the Tranfoms, Plate 1X. Laying-of C.
~The tranfoms aad fathion-pieces compofe the ftern-frame.

SHIP-BUILDING.

and there may be as many under the deck-tranfom as the

form of the body will admit, of kindly growth. ‘Phe up-

permott is called the wing-tranfom, which is the bafe of the
era.

This may be admitted the ftrongeft and belt method of
uniting the after-part of the thip together: the ftrongett,
becaule every tranfom crofling the after-part of the thip,
and bolting through the fteru-poft, they may be confidered
fimilar to the breatt-hooks; fo that when the planks are
wrought on the buttock, and the wing-tranfom knees, and
fleepers or diagonal knees are bolted, it may be allowed to be
as ftrong as the fore-part or bow is with the breaft-hooks, be-
caufe the fore-part of the thip has no other aflittance to keep
the bows together,

As there are feveral operations required to lay-off the
ftern-frame, Plate 1X. Laying-off C, is made a feparate plate
for that purpofe; though it reprefents the lines on the ee
as before obferved.

The fathion-pieces being {truck in the half-breadth plan
on the floor, and the water-lines run as in Plate I., fquare
up the interfeétion of the fafhion-pieces with the ing-
line, water-lines, the end of the wing-tranfom, snd main
half-breadth line in the half-breadth plan, to their corre-
fponding bearding-line, water-lines, wing-tranfom, and
height of breadth line in the theer-plan; then a batten
pinned to thofe {pots will reprefent the thwarthhip view of
the aft-fides of the fafhion-pieces T, F, P, Plate IX.

kc
Severe the aft-fides of the fafhion-pieces interfeét the be-
fore-mentioned lines in the half-breadth plan, take the dil
tances fquare from thence to the middle line ; and fet them
off fquare from the middle line, on their correfponding lines
in the body-plan. A batten pinned to thefe {pots will give
the fore and aft view of the fafhion-pieces, generally called
the fquare fafhion-pieces, which are marked 5, F, P,
Plate 1X. fig. 2.

Transfer os the fheer-plan of Plate 1. the heights of all
the tranfoms to the fheer-plan on the floor; likewife the
fiding or depth of each tranfom, 2s W,F, D, 1, 2, 3, 4
5, and 6, Plate IX. fig. 1.

In the body-plan, fg. 2, defcribe the upper fide of the
wing-tranfom a, by a fegment of an arc to its round-up,
till it interfe&ts the aft-fide of the foremoft fquare fafhion-
piece S; avd below that a parallel curve 4, where the ends
of the planks of the buttock are intended to be cut off,
which is called the margin-line. Square down from the
fheer-plan the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom to the middle
tine of the half-breadth plan ; and from thence deferibe the
aft-fide of the wing-tranfom at its upper fide, by a fegment
of an are to its round-aft, which fhews the line to which
the mould is to be made. Take the height of the margin-
line 4, at the middle line in the body-plan, fg. 2, and
transfer it to the fore-part of the rabbet of the ftern-polt, in
the theer-plan, fiz.1; and from thence fquare it down
to the middle line in the half-breadth plan, marking a

1 are to the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom, which
is likewife called the margin-line. Continue to thew the
level view of the moulding edges of all the tranfoms in
the body-plan, fig. 2, in the following manner: the wing-
tranfom and the filling under it lying level, they form the
fegment of an arc to their round-up, as zbove. This is
the curve to which the round-up mould is made for
fiding thofe tranfoms. The next is the deck-tranfom,
which is generally laid off to the round-up of the gun-deck
beam; the other tranfoms below the deck lying ftraight
and level, are reprefented by level lines only.

Transfer from Plate 1. the buttock-lmes 1, 2, 34 5;

SHIP-BUILDING.

and let them be {truck on the floor in the body-plan and
half-breadth plan. Then proceed to run the buttock-lines
in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, as directed in the conftru€tion of
the fheer-draught, Plate I. The buttock-lines, the fquare
timbers, and hkewife the water and ribband-lines, fhould
be made to agree to the greateft exactnefs.

The moulding edges of the other tranfoms may now be
laid off from the buttock-lines in the fheer-plan, fig. 13 but
if they are laid off in the half-breadth plan, then only half
or one fide can be reprefented. The beft method, there-
fore, will be to lay them off in fome convenient place on the
floor by themfelves, whereby both fides may be reprefented,
and there will not be then fuch confufion in the lines. This,
for diftin@tion, may be termed plan of the tranfoms, as
Plate 1X. fig. 3-

The moulding edge of the wing-tranfom is already de-
{cribed to which the mould is to be made; the filling-
tranfom is next, which lies between the wing and deck;
and as it lies horizentally, the defcription of it will fuffice
for all the other tranfoms that come under the deck, which
alfo lie horizontally.

As there is no more trouble in laying-off a tranfom which
is fided ftraight, and lies level, than there is in laying-off a
water-line, {trike on each fide of the middle line M, in the
plan of the tranfoms, Plate IX. fig. 3, the half-thicknefs of
the dead-wood or bearding-line, a a, taking it from the body-
plan, fig. 2, (and as low down as the deck-tranfom the
inner poft is fided the fame); likewife the buttock-lines.
Take from the half-breadth plan the {quare timbers 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, and the proof timbers 1 and 2, and ftrike them
in the plan of the tranfoms, fig. 3, at right angles with the
middle line; alfo ftrike in the cant of the fafhion-pieces
F,M,A. Then ftrike a perpendicular line, P, in the fheer-
plan, fig. 1, at the interfection of the upper edge of the
wing-tranfom, at the fore-part of the rabbet; likewife
another at right angles with the middle line, at the aft-fide
of the wing-tranfom, as PP, in the plan of the tranfoms,

Sg

Bes
Now from the perpendicular P, above mentioned, called

perpendicular of the tranfoms, take the diftance in the fheer- -

plan, fig. 1, to where the upper fide of the filling-tranfom,
F, interfe&ts the fore-fide of the rabbet of the poft or beard-
ing-line B, and fet it off from the fame line P P, in the plan
of the tranfoms, fg. 3, at the middle line, {quaring a line
acrofs to each bearding-line ; which line will be the after-
part of the filling-tranfom at the middle line, Obferve
where the bearding-line, C, of the poft, in the fheer-plan,

. 1, comes before the fore-fide of the rabbet, to take the
aforefaid diftance to the bearding-line of the poft, as that
terminates the after-part of all the tranfoms; then take the
diftances in the fheer-plan, jig. 1, from the perpendicular
line P, to where the line reprefenting the upper fide of the
filling-tranfom interfects the different buttock-lines 1, 2,
3,4, and 5, and fet them off from the fame line P P, in the
plan of the tranfoms, fig. 3, on their correfponding but-
tock-lines on each fide of the middle line. Then take the
diftances in the body-plan, fig. 2, from the middle line, to
where the upper fide of the filling-tranfom, ¢, interfeéts the
{quare timbers, and fet them off on both fides of the middle
line on their correfponding timbers, in the plan of the tran-
foms, fig. 3; then by pinning a batten through the fpots
on the buttock-lines and fquare timbers, to its after-part at
the fide of the bearding ¢c, the moulding edge or upper fide
of the filling-tranfom will be defcribed on one fide the
middle line ; the mould may then be made to that fide, and
canted over, and the oppofite fide marked thereby, being
fure thus to have both fides alike. This filling-tranfom

fe)

having been laid off horizontally, of courfe, when mould-
ing the filling-tranfom, the mould muft lie in an horizontal
pofition ; but having fo little room between the wing and
deck.tranfoms, it becomes neceflary to give the filling-tran-
fom a round-up between both. Thofe who would be more
correét in laying-off tranfoms, that have a round upwards,
may: fee the fubject farther explained in the following me-
thods.

To lay-off the deck-tranfom, {trike a ftraight line in the
fheer-plan, fg. 1, at the under-fide of the deck, at the
middle line, to take that part of the hang of the deck only,
which is terminated between the rabbet of the {tern-poft and
the fafhion-piece, as H, fg. 1. Then take the round of
the deck R, at every buttock-line, as under the body-plan,
Jig. 2, and fet them off below and {quare to the ftraight
line H, in the fheer-plan, Jig. 1, marking parallel lines
thereto, to interfeét their correfponding buttock-lines,
which gives the moulding edge of the tranfom. Proceed in
the fame manner with the lower edge, by ftriking a line for
the lower fide of the tranfom at the middle line parallel to
the former; and fet the round down, as before, upon any
buttock-line.

The upper and lower fides of the deck-tranfom being ob-
tained on the buttock-lines, in the fheer-plan, jig. 1, transfer
their heights from the fheer-plan, fig. 1, to the body-plan,
jig. 2, refpectively; then by pinning a batten to thofe
heights, the upper and lower fides of the deck-tranfom, d d,
may be reprefented in the body-plan, fig. 2. ;

The lines above mentioned, in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, pa-

rallel to the fheer of the deck, at the interfe€tion of the ~

buttock-lines and fafhion-piece, fhould be continued aft to
the perpendicular P ; then take the diftances from that line,
in the direCtion of the parallel lines, to the buttock-lines and
fafhion-piece, and fet them off {quare from the faid line P P,
in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 3, on their corre{ponding
buttock-lines and fafhion-piece. Next take the half-breadth
from the body-plan, fig. 2, at the interfe¢tion of the deck,
at the fide, with the {quare timbers, and fet them off on their
correfponding timbers from the middle line, in the plan of the
tranfoms, fig. 3; then by pinning a batten to thofe fpots,
this forms the moulding edge of the deck-tranfom D D.
The tranfoms under the deck, all lying horizontally, may
be laid off by taking the diftances of the buttock-lines and
bearding-line from the perpendicular P, in the fheer-plan,
Jig: 1, on the upper edge of each tranfom, and fetting them
off on their correfponding buttock-lines from the fame per-
pendicular P P, in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 3; and
alfo at the timbers from the middle line in the body-plan,
Jig. 25 and fet them off from the middle line on their cor-
refponding timbers in the plan of the tranfoms, fig.3: a
batten pinned to thofe {pots will reprefent the moulding
edges of all the tranfoms.
To prove the interfe€tion of the tranfoms with the fide
of the fafhion-piece, which is the end of each tranfom, as
already laid off in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 3. Thus,
where the upper fide of the wing-tranfom in the body-plan,
Jeg: 2; interle&s the foremoft fquare fafhion-piece S, level it
out to interfe& the cant-fafhion-piece c. Then take the
neareft diftance from the cant-fafhion-piece at that place to
the middle line, and fet it off from the middle line in the plan
of the tranfoms, fg. 3, in the dire€tion of the line of the fore-
moft fafhion-piece F. In the fame manner prove the filling and
deck-tranfoms. Take the diftances from the middle cant-
fafhion-piece to the middle line along the upper fide of Nos.
I, 2,and 3 tranfoms in the body-plan, fig. 2, and fet them off
on the middle cant-fafhion-piece M, from the middle line in
the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 3, as before. Take ew
the

SHIP- BUILDING.

the diftances from the aftermott cant-fathion-piece to the
line for the tranfoms 4, 5, and 6, and fet them off, as
on the line for the aftermoft cant-fathion-piece A, in
tranfoms, Ay. 3; to which {pots the tran-

in fg. 3. mult agree.
gn: RE of the wing, filling, and deck-tranfoms,
atthe joiat or aft-fide of the foremost fathion-piece F, and
wqerr ary By 2s and 4 under the deck at the aft-fide af
middle mieonsion i ,» and Nos, 4, 5, and 6, at the aft-
fide of the after-fathion-piece A, as is A are thewn: in the
phe of the tranfoms, Ag. 3, where the middle fathion-piece
reprefented as ftopt at the under fide of the deck-tranfom,
and the jon-piece at the under fide of the tranfom
No. 3.
To make the Moulds and bevel the Tranfoms.

The m
already laid

=

in the plan of the tranfoms,

fathion-piece, allowing what they are in-
the fafhion-pieces ; and a broad piece
in the middle, to the fize of its leating ce, with the middle

the tranfom, as at the filling-tran-

- 1, which gives the exaét bevellings

their corre{ponding buttock-lines.

for the win
under fide

fide of the

Ss:

the wing-tranfom, as above.
ing-tranfom is transferred from the
o the plan, fig. 1, by the buttock-

apt insbediention of the but-
| the and the tongue
: to the buttock-line below, which ought to be
ced at the lower fide of the tranfom, and not truiling

promifcuoufly, for then the bevel may

efleGied here, becaule all the tranfoms lie level. Proceed
in the theer-plan, fg. 1, at the under fide of the lower
tranfom, to take the diftanee from the perpendicular of the
tranfom P, to the interfedtion of each buttock-line, and
likewile the bearding-line ; and fet them off from the line
PP, on their correfponding buttock-lines and bearding-
line, in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 3. ‘Then from the
middle line of the body-plan, fg. 2, take the diflances at
the lower fide ef the faid tranfom to the fquare timbers, in
the fame manner as the moulding edges were done, and fet
them off on their correfponding timbers, in the plan of the
tranfoms, fg. 3, which gives the {pots; to which a battcn
pinned will give the form of the lower edge LL, which
ticked, to diitinguilh it from the moulding edge. In the
fame manner may be laid off the lower or bevelling edges ot
all the tranfoms.

The diftance from the upper or moulding fides of the
tranfoms, to the ticked line for the lower fides, thews how
much the tranfoms are under from a {quare; ouly in the
diftance from the upper to the lower fides of the tranfoms,
in the theer-plan, fg. 1, mult be fuppofed the breadth of
the bevelling-board.

By having the lower fides of the tranfoms laid off, we
have an opportunity of taking as many bevellings as may be
thought fufficient, without any confinement ; therefore, on
the lower tranfom may be placed three bevelling {pots, which
fhould be divided equally between the breech and the fathion-
piece; then take the neareft diftance from the {pots on the
moulding edge, (which mutt be firmarked on the moulds, ) to
the ticked line for the lower edge, by {weeping it with a
pair of compafles, which fhews how much the tranfom is
ree mee me at each bevelling {pot, as at a, 4,¢, in
the plan o tranfoms, fig. 3, agreeable to the depth of
the os aul In the aX icnoner the bevellings of
all the tranfoms below the deck be taken.

The bevelling for the breech of the tranfom is taken from
the upper fide of the tranfom, and the tongue to the beard-
ing-line in the pos om Jg-1; for the tranfoms are all
fuppofed to be cut off in the direétion of the bearding-line
C. The ends of all the tranfoms, when moulded, are trim-
med fquare from the upper fide. But the {quare, when ap-
plied to the end of the wing, filling, and deck-tranfoms,
muft be lifted up as much as the tranfom rounds down,
and ap out of winding with a batten in the middle line.

T Fad the bevelling for the ends of the tranfoms, when
cut off, let the ftock of the bevel be placed to the lines of
the upper fides of the tranfoms in the body-plan, fg. 2, and
the tongue to the cant-fathion-piece, hick gives the proper
bevelling over the end of the tranfoms when cut off.

Bur to find the bevelling for the end of the wing-tranfom,
take the diftance {quare from the middle line to the inter-
fe€tion of the joint, or aft-fide of the foremoit fathion-piece,
with the end of the wing-tranfom, in the plan of the tran-
foms, fig. 3, and fet it A fquare from the middle line on
the upper fide of the tranfom in the body-plan, fg. 2, and
level it out till it interfe€ts the cant-fathion-piece,

*pply the flock of the bevel on the line le out, and
tongue to the cant-fahion-piece, as at B. This gives the
bevelling for the end of the wing-tranfom, when cut off.
But the bevel muft be lifted up as much as the wing-tranfom
rounds down at the end, and ap out of winding with a
batten kept well with the middle of the wing-tranfom,

The fame muft be alfo done for the bevelling at the end of
the filling and deck-tranioms.

The where the tranfoms under the deck-tranfomin the
body. . 2, interfe& the cant-fathion-pieces, are the
Pa eR neonates fn lation pace mania —

+ v

SHIP-BUILDING.

where the lines (before mentioned) levelled out interfe&
the cant-fafhion-piece, is the proper ftation of the wing,
~ filling, and deck-tranfoms on the fafhion-piece mould for the
moulding edge, but not for the direétion in which thofe
tranfoms ftrike the fafhion-piece, becaufe of the round of
thofe tranfoms ; which will be more explained in the fol-
lowing method.

When the lower fides of the tranfoms are laid off, it is but
little trouble to make a flight mould to counter-mould the
under fides of all the tranfoms, by making it only to
one arm of the tranfoms, and then canting it over, to
mould the oppofite arm. Then, when the breech of the
tranfom is trimmed to the bearding-line, fet off the diftance
from the middle line each way, as far as the bearding-line
<c is from the middle line in the plan of the tranfoms, jig. 3,
to which the tranfom-mould is made. Then trim the end
of the tranfom {quare, and fet off the bevelling for the end
of the tranfom ; then cant the tranfom over, and applying the
mould made for the under fide to the breech and bevelling
at the end, you have the tranfom counter-mould, without
the affiltance of any other bevelling; or they may be fet
off, to fee if they agree with the mould ; and if they do,
you may be then fure the work is correct.

To Lay-of the Tranfoms when canted.

The utility of canting the tranfoms is, that it greatly
affitts the converfion of timber, is better for faftening the
plank of the bottom, and bolts fquare to the itern-poft.
‘When the tranfoms have a very great bevelling, it is difficult
at the upper edge to get fufficient faftening for the planks,
which fufficiently points out the utility of canting them:
proceed therefore to the operation, which will require the
reader’s particular attention; as thofe minute particulars
which cannot fo conveniently be difplayed on the plate, can
only be explained in words.

Difpofe of the tranfoms in the fheer-plan, fig. 4.; let the
wing and filling-tranfoms be placed level, and the upper
fide of the deck-tranfom to the proper hang of the deck ;
and the other tranfoms below at the fafhion-piece, as much
above a level as reprefented in the fheer-plan, fir. 4; fo as
to make them nearly of an equal opening at the ftern-poft,
and likewife at the fafhion-piece. Thefe fhew the difpo-
fition of the tranfoms at the middle line.

Now proceed to fhew the level view of the moulding
edges of all the tranfoms in the body-plan in the following
manner: the wing-tranfom a, and the filling c, lying level,
they form a fegment of a circle in the bady-plan, fig. 5, to
their given round-up. ‘This is the proper curve to which
the round-up mould is made for fiding thefe tranfoms,
as before obferved. The next is the deck-tranfom d,
which being confined to the hang of the deck, and the
round of the beam, is the moft difficult of any, if executed
in a proper manner: it ought to undergo the following
operation. The ticked line H, in the fheer-plan, fg. 4,
is the under fide of the deck at the middle line, and is in-
tended to be the upper fide of the deck-tranfom at the middle
line. Transfer the heights of the ticked line H, or upper
fide of the deck-tranfom, in the fheer-plan, fig. 4, at every
f{quare timber, to their correfponding timbers in the body-
plan, fg. 5; and where the deck at the middle line in the
fheer-plan, fg. 4, interfe&ts the buttock-lines, transfer them
to their corref{ponding buttock-lines in the body-plan, fg. 5 :
a batten pinned to thofe {pots fhews the interfeGtion of the
deck at the fquare timbers, as H, in the body-plan, fig. 5,
fuppofing the deck had no round-down at the fide. Under
the line A A, for the upper fide of the keel, in the body-
plan, fig. 5, mark the round-up of the gun-deck beam R ;

and where the ticked line H for the deck, at the middle
line, in the body-plan, fg. 5, interfe€ts the {quare timbers,
fquare them down to the round of the deck R, under
the body-plan. The timbers and the buttock-lines are
there marked and numbered in the fame manner with thofe
from which they were fquared down. ‘Take the diftance
at each place on the round of the deck, under the body-plan,
jg. 5; {quare up to the line A A, or upper fide of the
keel (which is the round of the deck at each timber), and
fet them down below their correfponding timbers, in a
perpendicular direGtion, from the interfeGtion of the deck
at the middle line with the fquare timbers H, in the body-
plan, fig. 5; and from thofe {pots dire&t them towards the
middle line M, parallel to the round of the deck under the
body-plan, till they interfeét the {quare timbers, which are
the proper {tations on the fquare timbers the curve I of the
deck will make, fuppofing it to be continued to the outfide
of the timbers; which is required, in order to find the
exact form of the moulding edge of the deck-tranfom.

Let the buttock-lines in the body-plan, fig. 5, be con-
tinued down to the round of the deck R, under the body-
plan; then take the round of the deck at each buttock-line,
and fet it down below the deck at the middle line H, in
the fheer-plan, fig. 4, on their correfponding buttock-lines,
and transfer thefe {pots to the buttock-lines in the body-
plan, fig. 5; then to thofe {pots on the buttock-lines, and
thofe on the timbers, pin a batten, and it will fhew the curve
the deck-line at the fide will make, if continued to the
outfide of the timbers, as I, in the body-plan, fig. 5.

To find the deck at the fide in the fheer-plan, fg. 4,
take the heights at every fquare timber in the body-plan, |
jg: 5, where they interfe& the deck at the fide, and transfer
them to their correfponding timbers in the fheer-plan, fig. 4:
by pinning a batten to thefe fpots, with thofe made before
on the buttock-lines, you have the deck at the fide, as I, in
the fheer-plan, fig. 4, which is the level view of the moulding
edge of the deck-tranfom.

To find the lower fide of the deck-tranfom in the: fheer-
plan, fg. 4, and likewife in the body-plan, jig. 5 ; this fhould
be done in the fame manner as the upper fide. [If it is
intended to be very correct, run the ribband-lines, which ©
will be a proof to the reft of the work, in laying-off the
tranfoms.

To find the level view of the tranfoms below the deck,
in the body-plan, fig. 5, obferve where the lower and upper
fides of the tranfoms in the fheer-plan, fg. 4, interfe&t the
buttock-lines, fquare timbers, and fafhion-pieces ; transfer
thofe heights to the body-plan, fg. 5, on their corref{ponding
lines, which give the level view of the tranfoms in the
body-plan, fig. 5.

To lay-off the cant-tranfoms, proceed, as before, to make _
a feparate plan, as fig. 6. The moulding edges of the
wing, filling, and deck-tranfoms, are laid off fo fimilar to
the former, as not to need repeating here. But fhould the
deck-tranfom have much fheer, anda great round, it would
be a further proof of corre€tnefs, to take the diftance from _
the perpendicular line P, in the fheer-plan, fg. 4, to tim-
ber 32, in the direCtion of the fheer of the deck I, and fet
it oft {quare from the line P P, in the plan of the tranfoms,
jig. 6, which will be further forward than the faid timber, as
before laid off; then pin a batten to the round of the deck
under the body-plan, fig. 5, marking the middle line, and
the {pot that was {quared down from the deck at the fide,
at timber 32, to the round of the deck, and fet it off on
the new timber 32, in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 6. ‘This
would give the exact fpot on timber 32, if the deck was
required to hang and round to extremes, in the fame manner

as

SHIP-BUILDING.

as ning & batten to the round of the wing and filling-
Saheee in the body-plan, fg. 5, and marking the {quare
timbers, buttock-lines, and f{quare fathion-pieces on the

"atten; then let the batten lic ftraight, and it will be the
exact

-

Mbreadth at every {quare timber, buttock-line,
fathion-piece, and will give the exa@ length of the
fiom.
lay-off the tranfoms under the deck, take the diftance
from the line P, in the theer-plan, fy. 4, to the buttock-
lines in the direGion of the tranfoms, and fet them off from
PP, in the plan of the tranfoms, Ag. 6, on their
correfponding buttock-lines. Take the half-breadths in the
+ §, fquare from the middle line to the inter-
tranfoms Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, with the
eee and fet them off f{quare from the
of the tranfoms, fg. 6, to interfeét
marking a line parallel to the middle line,
Then take the diftances from the

'

from the middle line in the body-plan,
interfeét {quare timber 36, and
from the middle line, in the plan of the
Then take the diftances from the line P,
+ 4 to {quare timber 36, in the direétion
tranfom, and fet them off {quare from
plan of the tranfoms, fig. 6, to interfeét
their feveral half-breadths, as at 4, ¢, d,¢. In the fame
all the {pots for the {quare timbers,

to ees buttock-lines. This will give the
form of the moulding edge of all the tranfoms below
ftation of the fafhion-piece on the
_ tranfom, with the length of the traufom at the moulding

direGtion of the end of the tranfom, to lie
of fafhion-piece, obferve in the half-
fafhion-pieces interfe&t the middle
them A the the theer-plan, as may be feen
cke , L, calling them the fafhion-pieces
oN + Medel erg » fs: + Take the
eer-p “4

the line P, in the Jig. 4) to the
of the aftermoft fafhion-piece K, in the direc-
No. 6, and fet it off from the line P P,
of the tranfom, fig. 6, on the middle line, and
i line gg, from the {pot on the middle line,
on No. 6. tranfom. This will'give the direction
in order to lie againft the

: To bevel the Tranfoms when canted.
_ "Thefe tranfoms which are not eo te as the wing,
ing, and the deck, are generally by the buttock-
, as before obferved; but rather than truft to the
lings only (it being rather difficult to apply them fo
fhould he a the under fides of all the

make ter difpatch in trim-
ici nocd only (except for

mould will give the rett.
bevellings at the ends of
ends of the wing and filling-
infoms, when they lie level, are to be cut off fquare ;
‘keep the fquare as much above the end of the wing
illing-tranfom round in their length, and let

the fquare look out of winding with the middle of the
tranfom. Alfo the bevel (when applied on the end after
it is cut off, in order to bevel the end for counter.
muft be kept as much above the end of the tranfom, and
look out of winding with the middle of the tranfom,

As the bevelling for the end of the deck-tranfom is taken
againit the cont tchinaiass by a level line in the body-
plan, fig..5, it muft be obferved how much the tranfom
at the middle line in the theer-plan, fg. 4, 18 below a level
({uppole one foot). ‘Then place a batten at the middle
line on the tranfom, and lift the foremoft end of the batten
up till it becomes level, as fuppofing the tranfom to be in
its place: then proceed with the fquare and the bevel for
the end of the tranfom, in the fame manner as for the wing
and filling, looking out of winding with the batten at the
middle line.

‘To bevel the tranfoms, which are canted in the theer-plan,
Jig: 4, proceed in the fame manner as in bevelling the
cant-timbers, by making a parallel line to the ing
edge. Therefore la “off the bevellings of the tranfoms,
by fquaring a line from the upper fide, where it interfetts
the line P, in the fheer-plan, fy. 4, to the under fide, as
the ticked line a at the lower tranfom. Take the diftances
from where the {quared line, a, crofles the lower edge in its
cant dire€tion, to the bearding-line ¢, and to all the buttock-
lines, and fet them off {quare from the line P P, on their
correfponding lines, in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 6.
Where the bearding-line c, in the fheer-plan, fg. 4, proves
to be fquare from the diretion of the tranfom, as it is, or
very nearly fo, at the lower tranfom, then the bearding for
the moulding edge, and likewife for the bevellings, will
come as near together in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 6,
This may fufficiently prove that the method of bevelling is
correét.

Where the under fide of the lower tranfom interfeéts the
f{quare timbers and fquare fafhion-piece in the body-plan,
Jig. §, take the neareft diftances from thence to the middle
line, and fet them off {quare from the middle line, in the
plan of the tranfoms, fg. 6, ftriking lines parallel to the
middle line, as at ¢i. Then take the diftances from the
{quared line a, in the theer-plan, fg. 4, in the direétion of
the under fide of the lower tranfom, to the fquare timbers
and fafhion-piece T, and fet them off {quare from the line
PP, on their correfponding lines laft ftruck, in the plan of
the tranfoms, fg. 6. To thefe fpots, and thofe on the
butteck-lines, pin a batten, and it will reprefent the ticked
line, 54, within the lower tranfom, which will fhew how
much the lower tranfom is under from a fquare, a ble
to the depth of the tranfom. Take the diftance from the
{quared line a, in the fheer-plan, fig. 4, to the ticked per-

dicular K, which is the after-fafhion-piece at the middle

ine ; and fet it off from the line P P, on the middle line, in

the plan of the tranfoms, fig. 6, and mark the ticked line, m,
from thence to the {pot on the fafhion-piece, which will be
a line parallel to the ticked line g, before marked to cut off
the end of the tranfom; and the diflance between the two
ticked lines fhews how much the end of the tranfom is
under from a fquare, agreeable to the depth of the tranfom.

The ticked line Ab, in the plan of the tranfoms, fg. 6,
which is for the bevellings, is the line*to make the tem-
porary mould to, in order to counter-mould the tranfom,
and by cutting off one end of the mould to the thwarthip-
line for the breech of the tranfom, and cutting off the
others to the ticked line m for the end of the tranfom,
when the mould is applied to the under fide of the tranfom,
it will be eafily perceived if the work be true.

To find the exaG@ bevelling to be applied ower the end

4D: of

SHIP-BUILDING.

of the tranfom, after the end is cut off, in order to counter-
mould the tranfom, proceed in the following manner.
Where the upper and lower fides of the lower'tranfom inter-
fe& the after-cant-fafhion-piece P, in the body-plan,
fg. 5, level them out to interfe& the after-cant-fafhion-
piece O. Where the upper fide of the lower tranfom
interfe&s the perpendicular ticked line K (which is the
after-fafhion-piece in the fheer-plan, fig. 4), transfer that
height to the middle line, in the body-plan, fig. 5 ; and
from thence draw a ftraight line to the upper fide of
the lower tranfom, on the cant-fafhion-piece, as the ticked
linee; to which line fix the ftock of a bevel, as at B,
and the tongue to the cant-fafhion-piece O, as low down
as the fpot for the iower fide of the tranfom. This is
the proper hevelling to be applied on the end of the
tranfom, after the end is cut off, in order to counter-mould
the tranfom. The ticked line e, to which the ftock of the
bevel is placed, is the direétion of the tranfom to be crofled
on the fafhion-piece mould. The bevel B, which is repre-
fented in the body-plan, fig. 5, fhewing the bevelling of the
end of the lower tranfom, fufficiently proves the utility of
canting the tranfoms; for, by having fo little bevelling,
it greatly affifts the converfion of timber, as well as that it
mutt certainly be better for the fecurity of the plank of the
buttock.

To Lay-off a Square-Tuck, Plate 1X. Laying-of C.

We have already explained the utility of the tranfoms in
compofing the ftern-frame, by which method moft fhips are
inclofed abaft. But yachts and cutter-built veflels are,
owing to their clearnefs of run abaft, inclofed by a {quare
tuck, by which room is gained ; and, when properly put
together, this mode of conttruétion is, perhaps, ftronger
than tranfoms would be in veflels of this defcription.

The tuck propofed to be laid off is that of the royal
yacht, Plate XIII. But that the reader may be led pro-
greffively on trom the eafieft to the molt difficult part of
the operation, we fhall firft propofe a fquare tuck, the
fides of which are to be out of winding, or in the fame
direGtion as the rabbet of the poft, in confequence of which
the wing-tranfom muft be ftraight athwartfhips, and the
whole will be one flat furface (fimilar to the tranfoms of
boats), or a feétion of the veflel cut athwartfhips, but not
in a perpendicular direétion, which is the only difference
between it and the fquare timbers; and as the fection is
agreeable to the rake of the ftern-poft, it confequently
follows, that the laying it off muft differ from the fquare
timbers in the operation.

The horizontal view of the tuck mutt firft be reprefented
in the DINE e . 8, which is done in the following
manner: ftrike a horizontal line in the fheer-plan, jig. 7,
at the height of the wing-tranfom at the fide, as at 5; and
ukewife as many horizontal lines below that as may be
thought fufficient ; and where they interfe& the aft-part of
the rabbet of the poft aa, fquare them down to the half-
breadth plan, fig. 93 then transfer their heights to the
body-plan, jig. 8; and where thev interfect the {quare
timbers 21, 22, 23, 24,25, and Pr, ina horizontal di-
reGtion, take thofe diftances from the middle line, and fet
them off upon their correfponding timbers from the middle
line, in the half-breadth plan, fig.g; then by pinning a
batten to thofe fpots, the horizontal lines 1, 2, 35 45 55
and 6, will be reprefented ; then take their diftances from
the middle line, in the half-breadth plan, fig. 9, where they
interfe@ the lines {quared down from the fheer-plan, and fet
them off from the middle line on their corref{ponding hori-
zontal lines, in the body-plan, fig. 8; then by pinning a

“of the tuck down the bearding-line,

batten to thofe fpots, the horizontal view of the tuck, a»
will be reprefented in the body-plan, fy. 8, as high as the
wing-tranfom at the fide, But was the head of the fafhion~
piece required to run up, to take a bolt or two through the
heel of the fide counter-timber, proceed in the fame manner
to run a horizontal line or two above that at the fide of the
wing-tranfom; fay, one at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line; then run the main half-breadth
line in the half-breadth plan, fg. 9; then, where the lait
horizontal line and main height of breadth line interfeét the
aft-fide of the rabbet a, in the fheer-plan, fig. 7, fquare
them down to the half-breadth plan, fig. 9, and take their
diftances from the middle line in the half-breadth plan, fig. gy
to where they interfect the horizontal line 6, and the main
half-breadth line, and fet them off from the middle line on
their correfponding horizontal lines, in the body-plan,
Jig. 8; then by congas the curve, a, upwards through
thefe {pots, the horizontal view of the tuck will be con-
tinued up to the height of breadth.

Now, where the horizontal view of the tuck in the body~
plan a, fig. 8, interfeéts the bearding-line J, take that height,
and transfer it to the fheer-plan, jg. 7, ftriking there the
horizontal line S, which reprefents the feating of the tuck ;
then take the diitance from the feating of the tuck, in the
fheer-plan, fig. 7, on the rake, (in the direction of the rab-
bet of the polt a,) to the ref{peGtive horizontal lines and height
of breadth, and fet them up the middle line, from the hori-
zontal line S, at the feating of the tuck, in the body-plan,
fg. 8; ftriking a horizontal line to the rake, at every
height, as fhewn by the fine-ticked lines; then, where the

horizontal view of the tuck, a, interfefis the horizontal °

lines firft ftruck, carry it up parallel to the middle line, to
their correfponding horizontal lines on the rake ; which will
give the {pots through which the fine-ticked curve is to
pats, that will reprefent the proper fhape of the tuck,
agreeably to the rake, asc; and the line to which the
fafhion-piece mould mutt be made.

The devellings for the fafhion-piece may next be taken,
by proceeding as follows. The aft-fide of the rabbet of
the poft a, in the fheer-plaa, fig. 7, reprefents the aft-fide
of the fafhion-piece of the tuck ; therefore, take the fiding
of the fafhion-picce, and fet it off afore the rabbet, and
{quare thereto; then, by ftriking a parallel line to the aft-
fide a, the fore-fide of the tuck 4 will alfo be reprefented ;
next, from the feating of the tuck S, on the aft-fide, {quare
the line C from the rabbet to the fore-fide ; and from its in-
terfeGtion at c, take the heights of the horizontal lines up
the fore-fide, and fet them up on the middle line from the
horizontal line S, at the feating of the tuck, in the body-
plan, fig. 8; ftrike horizontal lines for the fore-fide of the
fafhion-piece, as diftinguifhed by the long-ticked lines ;
then, where the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece 6, in the fheer-
plan, ‘fig. 7, interfeG@ts the horizontal lines and height of
breadth, {quare it down to their correfponding horizontal
line and main half-breadth, in the half-breadth plan, Sig 93
at which interfe@tions take the diftances {quare to the middle
line, and fet them off from the middle line on their corre-
{ponding horizontal lines, for the fore-fide of the fafhion-
piece, in the body-plan, jig. 9- Continue the fore-fide of
the fafhion-piece down to the bearding-line d, as you fee
ticked in the fheer-plan, fg. 7; then take the diftance from
the interfe@tions of the fquared line at the feating c, down
the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece to the horizontal line t,
and where it interfeéts the bearding-line d, and fet it off in the
body-plan, fg. 8. Below the horizontal line S, at the feating
ftrike a horizontal line
for No. 1, and proceed as before dire¢ted to obtain the half-

breadth

ee

SHIP-BUILDING,

breadth

and 8; oa all thofe {pots pin a batten, and mark the curve
which hall ae the bearding-line, ae we ne or
bevelling-edge, d, of the fathion-piece w reprefented in

the body-plans Ag: 8 oe
The aft-tide and fore-fide appear now in their proper
in the body-plan, Ag. 8, and of the fame form as the
fathion-piece, when trimmed and laid flat with the aft-fide
as then both edges will be feen, in confequence
its being a flanding bevelling ; therefore, the diitance
the line reprefents the aft-fide to the line of the fore-
the neareft diltance, as ate, which will thew how
are flanding, or without a em in
bevelling-board, which thould be equal

fathion-piece.
is made to the ticked line, ¢, of the aft-
of it mutt be cut off well with the line for the
the tuck, and likewife well with the middle line,
that it may dovetail and bolt into the ftern-poit.
the bearding-line, er fide of the
i firmarks for the ribbands mult be
marked on the moulds; but, in order that the ftations of
may be correctly marked, obferve where the
eran baie deteead the hosianatal piemof the teks, io
to t

des,
be taken at the different firmarks or
pce ty as the bevel at the fe-
vwenth ribband, which will thew it more clearly. The ticked
to the ftock of the bevel, is the fame
outfide of the bevel, as the fathion-piece is
draw aline fquare from the ftock of the bevel
3 where it interfeéts the ticked line

i
BE
4

Transfer the height
. 8, where the diagonal 7 interfects
the fafhion-piece a, and fet it up in
aft of the fafhion-piece ;
quare it down to the half-
its diftance in the bedy-
to the horizontal view of
4, in diretion, and fet it off
line, in the half-breadth plan, on the line
which gives its ending at the fathion-piece.
manner transfer its height where it interfects the
fide of the wing-tranfom, in the body-plan, Sz: 8,
i in the theer-plan, fg.
fide of the fafhion-
‘ 5 then take

Z
:
4
F

ian
Re |
Ep
aH

ef

F
:

fk

; and where it inter-
{quare it down to the
the diftance from the
. 8, as before, to the upper
it off from the middle line,

i ugh
half-breadth plan, fig- 9, which will be

like thofe above defcribed,

on the half-breadth and body-plans, Ags. 9 and the tranfoms of boats are laid off in 2 fimilar manner,

but compofed of only one piece athwarthhips, and their
upper fide is bounded the upper fide of the theer, But
the tucks of yachts (or frigates, if built of fir) partake of
the round-forward of the wing-tranfom, which caufes the
fathion-picces to take a part of it alfo the whole of their
length, which makes them rather more difficult to be laid
off. But, fuppofing the former to be clearly underitood,
we fhall give a defeription of a tuck, the outide of which
is to round-forward, in its finifhed flate.

Suppofe a flat {urface, of thin deal (in length from the
head OF the fathion-piece or height of breadth to the {eating
of the tuck, and in breadth to the outfide of the tranfom )
was placed with one edge to the rabbet of the poft, and the
other edge bent round to a curve, as much as the outfide of
the tuck is intended to round-forward, in which pofition
{uppofe it to be confined; then draw the fhape of the out-
fide of the tuck or fafhion-piece down to the poft, and cut
it out. The true thape of the tuck or fathion-piece is now
fhewn as it isto be trimmed, and as it will appear in its
finifhed ftate. Then take it from its pofition, and lay it
flat, letting the round be unconfined ; and it will then ap-
pear as it is required to be laid off in the body-plan, in a a
to make the mould therefrom.

The fafhion-pieces for the {quare tuck being already laid
off, the fame horizontal lines, &c. may be transferred to
the fheer and body-plans, figs. 10 and 11; then proceed to
lay it off upon the flat, agreeable to the rake of the rabbet
Hy the ftern-poit, as before directed, with this difference,
having no round-aft made, but one itraight line in the
thwarthhip view, in the fheer-plan, fg. 7, which was the
aft-part of the rabbet of the ftern-poft ; but, in the prefent
{quare tuck, where the head of the fathion-piece is carried
forward, to conneét with the end of the wing-tranfom, the
moulding edge of the fafhion-piece forms a ferpentine line.

Therefore, where each horizontal line interfe&ts the aft-
pas of the rabbet of the poft a, in the fheer-plan, fig. 10,

uare down the diftances tothe middle line of the half-breadth

fig. 12, making of {pots ; then upon the horizontal line,

0. 5, at the height of the wing-tranfom, at the fide, fet
off from the aft-fide of the rabbet of the poit a, the round-
forward of the wing-tranfom, in the fheer-plan, fg. 10, and
{quare it thence down to the half-breadth plan, fg. 12;
upon which fet off the half-breadth of the wing-tranfom,
and thence {weep a curve, the centre of whofe radius being
in the middle ling, fhall cut the {pot for the faid horizontal
line, in the middle line of the half-breadth plan, fg. 12,
which will reprefent the aft-fide of the wing-tranfom a, at
the height of the horizontal line at the fide. Now, from
the other {pots fquared down on the middle line of the half-
breadth plan, {weep curves with the fame radius, and they
will be parallel to the curve of the wing-tranfom e. The
horizontal lines being transferred from the half-breadth
plan, fig. 9. to fig. 12, take the diftances {quare from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan, fg. 12, to where the
horizontal lines interfe& their refpeGtive curves for the aft-
fide of the tuck, and fet them off from the middle line on
their correfponding horizontal lines, in the body-plan,
Jig. 11; a batten pinned to thofe {pots will thew the aa
zontal view of the tuck a, in the body-plan, fg. 11. Alfo,
where the horizontal lines in the half-breadth plan, Ag. 12, in-
terfect their refpedtive curves, {quare the diitances up to theur
correfponding horizontal lines in the theer-plan, fg. 10;
and by drawing a curve to pafs through thofe ipots, the
thwartthip view of the aft-fide of the fathion-piece, 4, will
be reprefented in the fheer-plan, fig. 10; and what the

; thwart-

SHIP-BUILDING.

thwartfhip view of the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece leaves
the fabbet of the ftern-poft, in order to be conformable to
the wing-tranfom at the fide, is eafily perceived by the
fhaded lines. ©

Till this thwartfhip view of the aft-fide of the fafhion-
piece, 4, be fhewn in the fheer-plan, fig. 10, the ribband-
lines cannot be truly ended, although the operation is the
fame as before defcribed.

Though the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece 4, in the fheer-
plan, Jig 10, leaves the rabbet of the {tern-poft at the head
conformable to the end of the wing-tranfom, yet a {quare
line at the feating muft be drawn as before, to lay-off the
tuck on the flat ; therefore, take the neareft diftances from
the fquare line a, in the theer-plan, Jig. 10, to where each
horizontal line crofles the aft-fide of the fafhion-piece 4, and
fet them up from the horizontal line S, in the body-plan,
fg, 1 {triking horizontal lines, as diflinguifhed by a fine
tick.

Then take the half-breadth of the wing-tranfom, in the
body-plan, fg. 11, {quare from the middle line, and fet it
off trom the middle line, on the line A A. Next, fix one
leg of the compafles at the end of the wing-tranfom, in the
fheer-plan, fig. 10, and take the neareft diftance to the aft-
part of the rabbet of the ftern-poft a, which is fquare from
the rabbet, as the line ¢; and fet it off {quare from the line
AA, at each end of the tranfom 64; and {weep the arc
ec, which gives the round-aft of the tuck at any height,
{quare from the rabbet of the ftern-poft. Square down the
fine-ticked lines, or horizontal lines, 2, 3) 4, 5, 6, and 7,
on the rake where they interfe& the horizontal view, a, of
the fafhion-piece in the body-plan, Jig: U1, to the round-aft
line, on a {quare under the body-plan. Then take their
diftances from the middle line, on the curve cc, or round-
aft, on a {quare, and fet them off from the middle line of the
body-plan, fg. 11, on their correfponding horizontal lines ;
then pin a batten to thefe {pots, and to where the feating
interfeGts the poft, and it will give the form of the aft-fide
of the fafhion-piece d, to which the mould is to be made,
that will agree with the other timbers, when in their
places. ;

To be corre& with the length of the wing-tranfom on the
flat, take the half-breadth from the body-plan, fig. 11, on
the round for the upper fide of the tranfom; then continue
the end of the tranfom in the half-breadth plan, fg. 12,
{quare out from the middle line, as at c; on which ({quare
from the middle line) fet off the half-breadth taken on the
round from the body-plan, fg. 11, and from that {pot {weep
an arc to break into the middle of the tranfom, at the
middle line, as reprefented by the dotted line a; then from
the before mentioned {pot, or end of the wing-tranfom at J,
take the half-breadth round the dotted curve to the middle
line, and fet it off from the middle line in the body-plan,

J: 11, round the curve, for the upper fide of the tranfom.
This will give the exaét length of the tranfom on the
round-aft of the tuck.

Previous to the laying-off of the fore-fide of the fafhion-
piece, it will be proper to underftand in what manner the
fafhion-piece is to be moulded and trimmed, particularly on
the fore and after-fides.

Make a mould to the moulding, or outer edge of the
fafhion-piece laid off on the flat, as the fine ticked line d in
the body-plan, fig. 11.~ The upper end may be made as
high as the height of breadth, or horizontal line 7, and the
lower end may reach to the feating on the poft. Let the
upper end of the mould be cut off well with the direGtion
of the horizontal line 7, and let the heel be exa¢tly perpen-

6

dicular at the fide of the inner poft. Make another mould
to the round-aft, on a fquare cc, as fhewn under the body-
plan, fig. 11, and of a parallel breadth, like part of a beam-
mould. Make it as broad as the fafhion-pieces are intended
to be fided, and let the midfhip-end be well with the fide of
the inner poft, and cut off parallel to the middle line. Let
the fide-end correfpond well with the moulding edge of the
fafhion-piece, and cut off agreeable to the round of the fide
when the mould lies in its proper place, underneath the
body-plan, fig. 11. Let the fafhion-piece be fided fuf-
ficiently for the wing-tranfom to dovetail into the aft-fide
of it, and Jet the fore-fide of the fathion-piece, that runs
above the wing-tranfom, be of {ufficient length to receive
the bolts of the fide ftern-timber, and long enough at the
heel to meet at the middle line.

When the fafhion-piece is roughly fided on the aft-fide, fo
as to lay the mould on the aft-fide, to mark the upper and
lower end nearly, then cut off the head by the mould for
the thwartfhip-way, and the fore and aft-way, {quare. Then
faften the round-aft mould, that is made to the fiding, on
the head of the fafhion-piece, by which may be trimmed
the fore and after-fides of the fafhion-piece out of winding,
by lines parallel to the middle line. Thus will you have
the belt opportunity of feeing how to convert the piece, by
feeing both fides at once. Then will the fafhion-piece
be of a parallel thicknefs from one end to the other,
by all lines that are parallel, whether perpendicular or
horizontal.

To Lay-off the Fore-fide of the Fafbion-Piece.

Having the fiding of the fafhion-piece on a fquare, fet it
off in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, fquaré from the rabbet of the
ftern-poft a; then with compafles take the fiding of the
fafhion-piece in the direGtion of the horizontal lines, and
fet it off fquare from all the aft-fides of the horizontal lines,
prolonged in the half-breadth plan, fig. £2, on each horizon-
tal line, and fquare them up on their correfponding lines in
the fheer-plan, fg. 10. ‘Then pin a batten to thofe f{pots,
and the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece ¢ will be reprefented.
Take the heights above and below the fquared line d, in the
fheer-plan, fig. 10, to the interfeétion of each horizontal line
with the fore-fide of the fafhion-piece c, in the fame mauner
as the aft-fide was done; and fet off above and below the
ticked line S, in the body-plan, fg. 11, and ttrike horizontal
lines, as there diftinguifhed by long-tick. Then take the
half-breadths in the half-breadth plan, fig. 12, to the fore-fide
of the fafhion-piece on the horizontal lines, {quare from the
middle line; and fet them off fquare from the middle line
on to the line for the round-aft, on a fquare ¢¢, under the
body-plan, fg. 11. Then take them off again on the round-
aft line, and fet them off from the middle line, on their
correfponding horizontal lines in the body-plan, jig. 11.
Then pin a batten to thofe fpots, and the form of the fore-
fide of the fafhion-piece ¢ will be agreeable to the fiding
propofed.

The aft-fide of the fafhion-piece not being f{traight, will
render it more troublefome than ufeful, to run lines in order
to trim the outfide of the fathion-piece by bevellings; there-
fore it would be better to make a mould to the fore-fide e,
and trim a fpot to fay to the fide of the inner poft or dead-
wood; and fet off a bevelling for the outfide at the main-
breadth, as at B, jig. 12.

Mark the line at the feating S, in the body-plan, fg. 11,
on the mould for the aft-fide, and on the mould for the fore-
fide ; and when the aft-fide is moulded, and the fide trimmed
to fay to the inner poft, mark the fpot 4 fquare ee abe

alt-lide

to the fore-fide, to which place the {pot 4, on the
for the fore-fide, muft properly correfpond ; aud the
mould muft be kept well with the {pot to
at the main-breadth, The mould lies then
place to mould the fore-fide of the fathion-

eee ag boats, for the planks of the bottom to
aft-fide of the tranfom, and fometimes
of
is

the fafhion-piece of lighters; but in

better to rabbet the falhion. iece ; for

the planks of the bottom are rabbetted into the fathion-
“a i of the butts left longer than the out-
apt to be preiled to the timbers on
; while, on the contrary, when the
gh the fathion-piece, they are not able to
force that is required to be made by caulking their
fufficiently. In veilels of this clafs, likewife, the
planks would be liable to be ftarted off by

fathion-piece, as it is laid off, both fore and aft-fides,
the timbers of the body, being for that
underftood ; but when the fafhion-piece is
leave enough without the for
k ; which may be found exa@ly by
the outfide of the fathion-piece, at
parallel to the lines for the fore and aft-fides
i and {quare from the lines.

the com to the thicknefs of the bottom

i

ABE
ik

e of the bevel may
in the direétion

fide ©
Rend ithe tap of 0 talib, 2s before obferved ; in which
direction the tongue of oo tie speamen when the

the
ariietaneconaneets lines
‘The fathion-pieces are rabbetted on their aft-fides, to re-

ceive the planks of the tuck ; but do not take the rabbet fo
low down as where it interfeéts the but leave it {quare
fome inches above it, that the mi piece may be gotten
in its length as it rabbets into the poit, and it will alfo leave
a better butt for caulking, as in the body-plan,

1.

The wing-tranfom mould mutt be made to the fine ticked
curve d, in the half-breadth plan, fg. 12. The bevelling of
the wing-tranfom will be the fame athwarthhip on the aft-
fide, which ing isthe rake of the rabbet of the pott a;
and the win is rabbetted at the aft-fide at the

edge for the planks of

the tuck, and at the upper
lower counter, (if thought
ftern-timbers fhould be
of the wing-tranfom as
the planks of the lower counter.

SHIP-BULLDING.

that when the heels of the fathion-pieces are letting-on the
poll, thofe firmarks muft exactly agree.

To Lay-off the feveral Parts of the Head, Plate X. Laying-
ff D.

The koce, cheeks, rails of the head, and block for the
figure, mut be laid off to their full fize on the floor from
Plate 1., which is the horizontal and thwartthip view, when
the checks, rails, &c. are fixed in their places.

To make the Mould ta the Knee of the Head.—The lower
part of the knee at the fearf, as at X, Plate X. fg. 1,
La ing-of D, may be made of fir-board about an inch thick,
he fn the fore-part of the knee and flem, as high as the
cutting-down and feating of the figure; but thefe seed be
no broader than about five inches for lightnefs, as at 395 39

Jg- 1. Then acrofs the mould are fattened battens, which

not only keep the mould together, but the manner of
fiding the knee is exprefled thereby. Thus, take any per-
pendicular, as at 24, fg. 1, and level out the feveral heights
tas My 15, 16, and 17; and at 13 and 17 fet off the half-fidiag
of the item, ftriking a line thereto. Then let fall a perpen-
dicular from the fore-fide of the knee at the upper part, as
at 25, fig. 1, and fet off the half-fiding of the knee at 4,
and at 12, and ftrike a line. Strike the. lines acrofs the
knee of the head, where it is intended to have the upper
fide of the battens, as at 1, 2, 3, &c. to 12. Then, to de-
termine on the fiding of the knee at the fore part, pin a
batten from the upper part of the knee round the fore-fide,
marking thereon the lines 1, 2, 3, &c. Then apply the
batten to the perpendicular 25, fig. 1, keeping it fait at
the upper end, and mark on the perpendicular the {pots
I, 2, 3, &c. Then from the perpendicular 25, fig.1, take
-fiding at each {pot, and fet them off on their corre-
{ponding lines at the fore-fide of the knee: proceed in the
fame manner for the half-fiding of the flem at 24, fy. 1, and
ftrike in the lines as ticked acrofs the knee. Then battens
ing made to thofe lines, and nailed acrofs the mould, the
half-fiding of the knee may be readily fet off at the upper fide
of each batten, and the eo when put together, may be
trimmed ftraight from the fore-fide to the item or aft-fide of
the knee: the cutting-down, as at 1, 2, 3, and 4, fig. 1, is
fided in the fame manner.

To make the Mould to the Gripe, G, fig. 1.—The gripe is
only the completion of the eee mes aod Srenals
is made fo fimilar to the knee above as to need no further
defcription.

To make the Moulds to the Cheeks. —The cheeks mutt be laid
off to their moulded fize on the half-breadth plan, fg. 2, as at
C, C, to the main half-breadth line, allowing the thicknefs
of the plank, as at R, and againit the fide of the knee.
Another mould mult be made to the flight of each cheek, in
the fheer-plan, fg. 1, at C, or upper cheek ; and L C, the
lower cheek, from the heel of the figure Z, to reach as far
aft as the cheeks are there fhewn, marking a firmark at
the fore-fide of the item, Then, to mould the cheeks to
their proper flight, draw off the knee-arm to the mould
made Eo the halé breadth plan, marking on the piece the fore-
fide of the flem from that mould: then faftening the flight-
mould to the knee-arm of the cheek, obferving to keep the
firmark well at the fore-fide of the item, and keeping the
mould parallel to the middle line, let the cheek be trammed
out of winding by the thwarthhip lines, or lines which are
{quare from the mould. Then there is a certainty, when the
cheek is throated, no angle will appear in the throat, as
there will be fometimes by the ufual method, particularly
in full-bowed thips, where the theer {prings more than the

fo flight of the cheeks. When the fide-arm of the cheek is

trimmed

SHIP-BUILDING.

trimmed by a mould made to the fheer of the thip, and the
fore and aft-arms by the flight of the cheeks laid off on the
floor, there will fometimes be a very difagreeable throat,
which cannot happen when trimmed by the above method.
Although the fide-arm may not hang fo much as the fheer of
the fhip, yet 1t will not look difagreeable, becaufe the throat
of the cheek is the only part that takes the flight.

To lay-of the Head-Ratls.—Strike in the perpendiculars
Z and Y trom the fore-fide of the figure, and foremoft end
of the upper rail in the fheer-plan, fz. 1, down to the half-
breadth-plan, fig. 2. Determine on the half-breadth of 'the
lacing, as at 1, 2, fig. 2, asthe foremoft end of the upper rail
comes againft it. The after end fays againft the plank at
the beak-head timber, from whence {trike a ftraight line to
the lacing at its fore end. Then fet off the fiding of the
rail, allowing the thicknefs of the lining, and {trike the line
P, or outfide ; which being the fight-fide of the rail when in
its place, is the properett to be laid off.

Strike the horizontal line 32 at the upper part of the

foremoft end of the upper rail, in the fheer-plan, fig. 1-
Then fquare up to the line 32 the aft-fide of the ftem-
timber 20, and as many lines at equal diftances as may be
needful, and number them 1, 2, 3, &c, above the line 32,
as fhewn in fig. 1. Set off the fame ftations from perpendi-
cular Y, on the middle line in the half-breadth plan, Figs 2;
and {quare them out to the line P, or cutfide of the main-
rail, numbering them, as before, at the middle line ; then
{quare them out from the line P. Take the diftances from
the line 32 in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, to the upper and lower
parts of the main-rail at each perpendicular line, and fet them
off on their correfponding numbers in the half-breadth plan,
jig. 2, which was {quared out from the line P; and then, by
pinning a batten to thefe fpots, it will give the form of the
main-rail, and it will fhew the fame form, when in its place, as
that in the fheer-plan, fig. 1. Where the lines {quared out
from the middle line in the half-breadth plan interfe&
the infide of the main-rail, {trike them from thence {quare
from the line P to the rail already laid off, and take the
diftances on thefe lines from the line P to the upper part of
the rail, and fet them down from the line 32 in the fheer-
plan, fig. 1, on their correfponding perpendiculars; which will
give the infide of the main-rail in the fheer-plan, fig. 1; as
the ticked line, which rifes above the middle of the rail
forward, being the upper line, and below towards the
after end as the after part, falls below the outfide. The in-
fide of the rail at the lower edge muift be fet off in the fame
manner in the fheer-plan, in order to lay off the timbers
exadtly.

Strike the trcked line in the plan of the rails in the half-
breadth plan, fig. 2, which is the line to which the chamfer
at the under fide of the rail the mouldings are intended to
be wrought to. This mutt likewife be laid off in the fheer-
plan, becaufe in a thwartfhip view this is the proper fight of
the lower edge of the rail: for the lower part of the rail in
the fheer-plan (which was firft laid off in order to lay off
the rail to its proper cant in the half-breadth plan) may now
be rubbed out, when the rail is fuppofed to be chamfered
or wrought.

In the half-breadth plan, fig. 2, where the lines {quared
out from the middle line interfeé the ticked line before-men-
tioned, {trike them from thence {quare from the line F to the
lower part of the rail-laid off; then take the diftances on
thofe lines from the line P to the lower part of the rail,
and fet them off from the line 32 in the fheer-plan, fig. 1.
on their correfponding perpendiculars. This gives the lower
part of the rail in the fheer-plan, at the chamfer, being the
fight part of the rail when trimmed and in its place.

Before the main-rail is canted, as in the half-breadth plan,
Jig. 2, the proper form of it cannot be afcertained in the
fheer-plan, fig. 1; forthe rail, when canted in order to make
the mould, muft be gradually diminifhed from one end to the
other, and from thence transferred to the fheer-plan ; for
inftance, the middle line at the after-part of the rail in the
fheer-plan, is the aft-part of the rail at the outfide ; fo that
from thence to the fore-fide of the rail fhews lefs than the
rail in the middle ; alfo, at the foremoft end the rail will not
fhew fo much as it does in the half-breadth plan; whereas
in the middle it fhews the fame.

Before the middle rails can be canted in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 2, to their proper {pread, proceed in the follow-
ing manner ; {trike an horizontal line from where the aft-fide
of the ftem-timber 20, in the fheer-plan, fiz. 1, interfecs
the upper fide of the upper cheek, as the line 27, in fig. 3.
Take the heights from the upper fide of the upper cheek, at
the perpendicular line 7, in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, to the
upper and lower parts of the three rails LL, M, and N, and fet
them up from the horizontal line before-mentioned in fg. 3,
as you fee ticked at L,M, and N. ‘Then take the diftances
from the middle line in the haif-breadth plan, fig. 2, at the
line 7, to the outfide of the main-rail; likewife to the
infide, and the ticked line for the chamfer of the rail at the
under fide ; and fet them off on their correfponding lines in

Jig. 3, and draw the thwartfhip feétion of the main-rail,
Set off in the half-breadth plan the half-thicknefs of the knee
S Y of the head, and the moulding of the upper cheek C C;
then take the half-thicknefs of the knee at 7, or aft-fide of
the ftem-timber in the half-breadth plan, Jig. 2, and fet it .
off from the middle line w in the plan of the timber, FB. 3>
on the line 27. Then determine the breadth of the timber
at the upper fide of the cheek, and pin a batten to the
curve for the outfide of the timber. Then in the plan of
the timber, fig. 3, determine on the half-breadths of the middle
rails Land M; and transfer them from thence to the half-
breadth plan, fig. 2; at the aft-fide of the ftem-timber.
Then fet off the diftance of the foremoft end of the rails
from the middle line, and ftrike in the two lower or middle
rails N, O, inthe half-breadth plan, fg. 2.

The middle and lower rails being determined in the half.
breadth plan, fig. 2, the outlides of them, being the fight.
fides, are the propereft to be laid off. The outfide of the
middle rail is marked O, and the outfide of the lower rail
N. Where the upper fides of the middle rail M, and
lower rail L, in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, interfe& the aft-fide
of the hair-bracket H, ftrike the horizontal lines 33 and
34, anfwerable to thofe in the half-breadth plan, fg. 2.

Where the lines 1, 2, 3, &c. which are fquare from the
middle line in the half-breadth plan, fg. 2, interfe& the lines
O and N, let them be {quared out trom the lines O and N,
in the fame manner as was performed for P. Then take the
diftances from the lines 33 and 34, in the fheer-plan, fic. Fy
(at the fame perpendiculars as before,) to the upper fide of
the middle and lower rails, and fet them off in the half.
breadth plan, fg. 2, from their correfponding lines O and
N, on the lines {quared out. This gives the form of the
upper fides of the middle and lower rails, which is fufficient
to fhew the method of laying off each rail, agreeable to
their different cant or fpread. The lower fide of the rails
is formed by a diminifhing line to the moulding or depth of
the rail at each end.

It is very feldom that the middle and lower rails are
laid off on the floor only ; the main or upper rail, when
trimmed, is gotten up into its place, and moulds are there
made to the head-timbers, and then the middle and lower
Fails are {pread and equally divided thereon between the upper

ral

SHIP-BUILDING.

{ponding timber in fg. 3. Likewife take the height trom
their fituation is determined on. the upper fide of upper cheek in the theer-plan, fg. 1,
But in order to thew what may a on the floor, to the ticked curve, reprefenting the cutting down or lacing
of the head may not y be laid off, but the of the knee, and fet it up from the bafe line of cach timber
taken, and the very {cores for the rails be cut out in fy. 3. ‘This will give the feore to be cut out, in order
to let the timber meet its oppofite at the middle line. Then
height s in the theer » Ag. t, at the aft-fide fet off the fubflance at the u fide of the upper cheek,
mber, from cain fe, of the upper and draw the infide and outfi rele timber Bayt nelle ren
and lower fides of each rail, for theout- in the plate. ‘This will be the exaét form of the timbers,
sel ened them up from the bafe line of their or more particularly, of the feores of the middle rails; and
ing timber, Ag. 3, friking the horizontal lines as if laid off in the grofs, might be performed to the greateti
Then take the diftances from the middle nicety,
half-breadth plan, Ag. 2, at the aft-fide of each To bevel the Timbers in the Head.—\u the theer-plan, fy. 1,
» and fet them off on their fet off the fiding of the timbers, and ftrike in their fore-fides.
. Where the aft-fides of ‘Then fquare a fhe from the aft-fide to the fore-fide, from
plan, i 2, interfeét the where the aft-fide interfeéts the upper fide of the cheek, as
lower rails, them be drawn at 18, 19, 20, in the fame manner as was done to find the
i i bevellings of the cant-timbers.

Then take the diftances from the lines N and Take the heights at the fore-fide of each timber from its
i ils lai heel, as {quared, to the upper and lower fides of the rails, in
from the lines 34 and 34, at the aft-fides the fame manner as directed for the aft-fide, and fet them
i Ressptas sek 1, making up on the plan of each refpective timber, fig. ; then fet

of at infide off the fore-fide of each timber in the half-breadth
as was performed for the upper rail. Take the diftances fig. 2, and take the diftances from the middle line to the
the upper fide of the cheek in the theer-plan, fig. 1, at outfide of each rail at the fore-fide of each timber, and fet
the aft-fide of the timbers, te the fpots laft mentioned, and them off on the plan of each refpedtive timber, Fz: % on
i ine for of the upper rail their correfponding horizontal lines laft mentioned. Where
them u the bafe line of each re- the fore-fide of each timber in the half-breadth lan, fig. 2,
and ftrike a faint line. Thentake interfeéts the infide of the middle and lower rails, let them
the half-breadth = be fquared out from the lines N and O, to interfe@ the

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of the lines of their correfponding rails laid eff. Then take the
rails, and fet them off from the middle line diftances from the lines N and O, in the half-breadth plan,
their correfponding fg. 2, ble to the lines fquared out, to the lines of the
gives the i rails laid off, and fet them down below their corref nding
be performed to find the lines 33, 34, fig. 1, at the fore-fide of each conelvoglins
by ee the inde timber in the fheer-plan, fig.1, making {pots. Then take
the heights from the fquare line at the ‘heel up the fore-fide
to ids, of each timber in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, to the {pots lait
of the timber. This may determine mentioned, and fet them up in the plan of their refpeCtive
rails at the infide. timbers, fig. 3, flriking new horizontal lines. Then take
the chamfer of the upper rail N (being the the diftances from the middle line in the half-breadth plan,
rail when it is pat athe and in its place) is fig. 2, at the fore-fide of each timber to the infide of the
in the fheer-plan, fg. 1, take the height rails, and fet them off on their correfponding horizonta!
the fide of the cheek to the fer of the rail, at lines laft ftruck, in the plan of each refpeétive timber, fig. 3.
aft-fide of each timber, and fet it up from the bafe line of This will give the direction of the upper fide of the he
Jg- 3, friking faint lines parallel and, if rightly performed, will be parallel to the upper fide
take the half. at the aft-fide of of the rails laid off for the aft-fide.

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timber in the half-breadth ~ 2, to the ticked In the fame manner is every operation performed for the
rail, (which is fu to be where the fore-fide as was direéted for the aft-fide, the heights being
) off from the middle taken from the heel as {quared in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, in-
uw, in fe: 3, on their correfponding lines lait ftruck, ftead of the upper fide of the cheek, which fhews how much
draw the under fide of the rail to the the rails lift at the fore-fide from a fquare ; and the half-
breadths being taken at the fore-fide of the timbers in the
fide of all the rails, infide and outfide, half-breadth Be ig- 2, fhew how much the fcores at the
the timbers, fig. 3, fet off, draw the line for fore-fide of the tim are under from a {quare with the aft-
of the rails, which thews how much the infide fide, becaufe the timbers in the half-breadth plan are {quare
than the outfide, if cut off in the di- from the middle line.
the aft-fide of the timber. Then having the Having the difpofition of the rails for the fore-fide of the
mentioned, for the outfide of the rails, timbers, fet off the fame diltance from the rails as it is from
the ticked lines firft drawn,) the under fide of the the rails of the aft-fide, both infide and outfide, and mark
be drawn parallel tothe upper, or to interfect the the curves as ticked for the infide and outfide of each tim-
mentioned for the infide, which was fet down ber, in the plan of the timbers, fig. 3. ‘Then whatever dif-
meafures on the mould, taken in the di- tance the tucked lines of the fore-fide are from the lines of
it is marked on the mould. the aft-fide, fo much is the outfide of the timber under, and
: {cores for the timbers, the half-thicknefs of the infide ftanding from a {quare, agreeable to the fiding of
’ at the aft-fide of each timber, fet the timber. Or, having the aft-fides of the timbers laid off
off from the middle line won the bafe line of its corre- ge a ae eran She be takes sii cor
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SHIP-BUILDING.

re trom the half-breadth plan, fig. 2. The bevelling for the
heel of the timbers may be taken agreeable to the flight of
the upper cheek, becaufe the cheek ttands fore and aft ; but
it will not anfwer exaély to the other bevellings agreeable
to the flight of the rails in the fheer-plan, fg. 1, unlefs they
are taken to the lines of the rails when laid off in the fheer-
plan ; and then the bevellings muft be applied clofe to the
{cores that are trimmed for the cant of the rails.

To Lay-off the Rails to the Cant in the Sheer-Plan.—The
perpendicular lines mutt be drawn in the fheer-plan, fig. 1,
the fame as before, and likewile thofe in the half-breadth plan,
fig. 2, anfwerable to them. Let fall a perpendicular from
the interfeGtion of the upper part of the upper rail N, with
the aft-fide of the hair-bracket H, in the fheer-plan, fg. 1,
down to the upper rail P, as before canted in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 2, to which point the rail muft be fuppofed fixed.
Then place a batten to the infide of the rail, as canted in
the half-breadth plan, fg. 2, and mark on the batten the
perpendiculars as at 12, and the interfe€tion of the lines
1, 2, 3, &c.

Then in the fheer-plan, fig. 1, where the perpendiculars
Ty 2, 3, &c. interfeét the upper fide of the upper rail, level
aft-lines at pleafure, as you there fee ticked; then place the
batten to each level line, marking thereon its correfponding
perpendiculars, obferving always to keep the foremoft per-
pendicular marked on the batten to the perpendicular Y.
This gives the fpots to which a batten pinned will form the
upper fide of the upper rail O, and is exactly anfwerable
in form to the upper fide of the rail N, in the half-breadth
plan, fig. 2. While the batten is pinned to the form of the
rail, mark thereon the {tations 1, 2, 3, &c.5 and when it is
ftraight, place it to any perpendicular line, and mark the ex-
tremities of the rail, and the feveral ftations, as at 26, fig. 1;
then fet off the moulded fize at each end, and ftrike a
ftraight line, which will give the tapering at every perpen-
dicular, and a batten pinned thereto will torm the under fide
of the rail.

In the fame manner are the other rails to be performed
in the fheer-plan. The aft-fide of the after-timber being
already laid off, and the cant of the middle and lower rails
being determined on the half-breadth plan, fig. 2; let fall
the perpendiculars 35, 36, where the lines 33, 34, interfect
the aft-part of the hair-bracket H, in the fheer-plan, fig. 1,
down to the half-breadth plan, fig. 2, and proceed as
above.

It may be neceflary to notice here, that when Plate I.
was engraved, all veflels above a frigate in the royal navy
had beak-heads, which mode has lately been difcontinued :
but fuch of our readers as may be defirous of knowing the
beft method of laying-off the beak-head timbers, are referred
to the «« Elements and Pra¢tice of Naval ArchiteGture,”’ by
Steel.

To Lay-off ihe feveral Parts of the Stern.

To Lay-off the Side Stern-Timber.—The fide ftern-timber
mutt be laid off on the floor, and a mould made to it, fo that
when trimmed and put up in its place onthe fhip, that is, to
the tumbling-home of the fide, it fhould appear as its ticked
line in the fheer-plan, Plate I. from whence it is transferred
to the floor.

Strike the horizontal lines from the ftern-timber in the
theer-plan, Plate VIL fig. 11. Laying-off A, to fquare-
timber 36, at the wing-tranfom, at the fide, at the knuckles
of the upper and lower counters, at the top-breadth, and at
the top-fide. Likewife itrike as many between the wing-
tranfom and lower counter as may be thought neceflary,
that part being the moft critical to obtain the exa& form

of the timber. Then transfer thefe horizontal lines to the
after-body plan, jig. 5, as you fee ticked in the plate, and
number them accordingly. Then take off the half-breadth
of each horizontal line in the body-plan, fig.5, at every
f{quare timber, as far forward as timber 28, and transfer them
to their correfponding f{quare timbers in the half-breadth
plan, fg.6. ‘To thefe {pots pin a batten, and mark the
curves, or half-breadths, and continue them as far aft as the
ftern-timber in the fheer-plan, fig. 11, and number them in
the half-breadth plan, fig. 6, as in the plate.

Where the horizontal lines in the fheer-plan, fig. 11, in-
terfect the aft-part of the ftern-timber, fquare them down,
or let fall perpendiculars to their correfponding lines in
the half-breadth plan, fig. 6, as fhewn in the plate. This
gives the ending of the after-part of the half-breadth lines.
Then take off the half-breadths of the horizontal lines in the
half-breadth plan, fig. 6, at their ending, as above-mentioned,
and fet them off on their correfponding horizontal lines in
the body-plan, fg. 5. A batten pinned to thofe {pots forms
the aft-fide of the ftern-timber A, agreeable to the form in
the fheer-plan. But if thefe half-breadths, when fet off in
the body-plan, fhould not make a fair line, then thofe in the
half-breadth plan, fig. 6, which feem moft to require it, mutt
be altered at the after-end, till they all correfpond to make
a fair line in the body-plan.

Now fet off the moulded fize of the {tern-timber upon
each horizontal line, in fg. 11, to which pin a batten, and
the fore-fide of the timber will be reprefented, becaufe the
mould is to be made broad enough to be an{werable to the
fore-fide of the timber.

Then, where the horizontal lines in the fheer-plan, fig. 11,

interfe¢t the fore-fide of the timber, transfer them to their
correfponding lines in the half-breadth plan, fig. 6, parallel
to the other lines, which are ticked down from the aft-fide,
and on the half-breadth lines make the fpots as you fee in
the plate. Then take the half-breadth of each horizontal
line in the half-breadth plan, fg. 6, at the {pots laft-men-
tioned, and fet them off on their correfponding horizontal
lines in the body-plan, fg. 5. Pin a batten to thefe f{pots,
and mark the line B, which is the fore-fide of the timber,
agreeable to the line for the fore-fide in the fheer-plan.

Having in the body-plan, fig. 11, the form of the aft-fide
and fore-fide of the ftern-timber, as it appears upon an
horizontal view when in its place, it follows next to point
out a method to make a mould, in order to mould the tim-
ber, fo that it fhall have the fame appearance when it is in
its place upon a horizontal view, as it now fhews in the
fheer and body-plans. Unlefs there be a method which
may be depended upon for the exaét heights of the counters,
it can be to no purpofe to defign a view of the {tern, in order
to difpofe of the decks, the lights, and all other heights, in
fuch a manner, that cach part may bear a juft proportion to
the reft.

Strike the line C in the body-plan, fig. 11, the thicknefs
of the mould from the fide of the timber, to which place
a batten, and keep cne end well with the horizontal line at
the end of the wing-tranfom, and. mark on the batten all the
horizontal lines in the body-plan. Then carry the batten
to the fheer-plan, fig. 11, and keeping the end of the batten
well with the horizontal line A of the wing-tranfom at the
fide, fet up all the heights on the batten perpendicular, and
{trike them through the ftern-timber parallel to the hori-
zontal lines firft ftruck, as you fee in the plate. Where
the ticked horizontal lines in the fheer-plan, fy. 11, firft
ftruck interfe& the fore-fide and aft-fide of the ttern-timber,
{quare them up to the horizonal lines lalt ftruck. This
will give the fpots, to which a batten pinned will give the

ticked

SHIP-BULLDING.

ef

i lines 1 and H, to which the mould is to be made.

lait ts which were fet up are the proper heights
hancken and horizontal lines to be ae a on the

aEF

ticked lines I, H, in the theer-plan, As. 11, to which
is to be made, are {uppofed to be the ftraight

in the body-plan, Ag. 11, thanding falt at the wing-
the head lifted up ull it flands perpendicular ;
lane to the direction of te hrai ht line
~plan, Ag. 11, will appear exa@ly the fame as
{; off in the Ieespaplany es 11, which
timber required when trimmed and in

the next place, the mould fhould be fo made, that
ftern-timber fhall be trimmed both ways by this one
is, to the fhape as it appears in the fheer-plan,
likewife to the fore-fide and aft-fide thwarthip
« BEe
of dry feafoned inch-deal
aeousiaes bioin she Deateplte laces
pees Ate of Oe sangre at the fide to the head G ;
when the is im its place, mark on it the upper
lines, in the fame direétion as they are laid off,
their proper names on the mould,
lower counter at D, upper counter at E, heel at A,
B, No. 2 at C, No. 5 at F, and head at G. Then
the diftances from the ftraight line C, in the body-plan,
1, to the fore-fide of the ftern-timber B, eg |
tal line, and in the dire¢tion of the horizontal lines, and
them down in ya at the fore-fide of the mould on
correfpondin 5. izontal lines: then proceed in the
down the diflances or {pilings on the
of the mould from the linesC and A. But to
thofe {pilings requires much trouble,
paraoes, pra cove taken, the ftern-timber will not be

mott correct method of finithing the mould,
application when moulding Se piece, is,

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of deal, agreeable
ag as the thicknefe of the mould) at each horizontal
their ends at the fore-fide and aft-fide cut ex-
from the mould, or their aft-fides may teach
round-aft ; then fatten thofe brackets to the under
of the mould, keeping the middle of their thicknefs
exaCtly well with their refpeétive horizontal lines, as they

appear fhaded in the fheer-plan, fig. 11, obferving to kee;
the fide of every bracket . on Bion om the
- 11, in the body-plan, that is, to

ight line C has from an hori-
fenting the tumbling-home of the ftern-

the half-thicknefs of the brackets
own to their ends, and the fides chamfered awa

thereto, which will dire&t upon the timber, when en |
the exact ftations of the knuckles, and alfo of the horizontal

p-
in moulding the timber, ad ag gels hy: =
won > ita upper fide is kept
‘ftraight, and out of cl n examine where
te iv mot from he under fide
general {piling to be ap-
brackets. <j F
brackets, owing to the
ftraight-edged batten, of fuf-

this of the plank

ficient length, be kept well to the under fide of the bracket ;
from which fet dowa the {piling required, wherever may
touch the piece. Then by boring holes with a {mall gim-
blet, exadtly in the direétion of the gauge-line, at the ends
of the brackets, aod full as much below the brackets as the
general {piling, you will preferve the exact moulding of the
timber, after the rough wood is fawn off, agreeable to the
mould.

To take the bevellings of the aft-fide of the timber, the
round-aft of the ftern at the counters, and top-timber line,
mutt be laid off thus in the half-breadth plan. ‘Take the
diftance from the midhip to the fide ftern-timber, on a
fquare in the theer- lan, Plate 1., and fet it off upon the
middle line, Plate VII. fg. 6, abaft its correfponding per-

ndicular, as {quared down from the counters, &c. at the
fd a ing curves to the faid round-aft on a {quare ;
then fix the tongue of a bevel to the different round-aft
lines, and the {tock parallel to the middle line will be the
bevelling of the round-aft at cach place, to be applied {quare
from the mould.

Take the beveling to cut off the heel from the body-plan,
Plate VIL. fig. 11, thus: fix the flock of a bevel to the
line C, and 2 ton to the round-up of the wing-tran-
fom, as at D; and apply it over the Teel of the mould,
when it lies in its proper place, to where the lower bracket
{trikes the timber. _

Suppofing the heel of the timber to be carefully trimmed,
as above direéted, a thin mould may be made to the fection
of the heel on the wing-tranfom, and the bevellings taken
to fay it to the fafhion-piece from the ftern-frame, as that is
generally in its place before the ftern-timbers are trimmed.

The bevellings for the round-up of the knuckles of the
lower and upper counters may be taken from the body-
plan, Flate VII. fig. 11, by fixing the ftock of a bevel to
the aft-fide of flern-timber A, and the tongue to the
round-up, as at E, and fo applied from the timber when it
istrimmed. ~
To Lay-off the Stern and Quarter-Gallerics, Plate X. Laying

off D.

In Plate VIL. Laying-off A, the laying-off of the fide
ftern-timber to make the mould to, is reprefented in its
proper fituation, that the reader might have a clearer idea of
the operation. But we are not to {uppofe that any mould-
loft is broad enough to admit of the ftern to be laid off in
that manner; neither would it appear clear enough, if laid
off in the body-plan.

Therefore, in fome convenient part of the floor, lay off
the horizontal (or level) view of the itera, as Plate X.
fig. 6, from Plate 1. ; and likewife the quarter, as far for-
ward as timber 32, as Ag. 4.

Strike an horizontal line at the upper fide of the wing-
tranfom at the middle line, which will be a bafe line to t
ftern ; likewife the lines 17 and 18 parallel to the bafe line,
to interfeét the knuckles of the lower and upper counters,
at the fide ftern-timber 33, in fg- 4; continuing them
through their refpetive timbers in fg. 6. Then take the
heights from the bafe line, in fig. 4, to the knuckles of the
lower and upper counters at che midfhip ftern-timber 32,
and fet them up the middle line above the bafe line, in fig. 6.
Then {pring the arc of a circle through thofe heights in

Sig. 6, and as far as the quarters project, as B, B, which
ie be the knuckles of the timbers. nga the lower
u counter-rails.ia fig. 4, and fet off the projection
— of each pons thus: fquare out a line fram
the kuuckle of each counter of thé midfhip-timber 32, as 2
and 4, and draw the thisknefs of the plank of each counter
4E2 paral!

‘
ct

SHIP-BUILDING.

parallel to the timber, which gives the under fide of the
rails; then transfer the upper and under fides of thofe rails
from fg. 4, to the middle line, fg. 6, and defcribe parallel
curves to the knuckles 42 and 43; and the upper counter-
rail B, and lower counter-rail A, will be alfo reprefented
in the plan of the {tern, fig. 6, and that will fhew how
much the fight-part of the rails will be on a level view
below the knuckles of the timbers.

But the round-up and round-aft of the counter-rails, to
make the moulds to for trimming the rails, mutt be laid off
on a {quare, thus: from the fore-fide of the rails at the mid-
fhip-timber 34, in fg. 4, {quare ina line from the knuckle to
touch the fide-timber 33; then take the diftance from the
knuckle of the upper counter from the midfhip-timber 32,
to the fide-timber 33, in the direétion of the above fquare
line, and fet it off from any ftraight lme, as A A, at CC,
fig. 9, which is the knuckle or breadth of the upper
counter, fquared down from fg. 6. Then fpring the arc
BB, which is the round-aft of the upper counter, on a
{quare.

Next take the diftance from the knuckle of the upper
counter, at the fide-timber 33, to the line fquared in from
the knuckle of the midfhip-timber, and fet it off as before
at CC, above the line AA, fg. 9, and {pring another
arc, which will be the round-up of the upper counter, ona
fquare. Proceed in the fame manner with the lower coun-
ter, and we fhall have both rails laid off to the round-up
and round-aft on a {quare.

This is the beft way to make the moulds for the round
of the rails; becaufe if the rails were cut out of a {nying
plank, or piece of thick-ftufl, the round-up would be the
fame; that when put in the boiler, and fet to the round-aft,
they would then have their proper round-up on a level
view ; or, were they cut out of a {mall piece of timber, it
would anfwer the fame purpofe, and be moft expeditious
and exact.

The counter-rails may be cut out of a ftraight piece of
timber, without kilning them, as they are apt to fly after
that procefs, thus: take the round-up and round-aft to-
gether, that is, from the knuckle of the fide-timber to the
knuckle of the midfhip-timber, and {pring an arc thereto,
as before; then when the rails are trimmed to the fheer,
and the fore-fide canted to the timber, they will exactly
conform to the round-up and round-aft; when put in their
places.

Having the round-up of the lower and upper counter-
rails in fig. 6, and continued them far enough out for the
projetion of the quarter-galleries, round up the quarter-
deck in the ftern, agreeable to the upper counter-rail, in
the following manner: take the height from the upper
counter-rail, in fig. 6, to the quarter-deck, in the direétion
of the fide-timber at the infide; and fet it up the middle
line of the ftern. This makes the quarter-deck round more
than the upper counter-rail, and adds life to the ftern; for
the upper part of the lights in the ftern fhould be parallel
to the tranfom. And if they were to round by the fame
mould as the upper counter-rail, the bars in the fafhes next
the fide would be longer than thofe in the middle line, and
would appear as if the top of the lights rounded lefs than
the upper counter-rail. In the fame manner difpofe of the
round of the poop, or round-houfe.

This fhould determine the round of the decks abaft ; and
the beams of thofe decks, as they approach aft in fig. 4,
mutt be gradually increafed in their round-up, to correfpond
with the tranfom.

Obferve that the above lines, in fg. 6, for the quarter-
deck, fhew the round of the deck at the ilern-timbers,

without confidering at prefent the proje@tion of the bal-
cony. d

Set off withinfide of the ftern-timber, in fig. 6, the
thicknefs of the clamp, and the projetion of the cornice in
the cabin, and let that be the fide of the light. Then de-
termine on the breadth of the munions, allowing fufficient
for the weights and pulley-pieces, and divide the other lights
equally. Set off likewife the mock-light in the aft-part of
the quarter-gallery, the fame fize as the reft. About half
the breadth of the munions from the mock-light, place the
infide of the quarter-piece ; then determine on the breadth
of the quarter-piece at the heel. About the middle of the
quarter-piece place the outfide of the gallery, which deter-
mines the outlide of the gallery on the quarters, fig. 4.
Having the breadth of the lower part of the lights in the
clear, let the depth be one-third more than the breadth at
the lower part ; fet off upon the rake of the ftern-timbers,
in fig. 4, and transfer that to fg. 6, which makes a good
proportional light. But obferve, between the upper coun-
ter-rail and the lights muft be room allowed for the fafh-fills,
and about one inch and a half between their heads and the
tranfom above. Then determine on the out-bounds of the
taffrail and quarter-pieces, and lower finifhing.

Next difpofe of the quarter-gallery in fig. 4, fhewing the
out-lines of the quarter-piece and taffrail, thus: let fall a
perpendicular fram the knuckles of the lower and upper
counters of the midfhip-timbers, in fig. 4, as you fee ticked
and numbered 14 and 153 then where the horizontal lines
17 and 18, from the knuckles of the fide-timber, interfe&

the perpendiculars 14 and 15, take thofe diitances, and fet ,

them off from the knuckles of the fide-timber, in fig. 6,
down the perpendiculars, c,c, f,f; from thence {pring the
arcs 24,24, and 26, 26, to touch the horizontal lines 17
and 18, at the middle line, which are called round forward
on a level. 'Then will the ticked curves 24, 24, and 26, 26,
be anfwerable to the ticked perpendiculars 14, 15, which
fall from the knuckles of the midfhip-timber in fg. 4.

Take the heights from the bafe-line, in fig. 6, to the
knuckles of each counter, at the outfide of the gallery, at
the ticked perpendiculars d and e, and fet them up from the
bafe line in fig: 4, ttriking the ticked horizontal lines ¢
and d. Then from the horizontal ticked lines 17 and 18,
in fig. 6, take the length of the perpendiculars d and e, to
where they interfeét the ticked curves 24 and 26, or round
forward on a level, and fet them off forward from the’ per-
pendiculars 14 and 15, in fig. 4, on the horizontal lines ¢
and d refpeCtively, which will give the exaét knuckles at
the timbers, in fig. 4, at the outfide of the gallery. Then
take the heights of the ends of the rails from the bafe line at
A and B, fig. 6, and fet them off from the bafe line in
Jig. 4) at the knuckles of the timbers laft mentioned, and
continue them forward, agreeable to the fheer of the fhip.
This will give the exa&t heights of the lower and fecond
counter-rails, as they will appear on the fhip, if the work
be conformable to the floor.

To Lay-off the Foot-Rail of the Balcony.

Here we may again repeat the obfervation, which was made
about laying-off the beak-head timber, that fince P/ate I.
was engraved, the {terns of all fhips of the line are now con-
tinued upwards to the round-aft of the fecond counter-rail,
without any balcony, as they are much ftronger fo, and
more ufeful, if guns are wanted to be ufed right-aft occa-
fionally. Neverthelefs, fhips of 50 guns have at prefent a
balcony or walk in the ftern.

To underftand the exa& form of the balcony-rails, as
they appear in the fheer-plan, and likewife in the plan A the

erns

SHIP-BUILDING.

Where the quarter-deck a . se te poranlotin the
timber 33, in fg. 4, let fa ticked perpendi-
to the Stns plan, Ag. 5; andon teams

fet off the half-breadth of the quarter-deck at the
imber, from the middle line in fg. 5, a8 taken from
uare down from the perpendicular,
of the deck at the middle line interfects
timber, in fig. 4, to the middle line m
an arc, as the ticked curve I, thewing
flern, at the under fide of the quarter-
aft-part of the timbers, the heads of
under fide of the quarter-deck. But
balcony, the timbers are continued up-
much above the taffrail as

part
Steen perkiot 19. cade of the

eet

i
:

or jcular line 4 abalt figs..4.and 5, and
ere the ticked i Tne ae rr been ype ters
>

mm the middle line, Then take the round-up of the

quarter-deck on a perpendicular, in fig. 4, at the fide-timber,
and fet it off on the ereet tains honttne,

f

g

z

:
7
.

i
i:
ee
oes

E

é
:

feen numbered 23, &c. in fg.

i parallel = the hasty Se
deck c, in fig. 5, and from thence
parallel to the mi live, to interfeét the
H. Then take the diitance from
H, for the round of the deck at
the icular 3, from the

ig- 4. (for per. 2 was too {mall a
pat ke continue the fame re-
to per. 9, in fig.
yy ey ng
fet it off fquare from the middle
the deck ¢, in fg. 5. Then
the curve H, the intermediate lines
outfide of the ftool, and alfo carry

of the deck in fig. 4, a8 10, 11, 12.
diftances from the line 43 to the round of

+ 5, at 21, 22, 23, and fet them off below
the deck, on the perpendiculars 10, 11, 12.
thefe {pots, and thofe before fet off, draw
the aft of the quarter-deck at the
is will be the exaét form of the under fide

i

much as the joiners require for the panuvelling which is af
the uader fide of the baloony, and from that fet up the depth
of the rail, This will give the caaét height of the foot-
rail in the theer, fig. 4

To find the proper height of the aft part of the quarter-
deck at the under fide, aufwerable to that in the theer,

Sig. 4, take the half-breadths at the ticked lines 14 to 24,

on the line 43, in Ag. 5, and fet them off from the mid
line on the bafe line, as on the left-hand, in fg. 6, and ered
perpendiculars as high as the under fide of the deck. ‘Then
take the heights from the bafe line, in fig. 4, to the under
fide of the deck, at Nos. 2, 3, &c. and fet them up on their
pose meee on real in fg. 6. Through thefe {pots
get in a ticked line, which will yive the under fide of the

eck in fig. 6; then fet off the thicknefs of the deck, and
get in noel igen line above it. Likewife fet off the foot-
rail, as before direéted, in Sg. 4. This will give the exaét
form of the foot-rail, in fg. 6, agreeable to the round-aft is
the plan of the quarter-deck, fiz. 5.

To Lay-off the Breafl-Rail of the Balcony.

It has been cuftomary to mould the brea‘t-rail of the
balcony with the fame mould as the foot-{pace-rail is done
with. But to complete the range of ballutters in the bal-
cony, fo as to make them have an agreeable rake in the
fheer, fig. 4, and likewife a proper diminifh of tumbling-
home in the plan of the itern, fg. 6, the following method
yo can be relied on.

n the plan of the ftern, fig. 6, let the fide-timber be
produced upwards till it interfeéts the middle line; and
from that point to the above-mentioned ttations at the under
fide of the quarter-deck, in fg. 6, make ticked lines as high
as the breait-rail. Whatever height the upper fide of the
breaft-rail is intended to be at the middle line, in fi . 6,
take that height from the deck at the middle line, an fet it
up from the deck at the feveral ticked lines in the direétion
of the faid lines, as well as at the fide-timber. Through
thefe {pots get in the upper fide of the breait-rail D, in

Jig. 6. Suppofing thofe ticked lines to be ballulters, they

fhould all be of an equal length. Where the dicular
ticked lines 2, 3, &c. in fig. 4, interfe@ the ucked line for
the deck at the fide, draw them upwards parallel to the
fide itern-timber ; then take perpendicularly the heights
of each of the ticked lines at the upper fide of the breatt-
rail from the bafe line in fy. 6, and fet them, as taken
from the bafe line, fg. 4, to interfeét their correfponding
lines laft-mentioned. Through thefe {pots draw the curve
K, which is the upper fide of the breatt-rail, as it will
ap in the theer, fig. 4.

p the ticked perpendicular 1, from the aft-fide of
the breaft-rail, fig. 4, to the middle line, fg. 5, and parallel
to that the ticked perpendiculars 2 to 11, which will be
found to interfe& the ucked lines at the upper fide of the
breaft-rail in fg. 4. Then take the diitances (or. half-
breadths) from the ticked lines afore-meutioned at the
upper fide of the breait-rail in fg. 6, to the middle line ;
and fet them off on their correfponding perpendiculars
2, 3, &c. from the middle line in fg. 5; a batten pinned
through thefe half-breadths forms the line G, or upper fide
of the breatt-rail. But ebferve, it only gives the form of
the breaft-rail correfponding with the aft part of the
deck ¢; therefore, if the ballufters are laid off in this manner,
the fore-fide of the mould is the readier to apply on the
deck, in order to cut off the deals, and what the rail is in-
tended to rebate on the ends of the deais muit be added
thereto, and as much wood as is neceilary to raife the
members of the rail eapiethe: nit onthe nape gio® So"

Cc.

SHIP-BUILDING.

line c Whatever is left abaft the foot-rail mould muft be
alfo left abaft the line G for the mould of the breaft-rail,
upon a fuppofition that both moulds are made to fuit the
aft part of the ballufters. The half-breadth of the rails
only being laid off is the moft corre&, for then the moulds
will be made in two halves exaétly alike, and may be
fearfed and nailed together in the middle from any ftraight
line. The middle line and outfide of the timber fhould be
marked on each mould.

To Lay-off the Taffrail and Quarter- Piece.

The form of the taffrail and quarter-piece, in fig. 6,
being laid off from the plan of the ftern, Plate I., {quare
up from fig. 5. what the ftern projects at 24, to the quarter-
deck in fig. 4, and continue it upwards,parallel to the fide
{lern-timber to the top of the fide, as you fee ticked ; then
fet off the half-breadth of the ftern at the quarter-deck, and
likewife at the top of the fide on the ticked line 25, fg. 6,
taking the round-aft at each place, and fet it aft at the
corre{pending heights from the above ticked line in fig. 4.
This will give the ticked line T, being the midfhip-timber at
the upper part of the flern, or the fore-fide of the taffrail
at the middle line. Let this ticked line T be anfwerable to
the line A A, fig. 9.

Drop as many perpendiculars from the top of the taffrail
and outfide of the quarter-piece, as in the left-hand of fg. 6,
as may be thought neceflary. Take the perpendicular heights
from the bafe line in fig. 6, to the feveral perpendiculars
laft mentioned on the taffrail and quarter-piece, and fet
them up from the bafe line in figs 45 and {trike in the hori-
zontal lines 22 to 31, the laft being the height of the taf-
frail at the middle line. Take fquare from the middle line
in fig. 6, where each perpendicular interfets the upper part
of the taffrail and outfide of the quarter-piece, and {et them
off from the middle line on the ticked line 25, fig. 6; then
take the diftances from the ticked line z5, to the round of
the ftern on a level 26, 26, at each line {quared down, and
fet them off on their correfponding lines lait ftruck in fig. 4,
from the ticked line T, forward in the direction of the
ticked lines. A batten pinned to thofe {pots will give the
ticked curve Q in the middle of the quarter-piece (which, in
a thwart(hip view, is the aft-part of the timbers, fuppofed
to be continued to the heel of the quarter-piece) ; then
abaft this ticked line fet off the aft-fide of the taffrail, and
continue it to the heel of the quarter-piece ; that will deter-
mine the aft-fide of the quarter-piece, from which fet for-
ward the fiding of the quarter-piece, and that gives its fore-
fide, as it will appear when in its place.

The rims and ttools might be all laid off on the floor ;
but it would appear confufed on the plate, and perplex the
reader. And, indeed, the making of a handfome quarter-
gallery depends chiefly on the performance on the fhip ;
therefore an explanation may give more ufeful information
than a drawing.

The length of the rims and ftools being determined in
fig. 4, the breadth abaft need only be taken from fg. 6,
‘and let the {tool at the quarter-deck ferve for all the rims
and ftools in the quarter-gallery, keeping the foremoit end
well. At leaft, the fame mould that moulds the ftool at
the upper parts of the lights, may mould the rim at the
lower part of the fame lights, becaufe the munions in the
quarter-gallery fhould be all out of winding ; and in order
to make them fo, the ftool at the quarter-deck will require
to be longer than the rim at the lower part of the lights,
more or lefs, according to the winding of the top-fide.

This might be allowed for exaCtly in laying-off the ttools ;

but it is better to leave the ftool at the quarter-deck long
enough, and proceed in the following manner.

Suppofe the rim at the fecond counter-rail to be trimmed
agreeable to the form of the {tool at the quarter-deck, and
to be in its place on the fhip; and fuppofe the ftool at the
quarter-deck to be fayed to the fide: then fet off the
breadth of the ftool at the aft part, and nail a batten from
thence to the rim. Then fet off the munions on the rim,
and at every munion on the rim hold a ftraight batten from
thence to the under fide of the ftool, and look them out of
winding with the batten at the aft part, or with each
other, obferving to fet off the fame diftances at the under
fide of the ftool from the aft part as they are on the
rim. Then the wood may be dubbed away, or the ftool
taken down, and mould the under fide (which will nearly
agree) to every {pot, with the fame mould as the rim was
moulded with. ‘Then you may be certain the fafhes will
be out of winding, and, if required, would flide from one
end of the gallery to the other. Then, when the munions
are fet off, you may find a greater diftance from the fore-
moft munion to the fide on the ftool, than there will be on
the rim ; but this cannot be avoided, and is of but little
confequence ; becaufe the canting-livre, or confole-bracket,
is introduced on purpofe to intercept the finifhing of the
gallery with the fhip-fide: for if the {tool at the quarter-
deck was to be no longer than the rim at the fecond counter,

it would fall into the hollow of the top-fide at the foremoft |

end, and the foremoft munions in the view of the fheer,
jig. 4, would appear to rake more than the after ones ;
and when looking from before the gallery, the munions in,
the lower and upper gallery would not appear out of
winding, but the whole gallery would feem in confufion ;
therefore the upper gallery muft undergo the fame opera-
tion, and then it will bear to be viewed in any direction.

It isrequifite, at leait, to lay off the fteol and rim of the
lower gallery, and allow for the winding of the top-fide, mn

order to mould them nearly ; but by following the above me-

thod in the performance of the work, any little error that
may happen will be correéted.

To lay off the lower rim B, and middle ftool c, fig. 4, to
make the moulds to, transfer the height of the upper fide
of the lower rim B, and upper ttool ¢, in fg. 4, continued
forward to fquare timber 32, tothe body-plan, Plate VII.
fig. §, upon its correfponding fquare timbers. Then take

the half-breadths as far forward as {quare timber 32, and fet —

them off from the middle line on their correfponding timbers
in Plate X. fig. 5, and produce the half-breadth lines, and
thicknefs of the planks A and B without it, as far aft as in
the plan, fig. 5.

‘Then {quare down the knuckles of the upper counter from
fig. 40 fig. 5, and {pring an are to the round-aft, which
will be the fore-fide of the upper counter-rail. Next fweep
another arc to the thicknefs of the upper counter-rail, pa-
rallel to and abaft the ticked curve, and the upper counter-
rail will be fhewn in the plan, fig. 5. Then take the half-

breadth of the upper fide of the upper counter-rail to the |

outfide, B, in fig. 6, and fet it off from the middle line in
fig: § onthe ticked perpendicular 13, as {quared down from
the outfide knuckle. Thence form the curve F, or outfide
of the lower rim. The ticked parallel line within is the out-
fide of the munions, upon which fet off the itations of the
lights, making them all alike, and the munions 44, 45, 46,
475 between. Square up the munions to the upper fide
of the lower rim in fig. 43 and from the {pots fquared up
{trike lines parallel to the fide itern-timber, to the under
fide of the middle itool.
already laid off in fig. 5, and the form of the outfide ee!

e

The aft part of the middle ftool is.

SHIP-BUILDING.

he determined by the infide of the mould of the lower rim
keeping the fore end well, and allowing the additional length
ired by the winding of the top-fide, &c. Then to
that the outer edge of the rim and flool are out of
uare down the fides of the munions from the

{quare from the middle line in Ay. 6, upon the under fide
the middle flool, In the fame manner take off the half-
: of the munions on the rim, and fet them off on the
’ fide of the upper counter-rail. Then ftrike lines to
{pots in Ag. ri and they will be parallel to the fide
-timber and each other, confequently out of winding.
upper rim and {tools may be laid off in the fame
rat = mane obferving - soho. She
munions i bly to thofe below, whi
may be fet Sey gr on the fore-part of
the » and continue it upwards as the ticked
Tine H, in Ag. 4; then with a batten, feted as {quare as pof-
teetde of the foremoft munion, mark on it
all the munions. Then fit the fame end of the
ticked line H, and move it Gagooal » till the
the after-munion touches the fide of the
and mark all the fides of the munion as on
ine 41; then ftriking lines through thofe {pots
rake of the lower munions, the lights and mu-
will be reprefented in the upper *
upper and lower finifhings may be formed at pleafure,
as light as poffible, to aha the eye, and con-
fufficient room in the upper finifhing to hold a

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To Lay-off the Stern upon the Rake.

The horizontal plan of the ftern being laid off, proceed
lay off the flern upon the rake; or, at leaft, the taffrail
warter-pieces. For, were moulds made to them as
y laid off, it is eafy to conceive that they would be
too low and too narrow, when fixed upon the ftern, to its
-aft and rake; which muit be the cafe upon the hip.

: bas Foal of the ftern, fg. 6, ftrike up lines in the middle
of munion, one in the middle of the fide ttern-timber,
one up the infide of the quarter-piece, and one between, to

to

rake upwards to the centre of the flern, at the middle line,
as 5» 36, 37, and 38, as on the right hand.
Draw horizontal line B B through fgs.7 and 8,

which will correfpond

with the ticked lines 25, 25, at the
counter in fig. 6. ‘Take the perpendicular heights of

all the timbers, 35 to 38, and at the infide of the quar-
veg in fig. 6, from the lines 25, 25, to the ticked curve
for the kn of the upper counter, and fet them up
from the line B B in fig. 8, and draw parallel lines thereto, as
fee ticked, and numbered 9, 10, &c. Take likewife
i from the lines 25, 25, fig. 6, to the

ions of all timbers, with the under and upper
the taffrail and quarter-piece ; and fet them up from
B, in fig. 8, where they are ticked and numbered

30; then take the diftance from the midfhip
in the direction of the ticked line 30,
the line A A, in fg. 9, on the ticked

lines C, C, and raife the arc BB, which thews how much
the flern rounds aft on a (quare, agreeable to the breadth of
the upper counter, which round-aft governs all the tlern
above, as before obferved,

Where the timbers 35, 36, 37, 38, and infide of the
quarter-piece, fg. 6, ftep on the ticked line 42, or knuckles
of the upper counter, {quare them down to fg. 9; then take
the round-aft of each umber from the line A A, fy. 9, and
fet them off {quare from the midthip-timber 32, fo as to in-
terfeét their correfponding level lines in fg. 8. “Then where
the above timbers in fy. 6, interfeét the upper part of the
taffrail and quarter-picce, let them be quared down as
before; and transfer the round-afts to ther correfponding
level lines in fy. 8, fetting them off {quare from the midthip-
timber, as A Then from thefe {pots, down to the {pots
on the level lines of the knuckle of the upper counter, tirike
the lines of the intermediate timbers, aud mark them 1, 2, 3,
&c. which fhews the thwarthhip view of the timbers, as
ftationed in fg. 6.

If the fide-timber 33, and midthip-timber 32, were pro-
longed in fg. 8. tillthey interfect each other, that would be
the centre ae the intermediate timbers, as difpofed in fig. 6,
and prove the work.

It will be neceflary to have one {pot at the outfide of the
quarter-piece, 3s 39, fig. 6, and {quared down, as before,
to the round-aft, fg. 9; then take its round-aft at 11, figs Ge
from the line A A, and fet it off {quare from the midthip-
timber 32, in fig. 8, on its correfponding level line 16, as
transferred from fig. 6.

Square down the heel of the quarter-piece where it inter-
feéts the knuckle-line, 42, fig-6, to fa: g, to the round-aft B B.
Then pin a batten to the round-aft on a {quare B B, fy. 9,
and keeping it faft at the middle line, mark {pots on the
batten, where the ticked lines 2, 4, 7, 10, 12, and outfide
of quarter-piece, are {quared down from the knuckle-line 42,

ig-6. Then fit the fame end of the batten well to the
middle line, fg. 7, keeping it ftraight along the line B, and
thereon mark the feveral {pots on the right hand, and like-
wife on the left. Then, if the floor will admit of it, conti-
nue upwards the fpots in the middle of the fide counter-
timber, as at 13, 13, fig. 7, till they interfect the middle
line, and from thence, as a centre, may all the other {pots
be continued upwards, asin the plate. But if this cannot
be performed, the heights of the timbers 35, 36, &c. muit be
taken up their perpendicular lines, from the line 25, 25, fig. 6,
to where they interfe& the upper fide of the taffrail and quar-
ter-pieces, and fet up from its correfponding line 25 the
middle line in fig. 7, ftriking horizontal lines; then pin a
batten, as above, to the round-aft B B, fg. 9, and mark
{pots thereon at the middle line, and perpendicular lines
I, 2, 3» 5, &c. {quared down from their heads; and fet
them off upon their correfponding heights laft fet off in
fs; 7; then lines ftruck through thofe {pots te the {pots
‘ore fet off on the line 25, or B B, the timbers will have
their regular tumble-home, as from the centre in the plate.
Then take the diftance {quare from the line 30 in fg. 8, up
each feparate timber, to the {pots on the level lines for the
upper part of the taffrail and quarter-pieces ; and fet them
up fquare from the line BB, fg. 7, to interfeé their re-
{peétive timbers, and in like manner the {pot at the outfide
of the quarter-piece ; then a batten pinned to thofe {pots
will reprefent t -cggang? Ol the itern or taffrail T, and
quarter-pieces o Q, on the rake, fg. 7. Then take the
heights ? uare from the line 30, fig. 8, up the feparate tim-
bers, to the heights for the lower part of the taffrail and in-
fide of the quarter-pieces, and fet them up, as before, on
their correfponding timbers in fg. 7; then by Pinning a
tten

SHIP-BUILDING.

batten to thofe {pots, the under fide of the taffrail I, and
infide of the quarter-pieces, will be completed to make the
moulds to. The cove-rail D may be alfo marked on the
taffrail mould, and likewife upon the quarter-piece mould.

Praéical Diredtions for the a@ual Building.

Having now explained the ufual methods of forming the
draughts, and laying off the feveral parts of the fhip, it re-
mains only to defcribe the progreflive manner of its actual
building, or putting together the feveral parts. f

A flip being provided, the blocks on which the keel is
laid are ufually about five feet afunder. Each block is laid
upon a ground-way in the middle of the flip, unlefs a {maller
veflel is intended to be built where the launch has been laid
for alarge fhip. In this cafe, by keeping the blocks towards
one fide, the fliding-planks may be preferved for that fide.

The blocks, being the foundation of the whole, mut be
very carefully fixed, and their upper furface to a declivity of
five-eighths of an inch to every foot in the length, obferving
that there may be water enough to launch the fhip into, and
keeping them high enouzh at the fore-part to clear the fore-
foot of the ground-ways in launching, and to admit of the
fliding-planks to be laid with a declivity of about feven-
eighths of an inch to a foot.

The caps or upper blocks fhould be more in depth than
the falfe keel; and they fhould be clear-grained oak, that
they may fplit out the eafier when the falfe keel is put
under. ;

The upper fides of the blocks are made ftraight fore and
aft, and level athwartfhips ; fometimes the after-blocks are
raifed above a {traight line, as the great weight of the ftern
and overhanging generally fettle in building.

Keel is generally elm, fawn ttraight and f{quare, and is
{carfed together with coaks, with tarred flannel between each
fcarf, which are firmly bolted together and caulked.

The rabbet for receiving the plank of the bottom may be
trimmed out, leaving about a foot at each end of the fearfs,
for the better caulking the butts. In the navy, the rabbet
is lined parallel to the upper fide of the keel to the thick-
nefs of the bottom plank ; but, in moft merchant-fhips, the
rabbet 1s taken out of the middle of the keel, to prevent its
canting, fhould the fhip take the ground. The keel is fet fair
and itraight along the middle of the blocks ; and, to keep it
in that pofition, tree-nails are driven along its fides into the
blocks.

Dead or rifing-wood is of oak timber, and fayed upon the
upper fide of the keel. The pieces along the midfhips are
of a parallel thicknefs, and in breadth to overhang the keel
about two inches on each fide. ‘The dead-wood afore and
abaft, for the fecurity of the half-timbers, is as high as the
. cutting-down. This part of the dead-wood below the
ftepping-line is trimmed to the fhape of the body, and above
the ftepping, perpendicular to the fize of the keelfon. The
fearfs or butts of the dead-wood fhould give fearf to the
butts of the keel, and to each other. :

Stem is compofed of two or more pieces of oak timber, of
the beft quality, as fhifting it is very expenfive. Tt is
fawn to its fiding and moulding, then trimmed and fearfed
together as the keel, and the rabbet taken out likewife.

On the ftem fhould be marked, from the mould, the
heights of the harpins, decks, cheeks, &c. and a line {quare
from the keel, and a middle line asa guide to fet it by.

Apron is alfo oak fawn to its fiding and moulding, and
fayed to the aft-fide of the ftem, to fuccour it at the f{carfs,
which are bolted through the apron, obferving to place the
bolts within the rabbets.

Bollard-timbers are oak fawn to their fiding and moulding,

their heads in wake of the bowfprit to be left the thick-
nefs of the plank infide and out ; they are fayed and coaked
to the fides of the {tem and apron, and bolted through, where
practicable, obferving to place the bolts clear of the deck~
hooks. Sometimes oak fillings are fayed between the ftem
and bollard-timbers, to keep them more open in wake of the
bow{prit.

Haw/e-pieces are oak fawn to their fiding and moulding,
and are fayed to the bollard-timbers, and to each other, in
wake of the hawfe-holes ; and are opened above and below
the hawfe-holes, for the admiffion of air, to about one inch
and a half. When in their places, they are to be bolted td
the bollard-timbers and each other, clear of the hawfe-holes
and breaft-hooks. Let it be obferved, that the hawfe-pieces
fhould be fo difpofed as to be equally cut by the hawfe-
holes.

Stern-poft is oak fawn to the fiding and moulding, and
fhould be provided for the top, and to work upwards, if to
be got. The rabbet is trimmed out on each fide, to re-
ceive the plank of the bottom, to the fhape of the body ;
and a tenon left on the heel, one-third the depth of the
keel.

Inner-poft is oak fawn to a parallel breadth, and fided, as
the fhape of the body may require, below the head: it is
fayed to the fore-fide of the ftern-poft, and a tenon is made
on the heel as on the main-poft, and the head left long
enough to tenon an inch into the tranfom next above it.

Tranfoms are oak fawn to their fiding, whether rounding
upwards or ftraight ; and to the moulding by their ref{pec-
tive moulds. The wing-tranfom, if fawed only to the mar- -
gin bevelling, may be brought in for other ufes, if found
defeétive ; for tranfoms require much trouble and expence
to fhift them; the quality of the timber ought, therefore,
to be of the beft, and quite free from any defe& whatever.
In converting the tranfoms, let care be taken to work them
top and butt alternately.

The tranfoms are to be trimmed with the greateft nicety,
and then let on the poft, with fcores on each fide of about
an inch; obferving the greateft exaétnefs in letting them
down, and that they ftand at right angles with the middle
line on the poft. The ends, when cut off to the mould,
are left one inch and a half longer, to tenon and face on to
the aft-fides of the fafhion-piece. ‘The ends may be opened
or mouthed, to admit the air.

Fafbion-pieces are oak fawn to their fiding, then to the
mouldings and bevellings; and, when trimmed, let on to
the ends of the tranfoms, in the manner already de-
feribed.

Frame-timbers are oak fawn to their fiding, ftraight, and
out of winding, then moulded and fawn to their ref{peétive
bevellings, except the cant-floors, which are fided to their
proper cant.

The frame-timbers fhould be converted of found well-
grown timber, without fap or vein appearing in wake of the
ports, and fawn full to their fidings, fo that their feantling
may remain after the ports are trimmed out. Every timber
fhould alfo be provided to its length, confequently each
fhould ftand upon its proper head ; or if one timber happens
to be fhort, provide the next long enough to make good
the deficient length, as through-chocks fhould always be re-
jected, or only admitted on extraordinary occafions. The
heads and heels of all the timbers to have one-third of the
fubftance left the moulding way, when trimmed ; and the
feats of the chocks fhould not exceed once and a half the
fiding of the timber.

In providing the floors, care fhould be taken to reverfe
the butt end of each fucceeding floor, becaufe the tops may

9 fometimes

fometimes be fcaaty; and, when thort of the floor-head,
may be admitted, uf the fecond futtock runs down and
meets upon its re{pective floor.

All ee are required to have fuflicient wood to feat
themfelves on the dead-wood, and the throats to run up to
i wo or under fide of the keelfon; then any
below the feating may be made good by a

when correétly trimmed, are let down into
dead- » to the exaét height of the
upper edge of the rabbet of the
fituations ; fet precifely level, and
middle line of the keel. ‘The floors

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bead and heel to prevent any alteration ; for the truth and
of the whole fabric reg eg i ge
accuracy of the floors, when got into the ribband.
Futtocks.—The feveral futtocks are tn
out of winding on the joint fide; and the lower futtocks in
the navy run of the dead-wood, but in

from nine to twelve inches fhort of

a
§
86

the keel, water may not lie above the ceiling. The
wood wanting on the inhde of the lower futtocks, in the
navy, is good by crofs-chocks up to the cutting-

3 pre either clofe or o as required ; joi
of the fecond futtock to the joint-fide of the lower fut-
s length or {carfing, and bolts
f {quare iron. The heel of the
the head of the lower futtock, and bolts,
former, to the fecond futtock ; the heel of the fourth

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SHIP-BUILDING.

on each fearf, which thould give as much thift as poflible te
the foarfs of the keel. For fome years « three-iach oak
plank has been fayed upon the upper fide of the keelfon,
and the bolts drivea through that lite wife,

Stemfon is oak fawn to its fiding and moulding, then
trimmed and fayed to the aprom, and fcarfed with a hook
or douls into the fore part of the der/fon, The bolts
through the breaf-hooks mult be confidered, and one or two
bolts may then be driven through between them,

Sternfon-knee is oak fawn to its fiding and moulding, then
trimmed and fayed againit the tranfoms and upper fide of
the dead-wood, and {fcarfs with a hook, or s into the
after-piece of the Ace//on. 11 is bolted to the tranfoms and
ttern-poft as the keelfon, of which it is a continuation.

Wales are vext wrought, avd the thick-fluf’ below them :
they fhould be faftened with dumps only for the prefent, as
the tree-nail holes, which are double and fingle alternately in
every timber, and fhould be left open as long as poflib .
for the admiffion of air. A dou) in the timber next each
butt in the wales, in the ftrake above and below it, has been
lately introduced in the navy, as an additional fecurity.
The wales and diminifhing flrakes ere then dubbed down
fair, and large cleats nailed at the fore part of every port,
to which the ~— fubftantially thored.

Planking.— bottom is next planked down fufficient!
low to work the orlop-clamps. See Planking pve |
Plate VIII.

Inboard Clamps, Thick-fluff, ©Fe.—Thefle are wrought
fimilar to the outfide ftuff above. The clamps to the fheer
of the deck, and their upper fides to the round-up of the
beam, and the lower edge, {quare to the timbers, unlefs they
work down to the ports ; — in wake of the ports, the
lower fides are trimmed level, and between the ports {quare
to the timbers. Clamps over ports are bearded from half
their depth to one inch lefs in thicknefs on the under fide,
excepting over the ports, where the wood is left on, for the
muzzles of the guns to houfe to; and the butts are douelled

as the wales.

The thick-ftuff is to be wrought with a {quare clofe edge
over the joints of the timbers; and the {pirkittings are to
have a feam allowed, agreeable to the thicknefe with the
outfide ftuff, which fhould be a full fixteenth to every inch
in the thicknefs.

pieces are {carfed together ; and if in three or four pieces,
the middle pieces may be fir, excepting in the hatchways.
Beams in two pieces have a fcarf one-third the w
length of the beam. Beams in three pieces have the middle
jeces and the end pieces each half the length of the whole
Sore ciceatillassicee bavina’s Scant gach way to take:the
arms. Beams made of four pieces
Seo onthe Seomanarthe toma sod seidcile Weces ane
be in length three-fevenths of the whole length of
See Gun-deck, Plate V1.
either tabled or deuelled, and bolted together
: if tabled, the lengths of the tables are once
moulded depth in length, and divided at the
depth ; and where the wood is taken out oa
per fide, it is left on the lower fide, and fo alter-
taking the wood out on the upper fide at the table
the butt, as it will the better hang and fupport the lip.
each lip, beyond the tables, is a coak about fix inches
; and next to that is a ftraight lap, about the fame

beams, when cut off to their length, have their ends
and charred, av hea ses Ve cova. seams enteet
4 inte

have two middle pieces,

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SHIP-BUILDING.

into the clamps, at their feveral ftations, at right angles
with the middle line; keeping their upper fides out of
winding with the beam line.

Knees. —The beams, at their ends, are conneGted to the
fides by knees, or other fubititutes for knees. The knees
are fawn or trimmed to their fiding, and fayed to the fide,
taking as little wood as poflible out of the throat the
moulding way, as the greateft {trength of the knee is there.
Each knee tapers towards the toe to which it is fided; and
the fubttance in the throat fhould be about twice and a half
the fiding, and not to admit of any chock that would re-
duce the knee at any part lefs than the fiding.

Each knee fhould have two douls in the beam-arm, and
from three to four bolts; and the two upper bolts in the
fide-arm of the hanging-knees fhould be kept up as high as
poflible, and the others equally fpaced to the toe, and
bored as fquare to the fide as the feams outfide will allow.

In thofe parts of the fhip afore and abaft, where wooden
knees cannot be procured of kindly growth, (for upen that
depends the ftrength,) knees of iron are generally placed.
Thefe, although much ufed, particularly in merchant-fhips,
cannot be fo fully depended upon as thofe of wood, becaufe
they cover lefs furface, are no wife flexible, nor can the
bolts be driven fo tight in iron as in wood. If, therefore,
the fhip ftrains, they muft inevitably work loofe. Again,
the holes muit be bored in the direétion in which ‘the knees
are punched, fo that where iron knees are intended to be
placed, oak fillings fhould be driven between the timbers ;
otherwife the bolts may come in the openings, which is in-
admiflible. Befides this, the bolts may come in the feams
of the outfide plank; when it fo happens, the belt way is
to cut out a piece, and clench the bolt upon the timbers.

Bolts in wooden knees are moftly driven from the outfide,
and clenched upon the knees infide ; but bolts in iron knees
are driven from the infide, with collar or {tout heads, be-
eaufe upon the head depends its faltening ; or if the bolts be
of copper, they muft have a ring under the head, and the
head {pread or made large in driving. All bolts driven
from the infide fhould be carefully clenched upon a ring,
let flufh into the plank, by means of a machine or centre-bitt
for that purpofe, and the points under water carefully
caulked after the ring is let in.

Wooden knees having beco~> fcarce for fome years patft,
many {ubftitutes have been attimpted ; and iron knees, or
rather knees formed of iron and wood conjointly, are cer-
tainly beit when properly applied. See SugstitrureE.

Standards, either on the deck or to the fides of otlop
beams, are fo fimilar to knees, as to require no further de-
fcription.

Breaji-hooks, fteps, and crutches, are oak, fawn to their
fidings, then moulded. The deck-hooks are fayed to the
timbers, the others to the infide ftuff. The holes for the
bolts are bored alternately, near the edges, equally afunder,
and fquare with the body. Breatt-hooks, fteps, and
crutches, are aflifted in the moulding by chocks; and the
deck-hooks may be affifted by large eakings, worked behind
them. All the chocks, &c. are douelled or tabled, and
ought on no account to have lefs wood or fubftance than
their fiding, clear of the chock.

Riders are oak fawn to their fiding, moulding, and be-
vellings ; then fayed to their refpeCtive places, as follows.

Floor-riders in two-pieces have a crofs-chock fayed over
the heels, with a hook and butt fearf ; their heels run down
to the limber-ftrake, and the heads run upwards between
the joints of the floor-heads and firft futtock-heads.

_ Firft futtock-riders fay clofe to the fides of the floor-
tiders, and their heels extend downwards within four feet
I

of the keelfon ; their heads run upwards between the joint
of the firft futtock-head and under fide of the orlop-beams,
with a crofs-chock fayed over the heels as the floor-rider.

Second futtock-riders fay clofe to the fides of the firft fut-
tock-riders, and fearf with a hook-fearf under the head of
the floor-riders, or conneét thereto with a chock. heir
heads run up within two inches of the under fide of the
gun-deck beam, and are fawn with a {well at the orlop-
beam, to which they tail fideways; and they bolt through
the beam and the adjoining riders fore and aft.

Third futtock-riders fay and bolt to the fides of the fecond
futtock-riders, and are fawn with a {well, as the above, at
the gun-deck beam. The heads run up within two inches
of the under fide of the upper deck beam, or middle deck,
in three-deck fhips; and the heels come within two inches
of the upper fide of the orlop-beam.

Ships in the navy at prefent have no infide {tuff below the
clamps, but have their timbers filled in between with dry
flices of oak, driven in tight and caulked; and the riders
are fayed over the timbers, and ftand diagonally at the angle
of forty-five degrees.

The knee of the head is oak, each piece fawn to its fiding,
agreeable to the tapered battens, where they imterfect.
The main piece fhould make the lower part ‘of the knee,
and run up to the fore part of the ftem, to which it fays
high enough for a hole to be cut in it to receive the main-
{tay collar. The front piéce runs up to feat the figure, and
fhould be broad enough to take the bobitay holes, and
the lower end ftep in the main piece about one foot below
the load draught of water. Another piece mutt be pro-
vided to make the lacing to fecure the figure. The other
pieces between may then be provided, as moft ‘convenient,
marking ‘on the mould the fhape ofveach piece, as provided ;
the furface of each piece is then fayed clofe together, and —
dotelled. The knee is hoifted up into its place, and then
bolted with feven or more bolts through the {tem and apron,
and fometimes through the deck-hooks.

Cat-heads ate now fawn ftraight, fideways, and plumb,
moulded to flight, in fhips of the line, to five inches in a
foot above a level line without the bow; and in frigates and —
frsaller veffels, to the angle of forty-five degrees. The
inner end fays up to the ‘under fide of two or more of the —
forecattle beams, fo as to {land fquare with the bow.

Supporters of the cat-heads are knees of oak fayed to the _
under fide of the cat-head, and the arm ‘to the fide to ftand |
perpendicular ; the upper arm bolted through the cat-head, _
and the other through the fide. . |

Rudder.—The main piece to be oak fawn to its fiding, —
and the upper part to the given dimenfions, ‘and the lower |
part to be moulded a8 broad as the piece will admit. ©
Whatever the main piece may require to complete its fore- |
fide may be elm, fayed clofe to the main piece, and douelled.
The other pieces to complete the furface of the rudder —
may be fir, fayed clofe to the main’ piece and each other, |
and douelled. The ‘whole is then trimmed flraight through _
to its thicknefs, and bolted together between the ftraps of |
the pintles. ‘The back is then fayed on, and faftened to the —
aftcfide, and the fole at the heel, when cut off to its length, —
which is nine inches fhort of the tinder fide of the- keel. —
The fore-fide may be then bearded from the middle to two-
fifths the thicknefs, lined down on each edge; but this has —
been found to cut or wound the main piece fo much at the |
upper pintle, that, lately, the aft-fide of the ttetn-poft 1s
likewife bearded at the upper end; and confequently the —
fore-fide of the rudder fo much the lefs. The pintles may

f
:

“next be Jet on thus: the braces being let on to the ftern-

a ftaff of the ‘whole

polt, and fquare from the aft-fide, ‘sie

i

Ae catemaag ecg oe the holes of the braces. Now
ie fides of the braces correétly on the thaff
i under and upper fides will be belt.
ftail the upper fide of the wing-tranfom,
de of the decktranfom above; alfo the
fide of the deck ; and, laitly, the under fide of the
a. Next apply the ttaff on the fore-fide of the rudder,
Poa off the upper fides of the braces in the
line, likewife the tranfoms and deck, ‘Then fquare

= from the fore-ide of the rudder, the upper fide of
brace, which, it may be obferved, is the under fide of

the pintles. Now fet upwards the breadth of the ftraps of
piatles, and the feores may be taken out till their
‘come flush and the middle of the

with the ing,
pary ranges well with the etrt line: thin copper is
in the feores under the pintles. Scores or throatings
under the pintles, fufficiently large
which may be formed by a piece

—
of it is

ing in fi
againft i
‘ _ drawn, whidh, being
a the machine at DD, is, by turning the {crews by
_leve B, forced out of its hold. F,F are two dogs,
h hooks at their lower extremities, which, being driven
tot > plank, ferve to fupport the machine till the chaps

:
SHI
have got faft hold of the bolt. At the upper part of thelr

dogs are rin —_ through holes in a collar, moveable
near the Pree 2 the Seeing

Fig. 4. 18 a view of the upper fides of the checks, whea
joined together ; 4,4, the holes in which the forews work;
4, the chaps by which the bolts are drawn. Fig. 5, the
under fide of the cheeks; a, @, the holes in which the —
work ; 4, the chaps by which the bolts are drawn, aud where
the teeth that gripe the bolt are more diflindily thewa.
Fig. 6, one of the cheeks feparated from the other, the
letters referring, as in figs. 4 and 5.

SHIPFUND, Sutrronn, or Gin a Commerct,
a large weight in Holland, Germany, k, and Swe-
den, containing a different number of pounds in different
places. At y tare the thippond contains 3 centoers,
20 lyfponds, 37% fteen or ftones, and 300 lbs. A lyfpond
is 15 lbs., and a tone 8 lbs. At Berl a thip-lait contains
12 thipfunds, each of 20 lyfponds, or 280 lbs.5 io all
3360 Ibs.: but a lait of falt is 3260lbs. At Hamburgh
a thipfund contains 24 centners, 20 lyfponds, or 2Bo lbs. :
a lyfpond is 14 lbs., and a centwer 112 Ibs.
weight. At Copenhagen the fhippond contains 3}
20 lyfponds, or 320 lbs. ; a lyfpond is 16 lbs., anda

tor lbs.

SHIPLEY, Joxaruan, in Biography, an Englith
late, was born in the year 1714, pe ba Chee.
church, Oxford, where he wrote fome verfes on the death
of queen Caroline ; and in 1738 he took his degree of M.A.
Soon after this hie entered into holy orders, and obtained a
living. Ta the year 1743 he was inftalled prebendary of
Winchefter, and in 1748 appointed chaplain to the duke of
Cumberland, whom he accompanied abroad. Io 1749 he
became canon of Chriit-church, and in 1760 dean of Win-
chefter. In 1769 he was advanced to the buhopric of St.
Afaph. He died in 1788. He was author of poems, and
fermons on public occafions.

SHIP-MONEY, an impofition which was anciently

upon the ports, towns, cities, boroughs, and
counties of the realm ; by writs commonly called /bip writs,
under the great feal of England, for the providing and fur-
nifhing certain fhips for the king's fervice.

This impofition was revived by king Charles I. in the
years 1635 and 1636; but by itat. 17 Car. I. it was de-

» elared to be contrary to the laws and ttatutes of the realm,

claim of right, liberty of the fubje&t, &c.

SHIPPANDSTOWN, in Geography, a town of Vir-
ginia, on the fouth fide of the Patowmack; 40 or 50 miles
from Alexandria.

SHIPPENSBURGH, 2 poit-town of Penafylvania, in
Cumberland county, on a branch of Conadogwinnet creek,
which difcharges itfelf into the Sufquehannah ; containing
about 200 houfes, chiefly built of ftone, 1159 inhabitants,
and three meeting-hovfee, one for Seceders, one German,
and one Methodiit. It derives its name from its proprietor
John Shippen, efq. of Philadelphia, who leafed out the place
in {mall houfe-lots on ground-rents from two to four dollars
a year; 146 miles W. of Philadelphia.

SHIPPER, Sxiprer, or Schipper, a Dutch term, fig-

nifying the matter of a thip.
Je alfo ufe the word, popularly, for any common fea-

man.
SHIPPIGAN Is.axp, in Geography, an ifland in the
lf of St. Lawrence, on the fouth of Chaleur bay,
a of, and feparated by a narrow channel from, Mifcow

SHIPPING denotes a multitude of veffels.
SHIP-SHAPE, in Sea ize, denotes the fathion
of a fhip, or the manner — expert failor: thus, they
4F 3 fay,

SHI

fay, the maft is not rigged /hip-/bape, and trim your fails
Ship-hape.

SHIPSTON-UPON-STOUR, in Geography, a mar-
ket-town in the upper divifion of the hundred of Ofwald-
flow, and county of Worcefter, England, is fituated in a
diftri& entirely detached from the body of the county, and
clofe to the left bank of the river Stour, whence is derived
the latter part of its name. The houfes here are chiefly
built of ftone; but notwithftanding this advantage, the
town cannot boaft much of its appearance, many of them
being fmall, and thatched with ftraw. Several attempts
have been made to eftablifh manufaGtures here, but without
any permanent fuccefs. The market-day is Friday, weekly ;
and there are two annual fairs, one on the 22d of June, and
the other on the firft Tuefday after the roth of October ;
both of them for horfes, cows, and fheep. The manor of
Shipfton formerly belonged to the priory of Worcetter,
and is now part of the poffeffions of the dean and chapter.
The church is only a chapel of eafe to the mother church
of the parifh of Tredington, which extends about nine miles
in length and two in breadth. According to the population
returns of 1811, the parifh contains 297 houfes, and 1377
inhabitants, of whom about 1000 refide within the townfhip
of Shipfton-upon-Stour. Nafh’s Survey of Worcetter-
fhire, 2 vols. fol. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xv.
by Mr. Laird, 8vo. 1813.

SHIPTON, a flourifhing township, of excellent land, in
Lower Canada, on the eaft bank of the St. Francis; 20
miles N.W. of Afcot, and containing about 356 in-
habitants.

SHIPWRECK. See Wrecx.

SHIRAVERD, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Ghilan; 30 miles S. of Attara.

SHIRBEY, a town of Syria, the refidence of a fcheik ;
15 miles E. of Aleppo.

SHIRBORN, a river of England, in the county of
Warwick, which runs into the Sow.

SHIRE, Scyra, originally Saxon, /cir, or /cire, formed
from /cyran, to divide ; a part or portion of the land, called
alfo a county ; which fee.

Suire-Clerk, he that keeps the county court ; and his
office is fo incident to that of the fheriff, that the king- can-
not grant it away.

Suire-Man, was anciently the judge of the fhire, by
whom trials for land, &c. were determined.

SHire-Mote, in our Old Writers, an aflembly of the
county or fhire at the aflizes, &c. See ScyREGEMOT.

SHirE-Reve. See SHERIFF.

Sure, Knights of the. See Knicur.

SHIREWOOD or Suerwoop Foreft, in Geography, is
an ancient and extenfive fore{t, comprehending a large por-
tion of the county of Nottingham, England. Thoroton,
in his Hiftory of Nottinghamfhire, fays that it ftretches into
the hundreds of Broxton, Thurgarton, and Bafletlaw ; and
meafures about twenty-five miles in length, by from feven to
nine in breadth, an extent which feems to agree with its an-
cient boundaries, as {tated in a perambulation made in the
fixteenth year of Henry III. The period when this diftrict
was originally conftituted a foreft is unknown, but that
event mutt have occurred previous to the time of Henry II.,
as in the firft year of that monarch’s reign, it appears from
official records, that William Peverel was called upon to an-
{wer “ De Placitis Foreftz in Comitatu Nottingham.” At
that time Peverel had the whole profit and command of this
foreft; but it muft foon afterwards have reverted to the
crown, for in 1161 the fheriff of the county prays to be
difcharged of “ 4/, in vafto forette ;”? and in 1163 he prays
for a fimilar difcharge, and for the difcharge of *¢ 40/. paid to

SHI
the canons of Shirewood for alms.’? Inthe Foreft books is
inferted a copy of a charter by king John, granting to Ma-
tilda de Caux, and Ralph Fitzftephen her hufband, and their
heirs, all the liberties and free cuftoms which any of the an-
ceftors of the faid Matilda, lords of Laxton, had held in
Nottinghamfhire, including the foreft of Shirewood. ‘The
fame rights afterwards fell to John Birking, as heir-general
to Matilda de Caux ; and in 1226 the foreft is mentioned as
being then in pofleflion of his fon ; but this line failing, it
defcended to the family of the Everinghams, who havin
loft their poffeffions by forfeiture in the reign of Edward I.
it reverted to the crown. Since that event, its civil jurif-
diction has been generally vefted in the fheriffs of the county,
and its foreft jurifdiction only granted to various individuals
among the nobility and gentry, as {pecial marks of royal
favour. An inquifition taken before Geoffrey de Langley,
in the reign laft mentioned, illuftrates the cuftoms of this
foreft. By it the chief keeper appears to have been obliged
to have three deputy keepers for a like number of diftriéts,
in order to attach all trefpafles, and prefent them at the at-
tachment before the verdurers. In the firft keeping, which
lay between the rivers Lene and Doverbeck, he was to have
one forefter riding with a page, and two forefters on foot ;
two verdurers, and two agilters. This keeping contained
the three hays of Bafkwood, Lindeby and Willay. The
High Foreft, including the hays of Birkland and Bilhagh,
and the park of Clipftone, formed the fecond keeping ; and
here were two foretters riding, with two pages and two agilters.
The third keeping, Rumwode, had one foretter on foot ; two
woodwards, one at Carburton, and the other at Budby ; and
the fame number of verdurers and agifters. The chief ©
keeper was further bound to have a page bearing his bow,
whofe duty it was to gather “ chiminage,” which is ufually
fuppofed to have been a tax for the formation and preferva-
tion of roads.

By the laft furvey made of this foreft in 1609, it was par-
celled out into three walks, called the north, middle, and
fouth walks. The foreft officers, under the fuperintendance —
of the chief juftice in eyre north of Trent, are a lord
warden, a bow-bearer and ranger, four verdurers, a fteward,
and nine keepers, befides two {worn woedwards for Sutton
and Carleton. The furveyor-general of the woods has like-
wife a jurifdi€tion over this foreft, as far as regards the
wood and timber of the crown. He has a deputy in the
foreft, who has a fee-tree yearly, and a falary of 201
Thorney-wood Chace, though a branch of this foreft, is
diitin@ from it in jurifdi€tion, having been granted by
queen Elizabetk to John Stanhope, efq. and his heirs, as
hereditary keepers. This chace comprehends a large portion
of the fouth walk, and was formerly well itocked with
fallow deer; but thefe, of late years, have greatly dimi-
nifhed in number.

Of the ancient woodland in this extenfive tra&, little re-
mains except in the hays of Birkland and Bilhagh, which
form an open wood of large old oaks, covering about 1500
acres of ground; but modern plantations have lately increafed
rapidly, and there are, in different diftriéts and parks, a
few trees, remarkable alike for their great age and magni-
tude. In Clipftone park is an immenfe oak, called the Par-
liament oak, from a tradition that a parliament was aflembled
here by Edward I.; and in the fame park is another tree,
ftyled the Broad oak, the bole of which meafures 273 feet in
circumference. Many of thefe venerable oaks may likewife be
feen in Welbeck park, on the flirts of the foreft, where fome
of them are upwards of 34 feet round. Rooke, in his “Sketch
of the Forett,”’ mentions a recent difcovery of a very curious
mode of afcertaining the great antiquity of fome of thefe
trees. He tells us, that in cutting down fome timber in

Birkland

SHI

and Bilhagh, letters were found cut or flamped in
body of the trees, denoting the king’s reign in which
were fo marked, The cyphers were of king John,
I,, and William and Mary. The mark of John was
inches within the tree, and about a foot from the
it was cut down in 1791; but the middle of John's
1207, from which, if we fubtraét 120, the num-
requilite for a tree of two feet diameter to arrive
wth, it will make the date of its planting 1087.

: Brat of Shirewood was, in ancient times, frequently
of royal amufement. As early as the reige of
II., Mansfield was the general ar Roe of the court
thefe occafions, and it was in this vicinity, according
1 that Henry made acquaintance with the miller
of famous nmap fir Cockle. This foreft was like-
wife the another perfonage, equally celebrated in
the chronicle of ballad, the illuftrious Robin Hood, who,
with little John, and the reit of his aflociates, making the
ecu, it their afylum, laid the whole county under
soeelfhed, with additions, Rage (a a a rag
i i iti Y> 3 vols. gto.
“ia Beauties of England and Wales, vik xii, by
. Laird, Svo. 1813.

SHIRINKI, one of the Kurile iflands, about 26 verits
from Poromuthir. On it rifes a round mountain-top ; and
about it, on the coat, walls of rock and loofe brittle ftone,

but it has no fandy bay, nor ne Sew inlet for thipping.
‘The ifland is nearly as broad as it is long, and may be about 40
verits in circumference. It is only inhabited by fea-lions and
other marine animals, with fome red foxes and fea-fowls that
have been carried thither with the ice. There is no wood on
the ifland, except a few fticks of the mountain pine and fome
and it has neither a ftream nor a {pring of
The rocks are very much difpofed to break and fall
in N. lat. 50° 40’. E. long. 138° 3'.
Anyrnoyy, in Be » fecond fon of
Wefton, in Sullex, a celebrated tra-
veller, was born in 1565- He ftudied at Oxford, where he

peer

i

pe

;

2

is bachelor’s

HL

other ieee

y to Venice, and tra-
ia cnee Take where he came in great favour
? h whom he was fent ambaflador to
En in 1612. By the emperor of Germany he was
to the dignity of count, and by the king of Spain he
‘was appointed admiral of the Pre bay He died in Spain
about the year 1630. There is an account of his Weit In-

dian ex a
wing title: “ A true Relation of the V
by Sir Anthony 6 fa.
d for the Ifland San Tome, but performed to St. Jago,
to

through Ruffia, were inferted in Purchas’s Pilgrimages.

_ Surrey, James, a poet and drametic writer, eg born
London about the year 1594. He received the early

part of to education at Merchant Taylors’ {chool, from

he was removed to Oxford. He was, on ac-

SHI

count of his talents, patronized by Dr. Laud, who, how:
ever, would not confent to his taking orders, by reafon
of his being disfigured by a large mole on his cheek,
which, in his eftimation, according to the canons of the
church, rendered him unfit to officiate in clerical duties.
Shirley therefore left Oxford without a degree ; but he af-
terwards removed to Cambridge, and meeting with ne farther
obftacle, he took orders, and obtained a curacy, His reli-
ge creed was not fufficiently fettled, and he went over to
the church of Rome, abandoned his cure, and opened a

ammar-{chool at St. Alban’s. After fome time he deferted
this employment, and became a writer for the ttage. His
produGtions were fuccefeful, and he acquired a reputation
which caufed him to be taken into the fervice of queen
Henrietta-Marla, When the civil war broke out, he ac-
companied the earl of Newcattle in his campaigns, and allo
afliited him in the eompofition of {everal of his plays. On
the ruin of the king’s caufe he came to London, and refumed
his occupation ae {chool-matter, in which he met with
confi le encouragement, and he fhewed his attention to
the duties of his office, by publishing fome works op

ammar.
During the Commonwealth, theatrical amufements being
fuipended, Shirley had no room in which he could difplay

his dramatic talents ; but after the Reftoration, feveral of his
pieces appeared again on the ftage. The death of this
author is thus defcribed: his houfe in Fleet-ttreet being
burnt in the great fire of London, in the year 1666, he was
forced with his wife to retreat to the fuburbs ; in confequence
of the lofs and the alarm which this occafioned, both himfelf
and wife died within a few hours of each other, and they
were buried in the fame grave.

Mr. Shirley was author of thirty-feven plays, confifting
of tragedies and comedies, and of a volume of poems, pub-
lifhed in 1646. He had the reputation of being the chief
among the fecond-rate poets of his time, but his works have
long fince difappeared from the ttage, and they are fcarcely
ever referred to by more modern authors, yet there have been
critics who thought highly of them. Dr. Farmer, in his
Effay on the Learning of Shak{peare, fays the imagination
of Shirley is fometimes fine to an extraordinary degree. He
affiited Mr. Ogilvie in his tranflation of Homer and Virgil,
by writing notes on them.

Survey, in Geography, atownthip of America, in Maf-
fachufetts, in the N.W. part of Middlefex county; 41
miles N.W. of Bofton: incorporated in 1753, and contain-
ing 814 inhabitante.—Alfo, a townthip of Pennfylvania,
in Huntingdon county, containing 862 inhabitants.

SHIRON, or Scuirvon, a town of Thibet ; 120 miles
N. of Catmandu. N. lat. 30° 10. E. long. 85° 5’.

SHIRVAN. See Scminvan.

SHISNIEZ, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 12 miles
N. of Conftantina.

SHITAKOONTHA, a name of the Hindoo deity
Siva. It means the b/ue-throated; and the fable accounting for
the name is often alluded to in the writings of that fanciful
people. Itrelates, that when the ocean was churned, in the
manner defcribed under our article KuRMAVATARA, poifon
was produced among the fourteen precious articles refulting
from that marvellous operation. The word, as well as

oifon, means medicinal drugs. This was {wallowed by
iva,

« To foften human ills, dread Siva drank
The poifonous flood that {tained his azure neck.”

In the fongs of Jayadeva, tranflated by fir W. Jones, in
praife of Vifhnu and Lakfhmi, under their names of Krifhna
and Radha, the following paflage occurs, which we as

10 du

SHO

duced to extract as an inftance of the playful gaicty of
Hindoo poetics, and the prevalence of mythological allu-
fions, in all their writings. Heri and Narayana, we may
premife, are names of Vifhnu; and Padma, or the Lotos, of
Lakfhmi.

«¢ Whatever is delightful in the modesiof mufic ; whatever
is divine in meditations an Vifhnu ; whatever is exquifite in
the {weet art of love ; whatever is graceful in the fine {trains
of poetry ;—all that let the happy and wife learn from the
fongs of Jayadeva, whofe foul is united to the foot of Na-
rayana. May that Heri be your fupport, who expanded
himfelf into an infinity of bright forms, when, eager to gaze
with myriads of eyes on the daughter of the ocean, he dif-
played his great charaéter of the all-pervading deity, by the
multiplied reflections of his divine perfon in the numberlefs
gems on the many heads of the king of ferpents, whom he
chofe for his couch: that Heri, who, removing the lucid
veil from the bofom of Padma, and fixing his eyes on the
delicious buds that grew on it, diverted her attention by
declaring, that when fhe had chofen him as her bridegroom,
near the fea of milk, the difappointed hufband of Parvati
drank in defpair the venom which dyed his neck azure.’?
Jones’s Works, vol. x. Af. Ref. vol. iii.

The many-headed king of ferpents is named Sefha, a fre-
quent fubject of poetical exuberance. See Susua.

Of the blue-necked Siva, Nilakantha is another name,
of fimilar meaning as that at the head of this article ; and
which indeed occurs oftener than Shitakantha, or Shita-
koontha.

SHITTAT, in Geography, a town of Arabia Deferta ;
5o'miles W.N.W. of Melched Ali.

SHITTEN Bay, a bay on the W. coatt of the ifland
of St. Chriftopher.

SHIVAL, atown of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour ; 25 miles
KE. of Baddammy.

SHIVERAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
ear of Cicacole ; 20 miles W. of Cicacole.

SHIVERS, ina Ship, the feamen’s term for thofe little
round wheels in which the rope of a| pulley or block runs.
They turn with the rope, and have pieces of brafs in
their centres, which they call the coak, with holes in them,
into which the pin of the’block goes, and on which they
turn.

Thefe fhivers are ufually of wood, but fome are of brafs,
as thofe in the heels of the top-mafts. See SuEAve.

Suivers, in Rope-making, the foul particles taken from
the hemp, when hatchelling.

SHIVERING, the ftate of a fail when the wind is too
oblique to fillit, fo that it flutters about. ‘This muft be
the cafe when a veflel is\ put about, till the fails are filled
again with the wind.

SHIVERY Satz, a name given by the falt-workers to a

fort of falt, very little different from the common brine-falt.
See Saxr.
_'SHIUMLA, in Geography, a town\of Bulgaria, in the
fangiacat of Drittra. In this place, thought by the Turks
tobe impregnable, they were defeated by the Ruffians with
terrible flaughter;62)miles E..of Varna. N. lat. 43° rol.
EK. long. 26° :27!.

SHIZAR, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo;
15 miles S.E. of Famieh.

SHOAD, in Mining, a term for a train of metalline
{tones mixed with earth, fometimes lying near the {urface,
fometimes at confiderable depths, but always ferving to the
miners as a proof that the load or vei of the metal is
thereabout. The deeper the fhoad lies, the nearer is the
vein.

SHOAD-S/ones, a term ufed by the miners of Cornwall,

SHO.

and other parts of this kingdom, to exprefs fuch loofe
mafles of tone, as are ufually found about the entrances into
mines, fometimes running in a ftraight courfe, from the load
or vein of ore to the furface of the earth,

Thefe are ftones of the common kinds, appearing to have
been pieces broken from the {trata, or larger mafles, but
they ufually contain mundic or mareafitic matter, and more
or lefs of the ore to be found in the mine. They appear .
to have been at fome time rolled about in water} their
corners being broken off, and their furface {moothed and
rounded,

The antimony mines in Cornwall are always eafily difco-
vered by the fhoad-ttones, thefe ufually lying up to the fur-
face, or very nearly fo ; and the matter of the ftone being
a white {par, or debafed cryt{tal, in which the native colour
of the ore, which is a fhining blueifh-black, eafily difcovers
itfelf in ftreaks and threads.

Shoad-ftones are of fo many kinds, and of {uch various
appearances, that it is not eafy to deferibe or know them:
but the miners, to whom they are of greateft ufe in the
tracing, or fearching after new mines, diftinguifh them from
other ftones by their weight ; for if very ponderous, though
they look ever fo much like common ftones, there is great
reafon to fufpect that they contain fome metal. Another
mark of themis their being f{pungy and porous; this is a
fign of efpecial ufe in the tin countries, for the tin fhoad-
ftones are often fo porous and fpungy, that they refemble
large bodies thoroughly calcined. There are many other
appearances of tin fhoads, the very hardelft and firmett ftones
often containing this metal. :

When the miners, in tracing a fhoad up hill, meet with -
fuch odd {tones and earths, that they know not well what
to make of them, they have recourfe to vanning, that is,
they calcine and powder the ftone, clay, or whatever elfe is
fuppofed to contain the metal ; and then wafhing it in an in-
{trument, prepared for that purpofe, and called a wvanning
Jbovel, they find the earthy matter-wafhed away, and cf the
remainder, the ftony, or gravelly matter lies behind, and the
metalline matter at the point of the fhovel. If the perfon
who performs this operation has any judgment, he eafily
difcovers not only what the metal is that is contained in the
fhoad, but alfo will make a very probable guefs at what
quantity the mine is likely to yield of it in proportion to
the ore. (Phil. Tranf. N° 69. Price’s “Mineralogia,
p-124, &c.

SHOAL, in Sea-Language, is the fame as /hallow, and
is applied to flats in the water.

They fay it is good /hoaling, when a fhip failing towards
fhore, they find by her founding it grows fhallower and
fhallower by degrees, and not too fuddenly ; for then the fhip
goes.in fafety.

Suoau Inlet, in Geography, a channel between two mall
iflands on the coalt of North Carolina. »N.lat..34°5'. W.
long. 77° 58!.

SHOALNESS, a low cape on the weft coaft of North
America. Captain Cook met with fome Indians on the coat,
near this cape, who came off to the fhips in canoes, expreil-
ing, as he conceived, their pacific intentions by hallooing and
opening their arms, as they cautioufly advanced. Atlength
fome of them approached near enough to receive fome trifles
that were thrown to them. This brought on, fays captain
Cook, “atraffic between them and our-people, who got
drefles of fins, bows, arrows, darts, wooden veflels, &c. ;
our vifitors taking in exchange whatever: was offered them.
They feemed to be the fame kind of people that we had lately
met with along this coaft ; wore the fame ornaments in their
lipsand nofes, but were far more dirty, and not fo well clothed.
They appeared to be wholly unacquainted with people like

uss

SHO

even the ufe of tobacco ; nor was any foreign
yf ere unlefs a knife may be conii-

fuch. indeed was no more than a picce of
iron fitted into a wooden handle, ‘They however
and ule of this inflrament fo well, that it
the only article they withed for. Molt of them
fhaved or cut thort off, leaving my a fow
or 6n one fide. As a covering for the head
eet, wre and a bonnet a! ntly of wood,
their drefs was a kind of gl, re cornu!
with trappings dependin it, and pafling
fo a isrcaseta! the adjolaing parts. By
a girdle, it thould feem that they fometimes
even in this high latitude, for they y wear
clothing. The canoes were made of
others we had lately feen; except that
and the hole in which the man fits was
any I had before met with.” N. lat. 60°.

12.

or, as they were fi called,
of {mall iflands, fit on the
ire, in America. The line that divides

pre eg

Fegie:

E

3

ee
#2

z
He
i

ea

ant

aoe

4 eer have
anda

con
rel

lands confitt
. W. long

AY, a

Alfo, a bay on
N. lat. 46° so. W.

a or counterfort, fet up to
oe weight ioc leans on one fide- "see

‘in Ship-building, are fir-baulks,
icces of timber, fixed under the ribbands, or
| and ‘bottom of the fhip, to prop or {upport

is 2. ae of fome note in Africa,

OF 5 Tn Shoba refide fome Jolabs; the
telt of the people are Ferians, and occupied in other pur-

a {mall ifandin the Pacific ocean,

ear the coaft §. lat. o° 1. 'E. long. 130° §3'.
Suc te , -: ‘ in an iland of
oat 108 caine tic ace atuall of Lather
ached eiprany ’ a particular art, istoo

""Teshittor is more re. ‘Bend. Bauddin, a fhoe-maker
“by profeffion, has a learned treatife of the ancient thoe, “De
um,” where the origin, matter, form, &c. there-

icul tired into.
in maintains, that God, in giving Adam fkins of
rafts ‘to clothe him, did not Sorelle to bare-footed,
: e him thoes of the fame matter ; that, after raw dkins,
mei car > make their thoes of rufhes, broom, paper, flax,

- 70"'33'.
as NIE socal of thoes, all the

SHO

Silk, wood, irom, filver, and gold; fo diflerest has their
matter been, Nor was their form more fable, with regard
either to the thape, colour, or ornaments ; they have beea
fquare, bigh, low, long, and quite even, cut, carved, &e.
Pliny, bb. vii. c. 96, tells us, that one Tychius, of Barotia,
was the firll who ufed thoes,

M. Nilant, in his remarks on Baudoin, obferves, that he
Dy Xenophon wrongly, to thew that eves io his time
they {till wore thoes of raw fins.

Xenophon relates, that the ten thoufand Greeks, who had
followed the young Cyras, wanting thoes ia their retreat,
were forced to cover their feet with raw fkins, which occa-
fioned them great inconveniencics,

Nilant will not even allow, that the thoes of the country
people, called ina, and peronce, were of crude fain,
without any ’

The patricians, among the Romans, wore aa ivory erefcent
on their thoes: Heliogabalus had his (hoes covered over with
a very white linen, in conformity to the pricits of the fun, for
whom he profelled a very high veneration ; this kind of thoe
was c udB, ude, or ode, Caligula wore fhoes enriched
with precious ftones, The Indians, like the Egyptians,
wore thoes made of the bark of the papyrus. The Turks
always put off their fhoes, and leave them at the doors of

mofques.

Suors mad: by riveting inflead of fewing. A patent
was taken out for this invention in 1809, by Mr. Dawid
Mead Randolph, an American. In his {pecification, he de-
{eribes that the nivetting which he propofes to fubititute for
fewing, is only applicable to the foles and heels of boots or
other parts being made in the ufual manner.
The /aff which is ufed for this method is the only implement
which demands a particular defeription. It is firit made in
wood, of the fame figure as the common laft, and adjufted in
the ufual manner tothe fize and fhape of the thoe which is
intended to be made or put together upon it. The lower
part or fole of the lait is then covered with a plate of iron or
fteel, about the fame thicknefs as aftout fole leather: this plate,
being formed to the exaét thape which is defired, is fa
down upon the wood by f{erews or rivets. The iron plate
has three circular holes made through it, one at the toe, an-
ether about half way between the toe and the heel, and a
third at the heel: the holes are about an inch in diameter,
and being filled up with wooden plugs, and cut down even
with ‘the furface of the iron, they will admit the points of
temporary nails to be driven through the leather fole to pe-

netrate into the wood, and fix the fole upon the lait whilt

the work on,

The making of the fhoe is conduéted.in the ufual manner,
until it is ready for putting on the lait. To do this, the inner
fole is put upon the iron fole of the lait; then the MaPES-

are put upon the oppofite part, and the edges of the

are turned down over the edges of the inner fole : the
outer fole is then applied over the turning-down, and fattened
ina temporary manner upon the lait, by driving one or two
nails, through both foles, into the wooden plugs before men-
tioned, which fill up-the holes in the iron face of the lait.
Now, to unite the two foles to the upper-leathers, holes are
‘pierced all round the edges of the fole, and {mall nails.are
riven in, which are of {ufficient length to penetrate through
the fole and the turning-in of the upper-leathere, and
alfot ‘the inner fole, fo as to reach the metal face
of the and being forcibly driven, their points will
be turned by the iron, fo as to cleach withenfide, or myet
through the lethecined lowe iaftead of the fewimg or ftitch-
ing to unite the fole to

y employed upper-

Suozs,

SHOES.

Suors, Machines for making. Thefe are the invention of
Mr. Brunel, of whofe mechanical genius we have had frequent
oecafion to fpeak in this work. He has lately eftablifhed
at Batterfea an extenfive manufa@tory of fhoes, chiefly
intended to fupply the army, where all the operations
are performed by the aid of machines, which act with
fuch facility, that they can be managed by the invalid fol-
diers of Chelfea Hofpital, who are the only workmen em-
ployed, and mott of them difabled by wounds, or the lofs of
theirlegs, from any other employment.

The fhoes made by thefe machines are different from the
common fhoes, in the circumftance of the fole being united to
the upper-leathers by a number of {mall rivets inftead of
fewing, in the fame manner as thofe we have mentioned in
the preceding article. To facilitate the defeription we intend
to give of the machines, we fhall firft defcribe the ftructure of
one of thefe fhoes. Its upper-leathers are the fame as any
other fhoes, and confift of three pieces ; viz. the vamp, or
part which covers the upper part of the foot, and the two
quarters which furround the heel, and are fewed together be-
hind it ; they are alfo fewed to the vamp at about the middle
of the length of the fhoe. The fole part of the fhoe is
compofed of the real or lower fole, with its welt, the heel,
and the inner or upper fole. 3

The lower fole has an additional border, which is called
the runner, or welt, fixed upon its upper fide, all round the
edge, by a row of rivets, fo that it makes a double thicknefs
to the fole towards the edge; but this additional piece is
only of {mall width from the outfide of the fole inwards,
and gradually diminifhes away in thicknefs to nothing, as it
recedes from the edge of the fole, fo that the middle part of
the fole is only of the fame thicknefs as ‘the fingle leather.
The upper-leathers are made fufficiently large to turn in, all
round, beneath the foot, under the edge of the inner fole,
for about three-quarters of an inch wide, and the outer
fole, reinforced by the welt, is applied beneath, fo that the
turning-in is included between the two foles ; that is, it is
included between the edge of the inner fole and the welt, or
extra thicknefs which furrounds the lower fole. To hold
the fhoe together, a row of rivets is put through the fole,
all round the edge, and they are of fufficient length to pafs
through all the four thicknefles, viz. the lower fole, the
welt, the upper-leathers, (where they are turned in,) and alfo
through the inner fole; and thefe rivets being made faft, unite
the parts of the fhoe together in a much firmer manner than
fewing. The rivets have no heads, but are made tapering,
and the largeft ends are on the outfide of the fole, which
prevents them from drawing through ; and at the fame time,
the ftrength of the rivetting will not be materially impaired
by the gradual wearing away of the fole leather.

Thefe rivets prevent the wear in a very great degree, and
for this reafon there is a greater number of rivets put into
the fole than merely thofe which hold the fhoe together.
The different nails are, firft, the /hort nails, or rivets, which
only penetrate through the fingle thicknefs of the lower fole ;
thefe are arranged in parallel rows acrofs the tread of the
foot, that is, about two-thirds of the length from the heel ;
there is likewife a double row of fhort nails, which is car-
ried round parallel to the outline of the toe, at about three-
quarters of an inch from the edge, and extends as far as the
middle of the foot. Next, the ¢acking nails, which are of
a fufficient length to reach through both the fole and the
welt, and thus fix the two together: of thefe, there is a row
all round the edge of the foot, nearer to the edge than the
row of fhort nails before mentioned. Liaftly, the Jong
nails, which, aa before defcribed, faften the fhoe together :
thefe form alfo a complete row round the edge of the

whole fhoe, and nearer to the edge than any of the pree
ceding rows. ‘The heel is alfo faftened on by a row of long
nails round its circumference. The heads or thick ends of
all thefe nails appear on the lower furface of the fole, and
all contribute to preferve the leather from wearing. We
fhall now proceed to a defcription of the ingenious inftru-
ments and machines ufed in this manufaétory, beginning
with thofe for

Cutting out the Leather.—This is performed by ftamps,
each of which is an iron frame or ring, bent to the fize and
figure of the fole, or other part to be cut out by it: one
edge of the frame is edged with fteel, and ground fharp, fo
that it will cut the leather: the fharp edge of this frame
being placed upon the fkin, and ftruck with a mallet, will cut
out a piece from the fkin, which is exa@tly of the fame fize
as the interior opening of the frame. The leather for the
foles is fir{t foftened, by foaking it in water ; the fkin is then
{pread out on a block or table of lead about two feet long
and eighteen inches wide, and the ftamp or knife for the
foles is placed upon the fkin in the moft advantageous po-
fition to cut out the piece; then two or three blows upon
the top of the knife with a beetle or large wooden mallet,
forces its edge through the leather, and cuts out the piece,
which remains in the opening of the knife, but being taken
out another is cut in a fimilar manner.

A knife of this kind is provided for all the pieces which are
ufed to form the fhoe, and they are called after the names
of the refpeétive pieces, which are as follow: 1. The
fole, which is not cut out the full fize for the fole of the fhoe,
but wants a piece at the heel. 2. The fole-piece is a femi-

circle, to be joined to the fole to make up the heel. 3. The ©

heel : thefe two laft pieces are cut out of the {mall pieces, or
{craps of leather. 4. The runner, or welt, which is applied
upon the fole, all round the edge, to make the extra thick-
nefs where the upper-leather is to be joined to the fole. All
thefe parts are cut out from the ftrong hides. 5. The inner
fole. The upper-leathers are, 6, the vamp, or part which
covers the toes and upper part of the foot; 7 and 8, the
right and felt quarters, which furround the heel, and are
fewed to the vamp, being alfo fewed together behind
the heel.

All thefe parts, except the welts, are cut out by knives
of the above defcription, there being a fet of knives for every
different-fized fhoe which is madeinthe manufactory. For
cutting out the inner foles, the knife is fixed horizontally,
with its edge upwards, beneath a heavy caft-iron lever,
which moves ona centre pin, fupported in the fame framing
which fuftains the knife. The lever has a plate of lead at-
tached to it near the centre, fo that when it is brought
down horizontally the lead will defcend upon the knife,
the edge of which being imprinted into the lead, will cut
through the leather which is previoufly {pread upon the
knife. Tio ufe this cutting-out machine, the fole is firft
cut out roughly from the {kin by a common cutting-knife
round a wooden pattern, and the lever being lifted up nearly
to a vertical pofition, the rough fole is laid fairly upon the
edge of the knife; then, by letting fall the lever, its weight,
and the leverage upon the plate of lead, caufes a fufficient
prefflure upon the leather to force it upon the edge of the
knife, and cut®it to the exaét fhape required. The lever is
guided in its defcent, to enfure that its lead fhall fall pre-
cifely upon the knife.

Immediately after the foles are cut out, they are ftamped
on the grain-fide of the leather with a number which de-
notes the fize of the fhoe to which they belong, The itamp
is engraved on the face of a {mall hammer, fo that one blow
makes the defired mark. The heels and other parts are alfo

marked,

}

sed, that the workman may make no miflakes in putting

for the welts is cut into flrips of about an
piece is {pread on a flat
‘two feet {quare, bw. furface of which is

{ and ferewed down upon the wooden table, leaving
them fafficient {paces to admit the point of a kmfe.
{mall pine project up from thefe iron rulers to pene-
rate the taper and hold it fat. To confine the leather
whilfl it is cut, a frame of iron is fixed to the table by
at one end, fo as to fold down horizontally upon the
the frame is covered all over with fimilar rulers,
between them correfponding exactly with thofe
the table. The cutting is performed
fixed into a long handle. The workman
leather, and introducing the
the knife between the bars, draws it to-
the leather, and he repeats it at
rulers, and thus divides the whole
as

FLEA!

TRIBE
gee
it
silt
tiv

HEE

iff
a7

a5

FP

s

AF

the lower,
the lever. Thefe pins are only
J the centre or fi of the
the weight (of about 100 pounds) is at a diftance

SHOES.

of four feet from the centre, it therefore prefles down the
upper roller upon the lower, with a force of nearly 1200
pounds. The lower roller has s a upon the ex-
tremity of its {pindle, which is moved by a pinion upon the
end = pe axis turned by a winch; one man turns this winch
and another puts the foles between the rollers. Two foles
are ceheanal vohelliied being laid one _ the other, with
the fleth fides of the leather towards each other, aod an iron
plate is placed between them, which is made thick in the
middle, and diminithes e way to the edges, where it is
thin, The grain or hair fide of the leather of the two foles
is outfide, fo as to be in conta with-the rollers when the
foles are prefented to the machine which draws them in ;
and when they have nearly pafled through, the man who
turns the winch reverfes the motion, rolls them back
again, then forwards, and fo on for four or five times, in the
fame manner as the motion for mangling linen. After this
operation the leather becomes hard and folid, and much re-
duced in thicknefs, particularly at the middle :

The heels being fo fmall cannot conveniently be rolled ;
but to produce the fame effet they are flamped in a fly-
prefs: for this purpofe, a heel-piece is put into a {mall box
or cell of caft-iron, of a proper fhape to receive it, and a
= plate, which is fitted to the box, being laid upon it,

whole is put beneath the ferew of the prefs, one blow
of which is fufficient to prefs the iron plate upon the leather,
with a force which will render it hard and folid.

The fole is made complete by joining to it the fmall femi-
circular piece at the heel ; for this purpofe, the parts which
are to be joined together are cut bevelled, fo that they will
overlap without increafing the thicknefs, and then three or
four nails are driven through the bevelled parts, to hold
them together. To cut the joints bevelled, a finple prefs
is ufed ; the fole is laid flat upon the edge of the bench, and
a piece of iron is prefied down upon it by a lever, upon
which the workman leans his elbow. The edge of the
bench is bevelled, and faced with iron, and this, es
with the upper piece of iron, guides the knife, fo it
will cut the joint bevelled: the heel-piece is then cut in the
fame manner, but reverfed.

Application of the foort Nails.—The leather for the fole is
next inlaid with fhort copper or iron nails, which are put
through holes in the leather, in the broad part of the foot,
where the greateft wear will take place ; and there is alfo a
double row of fimilar rivets, inlaid round the toe part, at
about three-quarters of an inch within the edge of the fole.
The holes for thefe nails are firft punched in the leather of
the fole by a punching machine, and then a fecond machine
cuts the nails, and inferts them into the holes.

The punching machine is moved by the foot of the work-
man, is feated befere a {mall femicircular table of caf
iron, on which he places the leather. This table is fup-
ported by a ftrong column, rifing from the floor toa height
of about two feet above the table, which is joined to the
column by a projecting bracket, fo that the column is on
the oppolite fae to that where the workman is feated. The
upper part of the column has two arms, projeéting forwards
from it towards the workman, and extending over the table ;
at their extremities they are formed into fockets, to fuftain
a {quare iron rod or perpendicular flider, which at the lower
end has the piercer or awl {crewed into it: one of the
fockets guides the upper part of the flider, and the other
the lower part, fo that it has a freedom of motion in a per-

H direGtion, but no other. The flider is ca to
defcend by means of a treadle moving on a centre pin, at-
tached to the foot of the iron column, beneath the bench ;
from this treadle an iron rod afcends through a hole in the

4G bench

SHOES.

bench (and alfo through holes in the arms, which proje&
from the column to fultain the flider), and at the upper end
this rod is conneted with a lever, which moves on a joint at
the upper end of the iron column, whilft the extreme end of
the lever is conne@ted with the top of the perpendicular
flider. By this arrangement it is clear, that the foot, being
prefled upon the treadle, will communicate motion by the
iron rod and upper lever to the flider and piercer, and
force its point through the leather, which is placed upon
the {mall iron table. A fhort lever and counterpoife are pro-

vided to raife up the flider again the inftant the preflure is »

removed. ‘To prevent the piercer ftriking upon the iron of
the table, and breaking the point, a {crew is inferted in a
piece projecting from the flider, and its point in defcending
comes to reft upon the upper of the two arms which futtain
the flider, and thus {tops the defcent of the flider at the
proper place.

The piece of leather for the fole is fixed upon a pattern
made of iron plate, cut to the fame fize and fhape as the
fole, which is united to it by two fharp gauge pins, which
are fixed in the pattern, one at the middle of the tread, and
the other in the centre of the heel; and thefe pins projeé&
fo far, that they will juft penetrate through the leather, to
hold it fait againft the pattern, which is perforated with all
the holes which are intended to be pierced in the fole. The
leather is applied upon the pattern, and ftruck with a mallet,
fo as to force the gauge pins into the leather, and unite the
fole and the pattern together; the pattern is then laid flat
upon the table of the machine, with the leather uppermolt,
avd is brought beneath the joint of the piercer, fo that it
will penetrate in the defired place. To afcertain this place,
a {mall ftud or pin is inferted into a hole in the table, in the
exact {pot where the point of the piercer defcends ; the ftud
projects a little above the furface of the table, but is only
held up by a fpring, fo that it can eafily be prefled down.
The pattern being placed fo that any of the holes therein
receive the point of the flud, it is evident that when the
preffure of the foot makes the piercer defcend, its point will
make a punéture in the leather which is faftened upon the
pattern, which punéture will be oppofite to the hole in the
pattern ; and though it perforates the leather quite through
the thicknefs, the point of the piercer cannot be blunted
again{t the iron, becaufe it is received in the hole in the
pattern, and the ftud defcends by the preffure, fo that the
pattern will lie quite flat upon the furface of the table. In
this manner the workman pierces any number of holes in the
leather, placing it beneath the point of the piercer by the

aid of the pattern, and then preffing the foot to bring the'

point down and pierce the hole. As foon as the piercer
rifes, he removes the pattern to another hole, and foon. A
fmall piece of iron is fixed juit above the leather, which pre-
vents its being lifted up, and following the piercer when it
rifes. The piercer pafles through a hole in this piece.
Nailing Machine for the fhort Nails. —The fole being thus
pierced with holes, the fhort nails are put into it by a very
curious machine, which at the fame time forms the nails,
by cutting them off from the end of a {trip of iron or cop-
per, of the fame breadth as the length of the intended nails.
The fole is prefented to the machine by laying it upon a
{mall table, fimilar to the laft machine, and is direéted by
means of the fame pattern; fo that each of the holes in the
leather will be fucceflively brought beneath the point of a
blunt piercer, which defcends by the aétion of a treadle.
Inthe upper part of the machine is a pair of fhears, to cut
the nails: they confift of a lever, loaded at the extremity
with a weight, and conneéted with the treadle, fo that the
end of the lever is lifted up when the treadle is depreffed by

the foot. Near the centre of this lever is a cutter, which is
fixed to it, and moves with it. Another cutter is {upported
by the frame, fo as to be ftationary, and in the proper fitua-
tion to come in contaé with the edge of the moving cutter,
when the end of the lever is lifted up. The cutters aé& in a
manner fimilar to a pair of fhears, to cut off a {mall piece
from acrofs the end of a flip of iron, which is introduced
between the cutters. This piece forms the nail or rivet,
which is to be put into the hole in the leather; and im-
mediately after it is cut, it falls into a tube, by which it is
conduéted down to a{mall cell or tube, fituated immediately
oyer the leather. In this the nail ftands perpendicular, and
ready, when the piercer defcends, to be forced down into
the hole in the leather; becaufe the cell which receives the
nail ig exatly beneath the point of the piercer, fo as to hold
it perpendicularly in the proper fituation. The workman
is feated before the machine, and with his right hand direéts
the fole, with its pattern beneath the piercer, in the fame -
manner as before defcribed. In his left hand he holds the
{trip of iron or copper which is to make the nails; and he
introduces the end of it through a {mall hole, which con-
duéts to the cutters, pufhing it forward with a gentle
force: this caufes the end of the ftrip to enter between the
cutters, when the fhears are open. Then adjufting the fole
by the pattern, fo that one of the holes in the leather will
be beneath the nail contained in the cell, he preffes down the —
treadle: this forces the nail down from the cell into the
leather, by the defcent of the piercer, and at the fame time
clofes the fhears, and cuts off a nail acrofs the end of the
{trip. The nail immediately defcends by the tube into the
cell, where it places itfelf perpendicularly, and ready to be ©
put in its place in its turn. Thus the machine, at every
{troke, cuts a frefh nail to fupply the place of that which it
puts in the leather by the fame ftroke. The ftrip of copper
is turned over every time, to form the nails alternately head
and point. i

When all the nails are put in, they are battered down
with a hammer; and as they are but very little longer than
the thieknefs of the fole, this reduces them to an even
furface. -

Application of the Welt to the Sole—The welt, or runner; is
a narrow flip of leather applied upon the fole, round its
edge, to make the fole of a double thicknefs round the edge,
where the upper leather joins to the fole, although the fole
is only fingle within. The welt is made from the feather-
edged flips which we have before mentioned, and is faf-
tened to the fole by tacking nails of fufficient length to pafs
through both the fole and the welt. ‘Thefe nails are ar-
ranged all round the circumference of the fole, and the
holes are firft pierced through the fole by the punching
machine, which we have before defcribed, but by a dif-
ferent pattern of iton, which is attached to the fole by its
two gauge pins entering the fame holes which were made
through the leather in the firft operation. This pattern is

pierced with a row of holes all round the circumference,

which are arranged within the former row of rivets, or
farther from the edge cf the fole; but around the toe and
tread of the foot, for half its length, the holes are in double
number, or at half the diltance that they are in the heel
part. This pattern being ufed in the fame manner as before
defcribed, the punching machine pierces the fole with holes,
exaétly correfponding to it; which holes are filled with
tacking nails in a feparate machine, fomething fimilar to the
nailing machine before defcribed. But as the: nails are
longer, it would be too laborious to cut them by the fame
motion; the nails are, therefore, cut by a machine made
on purpofe, and applied to the leather by *
he

The alas Machine Nails.—This is made exadl
the fame as ttentien before deferibed, but web
additional tus to fupply the nails, and put them into
the holes. Thus it has a vertical column, with a table and two
ing arms to fup the perpendicular lider, which 1s
to defeend when the foot is applied upon the treadle,
and to re-afcend by the aétion of the counter-weight. The

at the lower end is not tharp-pointed, not being in-
to penetrate the leather, but only to force the nails

the holes fy pierced by the preceding opera-
= The siidiansd pares are as follow ta circular plate,
or wheel of brafe, about nine inches diameter, and of a
equal to the length of the nails; it ct
number of holes, to contain the fame

; the holes being made round its ants
together as convenient, and arran in
within the other, ‘The interior {pace
within the circles is formed with fix arms, like a wheel; and
is a hole, which fits loofely upon an upright

ing in the centre of a {mall circular table,
pee ated pe onpelgehande pe which,
mentioned, —o* m the vertical column of
machine, and fuftain Ugh tel teoeerrd
‘ Gone dibs thrculee. tah the wheel is fupported in
horize i the height of 18 or 20 inches

i

E

it, to
point of the piercer. The motion of the wheel upon its
centre brings the nails fucceflivel the opening or mouth

in its turn, drops by
wheel into the tube,

i fo fituated that
ftand exactly beneath the point of the piercer,

as the piercer at
i of = tiers the pt is =
joint, at which the two halves o

that the nail lies clofe by the fde of the
piercer. — the piercer has rifen up completely out
of the cell, its two halves {pring together, and the joint in
is placed being with faces inclining

SHOES. '

inwards, they throw the nail into the cell itfelf, in which it
drops down uill it flicks fafl; becaufe, as before flated, the
cell ie (maller at the bottom ; and in this firustion the nail
is certain to be held perpendicular, with its head under the
point of the piercer,

To turn the wheel round, fo as to fupply a frets nail
every time that one has been put into the leather, the edge
of the wheel is cut into ferrated or floping tecth; the num-
ber of teeth being equal to the sumber of holes made in each
of the four wim Ne wo contain the nails, A {mall detent
or click tokes into thefe teeth by a hook, fo that it will
turn the wheel when moved in one dire€tion, “but fide over
the teeth whea moved in the other direction, ‘The click is
jointed to a thort lever, fixed upon the upper end of zn up-
right axis, which patles down through the two projedting
arms of the main column, fo as to be very near per-

dicular dlider ; and a fhort lever, fixed to this axis, bears,

the action of a {pring, again‘t a wedge fixed to the flider.
Phe a@tion of this mechaniim is to turn the wheel rogad one
tooth at a time; thus, when the flider defcends, its wedge
forces the end of the fhort lever farther away from it; this
movement is communicated by the upright axis and er
lever to the click, which flides over the floping fides of the
teeth of the wheel; but on the re-afcent of the flider, the
wedge allows the lever and click to return. by the ation of
a fpring, and the hook of the click, haying caught 2 tooth
of the wheel, will turn the wheel round the {pace of one
tooth. In this manner, at every defcent of the flider the
click engages a frefh tooth of the wheel; and at every
afcent, the wheel is turned round upon its centre pin; the
weight of the wheel, refting upon’ the flat circular table,
being fufficient to retain it as it is placed.

The nailing machine aéts with the fame rapidity as the
other machines, to put a nail into every one of the holes
previoufly made; and for this purpofe the leather is kept
upon the fame pattern by which thofe holes were pierced,
not only for the purpofe of placing the leather fo that the
nails fhall be inferted into thofe holes, but that the thickoefs
of the pattern may allow the nails to penetrate and projeét
through the leather on the under fide. When the nails are
all put in, they are beat down with a hammer, to drive all
the heads to a level with the furface. The leather is then
feparated from the pattern, and put into a frame called

The welting Stand.—T his machine is a {mall {quare table
of caift-iron, fixed on the top of a pedettal, in which it is
capable of turning round, for the convenience of the work-
man, and te enable him to work at the different fides, as he
remains feated before the table. An iron frame is con-
neéted with the table by hinges at one fide, fo that it can
be lifted up or turned down, to lie flat upon the furface of
the table ; and in this fituation it can be faitened down by
means of a fimple clamp. This frame is intended to hold
faft the leather which is placed beneath the frame: the in-
terior Bees of the iron frame is nearly of the fame fize and
fhape as the fole of the thoe. The fole is placed flat upon
the table, in the proper pofition, which is determined by
two gauge pins fixed into the table, and entering the holes
made in the fole; then the iron frame being turned down
upon the leather, will inclofe the fole as it were with an iron
hoop, or raifed border, all round the edge; and the frame
being clamped faft down, the fole is confined, as if lyin,
in the bottom of a cell of iron, of dhe fame figure as teil
and with the nail points projecting upwards from the fole.
In this frame the welt is applied, by laying the {trip of leather
upon the edge of the fole in conta& with the infide of the
iron frame, and bending it to follow the curves of the out-
line of the fole. As fait as any part of the length of the

4G2 trip

SHOES.

itrip is fettled to its pofition, it is attached to the fole by
ftriking it down with a mallet upon the points of the nails.
The thin or feathered edge of the ftrip of leather is put in-
fide, fo that the edge of the fole, for about the breadth of
half an inch, is of a double thicknefs; but within this, the
extra thicknefs diminifhes away to nothing, leaving only the
thicknefs of the fole. The ends of the ftrip of leather
which compofe the welt, where they join and complete the
circuit of the fole, are cut floping, fo as to lap over each
other, and make a joint, without any increafe of thicknefs,
or apparent divifion, When the fole is taken out of this
frame,. the welt and fole are beat well down together, to
make a good joint; it is then carried to the cutting prefs,
in which the edge or outline of the fole and welt are cut
fmooth, and to the fame fize; becaufe, as the frame of the
welting machine mutt be rather lefs than the fole, in order
that the frame may bear upon the edges of the fole all
round, and thus hold it faft, the welt, which is moulded or
bent round within the frame, will be a {mall quantity lefs
all round than the fole. To guide the knife in cutting
round the edge of the fole, it is confined between two iron
patterns, which are made exaftly to the fize to which the
edge isto be pared. They are attached to the fole by two
gauge pins, fixed into one of the plates, and pafling through
the holes in the fole, proje& far enough on the oppofite
fide for the other plate to be faftened on, in its required
pofition, by two holes which receive the ends of the pins.
The cutting-pre/s very much refembles a common lathe: a
horizontal f{pindle is {upported in a frame, confifting of two
itandards, ere€ted from a horizontal plate, to fultain the
fpindle, which pafles through a collar in one of thefe ftand-
ards, and projeéts fome inches beyond it, having at the
extremity a piece of wood flat on the furface, and of the
fame fhape as the fole. Againft this flat furface the two
iron plates, with the fole between, are placed, and they are
forcibly prefled together by the a¢tion of a {crew, fitted
into a third iron ftandard, ereted from the fame horizontal
plate, and prefling by means of a lever upon the iron
plates exa€tly oppofite the end of the f{pindle. This pref-
fure caufes the fpindle to retreat a fmall quantity in the
direGtion of its length, and then a flat circular plate, fixed
upon the fpindle, (in the fame fituation as the pulley of a
common lathe,) is made to prefs againft a fimilar flat plate,
which is faftened to the frame, and therefore cannot turn
round. By the fri€tion between thefe two furfaces, the
f{pindle becomes immoyeable, and the prefs holds the fole
firm, whilfl the workman, who is feated before the machine,
cuts all round the edge with a drawing-knife, which is
made fharp in the middle, and is worked with both hands
by having a handle at each end. When he has with this
tool pared down that part of the edge which is upper-
moft, he releafes the fcrew of the prefs, and a {pring then
caufes the fpindle to advance fo far as to relieve the flat
circular plate, which is fixed upon the fpindle, from its
contaét with the fixed plate. This leaves the fpindle at
liberty to be turned round, and the fole turns with it, fo as
to bring up a new part of the edge of the leather to’a
convenient fituation to be pared or cut; and the {crew is
then turned to faften the {pindle as before defcribed, and
at the fame time to prefs the fole between the two patterns.
When the edge of the fole is thus cut, it is carried to a
grind{tone, and ground {mooth: the {tone is turned with a
quick motion, by means of a band and large wheel ;_ the lea-
ther is afterwards polifhed by applying it to the edge of a
wooden wheel, on which a little bees-wax 1s {pread.
Apphication of the long Nails.—The fole, thus re-inforced
by the welt, is returned to the punching machine, and be-

ing attached to another pattern, a range of holes is pierced all
round the outer edge, through both, juit within the formerrow
of tacking nails ; after which, by the nailing machine, thefe
holes are filled with nails which project through the upper
fide of the welt, being longer than any of the former, and
being alfo intended to penetrate through the upper-leather
and inner foles, and thus falten the fhoe together. In this
{tate the fole is ready to be put to the upper-leathers.

The upper-leathers are prepared for applying to the fole,
in the fame manner as the ordinary fhoe, viz. by fewing
the vamp, or piece which covers the upper part of the fuot,
to the two quarters which go round the heel, and alfo
fewing thefe two quarters together behind the heel. The
workmen do not hold the work upon their knees to few it,
but four men work at a fquare table, the corners of which
are cut off, and a {mall piece of wood projects from each
angle: the two. pieces of leather which are to be fewed
together. are laid upon one of thefe pieces of wood in the
proper pofition to be fewed, and are held faft by an endlefs
{trap, which is laid over them, and the workman binds it
faft down, by preffing his foot in the ftrap, like a flirrup.
This method of fewing, which is far fuperior to the common
mode, might, from its fimplicity, be ufed by all fhoe-makers,
and would render their bufinefs lefs unhealthy ; whereas at
prefent they are fubjet to many difeafes from fitting in
the awkward and unnatural pofture which is neceflary to
reach their work, when they hold it upon their knees.

Operation of clofing or rivetting the Shoe together.—The
upper-leathers are put upon a laft, and held tight there-
upon whilft the fole is applied. ‘This is done in ;

The Clamping Machine.—It is a {mall oval table, fup-
ported on a column, but capable of turning round uper
the column, to enable the workman to work at any fide.
In the centre of the tableva laft is fixed, with the fole up-
wards; it is fupported at a height of about fix inches from
the table. The fole is made of caft-iron, in a folid piece,
with the {tem or part by which the laft is fupported; but
the under part, upon which the upper-leathers are to be
moulded, is made of wood, for the convenience of altering
the figure when neceflary. ‘The laft is fixed upon the table
by means of iwo fteady pins; and a {trong pin, which pro-
jets from the lower part of the laft, and pafles through
the table, is bound faft by a wedge, which confines the laft
firmly upon the table, in the fame manner as if it was made
ina piece therewith. The table has a number of pieces of
brafs attached to it by hinges, and arranged all round the
laft in fuch a manner, that they can be turned up againft
the lower part of the laft, and then form clamps, which are
exactly adapted to the figure of the lower part of the latt,
and will therefore clamp or bind the leather firm upon the
laft at the toe, heel, and every part thereof, except at the
flat part of the fole. The brafs clamps are of fuch dimen-
fions, that they will touch each other when turned up, and
thus form a complete cell or box, in which the lower part
of the laft will be contained, and the leather confined upon it 5
but the cell being made in feveral pieces, or clamps, they
can be removed one by one, as found neceflary. The
clamps are forced up to their fituation by means of an in-
dependent {crew for each, which is tapped in an oblique
direGtion through the edge of the table, and the point
forces up the end of a {mall rod, which is jointed to’ the
clamp near the part where it acts upon the leather: by this
means the force of the fcrew aés to turn the clamp up
upon its hinge, and at the fame time prefs it again{t the
leather. When the preffure is releafed by difplacing the ~
end of the fmall rod from the point of the ferew, the clamp
will be fuffered to fall back upon the table; and this pine

one

the clamps, the laft flands infulated in the
the table, from which it can be detached by
the wedge which confines it. ‘The inner fole of
ts ut upon the fole of the latt, being flightly

© by two fhort pins, one of which 1s p wall

through the gauge hole in the toe of the fole, and enters
| hole aed, the laft; and the other pin is fixed in
ee part of the lait, and enters ot -— in the fole.
upper-leathers are now put upon alt in the true
i Tn this flate, the fait is taken to the clamping

and faflened into its place in the centre of the
are then turned up, one by one, be-

at the heel, and the up athers being pulled up
of pi ‘fo as to make them fit tight
clamps are ferewed tight. In this ftate,
are made to take the form of the lait,

arth stam thereto,

this part the leather ftands up all round about three-
eee teen eres texted dove flat
upon the of the inner fole (previoufly fattened upon
the fole of the taft), and a {mall quantity of patte is put in
to make it ftick faft: four or five notches are cut out in the
at the toe and at the heel, to make the part which
down lie flat upon the fole, without folds or

» to make a clofe contact, the leather
leather are likewife patted, and
for levelling, to make up the
i in the centre as it acquires to-

all round by the turning-in of the upper-
ftate, the nail which faftened the inner
ing now unneceflary, and
me, or faddle, being
its pofition upon the lait.
is made of thin iron, and its fi within is

» and of the fame fize as the row of nails which pro-
the fole, and by which the fole is to be rivetted
in two halves, which are united by
the heel part ; and at the toe part are

if

RELY
ef
in

F

as
— downwards fufliciently to enter
a bole made in of the two clamps at the toe and
eel, in fuch a pofition as to guide the frame, fo that it will
the fole exaily in the me pofition.
fule, when Ly a as before defcribed, by infertin
i holes, fo that their points ied
put into an iron box popeed figs
u it, is put into the fly-prefs, and
fole is rendered concave withinfide, fo
When it is taken out of the
before-mentioned is put together
the fize of the infide of the frame
proper fize to receive the projecti
S Bodlen cc The be
out.
the on ide pins of the
upon the heads of the nails, their
the turning-in of the upper-
the inner fole. When they are
frame is taken away, by withdrawing
its two halves on their joint, and the
into their places. This caufes them
the inner tole into the fhoe, and the
iron lait are turoed back, and thus
ir places. To render this more certain,
made with a flight groove all round,
we

aod the groove

SHOES.

being of a femicireular figure, the points are more readily
turned thereby, and are all turned the fame way, fo that
they will not interfere.

The thoe is now pat together, and the clamps being re-
lieved and turned down, the thoe is taken off the lat; for
which purpofe the heel of the lait is made in a feparate
piece, and jointed to the other by inclined fittings, and
with a tongue or rebate, fo that it can be held fait in its

lace by a fingle hook or {pring catch; but this being re-
ieved, the thoe draws off the. with the greateft cafe,
the heel part remaining within the fhoe, and is taken out
afterwards. The fhoe is now carried to the rivetsing laf,
where it is put upon a lait exa¢tly fimilar to that of the
clamping machine, but faltened down upon a beach, and the
fole 1s Booth without the groove, which caufed the points
of the nails to turn up. Upon this lait the nails are beaten
down, to rivet all fait, and make the fole {mooth withinfide :
the heel is then put on by laying it in its place, and driving
down the long nails which have been put through it by
the nailing machine, in the fame manner as for the fole.

The fole of the thoe is now raf{ped with a coarle file, to level
all the nail-heads, and render the leather {mooth ; the thoes
are then carried to the grinditone, by which they are polithed,
and finithed up in every part, the foles blacked, and polifhed
by the wheel with a compofition of bees-wax and ivory
black, which renders them gloily: the upper-leathers are
then brufhed by a circular brufh, which is turned by the
lathe, and the fhoes are rendered fit for fale, except thofe
which require binding and lining, with a lining of thin
leather, in which cafe they are finithed in the fame manner as
common fhoes.

Nail Machine.—TVhis is equally deferving of notice with
any other part of this ingenious manufactory. In our
article Nai we have defcribed fome nail machines; but
we confider this as a much better machine for cutting
brads or nails without heads. The nails are cut from fheet-
iron, the plates being firft reduced into flips, of a breadth
equal to the length of the intended nails, by a large pair of
fhears, acting in the fame manner as thofe deferibed in the
article CANTEEN, but are conftructed in a fuperior manner,
by employing caft-iron for the framing and for the lever.

he iron plate is prefented to the machine by one man,
whilft another mo 3 the handle, and at a fingle ftroke
cuts off the defired ftrip of iron : the theet of iron is cut fo
that the dire&tion of the grain, or fibrous texture which
the iron acquires by rolling, will be acrofs the length of
the itrip. From this it follows, that when the nails are
formed by cutting off narrow pieces from the end of the
op, the grain of the iron will be the lengthwife of the
nai

The cutting of the nails is readily performed by the machine,
which is turned by the foot ea workman, whilit he
fupplies the iron by his hands. The motion of the treadle
turns a crank and heavy fly-wheel, fimilar to the wheel of a
lathe: from the fame crank a rod proceeds to the longer end
of a ftout lever, the axis of which is {upported on pivots in
tlie upper part of the frame, fo as to be above the wheel
and crank. At a fimall diftance from the centre of the
lever, and at the oppofite fide of the axis to the long lever,
a fteel cutter is fixed, which acts againit a fixed cutter fy
the frame ; the fixed cutter has an edge on the
upper fide, and the moving cutter, which is fixed to the
lever, is made on the lower fide. The revolution of
the wheel and caufes the lever to mfe and fall, and
the edges of the two cutters in this motion pafs as clofe
together as poflible, without touching. At the moft clevated
polition of the moving cutter, its edge rifes above the edge
°

SHO

of the fixed cutter fo far, that the thicknefs of the ftrip of
plate can be admitted between them ; the end of the {trip is
pufhed back, -fo that a fmall portion of the end of it over-
hangs the edge of the fixed cutter; therefore the edge of
the fixed cutter, when it defcends, meets this overhanging
piece, and preffing it down upon the edge of the fixed cutter,
cuts it off, and the piece fo feparated forms a nail. When
the moving cutter re-afcends, the iron is pufhed forwards
again to overhang the fixed eutter, and another nail is thus
cut off. The nails are narrow at one end to form the
point, but at the other end are about as broad as the thick-
nefs of the plate, fo as to be of a f{quare figure ; but at the
point they are, in one direétion, as broad as at the head; this
is the direGtion of the thicknefs of the plate, fo that in
reality the nailis the figure of a {mall wedge initead of a
pyramid, the point being in faét a fharp edge. To efle@
this, the cut which the machine makes acrofs the end of
the ftrip of iron is not perpendicular to the length of the
ftrip, but rather inclined thereto; and at every fucceflive
nail which is cut, the inclination of the cut is reverfed, fo
that the head of one nail is cut from the fame fide as the
point of the next, and fo on alternately of the whole
length of the flip of iron. The thicknefs of the nail is
regulated by the quantity which the end of the flip is al-
lowed to projet over the edge of the fixed cutter, and the
angle of inclination by two ftops, again{t which the edge
of the flip is always brought to bear, when the workman
places it ready for the cut. To ftop the end of the iron, a
part projects from the lever beneath the edge of the mov-
ing cutter, and is curved to the are of a circle defcribed
from the axis: this {top is as far removed behind the edge
of the cutter as the thicknefs of the nail intended to be
eut off by the defcent of the moving cutter. In working
the machine, the workman keeps the wheel conftantly re-
volving by the motion of the treadle ; and holding the flip
with its edge in contaét with the two ftops, fo as to give
it the proper inclination, he pufhes it forwards, with a gra-
dual preflure, againft the moving cutter: then the in{tant
the cutter is fufficiently raifed to admit the flip, it will ad-
vance forwards, until the end of the flip touches the ftop
which is beneath the cutter: on the defcent of the cutter,
the nail is cut off, and the workman immediately turns the
flip with the other fide upwards, which has the effeé&t of
reverfing the inclination of the cut; and puthing it for-
wards, another nail is cut as the former, and thus the ope-
ration continues with the utmoft rapidity.

There are feveral fuits of machines in this manufaétory,
fo that a great number of fhoes are proceeding at the fame
time through the different ftages of their fabrication; and
the rapidity of the execution 1s fuch, that a given number
of workmen will here make a far greater number of fhoes
than by the common method, and they are more durable,
particularly for the ftrong thoes which are defirable for
foldiers. Several of the machines were conftru€ted by
Mr. Maudflay, with his ufual accuracy of execution.

Shoe-makers’? Machine.—This is a fimple contrivance, to
enable thofe artifans to perform their work in a ftanding
pofture ; by which means they will avoid the difeafes inci-
dent to thofe who follow fedentary employments.

In the common method of working, the fhoe-maker is
obliged to fit and ftoop in the moft awkward pofture ima-
ginable, fometimes in order to hold the fhoe and latt between
his ftomach and his thigh, whilft he fews the fole to the
upper leather ; at other times he muft hold the laft between
his knees; and to few the leathers together whilft he holds
them upon his knees, he muft lean very much forwards.
Xn all thefe operations he fits as it were doubled up, fo as to

SHO

impede the action of his lungs, and ultimately produce many
difeafes. The machine is a kind of vice, to hold the fhoe
in any pofition whilft it is fewed.

The Society of Arts have fhewn a laudable defire to re-
commend thefe machines to the trade; and to induce their
general adoption, they have given feveral rewards to thofe
who have produced machines. The firft of thefe was Mr.
Holden, then Mr. Parker, and next Mr. Stafs, whofe ma-
chine, being more improved than the preceding, demands
fome defcription. A {mall bench, or table, is firmly fup-
ported on four legs, at about four feet from the ground; a
circular cufhion is affixed upon the bench, having a hollow
or bafon in the centre of it, with a hole from the bottom
of the hollow, quite through the cufhion, and alfo through
the centre of the bench. This hole receives a ftrap, which
is doubled, andthe two ends fewed together. The lait is
put into the double of the ftrap, and it is drawn down by a
treadle, fo as to hold the laft firmly in the hollow of the
cufhion, which is ftuffed foft withinfide; and as the hole
through the cufhion is too {mall for the fhoe to pafs down,
the lait can be fet in any dire€tion which 1s tnoft convenient
for the fewing ; but by relieving the treadle, it can be ree
moved in an inftant, turned round, and fixed again to few
another part. A feat can be applied in front of the ma-
chine, for the workman to re{t himfelf occafionally : this
feat is fupported by only two legs, and a piece of wood,
which projeéts horizontally from beneath the feat, and
enters into a mortife, made in a part of the frame.
this the workman fits aftride, as if upon a faddle; and as

his work is held before him at a proper height, he fits in an .

upright pofture, which is not attended with the fame pre-
judicial effeG@ts as ftooping to work upon the knee. The
machine is provided with a fmall tray, or box, behind the
cufhion, to contain all the {mall articles which the work
requires ; alfo a drawer beneath it for tools, &c. ; a whet-
{tone fixed up at a convenient height ; and an anvil, which
fits into the hollow of the cufhion, fo as to lie firmly, to
hammer the leather upon inftead of a lap{tone.

Shoe-makers are to make their fhoes of fufficient leather,
or forfeit 35. ad. (1 Jac. I. c. 22.) and journeymen fhoe-
makers embezzling leather fhall make fatisfaction for damage,
or be ordered by juftices to be whipped, &c. . Perfons
buying or receiving fuch leather, are to make reafonable
recompence, to be levied by diftrefs, &c. and fearch is to be
made after the fame: alfo leaving their work undertaken,
or neglecting it, to be fent to the houfe of correétion for a
month. g Geo. I. cap. 27- 13 Geo. Il. c. 8. See
LEATHER.

Suor, in the Manege. A horfe-fhoe is a piece of flat
iron, with two branches or wings, which being commonly
forged according to the form of the hoof for which it is
defigned, is made round at the toe, and open at the heel.

A fhoe for all feet, is one that is cut at the toe into two
equal parts, which is joined by a rivetted nail, upon which
they are moveable in fuch a manner, that the fhoe is enlarged

er contraéted lefs or more at pleafure, in order to make it,

fit all forts and fizes of feet. i

To fhoe a horfe after the form of a lunette, a patin, &c.
fee Lunerrr, Parin, &c. See alfo SHorine of Horfes,
&e.

Berenger obferves, that the ancients did not fhoe their
horfes, that is to fay, they did not nail upon their hoofs
any pieces of iron, or of other metal, in the form of the
modern horfe-fhoes: but when they intended to defend
them from any thing that might annoy them in travelling,
they faftened upon their feet, by means of {traps and liga-
tures, a fort of fandal, flocking, or what we call Ls

efe

Upon -

fedges twilled together like a mat,
leather, and were fometimes itren
of iron, and adorned by the nich

gold, as in the inftances of Nero and

:

|
&
2,

F

in what era, or in what country, the
ing took its rife, The earlieit proof
above mentioned writer has met with is the thoe
to the ores ns ee lived in
preferved in Moatfaucon’s Antiquities
y refembles the thoc now in ufe.

i

ft

of

4
iy the crooked pieces
the hoof of the horfe or other beats,

iealfe f prinzipal
o

the foe, for it is mat-
with thoes weighing
her a burden of twenty

tide "of tron -athaclied fo their four feet. Tt is obvious

four on the infide.
ce to determine the
to fee

} jon of their own errors?
is feared, is obvious: becaufe he who is unedu-
priociples in his art, canpot

SHO
turn to real profit the experience he has acquired, nor
abandon the path of prejudice and cuftom, in which be has
fo long ) gece but fatisties him{cif with continuing to imi-
= and repeat whatewer he has feen done by others, f
The weights which are pro » for thoes of different
kinds, are nearly as follow; _

hh. oe
For the ftrongeft fort of cart-horfes an 2 243
For the {maller horfes of this kind — - - - 142
For the largeft coach-horfes - - - - 1 uz
For the {maller ditto . ° ° i, Sh csclhes ¢
For faddle-horfes of any height : = i ztw10
For race-horfes.. - — - ai woMPiete 5

And by reducing the fuperfluous breadths of thele thoes
their thicknefs may, it is fuppofed, be increafed without
making any addition to their weight. See Some.

Suoes of Cail, the {mall plates of iron that are fahened
upon the feet of oxen, or other cattle employed in field or
road labour. Shoes of this, fort confit, according to fome,
of a flat piece of iron, with five or fix ttamp on the
outward edge, to receive the nails: at the toe is a
tion of fome inches, which pafling in the cleft of the
is bent over the hoof fo as to keep the thoe in its proper
place. This projection is not, however, employed in the

practice of making thefe thoes, nor can it in com.
mon be of any utility. See Suogine of Oxen.

Suoe of Gold, in Commerce, an ingot ufed as money in
China. is here confidered as merchandize ; it is told
in r ingots of a determined weight, which the Englith
call of gold; the largett of thefe weigh 10 tales, and
the gold is reckoned 94 touch (that is 94 parts fine in 100),
though it is really only 92 or 93. Formerly, 10 tales of
filver were given be one tale of gold of the fame yo of
finenefs; but of Jate, from 100 to 110 tales of filver of
94 touch have been given for 10 tales of gold of g2 or
93 touch; and fometimes from 110 to 120 tales, or even
more, of Spanith dollars, reckoned at g2 touch, have beea
paid for 10 tales of gold. It muft be obferved, that when
eae eechened for filver, its price is always valued by

lo-tale weight ; and it is fold either above or below
touch, as follows: if the gold be 96 touch, and fold at 5
under touch, fubtra& 5 from 96, and g1 remains; then g1
tales of filver are paid for 10 of gold: if gold be fold at
10 above touch, the finenefs being till 96, add 10 to 96;
and 106 tales of filver are paid for 10 tales of gold.

We thall here obferve that there is but one kind of money
made in China, called ca/b, which is not coined but calt, and
which is only ufed for {mall payments; it is compofed of fix
parts of copper and four parts of lead; it 1s round, marked
on one fide, and rather raifed at the edges, with a fquare
hole in the middle. Thefe pieces are commonly carried,
like beads, ona ftring or wire. A tale of fine filver thould
be worth 1000 cath; but en account of their convenience
for common ufe, their price is foumetimes fo much raifed
that only 750 cafh are given for the tale. See Tare.

Snoz, Horfe, in Fortification, Mining, &c. See Honse-
SHOE.

Snoe, Horft, Head. See Honse-snoe Head.

Suoe of the Anchor, in Sea Language, a {mall block of
wood, convex on the back, and having a fmall hole fuf-
ficient to contain the point of the anchor-fluke on the fore
fide. It is ufed to prevent the anchor from tearing or
wounding the planks on the flip’s bow, when afcending or
defeending ; for which purpofe the fhoe flides up znd down
along the bow, between the fluke of the anchor and the
planks, as being preiled clofe to the latter by the weight of

former. Balcones. a ,

the
Suor,

SHO

Suox, To, an Anchor. See Shoeing the ANcHox.

SuoE-Blocks, are two fingle blocks, cut in a folid piece
tran{verfely to each other, They are ufed for legs and falls
éf the bunt-lines, but are feldom employed.

Suoe-Houfing. See Housine.

SHOEBURY Ness, in Geography, a cape of England,

on the fouth coaft of the county of Effex, at the mouth of
the Thames. Here king Alfred ereéted a fortrefs againft
the Danes. There are two villages near North and South
Shoebury, both containing together about 200 inhabitants ;
5 miles N.E. from the Nore. N. lat. 51° 32!. E. long.
0° 45!.
SHOEING of Horsss, a term applied to the operation of
fattening the pieces of iron on the bottom parts of the hoofs,
or that of fixing fhoes to the feet. Thefe, and fome other
animals deftined to labour, are fhod with iron, in order to
defend and preferve their hoofs. The fhoes of horfes fhould
differ according to the feet, as has been already feen. The
common form of fhoes, and the method of fhoeing, are
wholly condemned by fome, as Mr. Clark, aad a new
method recommended, which appears founded on juft prin-
ciples, and to have been fanétioned by much experience. It
is remarked, that in preparing the foot for the fhoe, accord-
ing to the common method, the frog, the fole, and the bars
or binders, are pared fo much that the blood frequently ap-
pears. The common fhoe by its form (being thick on the
infide of the rim, and thin upon the outfide), muft of confe-
quence be made concave or hollow on that fide which is
placed immediately next the foot, in order to prevent its
refting upon the fole. The fhoes are generally of an im-
moderate weight and length, and every means is ufed to
prevent the frog from refting upon the ground, by making
the fhoe-heels thick, broad, and ftrong, or raifing cramps or
caukers on them. From this form of the fhoe, and from
this method of treating the hoof, the frog is raifed to a con-
fiderable height above the ground, the heels are deprived of
that fubftance which was provided by nature to keep the
cruft extended at a proper width, and the foot is fixed as
it were ina vice. And by the preflure from the weight of
the body, and refiftance from the outer edges of the fhoe,
the heels are forced together, and retain that fhape imprefled
upon them, which it is impoffible ever afterwards to re-
move; hence a contraétion of the heels, and of courfe lame-
nefs. But farther, the heels, as has been obferved, being
forced together, the cruft preffes upon the procefles of the
coffin and extremities of the nut-bone; the frog is confined,
and raifed fo far from the ground, that it cannot haye that
fupport upon it which it ought to have: the circulation of
the blood is impeded, and a walting of the frog, and fre-
quently of the whole foot, enfues. Hence, it is contended,
proceed all thofe difeafes of the feet known by the names of
founder, hoof-bound, narrow-heels, thrufhes, corns, high
foles, &c.

And it has likewife been frequently obferved, that there
arifes from this compreffion of the internal parts of the foot,
a {welling of the legs immediately above the hoof, attended
with great pain and inflammation, with a difcharge of thin,
ichorous, fetid matter; from which fymptoms, it is often
concluded that the horfe is in a bad habit of body (or what
is termed a greafe falling down), and muift therefore undergo
a courfe of medicine, &c. The bad effects of this pra€tice
are ftill more obvious upon the external parts of the hoof.
The cruft towards the toe, being the only part of the hoof
free from compreflion, enjoys a free circulation of that fluid
neceflary for its nourifhment, and grows broader and longer ;
from which extraordinary length of toe, the horfe ftumbles
in his going, and cuts his legs. The {maller particles of

SHO

fand infinuate themfelves between the fhoe and the heels,
which grind them away, and thereby produce lamenefs,
All this is entirely owing to the great {pring the heels of
the horfe mutt unavoidably have upon the heels of a fhoe
made in this form. ‘This concave fhoe in time wears thin at
the toe, and, yielding to the preflure made upon it, is forced
wider, and of confequence breaks off that part of the cruft
on the outfide of the nails. Inftances of this kind daily
occur, infomuch that there hardly remains cruft fufficient to
fix afhoe upon. And further, it is generally thought, that
the broader a fhoe is, and the more it covers the fole and
frog, a horfe will travel the better. But, as it has been re-
marked, the broader a fhoe is of this form, it muft be made
the more concave ; and, of confequence, the contracting
power upon the heels muft be the greater. It is likewife
to be obferved, that, by ufing ftrong broad-rimmed concave
fhoes in the fummer feafon, when the weather is hot and the
roads very dry and hard, if a horfe is obliged to go falt,
the fhoes, by repeated ftrokes (or fri€tion) againft the ground,
acquire a great degree of heat, which is communicated to
the internal parts of the foot; and, together with the con-
traction upon the heels, occafioned by the form of the fhoe,
mutt certainly caufe exquifite pain. This is frequently fuc-
ceeded by a violent inflammation in the internal parts of the
hoof, and is the caufe of that difeafe in the feet fo fatal to
the very beft of our horfes, commonly termed a founder.

This is alfo the reafon why horfes, after a journey or a hard |
ride, are obferved to fhift their feet fo frequently, and to
lie down much. And if we attend further to the convex
furface of this fhoe, and the convexity of the pavement upon
which horfes walk, it will then be evident that it is im-~
poffible for them to keep their feet from flipping in this
form of fhoe, efpecially upon declivities of the ftreets. It
is alfo a common praétice, efpecially in this place, (Edin-
burgh,) to turn up the heels of the fhoes, into what are
called cramps or caukers, by which means the weight of the
horfe is confined to a very narrow furface, viz. the inner
round edge of the fhoe-rim and the points or caukers of each,
heel, which foon wear round and blunt; befides, they for
the moft part are made by far too thick and long. ‘The
confequence is, that it throws the horfe forward upon the
toes, and is apt to make him flip and ftumble. ‘To this
caufe we muft likewife afcribe the frequent and fudden
lamenefs horfes are fubjeét to in the legs, by twifting the
ligaments of the joints, tendons, &c. It is not affirmed
that caukers are always hurtful, and ought to be laid afide
on the contrary, it is granted that they, or fome fuch-hke
contrivance, are extremely neceflary, and may be ufed with
advantage upon flat fhoes where the ground is flippery ; but
they fhould be made thinner and fharper than thofe com-
monly ufed, fo as to fink into the ground, otherwife they
will rather be hurtful than of any advantage. :
It is fuggelted that the Chinefe are faid to account a {mall
foot an ornament in their women; and for that purpofe,
when young; their feet are confined in {mall thoes. This no
doubt produces the defired effet ; but mutt neceflarily be
very prejudicial to them in walking, and apt to render them
entirely lame. This pra€tice, however, yery much refembles
our manner of fhoeing horfes; for, if we looked upon it as
an advantage to them to have long feet, with narrow low
heels, and fuppofing we obferved no inconvenience to attend
it, or bad confequence to follow it, we could not poffibly
ufe a more effeétual means to bring it about than by follow-
ing the method already defcribed. It is fuppofed that in
fhoeing a horfe, therefore, we fhould in this, as in every
other cafe, {tudy to follow nature: and certainly that fhoe
which is made of fuch a form as to refemble as nearly as
— poflible

SHOEING,

the natural tread and fhape of the foot, mult be
toany other. But it 1s extremely difficult to lay

eet rules with refpect to the proper method to be
obferved in treating the hoofs of different horfes: it is

difeafe, and from other
may oceur; fo that a great deal mutt depend
the diferetion and judgment of the operator, io pro-
ing the thoe to the foot, by imitating the natural
the hoof from contradling a bad thape,
to give fome general idea of what may
moft in this matter, it is endeavoured
that form of thoe, and method of treating the
horfes, which, from experience, has been und
And in this it is to be remembered, that a
ought by no means to refit upon the fole, other-
it wi Ae. uly Marthe sharesorekt mal reit entirely
+ te the craft: and, in order that we may imitate the natu-
fhoe muft be made flat (if the

fole not forbid it); it mult be of an
thicknefs all around the outfide of the rim; and on
part of it which is to be immediately next the
foot, a narrow rim or margin is to be formed, not exceeding
cruft upon which it is to reft, with the
the middle, and from this corvind
gradually thinner tow its
And that the breadth Of the fhoe is to be re-
foot, and the work to which the
3 but i it fhould be made
Se ork the extremity
freedom upon

aah been already fhewn.
like the foot, the

i

3

!

ite

é
J

into the holes, fo as to be equal with the furface of
as has been alread
than taking o
i am oipeen okie = and any excrefcences or in-
Lie the fole. r. Ofmer has remarked, that
ftand a little wider at the
itfelf: otherwife, as
of the hoe in a fhort time
horfe ; which preflure often

ft it has been
introduce it into ice. Mint Se setts aie

&e. 4 woe iced in favour of the common
‘ne fe the feet, that it is with

even be prevailed upon to make a proper
cannot We fatiefied uslefa the. frog be

fole pared, and the bars cut out, in order
appear wide. This ice gives them a
the time; yet that, to with the

fhoe, forwards the contraction of the

It is contended, that in this flat form of fhoe, its thickeft
bart is upon the outfide of the rim, where it is moft expofed to
‘worn ; and being made ually thinner towards its inner
dge, it is therefore much lighter than the common concave
hoe ; yet it will laft equally as long, and with more advan-
eto the hoof; and as the frog or heel is allowed to reft
oL. XXXII.

upon the ground, the foot enyays the fame points of
as in its natural flate. It muft therefore, a is fy be
much eafier for the horfe in his way of going, and be a means
of making him fure-footed. It is likewile evident, Uiat, from
this thor, the hoof cannot acquire any bad form; whens, at
the fame time, it receives advantage that poflibly could
be expected from thoeing. In this re it ma :
perly be faid, that we make the oan the ata go
the foot to the thoe; as is but too much the cafe in the
concave thoes, where the foot much refembles that of a
cat's fixed into a walnut-thell, But itis to be obferved, that
the hoofs of young horfes, before they are fhod, for the
moft part are wide and open at the heels, and that the cruft
is futliciently thick and g to admit of the nail’s being
fixed very near the extremities of each. But, as has been
formerly remarked, from the conftant ufe of concave thoes,
the crult of this partof the foot grows thinner and weaker,
and when the ws are fixed too far back, efpecially upon the
infide, the horfe becomes lame : to avoid this, they are
more towards the fore part of the hoof. This the
heels of the horfe to have the greater {pring upon the heels
of the thoe, which is fo very detrimental as to lame-
nels; whereas by ufing this flat form of hoe, all thefe in-
conveniencies are avoided ; and if the hoofs of young horfes
from the firft time that they were fhod, were continued to
be conftantly treated according to the method here recom-
mended, the heels would always retain their natural ftrength
and fhape. By following this flat method of fhoeing, and
manner of treating the hoofs, feveral horfes now this
management, that were formerly tender-footed, and fre-
quently lame, while thod with broad concave thoes, are now
uite found, and their hoofs in as good condition as whea
the firit thoes were put upon them. It is thought that if
farriers confidered attentively the defiga of fhoeing horfes,
and would take pains to as leaden acquainted with
the anatomical ftru€ture of the foot, they would then be
convinced, that this method of treating the hoofs, and
this form of fhoe, is preferable to that which is fo gene-
rally pra@tifed. But it has been alleged, that in this
form of fhoe, horfes do not go fo well as in that commonly
ufed. This objeGtion will eafily be fet afide, by attending
to the following particulars. There are but few farriers that
can er will endeavour to make this fort of {hoe as it ought
to be. The iron, in forming it, does not fo eafily turn into
the circular fhape neceflary, as in the common fhoe ; and per-
— this is the principal reafon why they obje@ to it, efpe-
ially where they work much by the piece. And as many
horfes that are commonly fhod with concave fhoes have their
feles confiderably higher than the cruit, if the thoe is not
properly formed, or if it is made too flat, 1 muft unavoid-
ably reft upon the fole, and occafion lamenefs. Further,
that the prattice of paring the fole and frog is alfo fo
revalent, and thought fo abfolutely neceffary, that it
indifcriminatel pradtited, even to excels, on all kinds of
feet; and while this method continues to be followed, it
cannet be expeéted that horfes can go upon hard ground,
on this open fhoe, with that freedom they would do if their
foles and frogs were allowed to remain in their full natural
ftrength. Experience teaches us, that in very thin-foled
fhoes, we feel an acute pain from every tharp-pointed ftone
we happen to tread upon. Horfes are fenfible of the fame
thing in their feet, when their foles, &c. are pared too thin.
Hence they who are prejudiced againft this method, without
ever reflecting upon the thin {tate of the fole, &c. are apt
to condemn it, and draw their conclufions more from out-
ward ap’ than from any reafoning or kno of
the ftructure of the parts. —— eenacer ~
4 t

SHOEING.

the ftruGiure of a horfe’s foot in a natural ftate, it will be
obvious, that paring away the fole, frog, &c. muft be hurt-
ful, and in reality is deftroying that fub{tance provided by
nature for the defence of the internal parts of the foot : from
fuch practice it mutt be more liable to accidents from hard
bodies, fuch as fharp itones, nails, glafs, &c. From this
confideration we fhall likewile find,. that a narrow piece of
iron, adapted to the fhape and fize of the foot, is the only
thing neceflary to proteét the cruft from breaking or wear-
ing away; the fole, &c. requiring no defence if never pared.
But there is one obfervation farther neceflary to be made ;
which is, that the fhoe fhould be made of good iron, well
worked, or what {miths call hammer-hardened, that is, beaten
all over lightly with a hammer whenalmoft cold. It is well
known, that heating of iron till it is red foftens it greatly ;
and when the fhoes thus foftened are put upon horfes’ feet,
they wear away like lead. But when the fhoes are well
hammered, the iron becomes more compact, firm, and hard ;
fo that a well-hammered fhoe, though made confiderably
lighter, yet will laft as long as one that is made heavier ; the
advantage of which is obvious, as the horfe will move his
feet with more activity, and be in lefs danger of cutting his
legs. The common concave fhoes are very faulty in this
re{pe@ ; for, in fitting or fhaping them to the foot, they
require to be frequently heated, in order to make them bend
to the unequal furface which the hoof requires from the
conttant ufe of thefe fhoes; they thereby become foft, and
to attempt to harden them by beating or hammering when
they are {haped to the foot would undo the whole. But flat
fhoes, by making them when heated a little narrower than
the foot, will, by means of hammering, become wider, and
acquire a degree of elafticity and firmnefs which it is necef-
fary they fhould have, but impoffible to be given them by
any other means whatever ; fo that any farrier from practice
will foon be able to judge, from the quality of the iron, how
much a hoe, in fitting it to the circumference of the hoof,
will ftretch by hammering when it is almoft cold: this ope-
ration in fitting flat fhoes will be the lefs difficult, efpecially
when it is confidered, that as there are no inequalities on the
furface of the hoof (or, at leaft, ought not to be) which
require to be bended thereto, fhoes of this kind only require
to be made {mooth and flat; hence they will prefs equally
upon the circumference or cruft of the hoof, which is the
natural tread of a horfe. Anda preference has lately been
given by Mr. Moorcroft to this kind of fhoe, which he calls
the «* feated fhoe,’? and which he has formed in a die, in the
fame manner as money is ftruck in coining. The upper fur-
face of this fhoe confifts of two parts ; amouter part, which
is a perfect plane near the rim, correfponding with the
breadth of the cruft, and called the /eat; and an inner part,
floping from the feat, and diftinguifhed by the name of the
bevel. The feat is obvioufly intended to fupport the cruft
in its whole extent, the bevel to lie off the fole; and this
part being more or lefs broad, according to the kind of work
propofed to be done, will give the requifite ftrength to the
fhoe. As the whole of the cruft bears on the feat, it is lefs
liable to be broken than when enly a fmall part of it refts
on the fhoe. In confequence, likewife, of the cruft refting on
the flat feat, the weight of the body has a tendency to {pread
the foot wider in every direétion, rather than to contra€ it, as
has been obferved to happen with the common fhoe, and when
afterwards fhod with the feated one, it has become wider with-
out the horfe having been taken from his ufual work ; and
again, it is obferved, that a foot being of a full fize and proper
form when firft fhod with the feated fhoe, has retained the
fame fize and form without the flighteft alteration, as long
as the feated fhoe was ufed. By the flope or bevel in the

3

fice, a cavity is formed between it and the fole, fufficient ¢#
admit a picker, and to prevent preffure on this part, withous
the fole itfelf being hollowed, and confequently weakened,
For if it be one of the funétions of the horny fole to defend
the fenfible fole, of which, from its fituation and nature, no
one can doubt, it muit be evident that the more perfe& it is
left, the ftronger it muft neceflarily be, and of courfe the more
competent to perform its office. And though he cannot be
fanguine enough to fuppofe that this fhoe will prevent
lamenefs in every cafe, there is neverthelefs fufficient proof
from experience to aflert, that it will diminih its frequency.
Some itrong objections have however been made to this forna
of fhoe by Mr. Coleman. If it fhould be found, where the
fhoe is applied, that the fole very frequently receives pref-
fure, then we fhall demonttrate that the practice is incom-
patible with the principle. If it be good praétice for the
{ole to receive preflure, then the principle mutt be erroneous
that attempts to make the fhoe reft totally onthe cruft ; and
if the principle be well founded for the cruft only to fupport
the fhoe, then, if the fole be in contaé& with the fhoe, the
practice muft be imperfe&. Except a model is taken to
every horfe’s foot, it is impoffible for the refting-place of the
fhoe-precifely to fit the cruft; for the cruft not only varies
exceedingly in different horfes, but in the fame hoof at differ-
ent parts. The flat furface, therefore, that is only broad
enough for the toe, is frequently too broad for the quarters
and heels. And in all the fhoes he has ever feen of this de-
{cription, the flat part of the fhoe is made of the fame breadth
at the quarters as at the toe. It is farther to be obferved,
that this furface very generally exceeds the cruft at every
part.
ceeds the breadth of cruft, exa@tly fo much of a flat furface
is oppofed to an equal quantity of fole. The principle of
this fhoe is therefore defeated by the practice ; for, inftead of
the feat refting on the cruit, it projects over the edge of the
fole. It is therefore a fat, that while great pains have
been taken to make a flat feat on the fhoe, in order to fup-
port the cruft only, and the web concave, in order to remove
preffure from every part of the fole, that the feat has never-
thelefs very rarely fitted the cruft; and confequently the
foles of all flat feet, at their conneétion with the cruft, muft
receive more or lefs of preflure from the feat of the fhoe.
Where the fole is concave, this fhoe will only reft on the
cruft; but a fhoe that is flat on its whole internal furface
would anfwer the fame purpofe ; for the concave part of
the fole oppofite to the concavity of the web of the fhoe
would receive no preffure, even from a fhoe wholly flat.
He therefore recommends a fhoe which has been found free
from thefe and other obje€tions, and which indeed bids fair
to fuperfede the ufe of every other kind. But before this
is noticed, it may be neceffary to mention curforily the fhoes

propofed by Mr. St. Bel, and Mr. Taplin; but in faét the —

changes they have introduced are rather novelties than im-
provements. Mr. St. Bel has indeed committed a great
error, that of promoting the arched form of the horfe’s
foot, and thus raifing the frog out of the way of preffure,
a practice highly injurious to the animal.

It is indeed obferved, in refpeé&t to Mr. St. Bel’s mode of
fhoeing, by Mr. Coleman, that he employed a fhoe with a
flat upper furface; but, from not attending to the very
important operation of removing the fole under the heels of

the fhoe, to every kind of hoof, it frequently failed of fuc- |

cefs. But that the beft form of the external furface of the
fhoe is a regular concavity, that is, the common fhoe rever fed.
This fhoe leaves the hoof of the fame figure when fhod,
as before its application. And it is evident, that a con-
cavity has more points of conta&t with pavement and other

convex

In the fame proportion as the feat of the fhoe ex- :

ee

convex bodies than a flat or convex furface, and that the
horfe is confequently more fecure on his legs. A thoe that
js flat externally, may preferve the hoof equally well in
health; but this form is not fo well calculated to prevent
the horfe from flipping as a concavity,

And in explaining the principles and praétice of thocing,
it is fuppofed there are two circumftances neceffary to be
attended to, we. to cut the hoof and apply the thoe.
Before the hoof is protected by iron, fome parts require to
be removed, and others preferved. ‘This is even of more

than the form of the fhoe. But many have at-
tended chiefly to the thoe, and not to its application or to
the hoof; and this error hes produced more mifchief and
More enemics to the Veterinary College, than all the preju-
dices and calumnies of grooms and farriers. The firft thing
to be attended to, is to take away a portion of the fole be-
tween the whole length of the bars and crutt with a draw-

@ knife ; for the heels of the fole cannot receive preflure

corns. To avoid this the fole fhould be made con-

as not hes a ap the thoe. Aton

ice of fhoeing more important t

i Emad of the Rds between So tars and
this is done, the horfe will always be free
whatever may be the form of the fhoe. Be-
fhould be made to reft on the

the crult ; whereas, if the bars are

the thoe is fi ed by the cruit only, and not b
broad bafis of crutt united. E

F223
Hate
gist:
giel

ii

bars

i,
He
E

without reaching the fenfible fole ; whereas,
fole in the firft inftance, we can determine on

can then defcend, without the motion being ob-

fhoe ; and any foreign bodies that may have
cavity are always forced out when the fole de-
without producing any mifchief. When the thoe is

every part, to admit a horfe-picker
between the bars and cruit. If the fole is
ly concave, a fhoe with a flat furface applied to the

not touch any part of the fole ; and if the fole
in the

not leave ample {pace for a picker be-
thoe, then it is requifite to make either the
fhoe concave. When the fole appears in flakes,
in fubltance, it will be better to make the whole
a drawing-knife ; and this operation

before the toe is fhortened or the
lowered. we have made the fole hollow, then a
with a flat furface will reft only on the cruft : but if the
ps at, or convex, and thin towards the toe and middle

employ a and
yadmit a picker. In this cafe, however, the fole at-the

even in convex feet, will generally allow
i drawing-knife, and then the quarters and
fhoe may be flat. It therefore follows, that

applied ; but where parts of the
fhoeing, become flat, a thoe with a

SHOEING.

concave furface is required. Ass the hoof is always growing
and as the thoe preferves it from fri¢tion, the toe of the cru
requires to be cut once in about twenty-cight days. The
more horn we can remove from this part, the fooner it will
be proper to apply a thoe thin at the heels, without mifchief
to the mufeles aa tendons, and the horfe will be lefs lable
to trip.

Aas itis flated that the bars and frog flould never be re-
moved, What is ragged and detached had better be cut off
with a knife by the groom than left to the farner, who will
perhaps remove fome of the found parts. Where the frog
18 not large and projecting, the heels may be lowered by a rafp,
or the butteris, for in every cafe we are to endeavour to bri,
the frog incontaét with the ground. The frog mutt have mi
fure, or be difeafed. Neverthelefs, when the frog has been dif-
ufed for a confiderable period, and become foft, t muft be ac-
cuftomed to preflure by degrees. If the quarters are high,

and much exceed the convexity of the frog, we fhould gra-
dually lower the heels, and endeavour to bring the frog and
heels of the fhoe on the fame parallel line. here work is

required of the horfe, while the frog is foft and difeafed, it
may be gradually ufed to preffure, by lowering the hoof
about the tenth of an inch every time of floeing, until the
frog be hard, and equally prominent with the heels ; or if
the horfe is not wanted, great advantage would be derived
from his ftanding without thoes on a hard pavement. But
the feet of horfes are fo varioufly deformed by bad manage-
ment, it will be requifite in fhoeing to attend to each particu.
lar kind ef hoof. If any form of thoe be indifcriminately
applied for all kinds of feet, it mult frequently fail of fuc-
3: but by proper attention to the different hoofs, we can
y improve the whole foot, fo as to employ the thoes
recommended at the Veterinary College. And, after the
hoof has been properly prepared, then it is requifite to ap-
ply a fhoe, and to vary its length, breadth, and thicknefs at
the heel, furfaces. &c. according to the hoof. If the heels
of the fore-feet are two inches and a half, or more, in
depth, the frog found and prominent, and the ground dry,
then only the toe of the hoof requires to be fhortened, and
afterwards proteéted by a fhort fhoe made of the ufual
thicknefs at the toe, but gradually thinner towards the heel.
For a common fized fj mer it, may be about three-
eighths of an inch thick at the toe, and one-eighth at the
heel. The intention is, to bring the frog completely into
conta& with the und, to expand the prevent
corns, thrufhes, and canker. If applied in May or June,
when the ground is dry, it may be continued all the fummer ;
and in warm climates, where this is the cafe, no other
roteétion for the hoof is requifite. And he adds, that fo
ng as the wear of the hoof is not greater than the fupply
afforded by nature from the coronet, fo long may the ed
fhoes be worn; but in wet weather this is not the cafe: he
has known fome light horfes to wear them the whole year ;
but fuch inftances are not common. Neverthelefs, the fhort
fhoe can be employed on moit horfes with advantage in fum-
mer, when the heels are from two and a half to three inches
in depth, and the frog equally prominent; but, unlefs the
hoof ies been properly preferved, the heels and are
generally too low athe thore fhoe, The toe of the e
requires to be fhortened as much as poflible; butif the fro
touches the greund, no part of the heels fhould be cut ; mt
by purfuing this practice, the heels will frequently grow fufli-
ciently high to receive the thort fhoe, After {peaking of the
application of the fhort fhoe to running horfes, it is tated, that
during the wet months, we proteét the whole cruft by a
prey, He and if the heels of the hoof are low, we em
the fame fhoe in fummer. In winter, when the heels are too
oe H 2 high,

SHOEING.

high, it is better to lower them moderately with a rafp, than
to wear them down with a fhort fhoe, as the wet may caufe
more horn to be deftroyed than is neceflary to be removed ;
but it cannot be too often repeated, that the fole between the
bars and cruft fhould be taken out before the heels are cut.
If the heels are firft removed, then poflibly the horn left
will be infufficient to afford a proper degree of concavity be-
tween the bars and cruit. Where very high-heeled thoes
have been worn, the frog would be liable to injury, as well
as the mufcles and tendons that bend the leg, from the fud-
den application of a fhoe made thin at the heels. Indeed,
whether the fhoe or hoof be the caufe that elevates the frog,
the attention is required to bring it gradually into contaét with
the ground. We therefore thin the heel of the fhoe by de-
grees, that the frog may become accuftomed to hard prefiure.
The thicknefs of the laft fhoe at the heel will always furnifh
a proper criterion for that to be next applied. If only a
{mall portion of the hoof can be taken from the toe, the heel
of the new fhoe fhould be about one-tenth of an inch thinner
than the fhoe removed ; and the growth of the crutt will ge-
nerally be equal to this diminution of iron. By reducing the
heels of the fhoe in the fame proportion as the hoof grows,
a thin-hecled fhoe may, in afew months, be employed ; and
yet the horn being preferved at the heels, and cut at the toe,
every fire of fhoeing, the heels (fhoe and hoof together)
will be as high, and frequently higher, than when the former
thick-heeled fhoes were employed. The cruit that defcends
at the heels we allow to remain ; but fubtraét an equal quan-
tity of iron from the heels of the fhoe, and as much horn as,
poffible from the toe of the hoof. ‘This fyftem fhould be
continued till the heels cf the fhoe are about one-third the
thicknefs of the toe. In proportion as the cruft from the
coronet to the toe increafes, and the heels decreafe in depth,
the back finews and mufcles will be put on the ttretch.
And the converfe of this muft be equally true, that as the
heels are high and the toe fhort, the mufcles and finews are
relieved. It therefore follows, that every atom of horn or
iron taken from the toe of the cruft, or fhoe, tends to relax
the parts behind, and that the removal of horn or iron from
the heels produces the oppofite effet. If thefe fimple facts
are kept in view, there can be no difficulty in afcertaining the
quantity of iron that may be removed with fafety from the
heels of any fhoe, without danger of mifchief to the
muicles and tendons.

But in the fhoeing of horfes that are liable to cut, the fol-
lowing ufeful direGtions have been given by Mr. Moorcroft.
It is contended, that in order to prevent a horfe from ftriking
the fost or fhoe againit the oppofite leg, by which it is often
bruifed or wounded, is an important point ; inafmuch as this
accident occurs very frequently, and it not only blemithes
and disfigures the leg, but alfo endangers the fafety of the
rider. The parts ilruck in the hind-leg, are the infide of
the fetlock-joint, and the coronet ; in the fore-leg, the infide
of the fetlock-joint, and immediately under the knee;
which latter is called the /peedy cut, from its happening only
when a horfe goes faft. Young horfes, when firit backed,
generally cut their fore-legs, although naturally they may
be good goers. This arifes from their placing the foot on
the gronnd too much under the middle of the breatt, in
order the better to fupport the burthen to which they are un-
accuftomed; but by degrees they acquire the method of ba-
lancing the weight, with the foot in the fame direétion it
would naturally have were they without it. It may, there-
fore, he thinks, be laid down as a general rule with fuch
horfes, that, till they regain their natural method of going,
the edge of the inner quarter of the fhoe fhould follow
exadily the outline of the cruft, but fhould not be fet

within the cruft, nor fhould the cruft itfelf be reduced in
thieknefs ; as both thefe pra€tices tend to weaken the inner
quarter, and to deform the hoof. And here it mutt be ob-
ferved, that the outer edge of the fhoe fhould, in all cafes of
found feet, follow exaétly the onter edge of the cruft, ex-
cept juft at the heel, where it fhould projeé a little beyond
the line of the hoof. Alfo, that horfes with narrow chefts,
having their legs placed near together, are apt to cut when
they begin to tire ; and with thele the practice juft mentioned
fhould’ always be employed. THorfes that turn their toes
much outwards are, of all others, moft fubjeét to cut. But
in reply to the aflertions of fome, that this accident alfo hap-
pens to fuch horfes as turn the toes much inwards, he denies
having met with a fingle inftance of the kind. In horfes of
the firft defcription, it has been long obferved, that the inner
quarters of the hoof were lower than the outer, and that
the fetlock-joints were nearer each other than in horfes whofe
feet pointed ftraight forwards. Thefe two fa¢ts probably
led to a conclufion, that if the inner quarters were raifed to
a level with the outer, and fo much the more as they were
made proportionably higher, that the fetlock-joints would
be thrown farther apart, fo as to admit of the foot pafling
by the fupporting leg without {triking the joint. Accordingly,
for the two laft centuries, at leaft, it has been ufual to make
the inner quarter of the fhoe higher than the outer ; and not
only has this been the general praétice, but it has been re-
gularly recommended by almoft every writer from that time
to the prefent. And notwithftanding this method has very
frequently failed of fuccefs, yet repeated difappointment ap-
pears never to have led to the circumitance of queftioning
the truth of the principle.
upon it has been fo trong, probably from the fimplicity
of the reafoning on which it was founded, that in the cafes
where it moft particularly difappointed expectation, its failure
was generally attributed to the prattice not being carried
fufficiently far; and accordingly the fhoe has been {till more
raifed on the ner quarter, and the edges of the cruft and
fhoe have been filed away. When thefe expedients likewife
failed, the latt refource has been, a circular piece of leather
placed round the joint to receive the blow of the foot.

It is noticed, that about four years ago, a fhoe, withthe
outer quarter thick and the inner one thin, was applied in a
cafe which had baffled many attempts on the old plan. On
the firft trial the horfe ceafed to cut, nor has he ever done it
fince ; which can only be attributed to his having conttantly
worn the fame kind of fhoe. And other bad cafes, which
have occurred occafionally fiance that period, have been
treated in the fame way, and with the fame fuccefs, although
for a long time he was at a lofs how to explain them. If
the aétion of cutting principally depends on the faulty pofi-
tion of the fetlock-joints, and of the feet with refpeé to
each other, and it feems generally agreed that fuch is the
fa&t, it fhould feem that a means which, by raifing the outer
quarters, muit throw the fetlock-joints ftill nearer to each
other, would neceflarily increafe the defe& in quelticn ; but
as the reverfe of this actually takes place, it might induce a

fufpicion that there exifts fome other caufe of cutting which |
For horfes which cut their |

has been hitherto overlooked.
hind-legs, the fhoe, at the outer heel, fhould be from half

an inch to an inch in thicknefs, according to the kind of |

The web of

horfe, and to the degree in which he may cut.

the fhoe fhould gradually become thinner till it reaches the |

toe, which fhould be of the ordinary thicknefs, and from

which it fhould flope off, and end like a tip in the middle of —

the inner quarter. For horfes which cut only in a flight de-

gree, a fhoe of the fame thicknefs throughout, but reaching —

on the inner quarter only as far as the middle of the foot,
will

Nay, indeed, the reliance placed -

SHOEING.

will in moft inflances be found parc egg | Tt)

t of effect, would be equally pro or the fore.feet,
SS it not that in fuch horles as are ued for the faddle, the
J

go unfafe; therefore, itis expe-
dient to let the inner quarter of the fhoe be thin, and reach
tothe heel; but the outer edge fhould be bevelled off, fo a»
inwards. The fame kind of thoe is equally well
to prevent the fpeedy cut; obferving to bevel off
more Arongly the part which itrikes, and not to put in any
And here it may be proper to remark,

in found feet, the heel of the thoe thould reach as far ou
the heel of the hoof as to admit of the angle formed by the
crult, and the bar reiling fully upon it ; but it fhould not be
dct the heel of the hoof. But

to a horfe fhod
wing trials were

carried quite as faras the er
i to afcertain what would hap
with different kinds of thoes, the f

Experiment 1. A horfe with a narrow cheft, who had
never cut, and having thoes on his fore-feet, was
trotted at about the rate of eight miles an hour, in a fteaight
; to retain flightly the im-
the thoes, but not to admit the feet to fink into

was regularly a diftance of nine
inches and a half between the outer edge of the near fore-
fhoe and of the off fore-fhoe.

ick in their inner quarter, and like a tip,
i way on the outer quarter, were then
ufed ; and it appeared that the diftance between the outer

of the prints of the thoes, taken as before, was re-
Buln rece ecg ches ad half,

; 3- afterwards placed on the oppofite
feet, fo that the thick heel was on the outer quarter; and
the refult, under circumftances exaétly the fame as in the
experiments, was, that the diftance between the

outer edges of the prints of the thoes was re y increafed
to eleven inches. phen for thefe refults, it is necef-
fary to attend clofely to the different effects produced by
the weight of the fore part of the body a¢ting upon the two
on the inner or outer quarters, during
of reft and aétion, And firlt, with re-
on the inner quarter: whilft a horfe fo
the fetlock-joints are certainly thrown
than when any kind of thoe is ufed.

i concluded, that the limb which fupported the
body would have its

a
4

that the impreffions made on the
ground by ikon att an inch nearer together, than thofe
foods be cent Seas, and two inches nearer together than
thofe by thoes raifed on the outer quarter. And this
thus explained : when the horfe is at reft, the weight
equally by the two fore-feet ; but the inftant

the ground, the weight is fuddenly tranf-
other ; and = eg outer quarter being lower
te one, the potas Nope aey. $s
over to the outfide. To prevent this, the
is fuddenly brought clofe to the fetlock of the
in order to relieve it by catching the
the itfelf is placed on the ground too
the middle of the breaft. The fame circum-
in their turn: and the horfe,
in conitant danger of falling to one fide or to the
is conftrained to saber ne near together to pre-

ferve his balance ; and in doing this, firikes the foot againft
the oppofite fetlock. Ard it frequently happens, that the
more the toes are turned outwards, the searer the fetlock-
joints are brought together, and the more the horfe is dif-
pofed to cut. However, this is true only to a certain ex-
tent; for if this faulty pofition of the lower part of the leg
be carried artificially beyond a given point, mftead of pro-
ducing an increafed of cutting, in molt inftances it
remedies the defeét altogether. The reafon of this is juft
the reverfe of what takes place when the inner quarter is
raifed ; that is to fay, when the weight of the fore part of
the body refts only upon one leg, it bears too much upon
the inner quarter, from its being lower than the outer

uarter ; and thus the horfe has a tendency to fall over to
the infide of the fupporting leg. To Bicxern this, the
moving foot is thrown farther from the fupporting leg, in
order to maintain the balance: and thus the foot miffes the
fetlock-joint.

In ae where the roads are covered with ice, it becomes
neceflary to have the heels of horfes’ thoes turned up, and
frequently tharpened, in order to prevent them from flip-
ping and falling ; but this cannot be done without the fre-
quent moving of the thoes, which breaks and deftroys the
cruft of the hoof where the nailsenter. ‘To prevent this, it
has been recommended to thofe who are willing to be at the
expence, to have {teel points {crewed into the heels or quar-
ters of each fhoe, which might be taken out and put in oc-
cafionally. And the saathe of doing this properly, as laid
down by Mr. Clark, is firit to have the thoes fitted to the
fhape of the hoof, then to make a {mall round hole in the
extremity of each heel, or in the quarters, about three-
eighths of an inch diameter, or more, in roportion to the
breadth and fize of the fhoe: in each of thefe holes a {crew
isto be made. The fteel points are likewife to have a {crew
on them, exactly fitted to that in the thoes. Care mutt be
taken that the {crew on the points is no longer, when they
are {crewed into the hoe, than the thickne af the latter.
The tteel points are to be made fharp: they may either be
made fquare, triangular, or chiffel-pointed, as may be moft
agreeable. ‘The height of the point above the fhoe fhould
not exceed a quarter of an inch, for a faddle-horfe ; they
may be made higher for a draught-horfe. The key or
handle, that is neceflary to fcrew them in and out occa-
fionally, is made in the fhape of the capital letter T, and of
a fufficient fize and ftrength. At the bottom of the handle
a focket or cavity mult be made, properly adapted to the
fhape of the fteel point, and fo deep as to receive the whole
head of the point that is above the fhoe. In order to pre-
vent the {crew from breaking at the neck, it will be necef-
fary to make it of a gradual taper. The fame is likewife to
be obferved of the female {crew that receives it ; that is, the
hole mutt be wider on the upper part of the fhoe than the
under part. The fharp points may be tempered or har-
dened, in order to prevent them from growing too foon
blunt ; but when they become blunt, they may be tharpened
as at firtt. Thefe points fhould be unicrewed, when the
horfe is put into the ftable ; as the {tones will do them more
injury in a few minutes than a day’s riding on ice. A
draught-horfe fhould have one on the point of each fhoe, as
that gives him a firmer footing in drawing on ice; but for
a faddle-horfe, when points are put there, they are apt to
make him trip and ftumble. Aud when the thoes are pro-
vided with thefe points, a horfe will travel on ice with the
greateft fecurity and fteadinefs, much more fo than on caufe-
way or turnpike roads, as the weight of the borfe prefles
them into ice at ¢ ftep. And in addition to the
common fhoe for horfes that have found feet, there are alfo

others

S, BO

others of various f{hapes, determined by the neceflity of the
cafe, as by the different derangements and difeafes to which
the horfe’s foot is liable. See Suor.

SuHozinG of the Afs and Mule. With refpeé& to what
concerns the fhoeing of other animals, Mr. Clark thinks
that the mule, being an animal uncommon in this country,
the afs of no great value, and the ox not generally employed
in labour, it is needlefs to fay much on the fubje&. The
fhoe for the fore-feet of the mule 1s very fimilar to that which
the farriers call the dar-/hoe. It is very wide and large,
efpecially at the toe, where it fometimes projets four inches
and upwards beyond the hoof. This excefs is given it with
a view to enlarge the bafis of the foot, which is in general
exceedingly narrow in this animal. ‘The fhoe for the hind-
feet is open at the heels, like the horfe’s fhoe; but it is
lengthened at the toe, like the preceding one. And it is

.added, that the foot of the afs, having the fame fhape as
that of the mule, requires the fame kind of fhoe, with this
only difference, that the fhoe of the fore-foot is not clofed
at the heels, and that its edges do not project fo much be-
yond the hoof. The fame form of fhoe is ufed for the hind-
feet of this animal.

SHoEinG of Oxen, the bufinefs of fixing fhoes upon ani-
mals of this kind, and which is conftantly neceflary wherever
they do any fort of field or road labour ; but it is a praétice
which is yet far from being performed in a perfect manner.
Mr. Clark remarks, that in many parts of France, where
the ox is ufed for draught, it is fometimes neceflary to em-
ploy eight fhoes, one under each nail; or four, one under
each external nail; and fometimes only two, one under the
external nail of each fore-feot. In this country two pieces,
or fhoes, to each foot are generally, however, made ufe of ;
being moftly fixed on, efpecially in the northern diftricts,
with three or four large-headed nails to each fhoe. They
are fitted on in a fimilar manner to thofe of the horfe. But
from the fhoes of thefe animals being, from the {mallnefs of
the pieces, fo liable to break, it has been fuggefted to have
them fhod with whole fhoes, in the manner of the horfe;
but how far this is a praétice that will anfwer, muft depend
upon future trials. It is probable, that in this way the foot
will be too much confined to fucceed in any very perfect
manner. Where oxen are left without fhoeing, they are
continually Jiable to become lame, and to be incapable of
gomg on with their work. As there is much trouble in
the fhoeing thefe animals, from its being neceflary to caft
them each time, it has been found requifite to have recourfe
to contrivances for fhoeing them ftanding. See Ox-sHOEING
Machine.

SHOEMAKERS’ Cures, in Agriculture, the refute
cuttings pared off in making fhoes, which, when collected
in fufficient quantity, are found ufeful as a manure. See
MANURE.

SHOENECH,, in Geography, a Moravian fettlement in
Pennfylvania, near Nazareth, begun in 1757.

SHOESHARMO, atown of Little Bucharia; 60 miles
S.W. of Acfu.

SHOGLE. See Cuoue.

SHOKET, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Da-
mafcus, onthe Orontes; 22 miles S. of Antakia.

SHOLAVENDEN, a town of Hindooftan, in Ma-
dura; 14 miles W.N.W. of Madura.

SHOLAVERAM, a town of Hindoottan, in the Ma-
rawar; 14 miles S. of Tripatore.

SHOLINGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
20 miles S. of Bomrauzepollam.

SHOOCAMPETTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
betore; 5 miles S.S.W, of Caroor.

SHO
SHOODS, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied

to hulls.

SHOOLARUMBOO, in Geography, a town of Hin«
doottan, in the province of Dindigul; 17 miles N.N.W. of
Dindigul.

SHOOLERAMCOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in
the province of Dindigul; 7 miles N. of Dindigul.

SHOOMTSHA, one of the Kurile iflands, the neareft
to Kamtfchatka. The channel between the Lopatka and
this ifland is 15 verits broad. The length of the ifland
from N.E. to S.W. is 50, and the breadth 30 vertts.
The land is low, with moderate ridges of hills. The eaftern
coafts, about the middle of the ifland, form tteep fhores and _
rocky fhelves, and are for fome way into the fea ftudded
with rocks. Here is one, and itis faid that a vein of filver
has been formerly worked. In the centre of the ifland is a
lake, five verits in circuit, which flows by a ftreamlet into
the fea. In this are caught fine falmon, and feveral other
kinds of fifh. There are no ftandard trees upon the ifland,
but merely bufhes of alder, willow, and an efpalier kind of
pine, or Siberian cedar, on which grow little cedar-nuts.
The inhabitants are not genuine Kuriles, but of Kamtfha-
dale defcent ; of thefe 46 perfons pay tribute. N. lat. 51°
25! to 52°. E. long. 156° 14’.

SHOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 15 miles
S.E. of Koofhaub.

SHOOT, in Agriculture, the young branch ef any fort
of plant, which is afforded in one feafon. It alfo fignifies
a young animal of the cattle kind, in fome diftricts.

Suoot, in the Sea Language. They fay the ballatt
fhoots, when it runs over from one fide to another.

SHOOTE, among neat cattle, an affe€tion of the bowel
kind, with which calves are often attacked a few days after
calving. The ufual fymptoms are, firft, a colic or pain
that is more or lefs violent, and is frequently very fevere
and dangerous, efpecially when it is contagious. ‘This
colic is terminated, and the calf relieved, by a difcharge
taking place from the bowels ; though this fometimes proves
fatal before the fhoote appears. Secondly, a loathing and
refufing of food, even previous to the difecharge ; which de-
creafes and increafes according to the duration and violence
of the diforder. Where the difeafe prevails, the beft medi-
cine which can be adminiftered is that of eggs and flour
properly blended with oil, melted butter, oe anifeed, lin-
feed, or fimilar mucilaginous vegetable matters; and milk
fimply mulled with eggs may be often given with much
advantage.

SHOOTER’s Hitt, in Geography, a hill in the county
of Kent, between London and Dartford.

SHOOTING. See Gunnery and Progectite.

SHoorine of Bombs. See Boms.

SHooTING with Air. See Winp-cuUN.

Suootine, Malicious, in Law. See Maui.

SuHootinG of Salts. It 1s to be obferved, that the figures
arifing from the fhooting of diflolved falts are not con{tantly
the fame, but vary according to different circumf{tances, fuch
as when they happen to fhoot more or lefs haltily, or in dif-
ferent proportions of liquor. See Sauv.

Suootine Point, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on
the fouth coaft of the county of Fife, and eaft fide of
Largo bay.

SHOOTS, Hor. See Hor.

Suoot, Water. See WATER.

SHOP-LIFTER, a perfon who, on pretence of buy-
ing goods or otherwife, takes an opportunity to fteal them;
and if the goods amount to the value of five fhillings,

though

SHO

though no perfon be in the thop, he is guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy, by 10 & 11 W. IIT. ¢. 22.

SHORAB, in Geey , a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of (tan; go miles W. of Meimend.

SHORAY, a town of Hindooltan, in the circar of

— Chanderee ; 22 miles N. of Kimlaffa,

SHORE, Jane, in Ai , the concubine of kin
Edward ['V., was the wife of Mr. Matthew Shore, a gold-
fmith in Lombard-itreet, London. Hittorians reprefent
heras extremely beautiful, chearful, and us. The
king, it is faid, was no lefs captivated with her temper than
her ; fhe never made ufe of her influence over him

prejudice of any one; her importunities were ronal

in favour of the unfortunate. After the death of Ed-
ward, the attached herfelf to the lord Haltings ; and when
Richard (11. cut off that nobleman as an obftacle to his
ambitious fchemes, Jane Shore was arrefted as an accom-

3

penance, and to the lofs of her pro-
but probably in a wretched
the reign of Henry VIII. when the was feen
More, poor and old, and without the fmalleit
her former beauty. Mr. Rowe, in his tragedy of
has ted the popular ftory, related in the
of her perifhing with hunger in a place where
tch now ftands. But Stow affures us, that this
its name long before her time.
Joun, a 8 on the trumpet.
Shore, the father of John, and Colley Cibber’s

He
by
| :

HE

5

wife, was { t-trumpet, in which office he was fuc-
ceeded, firft by his brother William Shore, and afterwards

z
4
F.

ee Aad pee oe non Cibber, noe es.
reell in fin on -
in the exercife of which t a home, her con-
the heart of Colley Cibber firft began. Purcell,
his connexion a the family, = his admiration of
on the trumpet, took every opportunit
power to epley tle at he Soetieiaiineit of ,
and other theatric compofitions ; and this accounts
frequent aetna ere of Moy martial and field =
w ubjeé&t of the poetry was pacific.
Shere lived till the Bore ed when he was fhkeetiied
pet, by that admirable performer the late
Snow, whofe exquifite tone and fine thake
remembered by many perfons living, who have
heard him at Vauxhall, and in Mr. Handel’s oratorios.
_ Snore, among Builders, &c. See Suoar.
Common Shore, a corruption of fewer. See

i , a fort of artificial drain or courfe

mort Ain de eared freeing and re-

ri
q

iH
|

z
F

iste
:

z
z

lieving them from the colleéted he want
__ of thores is nowmoft common in waite and unreclaimed lands ;
but it occafionally occurs in thofe of other kinds, in wet
feafons, to the wer and prejudice of the prevailing

‘eror the future productivenefs of the land, as the

oiteri ter can get off in no other way. There
y great extents of even appropriated lands, in fome
that are damaged and i

lodging ;

ed ; as well as for the preferving of
the whole always in a fuitably open ftate.
_ It ie extremely probable, that a large proportion of the

SHO

low flat lands of this country, which are now in a fome-
what dry condition, were, in their natural flate, liable to be
at times covered with water, ‘This appears to have been
the cafe, from the compaét glucy compofition of the foil,
and the flight covering of black vegetable earth which
ftill forms the {urface of them, where the work of tillage
has not been performed upon them. And, from many of
fuch low flat grafs lands now lying in a tolerably dry thate,
from large traéts of thofe of the arable kind, whofe foils
are now barely out of the reach of water, which, in wet
feafons, fill their drains and ditches to the brim, a: well as
from the lefs admiflible evidence of tradition in low-lying
diftrias,—it would feem, it is faid, to be equally probable,
that much induftry and exertion have at former periods
been employed, to free the lands of this fort in the country
from the ttate in which nature and time had them.

The feudal fyftem is {uppofed to have been particularly
favourable to undertakings of this ufeful kin and that
fince its decline, the courts of the manorial defeription,
which fucceeded and furvived it, have contributed to en-
force its beneficial regulations. But that as they have now
for the moft part loft their power, exiitence, and authority,
or where they are itill continued and retain them, what re-
lates to the bufinefs of public drains and water-courfes, in
their management, is too often neglected and overlooked.
Hence it is noticed by alate writer, that, “ relative to this
important department of rural economics and internal

icy, the country may be {aid to have been moving, and,
in a general view of it, itill continues to move, in a retro-
grade dire¢tion.”’

In a great number of fituations, vaft injury and incon-
venience are at prefent fuftained from the want of the thores,
drains, ditches, and other outlets for drawing off the water
being kept properly open and funk for its difcharge into
the adjoining rivers, brooks, or feas.

Some foflicient power and authority for the regulation of
all matters of this nature fhould certainly exiit in every
diftri& of the kingdom; which is not now the cafe, at
leaft to any full aid effe€tual extent, as many moft import-
ant benefits and advantages would neceffarily refult from it,
in the mana t and improvement of lands, as well as
in the increafe of the produce of it.

Tt has been fuggefted, that a great deal may be effected
in this way, by the having recourfe to the appointment of
juries for the conduéting of the bufinefs of /beres and
qwater-courfes, wherever there are the flighteft remains of the
exiftence of manorial courts. And that, even where there
is nothing of this fort to be met with, it would not fail to
have a good effeét, in many cafes, where the lands are con-
fiderable, to have fanding inque/ls, chofen from among the
neighbouring tenantry in an annual or other manner, for
the purpofe of directing the proper regulation of the
public /bores, drains, water-courfes, and other modes of
conveying away the fuperabundant water from the land.

Snore, Sra, is a general name for the fea-coait of any
country. A bold thore is a coait which is fteep and
abrupt, fo as to admit the clofett approach of thipping
without expofing them to the danger of being ftranded.

The fhores of the fea are divided, by count Marfigli,
into three portions, according to which, all his defcriptions,
in his account of the bafon of the fea, are given,
firft part of the fhore is that tract of land to which the
fea juft reaches in ttorms and high tides, but which it never
covers ; the fecond part of the thore is that which is covered
in high tides and itorms, but is dry at other times; and
the third is the defcent from this, which is always covered
with water.

The

SHO

The rf part is only a continuation of the continent,
and fuffers no alteration from the neighbourhood of the
fea, except that it is rendered fit for the growth of fome
plants, and wholly unfit for that of others, by the faline
{teams and impregnations ; and it 1s {carcely to be conceived
by any but thofe who have obferved it, how far inland
the effe€ts of the fea reach, fo as to make the earth proper
for plants, which will not grow without this influence,
there being feveral plants frequently found on high hills
and dry places, at three, four, and more miles from the fea,
which yet would not grow, unlefs in the neighbourhood of
it, nor will ever be found elfewhere.

The /econd part or portion of the fhores is much more
affected by the fea than the former, being frequently wafhed
and beaten by it. Its produétions are rendered {alt by the
water, and itis covered with fand, or with the fragments of
fhells in form of fand, and in fome places with a tartareous
matter depofited from the water, and the colour of this
whole extent of ground is ufually dufky and dull, efpecially
where there are rocks and ftones, and thefe are covered with
a flimy matter.

The third part of the fhores is more affected by the fea
than either of the others, and is covered with an uniform
cruft of the true nature of the bottom of the fea, except
that plants and animals have their refidence in it, and the
decayed parts of thefe alter it a little.

Suore of Muchul, in Geography, a cape of Scotland, on
the E. coaft of the county of Kincardine, fo called from
a village near the coaft; 3 miles N. of Stonehaven.

SHOREDITCH, Sr. Leonarp, a parifh in the hun-
dred of Offulfton, and county of Middlefex, England, is
fituated in the northern fuburbs of London, and forms
one of the twenty-three out-parifhes of Middlefex and
Surrey, which are mentioned in the bills of mortality.
This parifh is of great extent, and is divided into four
liberties, called the liberties of Churchend, Hoxton, Holy-
well, and Moorfields. The church, a modern edifice, was
opened for divine fervice in Augult, 1740, having been
erected in place of a very old church, which Ellis, author
of the * Hiltory and Antiquities of Shoreditch,”’ ftates
to have been of Saxon origin. he afcent to the church
is by a double flight of {teps leading under a portico, fup-
ported by four Doric columns. The body is plain in its
architecture, but is well lighted by fpacious windows. The
fteeple, which rifes to a very confiderable height, has rather
a handfome appearance. In the old church were a variety
of monuments and brafles in memory of perfons of .diftin-
guifhed rank ; among whom were the countefs of Welt-
morland (daughter to Edward, duke of Buckingham),
who died in 1553; Eleanor, countefs of Rutland, who
died in 15513 and two fons of the faid countefs of Rut-
land ; but none of thofe in the new church poflefs any in-
tereft. This parifh abounds with alms-houfes, eftablifhed
either by public city companies or by private individuals.
In Holywell was anciently a priory for nuns of the
PBenediGine order, which was founded early in the twelfth
century, and poflefled a revenue of 293/. per annum at the
time of the diffolution. According to the parliamentary
returns of 1811, this parifh contained 7658 houfes and
43,930 inhabitants. The Hiftory and Antiquities of the
Parifh of St. Leonard-Shoreditch, by Henry Ellis, quarto,
1797-

SHOREHAM, New, a borough and market-town in
the half hundred of Fifhergate, rape of Bramber, and
county of Suffex, England, is fituated upon the coaft of
the Englifh Channel, at the diftance of about 6 miles W.

SHO

from Brighthelmftone, and 55 miles S. by W. from London.
This town is indebted for its origin to the decay of Old
Shoreham, which is now a very trifling village, but ap-
pears to have been a place of confiderable importance in
ancient times. New Shoreham is a borough by prefcrip-
tion, and has fent members to parliament fince the year
1295, the 23d year of the reign of Edward]. In 1773 it
became confpicuous in the annals of ele¢tioneering, by the
developement of a remarkable {cene of corruption praétifed
in the election of members for the parliament then aflembled.
The returning officer having returned a candidate with only
37 votes, in prejudice to another who had 87, of which he had
rejected 76, without afligning any fatisfactory reafon for fo
doing, was called upon to account for his condu& at the bar
of the houfe of commons; whenhe defended himfelf, by itating
that thofe whom he had queried formed part of a fociety,
called the Chriftian club, the oftenfible objeét of which was
only a maflk to cover its real one, the fetting the borough
to fale to the hichett bidder. In confequence of thefe afler-
tions, the houfe refolved itfelf into a committee to inquire
into the truth; and being fully fatisfied on that head, after
a patient inveftigation, it was refolved to incapacitate the
members of the club from voting at eleétions in future.
An aét was accordingly paffed foon afterwards, by which
69 perfons were disfranchifed, and the right of voting was
declared to belong to every freeholder, above 21 years of
age, ‘‘ who fhall have, within the rape of Bramber, a free-
hold of the clear yearly value of forty fhillings ; and in fuch
perfons as by the ufage of the borough have, or fhall here-
after have, a right to vote at fuch elections.”” By this ex-

tenfion of the eleétive franchife, the number of voters has |

increafed from about 200 to 1200 perfons.

The church of New Shoreham is a curious and interefting
{pecimen of ancient Norman architeéture. At prefent only
the eaft end is fitted up and appropriated to divine fervice,
as the nave, or part weftward of the tower, has been entirely
deftroyed. It confifled of a nave, tranfept, tower, and
choir; and by its flyle of architecture, appears to have
been built near the end of the twelfth century. See a
beautiful engraving of it in Cooke’s ‘* Southern Coatt of
England.’

New Shoreham is governed by two conftables, .annually
elected, who are the returning officers. ‘The market-day 1s
Saturday, weekly ; and there is a fair on the 25th of July.
It was formerly a town of more relative note than at pre-
fent, and had a priory of Carmelite or White Friars,
founded by fir John Mowbray, knt.; as alfo an hofpital
dedicated to St. James. It is chiefly remarkable, however,
for being built upon the fpot where Ella, the Saxon, landed,
with fupplies from Germany in aid of his countrymen, Hen-
gift and Horfa. According to the parliamentary returns
of 1811, the parifh contains 168 houfes, and 770 inha-
bitants. Hiftory of the Boroughs of Great Britain, and
the Cinque Ports, 3 vols. 8vo. 1792. Beauties of Eng-’
land and Wales, vol. xiv. by F. Shoberl, 1813.

SHOREHAM, a townfhip of America, in the ftate of
Vermont, and county of Addifon, on the E. fide of lake
Champlain ; containing 2033 inhabitants.

SHOREHAVEN, a fea-port on the fouth coalt of
the ifland of Stromfoe, with a goed harbour, called Tros.
N. lat. 61° go’. E. long. 11° 7!.

SHORL, in Mineralogy. See ScHort.

SHORLING and Mortine, in our Old Writers, words
ufed to diftinguifh fells of fheep ; /horling being the fells
after the fleeces are fhorn off the fheep’s back ; and morling
the fells flead off after they die or are killed. In fome
parts of England they underftand by a /borling, a fheep

whole

f
{

SHO
whole fleece is thorn off; and by a moring, a theep that

dics.

SHORN Vetver. See Vexver.

SHORT, Tuomas, in Biegraphy, a phyfician of the early
ypart of the lait century, and the author of many works relating
to chemittry, » and medicine. Few particulars
are recorded of his life, which feems to have been {pent
more in the purfuit of fcience, than in the exercife of his

tic was a member of the Royal Society. The

ing are the principal works which he left. “ Me-

on the Natural Hit ory of Medicinal Waters,’ 1725.

jon on Tea,” 1730. “ Natural Hillory of

Waters of Yorkthire, Lincolnfhire, and Derby-
* A General Chronological Hiftory of t

“oe Meteors, &c. for the Space of

a792

ical, on Bills of Mortality,”” 1750. See Eloy, Dict.
the Works of Short.

tT, James, an eminent optician, was born at Edin-
in the year 1710. Ai the of ten he loft his
ts, and being left in a flate of indi "

i oe age by conftruéting for himfelf a number of
curious articles with common knives, or fuch other inftru-
ments as he could procure. At the age of twelve he was
removed from the hofpital to the High-fchool, where he
fhewed a confiderable tafte for claflical learning, and he
foon became at the head of his forms. He was intended
ut after attending a courfe of teciogicn
up all thoughts of a profeffion, which he
ited to his talents, and from this period he
whole time to ical and i
Rately il to the celebrated Maclaurin, who

beut of his genius, poorrnges him Co ro-

particular tt for which feemed beft
nature. Under the eye of his preceptor he
to conftrué& G: ian telefcopes; and, as
by ing to the of his
carry, them ee ee Flee
to ter > t ever
yg a oly senna ag

Mr. Short was invited to London by queen
inftruét William, duke of Cumberland, in the
if on his appointment to this office, he was
elected a member of the Royal Society, and patronized by
of Macclesfield and Morton. In the year 1739
accompanied the former to the Orkney iflands, where
in making a furvey of that part of Scot-

his return to don he eftablifhed himfelf as
i 3, he was commiflioned by lord
a refle&tor of twelve-feet focus,
received 600 guineas. He afterwards made
other telefeopes of the fame focal diltance, with
s and higher magnifiers: and in 1752 he com-
the king of Spain, for which, with the whole
This was the nobleft inflru-

i
;
’

>E
|

BFE
a

> is
D

FF

Bice
cE

NER
re
a

.
= =

it

in 1732,

41

k

adon, and in the year 1766 he paid his laft vilit to Scot-
d. He died in June 1768, after a very {hort illnefs,
when he was in the s8th year of his age. His eminence

artilt is univerfally admitted, and he is {poken of by
ou. XXXII.

SHO
thofe who knew him from his youth upwards, as 4 man o!
virtue and very amiable manners.

Suowr Accent, in Grammar. See Accent.

Suonr Crooks, in Agriculture, are a fort of crooke,
which are formed of bent pieces of wood of the oak ox
elm kind, aud fo contrived as to be fixed on the horfe’s
back, the ends or crooks turning up, fo as to fecure the
loads on them, They are in ufe in counties of Devon
and Corawall, in the latter of which they have both thor
and long crooks, as they term them, which are made ufe
of for carrying theaf-corn, hay, faggot, billet-wood, flate,
and flag-tlones. They are a relic of the old mode of

carrying loads in hilly diftriéts. Single-horfe carts would
Hass anfwer the purpole in a far better way. See
Caxr.

Snort Grafs, in Gardening, a term applied to the
pieces of which are kept in a continually mown,
{hort, clofe itate, as on lawns, and in pleafure-grounds, or
other fituations about country refidences. The fae apr of
mown or fhort about feats and houles of the above
fort in the modern improved modes of laying out pleafure-
grounds, are meftly much more confined in their limits than
was formerly the cafe ; as they are not only troublefome,
but very expenfive in keeping in that proper order and neat-
nefs pics is neceflary for the purpofe of ornamental
effeé&t, and the utility of walking upon them as occafion
may require; and becaufe a much better and more natural
effe&t is found capable of being produced without them ;
while at the fame time the lands can be rendered ufeful im
sy ay animals, and of courfe no lofs be fuftained.

here pieces of fhort grafs are, however, formed, and
to be kept in order, it will be neceflary to roll, mow, and
{weep up the grafly litter in a clean neat manner from
them once or oftener in the courfe of the week during the
{pring feafon, and frequently at other times. The refufe
litter, thus procured, may be employed for different garden
urpofes, where it cannot be converted to better ufes. See
so and Preasune-Ground.

It is moftly in too dirty a {tate to be applied as food
for any fort of cattle itock.

SHort-Gra/s Scythe, that fort of tool of this kind
which is employed in mowing fhort grafs. Sc for
this ufe fhould be rather fhort, and laid in the fhaft with
the edges low, in order that the grafs may be cut in a clofe
neat manner, without leaving any fcythe ridges or bulks, as
they are ufually termed. The fwaths or icythe cafts, in
performing this fort of mowing, are commonly made nar-
row, in the intention, that the grafs may be well and levelly
cut out of the bulks or parts under the {waths, aod by
fuch means have a more neat and even appearance. See
Sey THe.

Snort Smalls, in Agriculture, a fort of oat, which is fo

on account of its remarkable fhortnefs. It is much

wn in thecounty of Effex, and is a thick, full, weighty

rt, that fucceeds well on molt lands of the more dry
kind. See Oars.

Suorr Sails, in a Man of War, are the fame with fight-
ing Sil being the fore-fail, main-fail, and fore-to
w are all that are ufed in fight, lett the reft fhould be
fired and fpoiled: befides the trouble of managing them
when a fhip gives chafe to another.

If achafe thews a difpofition to fight, they fay the chafe
SJrips into ber tort fails, i. e. puts out her colours in the
poop, her flag at the main-top, and her ftreamers er pen-
dants at the yard’s arms; furls her {prit-{ail, peeks her
mizen, and flings her main-yard.

To foorten Sail, See Sai.

41 SHORT-

SHO

SHORTFORD, g. d. fore-clofe, an ancient cuftom in
the city of Exeter, when the lord of the fee cannot be an-
{wered rent due to him out of his tenement, and no diltrefs
can be levied for the fame. The lord is then to come to the
tenement, and there take a ftone, or fome other dead thing,
off the tenement, and bring it before the mayor and bailiff,
and thus he mutt do feven quarter-days fucceflively, and if on
the feventh quarter-day the lord is not fatisfied his rent and
arrears, then the tenement fhall be adjudged to the lord to
hold the fame a year and a day ; and forthwith proclamation
is to be made in the court, that if any man claims any title
to the faid tenement, he muft appear within the year and day
next following, and fatisfy the lord of the faid rent and
arrears: but if no appearance be made, and the rent not
paid, the lord comes again to the court, and prays that, ac-
cording to the cuftom, the faid tenement be adjudged to him
in his demefne as of fee, which is done accordingly, fo that
the lord hath frum thenceforth the faid tenement, with the
appurtenances, to him and his heirs.

SHORT-JOINTED, in the Manege. A horfe is faid
to be fhort-jointed, that has a fhort pattern ; when this joint,
or the paftern, is too fhort, the horfe is fubjeét to have his
fore-legs from the knee to the cornet all in a ttraight line.
Commonly fhort-jointed horfes do not manege fo well as the
long-jointed ; but out of the manege, the fhort-jointed are
the bet for labour or fatigue, efpecially thofe of the farm
breed.

SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS, Myopta, a defeG in the
conformation of the eye, wherein the cryftalline, &c. being
too convex, the rays reflected from different objects are re-
fra&ted too much, and made to converge too faft, fo as to
unite before they reach the retina, by which means vifion is
rendered dim and confufed. See Myops.

A learned author thinks it probable, that out of fo great
anumber of fhort-fighted perfons as are daily to be met with,
few are born fo, for it generally grows upon young people
at the age of twenty or twenty-five, and therefore might
poffibly be prevented by ufing their eyes, while young, to
all forts of conformations, that is, by often looking through
glafles of all forts of figures, and by reading, writing, or
working with fpectacles of feveral degrees of convexity ;
for whatever be the powers by which the eye conforms itfelf
to diftin& vifion, they may poffibly grow weak, or lofe their
extent one way or other, for want of variety of exercife.
It feems an opinion without foundation, to think that fuch
an exercife of the eyes can anywife injure them, provided
due care be taken to avoid looking at objets that are too
bright.

Short-fightednefs may come by accident ; of this we have
a remarkable inftance, mentioned by Dr. Briggsin his Oph-
thalmographia, of a perfon upwards of feventy years old,
who had uled fpe€tacles for ten years, and yet by catching
cold, he fuddenly became fo fhort-fighted, that he could not
diftinguifh objeéts three feet off, and after the cold and de-
fluxion were cured, he continued to read the fmallelt print
. without fpe€tacles for many years.

Dr. Smith mentions a young gentleman, who became
fhort-fighted immediately after coming out of a cold bath,
in which he did not totally immerfe himfelf, and has ever fince
ufed a concave glafs for many years.

It is commonly thought that fhort-fightednefs wears off in
old age, on account of the eye becoming flatter: but the
learned doftor queftions whether this be matter of fact, or
hypothefis only.

It is remarkable, that fhort-fighted perfons commonly
write a {mall hand, and love a {mall print, becaufe they can
See more of it ata view. That it is cultomary with them

It

SHO

not to look at the perfon they converfe with, becaufe they
cannot well fee the motion of his eyes and features, and are
therefore attentive to his words only. ‘That they fee more
diltinétly, and fomewhat farther off, by a ftrong light than
by a weak one ; becaufe a {trong light caufes a contraGtion
of the pupil, and confequently of the pencils, both here and
at the retina, which leffens their mixture, and confequently
the apparent confufion; and, therefore, to fee more diftin&tly,
they almoft clofe their eye-lids, for which reafon they were
anciently called myopes. Smith’s Optics, vol. ii, Rem. p. ro.
&e.

Dr. Jurin obferves, that perfons who are much and long
accuftomed to view objets at {mall diftances, as ftudents in
general, watch-makers, gravers, painters in miniature, &c.
fee better at {mall diftances, and not fo well at great diftances,
as the eft of mankind. The reafon is, that in the eye, as
well as in other parts, the mufcles, by conftant exercife, are
enabled to contract themfelves with more ftrength, and by
difufe are brought to lefs ftrength. Hence, in the perfons
before-mentioned, the greater mufcular ring of the uvea con-
tra€ts more eafily and {trongly, and the cornea more readily
obeys the contraction of the ring, whence they fee better at
{mall diflances. And the cornea, by being thus often and
long bent into a greater convexity, does by degrees lofe fome-
thing of its elafticity, fo as not to return to its natural elatti-
city, when the mufcular ring ceafes to act upon it. This is
one caufe of their not feeing fo well at great diftances : alfo
the ligamentum ciliare, being feldom employed to leffen the
convexity of the capfula, does by degrees become lefs capa-
ble of performing that office; and the capfula being feldom
drawn out, and put into tenfion, muft lofe fomething of its —
diftenfile quality, fo as lets eafily to comply with the aétion
of the ligament. And this is another caufe of their not feeing
fo well at great diftances. Jurin, Effay on dit. and indift.
Vilicn.

The ordinary remedy for fhort-fightednefs 1s a concave
lens, held before the eye, which making the rays diverge, or
at leaft diminifhing much of their convergency, makes
amends for the too great convexity of the cryftalline.

Dr. Hook fuggetts another remedy. Finding that many
fhort-fighted perfons are but little helped by concaves, he
recommends a convex glafs, placed between the object and
the eye, by means of which the objeét may be made to appear
at any diftance from the eye: and confequently, all objects
may be thereby made to appear at any diftance from the eye,
fo that the fhort-fighted eye fhall contemplate the picture of
the objeét in the fame manner asif the object itfelf were in
the place. It is true, the image will appear inverted, but
we have expedients to remedy this too; for, in reading,
there needs nothing but to hold the book upfide down,
To write, the beit way, in this cafe, will be, for the perfon
to learn to do it upfide down. For diftant objects, the
doétor afferts, from his own experience, that with a little
practice in contemplating inverted objects, one gets as good
an idea of them as if feen in their natural pofture.

SHOSTACK, in Commerce, a money of account in
Poland and Hungary. In Hungary, a fhoftack is 2 im-
perial grofchen, or 6 creutzers; an imperial grofche, or
kayfer grofche, is 2 polturats, 3 creutzers, or 12 pfenings ;
a polturat is 6 pfenings, and a creutzer 4 pfenings. A
Hungarian gro{che is worth 2 creutzers in Upper Hungary,
but 22 creutzers in Lower Hungary: thus, 5 grofchen in
Upper Hungary, or 6 grofchen in Lower Hungary,
= 1 kayfer grofche. A rixdollar of account 1s worth 14
imperial florin, 16 Hungarian florin, 15 fhoftacks, 30 im-
perial grofchen, or 90 creutzers. An imperial florin is 10

fhoftacks, or 20 imperial grofchen, and a Hungarian florin,
82 fhof-

A

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8} thoftacks, or 174 imperial grofchen ; thus, 7 florins of
the empire = 8 Hungarian florins.

Io the florin of 30 grofchen or grofz, each of
which is divided into 18 pfenings, contains 24 thoitacks,
90 fhillings, or 270 pfenings. A thoitack is worth 12

» or 36ichillings; a grofche, 2 {chillings; a {chil-
» 3 pfenings. Kelly's Cambiit,

SHOT, Iwp1an, in Botany. See Canna.

Snor, in the Military Art, includes all forts of ball or
bullets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the piftol. See
Buizer, Caxnon, &c.

for cannon are of iron; thofe for mufkets and
piftols are of lead.

Snot, for ordnance, efpecially in the fea fervice, are of
feveral forts: as,

se te Round, balls or globes of iron fitted to the bore

Snot, Bar, is formed of two a or nano
bullets, joined together by an iron bar, ferving to cut down
mats, fails, &e. veal

Suor, Cafe, Chain, Grape, Langrel, Random, Star,
and Troidle’ tee the relpediive artifice, Gee allo Fire.
ARMs.

Suor, for

fowling, is otherwife called hail, by reafon of
and fize.

method of cafting it is as follows: the lead bein
ttirred, and fkimmed, a quantity of powdered yel-
eee en et »
to twelve or fifteen pounds of lead; the whole being wall
OTe ote ee eee t
‘oj w be orpiment enough in, a little o
Si GatD ened Wee's GR 'oE vues, wh if the drore
and without tails, there is orpiment enough,
of heat is as it fhould be.

iron
water; the hollow part is to be very thin ; on this plate are laid
ing coals, to keep the melted lead in fufion. The lead
ee er with a ladle, on the middle of the plate,
its way through the holes in the bottom of

into the water in round drops.
care is taken to keep the lead on the plate in its pro-
of heat: if too cold, it will ftop the holes; and

the drops will crack and fly.

The thot, thus made, are dried over a gentle fire, always
ftirring that they do not melt ; this done, the ter
aac {maller by paffing them through fieves

» Fi ; See Fresn Shot.

Snort, Hip. See Hip Shot.

neti oy ged Warer Shot.

HOT of a on Ship-board, is the {plicing of two
cables together, that a ex ther ride fafe in Sen a Peck and
in gr for a thi ride eafier by one thot of a cable,
than fhort out a-head.

PM pact oh 3 fort of flagon Genre bi
; ordinary, which, in fome counties, icular! 4
Be eo te caoes for tic bok to Corre his goctts in, afer
they have drank above a hhilling.

SHOTS, in Agriculture, a term provincially applied to
young ttore-fwine.

SHOTT, in Geography, a townof Egypt; 3 miles S. of

Snort, a large valley or plain of Africa, in the country

SHO

of Sahara, on the borders of Algiers; go miles in leagth,
and about 12 in breadth. ‘The word commonly figuihes the
fea-thore, or the banks of fome lake or mver; but the mean-
ing here is fomewhat varied, and denotes the borders or area
rather of {uch a plain, as, according to the feafons of the year,
is either covered with falt, or overflowed with water. Se-
veral parts of the Short confif of a light oozy foil, which,
after Paden rains, or the overflowings of the adjacent rivers,
are changed into fo many quickfands, aud occalion no {mall
danger to the unwary traveller. La Croix was badly in
formed, in affirming that all the rivers of this kingdom run
from fouth to north ; fince, befides feveral others w a quite
contrary direétion, we have no fewer than five, and thole
very confiderable flreams, which empty themfelves from the
northward into the Shott ; 100 miles 5.W. of Conftantina.

SHOTTEN Heraines. See Henna,

Suorren, Blood. See BLoop-Shotten.

SHOTTSWOOD, in Geography, a town of America,
in New Jerfey, on the Rariton; 4 miles E. of Brunfwick.

SHOVEL, Sir Croupestey, in Biography, a Britihh
naval hero, was born about the year 1650, of parents in
rather humble circumitances, but who having expeétations
from a relation, whofe name was Cloudefley, they
fit to beftow that name on their fon, as a probable means of
recommending him to his relation’s notice. Neverthelefs,
being perhaps difappointed in their plans, they put out
their fon sclestiag te a fhoe-maker, ~ which bunts he
applied fome years, when he betook himfelf to the fea,
under the proteétion of fir John Narborough, with whom
he went out in no higher capacity than that of cabin-
boy. He foon, by taleats and y application to the art
of navigation, became an able feaman, and obtained prefer-
ment, through the favour of fir Chriftopher Myngs. After
the clofe of what is called, in hiftory, the fecond Dutch
war, Shovel went out with fir John Narborough, who was
deputed to check the piratical ftate of Tripoli. In the
{pring of 1674 fir John arrived before Tripoli, and bei
ordered to try negociation rather than force, he fent Sho
with a meilage to the Dey, defiring reparation for the evils
already fuftained, and fecurity for the time to come. The
Dey, defpifing his youth, treated him with range oes and
fent him back with an equivocal anfwer. Mr. Shovel, on
his return, proved that he had not been an unobfervant
{peétator on fhore; and the admiral, pleafed with his re-
marks, fent him again with a fecond meflage. He was
treated with more rudenefs than before, which he bore with
apparent fubmiffion, and made ufe of it as an excufe for re-
maining longer on fhore; and on his return he affured the
sdaural, that it was very practicable to burn all the fhips in
the harbour. Sir John immediately appointed him to the
enterprife, which he executed with the moft complete fuc-
cefs. The account which the admiral fent home refpeGting
the conduét of this young man was fo honourable to his
talents and courage, that in the courfe of a few months he
had the command of the Sapphire, a fifth-rate, given him ;
and foon after was raifed ftill higher in the fervice, by being ©
appointed to the James Galley, a fourth-rate, in which he
continued to the death of king Charles II., by whom he
had been raifed.

By James Il. captain Shovel was preferred to the com-
mand of the Dover, a fourth-rate, in which he was at the
time of the revolution. This event was fortunate for captain
Shovel, as well as very agreeable to his way of thinking;
for being in almoit every engagement during the reiga of
William, he became confpicuous, and made his rife in the
fervice as quick as it was poflible to be effleGed. He was
in the battle of Bantry-Bay, . the Edgar, a third-rate, and

r 4i2 gare

SHO

gave fuch fignal marks of courage and condu&, that when
the king came to Portfmouth, he was pleafed, on the re-
commendation of admiral Herbert, who for that a&tion was
raifed to the dignity of earl of Torrington, to confer on
him the honour of knighthood ; a title which was, by being
more feleét, of much more worth than it now is. In June,
1690, fir Cloudefley Shovel was employed in convyoying the
king and his army into Ireland. William, for his good
condué on this occafion, appointed him rear-admiral of the
blue, and delivered to him the commiffion with his own
hands.

In the following year fir Cloudefley Shovel attended the
king to Holland; and in 1692 he was declared admiral of
the red, and again accompanied his majefty to Holland;
and on his return he joined admiral Ruflel with the grand
fleet, and had a large fhare in the danger and glory of the
celebrated battle of La Hogue. When it was thought re-
quifite that the fleet fhould be put under command of joint
admirals in the fucceeding year, he was one; and, fays the
judicious and cautious Campbell, “if there had been noe-
thing more than this joint commiffion, we might well enough
account from thence for the misfortunes which happened in
our affairs at fea, during the year 1693.’’ The joint ad-
mirals were of different parties; but as they were all good
feamen, and probably meant well to their country, though
they did not agree in the manner of ferving it, it 1s moft
likely “that, upon mature confideration of the pofture
things were then in, the order they had received from court,
and the condition of the fleet, which was not either half
manned or half victualled, the admirals might agree that a
cautious execution of the inftructions which they had re-
ceived was a method as fafe for the nation, and more {fo for
themfelves, than any other they could take.’’ On this oc-
cafion fir Cloudefley Shovel was at firft an obje& of popular
odium ; but when the affair came to be ftri¢tly inveltigated
in parliament, he gave fo clear and fatisfatory an account
of the matter, that it fatisfied the people that the com-
manders were not to blame; and that if there was treachery,
it muft have originated in perfons in office at home. The
charaGter of fir Cloudefley remaining unimpeached, we find
him again at fea, in 1694, under lord Berkley, in the ex-
pedition to Camaret-bay, in which he diftinguifhed himfelf
by his dextrous embarkation of the land forces, when they
failed on that unfortunate expedition; as alfo when, on
their return to England, it was deemed neceflary to fend
the fleet again upon the coaft of France, to bombard
Dieppe, and other places. From this time till 1702, Shovel
was not engaged in any expedition of moment, when he was
fent to Vigo, after the capture of that place by fir George
Rooke, to bring home the {poils of the Spamifh and French
fleet. He arrived on the 16th of O@ober, and carried off
whatever could poffibly be brought home, burnt the reft,
and arrived fafely in the Downs on the 7th of November ;
which was confidered as fo remarkable a fervice by the
court, that, though he was no favourite at court, it was
refolved to employ him in affairs of the greatelt confequence ;
and he fo effectually crufhed the power of the French at fea,
that they did not afterwards dare to meet the Britifh fleet ;
and on account of the great fhare which he had in the vic-
tory obtained the 13th of Auguft 1704, he was appointed
rear-admiral of the fleet of England in the January fol-
lowing. He performed-snany other a€ts, which were ufeful
to his country, and important to the caufe in which it was
thenengaged. His laft a€t was the defence of the coafts of
Italy, of which, when he had taken due care, he left a fuf-
ficient force at Gibraltar for the purpofe, and fet fail with
zen fhips of the line, five frigates, four fire-thips, a floop,

SHO.
and a yacht, for England. On the 22d of O&ober, 1707,

he came to foundings, and in the following morning he had
ninety fathom water. About noon he lay by, but at fix
in the evening he made fail again, and ftood away under
courfes, believing that he faw the light on St. Agnes, one
of the iflands of Scilly. Soon after this feveral of his fhips
made fignal of diftrefs, as he himfelf did. It was with dif-
ficulty that fir George Byng, in the Royal Anne, faved
himfelf, having one of the rocks under her main chains.
Several others run the moft imminent rifks; but the ad-
miral’s fhip, and fome more, perifhed with all aboard.
How this accident happened has never been properly ac-
counted for. The body of fir Cloudefley Shovel was
thrown afhore the next day upon the ifland of Scilly,
where, falling into the hands of fome fifhermen, he was
{tripped and buried. Among their plunder was an emerald
ring of great value, which, being fhewn about, made a
great noife all over the ifland, and led to the difcovery of
the body. ‘This was now taken up, and conveyed to Lon-
don, when it was interred with great folemnity in Weit-
min{fter Abbey. To his memory an expenfive monument
of white marble was erected, by direction of her majetty,
on which was the following infcription: .«« Sir Cioudefley
Shovel, knt., rear-admiral of Great Britain, admiral and
commander-in-chief of the fleet; the juft rewards of long
and faithful fervices, he was defervedly beloved of his
country, and elteemed, though dreaded, by the enemy,
who had often experienced his conduct and courage. Being
fhipwrecked on the coafts of Scilly, in his voyage from
Toulon, on the 22d of Otober 1707, at night, inthe 57th
year of his age. His fate was lamented by all, but efpe-
cially the fea-faring part of the nation, to whom he was a
very worthy example. His body was flung on the fhore,
and buried with others in the fands; but being foon after
taken up, was placed under this monument, which his royal
miftrefs has caufed to be erected, to commemorate fteady
loyalty and extraordinary virtues.’”’ See Stockdale’s edition
of Campbell’s Lives of the Admirals.

SHOVEL, in Agriculture, a well-known implement, con-
fifting of a long handle, and a broad blade, with raifed
edges.

Shain Cafting, a tool fomewhat of the wooden fhovel
kind, which is fometimes employed in cleaning or drefling
corn. It is very ufeful in this mode, where the wind is
trufted to for managing the bufinefs.

SuoveL, Draining, a fort of tool of this nature, fre-
quently employed for the purpofe of clearing out the loofe
crumbly earthy materials from the bottom parts of drains.
It is formed with a crooked handle, the edges of the fhovel
part being turned up on the fides, in order to prevent the
materials which are {craped up from falling off. In confe-
quence of the crookednefs of the handle, the workman ié
prevented from ftooping fo much as would otherwife be the
cafe, in performing the work. There are different con-
ftructions of this implement made ufe of, in managing bufi-
nels of this fort.

A {coop is likewife fometimes made ufe of, both with
and without this implement, for the purpofe of {cooping up
and clearing out all the crumbs, loofe mould, and other
fimilar materials, from the bottom parts of drains, before
they are laid or filled with fpray, brufh-wood, or any other
fubftance, in order that they may be quite clear and free of
any fort of obftruétion. he tool is formed in a crooked
{coop-like manner at the head, and of different fhapes, fizes,
and breadths, according to the nature of the drains and
openings in which it is to be employed; being, in working,
drawn or pufhed along the bottoms of the cuts or tee

S

1

SHO

The handle has alfo occafionally a crooked form, in order
40 cafe the workman in ufing it.
Snover, Pariag, that fort of tool of this kind, which is
in fome places for paring off the {ward or turf
from the furface of ground, in order to burn it. The
which is ufed in Devonthire for this purpofe has a
heart-fhaped form in the thovel part, with a long
which makes it a very powerful implement. The
of the mouth is from nine to ten inches in width,
the handle is inferted, which is made with a confider-
curve upwards ; at ppt about twelve inches in
terminating with a b angular point, which,
its fides, are conitantly kept aon and keen for
3 on hand, or land fide of the tool, a tharp
or coulter, rifes up in au oblique manner, to
aud divide the flice part from the whole ground, ‘This,
; » in confequence of the toughnels of the furface,
' impediments prefented by the roots of furze, flags,
‘ and other mye matters, is not unfrequently dif-
of

ing rent or torn off by the work-
the whole ground, while it is cut up
When a foot or fifteen
handle of the thovel, it is
furface by a fudden
i by a turn of it is
laid over the mould fide upwards. Where
fate and circumftances of the {urface will it, as by not
ing too much loaded and encumbered with the above forts
plant * feparating the cut from the uncut

all cafes be much le by having the flice,
next to be pared, cut or nicked in fuch lengths as
moft convenient to the workmen. And in fome

formed with a cutting wing,
be done at once, without any fort of delay in the bufi-
_ This fort of fhovel may be feen at fig. 9, in the plate

SHOVELING in Agriculture, aterm ufed in Ireland
figuify the throwing the mould of furrows, in cleaning

them out, over the ri
SHOULDER, Houmenus, in Anatomy. See Exrue-

Suoutpsn, Frafure of, in Surgery.
SHOULDER, he ag

See FRAcTURE.

in Anatomy
form, covering the hind part of the ribs,
and omeplata. See Extne-

See Extremities.

in the A, is the joint of a horfe’s fore-

joins the of the fhoulder-blade with the
fore-thi

of aB is that of it which begins at
lower part of the arch of the banquet, over-agaiuit the
dle of the fonceau or chaperon, and forms another
ander the banquet. The fhoulder of a brauch catts a

SHO

greater or lefler circumference, according as 1 is defigoed to
fortify or weaken the branch. Sce Baipie, Banque, and
Brancues.

Suoucpen-Pegged Horfes, called in French chewillées, ave
fuch as have their fhoulders gourdy, itil, and almoft with.
out motion, A horfe charged with fhoulders, is one that hae
thick, flefhy, and heavy thoulders.

Suourpgn of a Baflion, in Fortification, ww where the
face and the flank meet.

SuouLnen-Drain, in Agricultare, a fort of under drain,
conftruéted with a thoulder on each fide of the cut or open-
ing, fo that fome fort of itrong fubftance may be laid over
~ and form an opening or drain for the water below. See

RAIN.

Suounpen, in Block-Making, a projection made upon the
furface of blocks, pins, &c. by reducing one part to a lefs
f{ubitance.

Snoutper-Block, a large fingle block, left nearly fquare
at the lower end, or arfe of the block, and cut floping in
the direétion of the fheave. Shoulder-blocks are ufed on the
lower yard-arms, to lead in the topfail-theets, and on the
topfail-yards, to lead in the top-gallant-theets ; and by means
of the fhoulder they are kept upright, and prevent the
fheets jambing between the block and the yard: they are
alfo ufed at the lower outer end of the boomkins, to lead in

the the fore-tacks.

Suoutpen-ef- Mutton Sail, a triangular {ail, fimilar to the
lateen fail; but attached to a matt initead of a yard.

SHOULDERING, in Fortification. See Epavute-
MENT.

SHOULDERING.-PIECE, in Building. See Brac-

Ker.

SHOULDER-KNOTS. See Epauterres.

SHOULDER-PITCHT, in Farriery, is a difeafe in 2
horfe, when the pitch or point of the fhoulder is difplaced,
which makes the ‘cls halt downright.

SHOULDER-SPLAIT, or SHovuLpER-roRN, 1s a
hurt which befalls a horfe by fome dangerous flip, by which
the fhoulder is parted from the breatt.

SHOULDER-WRENCH,, isa ftrain in the thoulder.

SHOUT, Cramor, in Antiquity, was cagpentig ufed
on ecclefiattical, civil, and military occafions, as a fign of
approbation, and fometimes of indignation. Thus as Ci-
cero, in an aflembly of the people, was expofing the arro-

of L. Antony, who had had the impudence to caule

imfelf to be infcribed the patron of the Romans, the

people, on hearing this, raifed a fhout to thew their indig-
nation.

In the ancient military difcipline fhouts were ufed, 1, upon
occafion of the general’s making a {peech, or harangue,
to the army from his tribunal: this they did in token of
their approving what had been propofed. 2. Before an
engagement, in order to encourage and {pirit their own men,
ani the enemy with dread. .

This is a practice of great antiquity, befides which, it
wants not the authority of reafon to papoo it, for as
mankind are endowed with two fenfes, hearing and {ce-
ing, by which fear is raifed in the mind, it may be pro-
per to make ufe of the car as well as the eye for that

ay me

houts were alfo raifed in the ancient theatre, when
what was ated pleafed the fpectators. Sce AccLama-
TION.

It was ufual for thofe prefent at the burning of the dead
to raife a great fhout, and call the dead perfon by his name
before they fet fire to the pile. See Buriat.

SHOWEL,

SHR

SHOWEL, in Agriculture, aterm applied to a blind for
a cow’s eyes.

SHOWER, a cloud refolved into rain, and difcharged
on a certain tra&t of ground.

In Natural Hiflory we meet with abundance of inftances of
extraordinary and preternatural fhowers ; as /howers of blood,
mentioned by Gaflendus and others; a brim/lone shower,
mentioned by Wormius; /howers of frogs, mentioned by
Pliny, and even by Dr. Plott; a /hower of millet-/eed in Si-
lefia, mentioned in the Ephem. German.; /howers of afhes,
frequent in the Archipelago ; a /hower of wheat, in Wilt-
fhire; a /hower of whitings, mentioned in Philofoph.
Tranfa&t. The natural reafons of many of which may be
feen under Rain.

SHOWOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in
Myfore, where, in 1790, a bloody battle was fought be-
tween the Britifh and Tippoo, and in which the latter was
defeated ; 15 miles S. of Sattimungulam.

SHOWS, or Suaws, in Agriculture, a term applied to
the haulm or tops of potatoes. See Poraror and So-
LANUM.

SHRAHEEN, in Geography, a mountain of Ireland, in
the county of Mayo; 11 miles N.N.E. of Caftlebar.

SHRAVEY Lanp, in Agriculture, aterm ufed in fome
diftriéts, as thofe of Suflex, and fome others, to fignify
that of a ftrong, gravelly, or flinty nature. The fears or
holes on the fides of fteep hills, where the turf or {ward has
flipped away, and laid bare the foil on the South Down,
are fometimes called fhraves. See Sort.

SHREW, or SuHrew-Mou/e, in Zoology, the common
name of the creature called by authors Mus araneus, and
Sorex araneus of Linneus. It is an animal of a mixed
brown and reddifh tawny colour: the belly is white; its
tail is about one inch and a half long, and covered with fhort
hairs ; its body is about two inches and a half in length; and
its eyes black and very fmall; they are indeed little larger
than thofe of the mole, and do not exceed the fize of
the head of the fmalleft pin ; it is no wonder, there-
fore, that the creature is almoft blind; the nofe long and
flender ; the ears fhort and rounded: the teeth are very
f{mall, and differ in their fhape and fituation from thofe of
all other creatures in the world; and feem as if nature had
in one creature made a fort of mixture of the teeth of the
moufe and the fnake kind.

It has two long fore-teeth, as all the moufe kind have:
but thefe are not fingle, as in mice, but have two or three
other {mall and fharp teeth growing out of them: thefe, to
an accurate obferver, might either be wholly unfeen, or
taken for diftinét teeth ; and the anterior long teeth are not
feparated from the reft by any gap or {pace, asin the moufe
kind, but make one continued feries with the others. The
upper jaw in this creature is longer than the under, and the
teeth are fharp and ferrated, fome with two, fome with
three points, and thefe fo fmall, that they might eafily
not be feen, but that the tips of them are reddifh. Their
whole number is twenty-eight.

It is very common in many parts of the world, and is
met with in almoit all our dry grounds, in old walls and
holes in the earth; near hay-ricks, dung-hills, and neceflary
houfes; it lives on corn, infeéts, and any filth; the cats
will kill it, but never attempt to eat it. It brings four or
five young ata time. _ 4

Its whole body has a fetid and offenfive fmell. The an-
cients erroneoufly believed it was injurious to the cattle.
There feems to be an annual mortality of thefe animals in

the month of Auguit, numbers being then found dead in the
paths.

SHR

It is diftmguifhed at firft fight from the common moufe, in
that it is {maller ; its nofe longer, and like a hog’s ; it has
five toes on the hinder as well as the fore-feet ; its eyes are
extremely {mall ; its ears very fhort ; its claws are long and
whitifh, and its feet fhort. Ray and Pennant.

Surew-Mou/fe, Water, Sorex fodiens of Pallas, is much
larger than the common fhrew ; its length from nofe to tail
being 33 inches; its tail two inches; the upper part of
the body and the head are of a black colour; the throat,
breaft, and belly, of a light afh-colour ; and beneath the tail
there is a triangular dufky {pot.

This animal inhabits Europe and Siberia; was loft in
England till the year 1768, when it was difcovered in the
Lincolnfhire fens ; it burrows in the banks near the water,
and is faid to {wim under water ; it is called in fome places
the blind moufé, on account of the {mallnefs of its eyes ; and
it chirrups like a grafshopper. Pennant.

SHREWSBURY, in Geography, an ancient borough
and market-town in the hundred of the fame name, and
county of Salop, or Shropfhire, England, is fituated on
two hills, peninfulated by the river Severn, at the diftance
of 112 miles from Bath, and 162 miles from London. It is
the chief town, or capital, of the county, and, from its hif-
torical importance, is particularly deferving of an extended
defeription, even in a work like the prefent. According to
the parliamentary returns of 1811, it is divided into the fix
parifhes of St. Giles and Holy Crofs, St. Chad, St. Mary;
St. Julian, St. Alkmund, and Meole-Brace, which united,
contain 3229 houfes, and 16,606 inhabitants. It mult be
remarked, however, that fome of thefe parifhes extend a
fhort way into the country. The liberties of Shrew{bury ~
comprife fix other parifhes, four townfhips, and two cha-
pelries.

Origin and Hiftorical Events.—Although no doubt can be
entertained of the high antiquity of Shrewfbury, it being
frequently mentioned by our earlieft hiftorians, there is no
authentic record of its origin. Probable conjeéture, however,
has affigned that event to the fifth century, when the Britons
were forced by the Saxons to abandon all the country to the
eaftward of the river Severn. It is fuppofed that, after the
deftruGtion of the Roman Uriconium, the fortifications of
which enabled the pofleflors for a time to check the progrefs
of their enemies, that they eftablifhed themfelves on the icite
of Shrewfbury, on account of the natural fecurity afforded
by its lofty and peninfular pofition. At that period this
{pot was called the Pengwerne hill, whence the town re-
ceived the appellation of Pengwerne, to which Powis was
fubfequently added, when it had become the capital of
Powifland, and the feat of its princes, whofe palace occu-
pied the fame ground with the old church of St. Chad.
Here the Britons maintained themfelves for feveral centuries,
notwithftanding the repeated efforts of the Mercian Saxons
to difpoffefs them; but at length the arms of the warlike
Offa proved too powerful for further refiftance, and they
were compelled to retire to Mathrafael, among the moun-
tains of Montgomeryfhire, where they preferved their an-
cient dignity and independence, till finally fubdued by Ed-
ward I. of England. ; : ‘

The Saxons, having obtained poffeffion of this ancient
capital, changed its name from Pengwerne to Scrobbefbyrig,
or Scrobbefbyri, which words have nearly the fame fignifi-
cation, viz. “the head of the alder groves.”? Inftead of
levelling it with the ground, as was their cultom when they
feized upon any Britifh town, they feem to have proteéted it
with care, and probably even increafed its opulence and ex-
tent. Inthe reign of Alfred it was numbered among the
principal cities in his dominions: and in that of ae

er

SHREWSBURY.

} Elder it had the privilege of amint. In 1006, king Ethel-
red his Chriftmas here; but in about ten years there-
_ after, the inhabitants having declared yg that prince in
favour of his rival Canute the Dane, his fon, prince Edmund,
Edmund Ironfide, attacked and took the

ort flege.

on indy | ilefion of this city, (for fo it was
tyled bie thn) Uy his refidence ap ee! founded
th a caitle and an abbey. He did not, however, lon

them undifturbed, for in 1067, Owen Gwynnedd,
of Wales, affaulted it with fo formidable a force,
the ueror deemed it advifable to repel the invafion

fn prion. "He accordingly marched hither from York,
the

and overthrew the Welth with prodigious
flaughter. wae age

in be in the reign of
I, in ence of its then ffor, Robert, fon
Roger, having united his forces to thofe of the re-
3 and it re ey only faved from the
an affault by the fubmiffion of the earl, who was

to Normandy, and had all his immenfe eftates for-

feited to the
being elteemed the moft important town and
fortrefs on marches of Wales, continued, during {e-
veral centuries, to be one of the principal places of rendez-
vous for the Englifh armies, and hence was often vifited by
tsmonarchs. Numerous conflicts took place in its imme-
diate vi » and its inhabitants frequently fuffered the evils
cide During the wars between Stephen and
ud for the fucceffion to the crown, William
a powerful baron, then governor of Shrew{bury
the claims of the latter. Stephen, how-
obtained "peaks of it, and ungeneroufly put to
of the brave knights by whom it was defended.
lan fled to the continent, where he remained an exile
of Henry II., who reftored him to all his
pofleffions. In the reign of king John, the
affembled here to confider of the beft means of
ng the incurlions of the Welfh ; when the prince of
is came, and frankly offered terms of accommodation :
to the difgrace of the Englith lords, inftead of receiving
with refpeét, they threw him into prifon. Soon after-
ds, however, he was releafed, and a treaty with the
elfh was concluded, for the performance of which twenty-
ne children were delivered as hoftages, all of whom were
moft inhumanly "eH by king John, in confequence of
fome i nt of its terms by the prince of Wales.
maffacre did not long remain unpunihed ;

ut this
for in 1215, the Welth having difj ab the seas of the
ore Raid liegt or peared hrew which
fut nitted without an. How long the Wan held
cir conquett, = ae they loft it, is Sper f but in
1221 Shrewfbury had again pafled into t effion of the
E In the feventeenth aie of Hn LI. it was
p pipet sac taeet aS gllbapeater pa She inl
aGtious barons, joined their arms to thofe of pri
C The rebel Simon de Montfort, earl of Lei-
ter, likewife feized upon this town ; but it {oon reverted
» king: and in 1267, Henry aflembled a large army
defign of crufhing the Welth power, but the
ce of the pope prevented the execution of his
Edward I.,-who, a g his father’s life-time, had

oR
pret
i

; .

ert

been inveited with the government of Skrewfbury, made it,
in 1277, the principal feat of his court, and removed hither
the courts pt poo ver and king’s bench, that he might the
more eafily accomplith his favourite objett, the fubjugation
of Wales.

During the rebellion which the infatuated attachment of

Edward II. to the Spencer family gave rife to, the
was received at Shrewfbury with great military parade,
a tournament was held here, attended by the knights and fol-
diers of the marches. - Afterwards, when Edward was de-
prived of his liberty and throne by his queen, and her para-
mour, Roger Mortimer ; Edmund Fitz-Alan, earl of Arun-
del, who had been faithful to his allegiance, was feized by
the inhabitants, and put to death ; for which fervice Morti-
mer, in the name of the king, granted to the fles of
Shrewfbury, whom he calls “the good men of 7”? all
the goods and chattels found upon the earl. Richard II.
held a parliament here in the zoth year of his reign, on which
occafion he gave a fumptuous feait to the members in the
abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul. The next event of im-
portance which occurred at this town was the famous bat-
tle of Shrewfbury, in which Henry V., then prince of
Wales, firit diftinguifhed himfelf in the field, and the gallant
Hot{pur fell, after performing, in conjunétion with hus rival
Douglas, the mott brilliant aéts of prowefs.

Throughout the whole of that eventful period, marked by
the contentions of the rival houfes of York and Lancatter,
the inhabitants of Shrewfbury tteadily adhered to the interefts
of the former. The learned author of the “ Account of
the ancient and prefent State of Shrewfbury,” contends that
it was here, and not at Salifbury, as commonly fuppofed,
that Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham, was executed
by order of Richard IIT., who was chiefly indebted to him
for his ufurped crown. When Henry VII. landed in
Wales, he marched dire&tly towards Shrewfbury, where he
was received “ with raptures of joy’? by all except the
“ head bailey,”’ who for a time refufed him admittance.
Here he was firlt proclaimed king of England, and here he
colle&ted and organized the greater part of thofe forces with
which he achieved the Gena and decifive victory of Bof-
worth Field. In confequence of thefe circumftances, Shrewf-
bury was greatly favoured by that monarch, and was fre-
quently vifited by him during his reign.

From this period till the reign of Charles I. no event of
hiitorical importance happened here. When the parliament-
ary war broke out, however, the king came hither, and was
cordially welcomed by the inhabitants, though they had
been ftrongly prejudiced againit him by the commiflioners
for the parliament. The greater part of the army with
which he firft took the field was compofed of perfons refi-
dent in this town and the adjoining counties. After the kin
left Shrewfbury, it was garrifoned in his caufe ; but the
health of the governor having prevented him from enforcing
the difcipline of the foldiery with fufficient vigour, they be-
came negligent and debauched. The parliamentary officers,
colonels Mitton and Bowyer, being informed of the itate of
the garrifon, made feveral attempts to {urprize the town, and
at length fueceeded in their object, in February 1645. By
this event the parliament gained the important advantage of
cutting off the king’s communication with North Wales, and
a formidable affociation, which was on the point of being
formed between the loyal inhabitants of the counties of Salop,
Worcelter, Cheiter, and Flint, was deftroyed in the bud.

In Cromwell’ s life-time, and alfo immediately after his death,
two attempts were made to gain pofleflion of Shrewlbury
in favour of Charles II.; but both of them were fruftrated.
The laft circumftance which hiftory records worthy ee

occ

SHREWSBURY.

occurred in Auguit 1687, when James II. held his court
here. On this occafion, the “ fentiments of loyal attachment,
for which Shrew{bury has ever been con{picuous, burtt forth
with chivalrous enthufiafm.’’

General Appearance of the Town.—Shrew({bury, from its
lofty and peninfular fituation, prefents, at every approach,
a pleafing variety of views; “ and the noble {weep of the
river, which feems to embrace it, heightens at every turn
the charms of the fcene.”? Except on the north and welt
fides, where the ftreets approach clofe to its banks, a narrow
margin of meadow, or of garden ground, interpofes be-
tween the houfes and the river. The exterior circle of
the town is lined with an unbroken range of well-built
houfes, moft of which command beautiful views over
the adjacent country. On its weftern fide is a public
field, called the Quarry, which occupies about twenty acres
of ground, and is adorned with avenues of trees. At
one extremity of this field are the remains of a rural amphi-
theatre, where the Auguttine friars of the adjoining convent
were probably wont to exhibit thofe ancient facred dramas
called myfteries, or Whitfun plays; which were certainly
ated here in the reign of queen Elizabeth.

Such is the exterior afpeét of Shrewfbury ; but it is to
be regretted that its interior appearance is far from corre-
{ponding with the external afpe&t. The ftreets are ill ar-
ranged, and fome of them narrow and fteep, and but in-
differently paved. The houfes are extremely mixed in their
archite@ural charaGter, exhibiting a ftrange contraft of an-
cient and modern buildings. This circumitance isin part to
be attributed to the happy freedom which Shrew{bury has
enjoyed, from thofe general conflagrations which have occa-
fionally devattated other towns within the laft two centuries.

Civil Government and Corporation.—Shrewlbury 1s a cor-
poration, both by charter and_prefcription. The firft
charter was granted by Henry I.; but other princes have
fince altered and extended the privileges it conferred. By
the charter now in force, granted by king Charles I., the
corporation confilts of a mayor, recorder, fleward, town-
clerk, 24 aldermen, 48 afliftants, or common council.
men, two chamberlains, a {word-bearer, ferjeants at mace,
&e. Four general quarter-{eflions are held in the courfe of
the year, and the mayor and fome of the aldermen, who are
magiftrates, hald a court every Tuefday. The chartered
companies, befides the general corporations, are fixteen in
number, of which thofe of the drapers and mercers are the
mott confiderable.

Shrew{bury fent members to parliament from their earlieft
eltablifhment. They are chofen by the inhabiting burgefles,
who have been legally aflefled to the parifh rates: The
mayor is the returning officer. The markets are on Wed-
nefday and Saturday, weekly ; and there are eight annual
Tairs. :

Public Buildings and Infiitutions.—The public ftructures
of Shrewfbury are, the cattle, the town-hall, the churches,
the charitable inftitutions, the town and county gaol and
Bridewell, the market-houfe and crofs, the theatre, and the
bridges.

The Cafile ttands on a narrow neck of land, about five
hundred yards in breadth, which is formed by the windings
of the Severn. It was founded by Roger de Montgomery,
as before mentioned, and became the chief feat of his baro-
nial power. As all the tranfaGtions of intereft connected
with this edifice have been noticed under the head Hi/forical
Events, &c. it is unneceflary to repeat them. This ftruc-
ture has evidently undergone fo many alterations, and is fo
greatly dilapidated, that it is difficult to form any probable
idea of its ancient ftate. The buildings of it now remaining

confift of the keep, the walls of the inner court, and the
great arch of the interior gate-way. The keep, which is
converted into a handfome dwelling-houfe, confifts of two
round towers of equal fize, embattled and pierced, and con-
nected by a {quare building, about one hundred feet long,
and nearly of the fame height. ‘The inner court is now a
garden, “ on a cirenlar grafs-plat in which, the newly
eleéted knights of the fhire have been girt with their {words
by the fherifl, from perhaps the firlt foundation of our inva-
luable conftitution.’” The arch of the gateway is clearly
part of the original caftle. It is eighteen feet high, maflive,
and femi-circular, and appears to have fupported a tower,
from which hung the portcullis. On the oppofite fide of the
court isa {mall poftern, probably built in the time of Charles I.;
and on its fouth fide is a lofty mount, the fummit of which
is {urrounded by a ruinated wall, at one part of which rifes a
fmall watch-tower, now a beautiful fummer room, much

-reforted to on account of the fine views which it commands.

This caftle was defended by ramparts of ftone thrown acrofs
the peninfula, from the caftle to the river, on each fide.
One of them was formed by Robert de Belefme, and the
other by order of Oliver Cromwell. Ramparts and walls
with towers likewife defended the town on its northern and
eaftern fides, but few traces of thefe remain. The prin-
cipal gates were three in number, and called the Cattle or
North-gate, the Eaft or Abbey-gate, and the Welfh-gate,
the latter of which flood on the Welfh bridge.

The Town-hall is a modern ttruéture, finifhed in 1786. It
was defigned by Mr. Haycock, a native of the town, and
exhibits a handfome ftone front. Here are held all meetings
of the corporation, and grand juries, likewife the courts of .
jultice for the town and county. The grand jury room is
decorated with portraits of George I. and II., and of admi-
ral Benbow ; and another room 1s appropriated to the re-
ception of a valuable colleGtion of books.

The effablifhed churches ave St. Giles’s, St. Chad’s, St.
Mary’s, St. Alkmund, and St. Julian’s. St. Giles’s is a {mall
plain building, and appears, from fome remains of mafflive
{quare piers, and a femi-circular arch, to have been partly
built in the Norman era, and probably on a larger fcale than
itis at prefent. Mot of the other piers are round, and fupport
pointed arches. St. Chad’s church is of modern ereétion,
having been built between 1790 and 1792, in lieu of the old
collegiate church, which fell down in the firft mentioned
year, in confequence of its repair having been too long ne-
gleéted. Itis, ‘* upon the whole, a fplendid, and, in many
re{peéts, an elegantly ornamented ftru@ure.’? In_ this
church the mayor and corporation are accuttomed to fit on

feftival and other public days. Here are but few monuments,

and none of note; but in the church-yard is a chapel, in
which many of the tombs and infcriptions refcued from the
ruins of the old church are depofited : the principal of them,
however, were removed to the ref{peétive parifh-churches of
the families to which they belonged. St. Mary’s church was
likewife collegiate, and had the privileges of a royal chapel,
of which advantages it was deprived in the reign of king
Edward VI. It 1s a venerable pile, in the form of a crofs,
and comprifes a nave, fide-aifles, tranfept, choir, and chapels,
with a tower at the welt end. Its architecture embraces al-
moit every {tyle prevalent from the Norman conquett to the
reign of Henry VIII. The nave is divided from the fide-
aifles by femi-circular arches ; but thofe feparating it from
the choir are lofty and pointed. ‘The cieling here is of oak,
and rifes in an extremely flat arch, divided by its principal
beams into fquare panels, including circles richly adorned
with quatre-foils and foliage; the ribs gnd bofles being
carved into double rofes, with devices and knots at their in-

terfetion,

SHREWSBURY.

terfe&ion. ‘The chancel, choir, &c. difplay chiefly the
pained Ble. At the extremity of the former is a {pacious

» in the later pointed ttyle, which is nearly filled with
fhained glafs, canal from the ruins of old St. Chad's

The principal piece reprefents Jefle in a deep
The {pire sf ehis church rifes 217 feet above the

f

— fammit

are numerous, and fome of them curious: but we thall only
mm®ice one infeription, which is remarkable, from the cir-
7

of the tower, upon which it refts, he monuments

cumftance of its commemorating a perfon named Cadman,
who was killed in defcending from the fummit of the f{pire, by
@ rope anting from thence to the oppofite fide of the river
from that on which the church ftands. The parifh-church
of St. Alkmund’s, like the two — Peeters — ot
merly collegiate, but its college wes di as carly ast

reign of king Stephen. nm old church was lie down
about the 1793» and the prefent building raifed in its

a

ftead, which is a clumfy imitation of our ancient architec-
ture. St. Julian’s church, which clofes the lift, is a plain
fubftantial edi

, rebuilt in 1750, on account of the ruinous
condition of the former edifice.
In addition to the above eftablifhed churches, there are in

S feveral diflenting places of worfhip, viz. a
Roman Catholic chapel, a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe, alfo
ene for Methodifts, and another for Quakers.
‘The Charitable Jnflitutions belonging to Shrewfbury are,
_ afmall hofpital, formerly dedicated to St. Giles, another
called Mi ’s hofpital, feveral alms-houfes, an in-
firmary, a of i , and the free and charity-{chools.
‘The in is among the earlieft provincial inftitutions of
the kind in land, ae been opened in 1747. It is fup-
— b nore: iptions, and by ions.
is a plain but refpeétable building of brick, with
a ftone ico in front. ‘he houfe of induitry was origi-
nally a ing hofpital, conneéted with that in London,

and was only converted to its prefent fesin 1784. It
owe purpofes in
‘

is —— chofen from among the inhabitants
of , and maintains, on an average, about 275 poor,
includin: partly by’ rate levied on the fx pares,

ueft of Henry Edwards and Ri
Whitaker, and ser asec au ted by queen Eliza-

beth, at the inftance of Thomas Afhton. ‘The {chool-houfe
is a large and ftrudture, forming two fides of a {quare
of this fchool is vefted in the bifho
ion, who appoint two f -
matters, one of whom is fuperior to the other. Several of
them have been men of great talents and erudition, and have
d the fe ¢ avenge os a —-
wards diftinguifhed in fociety. Amon ter, were fir
Philip Sydney ; lord Brook, lord chief juitice ; lord chief
edge Dr. Bowers, bifhop of Chichefter ; Dr. John
i of Salifbury ; and the learned Dr. John
Taylor. The Dr. Butler is the prefent head matter.
The other public {chools in this town are Bowdler’s charity-
founded in 1724, by Mr. Thomas Bowdler, alder-
for the education and clothing of poor children of St.
Julian’s parith ; Allart’s charity-fchool, Pronded in 1798, un-
der a bequeft by Mr. Mikin:Allertsine of the chums ins of
the corporation ; and a fubf{cription charity-{chool, inftituted
mo inftructing poor of the town at large.
he Town and County Gaol and Bridewell, which now
one building, itands near the caftle, where the theriff
ng vlbeen sll ore in former times. Its fituation is at
once beautiful - falubrious, and gs - aaa boat
much of exterior ance, it is fpacious and
Vou XEXIL, oe .

sf

airy, and poflefles every convenience requifite for its different
purpofes, In front is a free-flone arched gateway, eon.
taining a buft of Howard, by Bacon.

The Market-houfe is one of the largeit and moft magnifi-
cent buildings of its kind in England. It is of the age of
queen Elizabeth, whofe arms, {culptured in high relief, de-
corate the portal, on each fide of which is an open arcade,
confifting of three large circular arches, fupported by co-
lumos. The north and fouth ends of the building are likewile
ornamented with large open arches, over one of which flands
a fletwe of Richard, duke of York, removed hither from
the Welth bridge in 1791. Adjoining this building is a
conduit, which {upplies a great part of the town with water.
The Market-crofs a ftrong ttru€ture of brick and ftone,
having a refervoir over it. The old crofs was deftroyed in
1705. The Theatre, according to Phillips, the old hiftorian of
the town, is part of the palace formerly belonging to one of
the later princes of Powis, but though evidently an ancient
ftruture, it feems improbable that its date thould be fo re-
mote as fuch a faét would neceflarily imply. It is fitted up
in the interior in an appropriate manner.

The Bridges over the Severn at this town are called the
Welth bridge, and the Englifh, or Eaft, bridge. Both of
them are new ttru€tures, erected in place of older ones, which
had gone to decay, and were, from their narrownefs, unfuit-
able to the ftate of commercial advancement Shrew
and the county at large now enjoy. The Welth bridge
confiits of five elegant arches, about 266 feet in aggregate
length, 30 feet high, and 30 broad. Adjoining to « is
a quay, faced with ftone, and accommodated with ware-
houfes. The Englifh bridge extends 400 feet in len
and confifts of feven femi-circular arches, built of fine free-
ftone. The central arch is 60 feet {pan and 40 high from
the low-water mark ; and the two on each fide 35 feet wide
and zo high. The breadth between the balluftrades is 25
feet ; and the ornaments are at once light and graceful.

Monaftic Inflitutions.—The principal monattic eftablifhment
in Shrewfbury was the abbey of St. Peter and St. Paul,
which ftood in the fuburb that ftill bears its name. It was
founded, or, as fome will have it, refounded and endowed by
Roger de Montgomery, and a nobleman named Warine,
who filled it with monks of the Benediétine order. Thefe
having fubfequently obtained poffeflion of the relics of St.
Winetrid, their abbey became the conftant refort of various
claffes of people from all parts of the kingdom, who, ac-
cording to their circumitances, offered donations on the fhrine
of the faint. This fociety, at its diflolution, confifted of an
abbot, fourteen monks, and three novices, whofe annual
revenues, according to Dugdale, amounted to 532/. 4s. 10d.
but Speed rates them as high as 656/. 4s. 3¢. The re-
mains of the abbey are very inconfiderable, the ground
which it occupied being in great part converted into a
garden. There is, however, a very curious little ftru@ture,
which has puzzled the learned in antiquities as to its ufe:
by fome it 1s regarded as a pulpit for preaching. Its plan
is an o¢tagon, fix feet in diameter, but confiderably hi y
Over it is an obtufe dome of ftone, {upparted by fix narrow
pointed arches. The roof within is vaulted on eight ribs,
which {pring from the fide walls, and form a bofs at their
crofling in x centre, bearing a reprefentation of the cruci-
fixion. The arches on the fouth fide are without ornament,
but three of them on the north fide are filled with ftone
ae adorned with different ae of angels and faints.

he abbey church was buut in the form of a crofs, and was
a {pacious and magnificent edifice ; but at prefent is ina ftate
of dilapidation, except the weitern aifle, which is now ufed
as a parith-church, initead of St. Giles's. The other reli-

4K gious

SHR

gious houfes here were, a convent of Augutftine friars,
founded about the year 1256; a fecond of Francifean or
Grey friars, the date of which is unknown; and a third of
Dominicans, founded by lady Geneville in the reign of
Henry III. The queen of Edward IV. twice lay in at this
monaltery. Befides thefe, there were chapels dedicated re-
{peétively to St. Michael, St. Nicholas, St. Catherine, St.
Blaife, and St. Mary Magdalen.

Shrewfbury contains feveral ancient private ftructures,
which would claim notice, did the limits of our article
permit of a commenfurate extenfion. One of them, ftill
called the Council-Houfe, was formerly the refidence of
the court of the marches of Wales, on their annual vifits
to this town. For fome account of this court, fee LupLow.

The eminent natives of Shrewfbury, befides Dr. Thomas
and Dr. Taylor, before-mentioned, were Thomas Church-
yard, a poet of fome note, admiral Benbow, and the
Rev. Hugh Farmer, author of feveral learned and critical
works.

The objects in the vicinity of Shrewfbury, moft worthy
of notice, are the Shelton oak, which is remarkable from a
tradition, that Owen Glyndwr afcended it to reconnoitre,
previous to the battle of Shrew{bury, and for its great fize;
Battlefield, where the battle was fought ; and Haughmond
febbey, which ftands about four miles to the eaftward of
Shrewfbury. It is fituated on a rifing ground, which com-
mands beautiful and extenfive views, and owed its found-
ation and endowment to William Fitz-Alan, in the year
1100. The inhabitants were canons regular of St. Au-
guftine, who enjoyed at the diffolution a yearly revenue,
{tated by Dugdale at 259/. 135. 7d. and by Speed at 294/.
12s. gd. Of the abbey-church, fcarcely a vettige remains,
but confiderable portions of the other buildings are yet
ftanding. Phillips’ Hittory and Antiquities of Shrewf-
bury, 4to. Some Account of the ancient and prefent
State of Shrewfbury, 12mo. 1808, an interefting and judi-
cious topographical work. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xi. by J. Nightingale and R. Rylance.

SHREWSBURY, a town of America, in the ftate of New
Jerfey, and county of Monmouth, on the Sea board, having
Middletown on the N., Freehold W., and Dover S.W.
It is divided from Middletown by North river, which is na-
vigable for a few miles. The compa& part of the town is
pleafant, and contains an Epifcopal and Prefbyterian
church, and a meeting-houfe for Friends. The number
of inhabitants is 3773. This place is frequented in fum-
mer by genteel company from Philadelphia and New
York, for health and pleafure ; 79 miles E.N.E. of Philadel-
phia.—Alfo, a townfhip of America, in Rutland county,
Vermont, between Clarendon on the W. and Saltafh on the
E., containing 9go inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of York
county, Pennfylvania, containing 1792 inhabitants.—Alfo,
a townfhip in Worcefter county, Maflachufetts, incorpo-
rated in 1727, and containing 1210 inhabitants ; 6 miles E.
of Worcefter.—Alfo, a town of Pennfylvania, in Coderus
creek ; 10 miles S. of York.

SHREWSBURY, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into
the Atlantic, N. lat..40° 22!. W. long. 74° 2!.

SHRIKE, in Ornithology, an Englifh name for feveral
{pecies of the Lanius ; which fee.

SHRILLA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Luda-
mar ; 38 miles E.S.E. of Benown.

SHRIMP, in Natural Hiflory, is the Cancer Crangon
of Linnzus ; which fee.

This fhell-fifh inhabits the fandy fhores of Britain in vaft
quantities, and is reckoned the moft delicious of the genus.
Some writers have clafled it under the genus of SQuILLA,

SHR

The white fhrimp, or cancer /quilla, is the prawn.
Cancer Squilla.) It inhabits the coaft of Kent.

By 30 Geo. II. c. 21. white fhrimps in the river Thames
and Medway are only to be taken from Bartholomew day to
Good Friday ; and red fhrimps in the river Medway only
from April 25 to July 1.

SHRINE, formed from /erinium, a defk, or cabinet, a
cafe to hold the relics of fome faint.

SHRITE, in Grnithology. SeeMissex-Bird.

SHROFF, a fort of banker or money-broker in the
Eatt Indies. See RupEr.

SHRONDO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Dentila, in which are confiderable gold
mines.

SHROPSHIRE, one of the midland counties of Eng-
land, is fituated between 52 and 53 degrees N. latitude, and
2 and 3 degrees W. longitude, from London. It is bounded
on the S. by the counties of Worcefter and Hereford; on
the E. by Staffordfhire; on the N. by Chefhire, a detached
part of Flintfhire, and by Denbighfhire ; and on the W. by
the fame county, and thofe of Radnor and Montgomery.
According to archdeacon Plymley’s “* General View of
the Agriculture of Shropfhire,”’ it extends about 44 miles in
length, 28 in breadth, and 134 in circumference, comprif-
ing an area of 890,000 acres, or about a 45th part of
England and Wales united. In fhape it approaches to that
of an oval, and is feparated into two almoft equal divifions
by the river Severn, ‘The parliamentary returns of 1811,
{tate the number of houfes it contains at 36,853, and its po-

(See

pulation at 194,298 perfons, of whom 95,842 were males, -

and 98,456 females.

Hiftorical Events. —When the Romans invaded this ifland
in the reign of the emperor Claudian, this county was in-
habited by two Britifh tribes, called the Ordovices and Cor-
navil, whofe refpeétive territories were bounded by the Se-
vern. The Ordovices, who appear to have been a moft
warlike and enterprifing people, joined with the Silures,
under the renowned Cara¢tacus, to defend their country.
Among the hills of Shropfhire, that great chieftain for a
time fuccefsfully ftrove againft the overwhelming tide of
Roman conquett ; and here, feveral antiquaries contend, was
fought the unfortunate conflict which terminated his mili-
tary career, and led to his captivity. After that event,
Shropfhire formed part of the province called Flavia Czfa-
rienfis, and feems to have been held in undifturbed tranquil-
lity fo long as the Romans remained in Britain; but when
they withdrew their forces to the continent, it again became
the theatre of war between the Britons and the Saxons.
For fome centuries it conftituted part of the kingdom of
Powifland, of which Pengwerne, now Shrewfbury, was the
capital (fee SurzwspuRy); but in the reign of the great
Offa it fell under the dominion of the Saxons, when the
Britifh princes retired to Mathrafael, in Montgomerythire.
To fecure his conquefts, Offa formed an immenfe rampart
of earth, extending about 100 miles in length along the
confines of Wales; but the utility of this work, for the
purpofes of defence, feems to have been very inconfiderable,
as we find the Welfh conftantly making inroads into the
Mercian territories.

In the ninth century, when the Danes invaded this ifland,
Shropfhire fhared in the calamities which their ferocity
brought upon the kingdom, but in a much lefs degree than
moft other ccunties. During the reign of Edward the Con-
feffor, Gruffydd, prince of North Wales, became the terror
of the Englifh by his incurfions into this county. Harold
undertook an expedition againft him, in which he was fo
fuccefsful, that the Welfh were glad to purchafe peace bel

t

_ the maffecre of their chief. After the conqueft, nearly the
whole of Shropthire was beftowed on Roger de Montgo-
abe relation of the 8; but the inroads of the
Welth frequently difturbed. him in the enjoyment of his
iplendid aor In 1067 they laid fiege to Shrewf-
bury, the feat of his baronial power, with fo formidable «
force, that the king found it neceflary to march againft them

fon, when they were defeated with great ~r oe
difeomfiture, however, only ferved to increafe the
warlike _ of the Welth; and William, cere ood
foiled in hi ~ Fm attempts to reduce thofe high-fpirited

foes to by open combat, adopted a more politic
mode of warfare. He iffted ts to oan of his Taehamites
of all the lands they fhould be able to conquer from the
Welth ; and endeavoured to divide and weaken the Welfh
border chieftains ves, by promifing a confirmation of
i to fuch of them as would
the fovereignty of the Englifh crown.
have originated the feignories and jurif-
fe power was even more

that of the monarch himfelf,

5

}
:
gé

ek ae

f
3
E
3
z
7
1

military, within their refpective
however, this power ca *peed
chief court of the marches of
which generally held at Ludlow, but
Shrewfbury and other towns; and was
more limited after the union of Wales with England,
him bya could exercife any pre-
rogative not confirmed to hi charter, without a ial
ek pe the crown. During the various revolts hich
fubfequent to the death of Edward I., and alfo

the contentions for the crown between the houfes

and Shropfhire was occafionally the
ogi of which the moft celebrated

was the battle of Shrewfbury. When the civil war broke
out in the 17th century, this county was peculiarly diftin-
Sermo Aol a Rte except the taking of the county-
by the forces, no faces: el of peculiar
within i§ limits throughout that unfor-

Soil, and Climate.—Shrophhire pofleffes
boundaries almoft every variety of natural charm ;

z
E

Tae
cf
Tile

Hi
bet
are
oFe
FEE
z
ri
Fg

n se loam and gravelly foil
prevail ; and in thofe of North Bradford and Eaft Brimitrey,
ore i hc tera i ‘ tise re a mixture
, and of fandy foil, with a ter propor-
ey wheat land.”” In the other hobtveds, Cer
confiftence form the moft general foil; but there
patches and extenfive traéts both of deep and
loam, gravel, &c. The climate of courfe sat
of chara&ier OF tes farfice and foil. On the eattern fide
of the county, where the land is warm and flat, harveft fre-
q

lefs light, and the bottom often clayey ; and hay and grain
are earlier there than on the weftern fide,
are narrow, and the high lands frequent and
at woth Trin fo fuff. The

moft in fpring, and thofe from the
; but the eafter} esd ie the root regular ;
_ thofe from the weft blowing for a feries of months (five

SHROPSHIRE.

or fix perhaps) flrong and frequent, and then for nearly
a fimilar period lefs often and lefs violent. ‘The fame may
be faid of the wet and dry feafons in this county, but the
periods of both appear to be much fhorter,

Rivers and Lake.—Shropthire abounds with rivers as
much as any county in England. ‘The principal among
them is the mm, which, after bounding the county for
feveral miles, enters it near Melverley, and flows on in an
irregular fi ntine channel to Shrewfbury, which it nearly
encircles. t this town it turns towards the north, but

foon again {weeps to the fouthward, pafling by Wroxcter,
Madeley, and Bridgenorth, to Bentley, where it enters
Woreeherthire. Its courfe within Shrophhire is eftumated

at nearly feventy miles in length, throughout the whole of
which {pace it is navigable for barges, trows, wherries, and
boats, and is abundantly fupplied with fith of various deno-
minations. ‘The contributary ftreams to this great river,
belonging to the county, are the Camlet, the Vyrnyw, the
Morda-Brook, the Perry, the Meole-Brook, the the
Tern, the Bell-Brook, the Cund-Brook, the Worf, the
Marbrook, and the Bore-Brook, all of them confiderable
waters. Thofe of moft importance, which do not join the
Severn, are the Morles, which falls into the Dee, the Teme,
the Shelbrook, the Elf-Brook, the Weever, the Clun, the
Ony, which difcharges itfelf into the Teme, in Herefordshire,
and the Corve; but befides thefe, there are nearly a hun-
dred flreams of minor extent, which our limits will not
permit us to mention. The lakes bere are numerous, but
none of them are very extenfive. That of Ellefmere, which
is the largeft, covers about 116 acres of ground.

Minerals.—Shropthire is well fapphed minerals.
The mines of lead-ore, on the weftern fide of the county,
are extremely productive, and their produét is reckoned to
be of excellent quality. Copper and calamine are likewife
found here in great quautities, but neither of them has
hitherto been mined with any degree of fuccefs. Coal of a
fuperior kind is wrought on the eaftern fide of the county,
particularly in the parifhes of Wellington, Lillefhall,
Wrockwardine, Wombridge, Stirchley, Dey: Little-
Wenlock, M , Barrow, Benthall, and Brofeley. It
is likewife found in the hundred of Stottefden, and to the
fouthward of the Clee hills; alfo on the north and north-
weft confines of the county. Iron-ftone, as is ufually the
cafe, accompanies the coal ftrata, as well as lime-ftone,
which is quarried in various places, but particularly at
Lillefhall, *Porth-y-Wain, and Llanymynach, and in the
parithes of Cardifton and Alberbury. This county further
contains abundance of building-ftone, and flates for cover-
ing roofs. At Pitchford, about feven miles S.E. from
Shrewfbury, is a red fand-ftene, approaching the furface in
many places, which exudes a mineral pitch. From this rock
is extraGted an oil, known by the name of Betton’s Britith
oil. Mr. Arthur Aikin is preparing an interefting publica-
tion on the mineralogical ftratification of this county.

State of Property, &c.—The extent of eftates in this
county is very various. While the pofleffions of a few
noblemen and gentlemen include from 10,000 to 25,000
acres each, there is an infinite number of freeholders’ and

men’s eflates of all inferior fizes. The number of free-

ders entitled to vote amount to above 3000; and the
total rental of the county, tithes inclufive, to about
ge0,coc/, There is much copyhold tenure, but of eafier
cuitoms than in moft of the neighbouring counties. The
lords of fome cuftomary manors have enfranchifed the copy-
holders, be pes receiving an equivalent in money; but the
cuftoms of the greater number are ftill preferved and acted
upon. In the manors of Ford, Cundover, Wem, and Lop-

4K 2 pington,

SHROPSHIRE.

pington, the lands defcend to the youngeft fon; and in the
manors of Cardigan and Stretton, (where the eldeft fon fuc-
ceeds,) in default of fons, the daughters are co-heirefles.

Agriculture.—The extent of farms is nearly as various as
that of eftates ; but in general they are of a large fize, and
are, in fome inftances, held on leafes for life; in others, for
feven, ten, or twenty-one years; and, in many cafes, from
year to year only. The crops commonly cultivated are
wheat, barley, oats, peafe, turnips, and potatoes; hops,
hemp, flax, and cabbages, are only raifed in fmall quan-
tities. The growth of hay and the improvement of paiture
lands are rather neglected branches of Shropfhire agricul-
ture; but on the borders of the Severn, and in the vicinity
of feveral of the lefler {treams, there are many excellent
tracts of meadow land, which produce grafs in great luxu-
riance, without the aid of any other manure than what
is depofited by the floods. The grafles moft common in
the county are the following: the f{weet-fcented vernal
grafs, Timothy grafs, meadow fox-tail, and fome fpecies
of the agroftis ; but the latter flower too late to be of much
ufe for cultivation. Several varieties of the poa and feftuca
are likewife common.

Woods and Plantations—Notwithftanding large yearly
falls of timber, there {till remain in Shropfhire fome fine
woods of oak, and a vaft number of good hedge-row trees,
chiefly afh and oak. Birches, both as trees and as fences,
are common in the fouth-wett diftri€t. There are befides,
in this county, many large tracts of coppice-wood, and fe-
veral extenfive modern plantations; but the former fuffer
much by the demand for charcoal, which the numerous iron
works in this and the adjoining counties occafion.

Of qafle lands, Shropfhire is comparatively free. Al-
moft all the lands in cultivation are inclofed ; and the com-
mons are every day decreafing, fo that few of any great
extent remain, except that of Morf, near Bridgenorth,
which meafures five miles in length, and nearly three in
breadth ; and the high lands between Church-Stretton and
Bifhop’s-Cattle, and from Clun to the borders of Radnor-
fhire, which are folely occupied as fheep-walks, and perhaps
could not be better employed. There are feveral large
moffes, and many fmaller ones, in Shropfhire. The chief
diftri& of moor-landis that in the vicinity of the village of
Kinnerfley.

Roads and Canals.—The turnpike-roads of this county
are excellent ; but the parifh roads are in general bad, and
the repair of them much neglected, from the want of pro-
per furveyors. Canals, though late of introduction into
Shropfhire, are now frequent. The chief cuts are the
Shropfhire canal, which commences at Donnington wood,
and terminates at Coal Port on the Severn, running through
an extenfive aflemblage of coal and iron works; the Ketley
canal, which joins that of the Shropfhire; the Shrewfbury
canal; and the Ellef{mere Navigation, which forms in itfelf
a fyftem of canals, extending through that large and fertile
tract of country which lies between the Severn on the fouth
and the Merfey on the north, and between the confines of
North Wales on the weft and the borders of Staffordfhire
on the eaft, a {pace of 50 miles in length, and upwards of
20 in breadth, exclufive of the vallies which open into
North Wales. Its grand objec is to unite the Severn, the
Dee, and the Merfey, and by that means open a communica~
tion between the diftri€ above mentioned and the ports of
Liverpool and Brittol.

Manufadures and Commerce—Among the manufafiures
of Shropshire, thofe of Ketley and other places in the iron
diftriG are the moft confiderable. Garden-pots, and other
soarfe earthen veflels, are made at Brofeley, which is likewile

noted for the manufacture of excellent tobacco-pipes. At
Caughley, in the fame neighbourhood, is a china manufac-
ture of great excellence, and at Coal Port is another of the
fame kind ; befides one of that {pecies of earthenware called
the Queen’s or Wedgewood ware. Shrepfhire alfo contains
feveral mills for dyeing woollen cloths, and fome cotton and
linen manufaétories. ‘Thefe various produéts of courfe form
a confiderable fhare in the commercial means of Shropfhire,
but its principal traffic is probably the ftaple trade of Shrewf-
bury, in flannels and Welfh webs, which are bought in large
quantities at the markets of Pool and Ofweittry, and are not
only fent to every part of the kingdom, but are exported to
different quarters of the world, particularly to the Weft
Indies and to South America.

Civil and Ecclefiaftical Divifions and Government.—Shrop-
fhire, like every other county in England, is governed by a
lord lieutenant and cuftos rotulorum, a high fheriff, and a
number of juftices of the peace, befides the magiftrates of
the privileged towns. It is divided into fifteen hundreds, or
diftrits, an{wering to that denomination; namely, Ofwef-
try, Pimhill, North and South Bradford, Brimftrey, the
liberty of Shrew{bury, the franchifes of Wenlock, and the
hundreds of Stottefden, Ford, Chirbury, Cundover, Munf-
low, Overs, Purflow, and the honour of Clun. Thefe
again are fubdivided into 229 parifhes, part of which are
within the diocefe of Litchfield and Coventry, and part
within thofe of Hereford and St. Afaph.

Parliamentary Reprefentation and Chief Towns.—Shrop thire
fends twelve members to parliament, two knights of the

fhire, and two burgefles for each of the boroughs of Shrewf- .

bury, Ludlow, Bridgenorth, Wenlock, and Bifhop’s-Caftle.
The principal landed proprietors who have an influence in
the reprefentation, are the earl of Powis, the lord Bradford
and Berwick, the Hills, the Corbets, and colonel Forefter,
The market-towns in the county are, Church-Stretton, Cleo-
bury-Mortimer, Ellefmere, Hales-Owen, Madeley, New-
port, Wem, Great-Wenleck, Ofweftry, Whitchurch, and
Wellington.

Antiquities.—Shropfhire contains a great many objects of
antiquarian intereft. The chief Roman ftations within its
limits were Uriconium, now Wroxeter, Medivlanum, near
Drayton, and Rutunium, near Wem. Antiquaries differ

ref{pecting the precife pofition of the two laft, but with re- -

gard to the former, there is little doubt but it was a chief
city of the Cornavii, founded and fortified by the Romans.
Watling-ftreet enters the county on the eaft, between Crack-
ley-wood and Welton, and paffes through it in a bending
line to Leintwardine, in Herefordfhire, on the fouthern
borders. Of the Saxon period no afcertained remains exitt 5
but of the Norman era, and of fubfequent times, there are
many ; as the caftles of Shrewfbury, Ludlow, Bridgenorth,
Clun, and Red Cattle, and the abbies of Shrewfbury, Haugh-
mond, Buildwas, Wenlock, and Hales-Owen, feveral priories,
and a great number of curious churches. The moft remark-
able encampments are thofe of Bury Ditches and the Walls,
and at Purflow, Basford Gate, and Hawkitone. A General
View of the Agriculture of Shropfhire, by Jofeph Plym-
ley, M.A. Archdeacon of Salop, 8vo. 1803. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. xiii. by J. Nightingale and Ralph
Rylance, 8vo. 1811.

SHROUD, from the Saxon fhroud, a fbelter, or cover, is
ufed to denote the drefs of the dead. This is required by
ftatute to be made of fheep’s wool only. See Burra.

If any one, in taking up a dead body, fteals the fhroud,
the property of which remains in the executor, or the perfon
who was at the charge of the funeral, it is felony.

SHROUDS, in Sea Language. See SHRowps.

SHROVE-

Ti

. a ES en —i ea «)

SHR

SHROVE.TIDE, the time immediately before Lent ;
thus called by our anceilors, becaule employed in /briving,
that is, in confefling their fins to the prieft, in order to a
more devout keeping of the enfuing Lent fatt.

Shrove-Tuefday is the day next before the firft of Lent.
SHROWDING of Trees, the cutting or lopping off the

branches; this is only practifed to trees thse are not
fit for timber, but defi ‘or fuel, or fome other prefent

Such trees the hufbandmen find much preferable to copplon,

As for the time of throwding, it is not to be praétifed
till the trees have flood three or four years; and then it mutt
be done either at the beginning of the {pring, or the end of

Thofe of the harder fort are not to be lopped above once in
ten or twelve years, and that at any time in the winter. The
— and foft woods are belt fhrowded in the (pring. The

left fhould always be cut aflope, and {mooth, in order
to the water off, and prevent its finkiag in, and rotting
the tree.

SHROWDS, or Surrouns, in Sea Language, are great
in a oo aa go up on both fides of all matts, ex-
oo

are ng wapeteaag into alade ¢. one pieee of
rope is doubled, and + pc co Piacoa
{mall diftance from the middle, fo as to leave a fort of noofe

jers alfo, as the
See Purrocks.

as well as the fails, are denominated from
which they belong. Thus they are the main,
and mizen fhrouds, the main-topmait, fore-topmait,
i fhrouds, and main-top-gallant, fore-top-

of fhrouds by which a matt is fuftained, as
of the rope of which they are formed, is
“pe a oo ag to the fize of the maft, and the weight
il it is intended to carry. The two fore-matt
the ftarboard and larboard fide of the fhip, are
always fitted firft upon the malt-head ; and then the fecond
on the ftarboard, and the fecond on the larboard, and fo on
till the whole number is fixed.
The intention of this arrangement is to brace the yards
facility, when the fails are clofe-hauled, which
not be without great difficulty, if the fore-
matt fhrouds were laft fitted on the maft-head, becaufe the
angle which they would make with the ma{t would then be
greatly increafed. Falconer. .
Bow/prit fhrouds are thofe which fupport the bow/prit.
Bumkin throuds are thofe which fupport the bumkin. Fut-
tock fhrouds are thofe which conneé the efforts of the top-
with the lower fhrouds. Bentinck throuds are

ufed in bad weather to eafe the lower rigging.
The terms are, ca/e the ; that is, flacken them.
Set taught the fbrouds ; that is, fet them fatter.
Surowp Trucks, See Trucks.
Swrown Stoppers. See Srorrens,
2

SHR

SHRUBS, in Botany and Megetable Phyholegy, are com-
monly underitood to be plants with a perennial woody flem,
of a more humble or form of growth than trees,
Linneus once attem to define the limits between trees
and fhrubs, by the former having leaf-buds, the latter none ¢
but this diftin@ion was foon found to be of no avail. Trees
of hot countries have y no buds, while many very
humble thrubs of cold ones are furnifhed with this protec-
tion. This is fo obvious, in Willows for example, a
Linneus probably only meant to apply the rule generically,
Thus the whole freed of Salix dt buds, and being
moitly arboreous, every {pecies of that genus, however di-
minutive, muft be deemed a tree. Accordingly, S. Aer-
bacea, hardly an inch high, is termed in the Flora Lapponi a,
the leaft of all trees. But the thrubby genus Lonicera bas
ftill more elaborate buds than Salix.

Suxus, in Gardening, a low woody plant of branchy
growth and ornamental appearance ; it is fometimes, how-
ever, of a large growth oot Eetorn, Shrubs are commonly
divided into the e n and deciduous kinds; and they
may be fubdivided itill farther into the exotic or tender and
the hardy forts, as well as into fuch as are rarely feen or
met with, and fuch as are well known and in common cul-
tivation. In the former as well as latter of thefe great divi-
fions, the plants may likewife be feparated and arranged
according to their fizes, forms, modes of growth, colours,
and othe. particulars: in the laft of which, it has been ob-
ferved, there is every fhade between the rufcus, which is
among the leaft, and the Bermudian juniper, which is nearl
the largeft ;—from the holly, which is lightly tinged nw |
red, to the box, which is of a golden yellow:—in thape,
from the cyprefs, which grows in the Fors of a fpire, to
the daphe tarton raira, which forme a globular tnft upon
the furface of the ground ;—from the hedera, which faftens
itfelf to the wall, to the andromeda and vinca, which recline
themfelves upon the furface.

In the latter, the plants are faid to be diverfified in each
of thefe particulars, being capable of divifion, as they may
be cultivated principally for the beauty of their flowers, as
the rhododendron, erica, and many others ;—for the {mell,
as the fweet briar, abfinthoides, eleriodendron, jaf{minum,
and fome others ;—for both thefe qualities, as the rofe, Cape
jafmine, and a few more :—or as being grown, in a great
meafnre, for the beauty of the leaves, as the acuba, varie-
gated holly, elder, and fome others ;—for the purpofe and
appearance of the fruit, as the mefpilus pyracantha and the
orange ;—for the beauty of the whole plant, as the arittote-
lia, and feveral others ;—and, laitly, the greateft propor-
tion for all thefe properties together, as the myrtle, lauruf-
tinus, laurel, and fome others. Some of thefe, however,
belong to the former of the above general divilions or

es.

Shrubs are of very great importance in forming all forts
of colleGtions in gardens, and other places; and in orna-
mental pleafure-ground works they conititute a clafs of ma-
terials of the moft intereiting kind, which cannot be done
without.

In fuch fituations and works they are arranged, varied,
and placed out, in many different ways, fo as to produce
the moft pleafing effe€t and variety in the particular inten-
tions with which they are planted or fet out. See Sunun-
BERY.

It has been obferved by Mr. Loudon, in his work on
« Ornamental Gardening,’ that the evergreen clafs of
fhrubs are deficient in molt fituations, as well as trees of the
fame fort; but that they deferve to be very generally
planted, equally on account of their uncommon beauty -

the

SHR

the winter feafon, as for their contraft with the yellow and
ruffet tints of the deciduous kind, and trees of the fame
nature, in the autumnal and {pring feafons. They ought,
generally, according to him, to be the prevailing forts
planted near the houfes and buildings of country-feats, not
only for the reafons fuggefted above, but becaufe they are
capable of concealing fome part or parts of the edifices,
difguifing their real extents, and thus blending them at all
feafons with the furrounding fcenery. There is alfo another
circumttance in their favour, which is the fuperiority of
their fhelter and fhade.

It is thought, alfo, that the cyprefs is too feldom planted
in fuch fituations, as it has the capability and power of giv-
ing a rich claffical appearance and effect to them ; as is feen
in fome cafes, as at Foxley and Yoxal Lodge.

And the holly, it is fuggetted, fhould be planted {till
more than any other fhrub, in particular cafes; as no other
is capable of affording and producing fuch an excellent and
diverfified effet in woody fcenery, as 1s exemplified in fome
foreft fituations.

The ivy is capable, it is faid, of anfwering three im-
portant ufes, and of courfe deferving of more frequent
growth. ‘Thefe are the varying of the {tems of fingle trees,
and {mall groups of them ; the giving of effe& to old decaying
trees, and the rendering of ugly trees interefting, as well as
other fimilar rural purpofes ; the producing of variety in dif-
ferent forts of buildings; and the giving of ornament and
utility to works of the country kind.

In the firft of thefe intentions, in different cafes, where
the number of trees of the fame kind are confiderable, and
very much alike, which are in the fore-ground, one or fe-
veral of them may be varied and diverfified by the ivy fhrub,
in probably as happy a manner, and with as good an effect,
as in any other way, and better than by the ufe of any fort
of deciduous climbing plant. Single trees can always be
rendered intereftingly different by thefe means, as well as old
and ugly trees of different forts.

In the fecond ufe, where cottages, ruins, irregularly
formed buildings, old houfes, and other fimilar ftructures,
are to be varied, partially concealed, and rendered different
in their external appearance, but which cannot be cheap-
ly enough done in other ways, they may be highly and
richly diverfified and decorated by the fimple planting of
the ivy fhrub, and dire&ting it fo as to cover in different
places or parts. The expence of fuch works would alfo
be lefs, in many inftances, it is remarked, if the external
appearance of them were contrived fo as to admit this plant ;
which would not only vary and alter them generally, but
might occafionally be fubftituted for, and fupply the place
of, particular parts, as is exemplified in many inftances.

The la{t of thefe intentions is that of planting the ivy
fhrub againft walls of the {tone kind, dikes, and funk fences
between fields, and other fimilar purpofes, in the view of
rendering them more ornamental and durable. ‘The chequer-
ing of them in this way, on their fides, with fhades of green,
and little ribs or columns, and richly mantling their tops,
have, it is faid, much effet in producing variety, and at
the fame time in rendering them more latting. Mortared
and unmortared walls are likewife preferved and fecured by
it. This creeping fhrubby plant may confequently be of
extenfive utility in various ways; as, befides affording
beauty, fhelter, and durability, it may be beneficial in
thickening hedges in the vicinity of the fea-coaft, when
joined with the elder, It fhould, in all cafes, be carefully
planted, either by fets or young feedlings, which laft is by
much the readieft mode of raifing and providing it. No-
thing more is wanting, ae it fucceeds well in moft foils,

7

SHR

fituations, and expofures. Where tall plants are wanted
for particular ufes, they mu{t be provided with good
roots.

In the deciduous kind of fhrubs, the modes of varying and
planting are very different, according to their nature, habits,
fizes, and other qualities and circumftances. For the moft
part, however, the larger forts are put more out of the way,
in order that the fmaller and more curious kinds may be
more fully expofed to view. The peculiar properties in
fome of this defcription of fhrubs alfo dire& the modes and
manners of planting them, as that of the time of flowering,
and feveral others. They are varied and planted differently,
likewife, for a great variety of other different reafons.

In planting the laburnum, as there are two forts, which
differ greatly in their {pray or {mall twigs and foliage, that
with the {maller and more delicate branches and flowers fhould
conftantly be chofen for putting out with other fhrubs ; the
other, which is of much larger growth, is well fuited for
poor gravelly foils, rocky banks, and the roeky margins of
water, where, in the two latter fituations, the plants may
fometimes be feen in great perfection.

Shrubs of thefe different kinds are raifed and produced in
many different ‘ways, as may be feen under their different
particular proper heads.

Some forts of fhrubs, particularly in the early ftate of
their growth, ftand in need of not merely a foil and titua-
tion, but a mode of cultivation which is adapted to their
different natures and habits. And though moft fhrubs re-
quire to have the earth or foil about them either frequently
{tirred, or kept clean and free from all plants of the weed
kind, there are fome that fucceed beft when the furface of
the ground is overrun with low plants of the mofs kind.

In all cafes, fhrubs are to be preferved in a neat and per-
fet order, by the removal of the decayed and withered
parts, and the proper cutting in of particular fhoots and
branches where neceflary, efpecially in fome of the deci-
duous kinds. In the evergreen clafs, the knife or fhears,
however, are very feldom to be applied, except for the re-
moval of the deftroyed parts, which are conftantly to be
carefully taken away. ee

Surus, Fruit, that fort of low fhrubby plant which
bears fruit of fome kind or other. Shrubs of this kind are
moftly very ufeful, and not few in number. The forts are
various, asthe goofeberry, the currant, the rafpberry, and
fome others, cultivated in garden fituations; and the ber-
berry or barberry, and a few other kinds, in thofe of the
fhrubbery. Shrubs of this defcription, in mott cafes, re-
quire careful attention in cutting, managing, and keeping
the ground in proper order, by due cultivation, and the
proper ufe of fuitable manure. See SMALL Fruits, and
STANDARD L’ruit Trees.

In planting them, thofe of the garden fort are moit
properly and ufefully put out in fituations by themfelves,
and not in the ufual mode, on the fides or borders of the
different cultivated compartments of the garden ground.

Thofe which produce ornament, as well as fruit, are to
be placed out in variety with other fhrubs, in the more open
parts of fhrubberies, or alone in particular cafes. ’

Suruss, Stealing of. See LARCENY.

Wilfully fpoiling or deftroying them is a fpecies of that
malicious mifchief, which fubjects the offender to pecuniary
penalties for the firft two offences, and for the third, if it
be committed in the day-time, and even be the firft at night,
to the guilt of felony, and tranf{portation for feven years.
6 Geo. ILI. cap. 36. and 48.

SHRUBBERY, in Gardening, a traét, portion, or {pace
of ground, which is planted with fhrubs, trees, and flower

plants,

_ SHRUBBERY.

ee the mott properly ap

proper :
s of the in-
Srary © ws the p g kind; but that from the
wing been fo frequently the cafe, their tawdry in-
Epy as he juftly reprobated by fome, as Mr. Knight,
in the ing toe, &e.
Curfe on the thrubbery’s infipid fcenes.””

~ to ry particular place or a
fuch kitchen farm, a , Or any ot
fimilar i aati lead and extend merely ee

; or

ies, for their own fakes, and fuch views of ex-
as can be produced from them, or as are de-
tion. In defigning and forming fhrubberies,
ing the above in view, thefe three points
thought, require to be particularly attended to:
arrangement, di tion, and grouping of the
which ought to be that of nature; in the
the intermixing of the glades and paftures, which,
cafes, is an eflenti uifite confideration ; and
eg pasa ac
i t > Ww i h is y ,
sas, by way of pet lies contraft, are
of umbrefity. |
requifites are, it is faid, naturally con-
neral prin-
this branch

‘fa

re

i

iia

55
F
s
E

rf

f

ee

ith picturefque improvements, the

iples of which are blended and intermixed wi
ornamental gardening.

_ The direétions which this able defigner of rural works of

this nature has given for the forming of fhrubberies with

pr in di t cafes, fituations, and circum({tances,

E
22

upon lawns, fhould always be of very

reer i ne, oe n gravel, their forms
depend eircumitances. In where are in

a part in which art is avowed and ought to prevail, then the
more artificial the forms are, fo much the better ; but that
if n a group for f ing, dividing, or varying a

a
as as in thofe upon

r V uch fhrubbery are made in a
ir manner, they jae in every cafe re-
| or wrought over for fome years after-

is, in the mode of digging and working them

which has ufuall: emi produces, it is faid,
a and boundary line; which, in addition
means of ee pregement, fuitable grouping, and

a manner, as high a degree, and as

lively as Nothing, it is thought, can be more
ly or more eafily Std as it is only requifite to
earth on the ins or borders of fuch groups of

level as the furfaces of the lawns or paitures, and
to fuffer both to unite and blend harmonioufly to r, or
witheach other. And as all groups of this thrub ry kind
are only dug or wrought over during a certain period of

time, as until the fhrubs become fo large as to render fur-
ther culture unneceflary ; the paflure fhould be allowed to
radually encroach and {pread itfelf among the thrubs and
aes plants, until at laft it wholly covers the furface.
After this, the thrubby group becomes rough and pic-
turefque ; the flower plants, Ail continuing to grow among
the fhrubs, will, it is fuppofed, be produdtive of exaétly
what is {een to happen in natural groups; with this clegant
difference, that in place of nettles, thiltles, and {uch coarfe
rofs weeds, which however, it is remarked, are as good to
ps painter as the finelt flower plants, there will be had the
narciflus, faxifrage, fapenaria, and others, which are quite
in charaéter with the reit of the pleafure-ground, and thrive
well among paiture. It is fuggefted, that in planting the
fhrubs in fuch groups, the great art confifts in putting them
in irregularly ; for though the outline of the ground to be
cuanto muft, even under the beft talle, be eamewhst
ormal, yet the thrubs can always be planted as irregularly
as if no i or form of eo ex tthed. This is, how-
ever, faid to be a plan or manner of diftribution, which has
never been put in practice; as whatever the form of the
ground may be which is to be dug and planted; the fhrubs
are difiributed in a regular menner over every part of it:—
when digging is no longer attended to, ftill none of the
fhrubs are thinned out, but the whole left a formal uncon-
neéted clump of vegetation, an appearance, it is obferved,
as different from the irregular group-thickets of nature, as
a green hillock is from a rocky precipice. It is fated,
however, that the groups of this nature, or rather thofe
maffes of formal thapes which are placed in particular
fituations, fuch as ovals in the fronts of {mall villas, or
balket-work patches upon the lawns in the fronts of refi-
dences of the manfion kind, thould always have determinate
outlines ; as being devoted, in a great meafure, to tender
flower plants and flowering fhrubs, they will require to be
conttantly in a cultivated ftate. Their outlines or boundaries
may, it is fuppofed, be properly formed, according to cir-
cumitances, either of elegant mafonry, wood, balket-work,
or of plants of the flower kind, fuch as thrift, the daify,
and fome others, and not unfrequently, when furrounded
by gravel, by a broad margin of turf. Inr to the
general forms of fuch fhrubby plasted mafles, it is faid that
they mer be oval, circular, pentagonal, or fanciful, accord-
ing to pleafure ; and that their furfaces may either be kept
level with the lawns or other parts, or be gradually raifed
from their margins to their centres. It is however noticed,
that when raifed in this way, the fides fhould always be made
to prefent a concave flope, and not that of a convex one,
as is moft commonly the cafe, and which has a very bad
effe& in different initances, as in the public {quares of the
metropolis, &c. Bafket-work fhrubby groups have not un-
uently, it is remarked, a very pretty effeét when covered
with mofs. Others which are unconne¢ted among them-
felves, and which have fhapes that are rather unfuitable to
the nature of the fituations in which they are formed, are
likewife produétive of variety. In all cafes, fome fort of
agreeable effect ought to be afforded in as ftriking a manner
as poflible.

Tt is conclufively remarked, that though the conneétion
of furface in fuch thrubby groups is always of importance,
neither thofe of the irregular or regular thapes ought ever
to be placed in any fituation, except where they have a
proper relation and union with what furrounds them.

Tn the and more extenfive works of the thrulthery
kind, the fame rules and principles will be neceflary to be
had recourfe to, but with a greater attention to the produc.
tion of variety and effea. Pete are to be accomplithed by

fuch

Sy Jet 10)

fuch means as have been already fuggefted, and by giving
them a more natural conformity, as well as by the introduc-
tion of greater diverfity in the fhrubs, trees, and other forts
of plants that are made ufe of in the formation of them. It
is indeed obferved, that one of the moft effectual means of
rendering rural {cenes {till more interefting than they com-
monly are, is by introducing a more extenfive variety of
fhrubs than is ufually employed, a vaft number of which
are capable of anfwering the purpofe. They are not, how-
ever, to be planted in fuch fituations in the common in-
difcriminate manner, but with much regard to the effect
which they are to produce. In fhort, it is concluded, that it
is in the fhrubbery, or thofe parts of pleafure-grounds which
contain flower plants, fhrubs, and trees,—which occupy con-
fiderable fpace,—exhibit views of the country or of other
parts of the ground, that ormamental gardening and pic-
turefque improvement blend themfelves together in produc-
ing thofe happy effects which fo much intereft the feelings
and fancy.

SHRUBBY-AHowk-Weed, in Agriculture, a plant of the
fhrubby weed kind, which is often troublefome and injurious
in woods and plantations. See Hreracium, and WeEDs.

SHRULE, in Geography, a river of the county of
Tyrone, Ireland, which joins the Moyle near New Town
Stewart. .There are alfo feveral parifhes of this name in
Ireland, but none called fram a town now exifting, except
Shrule in the county of Mayo, on the borders of the county
of Galway; 106 miles N. by W. from Dublin. ‘

SHTUKA, a powerful tribe or kabyle in the province
of Sufe, in the fouthern divifion of the empire of Morocco,
inhabited by Shelluks, amounting in number to 380,000.

SHUARIEFE, a {mall low ifland in the Red fea, near the
coaft of Africa. N. lat. 24° 22!.

SHUBENACADIE, a river of Nova Scotia, which
rifes within a mile of the town of Dartmouth, on the E.
fide of Halifax harbour, and difcharges itfelf into Coba-
quid bay, receiving in its courfe the Slewinck and Gays
rivers. The large lake of the fame name lies on the E. fide
of the land that leads from Halifax to Windfor, and about
7 miles from it, and 121 from Halifax.

SHUCK, in Agriculture, provincially a ftouk, or twelve
{heaves of corn fet up together in the harvett field.

SHUD, in Rural Economy, a word fometimes provincially
ufed to lignify fhed.

SHUG, in Agriculture, a term ufed to imply the fhaking
of any thing, as hay, &c.

SHUGGINGS, a word fignifying that which is fhed or
fcattered, as grain at harveft, &c.

SHUHUSHU, in Geography, a village of the pachalic
of Bagdad, one day’s fail from Korna, and fituated om the
bank of the Euphrates. It is as large as Samavat (which
fee), but much more flourifhing ; for the Euphrates, which
is navigable, even in the drie't feafon, for boats of con-
fiderable burthen as far up as this place (where the effects
of the tide are alfo felt), enables the inhabitants to carry on
a trifling traffic with Baflora. Shuhufhu is a great mart
for horfes, and is famed for the richnefs of the cloves raifed
in its vicinity.

SHUK, in Agriculture, a term fometimes provincially ap-
plied to a hufk or fhell. ; .

SHUKERA, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 42 miles
S. of Gangotre. =

SHULA, or Suutt, in Mythology. See Sura.

SHUMAN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia ;
30 miles W. of Vafhgherd.

SHUMBERG, a town of Iftria; 5 miles N.N.E. of
Pedena.

Sy Hew

SHUME, or AssHumg, a violent hot wind of Africa,
or, as they are called, Oncas, which, in the intermediate
journies between feveral parts of the Defart or Sahara, oc-
cafions great inconvenience and diftrefs to travellers. It
fometimes wholly exhales the water carried in {kins by the
camels for the ufe of the paflengers and drivers: on which
occafions the Arabs and people of Soudan affirm, that 500
dollars have been given for a draught of water, and that 10
or 20 are commonly given, when a partial exhalation has
occurred. In 1805, a caravan proceeding from Tombuétoo
to Tafilet was difappointed in not finding water at one of
the ufual watering-places, when, as it is faid, all the perfons
belonging to it, zooo in number, befides 1800 camels,
perifhed by thirtt. The intenfe heat of the fun, aided by
the vehement and parching wind that drives the loofe fand
along the boundlefs plains, gives to the Defart the appear-
ance of a fea, the drifting fands refembling exaGly the
waves of the fea, and hence aptly denominated by the Arabs
“el Bahar billa maa,’’ a fea without water. During the
prevalence of this wind, it is impoffible to live in the upper
rooms of the houfes; fo that the inhabitants retire to fub-
terraneous apartments, cellars, or warehoufes on the ground-
floor, eating only fruits, as the water-melon or prickly pear,
as the animal food at this time is loathfome whilft hot, and
has {carcely time to cool before it becomes tainted. The
walls of the bed-chambers, being of ftone, are moiftened
by throwing upon them buckets of water, in order to render
the rooms habitable towards the night ; and fo great is their
heat, that in doing this, the effeét 1s fimilar to that which is
produced by cating water on hot iron.
that he has felt the fhume zo leagues out at fea. When in N.
lat. 30°. W. long. 11°30!, a quantity of fand fell on the deck.
He adds, that he never found any extreme inconvenience
from the fhume N. of the province of Sufe, although at
Mogodor it is fometimes felt, but not fo feverely, during
three days.

The Akkaabahs, or accumulated caravans, which crofs
the great defart of Sahara, and confift of feveral hundred
loaded camels, accompanied by the Arabs who let them to
the merchants for tranfporting their merchandize to Fez,
Moroccco, &c. are fometimes obliged fuddenly to {trike
their tents, and proceed on their journey, when the fhume
rifes and drifts the loofe fand along the plains, which attaches
to every fixed objeét in its courfe, and foon buries it. We
fhall here add, that the guides of thefe accumulated cara-
vans, being enabled by the two pointers to afcertain the
polar ftar, {leer their courfe with confiderable precifion, and
that they often prefer travelling in the night to enduring the
fuffocating heat of the {corching meridian fun. When the
Akkaabah reaches Akka, the firlt ftation on this fide of the
Defart, and fituated on its confines, in Lower Sufe, which
is a part of Biledulgerid, the camels and guides are dif-
charged, and others are there hired to proceed to Fez, Mo-
rocco, Terodant, Tafilet, and other places. The Akkaa-
bahs perform the traverfe of the Defart, including their fo-
journments at El-wahs, or Oafes, in about 130 days. Pro-
ceeding from the city of Fez, they go at the rate of 34
miles an hour, and travel feven hours a day: they reach
Wedinoon, Tatta, or Akka, in 18 days, where they remain
a month, as a grand accumulated Akkaabah proceeds from
the latter place. In going from Akka to Tagafla, the
employ 16 days, fojourning here 15 days more fe lestenith
their camels; they then proceed to the Oafis and well of
Taudeny, which they reach in feven days, and after ftaying
there 15 days, they proceed to Tombuétoo, which they
reach the fixth day, making a journey of 54 days actual
travelling, and of 75 days’ repofe; being altogether, from

Fez

Mr. Jackfon fays .

SHU

Fez to Tombuaoo, 129 days, or 4 lunar months and g days.

See Tosmucroo and Wepinoon. See allo Canavan.
SHUMSHABAD, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-

flan, in Lahore; 6 miles S.E. of Attock.
SHUMUM, a town of Egypt, on the Nile; 13 miles

_ N.W. of Cairo.

te

ee a ee

Ti

i
E

§
Ps,

SHUNAITE! Ezzaux, a town of Egypt; 30 miles
W. of i 4. -
SSHUNA, a town of Hindoottan, in Bahar; 22 miles

of Bahar. :
SHUPARE, a town of Candahar; 45 miles N. of

Autock. :
SHURBA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 30
miles E.S.E. of Boli.
» SHURDHUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 50
miles E.N.E. of Junagur.
SHUREGIAN, a wry of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman miles S.E. of Sirgian,
SHUI AN, a — of Grand Bucharia, in the W.

of the of Balk.
PASHUREFA » a town of Algiers, near the coait; 6
miles E. of Dellys. ] :
SHURMEEN, a town of Syria; 32 miles S.S.W. of

SHURMIN, atown of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raflan ; 25 miles N. of Maru-errud.
SHURPH el Graab, i.e. the pinnacle of the ravens, a
pe ge 25 miles N. of Tremecen.
URUBUI, a town of Brafil, in the government of
Para; 22 miles E. of Pauxis. :
SHUS, the name of famous ruins in the Perfian empire,
fituated in the province of Kuziftan, or Chufiftan, (the
ancient Sufiana, which f{ee,) about feven or eight miles to
Coe ee sony grea ap A la
banks of the . in a beautiful and {pacious plain,
28 miles W. of Shufter, and celebrated for its elegant
of 22 arches, 450 paces in length, 20 in breadth,
in height, the piers of which are conftructed
ftones, and the arches and upper parts of burnt
i The ruins of Shus extend about twelve miles from
extremity to the other, ftretching as far as the eaitern
occupying an immenfe {pace between
the Abzal, and, like the ruins of pees
confifting of hillocks of earth and rub-
covered with broken pieces of brick and coloured tile.
moft remarkable of thefe mounds ftand at
about two miles from the Kerah. The
loweft computation, a mile in circum-
100 in height; and the other,
fo high, is double the circuit of the
refemblance to the
with this difference, that initead of
of brick, they are formed of clay and
brick and mortar,

i

i
F

i
LE
P

44
rit

iH
i

g&

Sul

Rennell in favour of his opinion are, iit, the fimilarity of
name, and the fituation, which agrees better with the
diftance between Sardis and Sula, mentioned io the tablets
of Ariftagoras, than that of Shuller ; 2dly, the legend of
the prophet Daniel, whofe coffin was found at Shus; aad
gdl » that Sufa ought to be placed on a river, which has
its fource in Media, Dr. Vincent, in reply, fays, that the
fimilarity of name is a corroborating circumitancce, when
we are fure of our pofition, But till the pofition be afeer-
tained, it is only a prefumptive proof, and often fallacious ;
and that Shufterapproaches full nearerthan Shus to Shuthaa,
which is its title in Seripture, and Shuthan differs not from
Sufa, but by the infertion of a dot in the letter Schin. ‘Io
the legendary tradition of the tomb of Daniel, little more
ref is due, as the learned doGor conecives, than to the
legends of the church of Rome and the Mahomedan tra.
ditions. Sufa, he adds, was on the river Euleus; Shutter
is more ancient than Shus; Sufiana, the name of the pro-
vince, approaches nearer to Shuthan; and Kuziftan, its
modern appellation, derived from the mountains which
furround it, is evidently conneéted with the Kisii, Kufli,
and Koffii of the Greeks. Nearchus failed up to Sufa, with-
out entering the Shat-ul-Arab, which he would not have done,
if that ci ae ftood on the Kerah ; and when Alexander de-
{cended the Euleus, he fent his difabled fhips through the cut
of the Hafar, into the Shat-ul-Arab; and, finally, a fron
reafon for placing Sufa at Shufter occurs in Ebn Haukul,
who fays, that there is not in all Kuziitan any mountain,
except at Shutter, Jondi Shapour, and Ardz; and as the
caitle of Sufa is reprefented by hiftorians as a ftron place,
it is reafonable to fippste that it ftood upon a hill, Mr.
Kinneir, in his ‘“ Geographical Memoir on the Perfian
Empire,” has examined with critical fkill and great can-
dour the objections of Dr. Vincent, and the principles on
which they are founded ; and the refult is, that he inclines
to favour the opinion of major Rennell, in {upport of which
he cites the authority of Strabo, who fays, that the
Perfian capital was entirely built of brick, there not being
a ftone in the province; whereas the quarries of Shutter
are very celebrated, and almoft the whole of the town is
built of ftone, but there is no fuch thing in the environs of
Shus, which was anciently formed of brick, as appears
from our author's defcription of the pyramids that itill
remain. However the queftion concerning the {cite of
the city of Shus be determined, it is now a gloomy wilder-
nefs, infefted by lions, hyenas, and other bealts of prey.

SHUSJIMIAN, atown of Perfia, in Khoraflan; 6 miles
N. of Maru.

SHUSTER, a province or diftri& of the Perfian empire,
conftituting one divifion of Kuziitan, or Chufiftan, the
other being formed by the territories of the Chab Sheikh.
The latter extend from the banks of the Tab to the conflux
of the Karoon and Abzal, and from the fhore of the Perfian
gulf to a range of hills which fkirt the valley of Ram
Hormuz to the fouth, The moft fertile {pots in this dif-
tri& are thofe in the environs of Dorak, the capital of the
Chab prince, and on the banks of the Hafar and Shat-ul-
Arab. Here dates and rice are produced ; and hence the
Sheikh Mahomed derives his principal revenues. The wheat
and that are grown are fearcely fufficient for the

fupply of the inhabitants. The rice harveft is in Au

al Sedan, and that of other grain in April and .
The northern and weftern parts ot ae’ oneal y ainerd eel
rable urage; and here the wandering tribes, which

compofe the principal part of the population, pitch their
tents. Both banks of the ache frees its junGtion with
ruins of

the Abzal, eight furfungs below Shutter, to the
4L Sabla,

S H U

Sabla, are uninhabited, and confequently almoit wholly un-
cultivated, and covered with brufh-wood, the refort of lions,
wild bears, and other animals. Morafles are common.
The Chab country is watered by three rivers, viz. ft, the
Karoon, fuppofed by fome geographers to be the ancient
Choafpes, but Kinneir difputes their identity ; it rifes 22
furfungs S.W. of I{pahan, and after receiving many tri-
butary ftreams inthe mountains of Lauriftan, flows through
the city of Shufter to the village of Bundekeel, eight fur-
fungs to the S. of that city, where it meets the Abzal:
puriuing thence a foutherly courfe, as far as Sabla, N. lat.
30° 32', and 30 miles E. of Baflora, it divides itfelf into
two branches, one of which difcharges itfelf into the fea
at Goban, and the other, afluming the name of Hafar,
feparates, after a courfe of 14 miles, into two branches,
one of whieh pafles through an artificial canal, three miles
in length, into the Shat-ul-Arab, and the other enters the
fea by the name of the Bamithire. 2dly. The Zab, which
fee; and the 3d is the Jerahi, or ancient Pafitigris,
which defcends from the mountains behind Bebahan, in the
province of Fars, and pafling within a few miles of the
walls of that city, runs through the vale of Ram Hormuz
to old Dorak, in the territory of the Chab Sheikh. Here
it is difperfed in various direétions for the purpofe of agri-
culture ; and the water afterwards is loft, or occafions the
vait moraffes in the vicinity of modern Dorak. The prin-
cipal towns in the diftri€t of Chab Sheikh are, Dorak
or Felahi, Ahwaz, Endian, Mafhoor, Goban, and Jerahi,
whence the river, fo called, derives its name. The revenues
of the Chab Sheikh amount to five lacs of piaftres, or
about 50,000/. fterlinga-year; and he can bring into the field
5000 horfe, and 20,000 foot.

The territories attached to the government of Shufter
conftitute the faireft portion of Sufiana. It derives its
tertility from four noble rivers, and from a multitude of
{maller ftreams. This wealthy province, which, according
to Strabo, yielded to the hufbandman 100 or even 200
fold, and wasrich in its productions of cotton, fugar, rice,
and grain, is now, for the greateft part, a forfaken wafte.
The only indications to the centrary occur between Bun-
dekeel, Dezphoul, the vicinity of Haweeza, and the vale of
Ram Hormuz. From the Abzal to the Tigris, and the
river Gyndes, on the we(tern fide, and from the banks of
the Karoon to thofe of the Shat-ul-Arab, all is dreary and
defolate ; and on the E. fide of Shufter a lonely wild, up-
wards of 60 miles in length, extends from that city to the
entrance of the valley of Ram Hormuz. Although the
inhabitants of the towns and villages groan under the arbi-
trary fway of the governor of Shutter, his authority is
hardly acknowledged by the wandering tribes, both Perfian
and Arabian, of Kuziftan. Of the four great rivers which
embellith and fertilize the diftri& of Shutter, Karoon de-
ferves the firft mention. Next in magnitude is the Abzal,
which has two fources, one in the Shutur Koh, near
Boorojird, and the other in the mountains of Lauriftan :
thefe form a junétion N. of Dezphoul, and after pafling under
the walls of that city, empty themfelves, after a winding
courfe, into the Karoon, at Bundekeel. The third river 1S
the Kerah, or Haweeza river, called by the Turks the
Karafu, which is formed by the junétion of many ftreams
in the province of Ardelan, in Kurdiftan; it runs through
the plain of Kermanthaw, meeting the Kazawur and the Ga-
mafu. The Karafu, increafed in magnitude by tributary
ftreams, flows with a furious courfe towards Kuziftan, and
fupplied with an acceffion of water, it paffes on the W. of
the ruins of Shus to the city of Haweeza, and enters the
Shat-ul-Arab, about twenty miles below Korna, ‘The

SHU

fourth river is that fuppofed by Mr. Kinneir to be the
ancient Gyndes, which proceeds from an unknown fource
in the mountains of Lauriftan, and joins the Tigris between

Koot and Korna.

. Shufter, the capital of Kuziftan, and the refidence of a
Beglerbeg, is fituated in N. lat 32°. E. long. 48° 59', at
the foot of the mountains of Bucktiari, on an eminence com-
manding the rapid courfe of the Karoon, acrofs which is
a bridge of one arch, upwards of eighty feet high, from the
fummit of which the Perfians often throw themfelves into the
water, without the flighteft injury. On the weftern fide it is
defended by the river, and on the other fide by the old ftone
wall, now fallen into decay. The houfes are good, being
principally built of ftone, but the ftreets are narrow and
dirty. The population, confifting of Perfians and Arabians,
exceeds 15,000 fouls ; and it has a confiderable manufaéture
of woollen ftuffs, which are exported to Baflora, in return
for the Indian commodities brought from thence. This
city is generally believed to be the ancient Sufa; but
fome approved geographers entertain a different opinion.
(See Suus.) Shus, in the old Perfian language, means
pleafing, or delightful, and Shufter ftill more delight-
ful; and the name is faid to be given to this city by
Sapor, the fon of Artaxerxes Babegan, by whom it was
founded, and caufed to be built under the infpeGtion of his
prifoner, the Roman emperor Valerian. It was once,
without quettion, a place of vaft extent, and no inconfiderable
magnitude. The caftle, dyke, and bridge, are moft worthy
of notice. The caftle occupies a {mall hill at the wettern ex-
tremity of the town, commanding a fine view of the river,

mountains, and adjoining country. This fortrefs is, on ©

two fides, defended by a ditch, now almott choaked up
with fand, and on the other two fides by a branch of the
Karoon. It has one gate-way, formerly entered by a draw-
bridge. The hill is almoft entirely excavated, and formed
into furdahs and fubterraneous aqueduéts, through which
the water {till continues to flow. Near the caftle is the
dyke, or ‘¢ bund,” built by Sapor acrofs the Karoon, with
a view of turning a large proportion of the water into a
channel more favourable for agriculture, than that which
nature had affigned it. This dyke is conftruéted of cut
ftone, bound together by clamps of iron, about 20 feet
broad, and 400 yards long, with two fmall arches in the
middle. It has lately been rebuilt by Mahomet Ali Meerza,
governor of Kermanfhaw, and its beneficial effects are
already experienced. The artificial canal, occafioned by
the conftru@ion of this dyke, difembogues, after a long
winding courfe, into the Dezphoul, half a mile from Bun-
dekeel. Near the canal is a bridge, built of hewn ftone,
confifting of 32 arches, 28 of which are yet entire. The
city of Shufter is fo remarkable for its falubrity, as to be
the continual refort of invalids from the furrounding ter-
ritories. In fummer the heats are exceflive from nine in the
morning to the fame hour at night, when the air is refrefhed
by a gentle breeze from the N.W. During the day the
inhabitants take refuge in fubterraneous chambers, and pafs
the night on the flat roofs of their houfes. The winters are
mild, and the {prings temperate and delightful. Shufter
affords excellent fprings. Kinneir’s Geog. Mem. of the
Perfian Empire.

SHUT in Land. See Lanp.

SHUTESBURY, in Geography, a townthip of America,
in Hampfhire county, Maflachufetts, on the E. fide of
Conneéticut river ; go miles W. by N. from Botton, con-
taining 939 inhabitants. ‘

SHUTTING, in Anchor-Making, denotes joining or
welding one piece of iron to another.

SHUTTING-

SHW

+ Suurrixe-Up, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
woods and plantations, which fignifies the inclofing and
fecuring them from the injuries which are done to them
by neat cattle and other forts of live-ftock getting into them,
and the keeping of them fecure and (afe for a certain period
of time before they are cut over and converted to ufe in
their different intentions. See Woon.

It alfo implies the removing of live-ftock from the
paftures and other grafs lands, ee the purpofe of clofing
them in the view of having the former of a more full, {uit-
able, and better growth or bite, as it is called, and the
latter more productive of grafs for hay. See Mravow,
and Pasture.

SHUTTLE, in the Manufadures, an inftrument ufed by
the weavers, which, with a thread it contains, either of
woollen, filk, flax, or other matter, ferves to form the woofs
of ttuffs, cloths, linen, ribbands, &c. by throwing the fhuttle
alternately from left to > a and from right to left, acrofs

of warp, which are ftretched out

fhuttle is a kind of cavity, called
fhuttle ; in which is inclofed the
the thread deftined for the woof ;

matter. .

The ribband-weaver’s fhuttle is very different from that
of moit other weavers, though it ferves for the fame pur-
pole: it is of box, fix or feven inches long, one broad, and
as much deep ; thad with iron at both ends, which terminate
in points, and are a little crooked, the one towards the right,
Selita tied teamln tho Gierieaintng the figure o an

Swurtye, a ielnd Nevioatin, a term exprefling a {mall

uice, paddle, &c. }
SHUTTLEWORTH, Osanian, in Bigrgly, or-

ganift of St. Michael’s church, Cornhill, was el » on the

refignation of Harte, for St. Dione’s Back-church, who was

Swan concert, from its firft inftitution to the time of his death,
about the year 1735, when he was fucceeded by Felting.
His brothers were excellent performers on the violin, and
employed in all the city concerts. But Obadiah is almoft a
inftance of the fame mufician being equally admired
i on two cag aerpeest «ie was
fuch a favourite on ‘emple organ, that great
crowds went oh am hear him of a § 2 im gat when,

after fervice, he frequently played near an hour, giving a
~ movement to each of fotos previous to his final fugue

on the full "

SHWAN.P » the name of a Chinefe inflrument, com-
pofed of a number of wires, with beads upon them, which»
they move backwards and forwards, and which ferves to afliit
them in their computations. See Anacus.

SHWAYEDONG, in G by, afmall but neat town
of the Birman empire, on the Irawaddy, containing about

=

s']

00 houfes, ranged in a regular ilreet; cach dwelling
ct a {mall garden, fenced with a bamboo railing. Its
two monatteries and a few {mall temples did not engage the
particular notice of Col. Symes and his companions ; but
the tall and wide-fpreading trees that overfhadowed them
were objects of pleafing contemplation. Symes's Embatly
to Ava, vol. ii. p. 254. .

SHY, in Agriculture, « provincial term, fignifying high-
mettled or head-ftrong, in the manner of wild colts, &c.

SHYAMULA, in Mythology, a name of Parvati, the
confort of the Hindoo deity Siva. It means with a blue
body ; and is, with many other names of fimilar derivation,
given to that goddefs, and to Vifhnu, Krifhna, and Rama,
who are deferibed and reprefented of “ hyacinthine hue.’’
Among thefe names are Syama, Shyamala, &c.

SI, in Geography, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ho-nan; 50 miles N.W. of Kouang.

S1, or Sia, a town of China, of the fecond rank, in
Chan-fi. N. lat. 36° 40' E. long. 110° 31’.

Si, in Mufic, a name in finging, given by the French to
the tharp 7th of the key of C, to preclude the embarraflment
of the mutations in folmifation. (See Hexacnonp, and Mu-
tations.) A fimilar expedient had been often attempted
by various authors; but none had been fo generally adopted
as this, which however was long folely confined to France;
nor is it yet general.all over Europe. And we think that
the manner in which the French fyllabize not only vocal
but inftrumental mutfic, is fubjeét to very material objeétions ;
it only provides for one key. If the new fyllable # had been
ufed for the fharp 7th of every key, as well as that of ut or C
natural, and /a for every key-note or tonigue in minor keys,
it would have exempted the principianti in fiaging from
much perplexity. There is no certain name for any note,
except in the key of C, ut, re, mi, fa, fol, la, fi, ut ; and whe-
ther B is flat, natural, or fharp, it is equally denominated fi
as C, whether natural, flat, or tharp, is always called us.
When D is the key-note, it is named re; when it is the 3d
of the key of Bh, or 4th of A, it ftill retains the name
of re.

Malcolm, in the year 1721, was the firft who openly cen-
fured the hexachords, which Dr. Pepufch, in 1731, defended
with fome warmth, by giving the beft and cleareft explana-
tion of their ufe and importance, not only in finging but
compofition, in regulating the anfwers to alg Fouchs,
Padre Martini, Sala, and the moft refpeétable Italian and
German theoriits, ftill adhere to the folmifation which has
produced fo many great compofers and fingers during the
two lait centuries. We have given our opinion fully on the
fubje& in the article Serna, a Roman matter, who propofed
a new method of naming the intervals in cultivating the
voice. See Serra.

The original introdu@ion of this fyllable is attributed by
Merfennus and other writers to one Le Maire, a French
mufician, who laboured for thirty years to bring it into
practice ; but he was no fooner dead than all the muficiane
of his country made ufe of it. However, it has been the
more general opinion, that the fyllable / was introduced into
the fcale by Ericius Puteanus of Dort, who lived about the

r1s8o. M. Bourdelot afcribes the introduGion of this
yllable into the fcale to a Cordelier, about the year 1675 ;
and he adds, on the teftimony of the abbé de la Louette,
that it was invented, or a fecond time brought into praGice,
by one Metru, a famous finging-maiter at Paris, about the
year 1676; and Bonet inclines to think, that the honour of
the invention might be due to the Cordelier, but that the merit
of reviving it is to be af to Metru. Bourdelot infi-
nuates, that though the ufe of the fyllabe f is much ap-

4L2 pro

SIA

proved of by the French muficians, yet in Italy they difdain
to make ufe of it, as being the invention of a Frenchman.
Hawkins’s Hitt. of Mufic, vol.1. p. 435.

The French are not yet agreed to whom they are obliged
for the fyllable /7; fome fay it was Nevers, fome Le Maire,
and other claimants are mentioned by Roufleau; but not
being quite fatisfied with its utility, we fhall beftow no
pains in verifying the claims of an imperfect invention,

Sr Adion, in Law, the conclufion of a plea to the action,
when the defendant demands judgment, if the plaintiff ought
to have his action, &c.

SIABE’, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Segeftan, or Seiftan.

SLABISCH, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Aba-
kan, near Bankalova, in the government of Kolyvan.

SIADY, a town of Samogitia, feated on a lake ; 33 miles
N.N.W. of Miedniki.

SIAGNE, a river of France, which runs into the Medi-
terranean, N. lat. 43° 31!. E. long. 7°.

SIAGONAGRA, a name given by fome medical writers
to the gout in the jaws.

SIAKA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of
Ximo ; 12 miles W. of Taifero.

SIA-KOH, a mountain of Perfia, inthe province of Irak ;
so miles E.N.E. of Kom.

SIAL, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Egypt, which
forms a harbour in the Red fea. N. lat. 24°30!. E. long.

orale

SIALACOORY, a town of Hindooftan, in Cochin;

o miles N.E. of Cranganore.

SIALISMUS, formed from ciaaoy, faliva, a word ufed
by the ancients to exprefs a difcharge of faliva, brought on
by the holding hot things in the mouth; and by us for a
falivation by mercury.

SIALO, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifland of Sibu. N. lat. 9°53’. E. long. 123° 301.

SIALOCHI, aterm ufed by the ancients to exprefs fuch
perfons as had a plentiful difcharge of faliva, by whatever
means. Hippocrates ufes it for a perfon having a quinfey,
who difcharges a very large quantity of faliva. Others ex-
prefs by it perfons, whofe mouths naturally abound with
a bitter faliva; and others, fuch perfons as, from having
avery large tongue, {pit into people’s faces while talking
with them.

SIALAGOGUES, in Medicine, from ciaAos, faliva, and
xyw, I excite, comprehend all fuch medicines as increafe the
flow of faliva.

The fubftances which operate upon the falivary glands,
fo as to excite them to pour out their fluid in increafed
quantities, are of two kinds; namely, thofe which may be
called external, and which, when applied within the mouth,
flimulate the excretories of faliva and mucus, opening there-
by their acrid qualities; and thofe which are adminiftered
internally, and operate through the medium of the circu-
lation.

Tt feems to be a falutary provifion of nature, that when
any acrid matter is applied to the fenfible parts of the tongue
and internal furface of the mouth, a quantity of faliva and
mucus fhould be poured out to wafh it off, or to defend thofe
parts from its irritating effeéts. Whence, by the continued
application of acrid fubftances, a confiderable evacuation of
the veflels of thofe parts is produced. By emptying the
falivary glands and mucous follicles, they produce an afflux
of fluids from all the neighbouring veflels to a confiderable
extent. Whence it will be readily underftood, that thefe
matticatories may relieve rheumatic congeftions, not only in
the neighbouring parts, as in the cafe of tooth-ache, but alfo

STA
congettions or inflammatory difpofitions in any part of the
head, fupplied by the branches of the external carotid.

Many fubftances are reforted to for this purpofe, and
chiefly the warm and acrid vegetables ; indeed every fub-
{tance that proves fharp and heating to the tongue, or inter-
nal furface of the mouth, will anfwer the end. ‘The angelica
is a mild and agreeable fialagogue ; the imperatoria more
acrid; and the pyrethrum more acrid ftill, and therefore
more commonly employed. Other fubftances might be
enumerated, but it may be enough to add, that a bit of frefh
horfe-radifh root, held in the mouth, and chewed a little
there, is as effeétual as any.

The only medicine which we poffefs, that is capable of
exciting a flow of faliva when taken internally, is mercury.
Tn its crude and fimple ftate of quickfilver, however, it 1s
perfeétly inert, and exerts no influence whatever upon the
living body, until it is oxydated, or combined with other
materials. Its operation then, as Dr. Cullen has ably de-
monttrated, is not, as was formerly fuppofed, by any che-
mical aétion en the fluids of the body, by which they are
attenuated, and thus made to pafs off more readily through
the excretory duéts ; but by a general ftimulant effeét upon
the vafcular fyftem, and efpecially upon the various excre-
tories of it. When blood is drawn froma perfon under the
full influence of mercury, it exhibits no appearance of any
diminution of confiftence ; but, on the contrary, it is always
found in the fame condition as in inflammatory difeafes.

It will not be neceflary to enter into detail in this place
re{peting the mode of adminiftering mercury as a fiala-

gogue, fince that has already been done under the head of —

Lures Venerea, for which difeafe principally it is fo exhi-
bited. In this difeafe, indeed, as well as in difeafes of the
liver, in hydrocephalus, and fome other maladies, it is not
adminiftered with a view to the evacuation from the falivary
glands ; its operation as a fialagogue is rather looked upon
as the teft of its full influence on the conftitution, than as
the means of its remedial power. See Cullen, Materia
Medica, part 11. chap. 17.

During the prevalence of a chemical theory, to which the
difcovery of the importance of oxygen in the animal economy
gave rife, and when it was fuppofed that the nitric acid had
been found to be a fubftitute for mercury in the cure of
fyphilis, it was even maintained that this acid ated in a
fimilar manner upon the falivary glands, and was, in faét, a
powerful fialagogue. Farther experience, however, while
it difproved the antivenereal powers of this acid, difproved
alfo its virtues as a fialagogue, except indeed it might influ-
ence the excretory duéts of the glands externally, that is by
its acrid qualities in the aé&t of being fwallowed.

SIALUSSIEB, in Geography, a town of the Arabian
Irak, on the Euphrates ; 8 miles E. of Sura.

SIAM, a country of Afia, the name of which is of un-
certain origin; but probably derived from the Portuguefe,
in whofe orthography Siam and Siad are the fame ; fo that
Sian, or Siang, might be preferable, as Loubere has fug-
gefted, to Siam; and the Portuguefe writers in Latin call
the natives * Siones.”? The Siamefe ftyle themfelves “¢ Tai,’®
or freemen, and their country “ Meuang Tai,” or the king-
dom of freemen. ‘The Portuguefe might poffibly derive
the name Siam from intercourfe with the Peguele.
«¢ Shan,?? however, is the oriental term. Before the recent
extenfion and encroachments of the Birman empire, the rich
and flourifhing monarchy of Siam was regarded as the
chief ftate of exterior India; but fome of its limits are not
now eafily afcertained. Onthe weft of the Malayan penin-
fula fome few pofleffions may remain to the fouth of 'Ta-
naferim; and on the eaftern fide of that Cherfonefe, Ligor

may

STAM.

may mark the sr On the welt, a chain of moun-
tains divides Siam, as formerly, from Pegu; but the nor-
thern province of Yunthan feems to belong to the Birmans ;
who extended their territory, in this part, to the river May-
aug; and the limits may perhaps (fays Pinkerton) be a
ridge running E. and W. above the river Anan, ‘T’o
the S. and E. the ancient boundaries are fixed 5 the ocean,
and a chain of mountains, dividing Siam from Laos and
Cambodia: fo that, according to the ancient defcription
of this kingdom, it may be confidered as a large vale be-
tween two ridges of mountains. ‘The northern Rat Sue,
as defined by Loubere, evince that Siam has lott little in
that quarter. His city Chiamai is oe Zamee, fifteen
beyond the Siamefe frontier. The northern

limit is therefore at 19°, and not at 22°, as he erroneoufly
ftates irs latitude ; therefore the length of the kingdom
may be about 10°, or near 700 Britith miles, and about
one-half of this not above 70 miles in medial breadth. Or
its urement may be more accurately ttated from about
11° of N. lat. to 19°; being in length of about 550 Britith

miles, by a breadth of 2
- This kis is divided into ten provinces, viz. Sup-
thia,

ja, Bancok, Porcelon, Pipli, Camphine, Rappri, ‘l'ana-
ferim, , Cambouri, and Concacema, each of which
has its refpeétively. Of thefe provinces we have

the following fhort notices. Bancok is fituated above feven

from the fea, and in the Siamefe language is called
Fou. Its environs are embellifhed with delicious gardens that
furnifh the natives with fruit, which is their chief nourifhment.
See Bancox.

* Tanaferim is a province abounding in rice and fruit-trees ;
it has a fafe and commodious harbour, admitting veilels of
all nations ; and in this province the people find more ample
refources of fubfiftence than in the other parts of the mo-
narchy. (See Tanasenim.) Cambouri, on the frontiers

of , carries on a confiderable trade in the commodity
called by the French eagle-wood, elephants’-teeth, and horns
of the vhinocéron; The fineft varnifh is alfo procured from

this province. Ligor affords a kind of tin, called by the
French calain, the calin of the Portuguefe. (See Licor.)
Porcelon was formerly a diitin€ fovereignty, and produces
dyeing woods and precious gums.
The capital city of the kingdom has been called Siam, by
the igiiteaae' OF Portbgecls navigators. In the native lan-
the approaches to the Eu enunciation of
Fashia, or Juthia; it is fituated on an ifle formed by the
river Meinam or Menam. Its walls in Loubere’s time were
above a fixth part was inhabited. Its
from the Birman conqueft

3
F

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sie
g

F
i
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y land. Diftinét quarters were in-

Rewer Wim Wty 4
tem i a

been eae inferior dems all sipebees

See Juruia.

i

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O38
F
H
n
;

i
!
un
iy

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:
=

ing fragment of the Siamefe territory in that quarter pre
fents no confiderable town; though villages appear in Junk
feylon and fome of the other ifles, Kempfer, in an account
of his voyage to Japan in 1690, deferibes two remarkable
edifices near the capital ; the firit isa famous pyramid, and
called Puka Thon, ereéted for the commemoration of a
victory obtained, on the {pot where it flands to the N.W.,
over the king of Pegu. ‘This magnificent ftru¢ture is en-
clofed by a wall, and is 120 feet high, varying io form at
its different ftages, and terminating in a flender {pire ; the
fecond edifice confifts of two fquares to the eatt of the
city, furrounded by a wall, and feparated by a channel of the
river, Thefe {quares contain many temples, convents,
chapels, and columns, particularly the temple of Berklam,
witha d gate ornamented ak ftatues and various carv-
ings ; L caper decorations appear by Kampfer’s account to
have been exquifite.

Our principal fources of information with regard to Siam
are the publications of La Loubere, who went as ambaffador
from Louis XIV. to the king of Siam, and thofe of the
French miffionaries, of which, that from the papers of the
bithop of Tabraca by Turpin, in 1771, is the moft im-
portant. According tothe account of the latter writer, the
people of Laos and Pegu have eftablifhed a confiderable
colony in Siam, fince their countries were ravaged by the
Birmans. Here are alfo many Malays, and the ancient kings
had a guard of Japanefe, which exhibits, in a ftriking point
of view, the intercourfe that fubfifted among oriental
nations.

With regard to the hiftory of Siam, we thall content our-
felves with obferving, that previoufly to the Portuguefe difco-
veries, this country was unknown to Europeans. According
to Loubere’s account, the firit king of the Siamefe commenced
his reign in the year 1300 of their epoch, or about 756 years
after the Chriftian era, Since the Portuguefe difcovery, their
wars with Pegu, and occafional ufurpations of the throne,
conititute the principal topics of their hiftory. In 1568 the
Peguefe king declared war on account of two white ele-
phants, which the Siamefe refufed to furrender: and after
> ee flaughter on both fides, Siam became tributary to

egu: but about the year 1620, raja Hapi delivered his
crown from this fervitude. In 1680, Phalcon, a Greek ad-
venturer, being highly favoured by the king of Siam, opened
an intercourfe with France, for the purpofe of fu porting
his ambitious defigns; but they were punifhed by bis deca-
pitation in 1689, and the French connection was thus ter-
minated. From Turpin, who has extended the hiltory of
Siam to the year 1770, we learn, that the firft king began
to reign about 1444 years before Chrift, and that he had forty
fu ors before the epoch of the Portuguefe difcovery, or
the year 1546, many of whom were precipitated from the
throne on account of their defpotifm. Neverthelefs, as thefe
forty kings cannot be fuppofed to have reigned more than
ten years each, at a mean computation, the firlt hiftorical
date cannot afcend beyond the year 1100 after Chrift, inftead
of 1 ears B.C. One of the mott remarkable events,
after t French had evacuated Siam, is the war againit the
kingdom of Cambodia, which was reduced to the n
of feeking the protection of Cochin-china. The Si
army, having advanced too far into the country, was deltroyed
by famine ; and their fleet, though it deftroyed the town of
Ponteamas, with 200 tons of elephants’ teeth, had little
fuccefs. In 1760 a fignal revolution happened in Siam, pre-
ceded by violent civil wars between two rival princes. Ac-
cording to Turpin’s ftatement, the Birmans, a people of
the kingdom of Ava, had, in 1754, languithed five
under Peguefe domination. “Having loft by —

SIAM.

their king, queen, and moft of their princes, they lamented
their humiliation and fervitude, and anxioufly fought for
a deliverer. With this view they feleted one of their
companions, named Manlong, a gardener, who, fingularly
qualified for the office they devolved upon him, by corporeal
and mental endowments, undertook to refcue them from the
yoke of tyrants, on condition of their cutting off the heads of
all the little fubaltern tyrants whom the Peguefe had fent to
opprefs them. They readily fubmitted to his terms; and
after the maflacre, Manlong was proclaimed king. Having
prepared a force, and eftablifhed a difcipline which rendered
the Birmans almoft invincible, he began by the capture and
complete ruin of the city and port of Siriam, which took
place about the year 1759; and advancing to Martavan and
Tavail, the new monarch received information of the riches
of Siam, and formed the defign of its conqueft. He began
by fending 30 fhips to pillage the cities of Merghi and 'Ta-
naferim, and this fuccefs led him to flatter himfelf that he
fhould be able, with great eafe, to fubdue the whole kingdom
of Siam. The court of Siam, hearing of this irruption,
fent to the bifhop of Tabraca, to requet that he would arm
the Chriftians, who amounted only to the number of 100,
and yet acquitted themfelves with greater honour than the
pufillanimous multitude. The Birman fovereign, being at
the diftance of three days’ march from Yuthia, the capital,
died in confequence of an abfcefs. The fuburbs, however,
en the Dutch quarter were ravaged and burnt ; and the fur-
rounding country was expofed to a thoufand cruelties. The
death of Manlong delivered the Siamefe capital ; the
youngelt of his fons having aflumed the fceptre, found him-
felf under the neceflity of regaining his own kingdom, in
order to ftifle any revolt. The Siamefe fovereign, however,
having rafhly pronounced a fentence of death againft the fa-
vourite of his brother, was forced to abdicate the throne ;
and in confequence of this event he became a Talapoin, or
monk, in May 1762, and many of his nobles followed his
example. Siam remained in a ftate of fecurity, upon the re-
port that the new prince of the Birmans had been dethroned
upon his return to Ava; and that his elder brother, who
had fucceeded, had nowifh to make conquefts. This pacific
monarch dying fuddenly, a pretence of war was afforded by

the affiftance which the Siamefe had given to a rebel Birman,

governor. In January 1765, the Bmans attacked Merghi
and took it ; and then proceeded to Tanaferim, which they
reduced to afhes. Flufhed with fuccefs, the general of
the Birmans marched againft Yuthia, not doubting that the
conqueft of the capital would induce other cities to fubmit.
The provinces on the north-weft of the royal city were ra-
vaged ; and the inhabitants faved themfelves from death or
Qavery by difperfion into forefts, where they participated
the food of wild beafts. The Siamefe, threatened with
fpeedy and total dettruétion, reunited their forces; but
though they fought with ardour, their fanguinary defeat
fubjected their country to the power of their conqueror. ‘The
fields, ravaged by the confuming flames, prefented nothing
to them but afhes, and famine became more terrible than
war. The vidtorious Birmans built, at the confluence
of two rivers, a town, or rather a fortified flation, which
they called Michoug. The Siamefe, on their part, at-
tempted to fortify the capital, and earneftly folicited the
affiftance of two Englifh veflels which happened to arrive.
The captain of one of them confented to defend the capital,
on condition of being fupplied with cannon and ammunition :
but the jealous Siamefe infifted that he fhould firft lodge his
merchandizes in the public magazine. With this condition
he complied, and going on board his fhip, haraffed the
enemy, and deftroyed their forts, fo that every day was

marked either by their defeat or flight. But demanding
more ammunition, the daftardly court became afraid, that
the Englifh captain, with his fingle fhip, would conquer this
ancient monarchy. Its indignant captain withdrew, after
feizing fix Chinefe veflels, whofe officers received from him
orders upon the king of Siam to the amount of the mer-
chandizes which had been lodged in the public treafury.
Upon his retreat, the Birmans, finding no oppofition, fpread
univerfal defolation, and configned even their temples to the
flames. Inftead of recurring to arms, the fuperftitious mo-
narch and his minifters repofed their whole confidence in their
magicians. A Siamefe prince, indeed, who had been
banifhed to Ceylon, raifed a little army, and returned to the
affiftance of his country ; but the diftratted court of Siam fent
forces to oppofe their deliverer. Many of the Siamefe, juftly
provoked by this conduét, joined the Birmans, who in March
1766 again advanced, after having been repulfed by the
Englifh captain, to within two leagues of the capital. In
September 1766, the Birmans feized a high tower, at the dif-
tance of about a quarter of a mile from the city, and raifed a
battery of cannon, which gave them an abfolute command of
the river. In this ftate of urgent danger, 6000 Chinefe were
charged with the defence of the Dutch factory, and of a large
adjacent temple. The Birmans, in confequence of previous
fkirmifhes and a fubfequent affault, feized on five confiderable
temples, which they converted into fortreffes; but in an-
other aflault they were compelled to retire. The Siamefe
officers, eager to fecure the magazines of grain, as a future
refource, produced an immediate famine ; which, followed by
a contagious diforder or peftilence, occafioned the moft dread-
ful devaftation. The Dutch factory was in vain defended
by ‘the Portuguefe and Chinefe; and after a fiege of eight
days, it was taken and reduced to afhes. ‘The whole Chrif-
tian quarter of the city fhared the fame fate ; and the virgins
were obliged to marry the firft young men that prefented
themfelves, in order to be proteéted by the matrimonial tie,
which the Birmans reverence. The Birmans, demanding an
unconditional furrender, aflaulted the city, and captured it
on the 28th of April 1767. The wealth of the palaces
and temples was confumed by the flames, or abandoned
to the foldiery. The golden idols were melted; and
the victors, finding that their avarice had been facrificed to
their fury, recurred to a€ts of violation and cruelty. ‘The
great officers ef the kingdom were loaden with irons, and
condemned to the gallies. The king, attempting to efcape,
was inaflacred at the gate of his palace. When nothing re-
mained for thefe conquerors to deftroy, they refumed their
march to Pegu, accompanied, among other captives, with
the remaining princes and princefles of the royal blood of
Siam. In June the Birmans quitted Siam, after having
burnt the town of Michoug, foon after its conftruction.
When the Birmans evacuated their conqueft, the Siamefe
iffued from their forefts, and fuperttitioufly directed their firft
rage againft their gods, for having abandoned them to a de-
ftruétive enemy. Availing themfelves of the wealth which
accrued from the ftatues, filled by fuperftitious perfons with
gold and filver, who expeéted to find them when they re-
vifited this world, they proceeded to eleét a leader; and Phaia-
Thaé, an officer of acknowledged ability, was the obje&
of their choice. This new prince difplayed confiderable
bravery and talents ; and in the year 4768 fuppreffed a rebel-
lion that was inftigated againft him. The Birmans in vain
attempted to renew their incurfions into the Siamefe terri-
tory : they were repulfed, and afterwards obliged to turn
their arms againft the Chinefe, who were defeated in their
turn. For further particulars with regard to the hiftory of
Siam, fee Birman Empire. Indeed, if the Birman empire
maintaing

SIAM.

maintains its — extent, Siam, we can have little doubt,

will ere long be deprived of its independence. But it is an
event not, ps, lefs ble, that the Birman empire
itfelf will into confufion, and be difmembered.

Every thing we are told refpeéting the government, the laws,
the literature, the arts, and perfonal qualities of the Siamete,
i a correfponding fate of advancement with that
of the Birmans. ‘That the religion of the Siamefe is the
fame with that of the Birmans, aod derived from the fame
origin as that of the Hindoos, there feems to be fuffi-
cient evidence. Sommona-Codam, mentioned by Loubere
as the chief ido! of Siam, is interpreted by competent judges
to be the fame with the Boodh of Hindooftan. The facred
lan called Bali is of the fame origin : the mott efleemed
ren. to be the Vinac, and the precepts of morality
are chiefly five; wiz. not to kill, not to fteal, not to com-

Chinefe in their feitival of the dead; and in fome other of
their rites. The government of Siam is defpotic, and the
fovereign, as among the Birmans, is revered with honours
almoit divine. ‘The fucceflion to the crown is wm ot Bi
the male line. The population has not been accurately afcer-
tained, nor have we any documents for this purpofe. Al-

ing to the Birman empire more than fourteen millions, as
fome have ftated, the Siamefe dominions may probably be

Loubere

» women, and children, 1,900,000. Loubere
no army, except a few royal
guards ; but Mandelflo eftimated the army, which may be
railed, at 60,000, with no lefs than 3000 or
ts. The navy is compofed of a number of
veflels of various fizes, which difplay a fin fantaftic
, like thofe of the Birmans ; and naval engagements
occur. The revenues of this fovereignty are of
. Mandelflo defcribes them as arifing
ird of all inheritances, from trade, conducted by
annual prefents from the governors of pro-
impofed on commerce, and the difcovery of
to be aroyal claim. Tin is alfo a royal
in Junkfeylon, which is abandoned
bere adds a kind of land-tax, and

i which is the royal domain.
coantiode Vegi in the reign of Louis XIV.
to be of confiderable

4

i
i

gteih
aiEe
Hea)

If dire@ed by European policy, Siam would form ftri&
the more

alliances with {tates of exterior India, -"
2 commou defence againft the growing preponderance o
the Birmans.

As tothe manners and cultoms of the Siamefe, as they

have embraced a branch of Hindoo faith, they are rather
Hindooftanie than Chinefe ; though ite Gituation is centrical
between the valt countries of China and Hindooftan, Leu-
bere has given a detailed account of the Siamefle manners,
The females are under few refirsints, aod marry at en
early age, and are palt parturition at forty. arnages
are condudéted by female mediation, and a prieit or magician
is ufually confulted concerning the propriety of an alliance.
On the third vifit the parties are confidered as wedded,
after the exchange of a few prefents, without any farther
ceremony, civil or facred. Fulpreny is allowed, more from
oftentation than any other motive; and one wife is always
acknowledged as fupreme. Royal marriages, from confi-
derations of pride, are fometimes inceftuous; nor does a
king hefitate to efpoufe his own filler. Diverce is feldom
practifed ; but the rich may chufe a more compliant wife
without difmifling the former. Few women become nuns,
till they are advanced in years. ‘The Siamefe funerals re-
femble thofe of the Chinefe. On this occafion, the Tala-
poins fing hymns in the Bali tongue. After a folemn pro-
ceffion the body is burnt on a funeral pile of precious woods,
erected near bed temple ; and the magnificence of the
fpectacle is enhanced by theatrical exhibitions, in which the
Siamefe are faid to excel. The tombs are pyramidal, and
thofe of the kings are large and lofty. The common food
of the Siamefe confilts of rice and fith; they alfo eat
lizards, rats, and feveral kinds of infe@s. The buffaloes
yield rich milk ; but butter would melt and become rancid ;
and cheefe is unknown. :

In Siam little animal food is ufed; the mutton and beef
being very bad. The doétrine of Boodh infpires the Siamefe
with horror at the effufion of blood. The houfes are {mall,
and conttruéted of bamboos, upon pillars, in order to guard
againtt inundations, which are common. The palaces only ex-
ceed common habitations by occupying a wider {pace, and
Sy saci of timber, with a few ornaments. They
are alfo more elevated, but have never more than one floor.
With rd to their perfons, the Siamefe are rather {mall,
but well made. The figure of the countenance, fays
Kempfer, both of men and women, has lefs of the oval
than of the lozenge form, being broad, and raifed at the
top of the cheeks; and the fore-head fuddenly contraéts,
and is almoft as pointed as the chin, Their eyes, rifing to-
wards the temples, are {mall and dull; and the ewduite is
commonly completely yellow. Their cheeks are hollow ;
mouth very large, with thick pale lips, and teeth blackened
by art ; the complexion coarfe, brown mixed with red, to
which the climate greatly contributes. From this defcrip-
tion the Siamefe appear to be much inferior in perfonal ap-
pearance to the Birmans; and to approach rather to the
Tartaric or Chinefe features.

The drefs of the Siamefe is flight, clothes being rendered
almoit unnecetfary by the warmth of the climate. A muflin
fhirt, with wide fleeves, and a kind of loofe drawers, are
almoft the only garments of the rich, a mantle being added
in winter, and a high conic cap upon the head. The
women ufe a f{earf in of the thirt, and the
of painted calico; but with this flight drefs t
tremely modett.

The Siamefe are faid to excel in theatrical amufements ;
the fubjects being taken from their mythology, and from
traditions concerning their ancient heroes. ir ordinary
amufements confift of races of oxen, and thofe of boats,
the combats of elephants, cock-fighting, tumbling, wref-
tling, and ncing, religious proceffions, illuminations,
acy bes iful exhibitions of fire-works. The men are gene-
rally very indolent, and fond of games of chance; while

the

Ucoat is
are ex-

SIAM.

the women are employed in works of indultry. Although
the Siamefe are indolent, they are ingenious, and fome of
their manufaétures deferve praife ; neverthelefs, the ruinous
and defpotie avarice of the government crufhes induftry by
the uncertainty of property. They are little flailed in the
fabrication of iron or {teel, but excel in that of gold, and
fometimes in miniature painting. The common people are
moftly occupied in procuring fifh for their daily food, while
the fuperior claffes are engaged in a trifling traffic.

The language of the Siamefe, called «« T’hay,’’ accord-
ing to Dr. Leyden’s account of it (Afiatic Refearches,
vol, x. p. 244.), appears to be in a great meafure original ;
but there is reafon to conjeéture, that it is not different
from that of the Birmans. To this purpofe it is alleged, that
Siamefe dramatifts ufed to perform in the Birman dominions,
which is not probable, unlefs the language were common.
Dr. Leyden fays, that it is more purely monofyllabic, and
more powerfully accented, than any of the Indo-Chinefe
languages. It certainly is connected, in fome degree, with
fome of the Chinefe diale&ts; efpecially the Mandarin or
Court language, with which its numerals, as well as fome
other terms, coincide, but thefe are not very numerous.
It borrows words freely from the Bali, but contraéts and
difguifes more the terms which it adopts, than either the
Ruk’heng or the Barma. In its finely modulated intona-
tions of found, in its expreflion of the rank of the fpeaker,
by the fimple pronouns which he ufes, in the copioufnefs
of the language of civility, and the mode of: exprefling
efteem and adulation, this language refembles the Chinefe
diale&s, with which alfo it coincides more nearly in con-
ftruGtion than either Barma or Ruk’heng. Its conitruétion
is fimple and inartificial, depending almoft folely on the
principle of juxta-pofition. Relative pronouns are not in
the language ; the nominative regularly precedes the verb,
and the verb precedes the cafe which it governs. When
two fubftantives come together, the laft of them is for the
moft part fuppofed to be in the genitive. ‘This idiom is
confonant to the Malayu, though not to the Barma or
Ruk’heng, in which, as in Englifh, the firft fub{tantive
has a pofleffive fignification. ‘Thus, the phrafe, a man’s
head, is exprefled in Barma and Ruk’heng, by /u-k’haung,
which is literally man-head; but, in Siamefe, it is Awa-khon;
and in Malayu, apala orang, both of which are literally
head-man. A fimilar difference occurs in the pofition of
the accufative with an a@tive verb, which cafe in Barma
and Malayu generally precedes the verb, as fummaing cha,
literally rice eat; but in Siamefe follows it, as ken kaw,
literally eat rice, which corre{ponds to the Malayu, makan-
nafi. The adjective generally follows the fubftantive, and
the adverb the word which it modifies, whether adjective or
verb. Whenever the name of an animal, and, in general,
when that of a fpecies or clafs, is mentioned, the generic,
or more general name of the genus to which it belongs, is
repeated with it, as often happens in the other monofyllabic
languages, as well asin the Malayu. In the pofition of the
adverbial particle, the Malayu often differs from the Siamefe ;
as Mana pargi, literally where go, but in Siamele, pai hnei,
go where. ‘Che Siamefe compofition is alfo, like that of
the Barma, a {pecies of meafured profe, regulated folely
by the accent and the parallelifm of the members of the
fentence ; but in the recitative the Siamefe approaches more
nearly to the Chinefe mode of recitation, and becomes a
kind of chaunt, which different Brahmins aflured Dr.
Leyden is very fimilar to the mode of chaunting the Sa-
maveda.

The T’hay coincides occafionally, even in fimple terms,
both with the Barma and Malayu ; but thefe terms bear fo

{mall a proportion to the mafs of the language, that they
feem rather the effect of accident or mixture, than of ori-
ginal conneétion.

The T’hay or Siamefe alphabet differs confiderably in
the power of its characters from the Bali; though it not
only has a general refemblance to it in point of form, but
alfo in the arrangement of the charaéter. The vowels,
which are twenty in number, are not reprefented by fepa-
rate characters, but by the charaéter correfponding to the
fhort ghar, varioufly accented; excepting the vocalic ru
and Ju, which are only variations of the r and / confonants.
The confonants are thirty-feven in number, and are not
arranged by the feries of five, like the Deva-nagari and

Bali, but the firft feries, £2, confifts of feven letters; the -

fecond feries, cha, of fix; the third feries, ¢a or da, of fix;
the fourth feries, ba or pa, of eight ; the fifth feries, ja, of
four ; and the lait feries, /z, of fix, including the vocalic
akar, though two of them are not in common ufe. Each
of thefe letters is varied by fixteen fimple accentuations,
and by thirty-fix complex ones. The letters ka, nga, ta, or
da, na, ma, ba or pa, are alfo final confonants. Hence it
is eafy to perceive the near approximation of the Siamefe
to the delicacy of the Chinefe accentuation; while in other
re{pects, the alphabet is confiderably more perfect, than in
the Mandarin or Court language of the Chinefe, which has
neither the fame variety of confonants, nor admits fo many,
in the clofe of a fyllable. The Siamefe pronunciation, even
of confonants, correfponds very imperfectly to the Eu-
ropean mode: 7 and / are generally pronounced z in the
clofe of a fyllable ; 4 is often prefixed to a confonant ; but

from the total fufpenfion of the voice in pronouncing —

fyllables which terminate in a confonant, no afpiration can
be pronounced after them; ma and 6a, tya and chya, are
often difficult to be diftinguifhed in pronunciation, as are
ya-and ja, kyé and chyé, with other combinations. From
this circumftance, many combinations of letters are pro-
nounced in a manner fomewhzat different from that in which
they are written.

The firtt European who attempted the ftudy of Siamefe
literature, was the learned Gervaife, but his lucubrations
have never been publifhed. The learned and indefatigable

- Hyde procured from the Siamefe ambaflador at London,

an imperfect copy of the Siamefe alphabet, which has been
publifhed by Greg. Sharpe, inthe “ Syntagma Diflerta-
tionum,’? 1767. It is inferior to La Loubere’s alphabet
in accuracy, though it contains a greater number of com-
pound charaéters. La Loubere’s alphabet contains three
forms of the /z, correfponding to the Nagari; but the /oa
and /h’ha, being dilufed in common pronunciation, are com-

monly omitted both in the alphabet and in modern MSS.
The Siamefe or T’hay language contains a great variety
of compofitions of every fpecies. Their poems and fongs
are very numerous, as are their Cheritras, or hiftorical and
mythological fables. Many of the Siamefe princes have
been celebrated fot their poetical powers, and feveral of
their hiftorical and moral compofitions are {till preferved.
In all their compofitions, they either affeét a plain fimple
narrative, or an unconnected and abrupt ftyle of fhort,
pithy fentences, of much meaning. The books of medicine
are reckoned of confiderable antiquity. Both in {cience
and poetry, thofe who affect learning and elegance of com-
pofition, {prinkle their flyle copioufly with Bali. The laws
of Siam are celebrated all over the Eaft, and La Loubere
has mentioned three works of fuperior reputation, the Pra-
Tam-non, the Pra-Tam-Ra, and the Pra-Raja-Kam-manot.
Of thefe, the firft is a colleGtion of the inftitutions of the
ancient kings of Siam; the fecond is the conftitutional “ieee
6 Co)

‘

SIA

of the kingdom, and contains the names, fun@ions, and pre-

_ rogatives of all the officers; the third, which is about 150

old, contains additional regulations, Of thefe, the

is the molt celebrated and the molt deferving the at-
tention of Europeans,

The T’hay exhibits confiderable variety of meafures in
compofition, and frequently introduces feveral of them in
the manner aé is frequently done in Brij’h, Punjabi,
and Sik’h compofitions. ‘The moft frequent meafure, how-
ever, among the T’hay, as among the Ruk’heng and
Barma, feems to be that denominated rdp, which confifts
of four fyllables, but admits occafionally of one or
more in fhort ones; the Ja-ni, which confiits of
five fyllables, the Chd-bang of fix, the Pat’hamang of
feven, the Jefunta of eight, are alfo frequently employed.
The Siamefe are not deficient in literature, and their modes
of education are well na, ey by Loubere.

Mandello we » that the commerce of the

ital of Siam confifted in cloths imported from Hindoof-
tan, and various articles from China; in exports of jewels,
gold, benjoin, lacca, wax, tin, lead, &c. and particularly
-{kins, of which more than 150,000 were fold annually

to the Japanefe. Rice was alfo exported in great quantities
to the Afiatic ifles. The king was, by a ruinous policy,
the chief merchant, and had factors in moft of the neigh-
bouring countries. The royal trade confifted in cotton

tin, ivory, faltpetre, rack, and ikins fold to the
A

this country are igi uantities of grain, cotton, ben-
jamin ; fandal, oa Japan 5 antimony, tin,
iron, gold, and filver; fapphires, eme-

bers yee marble, tam! "4 a in
’ ion, ive ur,
re: peace of Aye, nature with

The two firft months of the Siamefe year, correfponding
with our December and January, form their whole winter ;
the a es to that portion which
is called their litle fummer; and the feven others to their

E

i
z
iy
i
:
i

their calendar ; the winter is
which {t conftantly
and is refrefhed with cold from the
of Thibet, and the bleak wattes of Mon-

already deferibed this country as a wide vale

high ridges of mountains; but compared with
i land is not above half the

breadth or Lefs induftrious than
i ort bran does not extend

of the noble

.

PERE Pa
Aes
preety E

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af
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SLA

Birmans, Rice of excellent quality is the chief produét of
their agriculture; wheat is not mat mach peafe and other
vegetables abound ; and maize 1s confined to their gardens.
The fertility of Siam depends in a great degree, lke that
of Egypt on the Nile, on their grand river Meinam, and
its contributary ftreams; for an account of which, fee
Meinam.

Of the lakes of this country little is known; a {mall
one, however, lies in the eaft of the kingdom, which ts
the fource of a river that flows into that of Cambodia,
To its extenfive ranges of mountains, inclofing the kingdom
on the ealt and weit, we have already referred. A {mall
ridge alfo pafles from eat to weit, not far north of Yuthia,
called by Loubere Taramamon. The forefls of the country
are large and numerous, and produce many valuable woods
Its chief animals are elephants, buffaloes, and deer. The
elephants in particular are diflinguideed for their fagacity
Mf beauty ; and thofe of a white colour are treated by the
Siamefe with a kind of adoration, as they believe the foul
of fuch is royal. Wild boars, tigers, and monkies, are
numerous, The reports of the mineralogy of Siam are
various. Mandelflo, or rather his tranflator Wicquefort,
who added, about the year 1670, the accounts of Pegu,
Siam, Japan, &c. informs us, that Siam contains mines of
gold, filver, tin, and copper; and Loubere fuggetts, that
they were anciently more diligently wrought, as the ancient
pits indicate; not to mention the great quantity of gold,
which muft have been employed in richly gilding the idols,
pillars, cielings, and even roofs of their temples. In his
time no mine of gold or filver, worth the labour of being
wrought, could be found. The mines chiefly wrought by
the Siamefe were thofe of tin and lead. The tin, called
“calin” by the Portuguefe, was fold throughout the
Indies ; but it was foft and ill refined. Near Louvo was a
mountain of load-itone, and another of inferior quality in
Junk/eilon; which fee. Pinkerton’s Geog. vol. ii.

The Siamefe, though of a melancholy turn, have no ob-
jection to lively me They have often parties on the
water, which they render very pleafant by a number of
voices, and the clapping of hands, with which they beat
ume.

The inftrument in the higheft favour with them produces
a found fimilar to two violins perfeétly in tune, played at
the fame time. But there is nothing more difa ble than
its diminutive, the kit of this inftrument, which is a kind of
rebec, or violin with three brafs ftrings.

Their copper trumpets very much refemble, in tone, the
cornets with which the peafants of France call their cows.
Their flutes are not much {weeter. They make likewife a
kind of carillon with {mall bells, which are lively, and not
difagreeable, when not accompanied by their iron drum,
which ftuns every one that is not accuftomed to its noify
harfhnefs. They have drums made of terra cotta, a baked
clay, with a long and very narrow neck, but open at the bot-
tom: they cover the drum with a buffaloe’s hide, and beat
it with the hand in fuch a manner, that it ferves for a bafs
in their concerts. Their voices are not di le, and if
we were to hear them fing fome of their airs, we thould not
be difpleafed. Laborde.

Siam, a name fometimes given to the country above de-
{eribed. See Juruia, and es preceding article.

Stam, Gulf of, a large bay of the Eatt Indian fea, be-
tween Cambodia and the peninfula of Malacca, having to
the north Siam.

SIAMODEL, a town of Hindooitan, in the Carnatic ;
13 miles N. of Nellore.

SIAMPA. See Cutasipa.

4M SIAN,

STA

SIAN, Scio, or Cio, a town of Africa, in Melinda.

SIANCAS, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Tucuman; 80 miles E.S.E. of St. Salvador de
Jugui.

SIANDUPADA, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
13 miles S.W. of Bangalore.

SIANELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 13
miles S.W. of Bangalore.

SIANG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in

uang-fi. N. lat. 23° 58!. E. long. 109° ol.

SIANG-CHAN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Tche-kiang ; 25 miles 3.E. of Ning-po.

SIANG-HIAN, atown of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-quang; 40 miles S.W. of Tchang-tcha.

SIANG-TAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chan-fi; 20 miles §.E. of Tfing.

SIANG-YANG, a town of Corea; 28 miles N.N.W.
of San-pou.

SIANG-YANG, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Hou-quang, on the river Han. N. lat. 32°5/. E. long.
111° 30/.

SIANG-YN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Hou-quang, on the Heng river; 27 miles N.N.W. of
Tcheng-tcha.

SIANKE, or Synxe, in Natural Hifory, a name given
by the people of fome parts of the Eaft Indies to the caryo-
phyllus, or clove-fpice. The people of the Moluccas, ac-
cording to Garcias, call it changue, which is cnly a {mall
difference of pronunciation. ‘The Turks and Perfians call
the fame {pice calafur.

SIAO, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Kiang-nan; 22 miles W. of Pefu.

Srao, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 30 miles in
circuit, which belongs to the fultan of Ternate. The
Dutch maintain in this ifland a corporal, a few foldiers, and
a f{chool-matter for the inftruétion of the children of the
natives. It abounds with provifions. N. lat. 2° 44!. E.
long. 125° 5!.

SIAO-CHAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Tche-kiang ; 17 miles N.W. of Chao-king.

STAO-HE-CHAN, a {mall ifland near the coaft of
China. N. lat. 37° 54!. E. long. 120° 34.

SIAO-HO-TCHAN, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N.
lat. 41° 43!. E. long. 121° 42!.

SIAO-NON-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
N, lat. 41° 24’. E. long. 126° so’.

SIAO-PI-HOTUN, a town of Corea. N. lat. 40° 24.
KE. long. 125° 26.

SIAO-TEIN, a river of China, which runs into the
Eaftern fea, N. lat. 37° 21!. E. long. 118° qa.

SIARA, a {mall town of Brafil, and capital of a dif
tri€t or captaincy of the fame name, fo called from a river
which rifes in the mountains, and difcharges itfelf into the
ocean in S. lat. 5° 30! The captaincy is {mail, not being
above 54 miles in compafs. It has two fortrefles, one on
the north, joining te the town of Siara, and fituated on a
fmall hill on the right fide of the haven, which is fo fhallow
as to admit only {mall veflels; and the other, called Fort
St. Luke, fituated on the coaft, at the mouth of a {mall
river, navigable only by barks. This diftri€t abounds in
cotton, fugar, tobacco, and Brafil wood, the ufual ftaples
of the country. The trade of the town, confifting chiefly
of fugar and tobacco, is inconfiderable. . lat. 3° 15/.
W. long. 39° 46'.

SIARDEHUIL, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
8 miles N.E. of Udegherry.

SIARMAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ma-

SIB

zanderan, on the Cafpian fea; 12 miles E.S.E. of Ferra-
bad, or Farabat ; which fee.

SIAS, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into lake Ladoga,
near Siafkoi.

SIASKOI, a town of Rufliz, in the government of
Peterfburg, near lake Ladoga; 24 miles N.E. of Nova
Ladoga.

SIATGONG, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar; 20
miles S. of Bahar.

SIATON, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Negroes. N. lat. 9° 21’. E. long. 123° 3/.

SIB, a town of Arabia, in the province of Mafcat ; 30
miles W.N.W. of Mafcat.

SIBABA, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the fouth coaft of Mindanao. N. lat. 6° 36. E. long.
122° 25!,

SIBA, or Sogn, called alfo fhe or Sabe, in Ancient
Geography, a people of India, on this fide of the Ganges,
and one of the firft nations that encountered Alexander on
the banks of the Acefines.

SIBALD de Wert, in Geography.
Dflands.

SIBALDES, a clufter of iflands near the coaft of Pata-
gonia. S. lat. 50° 53!. W. long. 59° 35’.

SIBATTA, a town of Japan, in the iffand of Niphon ;
15 miles S.E. of Nambu.

SIBAU. See Sxsou.

SIBB, a diftriét of the Perfian empire, in the province of
Mekran, governed by a chief, who refides in a {mall town
of the fame name. It confilts of a very extenfive plain,
through the centre of which flows a river, nearly dry, in
the bed of which are feveral groves of date-trees; but the
country, generally fpeaking, is quite barren.

SIBBA. See Srpga.

SIBBALDIA, in Botany, fo named by Linnzus, in
memory of fir Robert Sibbald, knt., M.D., author of
Scotia [luftrata, a folio volume, publifhed at Edinburgh in
1684, a confiderable part of which is dedicated to plants,
and in which the firft {pecies of the prefent genus is, for the
firft time, delineated.—Linn. Gen. 155. Schreb. 208.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1567. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Brit: 345. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 199. Purfh v. 1.
211. Jufl. 337. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 221. Gertn. t. 73.
—Clafs and order, Pentandria Pentagynia. Nat. Ord. Sen-
ticofe, Linn. Rofacee, Jufl.

Gen.’Ch. Ga/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cut half
way down into ten fegments; its bafe erect; fegments
{preading, half-lanceolate, equal in length, permanent, the
intermediate ones narroweft. Cor. Petals five, ovate, in-
ferted into the calyx. Stam. Filaments five, capillary,
fhorter than the corolla, inferted into the calyx; anthers
{mall, obtufe. Pi. Germens five, ovate, very fhort, in
the bottom of the calyx; ftyles from the middle of one fide
of each germen, the length of the ftamens; ftigmas capi-
tate. Peric. none, the clofed calyx fheltering the Seeds,
which are five, fomewhat oblong.

Obf. The piftils were found by Linngus to be fome-
times, though very rarely, doubled in number, on the fame
plant with other flowers that had only five. They appear
to vary from five to ten.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in ten fegments.

See FaLkLanp

Petals five, ftanding

onthe calyx. Styles from the fide of each germen. Seeds
five, in the bottom of the calyx.

1. S. procumbens. .Procumbent Sibbaldia. Linn. Sp.
Pi. 406. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 82. Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl.
Bot. t. 897. Lightf. Scot. 175. Fl. Dan. t.32. (Fra-

gariz fylveftri affinis planta, flore luteo; Sibb. Scot. p. 2.
25.

\
s
t
j

}

f

See... ©

SIB

ag. t. 6. £1, Seotch Cinquefoil; Petiv. Herb. Brit.
t. 41. £..7.)—Leaflets wedge-fhaped, three-toothed.—Na-
tive of the fummits of the Tighett mountains of Lapland,
Scotland, Switzerland, Siberia, and North America.
Tournefort gathered it alfo in Cappadocia. The plant
thrives beft in a mouldering micaceous foil, flowering in
June and July. The root is perennial and woody, aerane y

many fhort, {preading, leafy, herbaceous, round,
a ny flems, which are fli

uy branched, and procumbent,
except fometimes at their flowering extremities. Leaves on
long ftalks, whofe bafe bears a pair of oblong, acute /li-
pulas, like thofe of a rofe; their /eaflets three, on fhort
artial ftalks, sya inclining to ovate, green,
ay entire, except their three large terminal teeth. Flowers
in {mall terminal leafy corymbs, inconfpicuous, with mi-
nute yellow petals and famens, inferted into the thickened
rim of the n leafy calyx. Seeds dry, hairy. We have
noticed in F/, Lapp. that Plukenet’s t. 212. f. 3, cited by
Linnzus, and recently copied by Purth, belongs rather to
the Potentilla fobacaule nor does this figure, in eflential
points, refemble our Siddaldia.

2. S. ere&a, Tall Sibbaldia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 407. Willd.
a. 2. Pur nr. (S. n. 42; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 186.
Pentaphylloides foliis tenuiffime laciniatis, flofculis carneis ;
Amman. Ruth. 85. t. 15.) — Leaves in numerous linear
fegments, Stem ereét, much branched, leafy. Petals
obovate.—Native of ftony ground in Siberia, flowering in
pat ans Mr. Nuttall is recorded by Purfh, as havin
g this plant on the banks of the Miffouri, in No’
America. he root is tapering, brown, probably pe-
rennial. Stem ereét, a {pan high, round, downy, much
branched in a corymbofe manner, leafy from top to bottom,
many-flowered. eaves crowded, ed, hairy, repeatedly
three-cleft, with linear, obtufe, revolute, entire fegments,
like thofe of an Artemifia. Flowers fomewhat racemofe,
{mall, flefh-coloured.

3. S.altaica. Large-flowered Sibbaldia. Linn. Suppl.
191. Willd. n. 3. “ Pall. A&. Petrop. for 1773, 526.
t. 18. f. 2.” (S.n.q2, var. j; Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 187.)—
Leaves in numerous linear fegments. Stems flightly
branched, Petals roundifh-heart-fhaped.—Found by Pallas
very abundantly on the rocks of Dauria. The lems are but
about three inches high, flender, often fimple, and flightly
leafy. Flowers, efpecially their petals, three or four times
the fize of the lait, of which neverthelefs Gmelin, and at
one time Pallas himfelf, thought this plant a variety.

SIBBENS, or Sivvens, in Medicine, an infeétious dif-
eafe, of a chronic nature, fomewhat refembling fyphilis,

revalent in the weftern parts of Scotland. It is faid to be
o denominated from the appearance of a fungous extu-
berance aoe mae cutaneous fores, neta a ae:
berry ; wo bben, or frvven, bein e Highlan
appellation for a wild rafpberry. Whence it has alfo been
fometimes with the yaws, a difeafe of tropical
climates, brought from Africa, and fo denominated by the
~Eaayeen from the fame fruit. See Framsogsia and

AWS.

This malady is not of ancient date in Scotland. The
fir writer on the ayer was Dr. Gilchrift, who, in the
year 1765, diitributed a fhort defcription of the
among the people of Ayrthire, which was afterwards pub-
lithed by the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh. (See
Effays and Obfervations Phyfical and Literary, vol. iii.
art. 11.) rsa ee. to tradition in the Highlands, the
difeafe was introd there by the foldiers of Oliver Crom-
well, who laboured under the venereal difeafe, when gar-
rifoned in that country. From thence it is faid to have been

S1B

carried to Dumfries by a party of foldiers, who had bees
ftationed in the north Highlands; and it is perfeétly afcer-
tained, according to Dr. Paterfon, that it was introduced
into Ayrthire, about the year 1745, by people who went
thither from Dumfries to buy cattle. Since that period, it
has conflantly prevailed in different places in that diftni@,
at different times ; fometimes abating fo much, both in viru-
lence and frequency of occurrence, as to give hopes that it
would entirely pease, then breaking out again with
greater violence, generally in the harvett feafon, and {pread-
ing over feveral parifhes, (See Dr. Paterfon’s Letter, in
Beddoes’s Contributions to Phyfical and Medical Know-
ledge, p. 408.) Act its firlt appearance, it occafioned little
uneafinels or apprehenfion to thofe affeéted with it; but it
was foon difcovered to be a formidable difeafe, refembling
in charaéter the venereal difeafe, and to be propagated ex-
tenfively by its contagion, infomuch that, as Dr. Gilchrift
exprefles it, ‘* great are the perplexity and diftrefs, the ful-

icion and terror, caufed by it, wherever it comes; and
Fitherto nothing has been able to prevent the {preading of
it.’ The difeafe differs, however, materially from /ues ve-
nerea, though it is cured by the fame remedy; the poifon
being introduced into the fyitem not through the medium
of the organs of generation, but commonly by the mouth
and throat, in which the primary ulcerations occur.

The fibbens almoft always begins with an inflammation
of the throat, firft on the uvula and velum pendulum of the
palate, and afterwards on the tonfils, of a dark red colour,
which is fucceeded in one or two days, and fometimes fo late
as fix or eight, by {mall pimples, or veficles, which termi-
nate in ulcers, with a white furface, and red abrupt edges.
There is often alfo an aphthous appearance, or a feries of
white {pecks and floughs, upon the roof of the mouth, and
infide of the cheeks and lips, which commonly fhews itfelf
alfo at the corners of the mouth, in a {mall rifing of the tkin,
of a pearl or whey-colour; upon which part alfo a {mall
fungous excrefcence often appears, not unlike a rafpberry,
which changes to a fcab, and is a pretty fure fign of the
difeafe, although there be no aphthe or fore throat. The
uvula is fometimes deftroyed by the ulceration; and chil-
dren at the breaft, when thus affe€ted in the mouth and
throat, have perifhed from hunger, not being able to fuck
or {wallow.

In a little time the conftitution is contaminated by the
abforption of the poifon, and a feries of fecondary fymp-
toms appears. In fome, and efpecially in adult perfons,
dark red {pots, or fometimes fungous excrefcences, arife
about the anus and perinzum, which gradually increafe and
ulcerate. But the moft common appearances are eruptions
of a pultular charaGter on the fkin, containing, however,
little fluid, and foon terminating in a dry {cab, furrounded
by a livid margin, and aleimancely in ulceration. In fome,
and efpecially in children, thefe eruptions occupy chiefly the
belly, groins, and fides, and are fometimes feen on the face.
The ulcers, into which they pafs, ufually make but {mall
progrefs, not exceeding in general the point of the finger
in fize, and being irregular in their forms, and pretty clean,
with lightly inflamed edges. In fome inftances, however,
they have been feen to become confluent, and to unite into
one large foul ulcer over a great part of the abdomen, ex-
haling a molt intolerable and peculiar flench. In fome
children, indeed, the whole fcalp has gangrened, and the
ears have nearly fallen off. Smaller ulcers have alfo formed
on the breaft and face, covered with a purulent flough, re-
eae inert, without pain or inflammation, and feldom
increafing in fize.

In other cafes, where the primary fymptoms have been

4M 2 moderate,

SIBBENS.

moderate, and have fubfided, the fecondary fymptoms,
affeGting the fkin fuperficially, aflume different fhapes.
The whole furface of the body, Dr. Gilchrift fays, has
been obferved to be mottled, of a dufky copper colour, or
a dirty hue, as the difcolourings of the fkin in this difeafe
commonly are. Infants of the month have had a rednefs in
the lower part of the belly, buttocks, thighs, and part of
the legs, where fometimes it terminates abruptly in a ring.
In fome of thefe there was an inflammation, and a watery
fhining {welling of the pudenda. A more certain appear-
ance in fuch fubjeéts fomewhat older are broad red patches,
as large asthe palm of the hand, over all the trunk, as well
as the limbs, attended with inflammation. A clutter, or
clutters, of {mall puftules come out; the fkin grows dry,
and peels off, leaving a new tender fkin beneath; and this
will happen a great many times, fometimes in one place,
fometimes in another. Scabby eruptions are often met with
on the fcalp, fore-head, infide of the thighs, groins, and
parts contiguous ; where frequently fmall hardnefles, rifing
juit within the flin, excite a very troublefome itching. Be-
fides the inflammation and excrefcences about the fundament
already noticed, other appearances of the difeafe prefent
themfelves on the breaft, fhoulders, and elfewhere, efpe-
cially a fort of herpes exedens, or {preading tetter, healing
in one part, while it breaks out in another adjoining, and
leaving a great deformity of the fkin, after it cicatrizes.
In a few cafes, an eruption of tubercles occurs upon the
face, rather numerous, and in figure and fize refembling the
{mall-pox at the height, but being of a reddifh colour.
Thefe are attended with great heat and tumour of the face,
fo as fometimes to clofe up the eyes. In fome cafes they
have fpread thickly over the whole body, and fuppurated,
not unlike the confluent {mall-pox, and have even proved
fatal, as the {welling fubfided; but in others, where not
fo numerous, they gradually decay, without coming to
fuppuration, In fome perfons there is a {welling of the
furface, without any appearance of tubercles; in which
cafe, the cuticle exfoliates from time to time in fine white
reticulated flakes, as often as it isrenewed. In other cafes,
tubercles arife from {mall bright red {pots, of a more in-
tenfe rednefs than thofe juft mentioned, which in fome
places become confluent, and form a flat {mooth elevation,
which foon becomes of the ufual colour of the fkin, and
fometimes flightly ulcerates. The face, too, is often af-
fected with different kinds of eruption, fometimes alone,
and fometimes together with the reit of the body.

Where the difeafe aflumes {till greater malignity, larger
boils appear difperfed over the arms, fhoulders, face, legs,
and feet, which fuppurate, and form ulcers, which pene-
trate to the mufcular parts, laying them quite bare, and
feeming even to corrode them fuperficially. Thefe ulcera-
tions are of a high florid colour, with fearcely any dif-
charge upon their furface, except a little ichor, which ren-
ders them exquifitely tender and painful, and fcarcely bear-
ing the mildeft applications. Their edges are hard and
-ragged, their fize various, and their appearance very ma-
lignant ; fo that Dr. Gilchrift fays, when viewed fingly,
they might have been miftaken for real cancers; but the
number of them, the manner of their coming out, and other
circumftances, foon determine the difeafe to which they
belong.

There is one fymptom, not yet particularly defcribed,
but from which the difeafe takes its name, which remains
to be mentioned. An itchy tetter, or a fort of ring-worm,
breaks out in a circular form, which either {pontaneoufly,
or from being fcratched, becomes raw and excoriated, and
does not feab, but continues to ooze out an ichorous hu-

8

mour. Ina fhort time a fungous excrefcence {prouts up,
much like a rafpberry or itrawberry, elevated one half
above the furface, and, when fully formed, appearing as
if fet in a focket cut in the flefh exactly to receive it.
Sometimes, however, a black fcab forms, crufting over the
fore, except at the edges, where there is a crack or ring,
like the line of feparation between a mortified and a found
part, from which the fame fort of ichor is conitantly oozing.
By degrees this crack enlarges towards the centre, and
the {eab, being pufhed off, gives place to the fungus
Juit deferibed. In other cafes, thefe fpongy excrefcences
are preceded by a dark or grey feurf, refembling the fealy
leprofy. Thefe parts are the feat of an intenfe itching, and
when they are excoriated by fcratching or rubbing, the
fungus has roem to fprout up. Thefe fores occupy every
part of the body, and many of them are feen in the fame
{ubjeét at the fame time; but the excrefcences do not al-
ways {prout up, and are more commonly produced in the
fores which never form a f{cab, than in the f{cabby or fealy
ones. The fungus is rather indolent than tender to the
touch, and its colour is not remarkably different from that
of the fungus of other fores. :

The fibbens very rarely affeéts the bones, and then only
by extending from the {oft parts, and perhaps never attacks
the large and more folid bones. In feveral cafes, the teeth,
with their fockets, have been loft, and fome of the bones of
the cheeks and nofe have come away, and a portion of the
cartilaginous feparation of the noftrils has been deftroyed by
the difeafe. Several perfons die in a ftate of heétic, from
the very extenfive ulcerations, before the bones could be
materially affected.

Caufes of Sibbens—This difeafe has been principally pre-
valent among the lower ranks of the people in Scotland,
though not exclufively 5 for fome families of good condition
have loft their children by its attacks. The difeafe affeéts the
young and adult perfons equally ; but perfons advanced in
years appear to be lefs liable to the infeGtion. Children,
however, and women, from their more irritable frame, are
mott fufceptible of it.

The difeafe is commonly communicated by the direé
conveyance of the infe€tious matter by fome fpecies of con-
taét, and generally through the medium of the mouth ;
whence the primary fymptoms appear in the mouth and
throat, as before defcribed. ‘It is propagated,” Dr.
Gilchrift obferves, ‘* by ufing the fame fpoons and knives,
and wiping with the fame cloth, which the infe@ted have
ufed, without cleanfing or wafhing them; drinking out of
the fame glafs or cup; fmoaking with the fame pipe;
fleeping with the infected, or in the fame bed-clothes they
have lain in, and handling their fores ; by fucking or giving
fucks faluting, or kifling, and fondling children, or feeding
them in an uncleanly way.”? —

Dr. Gilchrift adds, that it is completely proved, that the
fibbens is propagated chiefly by thefe inattentions to clean-
linefs, by this circumftance, that **it has never got footing
among thofe of better fafhion,”” nor in towns, where, ex-
cept with the very lowett, greater attention to cleanlinefs is
generally obferved ; and that it was unknown among the
more cleanly inhabitants of the Englifh border, while it
occurred at Dumfries, and along the Scottifh boundary.
Another proof was deduced from the more frequent occur-
rence of the difeafe after autumn, which was thus accounted
for. «¢ A company of reapers is made up of very different
people, brought together from all parts: they eat and drink
promifcuoufly out of the fame cups and difhes; and a few
{poons are made to ferve a good many, by putting them
round from one to another. The fame is done with a

pipe

al

. SIIB

infmoaking. When the body is warm, and the pores
po ware of the lips and mouth is molt difpofed
to jon, which the heat, in labouring, will
render more aétive and apt to be communicated. A girl,
who had the thrush to a great degree, at thie feafon, {pread
the difeate through a whole parith, where it was not formerly
ions of this fort are not ufually communicable by
sg it feema to be believed, by thofe who have
witnelled the fs of fibbens, that it may be propagated
conta, Dr. Gilchrift fays, “ nor 1s it un-
that, in certain circumitances, the breath may be-
ying, however, his want of pofitive
ne penal Sana Dr. Paterfon a a
+ it is i that the breath of people, la-
bouring adedahe fore throat, is with infe&tion, and
communicates the difeafe, without the contaét of ulcers.’’
Contributions, loc. cit.
will be obvious, from the ing detail of the
f caufes of fibbens, that it is the refult of a
id poifon, o ing firit locally, and afterwards con-
ftitutionally, and i phenomena exceedingly analo-
to thofe of the venereal difeafe. There is alfo the
omg as we fhall fee, that the cure is effected
principally, if not exclufively, by mercury: whence feveral
writers, aud apparently Dr. Gilchrilt among the reft, have
—* a modification of fyphilis. It was foon dif-
fays this writer, * to be of the venereal kind, or
the foul di Dr. Paterfon, however, has pointed out
feveral circumftances which mark a difference between the
two. In the firft place, he obferves, the venereal difeafe
was common in Scotland long before the ns appeared 5
and he had never been able to trace the latter to any perfon
affected with is. oe it is much more iafe@ious
than common fyphilis, for it feldom gets into a family with-
ing every perfon in it, and frequently {preads
i If the common /ues were to {pread

in a fimilar manner, in all large towns would be
truly dreadful. Thirdly, she pe fibbens a more purely cu-

bie eR ote than the common lues, for it
po Pace, occafions buboes, and almoft never affects

readily cured than th inary form of fyphilis ; for a much
lefs quantity of ves blotches and extenfive
ulcers, than is required to the fecondary fymptoms of
fyphilis, contraéted in the ordinary manner. Its ordinary
commencement in the of utition, and its never

>t irears: tole!» ent mae ge genitals, nor being pee.
Cure Sibbens.—We ha eee a
a St i eS
is % a rs 4
like’ difeafe is perhaps petieased by: ;

the un-

pcupevielies of, rasrdlly he aaa

i ry, the corrofive fublimate, or
lors is the adapted for the care of bens
hat is, it cures it more Y> with equal certaint
Saktey sek aarti prey ion, This edxcuniftence
alfo con a point of diftinétion between the two ma-
ladies, and may arife, according te Dr. Paterfon’s fug-
geition, from the fibbens being a more fuperficial or

“tends from about the 37th

SIIB

cutaneous affe@tion than fyphilis. Dr. Gilchritt, however,
confiders it better to adopt the ordinary courfe of -
though not carried to the extent of high falivation, for te
purpefe of infuring regularity by means of conf
without which, he fays, it often failed, and the fymptoms
returned, rendering another courfe of medicine neceflary.
Experience thews, he fays, that the difeafe is proof agai Af
all flight adminitrations of the remedy ; that it will oon
or later return with greater force, or in a worle form; and
that it is only to be eradicated by a courfe of medi-
cine, judicioufly adapted to the fe degrees and circum-
{lances of the malady.

As the extenfive propagation of the difeafe in Scotland
was afcribable to the uncleanly praétices which prevailed
among the lower clafles of the people, fuch as ufing the
fame utenfils in eating and drinking, pafling the fame pi
from mouth to mouth, fleeping in the fame bed, ufing the
fame towel, &c.; fo the mol effectual check to the
grefs of the malady was to be expetted from a fyftem of
prevention, which confifled in adopting a more and
cleanly proceeding. Dr. Gilchrift recommended the
fons employed in harveit-work, each to carry with him a
difh, cup, Life, fpoon, and a cloth to wipe them with,
that all the party might not eat with the fame utenfils, and
transfer contagion to one another. He alfo ttrongly urged
the impropriety of admitting that common familiarity,
which every one claims by cuftom to kifs and fi
children, and efpecially to deny it to ftrangers, and thofe
of low rank. [By attending to thefe, and fimilar means of
prevention, the difeafe appears to have been materially con-
trolled, and its prevalence diminifhed.

SIBBIKITTIN, in Geography, a town of Afnica, in
Neola. N. lat. 12° 38’. W. long. 11° 35'.

SIBBO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland ;
1o miles S.W. of Borgo.

SIBBOLETH. See Suissoveru.

SIBBUL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the coun-
try of Barca; 25 miles W. of Augela.

SIBDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in
Caria; one of the fix towns which Alexander the Great
placed in dependence on that of Halicarnaffus.

SIBELLA, in Geography, 2 mountain of Calabria Ultra;
g miles E.S.E. of St. Severina.

SIBENEN, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the
Kander, 4 miles W. of Spietz.

. eee AL atown of Auitria; 8 miles W. of @t.
olten.

SIBERIA, or, as it is fometimes denominated, Afatic
Ruffa, is that part of the immenfe territory of the Ruffian
empire, which lies to the E. of the Ural chain of mountains,
by which the empire is interfeGted from N. to S. and thus
divided into two parts, differing from each other both as to
dimenfions and quality. Siberia is defcribed as a flat traét
of land of confiderable extent, declining imperceptibly to-
wards the Frozen ocean, and by equally gentle gradations
rifing towards the fouth; where at lait it mer oy 5
chain of mountains, conftituting the boundary of on
the fide of China. The large portion of the habitable globe,
now diftinguifhed by the appellation of Afiatic Ruffia, ex-

des ree E. longitude to more than
190° or 170° W. long.; and alluming the degree in this
high northern latitude at 30 miles, the length may be com-
puccd at 4590 geographical miles. The greateit breadth
rom the cape of Cevero Voltochnoi, called in fome maps
Taimara, to the Altaian mountains S. of the fea of Baikal,
may be eltimated at 28°, or 1680 phical miles. In
Britith miles the length, at a grofs computation, ag br

SIBERIA.

ftated at $350, and the breadth at 1960, which extent ex-
ceeds that of Europe. The vaft country of Siberia, fays
Mr. Tooke, contains, by calculation, upwards of rof mil-
lions of fquare verfts, comprehending within it feveral king-
doms, taken by roving Kozaks (Coflacks) on their own ac-
count, and then furrendered to the tzar, wha completed
the conqueft ; at prefent this country confifts of feveral of
the moft extenfive governments. The fartheft eaftern bound-
ary is that of Afia, and the feas of Kamtfchatka and
Ochotfk, and the northern is the Ar@tic ocean. On the W.
the frontiers correfpond with thcfe between A fia and Europe,
and the fouthern limits may be ftated more at large in the
following manner: The river Cuban, part of the Caucafian
chain, and an ideal line, divide the Ruffian territory from
Turkey and Perfia. The boundary then afcends along the
north of the Cafpian through the fteppe or defart of Iffim,
and the eaftern fhore of the river Ob, to its fource in the
Altaian mountains, where it meets the vatt empire of China,
and proceeds among that chain to the fources of the Onon,
where it includes a confiderable region called Daouria, ex-
tending about 200 miles in breadth, to the fouth of the
mountains called Yablonnoy ; the limit between Ruffia and
Chinefe Tartary being partly an ideal line, and partly the
river Argoon, which joined with the Onon conilitutes the
great river Amur. Thence the boundary returns to the
mountainous chain, and follows a branch of it toa promon-
tory on the north of the mouth of the Amur.

The population of Afiatic Ruffia may be regarded as
primitive, except a few Ruffian colonies recently planted ;
and the Techuks in that part which is oppofite to America,
fuppofed to have migrated from that continent, in their per-
fons and cuftoms are different from thofe of the Afiatic
tribes. Next tothe Techuks, moft remotely north, are the
Yukagirs, a branch of the Yakuts, and further weit the
Samoyedes. South of the Techuks are the Koriaks, and fur-
ther fouth the Kamtfchadales, who are a diftinét people, and
Speak a different language. The Lamutes are a branch of
the Mandfhures or Tungufes, who are widely diffufed be-
tween the Yenifei and Amur, and the fouthern tribes, ruled
by a khan, conquered China in the 17th century. The
Oftiaks, and other tribes of Samoyedes, have penetrated
confiderably to the S. between the Yenifei and the Irtifeh,
and are followed by various tribes of the Monguls, as the
Kalmucks, Burats, &c. and by thofe of the Tartars or
Huns, as the Teluts, Kirgufes, and others. The radically
diftin& languages amount to feven, independently of many
diale&s and mixtures.

The vaft extent of northern A fia was firft known by the
name of Sibir, or Siberia; but the appellation ts gradually
pafling into difufe. When the Monguls eftablifhed a king-
dom in thefe northern regions, the firft refidence of the
princes was on the river Tura, on the {cite of the town now
called Tiumen, about 180 miles S.W. of Tobolfk; but
they afterwards removed to the eaftern fhore of the Irtifch,
and there founded the city of Ifker near Tobolfk. This new
refidence was alfo called Sibir, of unknown etymology, and
the name of the city pafled to the Mongul principality.
Aithough this is doubted by Coxe, Pallas fays that the
ruins of Sibir are ftill vifible 23 verfts from Tobolfk, and
that it gave name to the rivulet Sibirka, and the whole of
Siberia. When the Ruffians began the conqueft of the
country, they were unapprized of its extent ; and the name
of this weftern province was gradually diffufed over the half
of Afia. The principality eftablifhed by the Monguls under
Sheibuni in 1242 in the weflern part of Siberia, around T’o-
bolfk and the river Tura, from which it has been fometimes
catled Tura, has been already mentioned. The actual con-

queft of Siberia commenced in the reign of yan Waffillie.
vitch II., who afcended the Ruffian throne in 1534. In-
duced by the profpe& of eftablifhing a traffic for Siberian
furs, he determined to undertake the conqueft of the coun-
try, and in 1558 added to his titles that of lord of Sibir, or
Siberia. Yarmak, a Coflack chief, being driven, by the
Ruffian conquefts in the fouth, to take refuge, with 6000 or
7000 of his followers, near the river Kama, afterwards
marched down the Ural chain, defeated the Tartar Kutchun,
khan of Sibir, and prefled forwards to the Tobol and the
Irtifch, and alfo to the Oby, and in this aftonifhing expe-
dition, fubjugated Tartars, Vogules, and Oftiaks. Finding
it impoflible to maintain and complete his conquefts with his
{mall army, he furrendered them in 1581, by a formal capitu-
lation, to the tzar Ivan Vaflillievitch, who nobly rewarded
his magnanimity and exertions. This conqueror of Siberia,
however, did not live to witnefs the full accomplifhment of
this enterprife. He died in 1584; and after his death the
difcovery and conquefts which he had made were profecuted
by regiments of Donfkoi Coffacks, fent thither for that pur-
pofe, as far as the eaftern ocean and the mountains of China;
and in the middle of the 17th century this whole part of the
world had become a Ruffian province. A perfon, whofe
name was Cyprian, was appointed firft archbifhop of Sibir
in 1621, and at Tobolfk, where he refided, he drew up a
narrative of the conqueft. About the middle of the 17th
century the Roffians had extended eaft as far as the river
Amur; but Kamtfchatka was not finally reduced till the
year 1711. Behring and other navigators afterwards pro-
ceeded to difcover the other extreme parts of Afia. Inhis .
firft voyage of 1728, Behring coafted the eaftern fhore of
Siberia as high as latitude 67° 18/, but his important dif-
coveries were made during his voyage of 1741. The Aleu-
tian ifles were vifited in 1745; and in the reign of the em-
prefs Catharine II. other important difcoveries followed,
which were completed by captain Cook. In the fouth the
Mongul kingdom of Kazan was fubdued in 1552, and that
of Aftrakhan in 1554, and the Ruffian monarchy extended
to the Cafpian fea. In 1727, after previous confli€ts, the
Ruffian limits were continued weftward from the fource of
the Argoon to the mountain Sabyntaban, near the conflux
of two rivers with the Yenifei; the boundary being thus
afcertained between the Ruffians and the Monguls fubje&
to China. The trade with China has been conduéted at
Zuruchaitu, on the river Argoon, N. lat. 50°. E. long. 337°,
and at Kiachta, about go miles S. of the fea of Baikal, N.
lat. 51°. E. long. 106°. This boundary between two ftates
is the moft extenfive on the globe, reaching from about the
65th to the 145th degree of longitude; 80° (lat. 50°)
yielding, by the allowance of 39 geographical miles to a
degree, 3120 miles.

The molt curious antiquities in Siberia feem to be the
ftone tombs which abound on fome fteppes, particularly
near the river Yenifei, reprefenting in rude fculpture human
faces, camels, horfemen with lances, and other objects.
Here are alfo found, befides human bones, thofe of horfes
and oxen, with fragments of pottery and ornaments of drefs.
The moft fingular ancient monument in Siberia is found on
the river Abakan, not far from Tomfl, being a large tomb
with rude figures.

The religion of the Greek church, which is profefled by
the Ruffians, has made no great progrefs in their Afiatic do-
minions. Many of the Tartar tribes in the S.W. are Ma-
hometans, and others are votaries of the fuperitition of Dalai
Lama. But the religious fentiments of the Scharnanians
are the moft prevalent; particularly among the Tartars,
Finns, Samoyedes, Oltiaks, Mandfhurs, Burats, and Tun-

gufes 5

SIBERIA.

ules; and they have been adopted by the Koriaks, Te-
and people of the eailern ifles. On the eaftera coait
of the fea of Baikal is the rock of the Schamans, an idol of

a peculiar thape: whilft the Schamanians admit one chief in-
fernal deity and his fubalterns, authors of evil, they alfo be-
lieve in one fupreme uncreated beveficent being, who commits
the management of the univerfe to inferior deities, and they
te portions of it to fubaltera {pirits. See ScHAMANs.

eel archiepifcopal fee of Tobollk is the metropolitan of
Ruffian Afia in the north, and that of Aftrakhan in the
fouth. There is another fee, that of Irkuthk and Nerthintk,
and fome others of more recent origin.

Siberia is divided into two great governments, thofe of
Tobolik in the weit, and Irkuttk in the eaft. The {maller

i are Kolivan, Nerfhinfk, Yakutfk, and Ochotfk.
To the S.W. is the Caucafus, with one or
two other divifions, blending Europe and Afia.

The population of Siberia cannot be computed at above
3$ millions. The political importance and relations of this
el of the Ruffian empire principally relate to China and

apan. The manners and cuftoms of Afiatic Ruffia vary
with the numerous tribes by whom it is peopled. The
Tartars are the moft numerous; next to thefe in importance
are the Monguls, one tribe of whom, wiz. the Kalmucks,

Burats, T:

| The of all tie origreal nations of Afiatic Ruflia
are radi ; and among the Tungufes, Monguls,
and Tartars, are fome traces of literature, and not a

few MSS. in their feveral lang

The principal city of Afiatic Ruffia is Aftrakhan, which
fee. Azof (which fee) derives its importance chiefly from its
being a fortified poft. The chief towns on the Afiatic fide
of the V are Samara and Stauropol. At the mouth of
the river Ural, or Jaik, ftands Gurief; but the chief place
after A ftrakhan is Orenburgh, founded in the year 1740, and
the feat of a confiderable trade with the tribes on the E. of
the Cafpian. Beyond the Uralian chain the firit city that
occurs is Tobolfk ; which fee. Kolyvan is a town of fome
confequence on the river Ob, having in its vicinity fome filver
mines of con = north to this is Tomkk.
Farther to the E. the towns become of lefs confequence.
On the river Yenifei is a {mall town of the fame name, and
another called Sayanik. On the river Angara ftands Ir-
kutk, Soe to contain 12,000 inhabitants, the chief
mart of the commerce between Ruffia and China, and the
feat of fu jurifdiGtion over eaitern Siberia. On the
wide and on a ftands Yakutfk ; which fee.

The chief commerce of this of the Ruffian ire
confiits in fables and other valuable furs, for which the Chi-
nefe return tea, filk, and nankeen. That with the Kirgufes
confifts in es Pagar woellen cloths, iron, and seer
hold articles, for cattle, fheep, and beautiful fheep-
On the Black fea there is fome commerce with Tur-
key, the exports being furs, kaviar, iron, linen, &c. and

im wine, fruit, coffee, filks, rice. In the trade
the Cafpian the ex are the fame, and the return
he principal Ruffian harbours are Altrakhan,
Gurief, and Kifliar, near the mouth of the Terek, but the
beit haven is Baku, ing to the Perfians. The Tartare,

the eaft of the Cafpian, bring the produéts of their coun-
rap of Bucharia, as cotton-yarn, furs, ftuffs, hides, and
rhubarb ; but the chief article is raw filk from Shirvan and
Ghilan, on the W. of the Cafpian.

dn Affiatic Ruffia the climate exteads from the vine at the

bottom of the Caucafus, to the folitary lichen on the rocae
of the Arétic ocean. ‘Through the greater part of Siberia,
the moft fouthern frontier being about 50°, and the northers
alcending to 78°, the general climate + be confidered
rather as frigid than temperate; being in three quarters of
the country on a level with that of Norway and Lapland,
untempered by the gales of the Atlantic. To the S. of the
fea o Baikal, the climate correfponds to that of Berlin,
and the N. of Germany. The chains of high mountains,
which form the fouthern boundary of thefe provinces, con-
tribute alfo to increale the cold; fo that the fea of Baikal
is commonly entirely frozen from December till May. The
fineft climate in thefe eaftern parts is that of Daouria, or the
province around Nerfhinfk ; and the numerous towns on the
Amur evince the great fuperiority of what is called Chincfe
Tartary, which is comparatively a fertile and temperate
region. The change of the feafons is very rapid; the long
winter is almolt inftantaneoufly fucceeded by a warm {pring ;
and the quicknefs and luxuriance of the vegetation exceed
defeription,

The greater part of Siberia, that is, the middle and
fouthern latitudes of it, as far as the river Lena, is ex-
tremely fertile, and fit for every kind of produce; but the
northern and eaitern parts, being encumbered with wood,
are deftitute of this advantage, being unfit both for paf-
turage aud culture. ‘lhe whole of this part, as far as the
6oth degree of N. latitude, and to the Frozen ocean, is full
of bogs and morafles covered with mofs, which would be
abfolutely impaffable, if the ice, which never thaws deeper

feven inches, did not remain entire beneath it. In the
central parts vegetation is checked by the fevere cold of fo
wide a continent. Towards the S. are vatt foreits of
pine, fir, larch, and other trees, among which is a kind of
mulberry, which might thrive in many climates that are now
deftitute of it. The fublime {cenes around the fea of Baikal
are agreeably contrafted with the marks of human induftry,
the cultivated field and the garden. Many parts of Siberia
are totally incapable of agriculture ; but in the fouthera and
weitern diftriéts the foil is remarkably fertile. North of Koly-
van barley generally yields more thantwelve-fold, and oats com-
monly twenty-fold. _Exclufive of winter wheat, moit of the
ufual European grains profper in fouthern Siberia. In fome
parts flax grows wild, and hemp is prepared from the nettle.
Woad is Bund in Siberia, and faffron near the Caucafus.
The beft rhubarb abounds on the banks ef the Ural or Jaik,
in the fouthern diftriéts watered by the Yenifei, and in the
mountains of Daouria. But it is not poflible that agricul-
ture fhould flourifh while the peafantry are flaves, and fold
with the foil. Neverthelefs, an intelligent traveller was
furprifed at the abundance of buck-wheat, rye, barley,
oats, and other grain which he obferved to the S. of To-
bolfk ; where the cattle were alfo very numerous, and in the
winter fed with hay. The large garden ftrawberry, called
hautbois, is found wild in the territory of Irkuthk ; and on
the Altaian mountains the red currant attains the fize of a
commen parr ripening in large bunches of excellent fa-
vour. Near the Volga and the Ural are excellent melons of
various kinds.

Some.of the it rivers of Afia beleng to the Ruffian
empire ; fuch are the Ob, of 1900 Britith miles in courfe ;
the Yenifei, about 1750; and Lena, 1570. ‘To thefe we may
add the Irtifch, the Angara, the Selinga, the Yaik, &c.
The lakes of this country are numerous. The mott confider-
able in the north of Siberia is that of Piazinfko; that of
Baikal, defcribed under that article; a large lake between the
rivers Ob and the Irtifch, 170 miles long, divided by an
ifland into two parts, called the lakes of Tchapg and oe.

e

SIB

In this quarter there are many {maller lakes, and others to
the N. of the Cafpian, fome of which are falt, particularly
that of Bogdo. To thefe we may add the Altan Nor, or
golden lake, and the lake of Altyn, called by the Ruffians
Teletako. ‘The mountains are the Uralian, the Altaian,
Bogdo Alim, or the Almighty mountain, Sinnaia-Sepka,
Schlangenberg, which is the richeft in minerals, the Sayanfk
mountains, the mountains of Nerfhinfk or Ruffian Daouria,
the chain of Stanvooi or mountains of Ochot{k, and Cauca-
fus. For the fteppes of Ruflia, fee Srrppn.

Siberia has hitherto been found to poffefs {carcely any
genera of plants ; and even all the {pecies of any confiderable
importance, are thofe trees which are common to it with the
north of Europe. Under the head of the zoology of
Afiatic Ruffia, we may enumerate the rein-deer, which per-
forms the offices of the horfe, the cow, and the fheep; the
dogs of Kamtfchatka, which are ufed for carriage; the horfe,
which is found wild, a fpecies of afs, the urus or bifon, the
argali or wild fheep, the ibex or rock-goat, large ftags,
the mufk or civet, and wild boar; wolves, foxes, and bears ;
the fable, feveral kinds of hares, the caftor or beaver, the
walrus, and the common feal. But it would be fuperfluous
to enlarge. Siberiais fo rich in zoology and botany, that, as
Mr. Pennant obferves, even the difcovery of America has
fcarcely imparted a greater number of objects to the natu-
ralift. The mineralogy of Siberia is equally fertile, and dif-
plays many fingular and interetting objects. The chief gold
mines of Siberia are thofe of Catherinburg or Ekatherin-
burg, on the E. of the Uralian mountains, about N. lat. 57°:
the mines of Nerfhinfk, difcovered in 1704, are principally
of lead, mixed with filver and gold; and thofe of Kolyvan,
ehiefly in the Schlangenberg, or mountain of ferpents, fo
called by the Germans, began to be wrought in 1748. The
gold mines of Berefof are the chief in the empire; thofe of
Kolyvan and Nerfhinfk being denominated filver mines. Be-
fides the copper mines in the Uralian mountains, there are
fome in thofe of Altai. But the iron mines of Ruflia are
of the moft folid and lafting importance, particularly thofe
which fupply the numerous founderies of the Uralian moun-
tains. Rock-falt is chiefly found near the Tlek, not far from
Orenburg. Coal is fearcely’ known; but fulphur, alum,
fal ammoniac, vitriol, nitre and natron, are abundant. Siberia
poffefles a variety of gems, particularly in the mountain
Adunftollo, near the river Argoon, in the province of Ner-
fhinfk or Daouria. Common topazes are found here, and alfo
the jacint. The kind of jade called mother of emerald is a
Siberian produ& ; and beryl or aqua marinus is found in
Adunftollo, and in greater perfe€tion in the gem mines of
Mourfintfky, near Catherinburg, along with the chryfolite.
Red garnets abound near the fea of Baikal. The ruby-
coloured fchorl has been difcovered in the Uralian mountains.
The green felfpar of Siberia is a beautiful ftone, and carved
by the Ruffians into a variety of ornaments. The Daourian
mountains, between the Onon and the Argoon, afford ele-
gant onyx. The beautiful {tones called the hair of Venus
and Thetis, being limpid rock cryftals containing capillary
{chorl, red or green, are found near Catherinburg. The
alliance ftone confifts of a greyifh porphyry, united, as if
glued together, with tranfparent quartz. Great quantities
of malachite have alfo been found in the Uralian mountains ;
ene piece of which is faid to have weighed 107 poods, or
3852 pounds. Siberia affords beautiful red and green jaf-
pers; and lapis lazuli is found near Baikal. The Uralian
chain prefents fine white marble ; and in the numerous pri-
mitive ranges there are many varieties of granite and por-
phyry. The chief mineral waters of Ruflia are thofe of

Kamtfchatka.

SIB

The iflands belonging to Afiatic Ruffia may be diftri-
buted into the Aleutian, Andrenovian, and Kurilian groups,
with the Fox ifles, which extend to the promontory of
Alafka in North America. See thefe articles refpe&tively.
For further particulars refpeGting Siberia or Afiatic Ruffia,
fee Russra. See alfo Coxe’s Ruffian Difcoveries ; Tooke’s
Ruff. Emp.; and Pinkerton’s Geog. vol. ii.

SIBERIAN Kozaks, or Coffacks, a branch of the Don-
foi Coflacks, who, inftigated by a difpofition to roaming
and pillage, in the 16th century, abandoned their habitations
on the Don, in order to plunder the countries lying caft-
ward. In order to reftrain their progrefs, Ivan Vaflillie-
vitch II., who fat upon the Ruffian throne, aflembled, in
the year 1577, a confiderable army, and got together a
fleet of fhips to chaftife thele audacious robbers. Thefe
hordes, intimidated by thefe hoftile preparations, difperfed
and fled into the neighbouring regions. See the preceding
article,

Srperian Barley, in Agriculture, a hardy fort of grain of
the barley kind. See Barry.

SIBERIAN Qat, an ufeful fort of hardy oat brought from
that country. See Oar.

It has been found by fome as much fuperior to the com-
mon black oat as the Poland fort is to others. It has the
advantages of being capable of being fown with fafety in
December, and of being fit to cut as foon or fooner than
early peas ; the produce is greater than the ufual forts ; and
rain, inftead of injuring, rather improves the colour, which
is of the pied kind. The kernel is plump and large, and
the ftraw is faid to make excellent fodder for live-ftock of the
neat cattle kind. :

SIBIDOOLOO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
ftate of Manding, the government of which is a republic,
or rather an oligarchy ; 40 miles N.E. of Kamalia.

SIBIL-EL-MULSIH, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas; 120 miles N.N.W. of Mecca.

SIBILI, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam-
bara; 25 miles N.E. of Sega.

SIBILIA KOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolfk, onthe Irtifch; 28 miles N. of Tara.

SIBIRIXOA, a town of New Mexico, in the province
of Cinaloa; 45 miles N.N.W. of Cinaloa.

SIBNIBAS, a town of Hindoottan, in Bengal; 10
miles E.N.E. of Kifhenagur. N. lat. 23° 25’. I. long.
88° sol.

SIBOCKOO, a town on the E. coaft of the ifland of
Borneo. N. lat. 4° 24! E. long. 117° 12!.

SIBOURNE, a town of France, in the department: of
the Lower Pyrenées, on a {mall river oppofite to St. Jean
de Luz.

SIBRAIM, or Sasanrim, in Ancient Geography, a place
which terminated the land of promife towards the north.
Ezekiel fays (xlvii. 16.) that this city was between the con-
fines of Hamoth and Damafcus, probably the fame which
Abulfeda calls Houverin, a village of the country of Ems,
or Hamoth, S.E. of that city.

SIBSIB, in Zoology, an animal of the empire of Mo-
rocco, abounding in the mountains of the province of Sufe;
of an intermediate {pecies between the cat and the fquirrel ;
fomewhat fimilar to the ichneumon in form, but not half its
fize : it inhabits the Atlas, and lives in holes, among the {tones
and caverns of the mountains; it has brown hair, and a
beautiful tail, refembling that of a fquirrel, about the length
of its body. The Shelluks and Arabs eat this animal, and
confider it a delicacy. This is the only animal which the
Mahometans torment before its death, which they do by
taking hold of its hind-legs, and rubbing it on a Pa? ot

at

S.IB

minutes, which operation caufes the

latable,
» Joux, in Bs raphy, an eminent botanilt
and traveller, was the youngeft fon of Dr, Humphrey Sib-
flor of botany at Oxford, where the fubjedt of
ent article was born, OAober 28, 1758. He re-
ceived the firit rudiments of his education at Magdalen {chool,
from whence he was removed to the {chool at Lincoln, In
due time he entered at Lincoln college, Oxford; but upon
obtaining the Radchife travelling fellowthip, he became a
member of Univerfity college. ing intended for the me-
dical profeffion, he was neceilarily fent to Edinburgh, to com-
plete that branch of his education ; but he took the papers
of dodor of pbyfic in his own univerfity. The tatte he had
early imbibed for natural hiltory, efpecially botany, was cul-
u at Edinburgh, and indulged in a tour to the High-
lands of Scotland. After his return from thence, he vifited
France and Switzerland, {pending a confiderable time at
anpeet where he formed an intimacy with the amiable
» (fee Parynius,) colleGted many plants of that

communicated to the Academie des Sciences

The death of an elder brother of his father, by which a con-
a tad eltate miley on - agai occafioned nds
ibthorp to return to England in 1783, when, on his fa-
ther’s refignation, he was appointed to the botanical pro-
fefforfhip. For this his Oxford degree of M.D. was necef-
fary. fi See Suenagp, and aaa gag Tt was perhaps
the laft fervice he expeéted from it, for he was a favourite
ay eae tes cpere sap eve dency of his own in
F his mo » who was his father’s

i and his academical ap-

pointments, though they releafed him from the calls of his
feflion, only rivetted more firmly his ardent attachment to
ar 3 his paflion for which became, by thofe appointments,
a duty ; nor was he ever, to his lait hour, difpofed to fhrink
from the tafk he had undertaken, or to prefer any relaxation,

or any penne. to this laborious purfuit.

During the ttay of profeffor J. Sibthorp at London, in
the winter of 1783, the mufeum and library of the celebrated
Linnzus were by private contraé, tothe writer of this
article. bed chug was commendably defirous of adding
aes a treafure to the colleétions, already famous, at Ox-

; but the acquifition depended on a refolute and decifive
itep, which was already taken, and not on any t
or iation, to which the perfon entruited with the fale
was fuperior. This competition occafioned no interrup-
tion in the friendthip, juit then formed, between the par-
ties concerned, which continued increafing during their joint

lives.
ion of the year 1784 at Got-

tanical inveftigation of which celebrated country, and efpe-
cially the determination of the plants mentioned by its clafli-
_ eal authors, had, for fome time paft, become the leading ob-
| of his uits. He firft vifited the principal feats of
earning in any, and fu fome of its mountains
orefts; but it was im to quit this of the
without a confiderable ftay at Vienna. he cul-

Dr, Sintbaeg @ portion
tingen, where he projected his firft tour to Greece ; the bo- Athen

SIB

man, Mr. Ferdinand Bauer, to be the companion of his ex.
pedition, On the 6Gthof March, 1786, they fet out toge-
ther from Vienna, and pafled through Carniola to ‘Trice,
Venice, Bologna, Florence, Rome, and Naples, exemirin

every thing that was curious, and keeping an exatt rane
of their botanical obfervations, After viewing the cele.
brated environs of Naples, they failed from thence carly in
May, and touching at Meflina, as well as at the ifle of Milo,
they proceeded to Crete, Here, in the month of June, our
botanical adventurers were welcomed by Flora in her gayeft
attire. The foowy covering of the Sphaciote mountains
was withdrawing, and a tribe of lovely little bloiloms were
jult peeping through the veil.

Hern narrowly efeaped thipwreck, in returning to Milo
by one of the country vellels, Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Bauer
touched fucceflively at feveral ilands of the Archipelago,
vifited Athens, and remained for a while at Smyrna. Here
they traced the tteps of Sherard and Haflelquilt, proceeded
by land to Burfa, climbed the Bithyrian Olympus, and at
length reached Conitantinople, where they {pent the enfuin,
winter, in the courfe of which Dr. Sibthorp devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of modern Greek. In a botanical excurfion to
Belgrad, on the 17th of February, 1787, and anotber to Ba.
jwckderi, March 5, the plants found in flower were simout
entirely the fame as are met with, at the fame fea)ou, in Eng.
land. Dr. Sibthorp’s refidence at Couftantinoy
neighbouring ifle of Karki, proved favourable t
gations of the fithes and birds of thofe regions, by which be
was enabled to throw much light on the writings of ancunt
naturalilts.

On the 14th of March, 1787, having joined company
with captain Emery and Mr. Hawkins, Dr. Sibthorp and
his draughtfman failed from Conitantinople in a Venetian
merchant-fhip for Cyprus, taking the ilands of Mytilene,
Scio, Cos, and Rhodes, and touching at the coatt of Afia
Minor, in their way. A ftay of five weeks at Cyprus
enabled Dr. Sibthorp to draw up a Fawna and Flora of that
ifland. The former coufiits of 18 Mammalia, 85 Birds,
19 Amphibia, and 100 Fifhes; the latter comprehends 616
{pecies of plants. The particular ftations, domeftic and
medical ufes, and reputed qualities of thefe laft, are amply re-
corded ; and the vernacular names of the animals, as well as
of the economical plants, are {ubjoined. Te fame method
is purfued, in a fubfequent part of this journal, refpectin
the plants and animals of Greece, with every thing that coul
be colleéted relative to the medicine, agriculture, and domef-
tic economy of that country and the circumjacent ifles. The
illuftration of the writings of Diofcorides, in particular, was
Dr. Sibthorp’s chief object. The names and reputed virtues
of feveral plants, recorded by that ancient writer, and {till
traditionally retained by the Athenian thepberds, ferved
occafionally to elucidate, or to confirm, their {ynonymy.
The firit tketch of the Flora Greca comprifes about S50
plants. ‘ This,’’ fays the author, “ may be confidered as
containing only the plants obferved by me in the environs of
s, on the {nowy heights of the Grecian Alp Parnaflus,
on the fteep precipices of Delphis, the empurpled mountain
of Hymettus, the Pentele, the lower hillsabout the Pirzus,
the olive grounds about Athens, and the fertile s of
Beeotia. he future botanift, who thall examine this coun.
try with more leifure, and at a more favourable feafon of the

year, before the fummer fun has fcorched up the {pring
plants, may make a confiderable addition to this lift. My
Intention was to have travelled by land through Greece: but

the diiturbed ftate of this country, the eve of a Ruffian war,
the rebellion of its bafhaws, and the ¢ at Larifla, ren.
dered my preject impracticable.” Ot the Afammalia of

4N Greece,

SIBTHORP.

Greece, 37 are enumerated, with their modern names, 25
reptiles and 82 birds. All thefe catalogues were greatly aug-
mented by fubfequent obfervations, infomuch that the num-
ber of fypecies; colle&ted from an inveftigation of all Dr. Sib-
thorp’s manufcripts and fpecimens for the materials of the
Prodromus Flore Grece, amounts to about 3000.

We fhall not particularly trace our traveller’s fteps
through Greece, or the various iflands of the Archipelago.
His health, which fuffered from the confinement of a fhip,
and the heat of the weather, was reftored at Athens, where
he arrived on the 19th of June, 1787. From thence he
profecuted his journies in various dire€tions, and with
various fuccefles. The afcent of mount Delphis, or Del-
phi, in Negropont, in a ftorm of wind and rain, on the
3d of Auguft, was one of his moft laborious, if not
perilous, adventures; but his botanical harveft was abun-
dant. With regard to fcenery, mount Athos, which he
vifited a week after, feems to have made moft impref-
fion on his mind. This {pot alfo greatly enriched his col-
lection of rare plants. From hence he proceeded to Thefla-
lonica, Corinth, and Patras, at which lait place he embarked
with Mr. Bauer, on board an Englifh veflel, for Briftol, on
the 24th of September. After a tedious and ftormy voyzge,
they arrived in England the firft week in December.

The conftitution of Dr. Sibthorp, never very robult, had
fuffered materially from the hardfhips and exertions of his
journey. But his native air, and the learned leifure of the
univerfity, gradually recruited his ftrength. The duties of
his profefforfhip were rather a recreation than a toil. The
fuperintendance of his exquifite draughtfman, now engaged
in making finifhed drawings of the Greek animals, as well as
plants ; and his occafional vifits to the Linnean and Bank-
fian herbariums, for the removal of his difficulties; all toge-
ther filled up his leifure hours. He was every where wel-
comed and admired for his ardour, his talents, and his acqui-
fitions. His merits procured an augmentation of his ftipend,
with the rank of a Regius profeflor ; both which advantages
were, at the fame time, conferred on his brother profeflor at
Cambridge. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in
1789, and was among the firft members of the Linnzan
Society, founded in 1788. In the {pring of the year lat
mentioned, the writer of this, with fir Jofeph Banks and
Mr. Dryander, pafled a week at Oxford, which was devoted
to a critical furvey of the profeflor’s Grecian acquifitions ;
nor was the honey of mount Hymettus, or the wine of Cy-
prus, wanting at this truly attic entertainment. But the
greater thefe acquifitions, the lefs was their pofleflor fatisfied
with them. No one knew, fo well as himfelf, how much was
wanting to the perfeétion of his undertaking, nor could any
other perfon fo well remedy thefe defe&ts. Though he was
placed, afew years after his return, in very affluent circum-
itances; and though his neceffary attention to his landed
property, and to agricultural purfuits, of which he was paf-
fionately fond, might well have turned him, in fome meafure,
afide from his botanical labours; he fteadily kept in view the
great objet of his life, to which he finally facrificed life
itfelf. No name has a fairer claim to botanical immor-
tality, among the martyrs of the fcience, than that of
Sibthorp.

On the 2oth of March, 1794, Dr. Sibthorp fet out from
London, on his fecond tour to Greece. He travelled to
Conftantinople in the train of Mr. Lifton, ambaflador to the
Porte, and was attended by Francis Borone, of whom an
account may be feen at the end of the article RuTAcExX, as
a botanical affiftant. They reached Conftantinople on the 19th
of May, not without Dr. Sibthorp’s having fuffered much
from the fatigues of the journey, which had brought ona

bilious fever. He foon recovered his health at Conftan-
tinople, where he was joined by his friend Mr. Hawkins
from Crete. Towards the end of Augutt they made an
excurfion into Bithynia, and climbed to the fummit of
Olympus, from whence they brought a frefh botanical har-
velt. Dr. Sibthorp difcovered at Fanaran aged Greek bo-
tanift, Dr. Dimitri Argyrami, who had known the Danifh
traveller Forfkall, and who was poflefled of fome works of
Linnzus.

Recovered health, and the acceffion of his friend’s com-
pany, caufed Dr. Sibthorp to fet out with alacrity on his
voyage to Greece, on the gth of September. Pafling down
the Hellefpont, on the 13th, with alight but favourable
breeze, they anchored at Koum Cale, in the Troad, {pent
two days in examining the plains of Troy, and then pro-
ceeded to the ifles of Tmbros and Lemnos. On the 25th
they anchored at mount Athos, and paffed ten days in exa-
mining fome of the convents and hermitages, with the ro-
mantic fcenery, and botanical rarities, of that fingular {pot,
on all which Dr. Sibthorp defcants at length, with great
delight, in his journal. Their departure was, for fome time,
prevented, by a few Barbary pirates hovering on the coait,
whom thefe monks, unlike the priefts of the Athenian
Bacchus, were not potent or valiant enough to defeat, or
to turn into dolphins. Our voyagers failed on the 5th of
Oéteber, and on the 7th landed at Skiatho. From hence,
on the 11th, they proceeded down the ftrait of Negropont,
and on the 13th paffed under the bridge of five arches, which
connects that ifland withthe main land of Greece. On the

15th, at noon, they entered the harbour of the Pyrzus, and .

proceeded to Athens, where the four fucceeding weeks were
employed in colleGing information relative to the prefent
ftate of the government, the manufa¢tures, and the domef-
tic economy of that celebrated fpot. Here Dr. Sibthorp
loft his afliftant Borone, who perifhed by an accidental
fall from a window, in his fleep, on or about the 20th of
Odtober. :

November 16th, Dr. Sibthorp and Mr. Hawkins left
Athens by the ancient Eleufinian way, while the claffical
ftreams of the Cephifus, the heights of Helicon and Par-
naffus lay before them. ‘They proceeded to Patras and to
Zante, where they arrived inthe middle of December, en-
riched with a large colleGtion of feeds, the only botanical
tribute that could, at this feafon, be colleGied from thofe
famous mountains. An apothecary at Zante furnifhed
Dr. Sibthorp with an ample and fplendid herbarium, of the
plants of that ifland, with their modern Greek names ; nor
did the winter pafs unprofitably or unpleafantly in this fe-
queftered fpot ; where neither agreeable fociety, nor copious
information relative to our learned travellers’ various objects,
was wanting. ‘The feafon was fufficiently favourable in the
middle of February, 1795, to allow them to vifit the Morea,
of which peninfula they made the complete circuit in fome-
what more than two months. The Violet and Primrofe
welcomed them in the plains of Arcadia; and the Narciffus
Tazzetta, which Dr. Sibthorp was difpofed to think the
true poetic Narcifflus, decorated in profufion the banks of
the Alpheus. The barbarian horde, under whofe efcort they
were obliged to travel, had taite enough to colleé&t nofegays
of thefe flowers. The oaks of the Arcadian mountains pre-
fented them with the true ancient Mifeltoe, Loranthus euro-
peus, which flill ferves to make birdlime ; whilft our Mifeltoe,
Vifcum album, in Greece grows only on the Silver Fir. May
not this circumftance account for the old preference of fuch
Mifeltoe as grows on the oak, among the ancient Britons, and
confequently help us to trace the origin of their fuperitition
to Greece? (See Druips.) The Jay, ftill called by its

ancrent

SIBTHORP.

ancient name Kiera, which is generally taken for the Magpie,
was foreaming among thefe oaks; and the Water Ouzel, Stwr-
nus Cinclus, fring ng the rocky fides of the alpine riva-
lets of Arcadia, prefented itfelf to Dr. Sibthorp's recol-
leétion, as probably the White Blackbird, which Aritotle
fays is peculiar to the neighbourhood of mount Cylleac,
In vain did our clailical travellers look for the rig a of
Arcadian thepherdefles, or lilten for the pipe of the fylvan
fwain. Figures emaciated, and features furrowed, with
poverty, labour and care, were all that they met with. The
vermin of the Pacha’s court, with other vermin, who pre-
fume to call themfelves Chriftian bifhops, and whole places
are all of the Turks, devour ile fubftance of thefe
poor and drive many of them to a precarious and
predatory life among the mountains.
ing to Argos, and thence to Mycena, the tra-
vellers were highly gratified by finding, on the gate of the
thofe ancient lions, which Pentaniss defcribes as the
work of the ap Ni and near it the reputed tomb of

Agamemnon, a building, formed of immenfe mafles
ttone, placed with fuch geometri precifion, though

anciently » a valt pile of the thells from which
that dye was obtained, and kin denominated Porphyri,
ferved to afcertain the {pecies, which is Murex Trunculus of
Linneus, figured by Fabius Columna in his rare and learned

work, de P. i, <p they nas hag lg gl
lacea. (See foo Fisn.) From this place Dr. Sib-
and his friend intended to have along the ba

of in a boat, but the fea was then infelted wi
ich obliged them to give up that projeét, and to
return by land to Argos, whence they p ed to Corinth,
of Elis to Pyrgos. Here they ob-
tained another efcort from Said Aga, to whofe protection
aud fafely reached Calama'

ta,
t
on the r2th

bufhy and
Here the

proved Euphorbia Apios, to which the very fame properties
are attributed by Diofoondes,

From Cardamoula the travellers were efcorted by the de-
pendaats of this hofpitable Grecian chief, along a preci
pitous road, to Mitra, where mj had the unex pedted plea-
{ure of meeting a party of their Englith friends, in the garb
of Tartars, with whom they explored the {cite of sncteat
Sparta. After returning to Calamata, and furveyiag from
the {ummit of a neighbouring precipice the ruins of Meilenia,
with the rich plains w os the Panifeus, and bounded
by the hills of Laconia, Dr. Sibthorp aod Mr. Hawkins
haftened to Corone, where a Venetian veflel waited to con-
vey them to Zante, which place they reached on the 2gth of
April, Here Dr. Sibthorp parted from the faithful com-

anion of his tour, whom he was deftined never to fee again,

ut in whofe friendthip he fafely confided in his laft hours,
Mr. Hawkins returned to Greece ; while the (ubje& of our
memoir, leaving Zante on the 1ft of May, experienced a
molt tedious voyage of twenty-four days to Otranto, though
five days are the moit ufual time for that pailage. He touched
at the ifland of Cephalonia, and next at Preverfa, on the
Grecian fhore, where being detained by a contrary wind, he
employed the 7th of May in vifiting the ruins of Nicopolis.
Tbe weather was unfavourable, and Dr. Sibthorp here
caught a fevere cold, from which he never recovered, It
feems to have proved the exciting caule of that difeafe,
which had long been latent in the mefenteric and pulmonary
glands, and which terminated in a confumption. Being
obliged by the weather to put in at the little iland of Fanno,
May 11th, the violent north-welt wind “ continued,”’ as he
too expreflively fays in his journal, “ to nurfe his cough and
fever.’? He was confined to his bed, in a miferable hovel,
to which, after frequent attempts to fail, he was driven back
fix times by the unfavourable wind. At len the veilel
was enabled to caft anchor in the port of Otranto on the
24th of May. Here he was obliged to fubmit to 2 qua-
rantine of three weeks, part of which, indeed, was allowed
to be fpent in proceeding to Ancona. From thence he
pafled through any and Holland to England. Of the
precife time of his arrival we find no mention. It was in the
autumn of 1795, and his few fucceeding months were chiefly
marked by the progrefs of an unconquerable difeafe, for
which the climates of Devonfhire and. Bath were, as ufual,
reforted to in vain. He died at Bath, February 8th, 1796,
in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and lies interred in the
abbey church, where his executors have ereted a neat monu~
ment to his memory.

We have now to record the pofthumous benefits which
Dr. Sibthorp has rendered to his beloved {cience, and which
are fufficient to rank him amongft its meft illuitrious patrons.
By his will, dated Afhburton, January 12, 1796, he gives
a freehold eftate in Oxfordthire to the univeriity of Ox-
ford, for the purpofe of firft publifhing his Flora Greca, in
10 folio volumes, with 100 coloured plates in each, anda
Prodromus of the fame work, in 8vo. without plates. His
executors, the honourable Thomas Wenman, John Haw-
kins and Thomas Platt, efqrs., were to appoint a fuffi-
ciently competent editor of chieke works, to whom the ma-
nufcripts, drawings, and {pecimens, were to be confided.
They fixed ypon the writer of the prefent article, who has
now nearly completed the Prodromus, and the fecond volume
of the Flera. The plan of the former was drawn out by
Dr. Sibthorp, but nothing of the latter, except the figures,
was prepared, nor any botanical charaters or deferiptions
whatever. The final ination of the {pecies, the dif-
tinétions of fuch as were new, and all critical remarks, have
fallen to the lot of the one who has alfo reviled the re

a 2 ote

SIB

ferences to Diofcorides, and, with Mr. Hawkins’s help, cor-
rected the modern Greek names, which laft were neceffarily
taken down but incompletely, from many illiterate and im-
perfe@ authorities, on the fpot. When thefe publications
are finifhed, the annual fum of 200/. is to be paid to a pro-
feflor of rural economy, who is, under certain limitations,
to be the Sherardian profeflor of botany, and who is, very
properly, obliged to read le€tures, that the appointment
may not become a reproach, initead of an advantage, to the
univerfity. The remainder of the rents of the eltate above
mentioned is deftined to purchafe books for the profeflor ;
and the whole of the teitator’s colleGtions, with his drawings,
and books of « Natural Hiftory, Botany, and Agriculture,”
are given to the univerfity. This bequeft rivals the munifi-
cence of Sherard and of Sloane, in the fervice of natural
{cience, and has only been exceeded by that of the late
Mr. Robertfon of Stockwell, whofe ill-made will was fet
afide by the common law of the land.

The only work which profeffor John Sibthorp publifhed
in his life-time is a Flora Oxonienfis, in one volume 8vo.
printed in 1794. Ithas the merit of being entirely founded
on his own perfonal obfervation. The fpecies enumerated
amount to 1200, all gathered by himfelf, and difpofed ac-
eording to the Linnean fyftem, with the alterations of
Thunberg, which were then new, but which are now not
admitted as improvements. ‘The adoption, though imper-
fect, of Hedwig’s genera of Moffes in this Flora, mutt be
efteemed a more fortunate meafure. S.

SIBTHORPIA, in Botany, was fo called by Linneus,
in compliment to Dr. Humphrey Sibthorp, for about forty
years profeflor of botany at Oxford, and the immediate
fucceflor of Dillenius. He is faid to have delivered but a
fingle leGture in all that time, which was not a fuccefsful
one, nor do we know of his having enriched the {cience with
any publication. A fhort letter from this gentleman, an-
nouncing the death of his predeceflor, is extant among the
Epiflole ad Hallerum. In this he modettly expreffes a with
that he were equal-to the tafk before him. However im-
perfeé& his claims to botanical celebrity, his fon has conferred
more honour on the above name than either of them could
derive fromit ; fee the preceding article.—Linn. Gen. 320.
Schreb. 418. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 340. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 667. Prodr. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
v. 1. 439. Ait. Hort. Kew. vy. 4. 51. Jufl. gg. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 535. Gertn. t. 55.—Clafs and order,
Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Pedi-
culares, Juli.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, turbinate,
in five deep, ovate, {preading, flightly unequal, permanent
fegments. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped, in five deep
rounded fegments; the three uppermoft largeft, equal to
the calyx; two lower ones fhorter, and lefs coloured.
Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, not half the length of
the corolla, fcarce vifibly unequal, fpreading, two at each
fide, oppofite to its lateral fiflures ; anthers roundifh, two-
lobed. if. Germen fuperior, roundifh, comprefled ; ftyle
cylindrical, very fhort, thicker than the filaments; ftigma
peltate. Peric. Capfule comprefled, orbicular, notched,
fwelling at each fide, acute at the margin, of two valves and
two cells, the partitions from the centre of each valve.
Seeds few, roundifh-oblong, convex on one fide, flat on the
other, inferted into a globofe central receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Corolla five-
cleft, irregular. Stamens fpreading laterally in pairs. Cap-
fule compreffed, inverfely heart-fhaped, of two cells, with
tranfverfe partitions.

3. S. europag. Sibthorpia, or -Cornifh Money-wort.

SIB

Linn. Sp. Pl. 880. Willd. n. 2, Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engi.
Bot. t. 649. (S. proftrata; Salifb. Ic. rr. t. 6. Alfine
{puria pufilla repens, foliis Saxifragee auree ; Raii Syn. 352.
Pluk. Phyt. t. 7. f. 6. Cornwall Penny-wort; Petiy.
Herb. Brit. t. 6. f. 11.)—Ray obferved this curious little
plant to be plentiful in Cornwall and Devonfhire, on moift
banks, and about the margins of rivulets, flowering from
June to Auguit, being accompanied by the elegant Cam-
panula hederacea. here feveral fucceeding botanifts have
gathered both. Loefling found the Sidzhorpia in Portugal,
and Mr. Hawkins on the mountains of Crete; but we
know not of its having been noticed in any other country.
We have feen it completely naturalized on the lawn of
James Vere, efq. in his curious garden at Knightfbridge.
The root is fibrous, perennial. Stems proftrate, creeping
extenfively, branched, flender and delicate, leafy, hairy.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, horizontal, kidney-fhaped, with
fhallow diftant notches, hairy, rather flefhy, about half au
inch broad; paler and veiny beneath. Flowers axillary,
folitary, on fhort hairy ftalks. Corolla of a pale greenifh-
yellow, with a purplifh tinge in the three upper fegments.

The §. evolvulacea of Linneus’s Supplementum being a
very diltin€& genus, now known by the name of Diconpra,
fee that article, the above becomes the only fpecies of
Sibthorpia.

SIBU, in Geography, one of the Philippine iflands, about
240 miles in circumference. The principal produdtions
are a {pecies of grain called borona, which ferves inftead of
rice; cotton, tobacco, wax, and civet. This ifland was
difcovered by Magellan in 1521. N. lat. 10° gi’. E.
long. 123° 30!.

Sipu, Zibu, or Sogbu, a town in the above-mentioned
ifland, containing 5000 houfes, the fee of a bifhop, and
refidence of a governor. In this town, as fome fay, Ma-
gellan, the celebrated circumnavigator, died. N. lat. 10°
35’. E. long. 123° 44!

SIBUCO, a town on the welt coaft of Mindanao.
lat. 7° 3. E. long. 122° ro’.

SIBULTIQUI, a river of Mexico, which runs into the
Pacific ocean, N. lat. 13° 35!. W. long. 89° 16!.

SIBUYAN, one of the Philippine iflands, about 36 miles
in circumference. N. lat. 12° 36!’ E. long. 122° 22’.

SIBYLS, Sisyiye, fuppofed by Laétantius, whofe opi-
nion is generally followed, to be formed of the two
Greek words, siz, for @:2, Dei, and Sern, counfel, in Anti-
guity, virgin-prophetefles, or maids fuppofed to be divinely
infpired ; and who, in the height of their enthufiafm, gave
oracles, and foretold things to come.

Authors do not agree about the number of the Sibyls,
though their exiftence is allowed, as fufficiently eftablifhed.
by antiquity. Capella reckons but two, viz. Erophyle of
Troy, called Stbylle Phrygia ; and Sinuachia of Erythre,
called Szbylla2 Lrythrea. Solinus mentions three; viz.
Cumeza, Delphica, or the Sibyl of Sardis, and Erythrza ;
and of this opinion is Aufonius, who thus defcribes them ;

N.

sc Et tres fatidicee nomen commune Sibyllz,
Quarum tergemini fatalia carmine libri.’?

lian makes their number four, viz. the Erythrean, the
Egyptian, the Sibyl born at Samos, and another of Sardis
in Lydia; and Varro increafes it to ten, denominating them
from the places of their birth ; the Perfian, called Sabetha
by the Perfians; Libyan, according to Euripides, the
daughter of Jupiter and Latona; Delphic, named Daphne
by Diodorus Siculus, who fays that fhe was born at Thebes
in Beotia; Cimmerian; Erythrzan, who prophefied to the
Greeks, that were going to befiese Troy, the happy =

wl

;

5,28

“ e _
SIBYLS.
of their enterprife, and who lived, according to Eufebius, f{ufpeéted by many of the mere knowing. The books
aot in the time of the ‘Trojan war, as Varro believes, but’ in which they were written were kept e the Romans

under the reign of Romulus; Samian, ¢ according to
Suidas, Pitho, or Perfuafion, and according to Eufebius,
Eriphile ; Cumzan, named Amalthea by foe authors, and
i others Demophile or Hiecrophyle, who is faid to have
to Tarquin the Elder a collection of Sibylline veries,
nine books ; Hellefpontic or ‘Troiad, born at Marpefus,
the town of Gorgis, in ‘Troas, who lived, according to
Heraclides, in the time of Cyrus and Solon; Phrygian,
who gave her oracles at Ancyra, the of her refidence ;
Fisertinn, named Albunwa, and honoured as a divinity
in the ere the river Anio. Of thefe, the meft cele-
are, the Erythrean, Delphic, and Cume pase 20
modern authors, without regarding Wie authorit
or that of the other ancients, are for uniting all
in one;*fo that, according to them, diflerent
iven to one and the fame Sibyl from the
where fhe uttered her a She -
predictions in the city o hrea, t
ivity; then combed Shout ti world ;
at Cuma, in Italy. Dr. Hyde (De
Perfar.), thocked at the contradiétions and fabu-
adventures with which the Palgans filled the hiitory
Sibyls, accounts for them in the following manner.
ferves in the conftellation Virgo a bri ht ftar, which
Sambula, denoting, in — language,
or an ear of corn; and remarks, that the Perfiaus,
judiciary aftrology, looked on the fign
© power than all the other
vering future events. The Greeks,
fciences of the eaftern nations, foon

the
thefe trifling opinions, and, agreeably to their
embellithed them with ther fidtions. "Their poets
Sibyl virgin, in allufion to the term Sam-
into feveral countries, and made her a& the
So that, according to this eminent
been faid both by the ancients and
ls and their prophecies, is entirely fabu-
though ingenious, is coutradiGed
antiquity, which allows that there were,
countries, fuch extraordinary Bieger
ti ge of

were fri ary to a
urity, whofe predictions, carefully colle&ted, were
important occafions. The Perfian Sibyl
owe her original to the circumitance above-
that is t againit the

al

gf
i

i

5

i.

t
E
5
=

ee Perete

for di

rf
f

i

aE
i

Ht

: no fufficient argumen
ittence of other Sibyls. The Romans had the higheft
ffible veneration for the Sibyls; and if they did not
ways them as divinities, they at leaft reputed them
a die nature between gods and men; and fome of
divine honours. Laétantius fays, with con-
> the Tiburtine Sibyl was wor ipP as a
Pp Juftin

i
fl

Kary mest Alet of the Sibyl of Com
yr mentions 0 of Cumz, in Italy,
Ivuth Geer the-cleleliere Gre delieceed her oracies. Virgil
mentions this temple, or rather he confiders as a temple
grotto where the 1 delivered her oracles, becaufe in
after-times there was one aCtually built there. ‘ Vocat alta
im Templa Sacerdos,” En, 1.6. We may here add, that
the i wees 7th Leffler Phrygia, hada cuftom
of reprefenting ir medals the Sibyl who was born
in that city, a being thir great divinity As a farther
proof of the worthip paid to the Sibyls, they had ftatues
ereéted to them, which were placed in the temples.

The oracles were held in great veneration by the
more cr among the ancients; but they were much
f 1

with wafinite care; and nothing of moment was undertaken
without confulting them, ‘Tarquin firlt committed them
to the cuflody of two patrician priefts, intlituted for that
urpofe, (See Duumvins Sacrorum. ) How, whea, or
“= whom this colle¢tion was made, are circumitances which
authentic hiltory has not afeertained. It is not likely
that the Sibyls prophefied in verfe, far lefs that they them-
felves kept their prediétions, and digefted them into order.
All that we know concerning them is, that a woman came
to ‘Tarquin the Elder, as Varro fays, or, according to
Pliny, to Tarquin the Proud, offering him a colleGion of
thefe verfes in nine books, or three according to Pliny 4
and that the demanded for them 300 pieces Id ;
when the prioce refufed to give hee um, fhe threw thice
of them into the fire, and afked the fame fum for the re-
maining fix, which being refufed, the burned three more,
and perfilted in afking the fame fum for thofe that were
left: at length the king, fearing that the would burn the
other three, gave her the fum which fhe demanded. Al-
though this has very much the air of a romance, it is
attelted by many authors; and it is certain that the
Romans had in their pofleflion a collection of the Sibylline

v

Thefe books were carefully kept till the civil wars of
Sylla and Marius: when the Capitol being accidentally
fet on fire, and burnt down to the ground, thefe books
were burnt with it. This happened in the year before
Chrift 83. But the Capitol being again rebuilt about
feven years after this period, the fenate ined to re-
ftore the Sibylline oracles ; and having procured many that
were faid to be of this kind, laid them up in the Capitol, in
order to fupply the place and office of thofe that were loft.
However, the books thus obtained had been difperfed in
the hands of many, and were, therefore, by being thus vul-
garly known, unfit for the ufe which the Romans propofed
to make of them. On this account a law was pafled,
which required the furrender of them, and prohibited any
from retaining copies of them, under pain of
Auguttus, when he aflumed the high-priefthood of Rome,
revived this law, and deftroyed a great multitude of copies
which were brought in. Tiberius caufed many more to be
burnt, and preferved only thofe which were found mott
worthy of approbation ~ that fervice of the itate for
which they were originally intended ; and to thefe, as long
as Rome remained heathen, they had conftant recourfe ;
till at length Honorius the emperor, A. D. 399, illued an
order for deftroying them ; in purfuance of which, Stulico
burnt all thefe prophetic writings, and demolithed the
temple of Apollo, in which they were repofited. Never-
thelefs, there is ftill preferved, in eight books of Greek
verfe, a colleétion of oracles, pretended to be the SibyHine.
Dr. Cave, who is well fatis that this collection is a
forgery, fuppofes that a large part of it was compofed in
the time = 3 Adrian, about the year 130; that others were
added in the time of the Antonines; and the whole work
completed in the reign of Commodus. Dr. Prideaux fays,
that this colleion muft have been made between the year
of our Lord 138, and the year 167. It could not be earlier,
for mention is made of next fucceflor of Adrian, i. ¢.
Antoninus Pius, who did not fucceed him till the year 138;
and it could not be later, becaufe Juflin Martyr, in his
writings, often quotes it, and appeals to it ; and he did not
outlive the year 167. Fabricius fuppofes that this col-
le&tion does net contain all the Sibylline oracles which
were wled by the ancient fathers; and sit, Sh ae

Saree

Chriftian writers, who have quoted the Sibylline oracles,
had only a part of the colle&tion which is tranfmitted down
tous. Some of the fathers, not apprized of the impofition,
have often cited the books of the Sibyls in favour of the
Chriftian religion; and hence Celfus takes occafion to call
the Chriftians Sibyllifts. It muft be allowed that St.
Clement, St. Theophilus, and fome other Greek fathers
of the fecond century, had a much greater refpeét for the
Sibyls than they deferved ; for Dr. Lardner fays, that he
is well fatisfied that the Sibylline verfes quoted by them are
the forgery of fome Chriftian. The ancient Sibylline verfes
did not recommend the worfhip of the one God, condemn-
ing all manner of idolatry, as thofe do which are cited by
Juttin, Theophilus, and Clement. It muft be owned, how-
ever, that Clement calls the Sibyl a prophetefs, and feems to
quote her verfes as Scripture, in the {trifteft fenfe of the
word, together with the Scriptures of the Old Teftament ;
fo that if there be any books improperly advanced by him
into the rank of facred Scripture, they are the Sibylline
books ; but Dr. Lardner does not think that he efteemed
them of equal authority with the books of the Jewith
canon. It tsa circumftance that deferves to be mentioned,
that the Heathen people knew nothing of thefe Sibylline
verfes till they were found out, or rather forged, by fome
Chriftian, and then incautioufly and imprudently recom-
mended by others. Juitin Martyr feems to have been the
firft Chriftian writer who quoted the colleétion now exift-
ing of Sibylline oracles, or any Sibylline verfes whatever,
containing the peculiar doftrines of Chriftianity. The
more ancient writers preceding him, who have mentioned
tke Sibyls, have quoted nothing but what might be
found in Sibylline writings among the Heathens. In
the colleG&ion above-mentioned, which appears, for the
chief part of it, to have been a work of the fecond cen-
tury, we have many unqueftionable evidences that the
writer, who calls himfelf a Chriftian, was acquainted
with the New Teftament, and that in feveral places
he recites the fame fa&ts in the fame or fimilar lan-
guage. The pretended prophecies of this collection are
undeniably taken from the New Teftament. Whatever
was the particular view of the author in compofing this
work, fays Dr. Lardner, and however improperly fome
ancient writers have produced teftimonies from it in their
defences of the Chriftian religion, it is now of ufe to us, as
it affords an argument that our gofpels were extant, and in
much repute, in the author’s time. See farther on this
fubje&, Prideaux’s Conn. vol. iv. p. 885, &c. Lardner’s
Credib. of the Gofpel Hitt. vol. iv. book i. cap. 29, or
Works, vol. ii.

SICABA, in Geography, a town on the north-weft
coaft of the ifland of Negroes. N. lat. 11° 26!. E. long.
W23202).

SICK, in Ancient Geography, a town of Thrace, called
in the time of Steph. Byz. Juttiniane.—Alfo, a town of
Afia, in Cilician—Alfo, the name of a place in the vicinity
of the town of Alexandria.

SICAL, or Sisax, in Geography, a town of Mexico,
on the north coaft of the province of Yucatan; 60 miles
N.W. of Merida.

SICAMINUM, in Ancient Geography. See Capua.

SICAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Khoraflan ;
1§ miles S.W, of Zauzan,

SICANDERAB, a town of Hindcoftan, in Dooab;
36 miles W.N.W. of Pattiany.

SICANE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain.
Steph. Byz.—Alfo, a river of Sicily, which ran near
Agrigentum,

3

Sui

(ees a town of Spain, according to Thucy-
ides. .

SICAPHA, a town of Africa Proper, being one of
thofe which were fituated between the two Syrtes. Ptol.

SICARD, Craune, in Biography, a Jefuit miffionary,
was born at Aubergne, near Marteilles, in 1677. He en-
tered into the fociety of Jefus in the year 1699, and for
feveral years taught the claflics and rhetoric in their {chools.
He was at length fent on a miffion to Syria, and thence to
Egypt, where he died at Cairo in 1726. He was a man
of deep as well as extenfive learning, and an exaét obferver
of what was remarkable in the countries he vifited. His
firft publication was “ An eafy Method of learning Greek,”’
tranflated into French from the Latin of Peter Gras, with
additions. When abroad, he fent home feveral curious
letters, which were publifhed in the ‘ Nouveaux Memoires
des Miflions de la Compagnie de Jefus dans le Levant ;’’ in
which are likewife publifhed his «‘ Plan of a Work on
Egypt, ancient and modern,”’ and * A Differtation on the
Paflage of the Red Sea, and Journey of the Ifraelites.”’

SICARII, in Ancient Hiffory, allaflins of Judea, who
went about the country for the accomplifhment of their
nefarious purpofes, with fhort {words concealed under their
clothes. Jofephus has defcribed them in the moft odious
colours. Eleazar, he fays, the chief man among them,
was a defcendant of Judas, who had perfuaded not a few of
the Jews not to enrol themfelves, when Cyrenius the cenfor
was fent into Judea. For then the Sicarii confpired againft
all who were willing to fubmit to the Romans. They treated
all fuch as public enemies. But other pretences were pro-
fefled, in order to cover their cruelty and avarice. Thefe
hypocritical villains were hired to murder Jonathan, the high
prieft, at the inftigation of Felix. Accordingly, fome of
the affaflins, coming up to Jerufalem, with an apparent
purpofe of worfhipping God; and having fhort {words
under their coats, mixed themfelves with the multitude, and
killed Jonathan. This murder pafling unpunifhed, the
robbers afterwards attended the feafts without any feeming
concern, and carrying, as before, {words under their
clothes, and mixing with the multitudes, killed feveral
people, fome whom they reckoned their enemies, and fome
whom they were hired by others to deftroy. This they did,
not only in other parts of the city, but within the bounds
of the temple itfelf. Jofeph. De Bell. Jud. 1. vii. c. 8.

Tilt

SICASICA, or Crcacica, in Geography, a town of
South America, and chief place of a jurifdiétion of the fame
name, in the government of Buenos Ayres, 240 miles in
extent ; 40 miles N.N.W. of Oruro.

SICAYAP Pornr, a cape on the north-weft coaft of
Mindanao. N. lat. 8°. E. long. 123° 30’.

SICCA, a town on the north coalt of the ifland of Sus
matra. N. lat. 1° 32!. E. long. 110° 4o!.

Stcca, Za, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean, near the
coatt of Naples. N. lat. 39°58’. E. long. 13°52!,

SICCACOLLUM, a city of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Condapilly, on the Kiftnah; 35 miles S.S.W. of
Ellore. i

SICCAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
25 miles N.N.W. of Chinna Balabaram.

SICCA-VENEREA, Kurr, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Africa, fituated about five leagues S.W. of La-
ribus Colonia, and 25 leagues W.S.W. of Tunis. It waa
built upon the declivity of a hill. Valerius Maximus fays,
that it had a temple of Venus, at which young females
proftituted themfelves, in order to obtain a portion that.

ight enable them t 3
might enable them to marry SICCHASIA,

SIC

SICCHASIA, a word ufed by fome writers to expres
that uneafinefs at the flomach, and loathing of food, which
women are often afflicted with in their p mer:

SICCHOS, in Greyraphy, a town of Seuth America,
in the audience of Quito; 20 miles W. of Latacunga.

SICCINNIS, in Antiquity, a mixed kind of dance.

SICERA, in the Jouip Antiquities, The Hellenitt
Jews give this name to any inebriating liquor, St. Chry-
foftom, Theodoret, and philus oF Amioch, who were
Syrians, and who therefore ought to know the fignification
and mature of ficera, affure us, that it properly fignities

Pliny acknowledges, that the wine of the palm-tree was
very well known through all the Eat, and that it was made
f nS dates of the palm-tree, and throw-
of water; then {queezing out

ba Sve it would intoxicate like wine.
wine of the -tree is white ; when it is drank new,
it has the tafte of the cocoa, and is {weet as honey ; when
it is kept longer, it grows ttrong, and intoxicates. After

becomes r

, eee Corals, See the next article.

SICHEM, or Suecen, alfo Neapolis, Sichar
or Sychar, and Mabartha, a town of Judea, in the tribe of
Ephraim, which took up the fouth fide of Samaria. This
town was fituated on the fummit of a mountain, and be-
came one of the ftrongeft and moft celebrated towns of this
tribe. It was at this place that Abraham lodged, on his
way to Canaan (Gen. xii. 6.); and it afterwards became
the abode of Jacob, who bought a field in its vicinity,
which he gave to his fon Jofeph, who was buried here.
Gen. xlvii, 22.) Near the fame city was Jacob’s well or
tain, at which Jefus difcourfed with the woman of Sa-
maria. (John, iv. 5.) Jofhua pave it to the Levites of
the tribe of Ephraim, who to the family of Ko-
hath, the firft of the Levites ; it was appointed to be
ene of the fix cities of refuge. (Joh. xxi.) It was at
that Jofhua aflembled the tribes of Ifrael (Joth.

xxiv. 1.), to renew their engagement of fidelity to God.
Sichem was deitroyed by ‘Abimelech ; but it appears to
been afterwards re-eftablifhed, becaufe it is faid
xii. 2.) that Rehoboam came hither, after the

Samaritans; and Jofephus fays (Antig. lib. xt. cap. 8.),
that it was fo in the time of Alexander the Great. It was
diftant, according to Eufebius and Jerom, 10 or 12 miles
Shiloh, 40 from Jerufalem, and 52 from Jericho.
Jerom fays, that Paula vifited the church built on Jacob’s
fountain; and others, who wrote in the eighth century,
fpeak of this building ; but it is not mentioned by Phocas,
wrote in the twelfth century. Sichem or Sichar is
Naploufe, or Nablous ; which fee.
th Bopevtecat OF st Dye Gas ices sonmicn RE.
: t » OD r3 £0 tL.
of Bruflels. .
SICHERFREUTH, a town of Germany, in the prin-

: of Bayreuth; 3 miles S.E. of Bayreuth.
SICHILI. Sec fetes.

fea, N. lat. 59° 28’. E. long 152° 14!.
-LO-HOTUN, a town er Coreen in the fea

miles N.N.W. of Turnau.
HT ELEN

+ See SucuTecen.

SIC

SICHU, a town of Mexico, in the province of Meche-
acan; 120 miles N.N.E. of Mechoacan.—Allo, a towne of
Mexico, in the province of Guatteca; 150 miles W.S5.W.
of Panuco.

SICIGNANO, a town of Naples, in Pr incipato Citra ;
10 miles W. of Cangiano,

SICILIAN Meafures, Silk, and J efpers
fubftantives.

SICILIANA, in Botany, a name given by Dodonrus,
and fome other authors, to the great androfxmum, called
tutfan, and park-leaves.

Sicitiana, @ pattoral movement in a flow jig-time of 5.
The character of this movement requires a point to the firit
note of almoft every triplet. Nothing is more pleating
than the Sicilian itrains of great matters. Handel hardly
ever fails rendering them chara¢teriftic, touching, and

leafing ; fuch as, He fhall feed bis Flock like a Shep-
3”? « Let me wander not unfeen,”” &c.

SICILIANE, or Pastoraxe, a kind of fimple rural
mufic, refounding in Chriftmas time through all quarters of
Naples, and executed by Abruzzefe or Calabrian thep-
herds, upon a fpecies of bag-pipes, called in Abruzzo
zampagne, and ciaramelli in Calabria. The tunes vary,
according to the provinces: in the fouth, they have three
different airs; the northern fhepherds have only two, to
which they add any variations which the boldnefs of their
own genius infpires. The boys learn of their fathers to

lay upon this inftrument, as the means of fubfiftence.
The waits, {till kept up in the pay of fome corporations in
England, are counterparts of thefe fhepherds.
ICILICUM, the name of a weight in ufe among the
ancients; which, fome fay, was equal to three drachms of
our tte : others fay only to two.

SICILY, in Ancient and Modern Geography, an ifland in
the Mediterranean, the largett of all the i in this fea,
being about 170 Britifh miles in length, and 70 in medial

th. Swinburne reckons its greateit length at 210
miles, and breadth 133; and places it between N. lat. 36°
25' and 38° 25’, and E long. 12° 50! and 16° 5/. Sicily
is feparated from the continent by the ftraits of Meffina,
which, in fome parts, are about four miles broad, (See
Cuaryspis, Messina, and Scytia.) At Meffina, and at
the mouth of the {traits between the promontories of Pelorus
in Sicily and the Lode di Volpa, or Foxes’ Tail, in Cala-
bria, is nearly a mile. Many of the ancient hiftorians and
poets have ftated that this ifland was formerly joined to the
continent, and fevered from it, at an unknown period, by
fome extraordinary convulfion ; nor is this opinion at all im-
probable. Accordingly Pomponius Mela obferves, ‘ Sicilia,
ut ferunt, aliquando agro Brutio adnexa.” ‘To the fame
purpofe Virgil (En. |. iti. v. 414.) fays:

** Hee loca vi quondam, et vafta convulfa ruina

Diffiluifle ferumt, cum protinus utraque Tellus

Una foret. Venit medio vi pontus et undis

Hefperium fici 'o latus abfcidit.’’

Silius Italicus details this event more at large (lib. xiv.):
“ Aufonix pars magna jacet Trinacria Tellus
Ut femel expugnante noto, et vaitantibus undis
Accepit freta coerules propulfa tridente,
So be per occultum ceca vi turbinis olim
aoe um Pelagus lacerata vifcera terre
ifcidit, et eho perrumpens arva profundo,
Cum populis pariter convulfas tranftulit urbes.””
Claudian affirms politively,
“ Trinacria quondam Italix pars fuit.’’

See the

Pliny,

SICILY.

Pliny, Strabo, Diodorus, and many others, both hif-
torians and philofophers, are of the fame fentiments, and
pretend that the ftrata on the oppofite fides of the ftraits
agree perfetly ; and fome imagine, that this feparation is
recorded in the name given to Rhegium, a town of Brutium.
With regard to the breadth of the ftrait that feparates
Sicily from Italy, Silius fays, ubi fupra:

« Sed fpatium, quod diflociat confortia terre,
Latratus fama ett (fic aréta intervenit unda),
Et matutinos volueruin tranfmittere cantus.”’

And fome perfons have even affirmed, that not only the
crowing of a cock might be heard from one {hore to another,
but that a ttrong voice might be heard through this diftance.
Mariners have aflerted that this canal is not two miles
broad.

Sicily, on account of its fomewhat triangular form, has
been called Trinacria, or Trinacia, and Trinquetra. Its
ancient name was Sieania, derived frem its inhabitants the
Sicani; but when the Siculi took pofleffion of the greateft
part of the ifland, it aflumed the name of Sicilia. The in-
terior of Sicily is full of mountains. The ancients, pro-
ceeding from the weft to the eaft, enumerated the following ;
viz. Eryx, near the fea and Drepanum, celebrated for a
temple of Venus; Cratas, towards the north, in which are
the fources of the Eleutherus and Himera, and thofe of
Hypfa, which flowed towards the fouth ; the Gemelli colles,
more foutherly than the chain of Cratas, in which is the
fouree of the Camicus, and of other rivers; the Nebrodes,
northwards and eaft of the preceding; Maro, {till more to
the eaft; the Herei, from fouth to north, between the
fources of the Himera to the weft, and thofe of Simzthus
to the eaft; and alfo the famous mount ina; which fee.
Among the rivers of Sicily noticed by the ancients, we
may enumerate, on the eaftern coatt, the Simethus, which
rifes weft of Aitna, and fouth of the town called Engyum,
runs towards the fouth-eaft, receiving in its courfe the
Chryfas, and difcharges itfelf into the fea near to and north
of Murgentium ; and the Mela, fouth of the preceding, and
running in a ftraight direétion from weft to eaft; and on
the fouthern coalt, the Himera, which had its fource in
mount Artefinus, in the environs of Enna, and flowed-into
the fea at Phigtia; and the Hypfa, which proceeding from
the interior of the ifland, flowed into the fea near to and
eait of Selinus.

The principal places in ancient Sicily are enumerated and
briefly defcribed under their appropriate names in different
parts of the Cyclopedia.

Sicily was celebrated among the ancients for its extraor-
dinary fertility. Its mines of lead, copper, and filver, and
its variety of {tones and volcanic produétions, have been re-
corded by ancient and modern writers; and it has been ob-
ferved, that the fummits of its higheft mountains have fur-
aifhed a great number of different marine productions.

This ifland has undergone a variety of revolutions : it has
been denominated, in very remote times, the ifland of the Sun,
and the land of the Cyclops, and of the Leitrygons. It
was afterwards called Sicania and Sicily, from the names of
its poffleflors. The Phoenicians alfo had eftabhfhments in this
ifland, and carried on with it a confiderable commerce, in the
advantages of which the Trojans are faid to have partici-
pated. The Grecks eftablithed themfelves in Sicily for
the firft time after the fiege cf Troy, and kept pofleffion of
it for a long period, forming different republics, and tranf-
porting hither their manners and arts, and different opi-
nions, and erecting temples of ftone of the Doric order ; and
in procefs of time they fhared the government of it with the

Carthaginians. Thefe new conquerors, who about 10 years
B.C. gained pofleffion of it, brought with them their com-
merce, their arms, and their gods. They occupied the
weltern and northern fhores, whillt the Siculi retained the
midland country ; and the fouthern and eaftern coafts were
inhabited by the Greeks. ‘The Mamertins arriving hither
from Italy took pofleffion of Meffina, and called over the
Romans, who, urged by their ambition, wanted only a pre-
text of taking up arms againft the Carthaginians. After a
variety of fucceffive contefts, they took poffeffion of the
ifland. The Romans occupied themfelves for fome years in
eftablifhing peace, abundance, and even {plendour ; and they
ereéted during the time of the republic fuperb edifices of
marble ; their power and ambition fetting no limits to their
magnificence. Under their dominion Sicily became more
flourifhing than it had been in the time of the Greeks, when
it was confidered as free. The Sicilians, under the govern-
ment of the Romans, loft their military genius, and thofe
mutual jealoufies which ferved only to accelerate their own
deftru€tion. When the Romans made themfelves matters
of Sicily, they permitted the inhabitants to retain the
temples, the deities, and the forms of worfhip which the
Greeks and other nations had eftablifhed among them, and
till the divifion of the Roman empire, they maintained a cer-
tain charaéter of elegance and refinement. But at this pe-
riod the monuments of antiquity funk into neglect; the
arts were no longer held in eftimation 5 and talents difap-
peared on the accefs of ignorance and barbarifm. To-
wards the end of the fourth century, Syracufe was the firft

town of Sicily that received Chriftianity, and foon after .

other towns and the whole country followed its example ;
and this event was followed by a negleé of their temples and
public monuments. The ignorance of the prielts, no lefs
notorious than the fervour of their zeal, induced them to
make war againft the {ciences and the arts, that they might
thus the more effeétually and {peedily deftroy Paganifm, which
cultivated them.
The Sicilians, having relinquifhed all martial ideas during
a long feries of generations, turned their attention folely
to the arts of peace, and the labours of agriculture. Their
pofition in the centre of the empire preferved them from
both civil and foreign foes, except in two inftances of a
fervile war. But the rapacity of their governors was a more
conftant and infupportable evil. In this {tate of apathy
and opulence, Sicily remained till the feventh century of our
era, when the Saracens began to dilturb its tranquillity.
The barbarous nations of the North had previoufly invaded
and ravaged its coalts, but had not long kept pofleffion.
The Saracens, however, were more fortunate. In the year
827 they availed themfelves of quarrels among the Sicilians
to fubdue the country ; and they chofe Palermo for their
capital. The ftandard of Mahomet triumphed about 200
years.. In 1038 George Maniares was fent by the Greek
emperor with a great army to attack Sicily. He made good
his landing, and pufhed his conquefts with vigour, and, aided
by the valour of fome Norman troops, with fuccefs.. Mani-
ares recompenfed them with ingratitude ; and by his con-
du& allowed the Muflulmen an interval of tranquillity, and
the Normans an opportunity and pretext of invading the
imperial dominions in Italy. Robert and Roger of Haute-
ville afterwards conquered Sicily on their own account.
After a ftruggle of ten years, the Saracens, in 1072, as Swin-
burne fays, furrendered the rich prize ; though others fay, that
they loft the poffeflion of it A.D. 1058. Robert ceded it
to his brother Roger, who aflumed the title of great earl of
Sicily. This firft fovereign fwayed the feeptre with wifdom
and glory, and defervedly ranks among the greateft charac-
ters

SICILY.

. He was fuceeeded by his fon Simon, who,
reiga, made way for a fecond fon called Roger,
ing ; who, in 1127, joined to his Sicilian domi-
inheritance of Robert Guifeard, and affumed
. Roger, it is faid, wae named king of Sicily

-D. 1130. During his reign, Sicily enjoyed
peace. The reign of his fon William I. who af-

throne’in 1154, was a period of war and con-

SFEREI
F. >
Hee

:

after the conquell of Sicily, by their ancettors. ‘The
oni line continued till their kingdom was fubdued by

. Heary Vi. of Germany. After the battle of
Benevento, Sicily fubmitted to Charles of Anjou, a prince
of the French line, A.D. 1266, and having endured

quietly for a confiderable time oppreflion and wanton cruelt
at length determined to amnsipett itfelf from his oytiey.
Accordingly an infurrection took place in 1282, and after

Sicilian wire the infurgents offered their crown to

| peace rn come 6

| se a ee , and the thunders of

Vatican. On the death of Alphonfo the Magnificent,

who his father Ferdinand I. of Caftile, Naples
was to his other dominions; and after his

in

1458, the hiltory of Sicily becomes unintereiting. At the

was compelled by the emperor Charles VI.
Geet eee On eek equivalent.

particulars relating to the hittory of Sicily, we
refer to NAPLES.

and even in emg ae ing of January the is refrething.
ae Be feen in the {now that falls

on the fummit of mount /Etna. (See that article.) Al-
the ifland has, in may Dee a J the afpeé of a

rock, the foil is fingularly fertile, but it is not now cultivated

The crops of wheat are ftill fo abundant, notwith-

ding the oppreffion of the t, as not only to
Secale poll ofits cowie i ur to Weds large

of a free gover eeeecrerers oe Sivet
tes inp ache tet aL memo
t jon, one cro 8 » would be
ie eters age? ay iy leg om but when
he the ifland, the exportation of this commodity had
been prohibited for feveral years pait, or, at leait, to all fuch
. «tt age alee tee ke
was m val
teal Wanita duties tinpoled wesc 1 fo enormous, that

places on the north fide of the ifland, Wine and brandy
in abundance ; and the wines are very va-
Vou. XXXII.

as it was formerly, when it was reckoned the granary of

furplus for exportation ; eae Greeny the bieting preferable

rious. The fitheries, allo, are very produdive, and great
quantities of tunny, anchovies, and fardiocs, are felted, and
feat from the vicinity of the places where they are caught.
The art of manufaéturing fk, snd of the management of
the infects that produce it, was eltablifhed here by Roger,
king of Sicily, and it was communicated from hence to the
wettern countries of Europes

Silk is confidered as the fecond great fource of riches to
Sicily, corn being undoubtedly the ; B quantity of filk,
equal in value to a million of ducats (287,500/.) is anaually
exported. Pslermo and Meflina aloge fend it out; 3 con-
fiderable quantity of the materials is manufa@tured in both
places; but Palermo, which employs sine hundred looms,
exports very little, molt of ite filks being ufed at home.
Meflina employs twelve hundred looms, and Catania rather
more. In the Meflinefe manufa¢tures a variety of filks is
made, but the filk is feldom well drawn, dyed, or matched,
and the work is apt to prove hard and torub. Molt of ix
goes to the Levant.

A large tity of barilla is thipped from the fouthern
coatt. iteit and heavielt falt 1s produced at ‘Trapani.
This ifland alfo furnifhes {umach, hare and rabbit-fhins, rags,

fulphur, &c. for exportation.

Boda is a commodity of which they have zn ample fupply,
and they every year fend great quantities of it to the PRA
houfes at Venice. They Seve hacwile aconfiderable trade
in liquorice, rice, figs, raifins, and currants, the belt of which
grow among the extinguifhed volcanoes of the Lipari iflands.
Their honey, which 1s gathered three months in the year,
viz. July, Auguit, and October, is very highly flavoured,
and in fome parts of the ifland fuperior to that of Minorca.
Although fugar is now no article of Sicilian commerce,
enough is made for home confumption ; and the fugar-eane
is faid to thrive very much in feveral parts of the land. It
is faid, that towards the north of Sicily they find the thell-
fith that yields 2 kind of flax, of which gloves and Hockings
are made. Their plantations of oran of which 2000
cheits are fhipped annually from Meflina, lemons, berga-
mots, almonds, &c. afford no incosdfiderable branch of com-
merce. The piftaciio-nut is hkewife much cultivated; their
manna and alum are likewife very profitable. The cantha-
rides fly, which is found on feveral trees of Etna, is alfo a.
Sicilian commodity. Thefe cantharides are faid to be
to thofe of Spain. Sicily abounds with mi-
neral {prings of both hot and cold water; fome of which
throw up an oil that is applicable to various purpofes. “ The
marbles of Sicily would afford a great fource of opulence,
if there were any encouragement to work the quarries ;
and they have alfo other ftones that are ferviceable in a va-
riety of ways.

It would, however, be endlefs to give an account of
all the various commodities and curious productions of
this iland; Etna alone affords a greater number than
many of the moft extenfive kingdoms, and is no lefs an
epitome of the whole earth in its foil and climate, than
in the variety of its produGtions. Befides the corn, the
wine, the oil, the filk, the {pice, and delicious fruits of its
lower region ;—the beautiful forefts, the flocks, the game,
the tar, the cork, the honey, of its fecond ;—the fhow
and ice of its third ; it affords from its caverns a variety of
mineral and other produCtions ; cinnabar, mercury, fulphur,
alum, nitre, and vitriol; fo that this wenderful mountain
at the fame time produces every neceflary, and every luxury

pe- of life.

Its firft region covers their tables with all the delicacies
that the earth produces ; its fecond fuppliesthem with game,
cheefe, butter, honey ; and not only furnifhes wood of every

, 40 kind

SICILY.

kind for building their fhips and houfes, but likewife an
inexhauttible {tore of the moft excellent fuel; and as the
third region, with its ice and fnow, keeps them frefh and
cool during the heat of fummer, fo this contributes
equally to keep them warm and comfortable during the cold
of winter.

The principal trade of this ifland is carried on at Palermo
and Meflina; the former confumes of imports four or five
times more than the latter ; but on account of lighter duties,
Meffina exports a greater quantity of filk, and fupplies the
inland towns with more commodities. The bufinefs of other
places on the coaft confifts folely in fhipping corn, wine,
falt, &c. Trapani, on account of its famous falt-pans and
the fhipping belonging to it, 1s one of the bufieft commercial
towns in the ifland.

According to the enumerations made in 1714, fays Swin-
burne, Sicily contained 1,133,163 inhabitants, including
40,000 ecclefiaftics, and 11¢,000 inhabitants of Palermo.
In 1615 it contained 1,107,2343 in 1505, 488,500, with-
out reckoning the inhabitants of Palermo or Meffina.

When Mr. Brydone vifited the ifland in the year 1770, he
fays that the inhabitants, by the laft enumeration, amounted
to 1,123,163, of which number there were about 50,000 that
belonged to the different monatteries and religious orders: the
inhabitants of Palermo were computed at 150,000. The
number of houfes in the ifland were eftimated at 268,120; fo
that allowing the enumeration and the eftimate to be juft, the
number to a houfe appears to have been between five and
fix. The viciffitudes and commotions that have more re-
cently occurred have not been favourable to an increafe, but
muit rather have contributed to a diminution of the popu-
lation.

The provinces in this ifland are three : viz. Val di Noto,
260 miles in circumference; Val di Mazara, 302 miles in
circumference; and Val Demona, 313 miles in circumference:
they contain 42 towns belonging to the demefne, and 310
baronial. : 5

Sicily is governed by a viceroy, in whofe abfence the
archbifhop of Palermo is regent. The general aflembly
of parliament is compofed of 66 archbifhops, bifhops, ab-
bots and priors, which form the bracchio ecclefiaftico : 58
princes, 27 dukes, 37 marquifles, 27 counts, 1 vifcount,
.and 79 barons, form the militaire ; and the demaniale con-
fifts of 43 reprefentatives of free towns. Out of each brac-
chio four deputies are chofen to conduét public bufinefs ;
but the viceroy, the prince of Butera, and the praetor of
Palermo, are always the three firft. N.B. There aremany
titled perfons. that have no feat in the aflembly, viz. 62
princes, 55 dukes, 87 marquifles, 1 count, and 282 other
teudatories.

The ecclefiaftical government confifts of three archbi-
fhoprics and feven bifhoprics.

The following tables fhew the coins, weights, and mea-
fures of Sicily.

TABLES OF SICILIAN CoINs.

Gold Coins. Silver Coins.
1. Piece of 6 ducats, or dou-| Scudo, equal to 12 taris.
ble ounce. Ducat = =e HO
2. Fiece of three do. or onza.|Mezzofcudo - 6

3. Piece of two ditto. Terzo difcudo - 4
4. Piece of one ducat and a| Piece of three tari 3
half. of two tari, equal to the
tari of Naples.
The tari, equal the carlino of
Naples.

Brafs Coins.

Grano, equal to fix Neapolitan calli, or half a grano-
Mezzo-grano, equal to three calli of Naples.
Other fubdivifions are feldom met with.

The ounce, or onza Alias 3 ducats, or 30 taris.
The feudo {53 [ 12 taris.

The ducat 5 < 10 taris.

The tari & | 20 grano.

The grana J-4 Ll 6 piccioli. ;

Accompts are kept in onza, tari, and grano. Upon an
average, the ducat is worth forty-five pence Englifh money.

WEIGuHTs AnD MrasureEs.

There are two forts of weights ufed in Sicily.

1. Grande.
1 Cantaro contains rro rotoli Thi i i
t Rotolo 2 33 ounces 1S ences 1s equal to
1 Pound - 12 ounces ge) eat avoirdu-
1 Ounce - 30 trapefi pols weignt.

This cantaro is equal to
178 pounds weight

1 Rotolo = 30 ounces : 5
avoirdupois.

2. Common.
1 Cantaro contains 100 rotoli t
Dry Merasure.—Corn.

1 Salma generale contains 16 tomoli—equal to 20 Win-
chefter buthels, ufed in meafuring wheat.

2 Salma a la grofla contains 20 tomoli—equal to 24 Win-

chefter bufhels, ufed for barley, beans, &c.

Liauip Mrasure.—O?/.
i Caffis weighs 18 pounds avoirdupois.

Wine.—t Salma contains 8 quartari.
12 quartucil.

1 Quart contains

Lineat Measure.

12 Oncie make 1 palmo, equal to 10 inches 3 lines,
8 Palmi make 1 canna, equal to 6 feet 8 inches.

Befides the obligations which the Romans had to the
Etrufcans and Greeks for their tafte and knowledge in the
fine arts, the conqueft of Sicily 200 years before the Chrif-
tian era, contributed greatly to their acquaintance with them.
Indeed, there was no ftate of Greece which produced men of
more eminence in all the arts and {ciences than Sicily, which
was a part of Magna Grecia, and which having been peopled
719 years B.C. by a colony of Greeks from Corinth, their
defcendants long after cherifhed and cultivated fcience of
all kinds, in which they greatly diftinguifhed themfelves, even
under all the tyranny of government with which they were
opprefled. Fabricius gives a lift of feventy Sicilians who
have been celebrated in antiquity for learning and genius,
among whom we find the well-known names of /E{chylus,
Diodorus Siculus, Empedocles, Gorgias, Euclid, Archi-
medes, Epicharmus, and Theocritus. To the Sicilians is
given not only the invention of paftoral poetry, but of the
wind inftruments with which the fhepherds and cowherds
ufed to accompany their rural fongs. i

After the conqueft of Greece, the Romans had the tafte
to admire and adopt the Grecian arts. And the prefident
Montefquieu remarks, with re{pe& to the military art, that
one of the chief caufes of the Roman grandeur, was their

. method

|
|
|

sic

SICION, ia G
Ma “pee fe cagrapl,

Africa.

t a towa of Hindooflan, in
cirear of Gohud; 5 miles N. of Lahaar.—Alfo, a
in the circar of Gohud; 10 miles S.E.

SICKLE, in Agriculture, a toothed hook, with which
reaped.

ere is confiderable eee. in ioe, ponibentiien room
are emplo r in different ;
in pe pla ant g Sickles, but aes

of are alfo ufed in one part of the
fome in another, being wholly unknown in

fickle is a fort of femicircular piece of
faced with fteel, which in is from

iE. .3
pel

Lgl
He

i
j
:
i
;
;

af

:
i
s
!
i:

ie
Wy
Fae
43
Hf
:
zi
e

a valuable tool of this kind,

It is a powerful tool, and capable
a given time when in’ good hands,
iw.

feen ‘
” The /mooth-edged fickle, or reap-hook, has a tha d
eee eet fir Gores thik in the common
le, only a little broader ; but the edge is {mooth or fharp
bac Sab ape

vhich is a deal and heavier, as
at the point. It can, however, be ufed
and expediti who are accultomed

alfo another tool of this nature, which
in diftri@s. It is only toothed from
le to the point end, Pi x ich the walle of
to be preven
ient of thefe tools is the common
on the whole, the beit of
geting much out of ufe in many
ing new even fearcely known or em-
n, Cornwall, and Somerfet,

gaa flern diflridts of
glam tig og ace ge place to the hooks,

.

ater cafe of perform-
ae fuppofed, but by
The fickle is by far the moft frugal and

or a ing the work with, as caufing
ials made with the fickle and the

src

greater, being eflimated at not lefs than fiverfiaths of the
whole in feattered corn.

This difference is fuppofed to be produced by the hook
having a tharp {mooth edge, which cuts the flems, as it is put
into = tlanding corn, before it is gathered into the left
sand of the workman ; while the fickle having a fine-toothed
edge inclining towards the heel part, as bas been already”
feen, does not cut the ftraws as it is put into the flandio
crop. Thus, though the hook will execute the mn
with greater facility, where the workman mult have
eafe, the belt mode will probably be to have recourie to the
fickle-hook, by means of which, from the manocr of its
being edged, it will much prevent the above enormous lofs
of corn which is caufed in other ways of doing the bulinels.

It is neceflary for the farmer to be aware of this difference
in the ufe of the different tools of the fickle kind, as the
hooks are fat introducing themfelves into the eaftera and
even the northern parts of the kingdom, as well as into Ire-
land, where they were formerly unknown, and prevail much
in many other Bins

In the above diftri& of Furnefs, the reaping is wholly
and moit excellently performed by means of the fickle. Ar
an eafy rate of sont » three men, it is faid, with this tool,
will cut a cuftomary acre of fix yards and a half to the pole
or perch, of long, light, flender corn, bind and flouk the
fame in the courfe of a day, or lefs than fourteen hours ; and
five men with thefe tools will perform the fame quantity of
work in a field of the ftrongeft corn, when laid and much
entangled. By hard labour from light to dark, three men
with this fort of tool will reap, bind, and ftouk above a
cuftomary acre of any kind of grain, See Hanvesrinc
and ReapinG of Corn.

Sickie-Fijb. See Faux.

Sicke-Wort, in Botany. See Cononiva.

SICKLUPEN, in Geogr. , a town of Proffia, in the
province of Samland; 5 miles N. of Tilfit.

SICKNESS. Sce Disgase.

Sickness, Falling. See Ericersy.

Sickness, Green. See CuLorosis.

Sickness, Sweating. See Sweatinc Sickne/:.

SICKREE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 26 miles
W.N.W. of Ramgur.

SICLOS, a town of Hungary, having a caftle on 2
mountain, in which the emperor Sigifmund was imprifoned;
64 miles S.E. of Canifcha.
gape er OLLY, a town of Bengal; 15 miles N. of

ICON, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 125 miles
W.S.W. of Havanna.

SICUB, or Sicup, in Natural Hiflory, = name given by
the inhabitants of the Philippine iflands to a {pecies of
hawk, of the bignefs of their common hawk, or banoy,
rag is ado larger than our {parrow-hawk. Rien

i meee. cee variegated all over its body with yel-
Pe ee black. See Lavin. 2 : ,
» in Ancient Geography, a originally
Dalaatin wie Gtabiticd tenitinc i ~ mega
16th century B.C. They formed a numerous nation, and
had poffeffion of a confiderable extent of country; as they
peopled Umbria, Sabina, Latium, and all the cantons, the
occupiers of which were afterwards known under the 2ame
of Opici. The Siculi pafled into Sicily, and gave it their
name. This event is faid to have taken place, according to
Hellanicus of Lefbos, 80 years before the fiege of Troy,
or 1364 B. C. according to the chronology of Thucy-
dides, a. of Siculi, which comprebended all
people who diffufed themielves from the Tiber to the ealtera
402 extremity

SIC

extremity of Italy, the country occupied by the Liburni ex-
cepted, was gradually abolifhed by the feparate leagues and
diftin@tions of the Sabines, Latins, Samnites, Oenotrians,
and Italians. Herodotus, Thucydides, Plato, and Ariftotle,
mention thefe people. ,

SICULIANA, in Geography, a town on the S. coalt of
Sicily, containing 5000 perfons, and belonging to the prince
of La Catholica, to whom it yields an annual income of
14,000 crowns. It is remarkable for not having a fingle
convent within its precinéts, owing either to the danger of a
vifit from the Mahometans, or to the recent foundation of
the town. The ignorance of the inhabitants, at leaft with
regard to philofophy, is remarkably evinced by an anecdote
mentioned by Swinburne. On the wall of his apartment he
found notice of a'thefis to be maintained in the, fchools of
Girgenti by a native of Siculiana: in which he undertakes
to prove, ‘¢ that the Copernican fyftem is impious, abfurd,
and contradiétory to Holy Writ, from which it is evident,
that the earth itands ftill, and the fun moves round it, like
the fails of a windmill round the pivot.”? Siculiana is plea-
fantly fituated on two hills joined together by a long {treet ;
the vale below being full of orange and other fruit-trees, and
the view of the fea very extenfive; 12 miles N.W. of
Girgenti.

SICULONES, in Ancient Geography, a people who in-
habited the Cimbric peninfula, according to Ptolemy.

SICULOT A, a people of Dalmatia, who, according to
Ptolemy, were divided into 24 decuriz.

SICUM, a town of Illyria, on the coaft of Dalmatia,
between Scardona and Salone, according to Ptolemy and
Pliny. The latter fays, that the emperor Claudius fent hi-
ther his veteran foldiers.

SICUS, in /chthyology, a name ufed by fome authors to
exprefs that {pecies of coregonus, called by the generality
of authors Albula nobilis. ‘This, in the Linnzan fyftem, is
a {pecies of Salmo.

SICUT Attias, in Law, a writ fent out in the fecond
place, where the firft was not executed.

It is thus called from its beginning, which is in this form:
“ Georgius, D. G. &c. Vicecomiti Heref. falutem. Pra-
cipimus falutem tibi (ficut alias) precipem,’”’? &c.

SICYANA. See Gourd Worm.

SICYEDON, from osxvos, a cucumber, in Surgery, atranf-
verfe fra€ture.

SICYON, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, and
capital of a {mall {tate in the gulf of Corinth, and not far
diftant from it. It was anciently called Agiale, from Mgia-
leus, its fuppofed founder and firft monarch. It is not cer-
tain whether the whole kingdom, or only its metropolis, was
called by that name, but it was exchanged for Apia, from
Apis its fourth king; and in procefs of time it acquired
that of Sicyon, who was the roth monarch. He reigned
about 740 years after its fuppofed foundation; and from
that time not only the kingdom, but the whole peninfula of
Peloponnefus, was called Sicyonia until its diffolution.

This little kingdom lay on the N. part of the Peloponne-
fus, fince called the bay of Corinth. On the weft it had the
province of Achaia, and on the eaft the ifthmus, which
joins the peninfula to the continent of Greece. Its extent
has not been afcertained. Its capital is fuppofed to have
been fituated upon the river Afopus, having the bay of

Corinth on the north, and the reft of the Peloponnefus at
the three other points. Strabo and Livy fay, that it was
parted from the kingdom of Corinth by the river Nemia ;
and Ptolemy adds that it was firft called Micone, and after-
wards /Egiali; he gave it two cities, Platits and Sicyon,
both of which he placed at fome diftance from the fea.

SIC

The territory of this fmall {tate was rich, abounding with
corn, vines, olive-trees, and other commodities, befides fome
iron mines. Its metropolis was, in procefs of time, very
much adorned by Sicyon and his fucceiloxs, with temples,
altars, monuments, and ftatues of all their gods and ancient
monarchs. ‘This would be juftly deemed the moft ancient
monarchy in the world, not excepting thofe of Egypt and
Affyria, if it were true that its founder lived about 150 years
after the flood, or about 200 years before Noah’s death; as
fome have computed it from Eufebius, who affirms this mo-
narchy to have been founded 1313 years before the firft
Olympiad, or 2089 B.C. But other chronologers have
corrected this miftake, and made him contemporary with
Terah, Abraham’s father, and {tated the commencement of
his reign about the year of the world 1915, or even later,
about A.M. 1236; by which computation it is brought
fomewhat lower than the year of the flood goo. This
kingdom is faid to have had, during an interval of 962
years, a fucceflion of 26 kings, but their reigns are diftin-
guifhed by no memorable action or conqueft, The firft king
was /Egialeus, and the laft Zeuxippus or Deuxippus; but in
Blair’s chronology the laft king is Charidemus, with whom
they end, 1089 years B.C. or 15 years after the return of
the Heraclidz into Peloponnefus. In the lift of kings, the
moft remarkable is Sicyon, who gave name to the ftate, and
who is fuppofed to have built, or at leaft enlarged, the me-
tropolis of the kingdom, and to have called it by his own
name. Accordingly it was not only one of the nobleét cities
in Greece, on account both of its magnificent edifices and

ingenious workmen, but it was a confiderable place when the |

Venetians were mafters of the Morea, under the new name
of « Bafilica,””? though it has been for near the two laft cen-
turies reduced to a heap of ruins, containing only three
Turkifh, and about as many Chriftian families. The town
was fituated on the top of a hill, about three miles from the
gulf of Lepanto; and has ftill feveral monuments of its an-
cient as well as modern grandeur, particularly the wails of
its famous citadel, of fome fine churches and mofques, and
a large ancient edifice, called the royal palace, with aque-
duéts to fupply it with water, all which, with other old re-
mains, are defcribed by fir George Wheeler, Voy.

After the death of Zeuxippus, the laft king of Sicyon,
this {tate is faid to have been governed by the priefts of
Apollo Carneus, five of whom held the fovereignty only
during one year each; after which the Amphiétyons {wayed
the {ceptre nine years fucceflively, and Charidemus, the laft
of them, continued in it 18 years. After this hierarchy had
lafted 32 years, the Heraclide, who were at that time re-
turned from Peloponnefus, became matters of it, or accord-
ing to Paufanias, the kingdom was incorporated with the
Dores, and became fubjeét to that of Argos, the next king-
dom to that of Sicyon in refpeét of antiquity. Anc. Un.
Hitt. vol. v.

SICYONE, a word ufed by Hippocrates to exprefs colo-
cynth, and by others for a {pecies of hard-fhelled gourd, in
the fhape of a pear, and by fome for a cupping-glafs.

SICYONEUM Oteum, a word ufed by the ancients to
exprefs a medicinal oil, of which there were among them
three kinds in ufe. The firft was called /icyonium /implex.
This was compofed of two ounces of the root of the wild
cucumber, boiled feveral hours in a pint of oil. The fecond
fort was called the compound ficyonium, and was made of
the root of the fame plant, with many other ingredients.
The third was another compound kind, made not with an
infufion of the root, but with the juice of the fruit of the
wild cucumber.

SICYONII, among the Romans, were fhoes of a more

delicate

SIC

delicate form, and better ornamented than ordinary, and
chiefly worn by the ladies and the

SICYOS, in Botany, a name borrowed from the ancient

whofe caver is fuppofed te be our common cucum-

near it, ‘The genus before us belongs to the fame

og. Schreb. 664. Willd,.Sp. Pi.

Ajit. Hort, Kew. v. ¢.

at t. 88. (Sicyoides ;
Monoecia ia. (Linneus and his followers refer it
Monsecia and Willdenow to AM. Monadelphia ;
Momonnioa.) Nat. Ord. Cucurbitacee, Linn. Jutl.
Male, Ca/. Perianth of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
five fall awl-thaped tecth, Cor. bell-thaped, in five
united to the calyx. Sram. Filaments
» thort, conneéted at the bafe ; anthers two
of two filaments, one on the third, (Ju/-)
on the fame plant. Ca/. Perianth asin the male,
i aye Cor. as in = male. Pif. aan
cylindrical ; fligma tumid, three-cleft,
Sefer serie: fpinen) of one cell. Seed

Calyx with five teeth. Corolla in five

three.
with five teeth. Corolla in five
Berry with one feed.
Single-feeded Cucumber; or
p- Pi. 1459. Willd, n. 1. Ait.
joi jore et fructu minore ;

7s

?
4

jit
i

eff i
e »
sill

i

angulata. An
Linn.
n. I.

(
Dill, Eth. 58. t. 51. f.
g8.t. 51. f 5

:

or lefs toothed, minutely

or ten tog in a round head. Seed ovate, fmooth.

2. S. a. Small-flowered Single-feeded Cucum-
ber. mn. 2.—* Leaves five-angled, minutely toothed,
{mooth 5 : with a roundifh finus, at the bafe.”
—Native of Communicated to profeffor Willde-
now, by the baron Humboldt, from whofe feeds

: Annual, like the laft, and much
refembling it, but the /eaves are not rough, nor is their finus
an obtufe angle, but round. The male are not one-
eet ps ht ls, meg ale ones about a

of that {pecies. The however is but

tle fimaller. -Willdemoxe eet
“8. Vine-leaved Single-feeded Cucumber.
nm. 3.-—** Leaves five-lobed, toothed, hairy and
pont ra #98 , with a roundifh finus, at the ”—
Willdenow faw this fpecies in a living itate, but was unac-
‘its native country. He deferibes it as annual,

ing widely from both the preceding in having the Lawes
eames parilice, ‘clothe like the
whole plant, fine vifeid hzirs, and {melling like Salvia
‘Male as well 28 female flowers half the fize of the

- ig

+ -leaved Single-feeded Cucumber.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1439.

illd. n. 4. (Sicioides fruétu echi-

SID

nato, foliis laciniatis; Plum, Ic. 249. t. 244. f. 1.)—-Leaves
deeply five-lobed, laciniated,—Native of South Amernica.—
By Plumier’s figure, this {pecies feems to difler from all the
foregoing in its deeply di and jagged /eaors, which are
very rough on the upper fide, ‘The fruit appears more
rounded and obtufe than in §, a.

S. Garcini, Linn, Mant. 297. Burm. Ind. t. 57. f &s
is rightly, we believe, re to Bryonia by Willdenow,
his Sp. Pi. v. 4. 623. Burmann mifteok the /ipwla tor the
Jrwit, a rare inttance of the kind!

SID, in Geography, a {mall river of England, which runs
into the Englith Channel, at Sidmouth.

SIDA, in Bormy, a name borrowed from the Grecks,
whofe oid» has by fome been thought a kind of marfh mai-
low, nor can we find any other reafon for the prefeut appli-
eation of this name. heophra(tus deferibes his ow» more

articularly than ufual, and evidently mdicates a {pecies of
Wy mpbea, Lexicographers call od» the Pomegranate, and
Diofcorides ufes the word ova for the rind of that fruit.—

Lion. Gen. 352. Schreb. 463. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 734
Mart. Mill. bia. v. 4. Ajit. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 197-
Purth v. 2. 452. Cavan. Diff. 6. Juff. 273. Lamarck

Iiluftr. t. 578. Gertn. t.134. (Abutilon; Tourn, t. 25.
Anoda ; é

Cal. Perianth inferior, fimple, of one leaf,
angular, cut about half way down into five fegments, per-
manent. Cor. Petals five, dilated upwards, emarginate,
attached by their claws to the tube of the ftamens. Stam.
Filaments numerous, united below into a tube, feparating
at the upper part of the tube into capillary fegments; an-
thers roundifh. Pi. Germen orbicular; ityles five, ten,
or more, more or lefs combined below; ftigmas capitate.
Peric. Capfule roundifh, angular, depreffed, of as many
cells as there are ftigmas, more or lefs combined at the bafe,
each with two pointed valves, buriting at the upper part.
Seeds one or more in each cell, roundish, generally poimted ;
convex at the outer fide; angular at the inner, by which
by 4 are attached to the central column.

bf. This genus includes the Ma/vinda of Dillenius,
which has five cells only, with folitary feeds, as well as his
and Tournefort’s Abutilon, whofe cells, as well as feeds for
the moft part, are more numerous. Aneda of Cavanilles is
very infulliciently diltinguifhed, by the cells of the capfule
being rather more united than ufual; but there is no clear
or decided difference. For the diftin@tions of NAPA, re-
ferred to Sida by Cavanilles, Schreber, &c. fee that article.
The fruit of the Linnzan S. periplocifolia feems peculiar,
having two feries of ceils, according to Schreber.

Eff. Ch, Calyx fimple, angular. Style in numerous
divifions. Capfule of feveral bivalve cells, fpreading from
a centre,

An extenfive genus, including moft of the columni-
ferous or malvaceous order, that have no external calyx.
Cavanilles and L’Heritier have confiderably added to the

ay of fpecies. Their number in the 14th edition of
ma . Veg. is only 27; from which the lait of all,

ber’s PALAViA, is to beexpunged. (Sce that
Willdenow reckons up 99, but from thefe are to

be deduéted the two Napee of Linnxus, which undoubtedly
contlitute a diftinét genus, 2s we have hewn in its proper
evn! Ta their ttead, however, there are two to add from
orth America. Molt of the f{pecies are tropical plante,
natives of the Eaft or Welt Indies. Several are found in

Mexico and Peru; eight in North America; a few at the
Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, &c.; none truly wild
in

SIDA.

in Europe, though S. Abutilon is reported to grow in Si-
beria and Switzerland, where it may perhaps have been
naturalized ; as has happened to various tropical annuals in
colder climates than what is natural to them, Abyflinia
has afforded one new fpecies to our gardens; befides which,
34, exclufive of the Napee, are enumerated in Mr. Aiton’s
valuable work.

The habit of all is more or lefs fhrubby, though feveral
have annual roots. The leaves are alternate, ftalked, fimple;
either entire, notched, or lobed. Inflorefcence moitly ax-
illary. ‘Flowers yellow, reddifh, or white. The fpecies
are difpofed in fe€tions, according to the fhape of the

foliage. We fhall give various examples.
Se@. 1. Leaves lanceolate, more or lefs narrow, oblong,
ar ovate. Seventeen {pecies.

S. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Sida. Murray in Linn.
Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 621. Willd. n.2. Ait. n.1. L?Herit.
Stirp. 89. t. 52. Cavan. Diff. 14 and 48. t. 2. f. 2.—
Leaves linear-lanceolate, toothed. Stipulas fetaceous, with
axillary fpines. Flower-flalks fimple, mottly folitary.
Capfules with beaked valves.—Native of Brafil. Perennial,
with a fhrubby, branched, downy /fem, three feet or more
in height. Leaves pale and downy beneath, about two or
three inches long, half an inch broad, on fhort Stalks, ac-
companied at the bafe by two or three minute /pines, as well
as eret narrow /lipulas. Corolla pale, yellow, oblique.

S. fpinofa. Prickly Sida. Linn. Sp. Pl. 960. Willd.
n. 6. Ait. n. 2. Purfhn.1. Cavan. Diff. 11. t.1. f. 9.
(Alcea carpini folio, americana frutefcens, flofculis luteis,
femine duplici roftro donato; Comm. Hort. v. 1. 3. t. 2.)
— Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ferrated ; fomewhat heart-fhaped
at the bafe. Stipulas fetaceous, with axillary f{pines.
Flower-ftalks fimple, moftly folitary. Capfules with beaked
valves.—Native of the Eaft' and Welt Indies, Senegal,
Arabia Felix, and North America. Mr. Purth fays it is
found among rubbifh, and by road-fides, from Pennfylvania
to Carolina, flowering in July and Auguft. This was one
of the earlieft {pecies cultivated in England, but rather for
curiofity than beauty. The broader /eaves principally dif-
tinguifh it from the former, for their flowers are nearly
fimilar. The roof is annual or biennial.

S. hifpida. Wifpid Sida. Purfh n. 2.— Rough with
briitly hairs. Leaves lanceolate, ferrated. Flower-ftalks
axillary, the length of the footftalks. Outer calyx thread-
fhaped.”’—Defcribed by the above author, from the her-
barium of Mr. Lyon, who is faid to have met with this
plant in the fandy plains of Georgia in North America.
The flowers are yellow. If they have really an external
calyx, the plant can be no Sida; but perhaps a fimple feta-
ceous bragea is all that is meant by the above definition.
We have feen no f{pecimen.

S. carpinifolia. 'ornbeam-leaved Sida. Linn. Suppl.
307. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n.3. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 135.
Cavan. Diff. 274. t. 134. f. 1.— Leaves ovate-oblong,
fmooth, clofely ferrated. Stalks axillary, about four-
flowered. Capfule with beaked valves.—Mr. Maflon met
with this fhrnb in the garden of a Francifcan convent, in
Madeira, and fent it to Kew garden in 1774, where it is
treated as a green-houle plant, flowering moft part of the
fummer. ‘The native country has not been afcertained.
The branches are hairy, fpreading, like the /eaves, in two
direGions. The latter are two or three inches long, and
nearly half as broad, fmooth, with crowded, acute, fome-
what unequal, or doubled, ferratures, each tipped with a
briftle, as in the genus Carpmus. Calyx {mooth. Fetals
yellow, oblique, and partly notched. Cap/ule of eight cells,
each having two {pinous beaks. S. planicaulis, Cavan.

1of

Diff. 24. t. 3. f. 11, is acknowledged by that writer him-
felf to be the fame plant in a young or imperfe& con-
dition.

S. maculata. Spotted-flowered Sida. Cavan. Diff. 20.
t. 3. f. 7. Willd. n. 12.—Leaves ovate, obtufe, ferrated,
downy. Flowers axillary, folitary ; racemofe at the ends
of the branches.
Hifpaniola. The flem is woody and downy. Lower eaves
orbicular; upper ovate, abrupt, with a terminal point.
Stipulas awl-thaped, ere&, downy. Flower-flalks with a
joint. Calyx villous. Corolla \arge, yellow, with a reddifh
{pot on the bafe of each petal. Cap/ule of nine cells.

5. fuberofa. Corky Sida. L?Herit. Stirp. 113. t. 54.
Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 4.— Leaves ovate, ftrongly fer-
rated, hairy. Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered, twice the
length of the footftalks. Capfule with beaked valves. Stem
corky at the bafe.—Native of Hifpaniola.
the ftoves at Kew in 1798, by fir Juftly Green, bart., but
it has not yet flowered. The /fem is one or two feet high,
branched, the bark of the lower part corky, and full of
fiffures ; branches hairy. Leaves more oval than in S. car-
pinifolia, pale and hairy. lowers an inch broad, orange-
coloured, with a purple central ring, their /la/és and calys
hairy. Cap/ule {mall, of nine, {lightly conneéted, cells.,
The corky bark, which L’Heritier compares to that of
Paffiflora fuberofa, is fuppofed peculiar to the prefent
{pecies.

Sect. 2. Leaves wedge-fhaped at the bafe.

S. rhombifolia. Rhomb-leaved Sida. Linn, Sp. Pl. 961.
Willd. n. 18 Ait. n.5. Purfh n. 3. Cavan. Diff. 23
and 48. t. 3. f. 12.
perennis; Dill. Elth. 216. t. 172. f. 212.)—Leaves ob-
long-lanceolate, acute, ferrated; wedge-fhaped and entire
at the bafe. Flower-ftalks fhorter than the leaves. Stipulas
fetaceous, with axillary {pines.—Native of both Indies and
of North America. Cultivated in curious ftoves, where it
blofioms in fummer ; but the {mall yellow flowers have lefs
beauty to boaft than moft of the preceding, with which the
plant agrees in habit, except the tapering entire bafe of its
leaves, whofe under fide is a little glaucous.

S. ciliaris. Ciliated Sida. Linn. Sp. Pl. 961. Willd.
n. 22. Ait. n. 7. Cavan. Diff. 21. t. 3. f. 9, and 275.
t. 127. f. 2. (Malva minor fupina, betonice folio, flore
coccineo, feminibits afperis; Sloane Jam. v. 1. 217. t. 137.
f. 2.)—Leaves oval, abrupt, ferrated ; entire and fomewhat
wedge-fhaped at the bafe. Stipulas linear, fringed, longer
than the folitary, nearly feffile, flowers. Capfules prickly,
not beaked.—Native of dry grafly places in Jamaica, and
other parts of the Welt Indies, flowering after rains. A.
{mall, procumbent, rather fhrubby fpecies, whofe /eaves are
f{carcely an inch in length, and whofe long fringed /fipulas
are very remarkable. The flowers are crimfon. Sveds, as
well as cap/ules, rough with minute hairs.

Sect. 3. Leaves heart-/haped, entire, or nearly fo.

S. periplocifolia. Great Bind-weed-leaved Sida. Lian.
Sp. Pl. 962. Willd. n.23. Ait.n.8. Cavan. Diff. 26.
t. 5. f.2. (Abutilon penploce acutioris folio, fruétu
ftellato; Dill. Elth. 4, t. 3.) — Leaves heart-fhaped, en-
tire; elongated at the pomt; downy beneath. Flower-
{talks axillary and terminal, fomewhat panicled, much
longer than the footftalks. Capfule with five awned cells,
—Native of both Indies; long known in our gardens,
where it proves annual or biennial only, even in the ftove,
flowering infummer. Dillenius fufpeéts it to be perennial
and fhrubby in its native country. The /lem with us is

‘three or four feet high. The entire pale or hoary /eaves

bear fome refemblance to. thofe of Cynanchum acutum,
though

Capfule with beaked valves.—Native of.

(Malvinda unicornis, folio rhomboide, ©

Introduced to, ©

+ fame

8. me red N L’Herit. Stirp.

32g. t. 99) double, Walld. a. 26, Ait. moro. (5. pe-

Siplociicle 5 Lina. Sp. Pl 963. S, flellata; Cavan.

um. Te. 2. t. 3.)—-Leaves roundith-heart-

crenate; downy beneath. Pa-

—Native of Peru and the Welt Indies. Cultivated by

Miller in 1731. Lianaus confounded this with the lat,
: it di

rounder deaves, whole edges

setidainateateation bataninttsly cronenes nnd cayftia

Dull. ap eed 49. t. 5. £4 Abutilon ampliflimo folio,
-caule ;

els, Capfales without awns.

from which it differs in being a more handfome plant, with

inted, but deflitute of awns.

indented. Stalks fingle-

Sida. Linn. Sp. Pl.

Jacq. Hort. Vind.

t. 5. f. 1,—Leaves

finely ferrated. Flower-italks fomee
without awns. Branches

mall, yellow, with
of five clofe, elongated, parallel

SielialiiahsdilingiGideed Audie. Repel: t. cys, >-Aies
13. — Leaves pointed,
3. | heart-thaped,

{pecies were
pee eee meres se detects then: by Jos!
-vifcount alentia, in 1806, It flowers in the itove

,’

to the very bafe, near an inch long,
“ovate, i toa each containing four
tapering gradually point, taining

and 275. t. 135. f. 2.
e

flato; Mart. Cent. i flori
: is 6. t. 5. rg hae ar-accseng

, minus; Plum. Ic. 15. t. “Darr x eee

» pointed, crenate, . . $
when in fruit. ofl of numerous, inflated,
cells. — Native of the Bahama

SIDA.

ftalke axillary, aggregate, fingle-fowered, much lon
than the footflalks, Capfules orbicular, of numerous *
rupt cells.—Gathered by Dombcy, in woods car the river
Maragnon, in Peru, This fine {pecice, not noticed in the
Lortus Kewenfis, doweredin Mr. ooper’s Love at Norwich,
in November, 1814, We have alfo a Peruvian {pecimen,
unnamed, from the late M. L'Heritier, ‘he flem is eight
or ten feet high, with numerous, round, downy, leafy
branches. Leaves flalked, roundifh-heart-thaped, with «
long taper point, finely creaate throughout, five or feven-
ribbed, clothed on both fides with foft, velvet-like, denfe
pubelcence ; rather paler beneath ; the lower ones a {pan or
more in length, about half as much in breadth ; upper
much f{maller aad narrower, with thorter fooflalks. Flower-
Sflalks two, three, or four together, from the bofoms of the
upper leaves, and about half their length, equal, erect,
fingle-flowered, downy, jointed near the top, but without
bradeas. Calyx covered with denfe flarry down. Carolla
{preading about an inch and a half, of a peculiar pale
brownifh-orange, or bright cinnamon colour, y clegant,
though not gaudy. Cup/ule, according to Cavauilles, glo-
bofe, concave in the middle, downy, of from thirty to
thirty-fix clofe, comprefled, abrupt, unawned, fingle-feeded
cells.

S. arborea, Great-flowered Sida. Lino. Suppl. go.
Willd, n. 43. Ait. n. 17. L’Herit. Stirp. 134. t. 63.
(S. peruviana; Cavan. Diff. 36. t. 7. f. 8, and 276.
t. 130.)—Leaves orbicular, heart-thaped, crenate, finely
downy, with fhort points. Flower-talks axillary, folitary,
fingle-flowered, longer than the footttalks. Capfules orbi-
cular, of numerous abrupt cells. — Native of Peru. A

-houfe rather than a ftove-plant, both at Paris and
Pes flowering in the latter part of fummer, This is
much larger in all its parts than. the foregoing, to which it
is, in many refpeéts, nearly allied. The /caves however
differ in their thort points, greater breadth, and more onbi-
cular form, the lobes at their bafe folding over each other,
fo as to give the leaf a peltate afpect. The fov/lalks are
fix inches long in the lower leaves, two or three ia the
up From the bofoms of the latter proceed the flower-

» twice the length of their correfponding footitalks,
always folitary, as far as we have obfer though Will-
denow fays they are in pairs. We fufpeét he confounded
this fpecies and the lait. The flowers are full twice the
fize of S, /ylvatica, and of a pale fulphur-colour, or, yel-
lowifh-white. :

S. Abutilon. Broad-leaved Yellow Sida. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 963. Willd. ». 47. Ait. on. 21. (Althea altera,
five Abutilon; Camer. Epit. 668. A. lutea; Ger. Em.
935- Abutilon Avicenne ; Befl. Hort. Eytt. eftiv. ord. 6,
t. 10. f. 1.)— Leaves roundifh-heart-thaped, pointed,
toothed, downy. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary, fhorter
than the footftalks. Capfules orbicular, of numerous, ab-
rupt, double-beaked cells.—Native of both Indies ; long
aiitoted in the gardens of Europe, and partly naturalized
in the warmer parts, fo that Haller admits it as a Swifs

ty under his n. 1075. Gerarde railed it every year,

Spaniib or Italian feeds; for he fays it hardly ripened
any in his garden, not flowering till September. The
root is annual. Stem much branched. Leaves not unlike
the arborea in fhape, but more pointed, more coarfely
notched, often obfcurely lobed, and lefs foftly pubefcent.
Flowers yellow, not an inch wide, folitary, ex that
each is frequently accompanied by a young Pieahan othe.
Cap/fules downy, with 2 tharp, double, incurved beak to each
celi.—This, Ssseohey other old garden plants, of which no
coloured plates exit, ought to be figured in nS pub-

tions,

SIDA.

fications, inftead of the repetitions, fo juftly complained of,
in the generality of thofe works. Haller records, after
Linder, that the feeds of §. Abutilon, taken to: the amount
of an ounce, have been found powerfully foporific.

Sect. 5. Leaves heart-Jbaped, indented. Stalks many-
flowered or racemo/e.

S. umbellata. Umbellate Sida. Linn. Sp. Pl. 962.
Willd, n. 76. Ait. n. 31. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. 22.
t.56. Cavan. Diff. 28. t. 6. £. 3, and 275. t. 129. f. 2.
— Leaves roundifh-heart-fhaped, toothed, fomewhat an-
cular, rather downy. Stalks umbellate, axillary and pa-
nicled. Capfules with double-awned cells.—Native of the
Wet Indies. Annual or biennial, flowering in our ftoves
in autumn. The /eaves are light green, pliant, minutely
hairy, and though foft to the touch, yet not of that velvet-
like texture fo remarkable in moft of the preceding feétions.
Flowers {mall, yellow, five or fix in each long-falked axillary
folitary umbel. The upper umbels are, many of them, un-
attended by leaves. The valves of the capfule have each a
fharp, flender, ere beak.

S. paniculata, Panicled Sida. Linn. Sp. Pl. 962.
Willd. n. 78. Ait. ns 32. Cavan. Diff. 16. t. 12. f. 5.
Swartz Obf. 259. (S. atvo-fanguinea; Jacq. Coll. v. 1.
49. Ic. Rar. t. 136. S. capillaris; Cavan. Diff. 1o.
t. 1. £, 7.)—Leaves ovate or heart-fhaped, toothed, downy
on both fides: Flowers panicled,~ with capillary ftalks.
Capfules rough, with double-beaked cells. —Native of cal-
careous rocks in Jamaica, as well as Peru and Brazil. Sir
Jofeph Banks is recorded as having fent it, in 1795, to
ew, where it flowers in the ftove from July to September.
Mr. Aiton marks this {pecies as biennial. Jacquin defcribes
it as an evergreen /brub, eighteen feet high, almoit always
in bloom. Our wild Peruvian {pecimens appear woody,
with rough round branches. The leaves are ttalked, of a
roundifh-ovate, partly heart-fhaped figure, various in length
from one to three inches, ftrongly ferrated, clothed on both
fides, but mott denfely beneath, with ftellated pubefcence.
Flowers {mall, crimfon, copious, on long, very flender,
panicled ftalks. Corolla more or lefs reflexed.

S. terminalis. 'Terminal-ftalked Sida. Cavan. Dill. 29.
t. 6. £. 6. t. 195. f. 2. Willd. .n. 82. — Leaves heart-
fhaped, doubly crenate, fomewhat lobed, very foft and
downy. Clufters fimple, fomewhat corymbofe, on very
long, folitary, terminal ftalks. Capfule hairy.—Gathered
at Monte Video, by Commerfon, whofe fpecimen is be-
fore us. The /fem is fhrubby, much branched, downy,
apparently of rather humble growth. Leaves dependent,
fhorter than their footffalks, heart-fhaped, bluntifh, veiny,
{carcely an inch long, extremely foft, their notches broad,
round, and very unequal. S/ower-/talks terminal, though
the branches are often fubfequently elongated beyond them,
folitary, fimple, naked, four or five inches in length, round,
downy, each bearing four or five rather large, {ftalked,
corymbofe, yellow flowers, externally purplifh, with linear
braéeas, which foon fall off. The capfule, twice as long as
the calyx, is thickly clothed with long upright hairs. —The
curious reader may obferve how Willdenow, without any
other guide than the defcription and plates of Cavanilles,
has altered his fpecific character for the worfe. Willdenow
“erms the /eaves ‘¢ ovato-lanceolate’’ and ‘ toothed,’ for
neither of which there is any foundation; but it may ferve
us, in any other doubtful cafe, to underftand his phrafeology,
for which reafon, chiefly, we here point it out.

Se&. 6. Leaves heart-/oaped, three-pointed, or angular
at the bafe.

S. craffifolia. Thick-leaved Sida. L’Herit. Stirp. 125.
t. 60. Willd. n. 84. (5. tricufpidata; Cavan. Diff. 30.

It

t. 6. f. 5.)—lLeaves heart-fhaped, toothed, pointed, ob-

fcurely lobed, downy on both fides. Stalks folitary, fingle-
flowered, about equal to the footftalks.
double-beaked cells, rather longer than the calyx.—Gather-
ed in Hifpaniola by Thierry de Menonville.
at Paris, unknown in our colle&tions. ‘The fem is fhrubby,
branched, round, downy. eaves three inches long,
{trongly {fcented, bordered with tooth-like ferratures, and

furnifhed with one or two flight lobes at each fide. Flowers |

yellow, an inch broad, on long, fimple, axillary ftalks.

S. periptera. Shuttlecock Sida.
t. 1644.—Leaves heart-fhaped, ferrated, pointed, downy
on both fides, fomewhat angular; the upper ones halberd-
fhaped. Panicle racemofe. Petals emarginate, nearly ere,
fhorter than the ftamens. Capfule without beaks.—Sup-
pofed to be anative of Mexico.
out the year, in the collettion of John Walker, efq. of
Arno’s grove, Southgate; but we are not informed whe-
ther it is a greenhoufe or ftove-plant. The /fem is tall and
fhrubby, with round hifpid branches.

lobed. Flowers elegant, bright fcarlet, near an inch long,
of a fhuttlecock form, as the inverfely heart-fhaped, oblong
petals {pread but very little. The column of /famens rifes
confiderably above them.

S. haftata. Walberd-leaved Mexican Sida. Willd.n.89. |
Curt. Mag. t. 1541. |

Ait. n. 33. Andr. Repof. t. 588.
(S. criftata 2; Linn. Sp. Pl. 964. Anoda haftata; Cavan.
Diff. 38. t. rr. £. 2.)—Lower leaves heart-fhaped, lobed ;
upper haftate. Stalks axillary, folitary, fingle-flowered,
longer than the leaves.
Native of Mexico. Its feeds were brought from Spain by
the late marchionefs of Bute. An annual or biennial flove
plant, which may be raifed on a hot-bed early in the {pring,
and planted out in the open border. It 1s fcarcely how-
ever likely to be added to the lift of tropical annuals, gene-
rally fo cultivated, being much inferior in beauty to many
other plants, of the Mallow tribe, that are quite hardy.
Its fowers are light purplifh-blue, about an inch wide, on
long, ftraggling ftalks.
leaves vary greatly. The valves of the cap/ule have no

beaks.
S. criflata. Crefted Sida. Linn. Sp. Pl. 964. Willd. —
n. go. Curt. Mag. t. 330. (Anona triloba; Cavan. —

Dill. 39 and 55. t. 10. f. 3.)—-Leaves crenate, pointed; |
Stalks axillary, —
Petals

the lower ones angular; upper haftate.
folitary, fingle-flowered, longer than the leaves.
inverfely heart-fhaped, thrice the length of the calyx.—
Native of Mexico ; long fince known in our gardens. We
have however afcertained the fynonym of Cavanilles, by
feeds received from himfelf, and raifed by the late lady Amelia
Hume, in whofe flove this plant flowered in July 1806.

It may probably fucceed, as Mr. Curtis obferves, if raifed |

on a hot-bed and planted out in a flower-border. This is
diftinguifhed from the latt by its very large erimfon flowers,
rendering it far more worthy of cultivation. Few plants
vary more in the fhape of their foliage, fo that we are
fatisfied of the S. Dilleniana, Willd. n. gi. Ait. n. 34,
figured in Cavanilles, t. 11. f. 1, and in Dill. Hort. Elth.
t. 2, being a mere variety; fo little defined indeed, that
we can hardly diftinguifh it as even fuch.

Se&t. 7. Lzaves lobed, palmate, or compound.

S. triloba. Three-lobed Cape Sida.
t. 1. f. 11, very bad; and 274. t. 131. f. 1. » Willd. n. 92.
Thunb. Prodr. 117. Jacq. Hort. Schonbr. v. 2. 9. t. 142.
—Leaves heart-fhaped, toothed, with three or five lobes ;

the middle one longeft and fharpeft. Stalks axillary, foli- |

- tarys

Capfules with

A ftove-plant |

Sims in Curt. Mag. |

It flowers nearly through- |

Petals obovate, {preading, entire. |

Cavan. DIT. ‘11. J

Leaves green, alter- |
nate, ftalked, diftant; the upper ones elongated, and deeply |

The divifions and fhape of the ©

ee a eee en

'
i
7

Sib

flowered, longer than the leaves. Lobes of the
Seta Bitins of the Cape of Good Hope. The
fem is theubby, much branched, widely {preading. Leaves
one and a or two inches wide. Flowers {mall, white,
inferior in beauty to thofe of the Maloa fragrans or capenfis,
to which this plant is itriétly allied in habit and every cha-
racter, except the want of an outer calyx.
8. tereata. ‘Ternate-leaved Cape Sida. Linn. Suppl.
go7- Willd. n.93. ‘Thunb. Prode, 118.—* Leaves ter-

mate; a eu sai we by

at. We have no i ; but

painahove fanry tlormatinn, this hull teem to ier

- from the lait much as the two Cape Mallows, jult mentioned,
cco Wing-feeded Jagged Sida. L’H

5 .* L'Herit.

Stirp. 119. rl Willd. n. og. (5S. multifida ; Cavan

2.)—Leaves with three deep, obtule,

4
}

Panicle much branched. Cells of the cap-
numerous, each crowned with a double membranous
by Dombey, in fandy ground at Lima.
raifed at Paris, but required great heat. The root
Stem proitrate, much branched, a foot long,
befprinkled with farry hairs. Leaws on long ftalks,
divided, pinnatifid or waved, with blunt rounded
and fegments. Flowers {mall, white, in terminal,
i rather hairy, cluflers, each flower on a long ftalk,
wn Capfule very peculiar, on account
s, double, membranous, rounded wings,
an orbicular creft on its fummit.
117. & illd, n. 96. Ait. n. gs. . pal-
Cos. Dil 274. t. 131. f. 3. Jacq. ie ar.
)—Leaves palmate, wit acute, pinnatifid
Panicle many-flowered, hairy. Cells of the cap-
without awns.—Native of Lima and Peru. Sent to
in rhiy’¢ by M. Thouin. An annual ftove-plant,
flowering in Auguit, and diftin by the deep lobes of
or more, varioufly and ly finuated, pin-
natifid and cut, refembling thofe of the Napee, to which
naturally met eo
t

i

ae

ot

Bg

8
w
4

rE

i
e
:

the cells are awued. We have a fpecimen of

very diftin in their foliage as well as

increafed by
i fited inthem. I cue
m m a .
ae wth, they fhould be
out four oe
feparate pots, replunging them in t-
have / edi root; a large
admitted in fine weather, and
afterwards be

i
§

S.bD

Sume'of them muy alfo be railed from offsets sed cuttings,
planted in pots in the fummer feafon.

It may be noticed that the fourth fort is {ufficiently hardy
to bear the open air: the feeds fhould be fown where the

lants are to remain, as they do not bear tran{planting well,
te is an annual plant.

As fome of the {pecies do not flower till the fecond year,
of courfe they fhould be placed im the flove in the autumn,
and be managed during the winter as other tender exotic
plants of the fame nature,

Mott of thefe afford ornament among other potted plants
in the flove, and the fourth fort in the borders and other
parts of pleafure-grounds.

Stipa, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Pam-
phylia, upon the fea-coatt, near the mouth of the river Eu-
rymedon. Prolemy.—Alfo, a town of Greece, in the Pe-
loponnefus, which took its name from one of the daughters
of Daniius, according to Paufanias.

SIDACA, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia. Steph.

Prol.

Byz.
SIDALA, atown of Afiz, in Armenia Major.
SIDAMER, in Geography, a kingdom of the ifland of

Java, on the S. coaft, bounded on the W. by Bantam, on

the N. by Jacatra, on the E. by Kundang Welee, and on the

S: by the fea.

SIDASIVA, in Mythology, a name of the Hindoo god
Siva, the prefixed epithet being one of reverence. It is not
often ufed, though it frequently occurs in the Siva-purana.

SIDATSCHOW, or Zypaczow, in Coes ape ,a tows
of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia; 35 miles S. 0 Losthicg.
N. lat. 49° 16'. E. long. 24° 19).

SIDBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Wafa ;
15 miles S. of Chriftineitadt.

SIDDAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 10
miles §.W. of Periapatam.

SIDDINGHAUSEN, a town of Weitphalia, in the
bifhopric of Paderborn ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Buren.

SIDDO, a harbour on the W. coaft of Sumatra. N.

lat. 5°8'. E. long. g5° 27'.
SIDDOW, in Agriculture, aterm aterm applied to
peas that boil foft. It is employed in fome diltriéts, as Glou-

celterfhire, to fignify or denote fuch peas as boil freely, or
in “ ready manner, into a foft mafs. Some forts of lands
only have the peculiar property or quality of raifing or pro-
ducing this kind, or thofe that poflefs fuch a capabilieg. Upon
them, therefore, thofe of the Charlton fort are moftly fown or
planted in this intention. Soils of the calcareous defeription
or quality are commonly capable of affording this boiling fort ;
but thofe that are of the Hd kind de not poffefs the fame
capability. This quality in peafe is exprefled by the terms
reece making, and fome others, in different other diftri@s.
EA.

SIDE, io Ancient G » a place of Afia Minor, in
the Troade. Strabo. eee

Sine, Latus, in Geometry. The fide of a figure is a line
making part of the periphery of any fuperficial figure. See
Ficure.

Tn triangles, the fides are alfo called /gs. In a right-
angled triangle, the two fides, including the right angle,
are called catheti; andthe third, the Appothenu/e.

Sune of a polygonal number is the number of the terms of
the arithmetical progreffion that are fummed up. See Po-
LYGONAL Number.

Sue of power is what we otherwife call the reer, or

radix.
Sipes of barn-works, crown-works, double tenailles, and
the like out-works, are the ramparts and parapets which
4P inclofe

SPIPD

inclofe them on the right and left, from the gorge to the
head.

Sips, Right, in Conics. See Latus Redum.

Sing, Tranfverfe. See Larus Tran/verfum.

Sipes of a Ship, are diftinguifhed into the farboard and
larbourd; that is, into the right and left-hand fide, when
{tanding with the face towards the head of the veflel. See
STARBOARD and LARBOARD.

Smr, Broad, in Sea Language, is to fire all the guns
on one fide of the fhip.

Sipr-WVind. See Wrixp.

Sipe-Grafting. See ENGRAFTING.

Sipr-Lays is a term made ule of by hunt{men, when
dogs are placed in the way, to be let flip at a deer, as he
palles by.

Sipr.Saddle Flower. See Hollow-leaved Sea LAVENDER.

Srpe-Cuts, are the fhort lengths of canal by the fides of
rivers, for condenfing the navigation by mills, fhallows, &c.

Sipg-Laying Ground, is that whofe furface, as A E Ib,
(Plate I. Canals, figs. 2 and 3.) is lower on one fide of the
canal than on the other.

Sipe-Locks, or Side-ponds, are refervoirs or excavations
by the fide of a canal or lock, for retaining water. See
CANAL.

Sipr-Puddle is often ufed to exprefs the puddle-ditches,
gullies or gutters that are formed like a wall within a canal-
bank, for preventing breaks from the fame.

SIDELING Hits, in Geography, a range of hills in
America, on the N.W. part of the itate of Maryland.

SIDENA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia Minor,
in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

SipENA, or Sidona, avery fertile country of Afia, on the
fea-coatt, in the kingdom of Pontus, in which, according to
Strabo, were fome ftrong places, betides a town of the
fame name.—Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade,
upon the Granicus; which was ruined in the time of
Strabo.

SIDENI, a people of Germany, who occupied the banks
of the Oder.—Alfo, a people of Arabia Felix. Ptol.—
Alfo, a people of the Cappadocian Pontus, who inhabited
the country of Sidena. Pliny.

Spent Sinus, a gulf of Afia Minor, upon the Thracian
Bofphorus, near the Euxine fea. This gulf was formed by
the promontory Ancyreum and by that of Pfonion.

SIDENSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in An-

ermanland ; 40 miles N. of Hernofand.

SIDEPATTY, a town of Bengal; 12 miles N.W. of
Midnapour.

SIDERATIO, in Medicine, from Sfidus, a planet, be-
eavfe violent and {udden maladies were afcribed to the in-
fluence of the ftars, a term which has been applied to feve-
ral difeafes of that character. It has been principally ufed
to fignify apoplexy, or afudden palfy ; but it has been applied
by others to mortification, or fphacelus of a limb; and by
fome to ery/ipelas of a limb, which is vulgarly called a

blaft.

. DERATION, the blafting or blighting of trees,
plants, &c. by ealtern winds, exceffive heat, drought, or
the like caufes. See Bricur.

SIDERIA, in Natural Hifory, the name of a genus of
cryftal. ‘The word is derived from the Greek oidngos, iron,
and is ufed to exprefs cryftals altered in their figure by par-
ticles of that metal. Thefeare of a rhomboidal form, com-
pofed only of fix planes.

Of this genus there are four known fpecies. 1- A co-
lourlefs, pellucid, and thin one, found in confiderable quanti-
ties among the iron ores of the foreft of Dean, in Gloucelf-

12

SID

terfhire, and in other the like places. 2. A: dull, thick, and
brown one, not uncommon in the fame places with the for-
mer. And, 3. A black and very glofly kind, a foffil of
very great beauty, found in the fame place with the others,
as alfo in Leicefterfhire and Suffex. Hill.

SIDERIAL Year. See YEAR.

Swerra Day is the time in which any ftar revolves fronz
the meridian to the meridian again ; viz. 23 hours, 56 mi-
nutes, 4 feconds, 6 thirds of mean folar time. There are
366 fiderial days in a year, orin the time of 365 diurnal re-
volutions of the fun. The firft column of the following ta-
ble is the number of revolutions of the ftars; the others
next are the times in which thefe revolutions are made, as
fhewn by a well-regulated clock ; and thofe on the right
hand fhew the daily accelerations of the ftars, that is, how
much any ftar gains upon the time fhewn by fuch a clock, in
each revolution.

Shs
De Ein 5 98 ye bent insipone Accelerations of the Stars. |
: a

LENE SOUT iyi iO |) Bo Se TONE |

1] © 23 56 4 OO suo 154 oo.
2 rt MORNING Muteki ae vat OO He GNA, NSO)
AN ate (AB Mine AB onl Oo nn aR Va EO)
4) 03.23, 44 MO oA 52 Gu 43) 135458)
§| 4 23 40 20 30 92).0 19. 39) 29 -58
6}. 5 23 36 24 36 3,0 23 35 23 57
TinyOS Bs B 2b REO Ne el NORE TAI Ln ee
8.1 bo i2e0 280 az AS. A Orsame a7 1150,
9. 8.23, weg 30 gms) ua Onan 215i) 50
HOW UG) OR Fe A OD GI ©. SO. BI HON HS
TL | 10 23,36. (450), (0) SON as 14 5 3., 55
12 |) out 23,2 AO Le ea OOM eA LON AE 5s
13) 2) pai 8) igi Ok aan) WON uc mola ait 5a
L-PPT 8 taf CSNY Sal” REPRE
HE Whe 2 Lay CON GOV Abel Gey Bo) 583
SS RIPE WIT eM BDe a Bier BD GB wrAag ehe
iI) OY Ba BO) Aas Bl) to) OV 5@ M7 He
19]. 17 22) 49) 13) 48 sO) aero! mon kn CT
19, | 18) 122/045 Ts a9) eo etl
20) |5 10) 225 VA 22m ON ETO) aL Nes 70) 50
2120 22) 3720) OM TO) lanza Suu) O.
22 a1 22 33) @ol iz) wit la 20 aon ay 40)
23) 2210 2¢ 20.124. Tonia Paso uez oul Taso
24) 23 22 25 38 24 12/1 934 21 35 48
25| 24 22 21 42 30 12) 1 38 17 29 48
Ni) Oil Bay TG AW) ZOU Tain A208 23047
27| 26 22 13. 50 42 13) 1 469 17. 47
28.1027, 2209 SA AO gat EON aS uae ae
29,|, 2851 22: oi) Sen tes eS aio eat
oy Oy EBM ABO uy Oy 56 59 45
40;|:.39, 21) (22 44) OO} ea eS ool te
501 49, 20,43 , 25.) On .24).3) 10 iad | 59/36
160) 09) 17) 20.50. Ounss) Ona somo) 52
200|199., 10; 53,40. 1 3723 96.19 158.23
300|299 4: ).20, 30, 2, 25,1291) 39529) 197, 933
360/359 © 24 36 2 54\23 35 23 57 ©
305 |,.304,.,:0 04 50. 22) 5023, 5 ise Oi nad
306.1365 .0, 1 © 38 57126 58,59 2%. 3

This table will not differ the 279,936,000,oooth part of a
fecond of time.
If the equino@tial points were at reft in the heavens, there

would be exaGtly 366 revolutions of the ftars from the ‘ae
ian

S1D

the meridian again in 465 days. But the equinodtial
backward, with refpect to the flars, at the rate
of a degree in a Julian 3 which caufeth
have an apparent ve motion eaft ward
feconds in that time. rot mi. the fun's mean motion
in i ecliptic is only 11 figns 29 48 miuutes 40 fe-
conds 15 thirds, in 365 days, it is plain, that at the end of
he will be 14 minutes 19 feconds 45 thirds thurt of
of the ecliptic from which he fet out at the be-
ginning ; and the ttars will be advanced 50 feconds of a de-
gree with refpect to that point.
wently, if the fun’s centre be on the meridian
with on any given day of the year, that itar will be
+ rca or 15' g” 45" eatt of the fun’s centre,
the y afterward, when the fun’s centre is
the meridian ; and therefore that tar will not come to
meridian on that day till the fun’s centre has patled it by
irds 57 fourths of mean folar time ;
tume to go through an are of
365 days o hour 1 minute o fecond
ftar will have juft completed its
to the meridian.
was calculated by Mr. F ‘on; and it is
the in which the receffion of the equi-
into the ee
ITE, in Mineralogy, a name given by Bergman
iar metallic fub{tance, erhich 2 the prin-
the brittlenefs of certain kinds of bar iron.
been difcovered to be phofphate of iron.
SIDERITES, a name which fome authors give to the
See Macner.

Terese
:

BF OBES
He
i

hree {pecies,
all celebrated for ftaunching blood, and im, Pre oe

: > ac-

in alfe there might be fomewhat of an aftringent or
tonic quality. They anfwer indeed to the general idea of

the rufty colour of the flowers, as De Theis imagines, or to
i ing but conjecture can be of-

oblong, cut nearly half way dewn into five acute, almoit
ual, Cor. of one petal, nearly equal; tube

» fomewhat cylindrical ;
vided ; lower in three fegments,

of ich the lateral ones are moft acute, and fcarcely fo
large as the upper lip, the middle one roundifh. Stam. Fila-
ments four, within the tube of the corolla, and fhorter than
the throat, two of them {maller than the reft; anthers
roundifh, two of them with two diltin@ lobes. Pift. Ger-
men four-cleft ; ftyle » rather longer than the
ftamens; ftigmas two; the uppermott cylindrical, concave,

abrupt; the lower membranous, fhorteit, fheathing the 1

other. Peric. none, the feeds being lodged in the bafe of
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla ringent; its upper
lip ereé&t, divided; lower deeply three-cleft. Stamens

S.bD

within the tube of the corolla.
bracing the other,
c. Be camarienfis.

One fligma thorter, em.

Canary lron wort, or Sage-tree,
Lion. Sp. Pl. Bor, Ait, mn. 1. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. ¢.
18. t. 30. (Stachys ampliffimis verbafci foliix, foribus
albis, &c 5 Pluk. Almag. 356. Phyt. t. 322. £ 4.j—
Shrubby and villous, Leaves oblong-heart-thaped, acute,
ftalked Spikes fimple, whorled, drooping before flower-
ing. Branches {preading. Calyx awned.— Native of Ma-
deira, and the Canary iflands. Cultivated in our green-
houfes 120 years ago, and {till preferved in general collee-
tions, flowering = dir etn the fummer. The frm and
Alalts are clothed with foft, denfe, white, velvet-like pu-
befeence. Leaves green above, elegantly edged with white,
finely crenate, rather thaggy ; more thickly clothed be-
neath. Wherls denfe, numerous, accompanied by dimi-
nifhed leaves, fo as to form a long Spike, drooping while
young, but deftitute of proper bradieas. Flowers very
numerous, white, with a wide orbicular mouth, and ther |
limb, whofe upper fegment hardly anfwers to the
charaéter, being notched, but not cloven in the de
2. S. candicans. Mullein-leaved Iron-wort. Ait. n. 2.
Willd. n. 25 excluding the fynonym.—Shrubby and
downy. Leaves denfely downy, ovato-lanceolate, taper-
inted ; heart-fhaped at the bafe; f{now-white beneath.
pikes compound. Whorls remote, each of about eight
flowers. Calyx obtufe, pointlefs.—Native of Madeirs;
long known in the gardens of England, as well as Holland ;
flowering from April to July, and theltered in the -
houfe in winter, with moderate fupplies of water. Akin to
the preceding, with which Linnzus confounded it ; but dif-

fering in «ees? denfe fnow-whute clothing of the eaves,
which almoft refemble thick white leather. The flowers
are » and fewer, with an obtufe, very woolly, calyx,

deftitute of awns, and grow in compound, whorled, leafy
ikes. The inflorefcence is fo different from Commelin’s
re, cited by Aiton and Willdenow, that we rather
follow Linnzus in applying that fynonym to the following
{pecies ; though not quite without a fufpicion of its really
belonging to S. canarienfis.

3- S. cretica. Cretan Iron-wort. Linn, Sp. Pl. 801,
excluding the reference to Tournefort. Willd. n. 3.
(Stachys canarienfis frutefcens, verbafci foliis; Commel.
Hort. v. 2. 197. t. 99?)—Shrubby and downy. Leaves
denfely downy, heart-fhaped, bluntifh, broadly crenate, on
lon alk; foccilies beneath. Spikes fimple, whorled.

yx obtufe, pointlefs.—Native of Crete and Greece.
This has the very denfe white pubefcence of the laft {pecies,
but differs in it® larger, blunter, more ftrongly crenate
leaves, and efpecially its folitary unbranched leaflefs /pikcr.
The whorls confift each of eight or more flowers, whofe
ealyx, though lefs woolly, nearly agrees with the preceding,
being totally unlike the {pinous-pointed calyx of S. canari-
enfis. If Commelin’s plate had been executed with any
care, this circumftance would have determined his fynonym,
which certainly belongs either to our firlt or third {pecies,
and not to the fecond.

4. S. fyriaca. Syrian Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. Sor.
Willd. 2.7. Ait. n.6. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 550,
unpublifhed. (S. cretica tomentofa candidiffima, flore
luteo; Tourn. Cor. 12. Stachys; Ger. Em. 695. S.
Panes incana angultifolia, flore aureo, italica; Barrel.
c. t. 1187.)—Shrubby, clothed with woolly down. Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, nearly entire. Whorls axillary, many-
flowered. Calyx acute, without awns.—Native of Italy,
Crete, and various parts of the Levant. The reef is pe

4P 32 reanial

SIDERITIS.

rennial and woody. S¥ems erect, moftly fimple, herbaceous,
a foot high, clothed, like the whole of the herbage, with
long, foft, filky, denfe, white wool The radical and
lower /fem-leaves are obovate, or elliptic-lanceolate, ob-
{curely crenate; thofe which accompany the flowers are
generally much fhorter, ovate, and acute; {fometimes they
nearly refemble the reit of the foliage, evincing that they
are not braé&eas, as fome efteem them, but real leaves.
Whorls about eight, a little diftant, each of fix bright yel-
low flowers. Calyx obovate, denfely woolly, with five
fharp teeth, but no awrs or points. -Corol/a twice as long,
contra&ted at the mouth, downy externally, its fegments
acute, all entire.

. §. taurica. Tartarian Iron-wort. Willd. n. 8.
(*S. fyriaca; Pallas Novy. Act. Petrop. v. 10. 312.””?)—
Somewhat fhrubby, downy. Leaves lanceolate, crenate.
Whorls crowded. Floral leaves heart-fhaped, pointed, re-
ticulated with elevated veins.—Native of Tartary. The
branches are a foot long, fubdividéd, clothed with white
down. Radical /eaves ftalked, flem-leaves {efile, all crenate,
rugged with veins, and covered with fine woollinefs ; the
Horal ones roundifh-ovate, pointed, ribbed, reticulated,
fhorter than the calyces; woolly, like the other leaves, till
the flowers are paft, when they become nearly fmooth, ex-
cept the edges. Corolla yellow. Willd.

6. S. diflans. Dittant-whorled Iron-wort. Willd. n. 9.
—‘ Somewhat fhrubby, hoary. Leaves lanceolate, acute,
entire. Whorls diftant. Floral leaves heart-fhaped, fharp-
pointed, reticulated with elevated veins.’’—Suppofed to be
a native of the Levant. Willdenow obtained it from fome
old herbarium, with the name of Sideritis foliis conjugatis
amplexicaulibus rigidis. Te deferibes it as like the former,
but different, having acute, entire, lefs downy /eaves, the

ffem alone being villous. Whorls very diftant, accompanied
by nearly fmooth leaves, with fharp points. Tube of the
corolla longer than the calyx; the middle fegment of its
lower lip obtufe, but not emarginate. We are unac-
quainted with any thing anfwering to this defcription.

7. S. perfoliata. Perfoliate Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 802.
“Willd. n. 10. Ait. n.7. Prodr. Fl. Gree. n..1330;
(S. orientalis, phlomidis folio; Tourn. Cor. 12 ?)—Her-
baceous, rough with briltly hairs. Upper leaves ove%o-
lanceolate, ob{curely toothed, clafping the ftem; oral
ones heart-thaped, fharp-pointed, reticulated, frinyed.—
Native of the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it in fome
part of Greece, or the neighbouring iflands, but omitted to
mark the precife {pot. No figure is extant of this {pecies.
The herbage is green, hairy, and briltly, not downy. Leaves
reticulated with copious veins; the floral ones crowded,
fhort, and broad, with {pinous points, their difk pale, and
femi-pellucid. Flowers fix in a whorl. Calyx tubular,
round, without angles, glandular and hairy ; its teeth long,
erect, ribbed, fpinous. Linnzus fays the corolla is white,
with fome reddith veins.

8. S. ciliata. Fringed Japan Iron-wort. Thunb. Jap.
245. Willd. n. 11 —Herbaceous, villous. Leaves ftalked,
ovate, ferrated, dotted; the floral ones orbicular, ribbed,
fringed.—Native of Japan. Stem a foot high, or more,
{quare, ereét, branched. Zeaves hardly an inch long,
acute; pale beneath; marked on the upper fide with de-
prefled dots. Foot/falks rather fhorter than the leaves.
Spikes terminal (whorled?) lanceolate, erect, a finger’s

length. Floral leaves imbricated, pointed, not fpinous.
Thunb.
9. S. montana. Mountain Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. PI.

$02. Willd. n. 4. Ait. nig. Jacq. Auftr. we 50 26s

t. 434. Sm. Fl. Grae. Sibth. t. 551, unpublifhed. (S.
montana, paryo flore nigro-purpureo; Column. Ecphr.
198. t. 196.) — Herbaceous, decumbent, hairy. Leaves
deflexed, {pinous-pointed. Calyx-teeth {preading, {fpinouss
nearly uniform. — Native of Italy aud the Levant. A.
hardy annual, cultivated by Miller in Chelfea garden, where
it {ll fprings up fpontaneoufly every year, flowering in
June and July. The /fem is branched from the bottom,
hairy, rather rigid, a foot long, diffufe, clothed all the
way up with ovate, concave, deflexed, flightly notched,
green, hairy /eaves, each accompanied by a whorl of fix
flowers. Vhe calyx is tubular, very hairy, except its lip,
which fpreads in two divifions; the upper three-lobed, with
three fpinous teeth; the lower deeply divided, rather nar=
rower, with two; mouth hairy. Corolla with a yellow
flender tube, the length of the calyx ; limb various, fome-
times very {mall, yellow, bordered with brown on all fides ;
fometimes, as in our garden plants, and.in Dr. Sibthorp’s
Greek fpecimens, the upper lip only is fmall and brown,
the lower dilated, yellow, obtufely three-lobed. This does
not at all anfwer to the figure and defcription of Columna.
We are not without a fufpicion of two f{pecies being here
confounded, and yet we are net able to trace a permanent
diftinction between any of the {pecimens we have feen.

10. S. romana. Simple-beaked Iron-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 802. Willd. n?6. Ait. n.5. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 69.
t. 187. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 552, unpublifhed.
(Sideritis genus fpinofis verticillis; Bauwh. Hift. v. 3. 428.)
—Herbaceous, decumbent, hairy. Calyx-teeth fpinous ;
the uppermoit largeft, folitary, ovate.—Gathered by Cherler
firlt near Rome, whence the {pecific name. It has however ©
been found in fields and waite ground in many other parts
of the fouth of Europe. Dr. Sibthorp obferved this plant
to be common in Greece and the ifles of the Archipelago,
and we have fufpeéted it might be the real cidneiss of Diof-
corides, to whofe defcription, as far as any thing can thence
be determined, it anfwers well. The Aadit of the plant is
much like the laft, but the /eaves are more notched, fhorter
and proader. ‘Tube and upper lip of the corolla pale red ;
lower lip white, dilated as in the larger-flowered variety of
the preceding. The moft ftriking difference is found in
the calyx, whofe upper lip is ereét, large, and ovate, the
lower of four flender teeth, {preading downward.

11. S.danata. Dark-flowered Iron-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
So4. Willd. n. 20. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 1333. (S.
elegans; Murray in Comm. Gott. for 1778. 92. t. 4.
Willd. n. 5. S. nigricans; Lamarck Did. v. 2. 168.)—
Herbaceous, diffufe, hairy. Leaves elliptical, obtufe, cre-
nate, without f{pines. Calyx-teeth {preading, {pinous, hairy,
nearly uniform.—Native of Egypt, Caria, and Palettine.
Murray firft deferibed it at Gottingen, from garden fpe-
cimens, without knowing whence they came. Nor was he
blameable for not difcovering his plant to be S. Janata of
Linneus, whofe {pecific charater, made from a ftarved wild
f{pecimen, is calculated to miflead thofe who had no other
guide. Yet the great Swedifh botanift appears, by his
herbarium, to have rightly underftood the cultivated plant:
of Murray, of which he pofleffed a very old and luxuriant
morfel, apparently from fome Dutch colleétion. This
{pecies is undoubtedly moft akin to montana and romana,
nor has it any real dradfeas. The whorls, as in thofe, are
all axillary, fix-flowered. Calyx inveited all over with long
filky hairs, its teeth tipped with {pines, the upper one rather
longer than the others, but all nearly equal in breadth.
Corolla with a white tube ; the front of the limb dark pur-
plith-brown, nearly black, of a very itriking appearance ;

. Its

ff

2A
i
i

its

SID

pper fegmeat cloven ; lower in three rounded lobes.

The leaves rn in fize, but are rounded, powtlels,

z

ly erenate ; the lower ones ttalked.

i Lavender-leaved Iron-wort, Linn, Sp. Pl.

vo

Es
fe
j

f

. Aiton. 8 Cavan, Ic. v. 2. 69. 1. 186.
verticillata major; Barrel. Ic. t. 239.

minor; Bocce. Muf, 77. t. 67. f. 2, the name
tranfpofed from t. 68. {. 2.)—Somewhat fhrubby, downy,
hoary. Leaves lincartanceolate, entire. Bratteas ovate,
palmate, with many {pinous tceth.—Native of Spain. Cul-
Yivated by Miller in 1752, being tolerably hardy, flowermg
in July and Augutt. The habit of the plant is much like
Lavender. Mherls diftant, four or five in each {pike, with

of clofe,

i

i
j

; both its

Peat
i
FE

gs

i

firm, ribbed, thortith bradeas, cut into

{pi degments, under whorl, Calyx clothed
shheananey dens its teeth ereét, {pinous, nearly

as as the calyx, yellow, white
i valeed end fee : Fatt .
ont. Atlant. v. 2. 15, 125. Willd. o. 1,
plant, not even a variety. We venture

fynonym, cited by ontaines, to

following, as Willdenow has done.

13. S. glauca. Wdlivante, (isin Cavan. Ic.
v. 2. 68, t. - “Willd. n. 14. opus montana

i

» {pinous.—Native of Va-

Bratteas
lencia. 2 sate gts ~o dame arg
baceous, and lefs downy. ‘The s appear to be {maller,

!

*

THT
I rs
E

.

E
2

Hl
i

fj

F

i
1

a u
: it

t may neverthelefs
; Hyflo Iron-wort. Linn. Sp.
n. 15. Ait. n.g. (S. alpina; Villars

. S. alpina hyffopifoha ; Ger. Em. 696.

3 Barrel. Ic. t. 171, 172.)—Leares lan-

fmooth, nearly entire. Bra¢teas -fhaped, with
as

the calyx.—Native of the moun-

witzerland, Dauphiny, Italy, and the P
Gerarde in hi }
general collections, being a hardy perennial,

, and fill erved in
the fummer and autumn. ‘The flems

woody, throwing up many leafy f{quarifh

high, hairy at the two oppofite fides, in
* eh at every joint. Leaves numerous,
iptic-lanceolate, two or three of
oceafionally toothed. Whorls more or
ovate or oblong, folitary, i

1 accompanied by two broad, reticulated,

u
:
a
3
2

ee Corolla itraw-coloured,

yx.
Seordivides. ved [ron-wort. Linn. Sp.

;

2.16. Ait.n. 10. Villars Daupb. v. 2.

°
sf
:
|
f

|

di
dt
|
;
|

variable.

Spinous-leaved Iron-wort. Vahl. Symb.

16. S. —
ve Ie 4te iid. n. 17. Lamarck Dict. v. 2. 169. (S.

S1D

fides,—Native of mountains in Spain, Goweriag in June.
We received it from the late abbé Cavanilles, “‘Dhe habil
of the plant, as well as ite tfcence ah flowers, all feem
to agree with the two lait; but the tharpnels of the heawesy
and their ttrong {pinous teeth, as well as the more trongty
reticulated, and deeply cut, dradieas, indicate an effential
difference, confirmed perhaps by the pubefecace of the fem,
which is generally, though {paringly, diffuled, nor colleéied
into two denfe oppofite lives, ‘The deawes morcover are
very ftrongly ribbed

17. S, hirfta VWiairy Procumbent LIren-wort. Linn
7 Pl. Boz. Willd. 0. 18 Am o. an. (5. teria;
Cluf. Hitt. v.a.40. ‘Teteahit herbariorum ; Lob. Ic. $24.
Herba judaica Lobelii; Ger. Em. 690.)—Leaves oblony,
obtule, itrongly toothed. Braé¢teas with fpi sooth.
Stems hairy all round, decumbent at the bale —Native of
Spain, Italy, and the fouth of France.—Very much aki
to the three lait in its flowers, bradteas, &c. but more hairy.
The form and teeth of the leaves agree with feordivides, a
hairy variety of which, we {ufpett, is fometimes taken for
the true Airjuta. The latter however appears ctleatially to
differ, in having the copious hairine!s of its fem equally dif-
perfed all pars. not collected into decuflatung lines. The
whorls vary much in being crowded or remote, and are very
hairy. The wooden cut cited above, which is the fame in
all the three authors, does not well reprefent the inflore/cenee,
nor diftinguith the dradeas from the eaves. It feems taken
from an axillary-whorled {pecies, like montana, romana, &c.

18. S. ovata. Ovate Peruvian Iron-wort. Cavan. Ic.
v. 1. 36. t. 48. Willd. n. 19.—Herbaceous, downy.
Leaves ftalked, elliptical, obtufe, crenate. Whorls crowded.
Braéteas ovate, {pinous-toothed, imbricated in four rows.—
Native of Peru. It flowered in the gardens of Madrid, in
July. The root is fibrous and perennial. Stems fearcely a
foot high, fquare, flightly hairy. Leaves about two inc
long, on ftalks about the fame length; rough on the
upper fide, with hairs proceeding from minute tubercles ;
fmooth and fhining beneath. Spike folitary, terminal, about
three inches long, quadrangular. Brad@ras crowded, in
four rows, ovate, acute, gid, fpreading, befet with ftron
fpinous ferratures. Flowers fix in a whorl, three to
braGea. Calyx with five flender, tharp, nearly equal teeth.
Corolla yellowith-white ; its upper lip entire, lower three-
lobed, the middle lobe three-cleft.

Srpextris, in Gardening, contains plants of the under-
fhrubby, and fhrubby exotic kind, of which the f{pecies cul-
tivated are, the-Canary iron-wort (S. canarienfis) ; the
Cretan iron-wort (S. cretica); and the fage-leaved iran-
wort (S. fyriaca). But there are other fpecies that may
be cultivated for the fake of variety.

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be increafed by
feeds, cuttings, and layers. The feeds fhould be fown in
pots in the fpring, plunging them in a moderate hot-bed :
when the plants have had fome growth, they fhould be re-
moved into feparate {mall pots, filled with light mellow
mould, being afterwards treated as other fhrubby
houfe plants. The cuttings and layers may be ted
out or laid down in the fummer feafon, and when fufficiendy
rooted managed as the other forts, Alfo, the third fort
may be increafed by planting the flipped heads, either in
pots or in a fhady ae. to be afterwards removed into
pots for protection in the winter in a frame.

They afford varicty in green-houfe collections, among
other evergre=n potted plants of fimilar growths.

SIDERNO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra; 48 miles 5. of Catanzaro.

SIDERO.-

SID

SIDERO-CAPSA, a town of European Turkey, in
Macedonia; 32 miles E.S.E. of Saloniki.

SIDEROCHITA, in Natural Hiflory, a clafs of cruf-
tated ferruginous bodies, of a moderately firm and compact
texture, compofed of ferruginous mixed with earthy matter,
and formed of repeated incruftations, making fo many coats
or crufts round a fofter or harder nucleus, or round loofe
earths, or an aqueous fluid.

Under this clafs are comprehended the empherepyra, hete-
ropyra, geodes, and enhydri.

SIDERODENDRUM, in Botany, from o1One0<y iron,
and deydpov, a tree, aname given by Schreber to the Sideroay-
loides of Jacquin, which the latter had fo called for a while
only, till he fhould be more certain of the genus, by afcer-
taining the true nature of the fruit. This Schreber has
determined ; and the name he has chofen alludes to the
hardnefs of the wood, known to the French in Martinico
by the appellation of Bois de fer, or Iron-wood. The
analogy of the neighbouring genus Sideroxylum is alfo thus
kept in mind.—Schreb. Gen. 71. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
612. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 245.
(Sideroxyloides ; Jacq. Amer. 19.)—Clafs and order, Te-

trandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn. Sapote,
Juff.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, minute,

with four acute teeth. Cor. of one petal ; tube cylindrical,
incurved, many times longer than the calyx ; limb in four
oblong, obtufe, flat, reflexed fegments, half the length of
the tube.
the divifions of the limb; anthers oblong, erect. Pi/t.
Germen roundifh, inferior ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length
of the tube of the corolla; ftigma oblong, obtufe, thickifh.
Peric. Berry two-lobed, crowned with the calyx, two-celled,
with a tranfverfe partition. Seeds folitary, convex and
* rugged at the outer fide, flat on the inner, bordered, at-
tached to the partition.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, falver-fhaped. Calyx
with four teeth. Berry inferior, two-lobed, two-celled.
Seeds folitary.

1. S. ¢riflorum. 'Three-flowered Iron-tree. Willd. n. 1.
Ait. n. 1. (Sideroxyloides ferreum; Jacq. Amer. 19.
t.175. f. 9. Sideroxylum americanum, five lignum duritie
ferrum emulans; Pluk. Almag. 346. Phyt. t 224 f. 2.)
—Native of mountainous woods, in the iflands of Martinico,
M ontferrat, Barbadoes, &c. A tall branching tree. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, ovato-lanceolate, acute, entire, fhining,
fix inches long. Flower-ftalks axillary, very fhort, moftly
three-flowered, chiefly on the older and leaflefs branches.
Flowers {mall and flender, about half an inch long,: rofe-
coloured at the outfide, white within.—Mr. Ryan obferved
the corolla to be often changed, poffibly by the attack of
fome infe&, into an oblong, hollow, flefhy bag, pointed at
the top, half an inch in length, refembling a fruit.

SIDEROMANTIA, Lidnpoproryresaey in Antiquity, a kind
of divination performed with a red-hot iron, upon which
they laid an odd number of ftraws, and obferved what
figures, bendings, f{parklings, &c. they made in burning.

SIDEROXYLUM, in Botany, from cidnpoz, iron, and
£vrov, wood, alluding to its hardnefs, was firft correétly ap-
plied to the prefent genus, (as Dillenius obferves,) in the
Paradifi Batavi Prodromus, 375, fubjoied to Sherard’s
Schola Botanica; fee SHERARD.—Linn. Gen, 104. Schreb.

141. Willd. Sp. Pl, v. 1. 1089. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2.13. Dill. Elth. 357. Jacq. Amer,
55- Jufl, 151. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 120. Gertn. Fil.

Suppl. t. 202.—Clafs and order, Fentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Dumofe, Linn. Sapote, Juil.

Stam. Filaments four, very fhort, inferted under

STD

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, fmall, ere&, in five
fegments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, wheel-fhaped, in
five concave, ere&t, roundifh fegments, with a little pointed
inflexed f{cale, at the bafe of each fegment Stam. Filaments
five, awl.fhaped, the length of the corolla, into which they
are inferted alternately with the fcales; anthers oblong, in-
cumbent. Pi. Germen roundifh, fuperior; ftyle awl-
fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftigma fimple, obtufe.
Peric. Drupa roundifh, pointed, of one cell. Seed: Nut
ovate, large, of one cell.

Eff. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Stamens inferted into the
corolla, with five f{cales between, Stigma fimple. Drupa
fuperior.

Obf. Sersaxista of Mr. Brown, fee that article, differs
in having a berry, with from one to five feeds; but in the
former cafe we know not how to diftinguifh it from the pre-
fent genus. Sideroxylum fpinofum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 279, ac-
cording to Mr. Brown, conttitutes a very diftinét genus of
the fame natural order.

1. S. mite. Harmlefs Iron-wood. Linn. Syft. Nat. ed. 12.
v. 2.178. Willd. n. 1. Jacq. Coll. vs 2. 249. (S. mas
inerme; Mill. Ic. t. 299.)—Thorns none. Leaves acute.—
Native of Africa. Jacquin defcribes his plant, which ap-
pears to be the fame with Miller’s, as an elegant evergreen
tree from the Cape of Good Hope, flowering abroad in
fummer, fheltered in the greenhoufe in winter. The /eaves
are f{cattered, ftalked, lanceolate, pointed, entire, coria-
ceous, {mooth; of a fhining deep green above; paler be-
neath. Foot/falks fhort, purple. F/owers white, on fimple

or branched axillary ttalks.—We know nothing of this fpe- _

cies but from the above authors. Linnzus defines his plant
as having feflile flowers, but we find no {pecimen in his her-
barium to afcertain what he meant.

2. S. inerme. Smooth Iron-wood. Linn. Sp. Pl. 278.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n.1. Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 250. (Sider-
oxyli primum, dein corie indorum nomine data arbor;
Dill. Elth. 357. t. 265. f. 344.)—-Thorns none. Leaves
obovate, obtufe. Flower-italks fimple, round.—Native
of the Cape of Good Hope. This /hrub has long been
known in the greenhoufes of Europe, but has no beauty
to boatt, at leaft in its fowers, which are {mall and incon-
{picuous, growing on fhort, cylindrical, fimple, axillary,
generally aggregate fla/ks. The /eaves are thick and coria-
ceous ; rounded at the end, and often emarginate ; fomewhat
tapering at the bafe ; two or three inches long.

3. S. melanophleum. Laurel-leaved Iron-wood. Linn.
Mant. 48. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n..2. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
v. I. 29. t. 71. (Padus foliis oblongis, fruétu folitario :
Burm. Afr. 238. t. 84. f. 2. Laurifolia africana; Com-
mel, Hort. v. 1. 95. t. 100.)——Thorns none. Leaves lanceo-
late. Flower-ftalks fimple, angular.—Native of the Cape
of Good Hope. Communicated to Linnaus in 1761, by
the late profefflor David Van Royen; and fent to Kew in
1783, by Mr. Gretfer. This has dark purplifh dranches,
and elliptic-lanceolate /eaves, longer and more acute than the
laft. The flowers and their flalks are altogether of a palifh
red hue. Linnzus fays the fcales between the ffamens are
wanting, which Jacquin feems to confirm. ‘The fruit is
blue, the fize of a pea.

4. Se cymofum. Cymofe Iron-wood. Linn. Suppl. 152.
Willd, n. 42 Thunb. Prodr. 36.—Thorns none. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, ovate. Cymes once or twice compound.
—Found by Thunberg on the Table Mountain, at the
Cape of Good Hope. A {mall /brub. We have feen no
{pecimen.

5. S. fericeum. Silky Iron-wood. Ait. n. 3. Willd.
n.5. (Serfalifia fericea; Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.

530. )—

S.D

:
5 )—Therns none. Leaves ovate, obtule; downy, like
ike calyx and flower-ftalks, beneath, Corolla villous exter-
nally, Gathered by Mr, Brown, in the tropical part of
New Holland; and by fir Jof Banks, who fent it to

in 1772, in New South Wales. The fyle is lender,
i, at the bafi

e.

_ 6. &, obewatum, Obovate Iron-wood, (Serfalifia obo-

vata; Brown ibid. n. 2.)—Leaves obovate ; fomewhat ta-

at the bafe; foarcely filky beneath. Calyx nearly

Corolla fmooth. Style very ete Cathares by

fir Jofeph Banks, in the tropical of New Holland.—In
both thefe the /eales Laetilt che pack are lanceolate.

‘9. 8. Silvery Iron-wood, Thunb. Prodr.

Willd » 6 Thorns none. Leaves ovate, abrupt,

y. Flowers ttalked.”"—Found by Thunberg at the

. 5. Downy Iron-wood. Roxb. Coro-

v. 1, 28, t. 28. Willd. n. 7.—Thorns none. Leaves
i » with a blunt point; downy when young.
Flower-italks downy, axillary, aggregate, the length of
the footltalks. Found chiefly Be tops of the mountains
in Hindooftan, flowering during the hot feafon. This is a
{mall tree. The deaves, three inches long and one broad, are

. Dr. Roxburgh
_ fays there are the rudiments of fee fod though only one

character, in that ref| is but precarious. A
9: S. lyeivides. Willow leaved Iron-wood. Linn. Sp.

Pla Willd. n. 8. Ait.n. 4. (S. {pinofum foliis de-
Tau? Dakin vy. 2, 260.t. 68. Bumelia lycioides ;

Parth v. 1. 155.
eens ‘Liew. Mie: 48. Willd. n. 9.
Thorns Leaves elliptical, deciduous.—Native

; Agee A woods trom skye to
_ Georgia, flowering in Ju A tree,

with minute greeni poser. Pott cw branches are
round, min warty, ftrong, pear tapering,
axillary, folitary thorns, three quarters of an inch long, ac-

smpanying the flowers, on the lower part of each branch,
, ttalked, elliptic-oblong, about three inches

alternate, It:
in length, and more than one in breadth, entire, fomewhat
green, finely reticulated with veins,

ene
iduous. Flower. axillary, feveral together, fimple,

about the of the f{pines, and rather longer than the

( a concave,
> unequal, aun Meiaf each other. Corolla
ut little fpreading. We are

ween §. lycioides and decan-

[pinofum. pre Tron-wood, or Argan. Linn.
- 279, excludin fynonym. Dryand. in Ait
: Seacary:. (hecdestran gan; Willd. Sp.

vy. t. 1148 Rhamous ficulus; Lino. Sytt. Nat. ed.
7 ‘Thoras lateral. Leaves Neca
ative of Morocco. This has ftrong, almo
ftalked, obovate, fim-

| entire, c about ’ long. Flowers in axillary
its, nearly {effile. Rhiitdes = upbylles, Bocce.
ic. 43. t. 21, mult be a very di aft 20 having really

Sib

five leaflets on a common flalk, as Mr, Dryander oblerves io
Tr. of Linn, Soc. v, 2,225. ‘This learned writer juflly re-
marks, that many Eaft Indian fynonyms have y
been referred by Linaxus to his Sideroxylum /pinefum ; but
he errs refpecting the {peeimen under this name in the Lin-
nwan herbarium, which is evidently the plant belonging to
thofe fynonyms, though uot to the original {pecific charace
ter, being Flacourtia fepiaria, Willd. Sp, ht v. 4 Bgu.
Roxb, Coremand. v. 1. t, 68.

The reader will perceive that there is confiderable uncer-
tainty gbout the {pecies of this us; nor is there lefs dif-
ficulty refpe¢ting its generic charaéter, which is not yet
clearly paste. with that of Bumersa ; fee that article.

SipenoxyLum, in Gardening, contains plants of the
fhrubby, evergreen, exotic ki of which the {pecies cul-
tivated are ; the fmooth iron-weod (§. inerme); and the
willow-leaved iron-wood (5. lycioides).

The wood of thefe thrubby plants having great folidity,
hardnefs, and ponderofity, fo as to fink in water, they have
obtained the appellation of iron-wood.

Method of Culture —Thefe plants may be increafed by
feed procured from abroad, which fhould be fown in the
{pring in pots filled with freth mould, and plunged in the
tan-bed of the ftove: when the plants have fome growth, they
fhould be removed into feparate pots, and be replunged ia
the bark-bed. They are alfo fometimes raifed from flit-
layers and cuttings in the fummer feafon ; but they are te-
dious in forming roots in this way, and the plants are not fo
good in general.

The firft fort is tender, affording variety in the flove ;
but the laft is more hardy, and may fometimes be intro-
duced in the fhrubbery borders in warm theltered fituations.

SIDERS, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, and
principal place of a dixain in the Valais; 8 miles E. of
Sion.

SIDES-MEN, properly called /jnods-men, or que/t-men,
perfous who, in larger parifhes, are appointed to aflift the
church-wardens in inquiring into the manners of inordinate
livers, and ia prefenting offenders at vifitations. In the an-
cient epifcopal fynods, the bifhops were wont to fummon
divers creditable perfons out of every parifh to give infor-
mation of, and to atteft the diforders of clergy and people.
Thefe called “ teltes fynodales ;’’ and tm after-times
they were a kind of impanelled jury, confitting of two,
three, or more perfons in every parifh, who were upon ogth
to prefent all heretics and other irregular perfons. Thefe,
in procefs of time, became flanding ‘ent in feveral places,
efpecially in great cities, and hence were called “ fynods-
men,” and by ion “ fides-men.”” They are alfo fome-
times called ‘ queft-men,” from the nature of their office, in
making inquiry concerning offences. And thefe fides-men or
queft.men, by Can. go, are to be chofen yearly in Eatter-
week, by the minilters and parifhioners (if they can agree) ;
otherwife to be appointed by the ordi of the diocefe.
But for the moft part this whole office 1s now devolved
upon the church-guardens ; which fee. The fides-man’s oath,
agreed upon by the civilians and common la is as fol-
lows: “ You hall fwear that you will be affiftant to the
church-wardens in the execution of their office, fo far as by
law are bound: fo help you God.” Gibf. 216.

SIDEWAYS, in the Mange. To ride a horfe fide.

him, or make him go upon two treads,
is marked by his fhoulders, and the other by

hes.
SIDGUR, in Cograply, a town of Hindooftan, in
Pe ae. a .E. of Baffeen,
IDI, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of one of the

Sh)
two wives of Ganefa or Pollear, the god of prudence and
policy. (See Potnear.) The name of the other was
Budhi, and both were daughters of Vifhwarupa; which
fee. Their names occur but feldom in Hindoo writings.

Sior Ben Tubu, nn Geography, a town of Algiers; 30
miles E.S.E. of Meliana.

Sipt E/a, atown of Algiers ; 30 miles S.of Boujeiah.

Srpt Gazi, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 4
miles N.E. of Kiutaja.

Sip1 Jbrahim, a town of Algiers; 30 miles W. of
Tubnah.

Sint Medhab, a town of Africa, in Tunis; 20 miles N.
of Gabs.

- Srpr Shebri, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania, on
alake; 6 miles E. of Beifhehri. :

SIDIALIEL, a town of Nubia; 55 miles N. of
Sennaar.

SIDIBISCHIR, a town of Africa, in the country of
Fezzan; t6muiles E. of Mourzouk.

SIDIN, or Varisa, ariver of Afiatic Turkey,: which
runs into the Black fea, at Vatifa.

SIDLA, Sipraw, or Sudlaw Hills, a range of moun-
tains in the counties of Perth and Angus, Scotland, which
form the fouthern boundary of the great valley of Strath-
more, whence they derive their name; Sudlaws fignifying,
in Erfe, the fouth hills. This ridge commences on the wett,
in the vicinity of the town of Perth, and extends in a north-
eaftern direGtion to Redhead, a promontory on the coatt of
the German ocean, between Aberbrothwick and Montrofe.
The mountains which compofe it vary contiderably in eleva-
tion; fome of them not exceeding 800 feet in height above
the level of the fea, while others are upwards of 1400 feet
high. The following are the heights of feveral of the prin-
cipal of them, as afcertained by barometrical meafurement :
Sidlaw hill, 1406 feet; Kingfeat, 1238; Kuinpurnie hill,
noted for an ancient tower on its fummit, 11515; and Dun-
finnan hill, 10242. The laft mentioned hill is remarkable
for being that on which the ufurper and tyrant, Macbeth,
built a cattle, with a view to fecure his life again{t any at-
tempt which might be made to murder him. Sinclair’s
Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. i. 1791.

SIDMOUTH, a market-town in the hundred of Eaft
Budleigh, and county of Devon, England, is feated in a
valley on the banks of the river Sid, between high hills, at
the diftance of 143 miles S.E. of Exeter, and 158 miles
S.W. of London. Sidmouth was formerly a fea-port of
fome confequence; but the harbour has been fo clogged
with fand and pebbles, that pleafure-boats and fifhing
fmacks are the only veflels which can now approach the
fhore. Of late years the buildings and population have in-
creafed, in confequence of the number of perfons who fre-
guent the place in the fummer, for the purpofes of bathing
and recreation. Good accommodations have confequently
been provided, and a ball-room, billiard-room, and tea-
room, erected for the convenience of the vifitors. Ac-
cording to the population report in the year 1811, the
number of houfes in the parifh was 349, inhabited by 1688
perforis. A weekly market is held on Saturdays, and two
fairs annually. Near the beach is an ancient ftone building,
with very thick walls firmly cemented, traditionally faid to
have been a chapel of eafe, when Otterton was the mother-
church ; and in a path leading from Sidmouth to Otterton,
called Go-Church, is-an ancient ftone crofs. At Sidmouth
was formerly an alien priory, a cell to Mountborrow in
Normandy, or rather to St. Michael in Per culo Maris; for

to this laft mentioned monaftery the manor was given by -

king William the Conqueror. It was fometimes reckoned

5.

SID

as a part of Otterton priory, and, with that, after the dif-
folution of the foreign houfes, was given to Sion abbey ;
and at the time of the furrender, devolved to the crown. ‘I'he
{cenery on this coaft, between Sidmouth and Seaton, is
grand and romantic ; prefenting a fucceffion of lofty cliffs,
floping ridges, and narrow vallies. In fome places the
cliffs are compofed of fand, tinged by a red oxyd of iron,
and is partly calcareous. On the edge of a hill, north-weft
of Sidmouth, is an ancient encampment, called Woodbury
caftle, which is of an irregular form, with deep ditches :
at fome places the fofs is double. Obfervations on the
Weftern Counties, by George Maton, M.D. 2 vols. 8vo.
The Hiftory of Devonfhire, by the Rev. Richard Pol-
whele, 3 vols. fol. 1797. The Chorographical Defeription,
or Survey of the County of Devon, by Triftram Rifdon,
8vo. 1714, 2dedit. 1811. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. iv. 1803, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

SIDNA-BINES, atown of Fez, near the fea-coaft.

SIDNEY, Puurip, in Biography. See Sypwey.

Sipney, ALtGerRNon. See SypDNrY.

SiwNey, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cape
Breton; 20 miles N. of Louifburg.—AlIfo, a town of New
York, on the Sufquehanna; 50 miles W. of Hudfon.—
Alfo, a poft-town of the province of Maine, on the Kenne-
beck ; 30 miles N.E. of Portland, fituated in the county
of Kennebeck, and containing 1558 inhabitants.

Sipney Cove. See Sypney Cove.

SIDODONA, in Ancient Geography, a barren place on
the coaft of Carmania, in the Perfian gulf, where Near-
chus is faid to have refrefhed himfelf, in his voyage from the

ifle of Oaraéta to that of Cara, according to his journal of :

the navigation.

S{DOLOUCUM, or Siporeucum, a town of Gallia
Lyonnenfis, on the route from Lugdunum to Gefforiacum,
between Auguftodunum and Abellone, according to the
Itinerary of Antonine. ,

SIDON, a town of Pheenicia, 30 miles from Berytus,
accordmg to the Itinerary of Antonine. This town was
for a long time the metropolis of Phcenicia, till Tyre became
more powerful, and contefted with it this dignity. Juftin
fays, that the Phcenicians, being obliged to abandon their
country on account of an earthquake, eftablifhed themfelves
in the vicinity of the lake of Aflyria, which they after-
wards deferted, and eftablifhed themfelves on the neigh-
bouring coaft of the fea, where they built the town, which
they called Sidon. Motes informs us that this town had
been built by Sidon, the eldeft fon of Canaan, the father
and founder of the Pheenicians, Jofhua (ch. ii. v. 8.) fays,
that the town of Sidon was rich and powerful when the
Ifraelites took pofleffion of the land of Canaan. St. Jerom
fays, that it fell to the lot of the tribe of Afher. In the
year 1015, Sidon was dependent on Tyre, for Solomon in-
duced Hiram, king of Tyre, to give orders to the Sidonians
to procure from Libanus the wood which he wanted for the
temple at Jerufalem, which he propofed to build. The Sido-
nians fhook off the yoke of the Tyrians 720 years B.C. and
furrendered themfelves to Salmanazar, when this prince en-
tered into Pheenicia. Jofephus (Antiq.) relates, that about
150 years afterwards, Apries, king of Egypt, invaded
Pheenicia with powerful armies, took Sidon by force, which
event was followed by the fubmiflion of all the other towns
of Phcenicia to the conqueror. Cyrus conquered this city,
but the Sidonians obtained permiffion of the Perfians to
have their own kings; and they took part in all the ex-
peditions of their new mafters, according to Herodotus
(1. ii.) ; and in the war of Xerxes againft the Greeks, the
king of Sidon, according to Diodorus Siculus (1. xiv.)

commanded

sID

a fleet of forty-eight thips, which very much
contributed to the vidtory which that prince obtained over
the jans, ‘The city of Sidon was ruined in the
351 B.C. under the reign of Ochus, king of Perfia.

the inhabitants (aw the enemy in the city, they fhut
mfelves up in their houfes, with their wives and children,
and were there maflacred by a conflagration. Diodorus
(L. xwid fays, what the Sidonians, who were abfent
this maflacre, and thus efcaped deftrudtion, returned
and rebuilt it, after Ochus had withdrawn to Perfia.
(De Exped. Alex.) fays, that the Sidonians offered
to fubmit to xander, when that prince eatered into
Pheenicia after the battle of Iilus, 333 oe a This
prince charged jon to sppoiat a king for this city ;
i Se bere raed oo the throne of Sidon the

hoft

he

the power of the R This city, accord-
ing to Strabo, fuflered the effeéts of an earthquake, which
demolithed half the city. See Same.
SIDONA. See Sipeya.
town of Hi ftan, in

SIDONEY, in Geography, a
Onde ; 42 miles W. of Kairabad.
SIDONIUS, Caius, Sottivs Apoxuranis, in Bio-

was born at Lyons in or about the year 430, of a

| i family, his father and grand-father having ex-
the of pretorian-prefect in Gaul. He was

liberally » and obtained great reputation for his
ts, and efpecially his {kill in the ical art.
_ Coming to a? he was raifed to the higheft offices
ve emperors. He married Papianilla,

i zeceffion he cele-

Seelndccet Anconpiedginct

mott com u u a

“cc pa On the acoictio® As.
y with another panegyric

the t of Rome, and the dignity

upon him. In the year 472 he

have conducted himfelf with fingular piety i
— oe for <P and all

to have 4000 Burgundians,
ffure of famine. He was a t fufferer

is death, in 487, which has been
martyrdom. Of the writings

in 1609, and by Sirmond in 1652.
Gibbon, vol. vi ; ;

SLE
SIDOWLY, in Coagrepty, a town of Hindoottan, ia

Bahar; 10 miles E. of Saferam.

SIDRA, a town of Hindooflan, in Bahar;
N.W. of Palamow.

Sipna, Gulf of, a large bay of the Mediterranean, on
the coatt of ‘Tripoli, anciently called “ Syrtis,”’ exteading
from N. lat. 30° go’ to 32° 30/, and E. long. 15° 30’ to

19° $0!

SIDRONA, in Ancient Geography, 3 town of Myria,
in the interior of Liburnia. Prol.

SIDUS, a {mall borough of the territory of Corinth,
E. of Schenus, which foveal asa portto Megara. Steph.
Byz.—Alfo, a {mall borough of Afia Minor, in Ionia, in
the vicinity of the town- of Clazomene,—Alfo, another in
the vicinity of the Erythrean fea.—Alo, a place of Afis
Minor, in Pamphylia. Steph. Byz.

Srous, Georgium, in Aflronomy. See Geonoran Planct.

SIDUSA, to Ancient Geography, an ifland of Afia Minor,
upon the coat of Tonia. Pliny.

SIEBELN, or Siesenceny, in Geography, a town
of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg; 4 miles N. of
Freyberg.

SIEBENKEES, Joun Purr, in Biography, profeffor
of philofophy and the Oriental languages in the >
of Altdorf, and member of the Society of Volfci, at Vel-
letri, was born in 1759 at Nurnberg, where his father was
organift to one of the churches. Being intended for the
church, he was initiated in the Latin and Greek languages
under very able mafters, and he applied alfo with great dili-
gence to the Hebrew and Chaldee. In the year 1778 he
repaired to the univerfity of Altdorf, where he attended
eires on the holy fcriptures, and where, in conjun@ion
with fome of the other ftudents, he eftablifhed a private
literary fociety, the firft-fruit of which was a differtation
on the reliczion of the ancient Germans, and other Northern
eo This piece was publithed in 1781, and it was fo

ighly efteemed by Ernefti, that he added it to his tranf-
lation of Tacitus «* De Moribus Germanorum,’’ which was
printed in 1791. He now became the tutor to fome young
people, and not only performed the duties attached to the
office for fix years with high reputation, but was able by
ence and affiduity to apply himfelf, at the fame time,

to refearches in the literature, hiftory, and arts of the an-
cients. He colle&ed materials to compofe memoirs af the
life of Bianca Capello de Medici, grand duchefs of Tuf-
cany, which was publifhed in one volume o€tavo at Gotha,
in the year 1789. But the chief part of his attention was
dire€ted to the MS. treafures contained in the library of
St. Mark, from which fo many of the claffical authors have
been printed and improved. His refearches here were much
facilitated by Morelli, the librarian, who affifted him greatly
in the art of decyphering and reading manufcripts, a buf-
nefs to which he himfelf had been unaccuftomed. Here he
examined with great attention the valuable manufcripts of
Strabo ; and ftudied with the utmott care the two celebrated
manufcripts of the Iliad, of which, before the appearance
of Valloifon’s edition, he gave a circumftantial account in
the German work entitled “ Bibliothek der Alten Literatur
und Kunft.”” In the fame work he publifhed an extraé
fram the Chriftomathia of Proclus; collated fome MSS. of
Heliodorus; and made {eleétions from the unprinted fcholia
on Plato and other authors. With the fame eagernefs he
examined and fludied the remains of ancient art preferved in
different colleétions at Venice. In 1788 he quitted Venice,
aod made a tour through many parts of Italy, and at Rome
he remained fifteen months, entirely occupied in furveyine
the works of art, or in ftudying the manufcripts in different
490 libraries ;

18 miles

SIE

libraries ; and here he was much indebted to Reggio, the
learned librarian of the Vatican, who allowed him the ufe
of all thofe highly valued manufcripts, the greater part of
which has been, fince that, carried to Paris by the French.
From thefe, Siebenkees made copious extracts for the im-
provement of Strabo and other ancient authors ; and here
he tranfcribed the Vatican MS. of the characters of Theo-
phrattus, which is reckoned the completett and molt perfect
in exiftence. He collected likewife from this library a large
mafs of critical matter for the illu{tration of the claffics, in
extracts, fragments, and obfervations. Cardinal Borgia
interefted himfelf very much in favour of Siebenkees, and
allowed him the free ufe of his mufzum at Velletri, where
he wrote an explanation of a ** Teflera Hofpitalis,’? pre-
ferved in it, which was publifhed with the following title :
«* Expofitio Tabule Hofpitalis ex 2zre antiquiffimo in
Muto Borgiano Velitris aflervatz.’? For this work, which
was confidered as extremely ingenious, he was eleGted a
member of the learned fociety of Velletri. On his return
to his native country, he vifited the mott celebrated libraries
at Augfburg and Memingen, as well as in various monaf-
teries in Swabia, and formed an acquaintance with many of
the German literati. In the year 1790 he returned to
Nurnberg, and in the following year he was appointed ex-
traordinary profeflor of philofophy and of the Oriental
languages at Altdorf; after this he was made regular
profeflor of philofophy and hiltory. Between the years
1791 and 1796, befides giving academic le€tures on the
Oriental as well as the Greek and Latin languages, on
mythology, archeology, geography, univerfal hiltory,
the hiflory of literature and of the German empire, he
found leifure to publith the following works: “ An Effay
towards a Hiltory of the Inquifition in the Venetian States :”?
«¢ A Plan for profecuting the Study of Roman Statittics,
for the Ufe of his Lectures:’? ** Qn the Temple and Statues
of Jupiter at Olympia,’? an antiquarian eflay. But his
moft important undertaking was his edition of Strabo,
amended and correéted from various readings, and an im-
proved tranflation, with the following title ; ‘* Strabonis
Rerum Geographicarum Libri XVII. Grecaad Opt. Codd.
MSS. recenfuit var. le&t. ad notationibufque illuftravit Ky-
landri Verfionem emendavit I. P. Siebenkees.”? He contrt-
buted to many periodical works, fuch as the “ Journal des
Luxus,’ in which he publifhed a picture of Venice;
Harles’ edition of «¢ Fabricii Bibliotheca Greca,’’? &c. He
died in 1796. THe was not diftinguifhed by any uncommon
ftrength of genius; but extraordimary diligence, and a moft
ardent attachment to literary purfuits, enabled him to ac-
quire a very extenfive knowledge of languages and htera-
ture in general. He was an excellent draught{man, and this
talent was of great affiflance to him in his archeological re-
fearches in Italy, His writing, in his own language, was
exceedingly elegant, but his latinity is neither pure nor
correct. His fervice to literature would have been more
important had he lived to finifh his Strabo, a great part of
the fecond volume of which was left unprinted at the time
of bis death. Some other works, on which he had been
employed, were alfo left incomplete, wiz. .an edition
ot Theophrattus, from a MS. copy in the Vatican, and
his valuable * Anecdota Greca,’? feleG&ted from the beft
MSS. in the Italian libraries. Both thefe- works .were
completed after his death, and publifhed at Nurnberg in
1798. Gen, Biog.

SIEBER, in Geography, a river of Germany, which
Tuns into the Oder, 5 miles S. of Olterode.

SIECHAM-HOTUN, a town of Corea, in the fea of
Japan, N. lat, 41°24’. E. long. 127° 24!.

Sy) G3 0}

SIEDABAD, a town of Hindoottan, in Benares, on
the Ganges; 15 miles N.E. of Benares.

SIEDE, a {mall river of Germany, which runs into the
Wefer, 2 miles S. of Hoya.

SIEDENBERG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Hoya; 9 miles S.S.W. of Hoya.

SIEG, a river of Germany, which rifes in the eaft part
of Naflau-Siegen, pafles by Siegen, Blanckenberg, Sieg-
berg, &c. and runs into the Rhine, two miles below Bonn.

SIEGBERG, a town of the duchy of Berg; 14 miles
S.E. of Cologne. N. lat. 50° 58!. E. long. 7° 18/.

SteceerG. See Sybera.

' SIEGE, in War, the encaipment of an army around a
place, with defign to take it, either in the way of diltrefs
and famine, by making lines all around it, to prevent any
relief from without; or by main force, as by digging
trenches, and making formal attacks.

The word is French, and fignifies, literally, feat; al-
luding to the army’s taking its feat before a town, till the
reduction of the place.

The mott celebrated fieges of antiquity are thofe of Troy,
Tyre, Alexandria, and Numantium; and, among the mo-
derns, thofe of Oftend, Candia, Grave, Bergen-op-zoom,
Gibraltar, &c. See Ling, in Fortification.

Stuer, To raife a, is to give over the attack of a place,
quit the works thrown up againft it, and the pofts formed
about it.

Since, To turn a, into a blockade, fee BLocKApr.

S1eGe-Pieces, in Coinage, a divifion of modern coins, con-
fitting of thofe that have been iffued upon urgent neceflity,
during a fiege, by any city or town, Patin has publifhed
a remarkable one of thick paper or parchment, ftruck at
Leyden in 1574, when that place was befieged by the
Spaniards. It has a lion rampant, PUGNO PRO PATRIA 3
and on the reverfe this infcription, LUGDUNUM BATA-
voruM. Various fiege-pieces of gold and filver were
iffued in the’ reign of Charles I.; fome of the latter being
fo large as to be of 20s. value.

SIEGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, which
gives name to a branch of the houfe of Naflau, in the vici-
nity of which are fome confiderable iron-mines and forges ;
37 miles E. of Bonn. N, lat. 50° 48!. E. long. 8° 8/.

SIEGENBURG, a town of Bavaria, on the Ambs3;
20 miles E. of Ingclftadt.

SIEGES, Les, a town of France, in the department of
the Youne; 24, miles W.S.W. of Troyes.

SIEGSTADT, a town of Norway, in the province of
Aggerhuus; 58 miles N. of Chriftiana.

SIELE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefc; 56 miles N.E. of Brzetfc.

SIELUB, a town of Lithuania; 8 miles N. of Novo-
grodek. :

SIEMTECZOW, a town of Lithuania; 15 miles W. of
Sluck.

SIENAGE, a town of South America, in the province

_of Tucuman; 150 miles N. of St. Miguel de Tucuman.

SIENE!, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, fitu-
ated, according to Pliny, mm a penin{fula, on the weftern
bank of the Nile, in which was a Roman garrifon. See
SYENE.

SIENITE, Granitelle of Sauffure, in Geology, a rock
nearly refembling granite, but compofed of felfpar and
hornblende, and occafionally containing quartz and mica.
The name is derived from the city of Sienna, in Upper
Egypt, where immenfe quantities of this {tone were worked
by the Romans, and large blocks and columns were brought
from thence to Rome. The Egyptian fienite is in fact a

granites

; SIE

;
| _ intermixed with a {mall quantity of horoblende
| fienites are coarfely granular, containing large dif-
ting cryftals of red felfpar; in other fienites the cryttals
| are very minute, and the hornblende greatly predominates :
dn the latter cafe, fienite patles into the rock which the
Germans call grun-ftein, or green-ftone. When the fienite
is fine granular, but contains large eryflals of felfpar im-
it is then denominated flenite porphyry. This
frequently occurs in large continuous malles, lying
over ite and flate rocks. [t is fometimes divided into
diftingt layers, which, by the German geologifts, have been
called ftrata; in other inttances, it affumes the prifmatic or

»

this diftin@ion a ufelefs, for the fame mineralogifls
admit that hornblende is frequently a conftituent part of
goeils or flaty

Tn the infancy of feience, fubfances which are effentiall
diftin&, are apt to be confounded together, if they poflefs
certain points of refemblance ; and in a fomewhat more ad-
vanced ftate of information, fub » that are effentially
the fame, are often feparated, by artificial claflifications,
into diltin& orders or {pecies, by thofe who are accuftomed
to infpeét the cabinets of colleétors, and overlook the great
features of nature. Thus much vufelefs di has arifen
with refpeét to certain rocks, whether were to be
claffed with granite or fienite, &c. ‘The operations of na-

com

in
not to be limited b
mn h

experienced eye would find it difficult to clafs them, from
the infpeétion of detached {pecimens. Nor will this appear
furprifing, when we confider that filex generally compofes

or more of the fubftance of all rocks not calcareous,

whether fimple or compound ; and even the diitinét concre-
tions in contain about the fame

the predominating part of the mafs.

exiit.
pears to be the fubftance which connects
granite with s that have a very different external ap-
pearance. When hornblende exifts in {mall quantities in
repre it does not change the chara¢ter of the rock, where
threee eflential fub quartz, felfpar, and mica,
form the prevailing part of the mafs; for chlorite, fteatite,
_ and other minerals, are intermixed in fmall quantities in the
— of the higher Alps. When the quantity of horn-
is increafed, and that of the mica and quartz di-
minifhed, the rock is properly what mineralogiits deno-
_ minate fienite. When the hornblende and other minerals,
except felfpar, are fo intimately mixed as to form one

SIlE

homogeneous paile, in which the eryttals of fel{par are im-
bedded, it then conflitutes a porphyry. When the hore-
blende greatly predominates, and the fel{par is in very {mall
eryftals, it forms green-flone, When + cryftals are no
longer difcernible, it forms rocks to which the name of rep
have been given, (See Thar.) Green-ftone may be con-
fidered as a cryflalline variety, and bafalt as an earthy
variety, of trap. ‘Thus by an intermixture of hornblende,
we have an infenfible gradation from highly crytiailine gre-
nite and fievite to a compaét earthy rock, in the intercal
ftruéture of which fearcely any trace of cryttallization can
be feen,

Sienite is found in Cornwall, and the wefleru fide of
Wales, and at Chamwood foreft in Leicetterfhire ; from the
latter place it is fent to London, and to Nottingham and
Leicefter, cut into blocks for paving-flones. A beautiful

and red fienite forms one of the hills called Mark-

Id, which is deferibed in Mr. Bakewell’s Geology, ss
covered on its fummit with pyramidal blocks of the fame
flone, which he conceives might be employed for durable
ornamental architeéture. Sienite occurs in many of the
mountainous parts of Scotland, but is not, we beliewe, a
metalliferous rock in any part of Great Britain ;, per has it,
we believe, been applied to any other purpofe than for

ving-flones, Many of the ancient flatues and columns in

gypt are formed of this {tone ; and it has been before ob-
ferved, that it was brought in great quantities from thet
country by the Romans, on account of the vaft columns, &c.
which could be formed from fingle blocks. As a proof of
its durability, it is {tated by travellers that columns which the
Romans left unfinifhed in the quarries of Sienna, nearly
two thoufand years fince, preferve to the prefent day the
impreffion of the tools as fharp and diflin@ as if they had
been recently worked.

SIEN-KU, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Tche-kiang; 18 miles W.S.W. of Tai-tcheou.

SIENNA, or Siena, a city of Italy,-and capital of a
diftri&, in Etruria. This diftri€, called Siennefe, or Ter-
ritorio di Sienna, was once a free republic, conquered by
the emperor Charles V. in the year 15543; whole fon,
Philip ms king of Spain, ceded all parts, except the Stato
de gli Prefidii, to Cofmo I. duke of Florence. The city
is pleafantly built on three hills, in a healthy fituation.
The houfes are of brick, and the ftreets paved with the
fame, It is nearly five miles in circumference, bit not
peopled in proportion to its fize; the inhabitants {carcely
exceeding 17,000. It is the fee of an archbifhop, and the
cathedral is a fine Gothic building, coated with white and
black marble within and without. The great portal was
begun in the year 1284, after the defigns of Giovanni d2
Pils, and finifhed in 1333, by Auguttino and Agnolo,
Siennefe architeéts. The front is prodigioufly loaded with
ornaments. All the work of the infide is moft highly
finifhed, as the carving in wood of the choir; the feulpture
in marble of the pulpit; and efpecially the hiltorical en-
graving of the pavement, reprefenting in chiaro-fcuro the
moft remarkable ftories of the Old and New Teftament.
From an aperture in the choir pavement may be feen St.
John’s church, which lies direétly underneath. Its entrance
is without, on the hill; and thus one church may be {aid to
fland on another. Near the cathedral is the archbithop’s
palaces and oppofite to it a large and well-endowed hofpital,

unded by a fhoe-maker. Here are alfo many other
churches and convents. The church of the Dominicans is
remarkable for an ancient picture of wood, reprefenting the
Virgin with the infant Jefus in her arms, by Guido Sanefe :
it is dated 1221, and is in the Venturini chapels though fo

4#Q2 ancient,

STE

ancient, it is in good prefervation. The univerfity was
founded by Charles V. T'he German ftudents enjoy par-
ticular privileges, which they derive from the fame emperor.
In the r5th century the academy of the Intronati was here
founded. This city ftill retains fome fhadow of its former
republican liberty, which may appear from the manner of
eleGting its council, which confifts of nine perfons, ityled
Excellenzi; but whofe power the great duke very much
curtailed. The caftle, built at one end of the city, 1n order
to curb the inhabitants, is of no great ftrength. Near it is
the univerfity’s academy for martial exercifes. Many no-
bility refide here, who have a cafino or aflembly of both
fexes; and it is generally allowed that the Italian language
is in no parc of Italy {poken with greater purity; 54 miles
S. of Bologna. N. lat. 21° E. long. 11° 16).

SIENNE, ariver of France, which runs into the fea,
near Havre.

SIENNOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Mo-
gilev; 60 miles N.N.W. of Mogilev. N. lat. 54° 30).
E. long. 29° 44.

STEN-TCHING, a town of Corea; 23 miles N.W. of
Long-kouang.

SIEN-YEOU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Fo-kien ; 22 miles N. of Siuen-tcheou.

SIEOU, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Kiang-
nan; 381 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 33° 45!.- E. long.
rity} BY Ae

SIEOU-GIN, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Quang-fi; 15 miles N.W. of Yong-ngan.

SIEOU-OU, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Ho-nan; 36 miles S.W. of Vue-kiun.

SIEOU-YUEN-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary ; 330 miles E. of Peking. N. lat. 40° 18’. E. long.
L222 5,0

SIEPERNOI-PESOK, a {mall fandy ifland of Ruffia,
i the Frozen ocean. N. lat. 71° 30!. E. long. 106° 14.

SIER, a river of France, which rifes about fix miles
S.E. of Thonnes, and runs into the Rhdne, near Seiflel.

SIERAGE, a town of Hindooftan; 32 miles N.W. of
Benares.

SITERCK, a town of France, in the department of the
Mofelle. In 1792, this town was taken by the duke of
Brunfwick ; 9 miles N.N.E. of Thionville.

SIERMAH, a town of Bengal; 24 miles S. of Pala-
mow.

SIERNDORFF, a town of Auftria; 7 miles N.W.
of Korn-Neuburg.

SITERNING, a town of Auftria; 12 miles S.W. of
Ebenfurth.

SIERO, a town of Spain, in Afturia; g miles N.E. of
Oviedo.

SIEROCK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 15 miles
N. of Warfaw.

STERRA, the eaftern part of New Caftile, fo called
from its mountains. ‘The word Sierra is a general name for
mountain in Spain, and thofe diftinGtive appellations are
often given from the neighbouring towns.

Sierra a’ Adriana, mountains of Spain, in Guipufcoa,
which took their name from the hermit Adrian. The road
leading over it to Alaba and Old Cattile is very difficult to
travellers. At the very beginning of it isa dark fpace, be-
tween 40 and 50 paces in length, cut through a rock ; after
which we afcend up a hill, which is reckoned the higheft
among the Pyrenées. Thefe mountains are but little in-
habited, a few fhepherds’ huts only being to be feen; 18
miles S. of Tolofa.

SIE

Simrra de Bejar, a mountain of Spain, in the province
of Leon; zo miles N.N.E. of Plafencia.

SIERRA Cava, a {mall rocky ifland, near the eaft coaft
of Sardinia. N. lat. 39° 46!. E. long. 10°.

Sirrra-de/ Cid, a mountain of Spain, in Valencia; 14
miles N.W. of Alicant.

- Srprra de Cobre, a mountain of the ifland of Cuba; 15
miles W. of St. Jago.

Sierra de Guadarama, a mountain of Spain, in the fouth
part of Old Caftile; 15 miles S. of Segovia.

Srerra di Gador, a mountain of Spain, in the kingdom
of Grenada; compofed of marble, of which they make ex-
cellent lime ; 12 miles S. of Almeria.

Srerra de Gredor, a mountain of Spain, in the province
of Leon; 25 miles N.W. of Plafencia.

SrerRA Jalama, a mountain of Spain, in Eftremadura ;
20 miles N.N.W. of Coria.

Simrra Leona, a country of Africa, in Upper Guinea;
fo called becaufe it is mountainous, and the mountains
abound in lions. It is compofed of feveral ftates on king-
doms, and is well watered by a river of the fame name, at
the mouth of which an affociation of Englifh gentlemen
eftablifhed a fettlement, on land purchafed of the prince of
the country. This company was incorporated by act of
parliament, in the year 1791. A confiderable number of
whites and free negroes were conveyed thither from Nova
Scotia, befides many who went from England. At firft
the new fettlers feem to have {uffered from the want of pro-
per habitations during the rainy feafon, but fubfequent ac-
counts were more favourable. In the month of December
1793, the natives continued perfeétly friendly ; the neigh-
bouring chiefs fhewed every defire of being conne&ted with
the company: fome had fent their children to be educated
at Sierra Leona, and many others propoled to fend them in
the enfuing dry feafon. The rainy feafon had pafled over
without any confiderable mortality ; and the Nova Scotia
colonifts had maintained their health, and appeared to have
become well inured to the climate. The trade was much
more brifk ; the cultivation was advancing, both in the co-
lony and parts adjacent ; and there appears to have been no
difficulty in procuring the native labourers. The rice,
cotton, and other articles in the company’s plantation, had
thrived exceedingly, the fugar-cane excepted, which had
been hurt by the white ants. The {chool of the company
contained between 300 and 400 children, chiefly Nova
Scotians, who appear to have made full as much improve-
ment as is common in European fchools, under fimilar cir-
cumftances. ‘The colony had gradually improved in order,
and appeared to be advancing in every refpe& ; but neither
thefe appearances, nor feveral parliamentary aids, could fup-
port it fufficiently again{ft new difficulties which continually
occurred ; and the company was diflolved in 1807. Sierra
Leona river abounds in fifh, but is much infefted with alliga-
tors. The country adjacent produces abundance of millet and
rice ; and the woods are filled with parrots of various kinds,
and other beautiful birds; ferpents are found, fome of a
very large fize; and numerous wild beafts, fuch as lions,
tigers, elephants, wild boars, and monkies.

The benevolent and laudable exertions of the African
Inftitution, eftablifhed fince the abolition of the flave-trade,
have very much contributed to the profperity of the colony
of Sierra Leona. The climate is much better for European
conititutions than that of almoft any other part of the coatt.
There are now 400 houfes within the walls of Freetown,
containing 1917 inhabitants, befide about 2500 Negroes,
freed by fentences of the admiralty-court, and refiding there
under the proteétion of the government. There is a con-

fiderable

~

about 25,000/. annually.

contemplation to difmantie all thofe, except one or two,

which will be put in a refpectable flate of defence. Sec

VE-TRADE.

the labourers at Sierra Leona there are above

of the tribe of Kroomen; and they are to be

faGtory and town along the coatt, for the

350 miles, "They are employed as factors or inter-

i merchants, boatmen, and failors; and while the

carried on upon this coalt, they had their

its occupation. After the age of 40, they return

home. ‘Their country, or Kroo country, ex-

Grain Coalt, between Mount and Cape

gq! to 5° 7! N. lat. The chief town,

he 7° 48’. This diflri@, though

natives are of a mi wr 9

n roduces grain, particular e

and Saas eat their Wtaple’ article ie their

» with which they purchale goods, and return
with the uce. Wars are rare amon

: oo toe awa han dane Erne a
captives; nor nith any offence by flavery, thou

witchcraft is a acter prams and the “ay one that is on.

variably fo among them, While the flave-trade latted, they

ufed to kidnap « Bufhmen,”” or natives of the interior,

and fell them.
| 'Thefe Kroomen are indolent, but when tafk-work is af-

et

tated
dil
4

f
:

figned them, exert thenifelves very much; as the
reward, in this cafe, is proportioned to their labour. In
their ex ure they are rigid economitts, the only luxu

|
which themfelves being tobacco. ‘Their who
- fubGittence is only from 1} 1b. to 1$ lb. of rice, clean and
fit for ule, per day ; and of this will fell one half, when
ice is dear. they are fond of rum, they never buy
pct oer — offered to
clothing not co Ios. a year.
of their grai

in they lay out in goods; and in

ge te ge es an returns home with
This he diftributes liberally ; and what re-
his father to buy him a wife. Having

a few months of eafe and indulgence, he
ierra Leona. When his coffers are re-
home, and difpofes of his riches as
ing a part, which he gives to his father to

By
gs
ZF

i

FE

him another wife. us he proceeds for twelve years
increafing the number of his wives, and eftablifhing
character is coun

Kroomen are peculiarly diftinguithed by their ex-
treme love of their own country, which they think fuperior
to allothers. All their exertions are to obtain a fi 5
and live there. They have not
will not permit their children to learn ;
ive by daily labour, which is paid for in
they have no occafion for manufaétures

have few opportunities of difplaying
Geaplense> : ag rdf trifl a
ts of agri , and fome triflin
inftruments. .
Leona, a river of Africa, called alfo “ Ritomba,”’
and “Tagria,” about eight miles broad at its mouth,
2 elma betta ocean, N, lat. 8°20’. W. long.

e

Hi

oF
2

‘
e
§
a

ne
£F3
¥

SIE

Sienna Morena, & mountain, or rather a chain of moun-
tains, of Spain, between the provinces of Cordovs and Jaca
to the fouth, and Effremadura and La Mancha to the north.
A few years ago, this dittri€t was the dread of travellers.
M. le Maur, a Frenchman, who for a long time has been
one of the corps of engineers of Spain, was chofen in the
year 1779, by the count de Florida Blanca, to render prace
ticable a road the moft frequented of any in the kingdom 5
and he has made it one of the fineit in Europe. Several
new fertlements have been formed, and new towns founded
in this barbarous diftriG.

Sienna Madre, 3 lofty chain of mountains of New
Mexico, crofling the province of Cinaloa.

Sienna de Motin, a headland on the coaft of Mexico.
N. lat. 19° 50’. W. long. 104° 36’.

Serna Nevada, mountains of Spain; 20 miles E. of
Grenada.

Sienna Nevada, or Jztaccibnail, a volcanic mountain of
Mexico, whofe fummit is always covered with fnow; 30
miles S.E. of Mexico.

Sienna de Noflra Senora, a range of mountains in South
America, forming the weltern boundary of the province of
Tucuman.

Srenza de St. Mamed, a mountain of Spain, in Eftre-
madura; 25 miles N. of Badajoz.

Srerna de Si. Pedro, a mountain of Spain, in Eftre-
madura; 36 miles S.W. of Truxillo.

Sreara de Torguino, 2 mountain of the ifland of Cuba;
25 miles S. of Bayamo.

Srerra Fermejo, a range of hills in Spain, which run
welterly towards Malaga, and afford a fingular curiofity :
for though they run parallel, and fo clofe that their bafes
join, yet one is red and the other is white; {now will not
remain on the higheft, whilit it conftantly covers the other.
The white hills produce the cork-tree, and the Encina oak ;
the red has no oak, but is covered with firs. The white
has iron-ore in little lumps ; the red has feveral ores, but no
iron. The waters of the white hills are martial and vitriolic ;
thofe of the red fulphureous, alkaline, and with a ftrong {mell
like thofe of Cotterets, in France.

STERSBERG,atownof France, in the department of the
Mefelle, near the river Nied ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Sar Louis.

SIERSHAGEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein;
2 miles N.W. of Neuftadt. “

SIETAMO, a town of Spain, in Aragon; 5 miles E.
of Huefca.

SIETTREE, a town of Bengal; 4 miles S. of Burwa.

SIEVE, a river of Etruria, which runs into the Arno.

Sreve, or Searce, an inttrument ferving to feparate
the fine from the coarfe parts of powders, liquors, and the
like ; or to cleanfe pulfe from duit, light grains, &c.

It is made of a rim of wood, the circle or {pace of which
is filled with a plexus of filk, tiffany, hair, linen, wire, or
even thin flices of wood.

The fieves which have large holes, are fometimes alfo
called riddles: fuch is the coal or lime-fieve, the garden-
fheve, &c.

When drugs apt to evaporate are to be paffed through
the fieve, it is ufual to have it covered with a lid.

SIEVERNIYAGOI, or Ruthem Mountains, in Geo-

4 — of Ruffia, extending between the Baltic

ea.

SIEVERNOIPESOK, a fmall fandy ifland in the

Frozen ocean, near the continent of Roiha. N. lat. 76°

54’. E. long. 105° 14’.

SIEVER VOsTOCHNOI, a cape on the north ay
°

SIF

of Ruffia, called Cape Taimura by captain King. N. lat.
Sor kt. long wnOletals

SIEVERO-ZAPADNOI, a cape on the north coalt
of Ruffia. N lat. 77° Ez. long. 94° 14/.

SIEUGUR, a town of Hindoottan, in Malwa; 9 miles
S. of Tandla.

SIEVI, a town of Sweden, in the government of Ulea;
45 miles S. of Brahettad.

SIEUR, atitle of honour, or quality among the French ;
chiefly ufed among the lawyers, and in- public acts, and
other writings of that kind.

The title fieur is alfo given by a fuperior to an inferior,
in his letters and other private writings.

In this fenfe, authors fometimes ufe it, by way cf mo-
defty, in {peaking of themfelves: thus, at the heads of
books, we fee Traduction du fieur d?Ablancourt ; C&uvres
du fieur d’Efpreaux, &c.

Sieur is alfo a term expreffing feigneury, or lordfhip: as
ecuyer or fieur of fuch a place.

SIFACE, Grovan Francesco, Detto, in Biography, a
celebrated opera finger in the fervice of the court of
Modena, who obtained the title of Siface from his admi-
rable performance of the part of Syphax, in the old opera
of Mitridate, modernized by Metattafio, and fet by Porpora
for Venice in 1730. Algarotti highly praifes the pathetic
manner in which he fung. ‘Thoughit is confidently afferted,
in the work of a late hiftorian, that Siface had been in
England as a finger in the chapel of king James II., yet
we can trace no proof of this affertion.

In travelling from Ferrara to Modena, he miferably loft
his life in a quarrel with an infolent and brutifh poftilion.

SI-FANS, or Tou-rans, in Geography, {ubjeéts of the
Chinefe empire, who inhabit to the weft of China, and the
provinces of Chen-fi and Se-tchuen. Their country is only
a continued ridge of mountains, inclofed by the rivers
Hoang-ho on the N., Ya-long on the W., and Yang-tfe-
kiang on the E., between the 3oth and 35th degrees of
north latitude. The Si-fans are divided into two kinds of
people; the one are called by the Chinefe d/ack Si-fans,
the other yellow, diflinétions arifing from the different
colours of their tents. The black are the mott clownith
and wretched ; they live in {mall bodies, and are governed
by petty chiefs, who all depend upon a greater.

The yellow Si-fans are {ubjeét to families, the oldeft of
which becomes a lama, and aflumes the yellow drefs. Thefe
lama-princes, who command in their re{pective diltricts,
have the power of trying caufes, and punifhing criminals ;
but their government is by no means burdenfome : . pro-
vided certain honours are paid them, and they receive

unétually the dues of the god Fo, which amount to very
little, they moleft none of their fubjects. The greater part
of the Si-fans live in tents; but fome of them have houfes
built of earth, and even brick. Their habitations are not
contiguous ; they form at moft but {mall hamlets, confilt-
ing of five or fix families. They feed a great number of
flocks, and are in no want of any of the neceflaries of life.
The principal article of their trade is rhubarb, which their
country produces in great abundance. ‘heir horfes are
fmall ; but they are well-fhaped, lively, and robutt.

Thefe people are of a proud and independent fpirit, and
acknowledge with reluétance the fuperiority of the Chinefe
government, to which they had been fubjected : when they
are fummoned by the mandarins, they rarely appear; but the
government, for political reafons, winks at this contempt,
and endeavours to keep thefe intraétable fubjeéts under
by mildnefs and moderation: it would, befides, be difficult

SIG

to employ rigorous means in order to reduce them to perfeét
obedience—their wild and frightful mountains (the tops of
which are always covered with fnow, even in the month of
July) would afford them places of fhelter, from which they
could never be driven by force. }

The cuftoms of thefe mountaineers are totally different
from thofe of the Chinefe. It is, for example, an a of
great politenefs among them to prefent a white handkerchief
of taffety or linen, when they accoft any perfon whom they
are defirous of honourmg. All their religion confifts in
their adoration of the god Fo, to whom they have a fin-
gular attachment: their fuper{titious veneration extends
even to his minifters, on whom they have confidered it as
their duty to confer fupreme power, and the government
of the nation.

Some of their rivers wafh down gold mixed with their
fands: they are acquainted with the art of applying it to
ufe, and form it into vafes and {mall ftatues, of which they
often make offerings to their idol; it even appears that the
ule of gold is very ancient among them; for Chinefe
books relate, that under one of the emperors of the dynafty
of Han, an officer having been fent to the S1-fans to com-
plain of the ravages committed by fome of their chiefs,
they endeavoured to appeafe him by making him a prefent
of a piece of gold plate, which the officer refufed, telling
the Si-fans, that rice ferved up in golden difhes was to him
infipid food.

Thefe people have loft much of their ancient {plendour ;
for the Si-fans, who at prefent are confined in a wild country,
where they have not a fingle city, enjoyed formerly an ex-
tenfive dominion, and formed a powerful and formidable
empire, the chiefs of which have often given great uneafinefs
to the emperors of China. They poflefled towards the
eaft feveral traéts of land, which at prefent make part of
the provinces of Se-tchuen and Chen-fi; they even extended
their conquelts to China, fo as to render themfelves matters
of feveral cities of the fecond clafs, of which they formed
four principal governments: in the weit, they feized upon
all the countries which lie beyond the river Ya-long, and
reach as far as the boundaries of Cachemir; but intefline
divifions infenfibly weakened this great monarchy, and at
length brought it to ruin. ‘he Chinefe annals fix the
epocha of its downfall about the year 1227: fince that
time, the Si-fans have retired to their native mountains,
where, from being a conquering ard polifhed people, they
have again funk into their original barbarity.

SIFEABAD, a town of Hindoottan, in the province of
Sirhind ; 10 miles S. of Sirhind.

SIFEED Rook, or White River, a river of Perfia, fo
named from the foam occafioned by the rapidity of the
current, that flows in a meandering courfe through Ghilan
to the Cafpian fea.

SIFFLET, Fr. a cat-call. According to M. Laborde,
it was during the reign of Auguftus that clapping of hands
and cat-calls were introduced in the Romantheatres. Efflat
fur la Mufique.

SIFTE, in Geography, a pretty confiderable village of
Egypt, between Cairo and Damietta. It has three mofques,
and a church belonging to the Copts, the congregation of
which confilts of 300 Pare See Sepré.

SIG, in Agriculture, a provincial term applied to urine,
or chamber-ley, as employed by the farmer.

Sic, in Geography, a lake of Ruflia, in the government
of Olonetz, about forty miles in circumference; 40 miles
W. of Povenetz.

SIGA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa, in Mau-

ritanle

S1G

ritania. Cafarienfis, Ptolemy places the mouth of it be-
tween the town of Siga and the mouth of the river Afarath,
—Alfo, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cwlarientis. It
had the title of a colony, and was fituated between the

“co tome and the mouth of the river Siga. Ptolemy.
ys, that this town was dellroyed by the Romanus,

and that the of Syphax was here.—Alfo, a royal
town, fituated in Africa, in Numidia, and on the weltera
of the river Mulucha, It was the capital of the

of Syphax.

i GAGIK. in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia, on the fea-coail; 14 miles S.W. of Smyrna.
| N. yt 18. E. long. 16° 31’.

SIGAH or Sryan-Ghu/b, or Black-Ear, in Zoology,
the name of a an animal, of the felis or cat-kind, and
no way differing from the lynx, but in that it has no {pots ;

it has a face, and fimall head; its ears have
the fine velvety black pencil of hairs at the top, which are
the diftinguithing chara¢ter of the lynx; the infide and

bottom of the ears are white; the nofe white, the eyes {mall,
the — of the body of a very pale reddifh-brown,
the » and about half the length of the body ; the
belly and breaft whitith; the limbs flrong, and pretty long,
the hi of each marked with black. his animal
India, and Barbary; and is ufed in the
lefler ve oar ae 38 and the larger fort of birds,
_which they artfully furprife and feize ; it is faid to attend
jon, and to on the remains of its prey. It
is fierce when provoked. Pennant’s Hilt. Quadr. vol. ii.
p- 283. Phil. Tranf. vol. li. part ii. p. 648, &c.
SIGALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
lx to Ptolemy, who afligns
SIGANA, atown of Arachofia. Ptolemy.
»in G. . a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda; 12 miles N. of Rachore.

SIGATHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Libya.
~ SIGE, atown of Afia Minor, in the Troade. Steph.

Byz.

SIGEAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-

partment of the Aude, near which Charles Martel defeated
Saracens; 9 miles S. of Narbonne.

SIGEBERT I., in Bi » king of Autftrafia, born
wang hired 22 was third fon of Charles I., king of
the Franks. At the death of that fovereign, in 562, his
dominions were divided between his fons; and Auttrafia,
or the kingdom of Metz, fell to the lot of Sigebert.
His territories were invaded, foon after his acceflion, by
P he defeated and drove acrofs the Elbe.
During his abfence, his brother Chilperic made an irruption
: and took feveral places; but Sigebert re-
| — with a victorious army, took Soiffons, Chilperic’s

ital, and defeated Chilperic himfelf in battle. He was,

cong upon him. Sigebert’s reputation

| agnaetiaabctiae ke. chesined| for a wife tha femces
.

grant him favourable terms, and to

‘Bronehaut, daughter of the Spamith king of the Vifigoths,

nde. Brunehaut invited Sige-
with his brother Gontran, king of
Burguudy, to road this crime, and they over-ran a
e 11

SIG

great part of his dominions, and forced him to purchafe
peace the ceflion of feveral places. The Avars, or
Huns, foon after made a fecond wruption into Avuttrafia,
when Sigebert's troops, terrified at their favage appearance,
refufed to act, and he was obliged to purchale a peace, and
fupply them with provifions to return to their own country.
After this, Siebert aflembling a numerous army, after
making himfelf matter of the greateft part of Chilperic’s
territories, invelted him in ‘Tournay, and refufed to liften to
terms of accommodation. When the ruin of that prince
feemed to be inevitable, Fredegonde, hiring two aflaflins,
who pretending to have fome important fecret to commu-
nicate to Sigebert, thrult their daggers into his body, in
the midft of his army. ‘This was in the year 575, after he
had reigned 14 years, leaving behind him the character of
the greateft and belt of the fas of Clotaire.

Sicesert, Sicenenrus, a monk of Gemblours, in the
diocefe of Namur, in Brabant, who palled in his time for
a man of wit, univerfal learning, and a good poet. In the
younger part of his life he embraced the monattic hate
in the abbey of Gemblours, under the abbot Olbertus, who
died in 1048. Daring his noviciate he was invited to,
Metz, where he fludied in the {chool of the monattery of
St. Vincent, and acquired great confideration by his learn-
ing, in which he was {uperior to moft of the other writers
who flourifhed at the fame period. He was acquainted
with the Greek and Hebrew languages, and in confequence
of the progrefs he had made in the latter, was much eiteemed
by the Jews at Metz, where he refided a confiderable time,
and from which he was with difficulty fuffered to depart,
in order to return to his former monallery. His celebrity
accompanied him thither: he gained many fcholars, who
did honour to their inftru€tor; and he was chofen by the
clergy of Liege to manage their defence in a controverfly
which they had with the pope, and which he conducted
with great talent and moderation. He took fides in the

uarrel of Gregory VII., Urban IL., and Pafeal I1., with
the emperor Henry IV.; and he wrote againtt thefe pontiffs
without the leaft ceremony. Sigebert is author of aChronicle,
the beft edition of which was publifhed at Antwerp in 1608,
in gto. It is carelefsly written, and in a vulgar ftyle; but
contains curious and well authenticated faéts. And in en-
deavouring to afcertain to whom the fyitem of folmifation
by the hexacherds belongs, Sigebert in his Chronicle, under
the year 1028, as well as in his account of ecclefiaftical
writers, fays, that ‘he had excelled all his predeceffors ; as
by Ais method children were taught to fing new melodies,
with more facility than by the voice of the matter, or the ufe
of an inftrument : for by only affixing fix letters, or fylla-
bles, to fix founds, all that mufic admits of, regularly, and
ditinguifhing thefe founds by the joints of the fingers of the
left hand, their diftances afcending and defcending through
the whole diapafon, are clearly prefented both to the eye
and the ear.””

Now as Sigebert was nearly contemporary with Guido,
his teltimony in favour of the difcoveries attributed to him
have more weight than any proofs that can be adduced from
fuch of his own writings as are generally known, The
Chronicle of Sigebert a at 181, om is continued to
1112; he died the year after.

But what entitles Sigebert to an article in our depart~
ment, befides his bearing teftimony to the inventions of
Guido, and his mufical records in {feveral other articles of
his Chronicle, is the information which he himfelf gives us
in his life, that he had fet to mufic the anthems and refponfea
of St. Guibert ; that is, had compoled all that a

; ary

SIG
fary to form an entire office to his honour. And this in-
formation is copied by Fabricius, De Script. Ecclef. Arte
Mufica Antiphonas et refponforia de faniis.

SIGENBURG, in Geography. See SrncenBuRG.

SIGENSUS Portus, in Ancient Geography, a port of
Africa, on the coatt of Mauritania Cefarienfis, between Siga
and Camarata, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

SIGER, in Geography, a river of Silefia, which runs into
the Oder, fix miles below Beuthen.

SIGESBECKIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linneus
himfelf, in memory of his antagonift Dr. John George Siegef-
beck, fuperintendant of the phyfic-garden at Peterfburgh,
who raifed various objections again{ft the fexes of plants
and the Linnzan fyftem, and who has had the honour of
being anfwered by Stillingfleet amongit others.—Linn.
Gen. 436. Schreb. 571. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.2219. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 119. Purfh v. 2.
561. Jufl.187. Lamarck [lluftr.t.687. Gertn. t. 168.
—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-/uperflua. Nat.Ord.
Compofite oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymlbifere, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Outer Common Calyx of tive linear, cylindrical,
widely fpreading, permanent leaves, longer than the flower :
inner {omewhat five-angled, of feveral ovate, concave, obtufe,
equal leaves. Cor. compound, with a half radius. J’/orets
of the difk united, feveral, funnel-fhaped, exceeding the
calyx in lenpth, with either five or three teeth ; of the radius
five, or not fo many, all on one fide of the flower, female,
ligulate, broad, fhort, three-cleft. Svam. in the united flo-
rets, Filaments five or three, very fhort ; anthers combined
in acylindrical tube. Pi/?. in the united florets, Germen
oblong, incurved, the fize of the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped,
the length of the ftamens ; ftigma divided: in the females,
Germen oblong, incurved, the fize of the calyx; ftyle and
ftigma as in the united florets. Peric. none, the calyx re-
maining unchanged. Seeds in the united florets folitary,
oblong, bluntly quadrangular, thickened upwards, obtufe,
naked ; down none; in the female ones the fame. Recept.
chaffy ; fcales very like the fcales of the calyx, concave,
embracing the feeds at one fide, deciduous.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down none. Outer
common calyx of five leaves; inner fpreading. Radius all
on one fide.

Obf. S. flofculofa of L’ Heritier offers a fingular excep-
tion in this great natural clafs, with regard to number,
having the florets of the difk three-cleft, and triandrous.

1. S. orientalis. Oriental Sigefbeckia. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1269. Willd.n. 1. Ait.n.1. (Sigefbeckia; Linn. Hort.
Cliff. 412. t. 23. §. triangularis; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 27.
t. 253. Cichoreo affinis, Lampfana finica, mentaftri foliis,
calyce fimbriato hifpido, finice hi-him-tfaw dicta; Pluk.
Amalth. 58. t. 380. f. 2.) —Leaves ftalked, ovate, unequally
toothed ; fomewhat angular at the bafe. Outer calyx twice
as long as the inner.—Native of China and the Eaft Indies ;
alfo, according to Cavanilles, of Mexico. Thouin informed
the younger Linnzus that he had it from the Cape of Good
Hope, and the ftraits of Magellan. The plant has been
known for near a century in the gardens of Holland and
England, and is a tender annual, flowering in July and
Auguft, but with much more fingularity than beauty to re-
commend it. The /fem is bufhy, leafy, round, rough, three
or four feet high. Leaves oppofite, rough, two or three
inches long, fomewhat dilated and triangular at the bafe,
tapering down into each footftalk; the uppermoft much
{maller and more oblong. Flowers numerous, terminal,
ftalked, brownifh-yellow, chiefly conf{picuous for the fpread-
ing outer leaves of their glandular vifcid calyw, each three-

15

SIG

quarters of an inchlong. We cannot agree with Willdenow
in difcarding Plukenet’s fynonym, which furely agrees better
with this than with the following.

2. 8. iberica. Georgian Sigefbeckia, Willd. n. 2. (Bi-
denti fimilis, foliis latiffimis ferratis; Buxb, Cent. 30 20);
t. 52.)—Leaves italked, ovate, bluntly toothed; rounded
at the bafe. Outer calyx the length of the inner.—Obferved
by Buxbaum about villages in Media, flowering in July.
Willdenow, who had feen a dried f{pecimen, afferts this to
be a very diftin& fpecies from the former, to which Lin-
nus referred Buxbaum’s fynonym. The /eaves, it feems,
are neither triangular, nor cut at the bafe, but fhortly
and bluntly toothed. The outer and inner calyces, being
both of an equal length, feem to us a more certain dif-
tin¢tion.

3. S. flofeulofa. Small-flowered Sigefbeckia. L’Herit.
Stirp. 37. t. 19. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Purfh n. 1.
Ehrh, Exficc. n. 79.—Leaves nearly feflile, ovate, toothed.
Florets of the difk three-cleft, triandrous.—Native of Peru,
from whence we believe its feeds were brought or fent by
the unfortunate Dombey. This has the habit of the firft
{pecies, but the /lem is {moother. The /eaves, though taper-
ing at their bafe, are fcarcely talked, nor are they at all
dilated, or angular. The greateft peculiarity is found, as
we have already faid, in the fowers, which are {mailer and
paler than thofe of S. orientalis, ufually, though we believe
not always, deftitute of a radius, but fingularly remarkable
for the florets of the diflk having only three teeth and three
ftamens.

For S. occidentalis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1269, fee PHartHusa
and VERBESINA. ,

SIGET, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the fron-
tiers of Poland, near the fource of the Theyfle; 50 miles
E. of Munkacz. See alfo Zicrr.

SIGEUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and port of Afia
Minor, in the Troade, at the diftance of 60 ftadia from the
town of Rheeteum, and too ftadia from Tenedos. Strabo
reports that this town was ruined in his time. The Myli-
tenians built it; but foon after the Athenians expelled them,
which occafioned a long war between thefe two people; but
at length, according to Herodotus (I. v.), having fubmitted
it to the arbitration of Periander, the fon of Cypfiele, this
prince adjudged it to the Athenians, in the year 564 B.C.
or, according to the computation of Ufher, in the year
589. The Athenians kept pofleffion of it till the time of
Alexander. Under his fucceflors it was deftroyed by neigh-
bouring people. Pliny {peaks of it as of a town which had
long ago fubfifted: “ quondam Sigeum oppido.”” Sigeum
was re-eftablifhed under the Chriftian emperors, and erected
into a bifhopric dependent upon Cyzicus. A miferable vil-
lage, which has been built upon its ruins, and which prefents
a few vettiges of the ancient town, is called by the Turks
“ Yenitcher-Keui,”’ or village of the janizaries, and “ Diagur-
Keui,”’ or village of the infidels, as it is no longer occupied
except by Greeks. The curious go thither to admire a
block of marble, eight or nine feet long, placed by the fide
of the door of a church: it bears a Greek infcription, al-
moft entirely effaced, the words of which follow one another
without interruption, 7. e. that the firft runs, as among us,
from left to right, and the fecond runs back from right to
left, and fo on to the end. (See BoustropuHEpon.) On the
other fide of the door is feen a bas relief in marble, tolerably
well wrought : it reprefents a woman feated, to whom other
women appear to offer children in fwaddling clothes : behind
thefe is feen another woman, holding a box in one hand and
a vafe in the other.

Sigrum

SLG

‘Sroewum Prementorivm, a promontory of the Troade, It
is near to and north of the mouth of the river called Sea-
mander, Strabo calls it the port of the Achwans, becaufe
the Greeks landed there in gomg to the ss Troy. In

the vicinity was a large lake, which was thought to com-
municate with the fea. ‘This promontory is iow called
Yeni-Hifan.

SIGG, or Sixxe, in Greg » a river of Algiers,
which, united with the Habrah, forms the Muckda, or, as
it is firlt called, Makerra.

SIGGU, a town of Japan, in the illand of Niphon; 65
miles N.E. of Meaco.

_ SIGHING, an effort of nature, by which the lungs are
put into greater motion, and more dilated, fo that the blood
pafles more freely, and in greater quantity, to the left au-
ricle, and thence to the ventricle. Hence we learn, fays
Dr. Hales, how fighing increafes the force of the blood,
and confequently proportionably chears and relieves nature,
when by its too flow motion, which is the cafe
who are dej and fad. Hales’s Statiitical Eff.
See Lunas.

» the exercife, or aét of the fenfe of feeing. See

the nobleft and moft ufeful of all our fenfes,
father fhews, deceives us in abundance of in-
ftances ; nay, almoit in all: poemeneeh mpeinyae

!

with regard to it; and we cannot di-
vide it, without annihilating it. In effe@, our fight does
not

1
i
5

own eyes are
natural fpeétacles; that their humours do
as the lens in {peétacles ; and that, accord-

the cryitalline, and its diftance from

{

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4

it
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who, after the cure of a confirmed pox, faw every object
time. AG. Leipf. 1690

common, and a very juit ‘oblervation, that

SLG

children do not fee any thing clearly when new-bore ; and
if their eyes be then » they are found to want that
brillianey which they afterwards acquire; and finally, whea
any object is prefented to their view, they at firft turn their
eyes about in fuch a manner, that it is evident they either do
not fee at all, or at bell but very imperfectly and obfeurely.

This imperfection may either be owing to a fault in fome
one of the humours, or in their capfules; or, finally, in the
retina, or complexly in them all together, It 1s umpoflible
to difeover whether there be any imperfeétion in the retina
in this flate of life, that membrane being ever, tn new-born
infants, tender and foft like a jelly: if m be in any of the
other parts that the imperfection lies, it muft be cither in
their nature or extent. M. Petit, of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, determining to enquire thoroughly into
the caufe of this, was at the pains of difleétin eyes of
feveral infants which had died foon after their Lirth, and in
three-fourths of them he found the vitreous, the ine,
and the capfule, all ly deficient in their tranfparenc>.
The uvea appeared alfo more opaque thao in adults, and the
pupil overt ; and that there was either none, or, at the
utmott, very Bittle of the aqueous humour; and in thofe
eyes where the humours had not this opacity, they were all,
as were alfo the membranes, of a reddifh colour; and this
was obferved in feetules of feven and nine months old.

The cornea in thefe eyes was alfo remarkably thick,
which is, in general, found to be the cafe in the eyes of all
feetufes. The thicknefs and opacity in thefe corner gra-

y dually diminifh in time, and that foon ; fo that the eyes of

children appear much brighter at two or three months old
than when new-born. The aqueous humour feems alfe, in
moit foetufes, to be wholly wanting ; and where it is found,
is ever greatly in an under pair to the other humours.
It therefore appears, that the dimnefs and imperfection of
fight, in new-born infants, are owing to the over-thicknefs of
the cornea, and to the too {mall portion of the aqueous or

watery humour. It appears plainly alfo, from ex
that eye is not able, in infants, to bear the light, till the
pupil is greatly contraéted ; as is the cafe alfo, though in

a lefs degree, in adults; and it is very probable, that the
extreme foftnefs of the retina in this flate may make every
ray of light affect it much more plainly than when grown
more firm.

M. Petit having continued his examinations of the eyes
of infants, up to the age of five or fix weeks, found in all
his diffeGtions, that the cornea daily grew more and more
convex and glofly; and this may be rationally concluded to
be owing to the daily increafe of the aqueous humour, which
muft, by that accretion, throw it out into a greater con-
vexity, and make it daily more and more thin and tranfparent.
The uvea alfo acquires a greater extenfion, and its fibres
become more moveable ; whence the pupil acquires a power
of enlarging or contracting itfelf, at the approach or ab-
fence of light, with much more eafe and readinefs than it
could before. The humours thus all become capable of
letting in a larger quantity of light; the retina is at the
fame time every day gaining a new firmnefs, and the pupil
becomes capable of an eafy dilatation, or reftri€tion, for
letting in occafionally a greater or lefs number of rays, and
the refaions are perftied hy the augmestation of the

ueous humour. It is plain, therefore, that the clearnefs

vilion muit every day increafe. All this change comes

on in infants only by time ; and it may be judged of, as to
its ftate, by infpeétion, by the brilliancy and convexity of
the cornea, and by the manner of their turning their eyes
towards obje@s fet been tbans and this time is not cer-
4 tain,

SiG

tain, or limited, but differs greatly in different children,
fome being able to fee clearly at the end of a month, others
not till after many months.

At the time that this gentleman was diffeGting the eyes
of human feetufes and infants, he alfo curioufly obferved
the eyes of young quadrupeds. The puppy, when newly
brought forth, has always its eyes opaque; the kitten, on
the contrary, has them clear, and every way like thofe of
adults of the fame fpecies. In feetufes of other quadru-
peds, the lamb has its cornea a little turbid and opaque ;
the calf and the pig have them more or lefs opaque, but the
calf fo moft of all. Mem. de l’Acad. Par. 1727.

Sieur, Defects of. See Cataract; Gurra Serena;

Leucoma; OputHaLtmy; Preryerum; Tricurasis; Eye, /2

Cancer and Extirpation of ; Ep1pHoRA; Fistuta Lachryma-
iis ; StaApHYLOMA; Hyporium; Funcus Hematodes; &c.
Sicut, Short. See Myors and SHORT-sSIGHTEDNESS.

Sieut, Second. See Seconp Sight.

Sicut, Point of. See Porn of View.

Sieut, Line of. See CoLtimmaTIon.

Sicut. Singing or playing ai fight, in Mu/ic, is the being
prepared by long pra¢tice and experience for every difficulty,
not only of execution, but ftyles and expreffion: as a per-
fon allowed to read well in a book which he has never feen,
muft not only pronounce the words corre€tly and diftin@ly,
but obferve the punétuation, and enter into the author’s de-
fign. We do not always give credit to reports of dilletants,
or even every profeflor, performing @ vifla, or, as the French
call it, a ivre ouvert, all kinds of compofition without ftudy
or practice. See GRETRY.

SIGHTS, in Mathematics, denote two thin pieces of brafs,
raifed perpendicularly on the two extremes of an alidade or
index of a theodolite, circumferentor, or other like inftru-
ment ; each of which has an aperture or flit up the middle,
through which the vifual rays pafs to the eye, and diftant
objects are feen. Their ufe is, for the juft dire€tion of the
index to the line of the abject.

Sometimes the flits or apertures have glafles or lenfes
fitted into them; in which cafe, they are called tele/copic
fights, by way of diftin@ion from the former; which, in
re{pe& of the others, are denominated plain fights.

Mr. Flamfteed and Dr. Hooke abfolutely exploded. the
ufe of plain fights in aftronomical obfervations. The errors
in Tycho’s latitudes of the ftars Mr. Flamfteed afcribes
wholly to his ufing plain fights; and fufpeéts, that Heve-
lius, ufing the fame kind of fights, muft fall into the like
errors. Hevelius, on the contrary, in a paper in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaétions, vindicates the ufe of plain fights, and
prefers them to telefcopic ones : the main cbjeétion he makes
to the latter is, that no obfervation can be fafely taken with
them, without firft examining and reétifying them ; in which
examination, many and grof{s miftakes are likely to be com-
mitted. To which he adds, that in fextants, oftants, azi-
muth quadrants, &c. he does not fee how fuch examination
can be made, at all times, without much lofs of time.

SIGILLARIA, a folemn feaft held among the ancient
Romans; thus called from a cuftom which obtained therein,
of fending little prefents from one to another, confitting of
feals, little figures, and fculptures, made of gold, filver,
brafs, or even earthenware, and of devoting them to Saturn,
as an atonement for themfelves and their friends.

The Sigillaria followed immediately after the Saturnalia,
and held two days; which, with the five days of the Satur-
nalia, made a folemnity of feven days.

Some derive the origin of figils and figures, in this folem-
rity, from the argei, or rufhen figures of men, thrown an-

SIG

nually into the Tiber, from the Pons Sublicius, by the
Veitals, on the ides of March. Vide Macrob. Saturn. lib. i,
cap. 7. 10.and11. Seealfo ArGEA.

SIGILLATA Terra, a name given to feveral kinds
of medicinal earths marked with feals, to exprefs their being
genuine. The principal is the Lemnian earth: this is a kind
of earth, or bole, dug in the ifle of Lemnos, and then alfo
called Lemnian earth ; of confiderable ufe in medicine.

It was anciently found in a mountain, in the neighbour-
hood of the city Hephzltia, where Diana’s priefts went, at
certain times, with great ceremony, to dig it up. After a
little preparation, they made it up into troches, and fealed
a with Diana’s feal ; whence the appellation of /gillata,
ealed.

SIGILLO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Umbria;
12 miles N. of Nocera.

SIGILLUM, a feal, or fignet.

Siqittum Maria, Lady’s Seal, in Botany, a name by which
fome authors have called the dryonia nigra, or black bryony,
a climbing plant, common in hedges.

SIGILMESSA, in Geography. See SucuLmrssa.

SIGINDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper
Meelia, on the banks of the Danube, according to Ptolemy.
The Itinerary of Antonine marks it on the route from Rimini
to Byzantium, between Taurunum and the mount of Gold.

SIGINNI, a people of Afia, who, according to Strabo,
had the fame manners with the Perfians.

SIGISA, atown of Hifpania, upon the Tader, N.W.
of Vergilia.

SIGISMONDO, in Biography. See Inpta.

SIGISMUND, emperor of Germany, and king of Hun- ©
gary and Bohemia, was the fon of the emperor Charles IV.
of the houfe of Luxemburg. He was born in the year
1366, and at an early age was fent to the court of Lewis,
king of Hungary, to one of whofe daughters he was be-
trothed, with the intention of making him fucceffor to the
throne. During his minority, a party of nobles conferred the
crown on Charles, king of Naples, on which event Sigif-
mund retired to Bohemia. Charles being aflaflinated by the
contrivance of the queen-mother, who was put to death for
the crime, Sigifmund aflembled an army, and entering Hun-
gary, liberated his wife Mary, who had been imprifoned,
and was crowned king when he was in the twentieth year
of his age. He feverely revenged the execution of his
mother-in-law ;_ and getting pofleflion of the perfons of the
nobles who had invited Charles, he caufed them all to be
beheaded, to the number of thirty-two. The bloody a&
occafioned fo much difaffeGtion, that the Turkifh em-
peror Bajazet determined upon taking the opportunity of
invading Hungary, which he did with complete fuccefs ;
and Sigifmund was dethroned. He however efcaped, and
retiring to Bohemia, levied troops, with which he recovered
his crown, and being brought to reafon by adverfity, he
thenceforth conduéted himfelf fo as to obtain the good~-
will of his people ; and fuch was the reputation which he
now acquired abroad, that he was elected emperor of
Germany.

The firft obje& of Sigifmund in'his new dignity, was to
put an end to various diforders and diflentions which pre-
vailed in Germany. He held a conference with pope
John XXIII. for the convoking of a council, the principal
obje& of which was the termination of the fchifm in the
papacy which had long divided the church. He engaged with
great zeal in this matter, and at length effe&ted the aflem-
bling of a council at Conftance, in 1414, at which he himfelf
affifted. As the oppofition of the Huflites to the Ae

10 , 8

i

i

SIG

was now making great progrefs, the emperor
granted a (afe-condud to John Huls to come te the council,

i

i difgrace, that he fuffered the council to violate the
ion he had folemoly given, and to bring this re-
the flake. He now endeavoured to re-cflablith

among the Chriftian princes, that they might concur

for reftoring the a of the church; with this
vifited both France

» but with little fuceefs,

England, then at war with
The council, however,
depofing the exifting popes, and electing a new
pon the cath of his brother Wenceflaus, 4 1419
fuceceded
was

bea

ei

U
ifmund to the crown of Bohemia, which
in a flame, from the revolt of the perfecuted
under their leader the famous Zifka. He marched
with an army into Bohemia, but was entirely defeated by
Zitka, and ee fame fortune attended him a fecond time.
death of that hero, a long ferics of bloody wars
which at lait terminated in the fubmiflion of the
» as the infurgents were afterwards called, and Si-
was crowned at in the year 1436, and
whole kingdom to ience. He had fome years
plaieeciesh bin. thapcani-l-peings
. His bi a ; om
is Bohemian fubjects, which excited their anumofity
that he determined to leave the country,

FH

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:

s

a
i

gerge
He F

is age, and the 27th of his imperial
bay toa had a fine perfon, and
i efpecially an un-
He was, moreover, a
i brave, and aétive; but,
cruel, vindictive, and fu i

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is of ;
order, who had refufed to acknow-
of the king of Poland over the pro-

of Praffia : in this difpute he was alfo fuccefsful, and
the marquis to grant him half the province of Pruffia,
Teutonic knights. Sigifmund now
fovereign of Poland, Lithuania, the
and Severia, and confiderable terri-
and Baltic, while his nephew Lewis
Bohemia. This accumulation of

to the houfe of Auttria; which, by

ited the Walachians, Tartars, and Mufco-
new inroads. Thefe, however, were foon driven
great lofs to their own countries, and Sigifmynd
in peace.” He died, after a wife, fortunate, and

Hi
an

Teutonic

i
F

if

i

the Euxine

i

SIG

long reign, in the eighty-fourth year of his reiga, and im the
year 1548,

Siciamuxn IL, named Auguttus, king of Poland, fon of
the preceding, was eleéted to the crown before his father’s
Fen He offended the nobles by marrying the widow of
an obfeure perfon; and it is allerted, that, m order to re-
cover their favour, he permitted them to fend thew fons for
education to the Proteitant univerfities of Germany, which
was the means of introducing their opinions into Poland.
He himfelf remained attached to the old religion, and by
his prudent and moderate condu@ kept ovt of the king-
dom thofe diforders which diflurbed the peace of fo many
other European countries. He was extremely diligent im
promoting the improvement of his fates by wife laws and
regulations, and the corre&tion of abules, which enabled
him to maintain a powerful flanding army without the ad-
dition of new taxes. This force he had oceafion to emplo:
as an anxiliary to his kinfman the archbifhop of Riga, again
an invafion of the Ruflians. He made Pimnfelf of

reat part of Livonia, and forced the grand-mafter of the
Teutonic order, who had called in the Ruffians, to renounce
their alliance, and put the order ander the protection of Po-
land, From this period Livonia was annexed to Poland, and
the fter abdicating his dignity, reecived in come
fation the duchies of Courland and Semigallia, which
ng remained in his family. The tzar, Joho Bafilowitz,
made an irruption into Lithuania, which occafioned much
bloodthed devaitation, and Sigifmund was glad to pro-
pole an armiftice ; and while this meafure was in difcuflion,
the king of Poland died in 1572, leaving only two daugh-
ters, an with him terminated the male line of the houfe of
Jagellon. He left a high charaéter for courage, ability, and
every princely quality, But he is faid to wa, i dae
attached to de fair A

Sicismunp II]. king of Poland, furnamed De Va/a, was
the fon of John III. king of Sweden, and Catharine, daugh-
ter of Sigifmund I. king of Poland. He was born in 1566,
and in 1587 was eleéted to the crown of Poland, in com
tition with Maximilian of Auftria. Through the exertions
of Zamofki, the crown-general, after a civil war, in which
Maximilian was defeated and taken prifoner, Sigifmund
was firmly feated on the throne. He governed fuccefefully
with the affiflance of Zamoski, till the death of his father, in
1592, left him heir to the crown of Sweden. As he was
a zealous Catholic, and the Swedes were friendly to the
Reformation, they felt difinclined to come under his autho-
rity ; befides that, the duties of a king of Sweden, and of a
king of Poland, feemed to be quite incompatible. His uncle,
duke Charles, who had been declared regent during Sigif-
mund’s abfence, inflamed thofe difcontents. Sigifmund
having obtained permiflion from the Polifh diet to vifit his
aieaiemien. arrived in Sweden in 1593, accompanied by
the iba nuncio, and his proceedings foon proved how
ruse reftoration of the Catholic religion was the objeé
of his wifhes. Violent diflentions arofe between him and the

and in 1595 he returned to Poland, leaving Sweden
in the greateit diforder. In 1598, Sigifmund again entered
Sweden at the head of a foreign army, and a civil war en.
fued, which terminated in a pacification, and the king re-
turned to Poland. Peace did not laft long, and in 1604 the
Swedes formally depofed him, and raifed his uncle Charles
to the throne. War fucceeded between Poland and Swe-
den, which ended in the conqueft of Livonia by the Polith

general.

Ruffia, at this time, being thrown into confufion by a re-
velution, Sigifmund took part in its diforders, and entering
that country, in 1610, at 4 head of a numerous army,

4R2

S1G

gained in the outfet fuch advantages, that he was enabled to
place his fon Uladiflaus on the throne. He was, however,
foon after dethroned, and all the conquetts made by Sigif-
mund were recovered by the Ruflians. During the remain-
der of his reign, the Poles were involved in wars with the
Turks, and afterwards with the Swedes under Guitavus
Adolphus. To the latter they were obliged to cede Livo-
nia, Finland, and Pruffia; and the concluding years of Si-
gifmund were clouded with difafters. He fell into a ftate
of melancholy and difeafe, by which he was carried off, in the
year 1669. His character has been thus drawn in very few
words ; ‘¢ With fome talents for government, his religious
bigotry, and obftinacy of temper, precipitated him into errors
which coit him one crown, and rendered the other a fource
of perpetual difquiet.””

SIGIUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, on the
coait of Aufonia, according to Appian.

Sieius Mons, or Setius, according to Ptolemy, a moun-
tain of Gallia Narbonnenfis, on the coaft of the Mediter-
ranean fea. Strabo.

SIGMA, among the Romans, the fame with the flibadium.

SIGMARINGEN, in Geography, a town and county
of Germany, invefted in the houfe of Hohenzollern, on the
Danube ; 44 miles E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. ASea2s onkis
long. 9° 16.

IGMOID, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various
parts of the body, from their figure being fimilar to that of
the Greek letter c. Thus, we have the figmoid cavities of
the ulna (fee Exrremities) ; figmoid flexure of the colon
(fee Intestine) ; and figmoid valves of the aorta and pul-
monary artery. See Hearr.

SIGN, Srenum, a fenfible mark, or character, denoting
fomething abfent or invifible.

Anciently the monks, in all religious houfes, were not al-
lowed to fpeak, nor to exprefs their minds, otherwife than
by figns, which they learned in their noviciate. C. Rhodi-
ginus and Porta have written of the ancient figns and cyphers
ufed in {peaking and writing.

Sren, in Algebra, denotes a fymbol, or chara&er.

Siens, like, negative, and radical. See the adjectives.

Sten, in Medicine, any appearance in a difeafe which is
cognizable by the fenfes, and from which fome judgment
may be formed refpe@ting the nature of the difeafe, and its
probable termination. It is now more commonly called a
Symptom ; which fee.

Sign, Antecedent. See ANTECEDENT.

SIGN, in Afironomy, a twelfth part of the ecliptic, or
zodiac ; or a portion, containing thirty degrees of it.

The zodiac was divided, by the ancients, into twelve feg-
ments, called figns ; commencing from the point of interfec-
tion of the ecliptic and equinoétial ; which figns they deno-
minated from the twelve conftellations, which, in Hippar-
chus’s time, pefleffed thofe fegments. But the conttella-
tions have fince fo changed their places, by the preceffion of
the equinox, that Aries is now got out of the fign called
Aries, into Taurus, Taurus into Gemini, &c.

The names of the twelve figns, and their order, are as
follow: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Vi irgo, Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pifces; each of
which, with the ftars thereof, fee under its proper article,
Artes, Taurus, &c.

The figns are diftinguifhed, with regard to the feafon of
the year when the fun is in them, into vernal, aftival, autum-
nal, and brumal.

Siens, the vernal, or Jpring, are, Aries, Taurus, Gemini.

Sens, the affival, or Jummer, are, Cancer, Leo, and

Virgo.

SIG

Siens, the autumnal, are, Libra,
tarius.

Signs, the brumal, or winter, are,
and Pifces.

i The vernal and fummer figns are alfo called northern
igns.

And the autumnal and brumal figns, fouthern figns.

Stens, Afcending. See Ascenpinc. :

Siens, Fixed. See Fixep.

Stes, Mafculine. See Mascutine.

Sian Manual, the {etting one’s hand and feal to a writing.
See SIGNATURE.

The expreffion is ufed when any bill or writing is figned
under the hand of the king, &c. Counterfeiting the fign
manual, privy fignet, or privy feal, is treafon, Mar,
flat. 2. cap. 6. See Patents.

Among the Saxons, before the invention of feals, a +
was a common fign, or Signum, prefixed to the names of moit
fubferibing witnefles in charters, and other deeds : as +
Signum Roberti Epifcop. Lond. &c. See SEAt.

Siew of Reference, in Music, figna repetitionis. See Sucno.

Stens of Difeufe in '‘Horfes, the appearances which fhew
them to be out of order. ‘The firft fign of a horfe’s indif-
pofition is, his loathing his food, efpecially when he has a
wild and haggard look ; as the eye of a horfe is, as it were,
a glafs, through which may be difcerned the inward difpofi-
tion of his body : it fhould alfo be obferved whether his ears
be cold, his mouth hot or clammy, the hair of his flanks
rough and {taring, and paler than ufual about the ends ;
his dung hard, black, or greenith, and his urine clear like
water. In this cafe his eyes are alfo fubjeé to weep 3
his head is heavy and hanging down ; heis apt to ftumble as
he walks ; he is flow and dull, though he was vigorous be-
fore ; he never minds other horfes ; contrary to his former
cuftom, he rifes and lies down often in the ftable, lookin
towards his flanks, which are doubled and folded in; his
heart beats quick ; and he is alfo indifferent and unconcerned
at what is done to him. Thefe and many-other figns are
met with in horfes which are not in a ftate of perfec health,
and fhould be immediately attended to ; and fuitable remedies
be applied. This is of much confequence to be taken care of
in team and other work horfes belonging to farms, &c.

SIGNA, Sranparps, among the Romans, were of dif-
ferent forts ; on fome of them the image of the emperor was
reprefented, and they that carried them were called imagi-
niferi ; others had a hand ftretched out, as a fymbol of con-
cord; and thefe enfign-bearers were called Sgniferi ; fome
had a filver eagle, the bearers of which were called aguiliferi ;
others had a dragon with a filver head, and the reit of his
body of taffety, which was blown by the wind as if it
had been a real dragon, and the bearers of this enfign were
called draconarii; Iaftly, the emperor’s enfign was called
abarum, and thofe that carried it labariferi, which they car-
ried out when he went in perfon to the field ; it was of a
purple colour, befet with gold fringe, and adorned with pre-
cious ftones. ;

All thefe enfigns were fuftained with a half-pike, fharp
at ae end, that it might be the more eafily fixed in the

round.

SIGNAL, a certain fign agreed upon for the conveying
of intelligence to places to which the voice cannot reach.

Signals are given for the beginning of a battle, or an
attack ; ufually with drums and trumpets: at fea, they are
given by cannon or mufket-fhot, by lights, fails, flags, &c.

All fignals may be reduced into three different kinds 3 ViZ~
thofe which are made by the found of particular inftruments,
as the trumpet, horn, or fife; to which may be added,

: ftriking

Scorpio, and Sagit.

Capricornus, Aquarius,

i

;

SIGNALS.

the bell, or beating the drum; thofe which are
difplaying pendants, enfigns, and flags, of dif-
i by lowering or altering the pofition of
and thofe which are executed by rockets of dif-
; by firing cannon or fmall arms; by artificial
hea lanthorns, See TeceGrarn.
drum, made ufe of in military exercife,
word of command, are as follow: a thort
ution ; a fam, to perform any diltinét ope-
to form the line or battalion ; the march,
except when intended for a falute ; the quick
to advance quick; the point of war, to march and
3 the retreat, to retreat ; drum ceafing, to halt ; two
to perform the flank-firing ; the march,
battalion ; the grenadier march, to form the co-
troop, to double divifions; the long roll, to form
; the grenadier march, to reduce the fquare to the
the » to make ready and fire; the gene-
ceafe ; two long rolls, to bring or lodge the

Signals have been in ufe in all : the ancients, who had
couriers, or pots, ufe of them to ney
of what ata poe ore =

placed fentinels on the eminences, from {pace

wee mention of which we find made by Homer
Iliad ©. v. 553, &e. Odyff. 3. ¥. 261. ‘Thofe peo-
thus hi fires, or elon an in the
the Agamemnon of Aifchylus, that prince,

bythe promifes Clytemneitra, that, the

i be taken, he would apprize her of

lighted exprefs. = aoe his —_

t the princefs, that Troy is taken
3 fi feen ;
obferves

are feen.
in ufe among the Arabs ;

Vulcanius, in his {cholia on Ariftotle’s

Mundo, adds, that, while the Moors were matters
Spain, they built on the tops of
of aves - (ae called,
in the Arabic, »a the Spaniards {till retain ;
whence, by Geer could immediately alarm the whole
Indeed the cuftom was much more ancient than

tf

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S

i

i

pris
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&

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Fg
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POPE Ut
he
F

as ufed among the Romans.

Polydore Virgil thews it of “eed poe England ;
Boethius adds, feveral England,
cna mor poles ieee Sevcohilee

by the admiral, or com-
fhips, either in the day,
for fighting, or for

ips under their convoy.

Thefe are very mumerous, and important ; being

all i and determined by order of the lord high ad-

. and lords of the admiralty, and communicated in the
to the

commander of fhip of the fleet,
lepek 20) ea W8aa bye

i

or to ip of thofe
oe goes om
ties hips of
Mhips in each fquadtop, and for only nine fhips in the whole

z

ficet. For, the general fignal of the fleet being thewn, if s
particular pendant be alfo thrown out from tome remarkable
place on the fame maft with the genera! figeal, it will commu-
nicate intelligence to nine thips that wear the (ame pendant.

‘The preparatory fignal given by the admiral to the whole,
or any part of his fleet, is immediately anfwered by thofe to
whom it is dire¢ied ; by thewing the fame fignal, to teflify
that they are ready to execute his orders. Having obferved
their aafwers, he will thew the fignal which is to dire@ their
Operations: as, to chafe, to form the line, to begin the en-
gagement, to board, to double upow the enemy, to rally or
return to action, to difeontinue the fight, to retreat and fave
themfelves. ‘The dexterity of working the fhips in a feet
depends on the precife moment of executing thefe orders, and
on the general harmony of their movements ; a circumftance
which evinces the utility of a figoal of p ation.

As the extent of the line of battle, and the fire and {moke
of the aétion, or other circumftances in navigation, will
often prevent the admiral’s Giznals from being feen through-
out the fleet, they are always repeated by the officers next
in command; by hips appointed to repeat fignals; and,
finally, by the fhip or thips for which they are intended,
The thips that repeat the fignal, befides the chiefs of
{quadrons or divifions, are ufuall frigates lying to wind-
ward or leeward of the line. Thee fhould be extremely vi-
gilant to obferve and repeat the fignals, whether they are
to tranfmit the orders of the commanders-in-chief, or his
feconds, to any part of the fleet ; or to report the fortunate
or diftrefsful fituation of any part thereof. By this means,
all the fhips from the van to the rear will, unlefs difabled, be
ready at a moment’s warning to put the admiral’s defign in
execution. To preferve order in the repetition of fi
and to favour their communication, without embarra ent,
from the commander-in-chief to the fhip for which they are
defi the commanders of the {quadrons repeat after the
admiral ; the chiefs of the divifions, according to their order
in the line, after the commanders of the {quadrons ; and the
particular thips, after the chiefs of the divifions; and thofe,
in return, er the particular fhips, vice verfa, when the
obje& is to convey any intelligence from the latter t the
admiral, Befides the fignals above-mentioned, there are
others for different ranks of officers ; as for captains, lieu-
tenants, matters, &c. or for any of thofe officers of a pecu-
liar thip. Falconer. F

Signal-flags are hoifted at the mizen-peek, &c. ; night-
goal are made with lauthorns, and are hoiited by the fame

i as the flags. Since November 1805, the red flag
at the main-maft has been the firit in rank after the union
fag. See Fac.

IGNALS by Day. When the commander-in-chief would
have them ven for failing, he firit loofes his fore-topfail,
and then the whole fleet is to do the fame. When he
would have them unmoor, he loofes his main-to fail, aud
fires a gun, which, in the royal navy, is to be an{wered by
every -fhip. When he would have them weigh, he
loofes his fore-topfail, and fires a gun, and fometimes hauls
home his theets; the gun is to be aniwered by every flag-
thip, and every thip is to to fail as foon as it can, If
with the leeward-fide, the iternmoit thip is to weigh firtt.
When he would have the weather-moit and head-moit thi
to tack firit, he hoitts the unioa-flag at the fore-topmait-
head, and fires a gun, which each flag-thip anfwers; but if
he would have the ftern-moft aud leeward-moit fhips to tack
he hoitls the union-flag at the mizeu-topmait-bead, and
a gun; and when he would have all the whole fleet
tack, he hoifts an union both on the fore and mizen-t
mait-heads, and fires a gun. Whea, in bad weather,

would

SIGNALS.

would have them wear, and bring to the other tack, he
hoifts a pendant on the enfign-ftaff, and fires a gun; and
then the leeward-moft and ftern-mott fhips are to wear firft,
and bring om the other tack, andlie by, or go on with an
eafy fail, till he comes a-head: every flag is to anfwer with
the fame fignal. If they are lying by, or failing by a wind,
and the admiral would have them bear up and fail before the
wind, he hoifts his enfign, and fires a gun, which the flags
are to anfwer; and then the leeward-mott fhips are to bear
up firft, and to give room for the weather-moft to wear,
and fail before the wind, with an eafy fail, till the admiral
comes a-head. But if it fhould happen, when the admiral
hath oceafion to wear and fail before the wind, that both
jack and enfign be abroad, he will haul down the jack, be-
fore he fires the gun to wear, and keep it down till the fleet
is before the wind. When they are failing before the wind,
and he would have them bring-to, with the ftarboard tacks
aboard, he hoifts a red flag at the flag-ttaff, on the mizen-
topmatt-head, and fires a gun. But if they are to bring-to,
with the larboard tack, he hoifts a blue flag at the fame
place, and fires a gun, and every fhip is to an{wer the gun.
When any fhip difcovers land, he is to hoift his jack and
enfign, and keep it abroad, till the admiral or commander-
in-chief anfwer him, by hoifting his; on fight of which, he
is to haul down his enfign. If any difcovers danger, he is
to tack and bear up from it, and to hang his jack abroad
from the main-topmatt crofs-trees, and to fire two guns;
but if he fhould {trike or ftick faft, then, befides the fame
fignal with his jack, he is to keep firing, till he fees all the
fleet obferve him, and endeavour to avoid the danger.
When any fees a fhip or fhips more than the fleet, he is to
put abroad his enfign, and there keep it, till the admiral’s
is out, and then to lower it, as often as he fees fhips, and
ftand in with them, that fo the admiral may know which
way they are, and how many ; but if he be at fuch a dif-
tance, that the enfign cannot well be difcovered, he is then
to lay his head toward the fhip or fhips fo defcried, and to
brail up his low fails, and continue hoifting and lowering
his topfails, and making a waft with his top-gallant fails,
till he is perceived by the admiral. When the admiral
would have the vice-admiral, or him that commands in the
fecond pott of the fleet, to fend out fhips to chafe, he hoifts
a flag, ftriped white and red on the flag-ftaff, at the fore-
topmatt-head, and firesa gun. But if he would have the
rear-admiral do fo, he then hoifts the fame fignal on the flag-
ftaff at the mizen-topmatt-head, and firesa gun. When the
admiral would have any {hip to chafe to windward, he makes
a fignal for {peaking with the captain, and he hoifts a red
flag in the mizen fhrouds, and fires a gun; but if to chafe
to leeward, a blue flag; and the fame fignal is made by the
flag, in whofe divifion that {hip is. When he would have them
give over chafe, he hoifts a white flag on his flag-ftaff at the
fore-topmatt-head, and fires a gun; which fignal is to be
made alfo by that flag-fhip which is neareft the fhip that
gives chafe, till the chafing fhip fees the fignal. In cafe
of {pringing a leak, or any other difafter, that difables their
fhip from keeping company, they are to haul up their
courfes, and fire two guns. When any fhip would {peak
with the admiral, he muft {pread an Englifh enfign, from
the head of his main or fore-topmaft, downwards on the
fhrouds, lowering his main or fore-topfail, and continue
firing guns, till the admiral obferve him; and if any flip
perceive this, and judgeth the admiral doth not, that fhip
muft make the fame fignal, and make the beft of his way to
acquaint the admiral therewith, who fhall anfwer by firing
one gun. When the admiral would have the fleet to pre-
pare to anchor, he hoiits an enfign, ftriped red, blue, and

white, on the enfign-ftaff, and fires a gun; and every flags
fhip makes the fame fignal. If he would have the fleet
moor, he hoifts his mizen-topfail, with the clew-lines hauled
up, and fires agun. If he would have the fleet cut or flip,
he loofes both his topfails, and fires two guns; and then the
leeward fhips are to cut or flip firft, to give room to the
weather-moft to come to fail. So if he would have any
particular fhip to cut or flip, and to chafe to windward, he
makes the fignal for {peaking with that fhip, hoifts a red
flag in the mizen-fhrouds, and fires a gun; but if a fhip is
to chafe to leeward, he hoifts a blue flag as before. If he
would have the fleet exercife their {mall arms, he hoifts a
red flag on the enfign-ftaff, and fires a gun ; but if the great

guns, then he puts up the pendant over the red flag.
Srenaxs by Night, to be obferved at an anchor, weighing
anchor, and failing, are as follow. When the admiral
would have the fleet to unmoor, and ride fhort, he hangs
out three lights, over one another in the main-topmatt-
fhrouds, oyer the conftant light in the main-top, and fires
two guns, which are to be anfwered by the flag-fhips; and
each private fhip hangs out a light in the mizen-fhrouds. _
Note, that all guns, fred for fignals in the night, muft be
fired on the fame fide, that they may make no alteration in
the found. When he would have them weigh, he hangs a
light in the main-topmaft-fhrouds, and fires a gun, which is
to be anfwered by all the flags; and every private fhip muit
hang out a light in his mizen-fhroud. When he would have
them tack, he hoifts two flags on the enfign-ftaff, over one
another, above the conftant light in his poop, and fires a
gun, which is to be anfwered by all the flags; and every
private fhip is to hang out a light extraordinary, which is ©
not to be taken in, till the admiral takes inhis. After the
fignal is made, the leeward-moft and ftern-moft fhips mutt
tack as fatt as they can; and the ftern-moft flag-fhip, after
he is about on the other tack, is to lead the fleet, and him
they are to follow, to avoid running through one another in
the dark. When he is upon a wind, and would have the
fleet veer, and bring-to on the other tack, he hoifts up one
light at the mizen-peck, and fires three guns; which 1s to
be anfwered by all the flag-fhips; and every private fhip
muft anfwer, with one light at the mizen-peek. The ftern-
moft and leeward-moft fhips are to bear up fo foon as the
fignal is made. When he would have them, in blowing
weather, to lie a-try, fhort, or a-hull, or with the head-
fails braced to the matt, he will form lights of equal height,
and fire five guns, which are to be anfwered by the flag-
fhips, and then every private fhip muft fhew four lights ;
and after this, if he would have them to make fail, he then
fires ten guns, which are to be anfwered by all the flags,
and then the head-moft and weather-moft fhips are to make
fail firft. When the fleet is failing large, or before the
wind, and the admiral would have them bring-to, and lie
by, with their ftarhoard tacks aboard, he puts out four
lights in the fore-fhrouds, and fires fix guns; but if with
the larboard tacks aboard, he fires eight guns, which are
to be anfwered by the flag-fhips; and every private fhip
muft fhew four lights. ‘The wind-moft fhips muft bring-to
firft. “Whenever the admiral alters his courfe, he fires one
gun, without altering his lights, which is to be anfwered
by allthe flag-fhips. If any fhip hath occafion to lie fhort,
or by, after the fleet hath made fail, he is to fire one gun,
and fhew three lights in his mizen-fhrouds. When any one
firft difcovers land, or danger, he is to fhew as many lights
as he can, to fire one gun, and to tack, or bear away from
it ; and if any one happen to {pring a leak, or any be dif-
abled from keeping company with the fleet, he hangs out
two lights of equal height, and fires guns till he is yee
My

fome of the . Ifany one difeovers a fleet, he is
hip } i Sens light out on the main-
Noe vite them, and to con-

the admiral call him off, by

another courfe, and fire

fleering two or three guns, for
then he mutt follow ¢ sates. Mi hex the agen
chors, he fires two a of time one from t
other, which are co ™ anf{wered byte = ap and every
private thip mutt thew two li the admiral
would have the ficet to moor, he puts a light on each top-

HHH
iti
e

i
sf

ith her, and bring her to an

PERLEEE.
bltt
He
:

4

eae bc tafecsed by
ivate thip is to thew one light.
Sails im a Fog. 1 the admiral

j

:

e

ay
3
F

fame fail fet that he

a every hour,
d # rivate fhips

If it thick and foggy weather, the
falling, with the

half-hour, that the fleet may difcern whether
with Gist, “ce Gl thdrn ‘of bin i aad
private thips are to anfwer, as any

to
ye difcove: oe aged Awl eee
ding from it, he is to make the fignal for tacking in a
but if he thould chance to ftrike, and ttick faft, he is
till he thinks the reft have avoided the
admiral would have the fleet to anchor,

he hath been an hour at an anchor, arene see
ee ah .the fogs me before, thot all the eet

it.
~ SiGNats for calling Officers on board the Admiral. When
dm’ ts an union-flag in the mizen-fhrouds,

SIGNALS.

and fires a gun, all the captains are to come sboard him;
and if, with the fame fignal, there be alfo = waft made with
the enfign, then the heutenant of each thip ie to come on
board, If an enfign be put sbrnad in the fame place, all
the matters of the thips of war are to come on board the ad.
miral, If a thandard on the flag-ftafl be hoified at the mizen-
topmaft-head, and a gun fired, then all the flag-officers are
to come aboard the derived. If the Englifh flags only, them
a flandard in the mizen-fhrouds, and fire a gun: if the fl

and land geveral officers, then the admiral puts eats
ftandard at mizen-topmaft-head, and a pendant at mizen-
peek, and fires a gun. If a red flag be boifted in the
mizen-fhrouds, and a gun fired, then the captains of his

own {quadron are to come aboard the admiral; and if, with
the fame fignal, there be alfo a waft with the enfign, the
lieutenant of each fhip mult come aboard. If he hoilts «

white flag, as before, then the vice-admiral, or he that
commands in the fecond poit, and all the captains of his
{quadron, are to go on board the admiral; if a blue flag,
&c. then the rear-admiral, and the captains of his {quadron,
muit come aboard, and if with « tor as before, the lieu-
tenants. When a ftandard is hoifted on the eofign-taff,
and a gun fired, the vice and rear-admirals muft come on
board the admiral’s fhip, When the admiral would {peak
with the captains of his own divifion, he will hoift « pen-
dant on the mizen-peck, and fire a gun; and if with the
lieutenants, a waft is made with the enfign, and the fame
fignal ; for whenever he would {peak with the lieutenants of
any particular fhip, he makes the fignal for the captain, and
a waft alfo with the enfign. When the admiral would have
all the tenders in the fleet come under his ftern, and {peak
with him, he hoifts a flag, yellow and white, at the mizen-
peek, and fires a gun. But if he would {peak with an
particular fhip’s tender, he makes a fignal for {peaking with
the captain fhe tends upon, and a én with the jack. If
all the pinnaces and barges are to come on board, manned
and armed, the fignal is a pendant on the flag-ftaff, boiited
on the fore-topmait-head, and a-gun fired ; and if he would
have them chafe any thip, veflel, or boat in view, he hoifts
the pendant, and fires two guns. The fignal for the long-
boats to come on board him, manned and armed, is t
rg heifted on the flag-itaff, and the mizen-topmatt-
and a gun fired; and if he would have them chafe
any fhip, veld, or boat, in open view, without coming on
board him, he hoilts the pendant, as aforefaid, and Gres two
When the admiral would have all the boats in the
to come on board him, manned and armed, he hoifts a
pendant on the flag-ftaff, both on the fore-topmaft and
mizen-topmaft-head, and fires one gun; but if he would
have them chafe, he hoifts his pendants, as before, and fires

two guns. When the admiral would f with the
viétualler, or his agent, he puts an Englifh enfign in the
mete prephmbaes and when with him that hath the

of the gunner’s ftores, he will {pread an enfign at his

main-topf{ail-yard-arm.

SiGNALs for managing a Sca-fight. When the admiral
would have the fleet form a line of battle, one thip a-head
of another, he hoifts an union flag on the mizen-peek, and
fires a gun; and every flag-fhi i the like. But when
ag thea form a line of battle, one a-breaft of another,
he hoifts a eae with the union-flag, &c. When he

t

would have the admiral of the white, or him that commands
in the fecond peit, to tack, and endeavour to the wind
of the enemy, he fpreads a white flag under flag at the

main- -head, and fires a gun; and when he would
have the vice-admiral of the blue do fo, he doth the fame
with the blue flag. If he would have the rear-admiral of

the

SIG

the red do fo, he fpreads a red flag from the cap, on the
fore-topmait-head, downward on the back-ftay; if the
vice-admiral of the blue, he {preads a blue flag, &c. and
fires a gun.. If he would have the rear-admiral of the red
do fo, he hoilts a red flag at the flag-ftaff, at the mizen-
topmatt-head; if the rear-admiral of the white, a white
flag ; if the rear-admiral of the blue, a blue flag, and under
it a pendant of the fame colour, witha gun. If he be to
leeward of the fleet, or any part of it, and he would have
them bear down into his wake or grain, he hoifts a blue flag
at the mizen-peek, and fires a gun. If he would be to lee-
ward of the enemy, and his fleet or any part of it be to leeward
of him, in order to bring thefe fhips into the line, he bears
down with a blue flag at the mizen-peek, under the union-
flag, (which is the fignal for battle,) and fires a gun; and
then thofe fhips that are to leeward of him, muft endeavour
to get into his wake or grain, according to their ftation in
the line of battle. When the fleet is failing before the wind,
and he would have him, who commands in the fecond poft,
and the fhip of the ftarboard quarter, to clap by the wind,
and come to the ftarboard tack, he hoifts a red flag at the
mizen-topmatt-head ; but a blue one, if he would have thips
of the larboard quarter come to the larboard tack, with a
gun. If the van are to tack firft, he {preads the union-flag
at the flag-ftaff, on the fore-topmatt-head, and fires a gun,
if the red flag be not on board; but if it be, then he lowers
the fore-topfails a little, and the union-flag is {pread from
the cap of the fore-topmaft downward ; and every flag-fhip
doth the fame. If the rear be to tack firlt, he hoitts the
union-flag on the flag-ftaff, at the mizen-topmatt-head, and
fires a gun; which all the flag-fhips are to anfwer. If all
the flag-fhips are to come into his wake or grain, he hoifts
ared flag at his mizen-peek, and fires a gun; and all the
flag-fhips mutt do the fame. If he would have him that
commands in the fecond poft of his {quadron to make mere
fail, (though he himfelf fhorten fail,) he hoifts a white flag
on the enfign-{taff. But if he that commands in the third
poit be to do fo, he hoifts a blue flag, and fires a gun, and
all the flag-fhips muft make the fame fignal. Whenever he
hoifts a red flag on the flag-ftaff at the fore-topmatt-head,
and fires a gun, every fhip in the fleet mutt ufe their utmoft
endeavour to engage the enemy, in the order prefcribed
them. When he hoifts a white flag at his mizen-peek, and
fires a gun, then all the fmall frigates of his {quadron, that
are not of the line of battle, are to come under the ftern.
Tf the fleet be failing by a wind in the line of battle, and the
admiral would have them brace their head-fails to the mait,
he hoifts up a yellow flag, on the flag-ftaff, at the mizen-
topmatt-head, and fires a gun; which the flag-fhips are to
anfwer; and then the fnips in the rear al brace firft.
After this, if he would have them fall their head-fails, and
ftand on, he hoifts a yellow flag on the flag-{taff of the fore-
topmaft-head, and fires a gun, which the flag-fhips muft
anfwer; and then the fhips in the van mutt fall firft, and
ftand on. If, when this fignal is made, the red flag at the
fore-topmaft-head be abroad, he fpreads the yellow flag
under the red. If the fleets being near one another, the
admiral would have all the fhips to tack together, the fooner
to lie in a pofture to engage the enemy, he hoifts an union-
flag on the flag-ftaves at the fore and mizen-topmatt-heads,
and fires a gun; and all the flag-fhips are to do the fame.
The fleet being in a line of battle, if he would have the fhip
that leads the van hoift, lower, fet, or haul up any of her
fails, he fpreads a yellow flag, under that at his main-top-
matt-head, and fires a gun, which fignal the flag-fhips are
to an{wer; and the admiral will hoilt, lower, fet, or haul
up the fail, which he would have the fhip that leads the van
7

SIG
do ; which is to be anfwered by the flag-fhips of the fleet. .

When the enemies run, and he would have the whole fleet
follow them, he makes all the fail he can after them himfelf,
takes down the fignal for the line of battle, and fires two
guns out of his fore-chafe, which the flag-fhips anfwer ; and
then every fhip is to endeavour to come up with and board
the enemy. When he would have the chafe given over, he
hoifts a white flag at the fore-topmait-head, and fires a gun.
If he would have the red {quadron draw into a line of battle,
one abreaft of another, he puts abroad a flag, itriped red.
and white, on the flag-{taff at the main-topmalt-head, with.
a pendant under it, and fires a gun; if the white or fecond
{quadron is to do fo, the flag is ftriped red, white, and
blue ; if the blue or third {quadron is to do fo, the flag is a
Genoefe enfign and pendant ; but if they are to draw into a
line of battle, one a-head of another, the fame fignals are
made with a pendant. If they are to draw into the line of
battle one a-ftern of another, with a large wind, and he
would have the leaders go with the ftarboard tacks, aboard
by the wind, he hoifts a red and white flag at the mizen-
peek, and fires a gun; but if they fhould go with the lar-
board tacks aboard, by the wind, he hoifts a Genoefe flag
at the fame place; which fignals, like others, muft be an-
fwered by the flag-fhips.

SIGNATORES, among the Romans, witnefles who
fealed wills and marriage contra&s.

SIGNATURE, Sienatura, Signing, a fubfcription,
or putting of one’s name at the bottom of an aé, or deed,
in one’s own hand-writing.

Anciently, when very few people could write, they dif-
penfed with the ufe of fignatures ; and contented themfelves
with the party’s feal. See Drxrp.

SIGNATURE of the Court of Rome, is a {upplication an-
f{wered by the pope, by which he grants a favour, difpenfa-
tion, or collation to a benefice, by putting the fiat at the
bottom of it, in his ewn hand; or the conceffum eff written
in his prefence. This fignature, at the bottom of the fup-
plication, gives name to the whole inftrument.

The fignature contains the claufes, derogations, and dif-
penfations, with which the pope grants the favour, or the
benefice, with a commiffion for the execution of it, either in
forma dignum, or in gracious form.

A fignature of the pope’s own hand, by which he anfwers,
Fiat ut petitur, is preferred to another anfwered by the pre
fet, in his prefence, in thefe words, Conceffum uti petitur
in prefentia D. N. pape. Sometimes in fignatures, with the

fiat, the pope adds, proprio motu; which claufe gives them

{till farther force.

There are three kinds of fignatures: one in forma gra-
tiofa, difpatched on an atteftation of the ordinary ; another
in forma dignum antiqua, difpatched for canonicates; the
third in forma dignum noviffima, which is a kind of fecond
fignature, or executorial letter, granted where, upon the
ordinary’s failing to execute the firft, within thirty days,
the neareft other ordinary is enjoined to execute it.

SIGNATURE, in Printing, denotes a mark at the bottom
of each fheet, to regulate the gathering and binding of the
book; and to fhew the order and number of the fheets, in
collating, to fee if the book is perfed.

The fignatures confift of the capital letters of the alphabet.
If there be more fheets than letters in the alphabet, to the
capital Jetter they add a {mall one of the fame fort 5 z.¢. a
little a after a great A, &c. which they repeat as often as
is neceflary.

SIGNATURE, Signatura, is alfo ufed, by fome naturalifts,
for the refemblance a vegetable or mineral bears to any
part of the human body; this is, by fome fantaftical

' people,

S1G
people, fuppofed to afford an indication of ite virtues and
. SIGNAU, in , a town of Switzerland, and
place of a diltrict, in the canton of Berne; 12
miles S.E. of Berne.

~ “BIGNES, a town of France, in the department of the

War; 12 miles SW. of Brignoles.

» SIGNET, one of the king’s feals, ufed for fealing his
letters, and figning N ats which pafs his ma-

hand by bill. Forging i is treafon.

“¢ fignet is always in the cultody of the king's fecreta-
four clerks of the fignet-oflice, See

See Sian

in the Proud fent hither a colony.
are ftill ef : —— of Agia Here, in the
| Greater Phrygia. Pliny fays, that the town o amzra
was built at the foot of A mere c
. SIGNIFER, among the Romans, an enfign-bearer, or
the perfon who carries the ftandard, on which was repre-
a hand ftretched out. See Siena.
SIGNIFICATION, the fenfe or meaning of a fign,

eg ma dover ee plrakpesdt the like; that is, t
thing by fuch fign, word, figure, &c.
We are perfectly at a lofs as to the figuification
of the hieroglyphic characters of the ancients.
SicxiricaTion, in Law, is the notification of an act,
prs Yet er py gare ce fi clans Lh &e. of it,
°o .
perfon himfelf ;

SIGNINUM, among the Romans, a kind of
much efteemed: it was made of mixed
with lime.

SIGNORELLI, Luca, in Bi , was born at Cor-
tona in 1439, and was a difciple ietro della Francefca.
eee eee oe oe Healenastiny wie oeeaped
the naked with fidelity and 3 though ftill im-
er fhackles of ftiffvefs and ity, and too

to common nature. His greateit work is

cathedral at Orvieto, reprefenting the final diffolution and
ent of the world; a work of extraordinary qua-
in which variety and originality of ideas are rendered
Vafan, who was related to Si
relli, fays that Michael An ted, in his Lait Judg-
‘ment, ; this artiit ; of which moit pro-
bably he only took the charaéters of actions, and clothed
them with his own emphatic ftyle of ap
d harmony o

a tof compofition. He painted at
oT ane eerengemen - poli - te
-eitablithed a name among the moit eminent of the Florentine
ee: He died in 1521, aged 82.

or. XXXII,

S1G

Sicxoneitt, Prerno Naro.t, of Naples, author of an
excellent critical hiftory of the flage, * Storia Critica de’
Teatri,”’ 1783. This work is written with great {pirit,
and, in general, exaétitude and genuine information, con-
cerning other theatres, as well as thole of Italy ; parti-
cularly of Spain, where the author had refi twenty
years, and with whofe literature and dramatic produ@ions he
feems perfeétly well acquainted. But having given the

reference to the dramatic works and ormance of the
talians, he provoked a controverfy with a Spanith writer,
which was not carried on with great patience or urbanity.

Signor Signorelli is likewife author of a work more volu-
minous and important, entitled “ Vicende della Coltura
nelle due Sicilie ;”" or, * Progrefs in the Culture of iMa-
tion, Policy, Literature, Commerce, Fine Arts, and a.
trical Exhibitions, in the T'wo Sicilies,”” 5 vols. Bvo. Na-
ples, 1786. This work contains much i ormation of the

grefs of mufic at Naples during the two laft centuries;
fee we were difappoi in finding no mention of the Con-
fervatorios, thofe 8 mufical feminaries which have
duced fo many great compofers and fingers, whofe works and

formance as not only delighted Naples and the reft of
taly, but all Europe.

SIGNORESSA, in Geo, raps, a town of Italy, in the
Trevifan ; 6 miles N.W. of revigio.

SIGNUM Pucw2, the fi fof battle among the
Romans, was a coat of arms oa purple colour, fet upon
the general’s pavilion.

SIGNY-le-Grand, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftriét of Mezieres ; 6 miles S.W. of Charle-
ville. The place contains 2380, and the canton 6699 in-
habitants, on a territory of 210 kiliometres, in 13 com-
munes.

Sicwy-/e- Petit, a town of France, in the department of
the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Rocroy; 9 miles W.S.W. of Rocroy. The place con-
tains 1723, and the canton 5790 inhabitants, on a territory
of 142 Caicunetres, in 10 conimunes.

SIGONIO, Canto, in Biography, was born of a good
family at Modena, about the year 1524. At the age of
feventeen he went to Bologna, where he pafled three years
in the ftudy of philofophy and medicine, to which laft pro-
feffion he was Feftine by his father. But having no turn
for ras he fpent a year at Pavia, and then entered into
the fervice of cardinal Grimani, At the age of twenty-two
he was taken by invitation from his native city to occupy
the chair of Greck, vacant by the departure of Porta, the
maiter under whom he had formerly fludied. In 1550 he
made himfelf advantageoufly known to the learned world
by publifhing the «« Fafti Confulares,”” with a commentary,
which quickly went through feveral editions. In 1552 he
was invited to the profeflorthip of belles-lettres at Venice,
and in that city he publithed feven difcourfes on important
topics of literature, and his valuable notes and conjectural
emendations of Livy. In 1560 he was removed to the
chair of eloquence at Padua, then the moft celebrated of
the Italian univerfities, but in 1563 he accepted an iavita-
tion to Bologna, which was from this time the ufual

his refidence. In this fituation he rendered hi fo
acceptable to the city, that he was prefented with its free-

with a large i e of falary. Here be
em himfelf in the compofition of learned works,
which have handed down his name to pofterity with
high honour, and he was fo well {atished with hus con-
dition, that he refufed a very flattering propofal from
Stephen, king of Poland, eapnsciipy a poaliot tig ta tine
45

country.

S 1G

country. He vifited Rome in 1578, where he was honour-
ably received by pope Gregory XIII., by whom he was
engaged to compofe an ecclefiaftical hittory. Of this,
however, he executed no more than {ome learned illuttra-
tions of Sulpicius Severus; for he died at Modena in the
year 1584. He was a moft able and fuccefsful elucidator
of ancient hiftory and antiquities. He was indefatigable
4n fearching to the bottom all fubjeéts which he undertook
to examine, fo that in many he left little to be added by
later enquirers, and his works are all carefully compofed in
a pure, and even an elegant, Latin ftyle. Befides the
pieces already mentioned, he publifhed many valuable tracts
on the Roman laws and cuftoms, alfo on the republics of
the Hebrews, Athenians, and Lacedemonians. He com-
pofed twenty books of a hiftory relating to the weftern
empire, from the time of Dioclefian to its final deftruction,
and he performed the more arduous tafk of framing from
the rude and obfcure chronicles of the times, a hiltory of
the kingdom of Italy, from the arrival of the Lombards to
the year 1286. Sigonio was involved in feveral controver-
fies, in one of which he is fuppofed to have difgraced him-
felf. About twelve months before he died, an intimate
friend of his edited a pretended treatife of Cicero, entitled
“ Confolatio.”’ Its authenticity was immediately impugned
by critics, and there is now no doubt that it was not
enuine ; but Sigonio wrote fo warmly in defence of it, that
fe is generally fuppofed to be the author. The works of
this learned man were publifhed collectively in 1732-3, by
Argelati, at Milan, in fix vols. fol. with his Life, by Mu-
ratori, prefixed.

SIGORUM, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Afia,
in Mefopotamia, in the vicinity of the town of Nifibis, ac-
cording to Sozomen.

SIGOULES, Lx, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Dordogne ; 7 miles S. of Bergerac.

SIGRI, a town on the N.W. part of the ifland of
Metelin, in the Grecian Archipelago,

SIGRIANA, in Ancient Geography, acountry of Afia,
in Media, according to Strabo.

SIGRIANI, mountains of Afia Minor, on the coalt
of the Propontide.

SIGRIUM, a promontory of the ifle of Lefbos, in the
moft wefterly part of the ifland.

SIGRUM, a port of the ifle of Tenedos, in which was
a ftatue of Diana.

SIGTUNA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Upland, fituated on a creek of the Malar lake,
anciently one of the chief cities of the kingdom. It is
faid to derive its name from the celebrated Odin, whofe
furname was Sigge: he came into the north before the
Chriftian era, and had his refidence, his temple, and his
court of juftice; others fay the town was built by Odin.
However that be, Sigtuna has undergone many. changes 5
in the year 1008, it was plundered and burnt by Olof the
Pious, king of Norway; in 1188, it was deftroyed by the
Carelians, Eftonians, and Ruffians. It recovered from thefe
calamities, and flourifhed till the vait increafe of Stockholm
gave it a blow, which it is not likely to recover ; 10 miles
N. of Stockholm.

SIGUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
Greater Armenia. Ptolemy.

SIGUENCA, in Geography, a city of Spain, in Old
Caftile, fituated on the edge of a mountain, near the fource
of the river Henares; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of
Toledo, with an uniyerfity, founded in the year 1441, by
cardinal Ximenes. It contains three churches, three con-
vents, two hofpitals, a ftrong caftle, an arfenal, and be-

Sie big 6G

tween 700 and 800 houfes, This town was anciently called
Segontia. A battle was fought here between Pompey and
Sertorius ; and in the beginning of the feventh century,
the Goths were defeated here by the Romans; 56 miles
N.E. of Madrid. N. lat. go° 58’. W. long, 2° 57!.

SIGUETTE, in the Manege, is a caveflon of iron,
with teeth or notches, that is, a femicircle of hollow and
vaulted iron, with teeth like a faw, confifting of two or
three pieces joined with hinges, and mounted with a head-
{tall and two ropes, as if they were the cayeflons that
in former times were wont to be put upon the nofe of
a fiery itiff-headed horfe, in order to keep him in fub-
jection.

There is a fort of figuette, that is, a round iron all of one
piece, fewed under the nofe-band of the bridle, that it may
not bein view. This figuette we employ with a martingale,
when a ‘horfe beats upon the hand.

’ STHASTRIA, in Geography, a town of Moldavia; 34
miles W. of Suczava.

SIHAUL, a town on the W. coaft of Sumatra. N.
lat. 0° 23. E. long. 119° 45'. :

SI-HIAM, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chen-fi; 37 miles E.S.E. of Han-tchong.

SI-HO, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chen-fi;
42 miles W. of Oei.

SI-HOA, a town of China, of the third rank, in Ho-nan ;
32 miles E.S.E. of Hiu.

SIHON, or Ginon, or Amu. See Juaon and Amu.

Sinon, or Sharokie, a name given to the river Sirr, in
its courfe.

SIHOR, atown of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 25 miles ©
W. of Gogo.

SIHUTLA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Mechoacan; 25 miles W. of Zacatula. N. lat. 18° 45!.
W. long. 103° 26/.

SIKAJOCKI, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia;
8 miles N. of Braheitad.
~ SIKE, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied to
a little rill, a water-furrow, and a gutter.

SIKEVI, in Geography, a town of Turkifh Circaffia,
on the coalt of the Black fea; 30 miles S.E. of Anapa.

SIKFORD, a town of Sweden, in Wett Bothnia; 18
miles N.W. of Pitea,

SIKHS, or Serxs, an appellation formed of the Sanfcrit
term Sikh, or Sicfha, denoting a difciple or devoted follower,
and in the Panjabi corrupted into $i44, which is applicable
to any perfon that follows a particular teacher ; and hence
ufed to denominate, in its primary ufe, a religious feét,
which advanced, by fucceffive gradations, from the humble
condition of religionifts, to the rank of one of the moft
powerful ftates in Hindooftan. The founder of this fect
was Nanac Shah, a native of a {mall village called Talwandi,
in the diftrié&t of Bhatti, in the province of Lahore, where
he was born A.D. 1469. It is now become a town, and
denominated Rayapour, and is fituated on the banks of the
Beyah or Hyphafis. Nanac’s father, whofe name was Calt,
and who belonged to the Cfhatriya caft and Védi tribe of
Hindoos, wifhed-to bring him up to trade, but Nanac him-
felf was from his childhood inclined to devotion, and mani-
fetted an indifference to all worldly coneerns. This difpofi-
tion was cherifhed by his intercourfe with the Fakirs, among
whom and the poor he diftributed a great part of his fub-
ftance. It is needlefs to recite his trances and vilions, and
converfe with the prophet Elias, and the aufterities which he
practifed at the commencement and in the progrefs of his
religious career. Nor can we accompany him in his travels
which he undertook with a view of reforming the worship “

the

\e

SIKHS.

the trae God, that had been degraded by the idolatry of the
Hindoos and the ignorance of the Mahometans. It will be
fufficient for us to obferve, that after he had vifited all the
of India, aud explained to all ranks the great dodirines
unity and omniprefence of God, he went to Mecca
ina, where his actions, hjs miracles, and his long
with the Mahometan faints and do¢tors, are

circumflantially recorded by his ree He is

On this oceation, to have defended his own principles
offending thofe of others ; always profefling himfelt

cord, and as having no obje¢t but to recon-
faiths of the Mahometans and Hindoos in one
3 which he endeavoured to do by recalling them to
and inal tenet, which both of them believed,
of 7 and by reclaiming them from the nu-
errors into which they had fallen. During his tra-

the 1526 or 1527, Nanac was introduced
emperor Baber, Rice a

ef

z
z

i

:
:

rat

$
:

he is {aid to have main-
his do¢trine with great firmnefs and eloquence. Baber
kindly, and offered him an ample maintenance,
ich the Sikh prieft refufed, alleging, that he trutted in
provided all men, and from whom alone a man
and religion would confent to receive favour or re-
Hindoo zealots violently oppofed him, more
had laid afide the habits of a Fakir; but
be ae and re’
p= Beet ll Se eset fome proof
power, that might )
nothing to exhibit worthy of you to behold. A holy teacher

has no defence but the purity of his doétrine ;
creator is

elt

:

i
;

cs

reported, threw off his earthly fh
seb eh eaten atte Wan auth of hareteur Bi ivch, ich kes

om was unqueftionably a

and Hindoos to an exclufive attention to that
fablimett of all principles, which inculcates devotion to God
Sot Sass ther“6f thee worthy of faccedion on hs (

a n to pi-
deveieel time

—— fame ine as Nanac; and fome of his writi
as as thofe of Nanac, are contained in a book rors
“Grant’h.” At his death, which happened A.D. 1552, he

was {ueceeded by Amera Das, a Cthatriya of the tribe of

B’halé, who had a menial fervant for twelve Amera

_ Das was attive in the tenets of Nanac and fuc-

blidned 2 dece 2 tn thar pee
a . d two

a » named B’

the death of Amera Das, A.D. 1574,
his fon-in-law, whom he had initiated
y profeflion, and who became famous

for his piety, and fill more on account of the improvements
he made at Amritfar, which was for fome ume called Ram-
pur, or Ramda(pur, after him. Some writers have errone-
oufly aferibed the foundation of this town, anciently and long
before his time denominated Chak, to him; however, he
added much to ite population, and built a famous tank, oF
relervoir of water, which he called Amritfar, a name iigwi-
fying the water of immortality, and which has become fo
facred, that it has given its name, and imparted ite fanctity,
to the town of Ramdafpur; fo that it has become the facred
city of the Sikh nation, and is now only known by the name
of Anvritfar, After a life pailed in the undiflurbed propa-
ation of his tenets, in explanation of which he wrote feweral
ooks, Ram Das died A.D. 1681, and left two fons, one of
whom, vis, Arjunmal, fucceeded him, and rendered himfelé
famous by compiling the A’di-Grant’h, containing ninety-
two fections, part of which was compoled by Nagac and lus
immediate {ucceflors, but arranged i its prefent form by
Arjunmal, who blended his own additions with the com-
tions of his predecefiors. Arjun, from this circumftance,

is deemed the firlt who gave conlittent furm and order to the
religion of the Sikhs. Arjun fell a facrifice to the jealoufy
of the Mahometan government ; and his death excited the
indignation of the Sikhs, who, befere this event, had been
au inoflenfive, peaceable fect ; and they took up arms under

Har Govind, the fon of Arjunmal, and wreaked their ven-
geance upon all whom they t ht concerned in the murder
of their revered prieit. From all the remaining accounts of

Har Govind’s life, it appears to have been his anxious with
to infpire his followers with the moft irreconcileable hatred
of their oppreflors. Govind, with this view, introduced
fome change in their diet, allowing them to eat the fieth
of animals, that of the cow excepted; and by other regu-
lations converted a race of peaceable enthufiafts into an i-
trepid band of foldiers. Govind died A.D. 1644, and was
fucceeded by his dfon Har Ray, whofe reign was upon
the whole tranquil, which was probably owing to the vigour
of the Mahometan power in the early meter the reign of
Aurungzebe. At his death, A.D. 1661, a violent conteft
arofe among the Sikhs, concerning the fucceflion to the
office of {piritual leader ; for the temporal power of their
ruler was, at this time, little more than nominal. ‘The dif.
pute was referred for decifion to Delhi; and by an im-
perial decree of Aurungzebe, the Sikhs were allowed to
ele&t their own priett. They chofe Har Crifhn, fon (or
grandfon) of Har Ray, who died at Delhi A. D. 1664,
and was fucceeded by his uncle, Tegh Behadur. Duri

his life, which terminated prematurely, by the ee
his rival, A.D. 1675, and alfo from the period of Govind’s
death, the Mogul empire was in the zenith of its power
under Aurungzebe ; and the Sikhs, who had never attained
an ee were rendered till weaker by their own
dillen owever, after the death of Tegh Behadur,
the hiltory of the Sikhs aflumed a new afpe. Under Har
Govind the Sikhs had been initiated in arms, but they ufed

verament with fuc.~
to admit converts from all tribes, but to

break at once thole rules by which the Hindoos had heen fo
long chained ;—to arm, in fhort, the whole population of
an objet

Sree eke wale wealth and

to which Hi 8s, of every clafs, might afpire.

objeé&t of Govind to make all Sikhs oqual iandaalag aleie

advancement fhould folely depend upon their exertions ; and

eetinmees hip eneelbepric om os ipico ment ahem men,
452 and

SIK HS.

and of grovelling minds, with pride in themfelves, he changed
the name of his followers from Sikh to Sinh or lion ; thus
giving to all his followers that honourable title which had
been before exclufively aflumed by the Rajapute, the firft
military clafs of Hindoos; and every Sikh felt himfelf at
once elevated, by this proud appellation, to a footing with
the firft clafs. The difciples of Govind were required to
devote themfelves to arms 5 always to have tteel about them
in one fhape or other; to wear a blue drefs; to allow their
hair to grow; and to exclaim, when they met each other,
«Wa! Guruji ka khalfalt! Wa! Guruji ki futteh!”? 7. e.
Succefs to the ftate of the Guru! Viéory attend the Guru!
Guru Govind inculcated his tenets upon his followers by his
preaching, his actions, and his works. He is faid to have
firft inftituted the Guru-mata, or ftate council, among the
Sikhs, which meet at Amritfar; by which inftitution he
gave that form of a federative republic to the commonwealth
of the Sikhs, which was moft calculated to roufe his fol-
lowers from their indolent habits, and deep-rooted preju-
dices, by afligning to them a perfonal fhare in the govern-
ment, and placing within the reach of every individual, the
attainment of rank and influence in the ftate. The emperor
Aurungzebe, aided by the rajas who were hoftile to Govind,
purfued him and his followers to Chamkour, and encom-
patied it on all fides. The fiege was carried on with great
vigour ; and though Govind manifefted an invincible {pirit,
and performed prodigies of valour, he was at laft over-
powered by numbers ; and reduced to the neceflity of making
his efcape from Chamkour in a dark night, covering his face,
as it is faid, from fhame at his own difgrace. After his
flight, a fenfe of his misfortunes, and the lofs of his children,
deprived him of his reafon, and he wandered about for a
confiderable time in the moft deplorable condition. At
length, having obtained from the emperor Behadur Shah a
{mall military command in the Deccan, he was ftabbed by a
Patan foldier’s fon, and expired of his wounds, A.D. 1708,
at Naded, a town fituated on the Caveri river, about 100
miles from Haiderabad. Guru Govind was the laft acknow-
ledged religious ruler of the Sikhs. A prophecy had limited
their {piritual guides to the number of ten ; and their fuper-
ftition, aided, without doubt, by the ation of that {pirit of
independence which his inftitutions had introduced, caufed
its fulfilment. Banda, a devoted follower and friend of
Guru Govind, eftablifhed the union of the Sikhs under his
banners ; and his grief at the misfortune of his prieft, is faid
to have fettled after the death of Govind into a gloomy and
defperate defire to avenge his wrongs. The confufion which
took place on the’ death of Aurungzebe, which happened
A.D. 1707, was favourable to his wifhes. Having obtained
a victory over the Mahometans in a bloody action, Banda,
encouraging the Sikhs, and hardening them by his leffons to
deeds of the moft horrid atrocity, fubdued all the country
between the Setlej and the Jumna, and crofling that river,
made inroads into the province of Sharanpour, which lies a
few miles to the N.E. of Delhi, between the rivers Jumna
and the Ganges. The march of the Sikhs was attended
with the exercife of the moft wanton barbarity.; life was
only granted to thofe who conformed to the religion, and
adopted the habits and drefs of the Sikhs; and if Behadur
Shah had not quitted the Deccan, which he did A.D. 1710,
the whole of Hindooftan would probably have been fubdued
by thefe mercilefs invaders. ‘The firft check which the
Sikhs received was from an army under fultan Kuli Khan.
They were afterwards defeated in a very de{perate aétion by
Abdal Samad Khan, an officer of the emperor Farakhfeir,
after which the Sikhs were never able to make a ftand, but
were hunted like wild beafts from one ftrong hold to another,

4

by the army of the emperor, by whom their leader, Banda,
and his mo{t devoted followers, were at laft taken, after hav-
ing fuffered every extreme of hunger and fatigue. Great
numbers of the Sikhs were put to death, after the furrender
of Lohgad’, a fortrefs too miles N.E. of Lahore ; but
Banda was fent, with the principal chiefs of the tribe, to
Delhi, where, after having been treated with every kind of
obloquy and infult, they were executed.

After the defeat and death of Banda, refentment prompt-
ed to every meafure that could be devifed, not only to de-
{troy the power, but to extirpate the race of the Sikhs.
From the Mahometans they met withno quarter ; and after
the execution of their chief, a royal edit was iffued, order-
ing all who profefled the religion of Nanac to be taken and
put to death whereyer found; and by way of giving greater
effect to this mandate, a reward was offered for the head of
every Sikh. During the interval that elapfed between the
defeat and death of Banda, and the invafion of India by
Nadir Shah, a period of nearly 30 years, we hear nothing
of the Sikhs; but when that event occurred, they are faid
to have fallen upon the inhabitants of the Panjab, who
fought fhelter in the hills, and to have plundered them of
that property which they were endeavouring to fecure from
the rapacity of the Perfian invader.. Enriched with thefe
fpoils, fays the author whofe account of them we are now
citing, the Sikhs left the hills, and built the fort of Dale-
wal, on the Ravi, from whence they made predatory incur-
fions, andare {tated to have added, both to their wealth and
reputation, by haraffing and plundering the rear of Nadir
Shah’s army, which, when it returned to Perfia, was encum-
bered with {poil, and marched, from a contempt of its ene-
mies, with a difregard to all order.

The weak {tate to which the empire of Hindooftan was
reduced, and the confufion into which the provinces of La-
hore and Cabul were thrown, by the death of Nadir, were
events of too favourable a nature to the Sikhs to be ne-
gle&ted by that race, who became daily more bold, from their
numbers being greatly increafed by the union of all thofe
who had taken fhelter in the mountains ; the re-admiffion into
the feét of thofe who, to fave their lives, had abjured, for a
period, their ufages; and the converfion of a number of
profelytes, who hattened to join a dtandard under which rob-
bery was made faered, and to plunder was to be pious.

Aided with thefe recruits, the Sikhs now extended their
irruptions over moft of the provinces of the Panjab ; and
though it was fome time before they repoflefled themfelves
of Amritfar, they began, immediately after they quitted
their faftnefles, to flock to that holy city at the periods of
their facred feafts. Some performed this pilgrimage in fe-
cret, and in difguife ; but in general, according to a con-
temporary Mahometan author, the Sikh horfemen were
feen riding, at full gallop, towards “ their favourite fhrine
of devotion. They were often flain in making this attempt,
and fometimes taken prifoners ; but they ufed, on fuch oc-
cafions, to feek, inftead of avoiding, the crown of martyr~
dem :’? and the fame authority ftates, “that an inttance
was never known of a Sikh, taken in his way to Amritfar,
confenting to abjure his faith.””

Eneouraged by the confufion which took place on the firft
Afghan invafion, A.D. 1746, the Sikhs made themfelves
maiters of a confiderable part of the Dooabof Raviand Ja-
lendra, and the country between the rivers Ravi and Beyah,
and that river and the Setlej, and extended their incurfions
to the neighbouring countries. But though they were fe-
verely and repeatedly checked by Mir Manu, the governor
of Lahore, yet, after his death, they availed themfelves of
all the advantages which the local diftractions of a falling em-

pire

SIKHS.

afforded them of extending and eflablifhing their power.

) ir bands, under their adtive leaders, plundered in
| direction, and were fuccefsful in obtaining pofleflion
| of verel countries, from which they have never fince been
ex 3 aud their fuccefs, at this period, was promoted,
Of being checked, by the appointment of their old

. friend, Adina Khan, to Lahore ; as that brave chief,
anxious to defend his own govcrament againft the Afghans,
immediately entered into a conf: with the Sikhs, whom
he encouraged to plunder the territories of Ahmed Shah

The monarch, refenting this predatory warfare,

in which governor of Lahore was {upported by the
of Delhi, determined upon invading Todi. dina
unable tooppofe him, fled; and the Sikhs could only
venture to plunder the baggage, and cut off the itragglers
of the Afghan army, by which they fo irritated Ahmed

~ Shah, that he = a them with punifhment on his re-
and when he marched to Cabul, he left his fon Tai-

Khan, and his vizir, Jehan Khan, at Lahore, with or-
vengeance on the Sikhs for all the excefles which
comnutted. ‘The firft expedition of Taimur Khan
their capital, Amritfar, which he deftroyed,
and polluting all their places of

which acti pa te ng pe hene ne pa
that they all bled at Lahere, and not
to cut off the communication between the

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iti
Ee

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FE

;

re

Hi

upo
3 and, being at lait reduced to the necef-
Lahore, and retreating to Cabul, the
of their celebrated called Jafa
jately took poffeffion of the vacant foubah
to be coined, with an im-
following import : “ Coined by the

Fe

if

E
z
:
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:

F
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int
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(after he had gained the vidtory
eftablifhed his fupremacy at Delhi) to
and, with this view, entered the
i Speak penann teewtacle ofthat constey
army, defeating and difperfing the Si
That fe€t, unable to oe any ftand
the Abdali, purfued their old plan of re-
mountains; and colle&ed a in
ids of Sirhind, a diftance of above one
Lahore, where the army of Ahmed
Here they conceived themfelves to be
that prince made one of thofe rapid
was fo celebrated, and reaching the
» completely furprifed and de-
In this aétion, which was
Sikhs are {aid to have loft up-
twenty men; and the remainder fled into
abandoning all the lower countries to the A
ravage that a barbarous and lavage
itfar was razed to the ground,
refervoir again choaked with its ruins. -
with the heads of flaugh-
that Ahmed Shah cau

mt

Ba
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ti
i

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:
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ut

att
i

the walls of thofe mofques which the Sikhs had polluted co
be wathed with their blood, that the contamination mught be
removed, and the infult offered to the religion of ramet
expiated,

This {pecies of favage retaliation appears to have animated
inflead of deprefling the of the Sikhs, who, though
they could not venture to meet Shah’s army in aGion,
haratled it with an inceflant predatory warfare ; and whee
that fovereign was obliged, by the commotions of Afghan
iftan, to return to Cabul, they attacked and aefeaeh the
general he had left in Lahore, and made themfelves matters
of that city, in which they levelled with the ad thofe
mofques which the Afghans had, a few moaths before, puri-
fied with the blood of their brethren.

Whee Ahmed Shab, after retaking Lahore, A.D. 1763,
was obliged, in the enfuing year, to return to his own
country, the Sikhs again expelled his garrifon, aud made
themfelves matters of the Panjab; and, from that
until his death, a conftant war was maintained, in which the
enterprize and courage of the Afghans gradually gave way
before the aftonithing aGtivity, and invincible perleverance,
of their enemies ; a if unable to ftand a general a@tion,
retreated to impenetrable mountains, and the moment they
faw an advantage, rufhed again into the plains with renewed
vigour and recruited numbers. Several Sikh authors, treating
oh the events of this period, mention a great a¢tion havin
been fought by their countrymen, near Amritfar, spell
the whole Afghan army, commanded by Ahmed Shah in
eh but they differ with regard to the date of this

attle, fome fixing it in 1762, and others later. They pre-
tend that the Sikhs, infpired by the facrednefs of the
on which this aGtion was fought, contended for victory
againft fuperior numbers with the moft defperate fury, and

t the battle terminated in both parties quitting the field,
without either being able to claim the leaft advantage. The
hiftorians of Ahmed Shah are, however, filent regarding this
aGtion, which indeed, from all the events of his long con-
tefts with the Sikhs, appears unlikely tohave occurred, It
is poflible the Sikhs fought at Amritiar with a divifion of the
Afghan army, and that might have been commanded by the
prince; but it is very improbable they had ever force to en-
counter the concentrated army of the Abdalis, before which,
while it remained in a body, they appear, from the firft to
the lait of their contefts with that prince, to have always re-
treated, or rather fled.

_ The Sikhs, when opprefled, became as formidable for
their union, as for their determined courage and unconquer-
able fpirit of refiftance : but a ftate of perfecution and dif-
trefs was moft favourable for a conttitution like theirs, which

uired conitant and great of perfonal advantage
to the public good ; and fuch facrifices can only be ex
from men who a¢t under the influence of that enthufiafm,
which the fervour of a new religion, or a {truggle for inde-
pendence, only imparts, and which are always mott readily
made when it becomes obvious to all, that a complete union
in the general caufe is the only hope of individual fafety.

The Sikhs may be reckoned the moit weitern nation of
Hindooftan : for the king of Candahar poflefles but an in-
confiderable extent of territory on the eait of the Indus.
Since the complete downfall of the Mogul empire, they have
acquired extenfive domains. But major Rennell ob-
ferves, that their power ought not to be eltimated in the ex-
act proportion to the extent of their population, fince
do not form one entire ftate; but a number of {mall ones,
independent of each other in their internal government, and
only conucéted by a federal union. They have extended
their territories on the fouth-eait, that is, into the province

of

ground

SIKHS.

of Delhi, very rapidly of late years ; and perhaps, the Ze-
mindars of that country may have found it convenient to
place themfelves under the protection of the Sikhs, in order
to avoid the more oppreflive government of their former
matters. It is certain that the eaftern boundary of the Sikhs’
dominions has been advanced to the banks of the Jumnah river,
above Delhi, and to the neishbourhood of that city ; for the
adjoining territory of Schaurunpour is fubject to their depre-
dations, if not aQually tributary to them; and they make
incurfions even to the fide of the Ganges. On the fouth,
they are bounded by. the northern extreme of the fandy
defert of Regiftan, and on the fouth-weft their boundary
meets that of Sindy, or Tatta, at the city of Behker
or Bhekr, on the Indus. On the weft the Indus is their ge-
neral boundary, as high up as the city of Attock ; near to
which begin the territories of the king of Candahar ; and
their northern boundary is the chain of mountains that lies
towards Thibet and Cafhmere. As this is the cafe, they
will be found to poffefs the whole foubah or province of
Lahore, the principal part of Moultan, andthe weltern part
of Delhi; the dimenfions of which traét are about 400
Britifh miles from N.W. to S.E., and from 150 to 200
broad, in general ; although in the part between Attock
and Behker (that is, along the Indus) the extent cannot be
lefs than 320. Their capital city is Lahore.

According to the ftatement of brigadier-general Malcolm,
the country now poffefled by the Sikhs, which reaches from
N. lat. 28° 40! to beyond N. lat. 32°, and includes all the
Panjab, a {mall part of Moultan, and moft of that traé& of
country which lies between the Jumnah and the Setlej, is
bounded, to the northward and weftward, by the territories
of the king of Cabul ; to the eaftward, by the poffeffions of
the mountaineer rajas of Jammu, Nadon, and Srinagar; and
to the fouthward, by the territories of the Englifh govern-
ment, and the fandy deferts of Jafalmer and Hanfya Hifar.
A general eftimate of the value of the country poflefled by
the Sikhs may be formed, when it is ftated, that it contains,
befides other countries, the whole of the province of La-
hore; which, according to Mr. Bernier, produced in the
reign of Aurungzebe, 246 lacks and gs5,000 rupees; or
2,469,500/. fterling. The Sikhs who inhabit the country
between the Setle} and the Jumnah, are called Malawa
Sinh, and were almoft all converted from the Hindoo
tribes of Jats and Gujars. The country of the Malwa
Sinh is in fome parts fruitful; but thofe diltri€ts which bor-
der on Hanfya and Carnal are very barren ; being covered
with low wood, and in many places almott deftitute of water.
Its former capital was Sirhind, but it is now a complete
ruin. Patiala is now the largeft and moft flourifhing town
of this province, and next to it is T’hanefur, which is flill
held in high veneration by the Hindoos, who have alfo a
high reverence for the river Serafweti, which flows through
this province. The country of Jalendra Dooab, which reaches
from the mountains to the junétion of the Setlej and the
Beah, is the moft fruitful of all the poffeffions of the Sikhs,
and is perhaps excelled, in climate and vegetation, by no
province in India. The foil is light, but very productive ;
the country, which is open and level, abounds in every kind
of grain. The towns of Jalendra and Sultanpour are the
principal in the Dooab. The country between the Beyah
and Ravirivers is called Bari Dooab, or Manj’ha; and the
Sikhs inhabiting it are called Manj’ha Sinh. The cities of
Lahore and Amritfar are both in this province, and confe-
guently it becomes the great centre of the power of this na-
tion. The country of Bari is faid to be lefs fertile, parti-
cularly towards the mountains, than Jalendra, but lyimg on
the fame level, ite climate and foil muft be nearly the fame.

The inhabitants of the equntry between Ravi and Chanhab
are called D’harpi Sinh, from D’harpi, the name of the
country ; the D’hanigheb Sinh are beyond the Chanhab,
but within the Jehalam river. The Sind Sinh is the term by
which the inhabitants of the diftrifts under the Sikhs bor-
dering on the Sind are known ; and Nakai Sinh is the name
given to the Sikhs who refide in Moultan.

The government of the Sikhs may be termed a theocracy.
Although they obey a temporal chief, that chief preferves
his power and authority by profeffing himfelf the fervant of
the khalfa, or government, which can only be faid to aét, in
times of great public emergency, through the means of a
national council, of which every chief is a member, and
which is fuppofed to deliberate and refolve under the imme-
diate in{piration and impulfe of an invifible being ; who, as
they believe, always watches over the interefts of the com-
monwealth. It is natural, however, to imagine that the
power of this aflembly fhould decline; and from Col.
Malcolm’s account, we may infer, that it is nearly de-
{troyed. The laft Guru-mata was called in 1805, when the
Britifh army purfued Holkar into the Panjab. The go-
vernment is mild; but in their mode of making war the
Sikhs are unqueftionably favage and cruel. Among the
Sikhs there is a clafs of devotees, called Acalis, or immortals,
who, under the double charaéter of fanatic priefts and def-
perate foldiers, have ufurped the fole direction of all re-
ligious affairs at Amritfar ; and who, of courfe, are leading
men ina national council held at that facred place, and which
deliberates under all the influence of religious enthufiafm.
This order of Sikhs was firlt founded by Guru Govind, and
are diftinguifhed by their drefs, as well as by their having al-
mott the fole dire¢tion of the religious ceremonies at Amritfar.
They have a place on the bank of the facred refervoir of Am-
ritfar, where they generally refort, but are individually pof-
fefled of property, though they affe& poverty, and fubfitt
on charity. The principal chiefs of the Sikhs are all de-
fcended from Hindoo tribes. The lower order of Sikhs,
compared with the wretched Mahometans who are doomed
to oppreflion and hard labour, are happy; they are pro-
teGted from the tyranny and violence of the chiefs under whom
they live by the precepts of their common religion, and by
the condition of their country, which enables them to aban-
don, whenever they chufe, a leader whom they diflike. The
civil officers, to whom the chiefs entruft their accounts, and
the management of their property and revenue concerns, as ~
well as the condu& of their negociations, were in general
Sikhs of the Khalafa caft, who, being followers of Nanac,
and not of Guru Govind, are not devoted to arms, but edu-
cated for peaceful occupations, in which they often become
very expert and intelligent. In the colleétion of the revenue
of the Panjab, it is faid to be a general rule, that the chiefs
to whom the territories belong fhould receive the half of the
produce, grain paying in kind, but fugar, melons, &c.
in cafh, and the farmer the other : but the chief never levies
the whole of his fhare; and in no country, perhaps, is the
ryat, or cultivator, treated with more indulgence. Com-
merce is rather reftrained than encouraged by the heavy du-
ties and the diftra@ted ftate of the country. However, a
great part of the fhawl trade now flows through the cities of
Lahore, Amritfar, and Patiala, to Hindooitan. The ad-
miniftration of juftice among the Sikhs is in a very rude and
imperfect ftate. ‘

Their law is all unwritten. Nothing is configned to any
exprefs form of words. There is no detinition of any
thing. The cuftom of the country, the cuftom of the
court, (that is to fay, as far as the judge is pleafed to be
governed by thofe cuftoms), and the will of the ie

the

SIKHS.

the circumfavces which guide the decifion, Among the
- Hindoos fome of the facred books, among the Mahometans
the Koran, are ufed as the books of law. Among the Sikhs

| ord fearcely any rules or principles
of law, whieh are not fo vague as to {peak any language

which chufes to give them; and while their
authority is ient to fuperfede that of the natural dictates

of jul penegery, i ich are the only guides of the Sikh
| the or Mahometa

n has only to find or to feign
a i SEUEEOSi chick may andile bie te decides he

ifling difputes about property are fettled by the heads
of the by ge i the chiefs. The court
of arbitration is called , oracourt of five, the ge-

neral number of 2 chofen to adjuft differences and
difputes. It is ufual to aflemble a panchayat, or a cowrt of
arbitration, in every part of India under a native qe
ment ; and, as they are always chofen from men of the belt

: ; roperty
unifhed, not with by the
oy or by the inhabitants of the
is i re by the

but more generally by the relatives of the decealed,
in fuch cafes, rigoroufly retaliate ow the murderer, and

ir long beards, and are to the full as ative as the
Mahrattas, and much more robutt, from their living fuller,
enjoying a better and colder climate. Their courage is
equal at all times paanee oF way eeeires ai Ted 2.0 Wass
wrought dice or n, is quite rate.
ee aoe and have a ay ap
country, except for the defence of their forts and villages,
y ferve as infaniry in foreign armies.
They are and rather in their addrefs, which ap-
more to a ftranger from their invariably {peaking in a
| conhies of voice: but this is quite a habit, and is alike
oe Peed the fentiments of regard and hatred.
The have been reputed deceitful and cruel, but fir John
no grounds upon which they could be con-
fidered more fo than the other tribes of India : they feemed to
him, from all the intercourfe he had with them, to be more
| and fincere than the Mahrattas, and lefs rude and favage
| the -They have, indeed, become, from national
fuccefs, too proud of their own and too irritable in
their tempers, to have patience for the wiles of the former :
and they retain, in {pite of their change of manners and
religion, too much of the original of their Hindoo
anceftors, (for the great majority are of the Hindoo race,
“to have the conftitutional ferocity of the atter. |The Sik
foldier is, {peaking, we, active, and cheerful ;
ee haat matin Gentes nor attach-
if he often appears wanting in humanity, it is
much to be attributed to his national ey as
life, which, from the condition of the
is bora, is generally palit in {cenes of

violence and rapine.

The Sikh merchant, or cultivator of the foil, if he is a
Sinh, differs little in charaéter from the foldier, except that
| i him lefs prefuming and boifterous.

|

He alfo wears arms, and is, from education, prompt to ule
them, whenever his individual intereil, er that of the com-
munity in which he lives, requires him to do fo, The gene-

- raloceupations of the Khalafa Sikhs has been before mes-

tioned. Their chara@ter differs widely from that of the
Siohs. Full of intrigue, pliant, verfatile, and smfiguating,
they have all the art of the lower clafles of Hiadoos, who
are ufually employed in tranfaéting bulinefs ; from whom,
indeed, as they have no diflinction of drefs, it is very difh.
cult to diftinguifh them.

The general character of the religious tribes of Acalis,
Shahid, and Nirmala, is formed from their habits of life, ‘The
Acalis are infolent, ignorant, and daring: prefumiog upou
thofe rights which their numbers and Poste courage have
elablifhed, their deportment is hardly tolerant to the other
Sikhs, and infufferable to flrangers, for whom they enter-
tain a contempt which they take little pais to conceal.
The Shahid and the Nirmala, particularly the latter, have
more knowledye and more urbauity; they are almoft all
men of quiet, habits; and many of them are faid
to poflels learning.

here is another tribe among the Sikhs, called the Na-
nac Pautra, or defcendants of Nanac, who have the charac.
ter ef being a mild, inoffenfive race; and though they do
not acknowledge the inftitutions of Guru Govind, they are
greatly revered by his followers, who hold it facnlege to
ae the race of their founder; and, under the advantage
ich this general veneration aflords them, the Nanac Pautra
purfue their occupations ; whuch, if they are not mendicaats,
is generally that of travelling merchants. They do not carry
arms ; and profefs, agreeably to the doctrine of Nanac, to be
at peace with all mankind.
he Sikh converts continue, after they have quitted their
original religion, all thofe civil ufages and cuitoms of the
tribes to which they belonged, that they can pra¢tife, with-
out infringement of the tenets of Nanac, or the initituuions of
Guru Govind. They are moit particular with to
their intermarriages; and on this point, Sikhs defcended
from Hindoos almof invariably conform to Hindoo cuftoms,
every tribe intermarrying within itfelf. The Hindoo ufage
regarding diet, is alfo held equally facred; no Sikh de-
{cended from a Hindoo family ever violating it, except upon
particular occafious, fuch as a Guru-mata, when they are
obliged, by their tenets and inftitutions, to eat promifcu-
oufly. The itrict obfervance of thefe ulages has enabled
many of the Sikhs, particularly of the Jat and Gujar tribes,
which include almolt all thofe fettled to the fouth of the
Setlej, to preferve an intimate intercourfe with their original
tribes ; who, confidering the Sikhs not as having lott caft,
but as Hindoos that have joined a political affociation, which
obliges them to conformto geueral rules eitablifhed for its pre-
fervation, neither refufe to mtermarry, por to eat with them,

We shall here add, that the “ Jats’’ are Hindoos of a low
tribe, who, taking advantage of the declining ftate of the
Mogul empire, have, by their courage and enterprife, raifed
themfelves to fome confequence on the north-weitern parts of
Hindooltan, and many of the itrongeft forts of that part of

India are itil in their pofleflion. The “ Gujars’’ are alfo
Hindoos, and have railed themfelves to power by means not
diffimilar to thofe ufed by the Jats. ‘Almott all’ che thiewes

in Hindoottan are of this tribe.

The higher cait of Hindoos, fuch as Brahmens and Ctha-
triyas, who have become Sikhs, continue to intermarry with
— anew own tribes, a with Hindoos of the

ve abandoned, as aa pays eating

animal food, all kinds of which are lawfi pay ade
the cow, which it is held {acrilege to flay.
2 The

SIK

The Mahometans, who become Sikhs, intermarry with
each other, but are allowed to preferve none of their ufages,
being obliged to eat hog’s flefh, and abftain from circum-
cHion. ;

The Sikhs are forbidden the ufe of tobacco, but allowed to
indulge in {pirituous liquors, which they almoft all drink to
excefs ; and it Is rare to fee a Sinh foldier, after funfet,
quite fober. Their drink is an ardent fpirit, made in the
Panjab ; but they have no objection to either the wine or
{pirits of Europe, when they can obtain them.

The ufe of opium to intoxicate is very common with the
Sikhs, as with moft of the military tribes of India. They
alfo take b’hang (cannabis fativa), another inebriating drug.

The condu& of the Sikhs to their women differs in no
material refpeét from that of the tribes of Hindoos, or Ma-
hometans, from whom they are defcended: their moral
character, with regard to women, and indeed in moft other
points, may, from the freedom of their habits, generally be
confidered as much more lax than that of their ancettors,
who lived under the reftraint of fevere reftriGtions, and whofe
fear of excommunication from their caft, at leaft obliged
them to cover their fins with the veil of decency. This the
emancipated Sikhs defpife ; and there is hardly an infamy
which this debanched and diffolute race are not accufed, and
with juttice, as fir John Malcolm believed, of committing
in the moft open ahd fhameful manner.

The Sikhs are almoft all horfemen, and they take great
delight in riding. Their horfes were formerly famous for
their ftrength, temper, and aétivity ; but they are now no
better mounted than the Mahrattas.

Their horfemen ufe {words and fpears, and moft of them
now carry match-locks, though fome ftill ufe the bow and
arrow, a fpecies of arms for excellence in the ufe of which
their forefathers were celebrated, and which their defcend-
ants appear to abandon with great reluctance. 2

The education of the Sikhs renders them hardy, and ca-
pable of great fatigue ; and the condition of the fociety in
which they live, affords conftant exercife to that reftlefs
{pirit of aétivity and enterprife which their religion has
generated. Such a race cannot be epicures ; they appear,
indeed, generally to defpife luxury of diet, and pride them-
felves in their coarfe fare. Their drefs is alfo plain, not
unlike the Hindoos, equally light, and divefted of ornament.
Some of the chiefs wear gold bangles, but this is rare ; and
the general charaéteriftic of their drefs and mode of living
is fimplicity.

The principal leaders among the Sikhs affeét to be’fami-
liar and eafy of intercourfe with their inferiors, and to de-
fpife the pomp and ftate of the Mahometan chiefs; but
their pride often countera¢ts this difpofition ; and they ap-
pear to have, in proportion to their rank and confequence,
more ftate, and to maintain equal, if not more referve and
dignity with their followers, than is ufual with the Mah-
ratta chiefs.

It would be difficult, if not impradticable, to afcertain
the amount of the population of the Sikh territories, or
even to compute the number of the armies which they could
bring into aétion. They boaft that they can raife more
than a hundred thoufand horfe ; and, if it were poflible to
affemble every Sikh horfeman, this ftatement might not be
an exaggeration; but there is, perhaps, no chief among
them, except Ranjit Sinh, of Lahore, that could bring an
effeGtive body of four thoufand men into the field ; and the
force of Ranjit Sinh did not, in 1805, amount to eight
thonfand, and part of that was under chiefs who had been
fubdued from a ftate of independence, and whofe turbulent
minds ill-brooked an ufurpation, which they deemed fub-

SIL

verfive of the conftitution of their commonwealth. His
army is now more numerous than it was, but it is com-
pofed of materials that have no natural cohelion, and the
firft ferious check which it meets will probably caufe its dif-
folution. :

As for the religion of the Sikhs, it feems, fays fir John
Malcolm, to have been a fort of pure deifm, grounded on
moft {ublime general truths, blended with the belief of all
the abfurdities of the Hindoo mythology, and the fables of
Mahometanifm ; for Nanac profeffed to conciliate Hindoos
and Mahometans to the belief of his do&trine, by perfuading
them to reject thofe parts of their refpeétive belief and
ufages, which, he contended, were unworthy of that God
whom they both adored. He endeavoured to imprefs both
Hindoos and Mahometans with a love of toleration, and an
abhorrence of war; and his life was as peaceable as his
do¢trine. ‘

We cannot forbear remarking on the inconfiltency and
contradiétion which are involved in the idea of ‘“ pure
deifm’” blended with the belief of abfurdities. As well
might we call a fyftem of philofophy perfe&, the greater
part of which is nonfenfe. Is it not evident, fays an ano-
nymous writer, that fo far as abfurdities are mixed with a
religious creed, fo far the purity of its deifm is excluded.
—But to proceed ; Guru Govind, as we have already fug-
gefted, gave a new chara¢ter to the religion of his followers,
by eftablifhing inftitutions and ufages, which not only fepa-
rated them from other Hindoos, but which, by a complete
abolition of all dittinétions of calls, deftroyed a fyltem of
civil polity, which, from being interwoven with the religion .
of a weak and bigotted race, fixed the rule of its priefts
upon a bafis that had withftood the fhock of ages. For
further particulars we mutt refer to the author, whofe ela-
borate account of the Sikhs has furnifhed the principal ma-
terials of this article. Malcolm’s Sketch of the Sikhs, in
vol. xi. of the Afiatic Refearches ; or Sketch of the Sikhs,
&c. London, 1812. Reanell’s Memoir, Introd. Edin.
Rev. No. 42.

SIKI, in Geography, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania, on the Draganto ; 27 miles W. of Selefkeh.

SI-KIANG, or Wf River, a river of China, which
rifes near Fong-tcheou, in Quang-tong, and runs into the
fea, S. of Canton.

SIKIATZKOI, a town of Ruffia, on the Lena; 140
miles N. of Ziganfk. N. lat. 69°20’. EE. long. 121° 4o!.

SIKINOS, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, which
lies feven or eight miles to the W.S.W. of Nio. This
ifland is lofty and mountainous, of {mall extent, being about
twenty miles in circumference, and contains, according to
Olivier, no more than 200 inhabitants. It has no harbour,
and is now little frequented by Europeans. Its produétions
confift of wheat, barley, wine, cotton, and fruits. It pays
about 2000 piattres to the captain-pacha. A town of the
fame name with the ifland is fituated on arock, which hangs
over the fea. N. lat. 36° 43'. E. long. 25° rol,

SIKKE. See Sice.

SIKNA, a river of Moldavia; which runs into the Zita,
20 miles S.W. of Batufzani.

SIKOKO. See X1coco. y

SIKOVOE, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. -S.
lat. 7° 12! KE. long. 131° 51!.

SIL, a river of Switzerland, which runs into the Limat,
one mile below Zurich.—Alfo, a river of Spain, in Galicia,
which rifes in the mountains to the welt of Leon, where it

receives the Beza and the Burvia in Galicia, pafles on to

San-Efteyan and to Torbe, where it receives the Lor, and
in

F

SIL
in its turn falls into the Mino; its courfe as thirty-three
1% in Canals, the bottom timber of fuices, lock-gates,

Six, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by the ancients to
a red ochre, of which they had three diftin@ kinds, the fl
Aiticum, and 7 all of which are to

is

for their finett. It is very heavy, and of
red, with fome tendency to purple, of a loofe
and very rough and <w furface, It
the

adheres to , is fomewhat foft to the touch,
crumbles to the fingers, and {tains the
altringent tafte.

freely in the mouth, and has
It burns to a much

colour, and makes no effervefcence with aqua fortis.
It is dug in many parts of England,
in great quantities. Hill.
is the purple ochre, called in later times
is alfo a fubftance in fome de
i It fometimes falls into

the ochres,

SF
E

Hi
F

is alfo of an obfcurely and
naturally ane into

very heavy,
a fine lead-ore,

:

is of a

£
i

if

a
e

ap
ie
a

r

Hi
:

4
E

it is much ufed as a paint in the
is fome of it at times brought over
to make it @ regularly marketable

r
;

of the cinnabar it contains; three ounces
on trial, two drachms and a fcruple of
. Hill.
,in oe Geography, a forett of Italy, a
N. of the town of Rhegium, occupying part o pen-
nines. Strabo.—Alfo, a town pach 5 at a confiderable
dittance from Japygia. ;
. SILACH, a word ufed by medical waows re oa
order of the id, confifting in a preternatu i
ing without ve Rested som

SILADING, in G , a {mall ifland in the Eatt

Indian fea, near the N. of Celebes. N. lat. 1° 21.

E. ~ 124° 25.

‘ ‘in Ancient » a town fituated in the
interior of Arabia Felix. ;%

_ SILAH-ETCHAUK, in Gregraphy, a town of Bengal ;
25 miles N.W. of Ramgur.

Vor. XXXII.

Befide its ufe as a paint, it is worth enquiring cla

SIL

SLLAL, a town of Hungary; 42 miles 5, of Zatmar.

SLLAMBOE, a town on the 5. coait of the iMaad of
Java, §, lat, 7° 93'. E. long. 107° 15’,

SILANDAM: in Aacient Geography, 2 town of Afia
Minor, in Lycia.

SLLARUS, a river of Italy, which commenced in the
territory of the Hirpinui, feparated the Picestim from
Lucania, and difcharged itfelf into the fea pear Poettum,
Strabo fays, that this river i the plants that were
thrown into it, without deltroying their colour or their
form.—Alfo, a mountain of Italy, in Lucania.

SILAS, a river of India, which {preng from a fountain
of the fame name, and ran into the country of the Silzans,
according to Arrian.

SILATUM, a word ufed by the ancient Romans to
exprefs a morning’s draught of wine. ‘This was ufually of
a wine medicated with the plant fili, or fefeli, and thence
had its name. It has always been the cuftom to medicate
the morning draughts of avy tlrong liquor; we do it with
wormwood, or the common bitter tincture; the Indians

with ginger.

SILAVENGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Novarefe ; 10 miles N.W. of Novara.

SILAUM, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors for
the faxifraga 7, or common meadow faxifrage.

A NA, in Geography, a town of Sescgums Shahan
in Bulgaria; 40 miles W. of Nicopoli.

SILBACH, a village of Weltphalia, in which is found
lead-ore mixed with filver ; 12 miles S. of Brilon.

SILBE, a town ef Africa, in the country of the
Foolahs, on the Senegal. N. lat. 17° 5’.

SILBERBACH, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 6 miles W. of Liebftadt

SILBERBERG, a mine-town of Silefia, belonging to
the principality of Brieg, but infulated in that of Muniter-

. N. lat. 50° 24'. E. long. 16° 26/.
ILBEREGG, a town of duchy of Carinthia; 2
miles N.W. of Ebernitein.

SILBERMANN, Jonann Anpreas, in Bi raphy, the
mott eminent and renowned organ-builder and maker of
keyed-inttruments in Germany. He was bora at Strafburg in
1712, and the firft of a numerous and eminent family of that
name, who have inherited his profeffional abilities and repu-
tation. There is, in Gerber’s Continuation of Walther’s
Mufical Lexicon, a lift of their feveral names and works ;
but old Silbermann was the Father Smith of Germany.
His inftruments are prized above all others for workman-
thip and tone. The Bach family have been always partial,
not only to Silbermann’s organs, but harpfichords and

vichords, When we heard Emanuel Bach perform at
Hamburgh, it was always on a favourite Silbermann clavi-
chord ; piano fortes were not then brought to great per-
fe&tion auy where ; but fince that time we find that John
ie? Sil n is much celebrated for his piano fortes.

SILBERSCHLAG, Jouw Isaiau, a German mathe
matician and mechanilt, was bora in 1721. He ftudied at
the college Kloiterberge, near Magdeburg, and afterwards
went through a ct of theology at Halle, from which

he returned to the college at which be had been be-

fore, where he taught natural philofophy and mathematics
for nine years. After this he became palter of one of the
churches at Berlin, and reétor of the royal feheol. He
was a member of the Academy of Sciences in that city ;
and, cus grind various works on mechanical and ma-
thematical fubjects, conitru@ed a at many machines,
inftruments, and models, for the ufe SF the ftudents in the
feminary which had been a under his care. He died
4 m

SIL

in November 1791. He left behind him a great number
of works, among which are, «* A Treatife on the warlike
Mechines of the Ancients ;’? «* Letters on the Northern
Lights; « A Treatife on Hydraulic Architecture ;’’
« The Chronology of the World reGtified by the Scriptures.””
Gen. Biog.

SILBERSTRASS, in Geography, a town of Saxony,
in the circle of Erzgebirg; 4 miles S.S.E. of Zwickau.

SILBIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Japygia.—Alfo, a town of Afia, in Greater Phrygia.

SILBODAL, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Warmeland ; 35 miles W. of Carlftadt.

SILBOJOCK, a town of Sweden, in the Lapmark of
Pitea ; 12 miles N. of Niarg,

SILBURY Hitz, one of the largeft barrows or tu-
muli in England, and probably in the world, is fituated on
the Marlborough Downs, about fix miles weft of the town
of Marlborough, in Wiltfhire. The origin, appropriation,
and hiftory of this extraordinary mound of earth, are alike
anknown to the topographer and antiquary. In the vicinity
of the immenfe druidical temple at Avebury,: (fee Avz-
BURY, ) it is rationally fuppefed to have been originally con-
nefted with that ftruéture:; and as the moft remote anti-
quities of this ifland, and of the civilized world, have given
rife to much fabulous diflertation, and fanciful hypothefis,
fo the barrow now called Silbury Hill has been referred to
various tribes of people, applied to different purpofes, and
attributed to the moft remote origin. Dr. Stukeley was of
opinion that its prefent name is of Saxon derivation, and
fignifies “* the great or marvellous hill;?? while others con-
tend that it is either a corruption for Sil-barrow, which they
tranflate “* the peaceful grave ;”” or of Sel-barrow, meaning
« the large or elevated barrow.””? The moft common fup-
pofition re{pecting its nature ranks it among the fepulchral
clafs of monuments. Stukeley calls it the tomb of Cunedha,
whom he charaéterizes as a celebrated Britifn king, who
refided at Cunetio (then fuppofed to have been Marlborough),
and gave his name to that town, and to the river Kennet, or
Kunnet. The Rev. Samuel Greathead, in a letter to Mr.
Britton, printed in the account of Wiltfhire, in the 15th
volume of the “ Beauties of England and Wales,”’ regards
Silbury as the burial-place of Prydain, a later king of the
Britons, to whom he afcribes the union of the Britifh tribes
under one monarchy, and the conftru&ion of Avebury, as
a place of aflembly for the chiefs and people on great na-
tional occafions. Another opinion refpeGting this tumulus
is, that it was the mount on which the Druids lighted up
fires, when they wifhed to give notice to the furrounding
country of fome intended religious ceremonial. This view
of the fubje&t is of courfe confined to thofe who confider
Avebury as having been a druidical temple ; among’ whom
is the Rev. Edward Davies, author of ** Celtic Refearches,”’
and of * The Mythology and Rites of the Britifh Druids.”
To thefe opinions relative to Silbury Hill may be added a
third, which may be regarded as equally probable with any
of the conjeétures above ftated. Itis, that, like the Tinwald
of the Ifle of Man, and the Moote-hill of Scone, it was the
mount of juftice, the eminence from the fummit of which the
king promulgated the laws ena€ted in the national affemblies,
and on which he and his judges fat to decide all important
caufes, whether of a civil or criminal nature.

Silbury Hill is fituated direG@tly fouth from Avebury, and
nearly in the centre between the extremities of the two ave-
nues, which extended from the temple to the dittance of a
mile each way. At the bafe the hill is about 560 feet in diame-
ter, or 1680 feet in circumference ; at the top, 105 feet diame-
ter, or 315 feet in circumference ; and it rifes 170 feet in per-

3

SIL

pendicular height. Stukeley eftimates its folid contents ag
13,558,809 cubic feet, and highly praifed the choice of the
ground, and the fymmetrical proportiens of the ftru@ture
itfelf. In digging here in 1723, a human fkeleton, with the
bit of a bridle, deer’s horns, and an iron knife, were difcovered,
which Dr. Stukeley confidently confidered to have belonged
to the perfon for whom he fuppofed the mount was raifed ;
but the pofture of the fkeleton near the furface and on a de-
clivity would render fuch a conclufion extremely improbable,
even though it were undoubted that Silbury is of fepulchral
origin. Stukeley’s Abury, folio, 1743. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, by J. Britton, F.S.A. 8vo. 1814.
SILCHESTER, a parifh in Hampfhire, England, at
the northern extremity of that county, bordering on Berk-
fhire, contains the feite and ruins of an ancient Roman
itation. It appears alfo to have been a city of the Belgic
Britons anterior to the Roman colonization of Great
Britain, and was called Caerfeiont, or Segont, as being the
chief city of the Segontiaci. In the feventh Iter. of
Antoninus it is named Vindomim, and marked xxi miles
from Venta-Belgarum (Winchelter), and xv from Callevam
(probably Reading.) That this was a Roman ttation of
importance, appears evident from the various roads, or vie,
branching from it; from the magnitude and conttrn@ion
of the walls, yalla, and amphitheatre; and from the nume-
rous coins and other relics that have been found here at
different periods. The whole city, or ftation, was fur-
tounded by a fofs, with a vallum on the infide, on which a
wall wasraifed. This was conttructed, in the ufual Roman
manner, with alternate layers, or rows of large flat tones,
rubble ttones, and cement, alfo bricks and flints. In one
place this wall was twenty-four feet thick, and the fofs was
above 100 feet acrofs. The exterior form of this ftation is
unlike any other Roman work in England, being an irre-
gular o€tagon ; whereas thofe of Camalodunum (Colchetter),
Venta-Belgarum (Winchefter), Lindum (Lincoln), Londi-
nium (London), and almoft all others, were conttru@ed in
the fhape of a parallelogram, with the corners rounded off.
The inclofed area of Silchefter is about one mile and a half
in circumference, and contains nearly one hundred acres,
the whole of which is appropriated to the arable and
pafture lands of a farm. In very dry feafons, it is ealy to
trace the fituation and diretiion of the Roman itreets, two
of which interfeGed the town, and communicated with the
four entrance gates, on the eaft, weft, north, and fouth
fides of the city. Near the centre of the area have been .
traced the foundations of a large edifice, fuppofed to have
been the forum. About 150 yards from the north-eaft
corner of the walls, are the banks of an amphitheatre,

‘which appears to have contained five rows,.or terraces for

fpe€tators: A fmall church and a farm-houfe, with its
offices, are all that now remain within the ancient walls; and
thus prefent an amazing eontrait to the appearance and pur-
fuits of former times. Now the humble and ufeful hufband-
man, with the humane Chrittian paftor, are the chief occu-
pants of this peaceful f{pot, which, in the third century, was
peopled with Roman foldiers, and-was often the theatre
of remorfelefs battles, favaee fports, and fenfelefs Pagan
ceremonies. A particular account of this place will be
found in the 6th volume of ‘ The Beauties of England,”
by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.
SILCOLU, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 8 miles
S.E. of Seringapatam. }
SILDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa; in
Mauritania Cefarienfis, according to Ptolemy. The Itine-
rary of Antonine places this town on the route from Toco-
Jofida to Tingis, between Aquee Daciee and Vofpifcane.
AAS SHODE

SIL

SILD : VEL, in Geagrapby, a clutter of {mall lands
— in the Contegat 5 6 miles 5. of
m

BILE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower Egypt,
on the route from faboien to Pelufa, betweeo Maydolum
and Thauhalium, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

Sire, m a river of Italy, which pafles by
Trevigio, and runs into the Adriatic, oppofite to the ifland

4 in Rural Economy, provincially the name of a milk-

te 1 Y, in a and populous village
(eet Saya ps Teepe mead in.

aor rama and menus of Licata Eug-

land. lordthip contains t 2139 acres, the greater

of which was inclofed, with oabeniopetanees lands,

conformity to an act of parlament pafled in 1759. The

to earl Ferrers. In the parifh were for-

manfions, belonging to the Sherard

Pochin families. In 1811 the parith contained

and 1200 ibabitants, molt of whom were

el

fi
i
i
:
i“

i
!
f

i
f

|

of Leicefter, folio, vol. i
_ SILEIN, a town of Hungary; 14 miles E.N.E. of
~ SILENCE, Fr. in Mufc, equivalent to ref ; which fee,

innzus to this

Guitesiens so) i
soe, Will. Sp. Pi. v. 2= 691. oer atest
Purth 315. . 302. Lamarck a AD Pa .
; t eaiebalens Lina.
v. 2. 684. Mart. Mill.
ee Lamarck Did. v. 2.219. LIlluftr. t. 377.
cindria Trips Oy eee ret ar ee
7 it i at. i inn. aryo-
Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubuiar,

oe tee Sg Cor. Petals five ; claws
narrow, the length of the calyx, bordered with a mem-

pFe
if
1

2

i

2

i

con!
Peric. Capfule cylindri

the calyx, more or
burfling at the top into fix teeth.

rt
i

i
i

Calyx of one leaf, {welling. Petals five, with

-
sa)
r
e

?

Si GL

ero claws. Caplule fupenor, umperleAly Umweo-celied,
burfling at the top, Seeds numerous,

Obf,. The crown of the petals, on which Lionzus dey
peaded for his charaéter oi Silene, in contraduinttion to
Cucubalus, being found not ouly vo feparste {pccies moll
clofely related, ) He even to vary in the fame {pecies, as La-
marck and many others have wotieed; the authors which
fland firlt on our hit of references above, have agreed to
remove to Silene all the Linnwan Cwcubali, except C. or:
on which Tournefort originally founded that presse w hide
has iudeed a crown, but is diflinguifhed by having for its
fruit a real Jerry, not a capfule. See CucuBALus.

Silene, thus confid is a walt geous, of which new
{pecies are fill from time to time difeovered, in the warmer
and drier regions of the fouth of Europe, end north of
Africa; countries abounding particularly with this tibe
of plants, All the {pecies in general are hire many
of them annual, very few fthrubby. Their flems are
jointed, branched, leafy, frequently glutinous, for a certain
fpace, below each joint. The calyx and flalks arc
bebe downy, fomewhat vilcid, aves op .
fimple, enture. Petals red or white, rarely greenith or yel-
lowith ; fcarcely ever blue. Some of the Jowers, efpecially
the greenith ones, are delicioufly fragrant at night; and
the reft, if they have any fcent, are iweeteft at that time,
like the Pink tribe in general. We fhall feleet fuflicient
examples of the genus, particularly deferibing fuch as are
new, or hitherto only mentioned in the Prodr. Fl. Greex,
as well as all thofe of Britith growth.

Se&t.1. Stem raccmofe 3. cccafonally /— Sorked.

S. anglica, Englih Catchfly. ian. Sp. PL
Willd. n. a. Ait. on. 1g. Fl Brit. 0. 1. Engl
t. 1178. Curt. Lond. fafe. 4. t. 30. (Vilcago ceraftei
foliis, vafculis pendulis, anglica; Dill. Elth. 417. t. 309.
f. 398.)—Hairy and vifcid. Petals notched. Flowers
lateral, ereét, alternate. Lower fruit {preading or re-
flexed.—Native of cultivated fields, on a light faudy foil,
in England and France, flowering in July, The root is
fibrous, {mall and annual. Stem branched, {preading, weak
and brittle, » round, hairy, {welling above each joint,
ufually about a foot high. Leaves lanceolate, acute, entire,

9+

4 gare fomewhat hairy ; the lower ones obovate. Flowers

litary, on fhert ftalks, alternate from the bofoms of the
upper leaves. Ca/yx with ten ribs, {welling as the fruit
advances. Petals broadly elliptical, cloven, the claw of
each crowned with a divided f{eale; their colour white,
occafionally marked with a faint reddifh {pot.

S. quinguevulnera, Variegated Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl.
595- Willd. on. 3. Ait. n. 7. Purfh n. 1. Fi. Brit.
n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 86. (Lychnis hirta minor, fiore

variegato; Tourn. Init. 337. Dodart Mem. ed. Amit.
601. t. 23.)—Hairy. Petals roundifh, entire. Flowers
lateral, alternate, ereét, as well as the fruit.—Native of dry
or fandy fields in the fouth of Europe and the Levant. Mr.
Hudfon found it near Wrotham in Kent; and Mr. Purfh
near Charleftown, Carolina, on the fea-coatt. We prefume
this {pecies to have been carried from Europe to i

being a common hardy annual in gardens, where it flowers
in June and July. The plant is not vifcid like the preceding,
Gongs hairy. The petals are remarkable for a brilliant
crim A e ofeach. The lowett cap/ules are

5S. noflurna. Spiked Night-flowering Catchfly. Linn,
> Pl. 595. Willd. n. 6. Ait.n.18. Purthn.6. Sm.
uspublithed. (Vifcago hirta

noGtiliers;i flotibuscobloletis {picatic; ill, Elth. 420.
t. 310. f. 400. Lychuis ieee lurfuta elatior {picata,
412 lim

SILENE.

lini colore; Barrel. Ic. t. 1027. f. 1.)—Flowers {piked,
alternate, nearly feffile, dire@ted one way. Petals deeply
cloven. Leaves fpatulate, hairy.—Native of Spain, the
fouth of France, vineyards about Conttantinople, and cul-
tivated ground in Greece; alfo of Virginia ; flowering in
June and July. An annual, upright, flightly branched
{pecies; the /eaves which accompany the flowers narrow,
and much f{maller than the reft. Petals {mall, pale pink, or
white with a green external tinge, minutely crowned. Cap-
fule ovate, ftalked. The flowers are {aid to expand at
night only.

S. pendula. Pendulous Catchfly. Linn, Sp. Pl. 599.
Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 37. Prodr. Fl. Gree. n. 979.
Curt. Mag. t. 114. (Vifcago hirta ficula, lychnidis aqua-
tice facie, fupina; Dill. Elth. gar. t. 312.) — Flowers
racemofe. Calyx of the fruit pendulous, inflated, with ten
rough ribs. Stem decumbent. — Native of Italy, Sicily,
Crete, and Cyprus, flowering in the {pring. Every bank
about Rome is decorated with this elegant plant in the
{pring. Nothing is better calculated for the decoration of
rock-work, or dry parterres, than this hardy annual, whofe
purplith /fems {pread in every direGtion, and are copioufly
adorned with large pink flowers, with a membranous, violet-
ribbed, inflated calyx. The feeds {catter themfelves with-
out any trouble.

S. vefpertina. Pink Evening Catchfly. Retz. Obf.
fafe. 3.31. Willd. n.24. Ait. n. 35. Curt. Mag.
t. 677. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 409, unpublifhed. (S.
bipartita; Desfont. Atlant. v. 1. 352. t. 100. S. ciliata;
Willd. n. 4, excluding the fynonym. Lychnis marina hir-
futa purpurea, leucoji folio; Barrel. Ic. t. 1o10.)—Petals
with two deep rounded lobes, and a fharp cloven. cretft.
Calyx downy. Leaves fpatulate. Stems diffufe.—Found
on the fea-fhores of Sicily, Barbary, Crete, Zante, and
Greece, not uncommon. It has been known about twenty
years in our gardens, as a hardy annual, flowering in fum-
mer. lLinneus had fpecimens, but never determined the
{pecies. The /fems bear numerous {patulate aves. The
flowering branches are naked below, each terminating in a
fimple clufler of eight or ten handfome bratteated pink
flowers, all drooping one way, with a reddifh club-fhaped
calyx. ‘The pubefcence, efpecially of the calyx, is more
clofe and foft than in §. pendula, though more long and
fhaggy in fome {pecimens than others. The /fem is very
rarely once forked, being ufually altogether racemofe.

S. difcolor. Pale Spiked Catchfly. Prodr. Fl. Grec.
n. 981. Fl. Grec. t. 410, unpublifhed.—Petals with two
deep narrow fegments, and a notched creft. Calyx villous.
Leaves obovate. Stem diffufe.—Gathered by Dr.’ Sib-
thorp, in the ifle of Cyprus. The root is annual, long.
Stems {preading, fearcely a fpan in length, not forked,
though moftly once divided, round, leafy, reddifh, rough,
like the reft of the herbage, with long fpreading hairs.
Leaves thick and broad, rather more than an inch in length ;
the lower ones tapering at the bafe. Flowers fix or eight
in each {pike, ereét, on fhort partial ftalks. Calyx rather
lender, hardly an inch long, with ten red hairy ribs. Limb
of each petal nearly as long as the claw; pale red on the
upper fide; light green, with darker veins, beneath; crett
white, divaricated, double-toothed.

S. thymifolia. _Thyme-leaved Catchfly. Prodr. FI.
Grec. n. 982. Fl. Grec. t. 411, unpublifhed.— Petals
with two deep narrow fegments, and a notched creft. Calyx
hairy, glutinous. Stems procumbent, woody, much
branched. Found by Dr. Sibthorp on the fandy fhores of
Caria and the ifle of Cyprus. Root perennial. Stems a foot
ar two in length, widely fpreading, repeatedly branched,

copioufly jointed, round, hairy, fending up feveral terminal,
afcending, fimple, leafy, hairy, and rather vifcid, flowering
branches, from three to fix inches long. Leaves obovate,
acute, rough, about half an inch long, with axillary tufts
of ftillfmaller ones. Flowers racemofe, three or four at the
top of each branch, ere&t, white; the back of the petals
greenifh. Calyx an inch long, hairy, pale green, with
pink dots. 2

S. ceraftoides. Ceraftium-leaved Catchfly. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 596. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 20. FI. Gree. t. 412,
unpublifhed. (Vifcago ceratii foliis, vafculis eredtis fefli-
libus; Dill. Elth. 416. t. 309. f. 397-)—Hairy. Petals
cloven; creft divided, with a pair of teeth at the bafe.
Stem much branched, fpreading, fomewhat forked. Leaves
linear-lanceolate.—Native of the fouth of Europe, and of
Afia Minor. A hardy annual, flowering in fummer, about
afpan high. Leaves narrow, acute, green, very hairy, an
inch or inch and half long. #/owers rofe-coloured, {piked,
not quite feffile. Calya very hairy, half an inch long,
white, with five green ribs. #/oral leaves the length of the
calyx. Capfule nearly globofe, ftalked, with five teeth.
Seeds rugged, black.

S. dichotoma. Forked Long-branched Catchfly. Ehrh.
Beitr. v. 7. 143. Pl. Sele@. n. 65. Willd. n. 23. Fi.
Grec. t. 413, unpublifhed. (S. trinervis; Soland. in
Ruffell’s Aleppo, ed. 2. 252.)—Petals in two deep narrow
fegments, with fearcely any crown. Stem forked, race-
mofe, villous as well as the leaves. —Native of Hungary and
the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in Crete, and about
the Bithynian Olympus. We believe this fpecies was
raifed, about 25 years ago, in many gardens about London,
from feeds fent by the late Mr. Davall, fo that it is entitled
toa place in the Hortus Kewenfis. Root biennial, tapering,
as thick as a common radifh. Svems feveral, afcending,
from one to two feet high, round, fhaggy with long fpread-
ing hairs, once or twice forked, with an intermediate,
nearly feffile, flower, and then extended into long, fimple,
{piked or racemofe branches, each bearing five or fix diftant
white flowers, whofe petals are narrow, with only occafional
rudiments of a creft. Calyx with ten green ribs. Aathers
green. Seeds red-brown. The /eaves are chiefly radical,
and very numerous, compofing a denfe, fhaggy, hoary, and
fomewhat glaucous, tuft; each /eaf two inches long, and
nearly one broad, obovate, bluntly pointed, tapering down
into a broad footfalk.

S. divaricata. Forked Spreading-branched Catchfly.
Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 985. Fl. Gree. t. 414, unpub-
lifhed.—Petals in two deep rounded lobes, with a cloven
creft. Stem forked, divaricated, racemofe. Leaves all
lanceolate, hairy, acute. Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp on
the coaft of Afia Minor. In fize and habit this bears fome
affinity to the laft, but is more leafy, and the /eaves are
longer, tapering at each end, undulated, of a darker green,
rough with fhorter hairs, not fhaggy. The flowering
branches {pread at almoit right angles. The flowers are
white, but with much broader and rourder fetals, each
petal bearing a rounded cloven crett.

Se&t. 2. Stem forked, with panicled branches.

S. inflata. Common Bladder Campion or Catchfly.
Fl. Brit. n. 5. Prodr. Fl. Grec. n. 986. Ait. n. 1.
(Cucubalus Behen; Linn. Sp. Pl. 591. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 2. 684. Engl. Bot. t. 164. Fl. Dan. t.g14. Behen
album; Ger. Em. 678.) — Flowers panicled, drooping.
Petals cloven half way down, moftly naked. Calyx fmooth,
reticulated with veins. Stem erect.—Common in dry fields,
pattures, and by way-fides throughout Europe, from Nor-
way to Greece, flowering in the middle of fummer. aM

chaux

SILENE.

chaux noticed it in Canada. ‘The reot is perennial, long,
whitith, branching at the fummit. Stemy ere@, a foot and

‘anicle forked, bearing nu-
Calyx almolt globofe,

veins and ribs. Limb of each petal almott as long
as its claw, cut half way down into two {preading, oblong,
fomewhat rounded fegments, y dettitute of a crell,
but we have fometimes det i

iments of one. An-

thers green, oceafionally liable to a difeale, by which
become teeming with ufelefs purple duit, whi
ftains the The natives of Zante, who call this plant
Pop = ooh vmanmmeeine which are faid to partake of

green peas. }
S. maritima. Sea Campion or Catchfly. With. 414.

Fi. Brit. n, 6. Bot. t.957. Willd. n.29. Ait.
n. 23. (S. ameena; Hudf. Ang 18 Lightf. Scot. 227.
C a; pean s 4 Dan. t. 857.
marina anglicana uh. Hilt. v. 3. p. 2. 357.
Ger. Em. Lob. Ic. 337.)—Flowers nearly folitary,
terminal. cloven a half way down; the feg-
ments of entire, reticulated wit

veins, Stem decumbent.— of the fandy or rocky
fea-thores of Norway, Britain, Gothland, &c. as well as of
of mountain a in sheers —

5 ap ce leaves an
eee emer he

rarely two or three, fearcely con-
leaves are narrower, linear-lanceo-
{patulate, very fmooth and glaucous,
at the s. Calyx much like the latt.
almoft globular. Styles occafionally varying

Fringed Campion or Catchfly. Sims in
Mag. t. go8. Ait. a. 46.— Flowers panicled,
Petals divided, many-cleft; the fegments of
. Calyx veined, downy. Stem
t Caucafus, from whence it was fent to fir
Mr. Loddi

iM

f
ct
a

prLE?

Ut i
a
d

saben Thick-leaved Campion or Catchfly. Prodr.
n

-)

. 987. Fl. Grec. t. 415, unpublifhed. Ait.
a2 us fabarius; Linn. Sp. Pl. 591. Willd.
Pl. v. 2. 685. Been album, feu Polemonium faxatile,

iz folio, ficulum; Bocce. Muf. 133. t. 92.)—Flowers
crowded, drooping. Petals in two deep, rather

narrow, lobes ; the fegments of their creft notched. Leaves
obovate, with a fmall point.—Native of rocky places near
the fea, in Sicily, Afia Minor, Mount Athos, and the ifle
of Samos. Root i Plant very glaucous and
twice as tall as the inflata, with much thicker and
broader /eaves. The flem is once or twice forked, each of
upright branches bearing feveral remote, fhort,
tufted clufers of drooping white 4, with a reticulated,
ih, tumid, angular calyx; and flalks, with pointed

bratiear, allof the fame hue. ‘The lunb of each petal is half
the length of its claw, in two narrow-obovate, {preading
lobes; the creft deeply divided, with tharply cremate feg-
ments. Germen red in the lower half, green above. Cap-
Jule vearly globofe. The at {pecies ts obvioully, ac-
cording to the Linnwan charaéter itfelf, a Silene, and too
clofely related to the Uhree ng, and the following,
to be feparable from any of them, even in a fection of a
nus.
on Beben. Oriental Bladder Campion or Catchfly,
Linn, Sp. Pl. s99. Willd.n. 2s. Ait.o. 36. Fl. Gree.
t. 416, unpublithed, —_ ( Vifeago veficaria cretica, parvo flore
purpurafcente; Dill, Elth, 427. t. 317.)—Flowers in a
corymbofe panicle, nearly upright, Petals deeply divided,
rounded; the fegments of their creit notched. Calyx retis
culated. Leaves obovato-lanceolate.—Native of Crete,
Alia Minor, and Greece.—The root of this is annual.
Herb \efs glaucous than the lait, and more approaching in
habit to our common S, inflata ; but the flowers are {malle

,
and eflentially different. The limb of cach petal is but a

quarter the length of its claw, pale pink, in two elliptical,
or almoft orbicular, lobes, with a white crefl, of two, quite
feparate, notched fegments. Germen clevated on a flalk of

with the petals and flameas, within the
calyx, as is more or lefs the cale with mott of this genus.
S. cefia. Sea-green Campion or Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fi. Grac. n. 98g. Fl. Gree. t. 417, unpublihhed. (Lychnis
cretica montis Ide, folio fubrotundo exfio ; Tourn. Cor.
24, by the chara¢ter.)—Flowers in a corymbofe panicle,
ere&t. Petals in two deep linear divifions ; the fegments of
their creft entire. Leaves roundifh-obovate.—Native of
mount Parnaflus, and if we are right in Tournefort’s fyno-
nym, of mount Ida. This delicate {mooth f{pecies has a
very deep perennial roof, crowned with a denfe tuft of nu-
merous, A occun leafy, round, jointed flems, nearly a {pan
high, each terminating in one or two naked flowerin
branches, abvut a finger’s length, bearing a forked panicle,
of from four to ei a pale, but elegant, flowers. The

its own length, pet,

leaves are full an inch long, and half as broad, of a deep
glaucous n, tapering down into fhort broad fe »
which clafp the ftem. Bra&eas under the partial -
Jflalks {mall, ovate, acute. Calyx obovate, half an inch
long, ti with pink, and variegated with n and white,
gi) reticulated. Puch poy aie

underneath ; their lobes almoft clofe, or parallel,
above half the length of the claw. Styles and_flamens rofe-
coloured, with greenith anthers.

S. levigata. Smooth-cupped Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. n.ggo. Fl. Gree. t. 418, uopublifhed.—Panicle
{preading. Petals cloven half way down, narrow, without
a crelt. Leaves roundifh-elliptical. Calyx very {mooth
and even, without veins.—Found by Dr. Sibthorp in hilly
parts of the ifle of Cyprus. The root is annual. Stems
feveral, from three to eight inches high, leafy below, fmooth
like every other part of the plant. Leaves of a deep glau-
cous hue; the radical ones obovate, ttalked ; the reft ovate,
lefs obtufe, and nearly feffile. Panicles forked; the partial
ftalks much longer than the calyx, which is ovate, reddith,
peculiarly even and polifhed. Petals {mall ; their limb pink,
in two oblong, obtufe lobes, feparated but half way down,
and dettitute of any crett. Styles very downy, rather fhort,

8. i hite Rock Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl. 602.
Willd. n. 52. Ait. n. 54. FL Dan. t. 4. (Avricula
muris alpina glabra; Bauh. Hilt. v. 3. 360.)—Panicle
{preading. Petals wedge- »eMarginate, with a cloven
crett. ves ovato.lanceolate. Calyx {mooth, cylindrical,
with ten ribs.—Native of dry meuntainous fituations in Nor-

way,

SILENE.

way, Sweden, Switzerland, and Greece. The root is peren-
nial, tufted, bearing feveral leafy ems, four or five inches

high, with a fomewhat corymbofe panicle. Herbage fmooth,
ereen, {carcely at all glaucous. Leaves an inch long, acute,
varying inlength. F/owers {mall, white. Cap/ule {plitting

from top to bottom into fix valves.

§. chlorefolia. Armenian Catchfly. [Sm. Plant. ex Herb.
Linn. t. 13. Willd.n. 50. Ait. n.52. Curt. Mag. t. 807.
(Lychnis orientalis vifcofa, centaurei lutei folio, flore longif-
fimo; Tourn. Cor. 24.)—Paniclefpreading. Petals cloven half
way down, with a two-lobed creft. Leaves glaucous, ellip-
tical, pointed. Calyx nearly cylindrical, very {mooeth, with-
out veins.—Gathered by Tournefort in Armenia. Said to
have been introduced at Kew in 1796, by Mr. John Hunne-
mann. A hardy perennial, twelve or eighteen inches high,
flowering in Auguft, readily known by the general refem-
blance of its foliage to Chiora perfoliata, though the leaves
are not perfoliate. Flowers large, erect, ina wide panicle,
without fcent, white, turning reddifh as they fade. Calyx
above an inchlong, tinged with purple, very {mooth, with-
out ribs or veins, its form flender, cylindrical, or flightly
club-fhaped.

S. longipetala. Long-petalled Catchfly. Went. Jard. de
Cels, t. 83. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. 992. Fl. Gree.
t. 419, unpublifhed.—Flowers pendulous. Petals in two
deep linear fegments; with a notched creft, and hairy claw.
Leaves lanceolate, rough-edged.—Found by Bruguiere and
Olivier, in the neighbourhood of Aleppo. Dr. Sibthorp
met with the fame in the ifle of Cyprus. The root is annual.
Stem two feet high, leafy, panicled, fpreading, and many-
flowered. Herbage rather glaucous, f{mooth, except the
edge of the leaves, which is rough to the touch. Leaves
about three inches long, acute, ftrongly ribbed ; the lower
ones elongated and contraGted at the bafe, clafping the {tem
at the very bottom. Fowers green, quite pendulous. Ca-
lyx obovate, ten-ribbed, fmooth, half an inchlong. Claws
of the fetals hairy below, as well as the /famens and /lyles ;
limb {mooth, very long, involute. Stigmas club-{haped, red
like the anthers.

_§. inaperta. Small Greenifh Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl.
6oo. Willd. n. 39. Ait. n. 44. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth.
t. 420. unpublifhed. (Vifcago levis, inaperto flore; Dill.
Elth. 424.t.315.)—Paniclefpreading. Flowersereét. Petals
in two deep narrow fegments; with a double awl-fhaped
creft. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fmooth.—Native of Ma-
deira. Aiton. Dr. Sibthorp found it on the mountains of
Greece. The root in his {pecimens is creeping, and evidently
perennial. Dillenius defcribes it as annual. Stems feveral,
near.a foot high, clothed in the lower part with numerous
fmooth green /eaves, about an inch long; and branching at
the top into a panicle of a few pale delicate flowers, which
feem not to have expanded properly in Sherard’s garden,
whence originated the fpecific name. In our Greek {peci-
mens the calyx is flender, rather club-fhaped, an inch long,
fmooth, with ten green ribs. Petals widely {preading,
greenifh-white above, light brown beneath ; their creit {mall,
in two fimple awl-fhaped lobes. Cap/ule ovate, its ftalk,
within the calyx, as long as itfelf.

S. juncea. Rufhy Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. n.g94. Fl. Gree. t-421, unpublifhed.—Panicle elon-
gated. Flowers ere&t. Petals in two deep narrow fegments ;
each lobe of their creft-three-toothed. Leaves {patulate,
all over rough.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor.
This has a {mall, white, annual root. Stem folitary, ereét,
two or three feet high; leafy and rough below ; terminating
in a very long, flender, fmooth, flightly {preading panicle,
of numerous flowers, which are rather larger than the pre-

ceding, but witha fhorter ca/ya. Petals white, with brown
veins beneath. The /eaves are crowded at the root, and
bottom of the ftem, green, an inch and a half long, fome-
what pointed ; thofe about the panicle are awl-fhaped and
{mooth.

S. cretica. Cretan Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl. 601. Willd.
n.42. Ait.n.47. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth. t.432, unpublifhed.
(Vifcago foliis inferioribus bellidis, fuperioribus tunicx,
calice itrictiore, et turgidiore; Dill. Elth. 422. ¢. 314.
f. 404, 405.)—Panicle {paringly branched. Flowers ereét.
Petalsin two deep divaricated fegmente; the lobes of their creft
acute, entire. Lower leaves obovate, undulated, roughifh.—
Found by Dr. Sibthorp on rocks near the fea, in Crete and
Cyprus, as well as on the coaft of Caramania. A hardy
annual, {pringing up {pontaneonfly year after year in Chelfea
garden. The /fems are two or three, from one to two feet
high, ereét, flender, vifcid. Leaves green; the lower ones
obovate, obtufe and rough; upper linear-lanceolate, acute,
{mooth. Flowers few, {mall, but not inelegant, crimfon,
with a {mooth, purplifh, obovate, ten-ribbed ca/yx. There
is an angular tooth to the claw of the fefals, at each fide, be-
low the creft.

S. conica. Corn Catcbfly. Linn. Sp. Pl. 598. Willd.
n.2t. Fl. Brit.n. 8. Engl. Bot. t.922. Jacq. Auittr.
t. 253. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth. t. 243, unpublithed.
(Lychnis caliculis ftriatis, fecunda Clufi; Ger. Em.
470.)—Stem forked. Petals cloven half way down ;
with a rounded: cloven creft. Leaves foft and downy.
Calyx of the fruit conical, with thirty ribs.—Native of
fandy corn-fields in the fouth of Europe and the. Le-
vant ; rare in England, thoughit ftill occurs, as in the time
of Dillenius, in the fandy parts of Kent, flowering about
July. Roof annual. Herb downy and vifcid, of a greyifh-

reen. Szems folitary or numerous, fpreading, various in
height, forked and panicled. Leaves linear-lanceolate, acute.
Flowers ere&t, pale rofe-coloured, fragrant, efpecially at
night, with the fcent of a honey-fuckle. Calyx cylindrical,
becoming conical as the capfule {wells and membranous,
with thirty green ribs, and five long flender teeth. Petals
nearly obcordate, as is alfo the white creft of each.—The
petals appear to be fometimes entire, fo that we fufpect Sy
conoidea of Linneus may bea variety of this, with {moother
broader /eaves.

S. nodiflora. Night-flowering Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl.
599. Willd. n. 31. Fi. Brit. n.9. Engl. Bot. t. 291.
(Ocymoides noétiforum ; Camer. Hort. 109. t. 34.)—Stem
forked. Petals rather deeply cloven; with a fhort blunt
creft. Calyx with ten angles, conneted by tranfverfe ribs ;
its teeth as long as the tube.—Native of fandy or gravelly
fields, in Sweden, Germany, England, Switzerland, Crete,
and Afia Minor; not rare in Norfolk and Suffolk, flowering
in July. Root annual. Herb dark green, foftly hairy or
downy, {preading, of a coarfe rank habit. Leaves lanceo-
late, three-ribbed ; the lowelt obovate. lowers the fize of
our common Lychnis dioica, (their calyx and ffalks very
vifcid,) unrolling their pale bluih-coloured fefa/s in. an even-
ing only, when they exhale, in warm weather, a powerful and
delicious fcent. The ttrong reticulated ribs of the calyx
are remarkable.

S. leucophza. White and Brown Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. n. tooo. Fl. Gree. t. 424, unpublifhed.
—Petals in two deep rather narrow fegments ; with a deeply
cloven crett. Calyx with ten angles. Leaves linear-oblone,
recurved, glutinous and hairy. Difcovered by Dr. Sib-
thorp, intheifle of Cyprus. A hairy, glutinous, branching,
annual f{pecies, about a {pan high. eaves an inch or inch
and half long, green, narrow, obtufe, channelled, fome-

what

SILENE.

recurved. Filewers {maller than the laf,
calyx, which is pale, reddith, delicate of
Pals cream-coloured above; of a cinna-
th; their creft in two rounded entire lobes.
ss night-feented flower, like the lat.
Buthy Red Catchfly, Sm. Prodr. Fi.
n. roor. Fl, Grec. t. 425, unpublithed.
3 Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 449? Bivon. Cent. 2.
’ flare rubro, minus, arent Bauh.
2. Lychois hirta anguitifolia cretica;
i. Bese ge divided ~% with a four-
Chiys club-thaped, with ten angles. Leaves
recurved. very much Native of
Sicily, on rocks near the fea. Root annual.
hairy and vifcid, green with a brown tint, re-
the very bottom, {preading, four
Leaves about an inch long, obtufe, ra-
very abundant, {mall, on long
the forks, fides, and fummits of the
Calyx fomew hat obovate, hairy, red, with
rofe-coloured; their limb divided nearl
3 their creft white, in four deep awl
ereét, cylindrical, openin

Hitt
ial

5

Fist egeteers
peat us

Fe

:
3

i
Hf
44

L

wn to us,
Stem forked, corymbe/e.

“S. roklia, Small-red-flowered Cupshiy. Linn. Sp.
Pl. Goo. Willd. n, 38. Au. n.g3. Sm. Fl. Grac.
Sibth. t. 426, uapublifhed, (Vifcago lufitanica, flore ru-
bello vix confpicuo; Dull 423. & 314 f. 406.) —
Smooth, Calyx obovate. Petals emarginate;
with a rounded two-lobed creft. Upper leaves ovato-
lanccalate”Capalethrice as as its partial ftalk,—
Native of fields and waite in Portugal, Rhodes,
and flowering in f{pring. Root annual. Herb
quite Oey earn Lhe Siem a foot or more
in height, branched the bettom, leafy ; all the branches
ere&t. Lower leaves obovate, recurved, an inch and a half
long: | rather fhorter, acute, lanceolate, flightly ovate,
sired Mhtkind int. Flowers moitly crowded into a
KcLopod pricey wih oo orto belo i the fork
of the ereét, icarcely more

i ng, ten-ribbed, ae aged

¢ a dull rofe-colour, {preading, in

;
ui

of a grafs-green, and finely
bys particulary the dem, the upper of which
Leaves broader, fometimes th in the

difk, though rough-edged. Flewers crowded and level-
topped. Calyx an inch long, downy, often red. Patals
ps en four-lobed like the lip of Orchu miftaria,
having two rounded central fegments, and two sarrower
tharp teral ones. The lobes of their refi are awlthaned.
The creft is not well diftinguifhed in Jacquin’s igure oak
the lateral lobes.

S, Armeria. Corimon, or Lobel's, Catchfly
Sp. Pl. Gor. Willd. ». 46. Fi. Brit. n. 10. Engl. Bor,
t. 1398 Fl, Dan, t. g59.. (Mofcipula Lobel; Ger,
Em, 601,)—Smooth, corymbole. Calyx cylindrical-club-

fhaped. Petals inate; with a tharp two-lobed creft.
Uns leaves he: a Partial flalk as long as the
—Found in s, and on banks, ip various parts

ca
of Fu pe, but a doubtful native of England, though fre-
quently cultivated as a hardy ornamental annual, flowering
in fummer. Dr, Sibthorp met with this {pecies in Greece,
and on moant Athos, In habit it agrees very much with
the lafl, but is fmooth, more glaucous, with broader Lawes,
and the calyx is not downy. The petals are fimply obeor-
date, without lateral lobes. There is s brown glutinous
ring under each joint of the fem, by which flies are
caught.

Italian Naked Catchfly. Prodr. Fl.

es Sm.

Cone Grec. Sibth. n. 1006. FL Gree. t. 429, unpublifhed,

Ait. o. 6. (Cucubales italicus; Linn. Sp. PL 593.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 686. Jacq. Obf. fale. 4. 12. t. 97.
not 79 as in Hort. Kew. ard Willdenow. )—Panicle co-
¢, {preading, fomewhat three-forked. Petals in two
narrow fegments, without acreit. Leaves {patulate,
rough.— Native of Italy and Greece. Cultivated by Miller.
The root is biennial. Herb green, roughith with thort rigid
hairs. Stem folitary, herbaceous, erect, twelve or eighteen
inches high, leafy, fomewhat branched above, but chiefly
at the bafe, from whence it fends out feveral, decumbent,
leafy, purplith fhoots, three or four inches long. Lower
leaves talked, fpatulate or obovate; upper lanceolate; all
thin and pliant, not flethy. Panicle cre&t, rather flender,
divaricated, more or lefs downy. Calyx an inch. long,
flightly {welling upward, with ten rough reddith ribs.
Petals quite naked; their limb cloven nearly to the bafe,
narrow, obtufe ; white above; veined with pu under-
jf aa ovate, on a long italk within the calyx.
Ss. wa. Panicled Naked Catchfly. Ait. n. 10.
eae catholicus; Linn, Sp. Pl. 593. Willd. Sp.

v. 2, 688. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 1. 23. t. 59.) —
Panicle forked, much branched, widely {preading. ~ Petals
in two deep narrow fegments, without a creit. Calyx obo-
vate, {mooth. Leaves ovato-lanceolate, nearly {mooth.—
Native of Italy and Sicily. Mentioned in Cupani’s Hortus

icus, or Garden of the Prince of la Catolica, whence

came the {pecific name ; and not, as many fuppofe, from the
plant a ip native of Roman Catholic countries. The plant
1s perennial, of a tall flender habit, green, {mooth, or fe i
rough, with a large divaricated penicle, of numerous, small
white flowers, whofe calyx is one-third of an inch long,
often purple, obfcurcly ribbed. Stamens ulually lon
than the petals. Cap/ule nearly globofe, on a long ft
We are not quite fatisfied refpecting Vifeago nofurna nom
i berbacco fore; Dill. Elth. 425. t. 316, confidered
by inneus as a variety of this, but it feems to be S. faxe-
iis, Ait. n. 28. Curt, Mag. t. 689:

" Velvet Nuked Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Gree. Sibth. x. 1007. Ait. n. 11. {Cucubalus molliffi.
mous; Linn, Sp. Pl. 593. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 688.) —
Panicle fe, fomewhat three-forked. Petals rounded,
clovea, without acreft. Stem, leaves, and calyx covered

with

SILENE.

with foft down.—Native of the fea-coalt of Italy. Ga-
thered by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor, between Smyrna
and Prufa. We regret that he had not time to have a
drawing taken of this rare and curious fpecies, of which
there is not, to our knowledge, any figure extant. Rand
mentions the plant as cultiyated at Chelfea, in 1739,
and Linneus had it at Upfal. The fem is branched, fome-
what fhrubby. Whole ferbage clothed with velvet-like
pubefcence. Leaves crowded, {patulate, an inch and a
half long, acute, flightly revolute. Panicles denfe, level-
topped. Calyx club-fhaped, ten-ribbed. Petals white or
reddifh ; their limb inverfely heart-fhaped. We find this
plant mentioned in Mr. Donn’s Cambridge catalogue, as in-
troducedin 1804. If it exifts in any garden, a figure ought
to be publifhed.

S. fruticofa. Shrubby Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl. 597.
Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 26. Sm. Fl. Grec. Sibth. t. 428,
unpublifhed. (Saponaria frutefcens, acutis foliis, ex Sicilia;
Bocce. Sic. 58. t- 30. Ocymoides fruticofum; Camer.
Hort. 109. t. 33, excellent.)—Panicle corymbofe, clofe,
fomewhat three-forked. Calyx club-fhaped, rough. Petals
cloven; crelt of four teeth. Stem fhrubby. Leaves
rough-edged.—Native of rocky fituations, near the fea, in
Sicily and Cyprus. It-is fuppofed, on the authority of
Parkinfon’s Paradi/us 254. n. 10, to have been cultivated
here in his time. The /fem is woody, half an inch in
diameter, with numerous tufted leafy branches, whofe
erect flowering extremities, about a {pan long, are more
diftantly furnifhed with {maller leaves, and are downy,
vifcid, and coloured in the upper part, each bearing a denfe
level-topped panicle, of ten or fifteen large flowers. Leaves
recurved, {patulate, pointed, about an inch long, evergreen,
fmooth, and fhining; the edges only being rough with
minute, reflexed, rigid hairs. Calyx above an inch long,
ten-ribbed. Limb of each fetal of a long, inverfely heart-
fhaped, form; pink above; veined with green beneath;
their creft white, of two acute, fomewhat notched, prin-
cipal fegments, and two fharp teeth at the bafe. In the
Prodr. Fl. Graec. the figure of this plant is, by miftake,
referred to §. paradoxa, which will be corrected in the
Flora itfelf.

Se&. 4. Stem panicled, fcarcely forked.

S. rigidula. Slender Rigid Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fi.
Grec. Sibth. n. to09. FI. Grec. t. 430, unpublifhed.—
Stem alternately branched, fpreading. Petals in two deep
fharpifh lobes; each fegment of their creft four-toothed.
Leaves lanceolate, fmooth.—Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp,
on mount Hymettus, near Athens. The roof is annual.
Stem ere&t, a foot high, copioufly branched from the very
bottom, {preading, flender, purplifh, vifcid, but, like every
other part, deltitute of pubefcence. Leaves green, narrow,
few and remote, about an inchlong; the lowermoft longer
and broader. Petals pale pink, veined with crimfon. Calyx
elub-fhaped, pale green, with ten red ribs, {mooth, not an
inch long. Capfule ovate, fhorter than its ftalk. A very
pretty {pecies, whofe copious and delicate flowers would
be an acquifition to our gardens.

S. /pinefcens. Thorny-branched Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grec. Sibth. to10. Fl. Gree. t. 431, unpublifhed.
—Stem fhrubby, branches oppoftte, horizontal, becoming
thorns. Petals deeply divided. ‘Leaves {patulate, downy
all over.—Found by Dr. Sibthorp in Afia Minor. The
jfiem is thick and woody, very denfely branched, leafy,
downy, remarkable for its numerous, long, divaricated,
lateral fhoots, which finally harden into {pines. The flower-
ing branches are erect, a {pan high, each bearing a race-
mofe, downy panicle, of pale-green flowers, veined under-

neath with brown, and, to judge by their afpeé&t, doubt-
lefs fragrant at night. Calyx about an inch long,’ green;

downy. The creft of each fetal confifts of two {mall,
rounded, white lobes. Cap/ule ovate, twice the length of
its ftalk.

S. gigantea. Gigantic Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl. 598.
Willd. n. 17. Ait. n.29. Sm. Fl. Gree. Sibth. t. 432.
(Lychnis greca, fedi arborefcentis folio et facie; Walth.
Hort. 32. t. 11.)—Stem ereét, downy, and vifcid. Flowers
tufted. Leaves fpatulate, villous. Petals in two rounded
lobes. Capfule nearly globular.—Native of Crete and the
iflands of the Archipelago; Linnzus by mittake fays of
Africa. It has long been known in our more curious
green-houfes, and is efteemed for the {weet noGturnal per-
fume of its pale green flowers. The plant, though a yard
high, and of a fhrubby afpedt, is only biennial. Radical
leaves two inches long, copious, of a broad {patulate figure,
more or lefs villous, light green, obtufe, with or without a
{mall point. Stem ftraight, vifcid ; leafy, with feveral fhort
branches, below ; flightly branched above, but befet with
denfe, whorl-like, downy panicles, of numerous flowers.
Calyx three-quarters of an inch long, club-fhaped, downy.
Limb of the petals divided more than half way, into two
broad rounded lobes, veined beneath with purple; their
cel cloven, very fhort. Cap/ule twice as long as its

alk.

S. congefa. Tufted Green Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. n. 1o12.—Stem fomewhat branched. Pani-
cles terminal, denfe, many-flowered. Petals deeply divided,
without a crett. Leaves {patulate, downy.—Gathered by

Dr. Sibthorp in Greece; we believe on hills near Athens. ©

The root is woody, evidently perennial, bearing many tufts
of copious, fpatulate, obtufe, green /eaves, an inch and a
half long, clothed, like the reit of the herbage, with denfe,
very fhort, pubefcence. Svems ere&t, from nine inches to
two feet high, fcarcely leafy, bearing a few alternate
branches, fomewhat vifcid at the top, where each termi-
nates in a denfe tufted panicle of greenifh flowers, whofe
calyx is half an inch long, obovate, or club-fhaped, and
whofe fetals are cloven into two rounded lobes, without
any creft. This fpecies, of which we have no figure, is'in
fome points allied to the laft, but more akin, on the whole,
to the following.

S. viridiflora. Panicled Green Catchfly. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 597. Willd. n. tg. Ait. n. 31. (Lychnis ocymattri
folio, flore viridi; Herm. Parad. 199, with a plate.)—
Stem branched. Panicles elongated, loofe, drooping, many-
flowered. Petals divided half way; their crelt of two
lmear lobes. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acute, downy. —
Native of Portugal and Spain. The root is faid, in Hort.
Kew. to be biennial, though Hermann calls it perennial.
Stem one and a half or two feet high, ending in a long loofe
panicle of drooping green flowers. Leaves two or three
inches long, rough, like the reft of the herbage, with ex-
tremely minute tubercles, and more or lefs of fhort hoary
hairs. F/owers like the lat, but fomewhat larger, and
furnifhed with a crown, of which we can perceive no traces
in S. congefta. ;

S. nutans. Nottingham Catchfly. Linn. Sp. Pl. 596.
Willd. n. 11. Fl. Brit, n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 465. Fl:
Dan. t. 242.
Em. 470.) — Flower-ftalks panicled, drooping one way.
Petals in two deep linear fegments; their creft of two acute
lobes. Leaves lanceolate, downy.—Native of dry lime-
ftone pattures or rocks, in various parts of Europe, flower-
ing in June and July. It was firft, in this kingdom, ob-
ferved at Nottingham caitle, but grows alfo at Dover, and

iI various

(Lychnis fylveftris alba nona Clufii; Ger. |

SILENE.

various other » ‘The reet is perennial, rather woody.
Stems feveral, ereét, a foot or more in height,
downy ; leafy below ; racemofe, in the firft inftance, above,
ht 8 thortith, turned “to one fide, downy
and vifcid, led, or imperfectly forked, each of three
or four drooping mits foeeere, which expand in an evenioe,
obovate, near three-quarters of an inch long, teo-
fichtly downy. ‘The lowelt dewws are {patulate,

» Soap-wort Catchfly, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1673.
n. 13. Jacq. Hort. Vind. —- 45. t. 84. (Lychnis
i anon. Tit. 126. t. 50.)
inverfely heart-thaped ; cheir

Fr

i atr o
unten Bice

made it, the true
Linneus, (fee our next {pecies but one,)
which Tournefort’s Lyebnis orientalis

maxima, undulato, in his Voyage, v. 2. 148,
Pree merge pepe hepa wae?

on mutans searty barter fize and hairinefs.
true 3. isa t, not une
apt com in flowers, but ies flender ia abit.
lower deaves are inclining to {patulate ; the upper are
inch long, downy. Petals

Long-fmooth-flowered Catchfly. Ehrh.

Pl. Sele. n. 75. Willd. n. 16. Ait.
et Kitaib. Hung. v. 1. t. 8.’” (S. juncea;
54- Lychnis prelongis foliis et calyce ;
63. t. 382.)—Panicle » racemofe. Petals
divaricated fegments ; their creft of

calyx.—Barrelier fays this plant grows
ions in Tufcany. can be no doubt
though entirely overlooked by the
mention Hungary as the country

a

iH
i

f
I

bee
i

eee —_ (Cucu-
. Suec. ed. 2. 148,
ee Viola nod
ue dicibus
, lary. “Whaees

Ralls dro
Lower leaves lances.

592.
ibus

is a foot high, with a rather flout, round, unbranched fem,
leafy throughout, molt downy and vifeid ia the Upper part,
Linnieus fays the ree is biennial. The three or bei pair
of lower /eaves are two or three inches loug, pointed, quite
even and entire at the margin, nearly {mooth, hall or
three-quarters of an inch wide; as many pair above them are
produally thorter, taper-pointed, even, fear: cly wavy, both
their furfzees vileid and denfely downy, their bafe greatly
dilated, ovate, or zimott beart-thaped, clafping the fem.
The folitary fimple paniclk, or rather elujicr, about five
inches long, confihs eight er ten pair of oppolite foliary
flowers, on hort fimple falls, accompanied by {mall heart-
thaped bradeas, altogether very hairy, and a ntly vifcid,
as Linnwus defcribes them. He {ays the sare white,
fragrant at night, and do not turn to one fide, but droop in
all direétions. Calyx hardly an inch long, cylindrical, hairy,
pale, with ten green ribs. Petals in two rather » fome-
what rounded, fegments, without a creft. C ovate,
on a fhortith ftalk, We do not underitand why Lieneus
deferibes the falls as three-flowered. We have no means of
knowing whether this plant was cultivated by Miller in
1739; but by his having fent S. paradexa to Linngus for
the er y, it is mot probable that neither our
wile nor Tournefort’s {pecies next defcribed, was ever in
nglith s

S. alia. Buglofs-leaved Catchfly. (Lychnis orien.
talis —_— buglofli folio Gelchaneg teen Cor, 23.
Voy. v. 2. 148, with a figure.) —Panicle fimply racemofe,
hairy. Flowers oppofite, much longer than their ftalks,
pra’ § without a creit. Stem fimple, leafy. Leaves undu-
lated, hairy; the upper ones D otocheii tte by
Tournefort at the foot of mount Ararat, flowering in the
middle of Augutt. By his defeription the root thould feem
perennial, as being divided at the crown into feveral parts.
Stems feveral, a yard high, ftraight, firm, hollow, afy,
hairy and clammy, four lines in diameter. Lower aver
about five inches long, and one broad, ovato-lanceolate,
acute, wavy and crifped at the edges, hairy, with a ftrong
mid-rib and many veins; upper gradually {maller and mar-
rower ; the dra@eas linear-lanceolate, moilly equal in length
to the calyx, which is cylindrical, an inch long. Petals

thou
tionckty diftin&. We have compared {pecimens.

es, denfe, with leafy lanceolate bradras. Calyx pale green,
than sal

y- Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1

» down vifeid. Petple teodeciaa ais
Vids}? Wiel cst of tare; soute lobes. Calyx angular,
4U downy.

SILENE.

downy. Leaves ovato-lanceolate.—Found by Mr. Nuttal,
growing wild, in great abundance, in the neighbourhood of
St. Louis, on the Miffifippi, North America, from whence
feeds were communicated to A. B. Lambert, efq. who raifed
this fine plant in his garden at Boyton, Wilts. The fem is
two or three feet high, fomewhat angular. Herbage green,
finely downy and vifcid; at leaft in the upper part. Panicie
racemofe, partly forked, compofed of about a dozen large
flowers, con{picuous for the vivid fearlet of their long lanceo-
late petals, flamens, aiid fiyles. The calyx is above an inch
in length, angular, ten-ribbed, flightly {welling upwards.
The petals are faid to be fometimes emarginate. We guefs
at their sre/ from the figure cited, which is not fufliciently
explicit on this important point.

S. Ofites. Spanifh Catchfly. Fl. Brit. n.7. Ait. d. 12.
Prodr. Fl. Gree. n. torg. (Cucubalus Otites; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 594. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 688. Engl. Bot. t. 85. Fl.

Dan. t. 518. Sefamoides falamanticum magnum; Ger.
Em. 493-)— Panicle ereét, much branched, tufted. Flowers
dioecious. Petals linear, undivided, without acreft. Leaves
fpatulate, rough.—Native of dry gravelly open paftures
throughout Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. In
England it chiefly occurs in the elevated champaign country
of Cambridgefhire, Suffolk, and fome parts of Norfolk,
where its green panicles may eafily be confounded with thofe
of the accompanying graffes. The root is woody and peren-
nial. Stems erect, two feet high, flightly leafy, very vifcid
in the middle part of their upper joints. Leaves copious
about the root, about an inch in length, on very long ftalks;
in Britifh {pecimens they are {patulate, clothed with minute
curved pubefcence; in Greek ones obovate, with longer
hairs. ‘The whole plant indeed varies greatly as to luxu-
riance, but we cannot difcern a fpecific difference. Flowers
{mall, with narrow pale yellow feta/s, and a purplith calyx.
The /lamens are ufually imperfeét, or obliterated, in all the
flowers of one root, and the pi/lils in thofe of another ; but
occafionally both are perfect in the fame. Cap/ule feflile,
hardly bigger than a grain of wheat, fplitting into fix
teeth.

S. linifolia. Flax-leaved Catchfly. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grec.
Sibth. n. rors. Fl. Grec. t. 433, unpublifhed.—Stems pani-
cled at the top. Flowers ereét. Petals in two deep rounded
lobes ; their creft two-lobed, blunt. Leaves linear-lanceo-
late, rough—Found by Dr. Sibthorp on mount Parnaflus:
The root is perennial, thick, woody, yellowifh within, much
divided at the fummit. Stems numerous, about a foot high,
ere&t, clofe, leafy, roughifh, quite fimple, except in the
flowering part, very vifcid between feveral of the upper
joints. Leaves numerous, narrow, acute, above an inch
long, minutely rough, of a glaucous green. Flowers ere&t,
in clofe, irregular, flender panicles. Calya green, {mooth,
not quite an inch in length, ten-ribbed. Limb of the fetals
flefh-coloured above ; greenifh, with purple veins, beneath.
Capfule on a ftalk as long asitfelf. Thefe fowers, and thofe
of the following, are probably fragrant at night.

S. flaticifolia. ‘Thrift-leaved Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.- Fi.
Grec. Sibth. n. 1016. Fl. Gree. t. 434, unpublifhed.—Pani-
cle racemofe, fimple, clofe. Flowers ereét. Petals in two deep
rounded lobes; their creft two-lobed, blunt. JL.eaves linear-
{patulate, acute, very fmooth. Capfule fhorter than its
ftalk.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp in Greece.—The root
appears to be perennial, and fomewhat creeping. Stem
folitary, a foot high, flightly leafy, {mooth, like every other
part of the plant; the middle of its upper joint, below the
inflorefcence, vifcid. Radical /eaves numerous, ftalked,
narrow, glaucous, two inches long, including the ftalks.
Flowers few. Calyx club-fhaped, an inch and a quarter

long, {mooth, with ten purple ribs. Limb of the petals
inflexed ; white above; cinnamon-coloured beneath, The
fialk fupporting all the parts of the flower, within the calyx,
is remarkable for its length, which nearly equals the petals,
and exceeds the ripe cap/ule. )

Set. 5. Stems fingle-flowered.

S. auriculata. Auricled Mountain Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. mn. 1017. Fl. Gree. t. 435, unpublifhed.
—Stems fingle-flowered. Leaves lanceolate, fringed. Calyx
bell-fhaped, downy. Petals cloven, auricled on each fide
at the bafe.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the precipices
of mount Delphi, in Negropont. 'The perennial roof runs
deep into the earth, and is crowned by numerous, denfe,
rofe-lke tufts, of bright green, ovato-lanceolate, fharp-
pointed /eaves, an inch long; {mooth above; their carti-
laginous edges fringed with white hairs. Stems folitary,
ere, fimple, downy and vifcid, a finger’s length, bearing
two or three diftant pairs of {maller leaves. Flowers ereét,
the fize of S. maritima. Calyx {welling upwards ; its veins
and fegments purplifh. Limb of the petals deflexed, in two
rather deep, oblong, rounded fegments, furnifhed at the
bafe with two very peculiar lateral appendages ; their creft
of two {preading lobes ; their upper fide white, tipped with
pale purple ; the under reticulated with purple veins. Cap-
Jule ovate, nearly thrice the length of its ftalk.

S. falcata. Sickle-leaved Mountain Catchfly. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gree. Sibth. n, 1018. Fl. Grace. t. 436, unpublifhed. —
Stems fingle-flowered. Leaves awl-fhaped, curved, hairy.
Calyx club-fhaped. Petals cloven; their claws wedge-
fhaped.—Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the fummit of the
Bithynian Olympus.
The long perennial root refembles the laft, except in being
of a whiter colour. Stems very fhort, tufted, decumbent.
Leaves crowded, fickle-fhaped, about an inch long, rigid,
rough with vifcid hairs, three-ribbed, permanent, turning
white with age. Szems afcending, a finger’s length, purplifh,
hairy and vifcid, flightly leafy. Flowers ere&t, cream-
coloured, with a flender, rough, blood-red calyx, above an
inch long. The /a/é, bearing the parts of the flower within,
is nearly equal to the calyx itfelf, and much longer than the
ripe capfule. Petals with broad claws, dilated upward, and
a creft of two bluntifh lobes. Germen brownifh below, witle
two crimfon bands; green above.

S. Pumilio. Dwarf Mountain Catchfly or Campion.
Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. 2. 126. t. 10. Jacq. Aultr. ap-
pend. 26.t.2. Willd. n. 55. (Cucubalus Pumilio; Linn.
Mant. 71. Caryophyllus fylveftris o@avus; Cluf. Hift.
v. 1. 285. C. montanus Clufii; Ger. Em. 593. Betonica
coronaria; Bauh. Hilt. v. 3. 337.)—Stems fingle-flowered.
Radical leaves linear-lanceolate, {mooth. Calyx nearly cy-
lindrical, hairy. Petals undivided ; their creft briftle-fhaped.
—Native of the mountains of Carinthia, Moravia, and
Italy, in a micaceous foil. A very handfome f{pecies. The
root is perennial, crowned with denfe tufts of grafly, or
thrift-like, rather fucculent /eaves, about an inch long;
among which are feveral, folitary, partly decumbent, fimple
Jfiems, about twice that length, bearing a pair or two of
fmaller fringed leaves. ‘The flawers are very large in pro-
portion, rofe-coloured, and, according to Arduino, who
fent {pecimens to Linneus, very fragrant, though Clufius
and Wulfen defcribe them as without feent. The calyx is
an inch long, flightly bell-fhaped, reddifh, denfely clothed
with foft whitifh hairs. Limb of the geta/s rounded, wavy,
but not lobed; their creft, overlooked by Arduino, of two
erect flender crimfon teeth, growing pale as the flower fades.
Germen nearly or quite feffile. ‘

S. acaulis. Mofs Campion, or Catchfly. Linn. Sp

An elegant and remarkable {pecies. .

SIL

Pi, Gog. Willd, 2. 56 FI. Brit. o. a8.

Engl. Bot.
t. 1081.
lion

Light, 2a7. t. 12. fii, Fh Dan. t. 21. Al-
‘ . ¥. 2, 83. to 79. fa. (8. exfeapa; ibid,
t. 79. f. 2. S, elongata; Bellardi Append, ad Fl. Pe-
dem. 23. Cucubalus acaulis; Hudf, 187, Lychnis alpina

ila, folio gramineo; Bauh, Pin. 206. Dill. Elth, 206,

uch an expreflion merely to contrait the
plants in queftion with other evidently baatlotnent {pecies of

i J acy 9% iy me ghar bar atent agg F logwer-
» fimple, flender, naked, fmooth, very various
length, whence Allioni and Bellardi

elegant. éreft is fometimes fo {mall as to be eafily
overlooked. C. » nearly feffile in its calyx
We are perfi that the cap/ule of this whole genus has

erally exhibited only
tate, though on ex-

of the neighbouring genus Arenaria, upon which we ma
its Gentiannececreechy of commectine, :
Smteng, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy
herbaceous, and of the annual and perennial kinds, of which
the fpecies cultivated are, the common or Lobel’s catchfly
pedi ae iy | epee (S. aah -Aonry
pendulous catchfly nant pad by ere y
(S. mufcipuls) ; the green-flowered catchfly (S. viridiflora) ;
the Ni iota) (S. nutans); and the fhrubby

paar A frutico
In the firft fort there are varieties with a bright purple
flower, with a red, and with a white flower.

Mated of Calture.—The annval and biennial forts may
be raifed by feeds, which thould be fown in the {pring or

where the plants are to grow; but the
time. Some fow at both feafons, which
The feed fhould be put in in
borders, clumps, &c. When the plants are
be thinned to two or three plants in each
be kept clean from weeds. With the biennial
is fometimes the practice to fow them in beds; and
plants are up, to remove them into nurfery-rows
when they are planted out in the bor-

perennial forts likewife be increafed from
i Meg eencete tee the ufual way is by flips of
heads, eye the roots, planting them out in y
pene the {pring or my 4 fummer months. The thrabby

be pacis, by flips and cuttings of the branches
¢ which fhould be planted out in fimilar fituations,
in the {pring and fummer f{eafons.

ea
taf

SIL
‘They all afford ornament and varicty in the clumps and

borders of unds,
SILEND, in ode mcient Geography, & people of India,
placed by Pliny in the vicinity of the river Lodus.

Siren, in Antiquity, a fort of hesthea dems ods, the
fame with fatyrs, which were called Sileni when they came
to be advanced in age.

Yet was there one principal Sileous, elder than any of the
reft. Diod. Siculus fays, he was the maiter or tutor of
Bacchus, whom he difeiplined nobly, and followed him to
the wars, He quotes an ancient » named Thymetas,
who relates, that the Sileni aflifled Bacchus iv the war be
waged againft the Titans; adding, that the firft Silenus
reigned in an ifland made by the river Tritoa, in Lybia,

He is reprefented as having a long tail hanging bebicd,
which is likewife an attribute of all his poflenty, The

ts always mount him on an afs, always drunk, and
ardly able to fup; himfelf; “ titubantem anuifque
meroque,”” as Ovid (Met. 1. v.) {peaks. Upon all the an-
tiques that reprefent him, he has the air of a drunken maa
dozing over his wine; and when Virgil, in one of his
Eclogues, deferibes him, it is like a man gorged with wine
as ufual ;

« Inflatum hefterno venas ut femper faecho.’”

Ancient authors, however, who are very worthy of
credit, exprefs more favourable featiments of him. Silenus,
according to their account, was a profound philofopher,
whofe wifdom was equal to his knowledge ; and the —
kennefs fo often mentioned was merely myitical, fignifying
that he was profoundly immerfed in fpeculation. Cicero,
Plutarch, and many others, had formed the fame idea of
Silenus, and always regarded him as a very ingenious man,
and a great philofopher. Accordingly Virgil, in his fecond
eclogue, puts into his mouth the principles of the Epicurean

hilofophy, about the formation of the world, and the
ma that compofe it :

«+ Namque canebat uti,” &c.

Midas, having heard of the extraordinary talents of Si-
lenus, wifhed for an opportunity of converfing with him.
Silenus, who rambled about the country upon his afs, fre-
quently repofed near a fountain, which Midas fupphed with
wine ; and here Midas found him, and treated him with great
refpe&t. In confequence of this intercourfe, Midas availed
himfelf of the counfels of Silenus, in founding his laws and
religious ceremonies. See Mipas.

x paflage in Diogenes Laertius is faid to explain the
fable of Silenus’s riding on an afs; for in comparing Arif-
totle to Silenus, he fays, the firlt was always on horfeback,
and the fecond rode upon an afs: the meaning of which is,
that he made only flow, but fure, advances in philofophy ;
whereas the other moved at a quick pace, and now and then
made atrip. ‘The fable of the afs’s ears, according to Ter-
tullian (1. ii, de Anima), informs us, that he was endued
with great intelligence. Voflius (de Idol. 1. i.) explains
anol the fountain of wine, by faying that it fignified only
the defire that Midas had to get Silenus into his poffeffion,
who, according to him, was king of Caria, or aGuall
became a great friend to Silenus. He is reprefented as dif-
tinguifhed for his ikill in mufic. He is faid, not onlyto
have invented mufical inftruments, but to have had the
saeco ie Hasire, 10 ch even Apollo himfelf to
a trial of fill, Herodotus, {peaking of Marfyas, calls him
Silenus, 1. vii. c. 26.

Nonuus makes Silenus a fon of Tellus; and gives him

4U2 three

SIL

three fons, Aftreus, Maron, and Leneus. Servius, on
Virgil’s Eclogue, makes Silenus the fon of Mercury ;
others, the fon of Pan anda nymph; others will have him
born of the dtops of the blood of Ceelus, the father of
Saturn.

fElian (Var. Hift. 1. iii. c. 12.) alleges that Silenus was
born of anymph, and that though he was not of the number
of the gods, he was, however, of a nature fuperior to that
of man. Silenus is faid to have been born at Malea, or at
leaft brought up there, according to the teftimony of Pindar,
who thus fpeaks: ‘Silenus, that incomparable dancer,
when a citizen of Malea, the happv {poufe of fair Nais had
the good fortune to educate.”? Lucian defcribes Silenus as
of a middie fize, fat and plump ; and thus he is reprefented
upon medals, and other monuments now remaining.

Bochart, in his *¢ Canaan,’’ will have Silenus to take his
name from 7999, or 4'59¢7, Silo, the name of the Meffiah,
whence 799, Si/an. He alfo adds, that all that’ is attri-
buted to this imaginary deity is taken from what the pro-
phets have foretold of Jefus Chrift. ‘Thus, whereas it is
faid, the Meffiah fhall be the inftruftor of the people; Si-
lenus is made the preceptor of Bacchus. Becaufe it was
faid, that our Saviour fhould bind his afs to the vine, and
his colt to the young vine; Silenus is made to ride on an
afs. Becaufe our Saviour wafhed his garments in blood, as
thofe that trod the wine-prefs ; Silenus was made to prefide
over thofe who prefled the vintage. Becaufe it is added,
his eyes were red by reafon of wine; Silenus was made al-
ways fuddled. Bochart, however, advances all this with a
great deal of diftruft, as he has reafon, it having no warrant.
He adds, that the devil invented the fable of Silenus, to
turn the myiteries of our religion into ridicule. But the
fenfe which he has given to the words, rubdent oculi ex vino,
& dentes ejus ex lade albefcunt, is very forced and unnatural ;
as if the words fignified any thing more, in the propriety of
the Hebrew tongue, than, his eyes are redder than wine,
his teeth whiter than milk. We may add, that nobody,
before Bochart, neither Chriftian nor idolator, ever faw any
thing of Jefus Chrift in the fable of Silenus.

Silenus was worfhipped after his death as a demigod, and
received the honours due to heroes, independently even of
Bacchus. Thus Paufanias {peaks (in Eliac.), who, men-
tioning the temple which Silenus had in Elis, expreffes him-
felf in thefe words: ‘ There you will likewife fee a temple
of Silenus, but atemple which is appropriated and peculiar
to himfelf, while Bacchus has no fhare in the honour of it.”?

SILENTIARY, Sirenriartvs, an officer among the
ancient Roman flaves ; being, according to fome authors, a
flave placed over the reft, to prevent any noife and uproar,
and to keep them filent.

Seneca, in his Epiftles, mentioning the great care taken
to keep the flaves mute, has given occafion to Lipfius,
Pompa, and fome others, to fuppofe, that the filentiary
was eftablifhed in his time: but others, as Pignorius, think
no fuch conclufion can be drawn from Seneca’s words; nor
any thing, but that they were, even then, very fevere in
preventing any noife among the flaves. As to the name
and office of the filentiary, it was not eftablifhed till about
the time of Salvian, who is the firft author that men-
tions it.

There were alfo filentiarii eftablifhed in the emperor’s
court, called quietis miniflri, and filentiarii palatii; and
honoured with the farther titles of clariffimi, /pedtabiles, de-
votifimi, and in Greek Yavpacwraro, g. d. moft admirable.

There were a great number of thefe; but only thirty
ordinarily officiated, who were divided inte three bands,

SIL

each of which-had its decurie: The council of Chalcedon
call the body of filentiaries, /chola devotiffimorum JSilentia-
riorum.

SILER, in Sotany, a Latin name in Virgil, fuppofed
to belong to fome flender kind of willow, or ofier. Itis
ufed vaguely, by the earlier botanifts, for different umbel-
liferous plants, and retained by Gertner, after Rivinus, for
Laferpitium trilobum and aquilegifolium, which thofe writers
place in a genus by themfelves. Linnzus ufes the above
word, as the fpecific appellation of another Laserrirtrum.
See that article.

SILESIA, Duchy of, in Geography, a country of Eu-
rope, bounded on the N. by the marquifate of Brandenburg,
on the E. by the duchy of Warfaw and Auttrian Poland,
on the S. by Hungary, from which it is feparated by a
chain of mountains, and a wildernefs or thicket, about four
miles broad, and on the W. by Moravia, Lufatia, and Bo-
hemia. ‘Tothe W. and S. Silefia is environed by a chain of
hills, being with re{peét to extent and height fome of the
moft remarkable in all Europe. (See Suprtic Chain.) For
other mountains of Silefia, and their produétions, fee Prus-
sta. In the mountains of this province, and in that part of it
that lies towards Moravia and Hungary, the winter is earlier
and of longer continuance, and much more fevere, than in
the more level territories. During thofe months, in which
at the foot of the Riefengebirge and the Gefenk every thing
is covered with ice and fnow, the trees at Breflau are in
full verdure even in winter. ‘The fandy parts of the prin-
cipality of Glogau, and beyond the Oder, towards Peland,
with the mountainous traéts, which are of confiderable ex-
tent, produce but little, nor is their grain fufficient for the
confumption of the inhabitants. But this deficiency is com-
penfated, in favourable feafons, by the fertility of the other
and larger part of Silefia, which, befides wheat, rye, barley,
and oats, yields likewife maize or Turkey-wheat, {pelt,
buck-wheat, millet, linfeed, peafe, and beans. The cu-
linary vegetables about Breflau, Brieg, Neifle, Franken-
ftein, and Lignitz, are excellent : and the vicinity of Grun-
berg and Lower Beuthen affords plenty of fine fruits.
Thofe {pots that are not fit for tillage afford good pafture=
grounds, or are covered with wood. Of flax there is abun-
dance, but hemp in lefs plenty, which is fupplied by im-
portation from Hungary and Poland. Hops principally
abound near Munfterberg. Madder forms one of the
principal articles of export. A yellow dye, called /charte, is
plentiful; nor is this country deficient in tobacco planta-
tions ; but its faffron is of an indifferent quality. The wine
of the country is good, more efpecially after it has been kept
for fome years in the cellar. In the mountains and Upper
Silefia, tar, pitch, and refin, are made from the pine and fir,
and the larch-tree produces turpentine. From thefe re-
finous trees, and the trunks of the coarfer pines, the inha-
bitants of the mountains make alamp-black. Terra figillata
is found in many places, and particularly near Strigau ; but it
is ufed not as an article of the materia medica, but principally
in the manufa€@ture of earthenware. Cattle are reared
merely for the plough, and for the neceflary fupply of milk,
butter, and cheefe ; but the markets are furnifhed, particu-
larly with oxen, from Poland and Hungary. The moft noted
markets are thofe of Brieg, Breflau, and Schweidnitz. Al-
though the ftuds in this country afford many fine and ftout
horfes, the number is not fufficient : and therefore, befides
thofe that are purchafed at Frankfort fair, great numbers are
brought hither from Lithuania. The inhabitants of the
hilly diftri€s keep goats, and cheefe im great quantity is
made from their milk. The breed of theep is ee

an

SIL

and lucrative, on account of the excellent quality of thew
wool, The wild beaits of this country, whole tkins are
waluable, are lynxes, foxes, weafels, otters, and beavers.
The Oder furnithes falmon and flurgeon, fkate, lampreys,
&e. The other rivers, as well as the lakes and ponds,
abound in various kinds of fith, fuch as pike, carp, trout,
mullets, &c. Bees are bred for a fupply of wax and honey,
but their commoditics are not in fufficient quantity to fuper-
fede the neceflicy of importation from Poland. Silk ts in
a fate of increating cultivation, The principal manufac-
tures of Silefia are thofe of thread, twine, linen, flax, and
damafk. The chief exports are madder, mill-ftones, thread,
yam, linen, wool, and woollen cloth, together with itaffs and
paper. Under the dominion of the king of Pruffia the com-
merce of Silefia has been confiderably improved.

The t religion in Silefia, as well as in Proffia, is
the Proteftant ; and the bifhoprics here, as well as in Poland,
retain their ancient limits, whe the power of the prelates is

The manners and cufloms of the inhabitants of this pro-
vince ble thofe of their neighbours the Bohemians ;
but thofe of both thefe races have been fo much melted

literary fame. The capital of Silefia is Breflau ; befides
which there are only three towns which contain more than
6oo inhabitants, viz. Glogau, Hirfchberg, and Schweidnitz
For other » fee Prussia

Silefia materials for hiftory. Its ancient in-
habitants were the L ii and Quadi ; but about the middle of
the fixth , the Slavi having overrun the country of the
a ide ace it was annexed to Poland, and “Zile-
zia.”” Under the Polith fovereigns, Silefia received the Po-

id claim to the principali
Brieg, and Wohlau ; and his claims were fo effeCtually fup-
by the march of an army into Silefia, that Mara
and heirefs of the emperor Charles VI.
and Bohemia, by a preliminary treaty
at Breflau, which was { - ronan ed aber gewrst frond
peace of Berlin, did, on of herfelf, her

and fucceffors, of both fexes, for ever cede to the ki
his heirs and fucceffors, of both fexes, wit
entire i and independency of the crown of Bo-
hemia, the countries of U, and Lower Silefia, together
witht Gv GAGE of Katicher, forsherly belonging to Mo-
ravia, as alfo the of Glatz ; referving, however, to
herfelf the principality of Tefchen, with the lordfhips an-
nexed thereto, the of the principalities of Troppau and

SIL

majefly for the fecure pollefiion of the duchy of SileGs, a pro
vilo was made for ite — confequcntial ty fuch as engage
ment. Ever finee the clole of the twelfth century, Silefia has
been divided into the Upper and Lower, aod this divilien is
fill in ufe. Lower Silefis contains thirteen principalities,
the names of which are as follow; we. Breflau, Brieg,
Glogau, Jauer, Liguitz, Munflerberg, Glatz, Neifle, Ocls,
Sagan, Schweidoitz, Wohlau, Trachenberg, and Carolath ;
the free itandetherrfehafts or lordthips of Wartenberg, Mi-
litfch, and Gofchute ; and many minderberr{chaften or in-
ferior lordthips, To Upper Silefia belong the Gx princi-
palities of Telchen, ‘Troppau, Jagerndorf, Oppeln, Raubor,
and Bilitz, the free ttandefherrfchafts of Plefz and Beuthen,
and certain minderherrfchafts. At prefent under two fove-
reigns, the capital divifions muft veceflarily be into that of
Pruffian and Bohemian. Breflau is the capital of Pruffian
Silefia. The regency of Bohemian Silelia is ere€ted at
Troppau. ‘The whole country is {aid to contain 180 cities
and towns, 4000 villages, and 1,890,000 inhabitants. For
other accounts of the population, fee Prussia.

SILESIACA Teaua. See Tenna.

SILEX, Kiefelerde, Germ., in Mineralogy, a {pecies of
earth which is generally found in a ttony Hate, and from
its forming ae the whole compofition of flint, it has ac-
quired the name of filex, or filiceous earth. It is found in
equal or perhaps greater purity in rock-cryfial and quartz,
and in white fand; and it is probably an earth that moft
abounds on the globe. Moit of the ttony combinations of
filex are remarkable for their hardnefs, will very readily
itrike fire with fteel. Silex, when pure, is white, and per-
fe€tly void of tafte and f{mell; it is infoluble in water, and
incapable of artificial cryftallization., For its other proper-
ties, fee Fur and Siica.

SILHET, in Geography, a circar of Hindooftan, in the
N.E. part of Bengal, bounded on the N. by Bootan, and on
the E. by Meckley, and elfewhere by a i of Bengal. —
Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, and capital of a circar, to which
it gives name ; 106 miles N.E. of Dacca. N. lat. 24° 52’.
E. long. g1° 57!.

» in Botany, a name given by the old Greeks toa

SILJAN, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Dale-
— 5. le hema ich it gives name ; 25 miles N.W. of

SILICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in In-
terior Libya, near the river Bagradus. Ptolemy.

Sirica, in Mineralogy and Chemifiry. In the former
it is an earthy fubftance, exifting abundantly in the com-

fition of the glebe, and forms a diftiné&t genus of minerals
in fuch as it inates. In chemiitry it was formerly
confidered as a fimple body, under the clafs of earths. In
the prefent ftate of chemittry it is regarded 2s a metal com-
bined with oxygen, and belongs to one of the moft extenfive
clafs of compounds in chemittry.

The minerals in which it is principally found are rock-
att perte and flints. The firit of thefe almoft
w confifts of filica. In order, however, to obtain it in
pert ity, let the rock-cry/tal, or quartz, be heated red-

t, and then plunged into cold water. This has the effeé
of leflening its aggregation. To facilitate its reduction into
powder, let one part of this powder be fufed in a filver cru.
cible, with three of pure potafh. The fufed mafs
le in pure water. To the clear folution
rs any acid fufficient to faturate the speck pot a

inous precipitate will be found, which, wi
‘Saabs diene ignition, in a filver crucible, will
be pure filica.

It

SIL

It is a fine white powder, harfh to the touch, and defti-
tute of tafte or fmell. Its fpecific gravity is 2.6.

Silica is not aéted upon by the air, nor changed by moif-
ture.. When ftri@ly pure, no ordinary heat will fufe it.
It does however put on appearances of fufion, when heated
by the aid of a blowpipe and oxygen gas. It does not
combine with oxygen, fulphur, phofphorus, carbon, or
azote.

The two fixed alkalies do not affe&t it in the cold, but
when fufed with it ina filver crucible they combine, forming
eompounds, which have all the appearance of glafs. Indeed,
when the two bodies are in one proportion, they form the
pureft and moft perfe&t glafs. When the alkali is to the
filica as three to one, the compound is foluble in water.
This folution has been called the /iguor of flints. Any of
the acids are capable of combining with the alkali, and pre-
cipitating the filica in a ftate of purity, as we have before
obferved in the procefs for obtaining filica.

Tf an excefs of acid be added to the folution, part of the
filica is diflolved. This is more efpecially the cafe with the
muriatic acid. A very dilute folution of filica in potafh, in
a vellel covered with paper, was left at reft by profeflor
Seigling for Seu years. Cryftals of filica were found in the
fluid, and the furface had a tran{parent cruit upon it, {trong
enough to allow the veffel to be inverted without fpilling the
liquid. Some of the cryftals were found to be pure filica,
in groups of tetrahedral pyramids. ‘There were alfo cryttals
of fulphate and carbonate of potafh. The former were fo
hard as to ftrike fire with fteel.

When fluoric acid is diftilled from a glafs veflel, or from
any other fubftance containing filica, this acid aflumes a
complete gafeous form. The moment it is abforbed by
water, a proportion of filica is precipitated. In this cafe,
the gas which comes over is a compound of filica and the
acid, which may be cailed fluat of filica. The liquid acid
is alfo found to hold filica in folution. It was from this
folution, after ftanding two years, that Bergman obtained
cryftals of pure filica. They were of a-cubic form, with
three angles truncated. They were not fo hard as rock-
erytftal.

The boracic and phofphoric acids have no ation upon
filica in the cold, but unite with it by fufion, forming tranf-
parent vitreous fubftances.

Silica does not combine with any of the metals, but it
combines with many of their oxyds, forming compounds,
which are called glafles, enamels, or porcelains, according
to their appearance.

With the oxyd of lead it forms the glazing of common
pottery ; with oxyd of iron, a dark green or black glafs.

We have already fpoken of its combination with the
alkalies which belong to this clafs of compounds.

When a folution of lime or barytes in water is added to
a folution of filicated potafh, or liquor of flint, thofe
earths become precipitated, forming a peculiar compound.

A fimilar combination takes place when a folution of
filica in potafh is added to a folution of alumine in the fame
alkali.

Although the fufibility of filica is impra@icable at the
heat of our hotteft furnaces, yet its combination with
other earths is fufibie, though at a very high temperature.
Equal parts of lime and filica fufe into a mafs between
porcelain and enamel at 150° of Wedgewood. We hence
fee the ufe of lime in {melting iron ores which abound with
filex.

Silica appears to be the molt abundant of the earths,
forming the greateft proportion of the primitive rocks, and
the bafis of the terreftrial globe.

12F

‘

SIL

Although it has riot been direétly proved to be a metalli¢
oxyd, there is the moft prefumptive reafon for thinking it
fo. From the {mall aétion which acids had upon it, com-
pared with the other earths, fir Humphrey Davy at firft
{ufpeéted it to be an earth already combined with an acid,
and made fome attempts, by the aid of Galvanifm, to verify
this idea, but without fuccefs. He fufed filica with iron
by the Galvanic battery, and obtained a ma{s which afforded
filica when diflolyed by an acid with water. He alfo heated
filica to whitenefs, and on bringing potaffium in conta@t, a
compound was formed of filica and potafh, but a number of
black particles were diffufed through the mafs, which
fir Humphrey Davy thought were conduétors of elec-
tricity. They did not aé upon water; but when an acid
was added, an effervefcence took place. They alfo burnt
in.a ftrong heat, affording a white fubitance, which had the
characters of filica.

Little is known of the proportions in which filica com-
bines with other bodies. Dalton gives its atom as forty-
five times heavier than hydrogen: and fir Humphrey
Davy {tates the number for filica at fixty-one, which, re-
duced to Dalton’s ftandard, would be 30.5. But neither
of thefe is to be depended upon.

SILICEOUS, in Mimeralogy, denotes compofed princi-
pally of filex.

Siziceous Schiflus, in Mineralogy and Geology, the horn-
ftone flate of fome geologifts; flinty flate of Jamefon; a
rock of the nature of flate, but containing a great portion
of filiceous earth. It frequently occurs in beds in clay-flate,
and fometimes forms entire mountains, which are either
homogeneous or porphyritic, containing cryttals of felfpar,
and forming porphyritic flinty flate. The colour confifts
of various fhades of grey, but it is fometimes red, approach-
ing the nature and colour of jafper. It is generally tra-
verfed by veins of quartz, but rarely, if ever, contains me-
tallic veins. It is extremely hard, and breaks with difficulty ;
the fragments are fharp-edged, and more or lefs tranflucent
in minute portions. ‘The Lydian ftone, which is ufed as a
teft, or touch-itone, for determining the purity of metals, is
nearly allied to filiceous {chiftus. This rock pafles, by
gradation, into clay-flate ; and when the filex predominates,
into hornftone or chert.

Sinicrous Earth, in Agriculture, fuch as is conftituted of
filiceous materials.

Stziceous Marie, that which is of a fandy or filiceous
nature. See MaRLe.

SILICERNIUM, among the Romans, a funeral fupper,
which is otherwife called exeguium. j

SILICIATE, in Mineralogy, a term Jately introduced by
profeflor Berzelius, to denote the combination of filex
with other earths or oxyds, in which the filex is fuppofed to
at as an acid. Thefe fubitances he denominates filiciates.
As this view of the action of filex tends to throw confiderable
light on various procefles in the mineral kingdom, it is but
juitice to our own countryman, Mr. Hume, a refpeGtable
{cientific and pra€ticable chemift in London; te ftate, that
fo early as 1805, he had, in Mr. Park’s Chemical Catechifm,
aflerted the a€tion of filex as an acidifying principle, and
fubfequently in the Philofophical Magazine for 1808, he
diftinétly and perfpicuoufly defcribed various procefles, both
natural and artificial, in which filex performed the part of
an acid: this he attributed to the great proportion of
oxygen contained in it. As filex is by far the moft abun-
dant fubitance in the compofition of the globe, either pure
or in combination with the other earths, its peculiar pro-
perties, and the part which it performs in the fucceflive
changes that take place in the mineral kingdom, are a fub-

ject

SIL

feat of much intereft both 10 the geologiit and the chemical
philofopher. ‘The fimilarity of its efleéte with thofe of
oxygen and acids, have been pointed out in a very ftriking
manoer by Mr. Hame in the paper before referred to.

the metals ( aps
moft Bi wi in the univerfe, may be rendered quite
id, affording an endlefs variety of the mott charming
tints, It is chiefly from metallic fubftances that the mott
durable colours are obtained, particularly for ftaining glafs,
and making artificial gems. The beit opaque colours,
fuch as are molt fuitable for enamel, water, oil, crayon, and
all other deferiptions of painting, are derived alfo from the
metals combined either with filex or oxygen. Even the
’ and the lefs valuable cry and pebbles,
infinite number of mineral produétions, feem to
ive their beauty and value from action of filex on

Thus, the opacity of lead is effectually chan
ache roe Hef ition of Matglts
is rendered not lefs di us, than
is diffolved in
ich filex exercifes over potafh and foda,
of other fubftances which enter into the com-

is a ftriking and well-known inftance (fays
izi ; for no acid more

ie

g
e
4
5
F

2
z

t
i

?

j
:

4
e*
g

- Hume neutralizing
completely obtunds the acrimony of alkaline bodies, and
difarms them of their corrofive character. The effervefcence
which refults when filex and the alkali enter into fufion and
form this taitelefs compound, is net obfervable till the mate-
. alg 8 ane age pr aomtanl hence, as
fomething is apparently ev neither ox nor an
ether a Haid can be {uppofed to anes a that the
acidifying power (if the term may be applied) which appears

g
g

to coerce the Sete dete relecdabsinee
which is ufually employed to Indeed vitrifica-
jn acd oy pm uni aghya ihed by filex, or

Perera een ra Ch mnneecy, of phof,
» or any other body, is due to the one, as
much as the glafs in common ufe is to the other of thefe

the
occupies a diftinguifhed place both
ia siesta sme. © Mochi be mor
4 r. Smith, “ ecretion i
a &A which en ya age pe res
cording to modern experiments, human hair,
eTEicdE Ucatbials wslaacesr, allo eonteien aed
From numberlefs that admit of no other in-
it may juftly be inferred, fays Mr. Hume,
means of converting into other
ing gers it into the conftitution of her
it ceafes entirely to appear in its original
itate. te ead ach ths cracls of talmal
Fr cy yrds tag infcrutable — a
aflimilating powers, or phyfiology o
matter, fhews that tranfmutation is an o sion sahara

Sees owen we may act able to trace it
According to jus, filex, or filica, confidered as an

SI1L

acid, polleffes the property of giving filiciates of many dif-
ferent degrees of faturation. The moft general is that ia
which fiiex contains the fame quantity of oxygen as the
bafe; thefe he desominates fimply Aliciatcr, The next mott
general are thofe in which filex contains three times theoxy geo
of the bafe ; thefe he calls trifiliciates: it not unfrequeatly
contains twice the oxygen of the bale; thele combmations
he calls bifiliciates, Silex alfo produces a great number of
combinations with excefs of bale of different deyrees, which
he denominates /ubjiliciates, to which again he spplies the
appellations éi, tri; for example, bialuminous ful fliesate, trt-

uminouws, (7c. all announcing that the bale ceatains twice
or three times the oxygen of the filex.

Silex, like other ps gives alfo double filiciates, part!
with and partly without water of cry{tallization, We mo
frequently find, that the bafes which have a yy Aled
pracere double falts with other acids, do the fame thing

se Senne a0 in she double we
again although with many exceptions) t -

ion “eae the bafes as in ‘the a lees oo.

with double bafes. Hence, for example, if in com-
mon felfpar we could exchange filex for fulphur, the com-
bination would be alum without water.

But Nature in her rich ftores, fays Berzelius, exhibits a
number of combinations of filex {till more various, for which
we bave few if any analogous combinations to produce from
the experiments in our laboratories. Thus we find filiciates
with from three to four bafes, which all form one common
combination, whofe pure cryitalline itructure feems to render
it evident that it mutt be confidered as one chemical whole ;
unlefs it fhould hereafter be proved that {uch bodies belong
to the clafs of cryftals that are formed of many different
fubitances lying in juxtapofition, but not chemically com-

It often happens, alfo, that thefe numerous filiciates are
not of the fame degree of faturation, but that one or more
of the weaker bales are fublfiliciates, or filiciates, while one
or more of the ftronger are 4i or ¢ri-filiciates. That fimilar
combinations are not formed in our laboratories, arifes evi-
dently from the rapid and violent means by which thefe
combinations are effeéted, which will not admit the aétion
or influence of thofe weaker affinities which take place in
the fecret and undifturbed receffes of the mineral kingdom.
As it is of importance to afcertain the quantity of oxygen
in filex, in order to determine its proportions in the different

rocks, combinations of filiciates, Berzelius, from various expe-

riments made by himfelf and others, eftimates the propor-

f tion of oxygen to be 49.64. See Sivex.

SILICULA, in ewes 6 the diminutive of Sizreva,
(fee that article,) is a Pouch, pt po ger or rounded,
figure, along both the of whofe partition the feeds
are i ; witnefs the Draba verna, or Whitlow-grafs,
fo common on walls in the fpring, and the Thla/pi Burfa-
pafloris, Shepherd’s purfe. The partition is always really

to the valves, though the latter are often fo pro-
tuberant, as in the Thla/pi, their depth is much greater
than the real diameter of the fruit. ence Linnzus has
fallen into an error, firft deteéted by Mr. Brown, in the

of Susutania. See that article.

SILICULOSA, the firft of the two orders of the 1

elafs in the Linnzan fyitem, Terrapynamia, (fee
article,) the charaGter of which order confifts in the hort,
or rounded, not oblong, form of the feed-veflel. See Si-
LICULA.

ALTER SY, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
LICON, in Botany, a haat amie

SIL

old Latin writers to the carob tree, filiqua dulcis. The
Latins borrowed this name from the Greek xyloglycon,
Evrofavxoy, the fweet, or {weet-fruited tree.

Ifidore mifpels the word fjilicon, and making it only /ii-
con, fuppofes it to be a barbarous way of fpelling the word
Jiliqua ; but the evident derivation of the genuine word from
the Greek, fhews his error both as to the word itfelf, and
the origin of it.

SILIN, or Asu Att, in Geography, a town of Egypt ;
12 miles S.S.E. of Siut,

SILINDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of
Afia Minor, in the Troade, near mount Ida.

SI-LING, in Geography, a town of China, of the third
rank, in Quang-fi; 20 miles S. of Si-long.

SILINO, a {mall ifland among the Philippines, near
the north coaft of Mindanao. N. lat. 9° 2'. E. long.
121° 4ol.

SILINUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in the Elide, which watered the territory of the
Scillunte, according to Paufanias.

SILIPICA, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Cordova; 20 miles S. of St. Jago del
Ettero.

SILIQUA, xegaficy, among the ancients, the third part
of an obolus, or, what comes to the fame, the fixth part of
a {eruple.

Siziqua Nabathea. See Nasatuma Siliqua.

Sin1qua, in Botany, a Pod, is a fort of Prricarp.
(See that article.) The Si/iqua is a folitary feed-veflel, of

‘an elongated form, and dry fubftance, confifting of two
parallel valves, feparated by a parallel linear partition, or
receptacle, along each of whofe edges the feeds are ranged
in alternate order. Examples are found in the Cruciform
plants, conftituting the Linnean clafs Tetradynamia, fuch
as Cheiranthus, the Stock or Wall-flower ; asalfo in Chek-
donium, the Celandine ; and Bignonia echinata, Gertn. t. 52.
f. 1. This kind of feed-veflel differs from a Lecume, (fee
that article,) in having the feeds inferted along each of its
margins.

Srzrqua. See Caros.

SILIQUASTRUM, the appellation of the Judas-tree
in Tournefort and preceding authors, alluding to its partial
refemblance to the fruit of the Carob, which was called
Siliqua, the Pod, by way of eminence. See CERATONIA
and CERcIs.

SiziquastRuM, in Natural Hiflory, the name given by
Mr. Lhuyd, and others, to the bony palates of fifhes, when
found foffile. See IcHTHYPERIA.

SILIQUATICUM, among the Romans, a: cuftom or
toll paid for merchandize. This the Greeks called cera-
21/MUS«

Pett IQUOSA, in Botany, the fecond order of the Lin-

nean 15th clafs, Detradynamia ; which order is charaCterized
by the oblong form of the feed-veflel. See Sirrqua and
SILICULA.

SILIQUOS&, the 39th natural order, among the frag-
menta of Linneus, exactly analogous to the CrucirEr@ of
Juffien. See that article, as well as, hereafter, Tnrrapy-
NAMIA,

SILIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
Venetia, which had its fource in mountains called Tauri-
fani.

SILISTENI, in Geography, a town of Moldavia; 10
miles S.W. of Huff.

SILISTRIA. See Dristra.

SILIVRIA, or Kitreever, a large and populous
town on the fea of Marmora, once well fortified, and ftill

33

SIL
in part furrounded by a ftrong wall. Some of its mofques
and minarets are very handfome buildings. The lower part
of the town is wafhed by the fea. Its bay is capable of ac-
commodating a confiderable number of veflels, and is fo
well fheltered by the high land on each fide of it, that fhips
may, in any weather, ride in fafety.

SILIUS Irauricus, Carus, in Biography, an Italian
poet, was born about the year 15 of the Chriftian era.
He has been fuppofed to have been a native of Italicain —
Spain ; but his not being claimed as a fellow countryman by
Martial, who has beftowed upon him the higheft praifes,
renders the fuppofition improbable. It is certain that he
lived chiefly in Italy, in which he poffeffed feveral eftates,
The knowledge of him come down to thefe times is derived
from a letter of Pliny the Younger to Caninius Rufus, an-
nouncing his death. From this it appears that he incurred
fome reproach in the reign of Nero, as having been forward
in accufations, and that he was conful at the time of the
tyrant’s death; that he madea difcreet and humane ufe of
the friendfhip of Vitellius ; and that having acquired much
honour, from his conduét in the proconfulate of Afia, he
thenceforth withdrew from public offices, and maintained
the rank of the principal perfons of the city without power,
and without envy. It appears, likewife, that'he paffed his
time chiefly in literary converfations, and in compofing
verfes, which he fometimes recited in public. He had great
tafte for elegance, and purchafed a number of villas, which,
after enjoying for a time, he deferted for new ones. He
collected a number of ftatues, books, and bufts, to fome of
the latter of which he paid a kind of religious veneration.
This was particularly the cafe with re{peé to that of Virgil,
whofe birth-day he kept with much more ceremony than his
own, and whofe tomb was included in one of his villas.
He is faid alfo to have poffefled a villa that had been Ci-
cero’s, In his latter years he retired altogether to his feat
in Campania, which he did not quit upon any account ; and
the general tide of his profperity did not ceafe to flow, ex-
cept in the inftance of the death of the younger of his two
fons, which was in fome degree compenfated by the confular
dignity of the elder. In his 75th year he was attacked with
an incurable ulcer, and he is faid to have put an end to his
life, by abftaining from food.

The work of Silius, which has come down to the prefent
time, is an epic poem on the fecond Punic war. In this he
fcarcely deviates from Livy, in the narration of tranfaCtions ;
but occafionally introduces a machinery, copied from Virgil,
of whofe ftyle and manner he is an imitator. Pliny fays,
that “ he writes with more diligence than genius.” The
beft editions of this work are thofe of Drakenborch, 1717;
and of Lefebvre de Villebrune, 4 vols. 12mo. 1782.

SILK, Sericum; a very foft, fine, bright, delicate
thread; the work of an infect, called dombyx, or the filk«
worm,

The ancients were but little acquainted with the ufe and
manufacture of filk ; they took it for the work of a fort of
{pider, or beetle, who {pun it out of its entrails, and wound
it with its feet about the little branches of trees. This in-
fe&t they called fer, from Seres, a peoplein Scythia, whom
we now call the Chinefe, who, as they thought, bred its
whence the filk itfelf they called fericum. But this fer of
theirs has very little affinity with our filk-worm, bombyx:
the former living five years ; but the latter dying annually,
enveloped in a yellowifh bag or ball, which, wound out
into little threads, makes what we call filk.

Tt was in the ifle of Cos that the art of manufa&iuring it
was firft invented; and Pamphila, daughter of Platis, is
honoured as the inventrefs. The difcovery was not long

unknown

SILK.

Romans. Silk was brought them from
worm was a native. But fo far were
the difcovery, that they could not
fine a thread thould be the work of

own,

was a very fearce eommodity among them for many
it was even fold weight for weight with gold ; info-
much that Vopifcus tells us, the emperor Aurelian, who
died A.D. 275 refufed the emprefs, his wife, a {uit of
filk, which folicited of him with much ecarneltnefs,

sa fd account of its dearnefs,
Or however, with greater probability, affert that it
at Rome fo early as the reign of ‘Tiberius, about

Galea, who lived about the year of our Lord 173, {peaks
of the rarity of filk, being no where but at Rome, and only

the rich.
"Heapiole, the emperor, who died A.D. 220, is faid

by fome to be the firit perfon who wore a holofericum, 4. ¢.
a of all filk. :

Greeks of Alexander the Great's army are faid to
have been the firft who wrought filk from Perfia
into Greece, about 323 Chrift ; but the manu-
facture of it was contined to Berytus and Tyre, iu Pheenicia,
whence it was difperfed over the Weft.

two monks, coming from the Indies to Con-
Ricined sie Ge pee quantities of BE.
uantities 0 -
inftruétions for the tacking of their eg,
ing worms, and drawing out the filk,
working it. Upon this, manufadtures
thens, “Phebes, and Corinth. The Ve-
Bpsbah at as eebee bate of Excoge
up weitern parts of Euro
centuries ; though fundey kinds of Ss:
were unknown in thofe times, fuch
refine Il kin f Sicil
he year 1130, . king of Sicily, efta-
tsar taaling riba Siitir OCH
by workmen, who were a part of the plunder
Corinth, &c. of which that prince
i — to the Holy Land. B
reit of Italy and Spain
Calabrians, the management of the
and the working of filk; and at len h the
p raepe ice Ae ae , alittle before the
pos oat , I., and began to imitate them, Thuanus,
in contradiction to moft other writers, makes this
Tenth Oy Roteee a Wie, King of Sicily, end coum
years y ife, king of Sicily, and count
of Provence. J r

It by 33 Hen. VI. cap. 5. that there was a com-
of filk-women in England th aly as the year 145 ;
thefe were pr employed in needle-works o tik

if

5
ef

Hea
ue

}

!

i
F

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i
F

hi
if
EE

F

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é

_ and thread ; we find that various forts of {mall haber-

A i Spain, indeed, the culture
period by the Moors, tainty i beaces Coe
in Murcia, “
‘and Granada. The hk manufAures of this laft
ip | when it was taken by Ferdi-

clofe of the fifteenth century.
In 1521, the French, being fupplied with workmen from
commenced a filk manufacture; but it was long
after this time before they could obtain raw filk from the

Vor. XXXII.

worms; and even in the 1547, filk was fearce and dear
in France; and Henry II. is {aid to have been the firtt who
wore a pair of filk knit flockings; though the firfl inven-
tion originally came from Spain, whence filk tlockings were
brought over to Heary VIII, and Edward V1. After the
civil wars in France, the plantations of mulberry-trees were
greatly encouraged by Henry IV. and his fucceflors ; and
the produce of filk is at this day very confiderable.

he great advantage which the new manufacture effurded,
made our king James I. very carnett for its bewg introduced

‘into England: accordingly it was recommended feveral

times from the throne, and in the moft carneft terms, parti-
cularly in the year 1608, to plant mulberry-trees, &c. for
the propayation of filk-worms; but unhappily without ef-
feet; though from the various experiments we meet with in
the Philofophical TranfaGtions, and other places, it re
that the filk-worm thrives and works as well, in all pects,
in England, as in any other part of Europe.

However, towards the Jatter end of this king’s reign, i.¢.
about the year 1620, the broad filk manufacture was intro-
duced into this country, and profecuted with great vigour
and advanta In 1629, the filk manufacture was become
fo confiderable in London, that the filk-throwfters of the
city, and parts adjacent, were incorporated under the name
of maiter, wardens, &c. of the filk-throwfters ; and in 1661,
this company of filk-throwlters employed above forty thou-
fand ‘ons. The revocation of the edi& of Nantes, in
1685, contributed in a great degree to promote the filk
manufaéture in this kingdom; as did alfo the invention of
the filk throwing machine at Derby, in 1719; for an ac-
count of which, fee Sick, Manufa@ure of.

So high in reputation was the English filk manufa&ture,
that even in Italy, as Keyfler (Travels, vol. i. p. 289.)
informs us, in 1730, the Englifh filks bore a higher price
than the Italian.

The filk-worm is an infe& not more remarkable for the
precious matter it furnifhes for divers ftuffs, than for the
many forms it affumes, before and after its being enveloped
in the rich cod or ball which it weaves for itfelf. From a
{mall egg, about the fize of a pin’s head, which is its firft
itate, it becomes a pretty big worm, or caterpillar, of a
whitifh colour, inclining to yellow. In this ftate it feeds
on mulberry-leaves, til, being come to maturity, it winds
itfelf up in a filken bag, or cafe, about the fize and thape
of a pigeon’s egg; and becomes metamo hofed into an
aurelia : in this flate it remains without part 8 of life, or
motion ; till at length it awakes to become a butterfly, after
making itfelf a paflage out of its filken fepulchre ; and, at
laft, dying indeed, it prepares itfelf, by an egg which it
cafts, for a new life; which the warmth of the fummer
weather affifts it in refuming.

As foon as the filk-worm, or caterpillar, is arrived at the

fize and ftrength neceflary for begianing his cod, he makes
his web; for it is thus t call that fight tiflue, which is
the beginning and

und of this admirable work. This is
his firit day’s ord seme On the fecond, he forms his
folliculus, or ball, and covers himfelf clmoft over with filk.
The third day, he is quite hid; and the following days he
employs himfelf in thickening and ftrengthening his ball;
always working from one fin fe end, which he never breaks
by his own fault ; and which is fo fine, and fo long, that
thofe whe have examined it attentively, think they {peak
within com when they affirm that each ball contains
filk enough to reach the length of fix Englith miles.

In ten days’ time, the ball is in its perfection ; and it is
now to be taken down from the branches of the mulberry-
trees, where the worms have hung it. But this bufincfs

4X requires

SILK.

requires a great deal of attention ; for there are fome worms
more lazy than others; and it is very dangerous waiting till
they make themfelves a paflage, which ufually happens
about the fifteenth day.

The firft, fineft, and ftrongeft balls are kept for the
breed ; the reft are carefully wound. If there be no more
than canbe well wound at once, they lay them for fome
time in an oven, moderately hot, or elfe expofe them, for
feveral days fucceflively, to the greateft heats of the fun, in
order to kill the infe&’; which, without this precaution,
would not fail to open itfelf a way to go and ufe thofe new
wings abroad, which it has acquired within. Ordinarily,
they only wind the more perfe& balls. Thofe that are
double, or too weak, or too coarfe, are laid afide ; not as
altogether ufelefs, but that, being improper for winding,
they are referved to be drawn out into fkeins. The balls
are of different colours; the moft common are yellow,
orange-colour, ifabella, or flefh-colour. There are fome
alfo of a fea-green, others of a fulphur-colour, and others
white ; but there is no neceflity for feparating the colours
and fhades, to wind them apart, as all thefe colours are to
be loft in the future feouring and preparing of the filk.

Six, Manufadure of. In England, where filk is not
produced in any quantities to be employed by the manufac-
turer, he muft commence his operations upon the raw filk,
with no other preparation than that of being wound off into
flkeins or hanks from the balls, or cocoons, which the filk-
worms form.

In this ftate the filk is imported from thofe countries
where it is produced, as Italy, Flanders, Spain, Portugal,
Turkey, the Eaft Indies, and China. A thread of this
raw filk, drawn from the fkein, is found to be compofed
of an aflemblage of feveral of the fine fibres or threads
produced by the worms; the fibres being united together
by a natural gum, which is in the filk, and which is foluble
in the hot water in which the cocoons are immerfed when
the filk is wound off. hie

To prepare this raw filk for ufe, it is wound from
the fkeins upon bobbins; the compound thread is then
twifted, to unite the con{tituent fibres more firmly than
they can be by the gum alone; and afterwards, being
wound again upon frefh bobbins, two or three threads
are twifted together to produce a ftronger thread, fit for
the weaver, who warps and finally weaves the filk into
various articles of ornaments or utility, by proceffes very
fimilar to the weaving of cotton or linen, but more delicately
conducted.

In the countries where the filk is produced, the,manu-
fa€ture may be more properly faid to commence with the
operation of winding or reeling off the threads into fkeins
from the cocoons, or balls, in which the worms envelope
themfelves. Thefe balls become an article of trade, as foon
as the infe&t within them is killed by expofing them to heat,
either of the fun, or in an oven, or by the fteam of boiling
water ; and, in general, the breeders of filk-worms fell them,
in this ftate, to perfons who make a bufinefs of the opera-
tion of winding. In Piedmont, where capital filk is pro-
duced, it is conduéted, as follows, by the aid of the filk
reel reprefented in Plate Silk Manufacture, fig. 1.

The balls are thrown into hot water, contained in a copper
bafin or boiler, A, which is about eighteen inches in length
and fix deep, fet in briek-work, fo as to admit a {mall char-
coal fire beneath it; or if a fire of wood is intended to be
made, the fire-place muft have a {mall flue or chimney of
iron plate to carry off the fmoke. At the fide of the boiler *
is placed the reel, which is very fimple. BB marks the
wood-framing which fuftains its pa : thefe are, the reel D,

I

upon which the filk is wound ; the layer a, which directs the
thread upon it ; and the wheel-work 4c, which gives motion
to the layer. The reel, D, is nothing more than a wooden
{pindle, turned by a handle at the end; and within the frame,
at each end, it has four arms mortifed into it, to fupport
the four battens or rails on which the filk 1s wound. The
rails are parallel to the axis, and at fuch a diftance, that
they will form a proper-fized {kein by the winding of the
filk upon them, (it is ufually a yard for each revolution. )
One of each of the four arms is made to fold in the middle
of its length with hinges, fo as to caufe the rail, which thefe
two arms fupport, to fall in or approach the centre, and
thus diminifh the fize of the reel, and admit the flceins of
filk to be taken off at the end of the reel when the winding
is finifhed. :

Upon the end of the wooden fpindle of the reel, and
within the frame B, is a wheel of twenty-two teeth, to give
motion to another wheel, c, which has about twice the num-
ber of teeth, and is fixed upon the end of an inclined axis,
cb; this, at the oppofite end, carries a wheel, 4, of twenty-
two teeth, which gives motion to an horizontal cog-wheel
of thirty-five teeth. This wheel turns upon a pivot fixed
in the frame, and has a pin fixed in it, at a diftance from
the centre, to form an excentric pin or crank, and give a
backward and forward motion te the flight wooden rail or
layer a, which guides the threads upon the reel: for this
purpofe, the threads are pafled through wire-loops or eyes,
a, fixed into the layer, and the end thereof oppofite the
wheel and crank, 4, is fupported in a mortife or opening
made in the frame, B, fo that the revolution of the crank —
will caufe the layer to move, and carry the threads alter-
nately towards the right or left. There is likewife an iron
bar, e, fixed over the centre of the boiler at e, and pierced
with two holes, through which the threads pafs to guide
them.

To defcribe the operation of reeling, it fhould be under-
ftood, that if the thread of each ball or cocoon was reeled
feparately, it would be totally unfit for the purpofes of
the manufa€turer; in the reeling, therefore, the ends or
threads of feveral cocoons are joined, and reeled together
out of warm water, which foftens their natural gum, and
makes the fibres flick together, fo as to form one ftrong
fmooth thread; and as often as the thread of any fingle
cocoon breaks or comes to an end, its place is fupplied by
a new one, fo that by continually keeping up the fame
number, the united thread may be wound to any length.
The fingle threads of the newly added cocoons are not
joined by any tie, but fimply laid on the compound thread,
to which they will adhere by their gum ; and their ends are
fo fine, as not to occafion the leatt perceptible unevennefs
in the place on which they are laid.

‘The woman who conduéts the reeling is feated before the
bafin A, and employs a boy or girl to turn the handle of
the reel: a fire is lighted beneath the bafin A; and when
the water becomes nearly boiling hot, fhe throws into the
bafin two or three handsful of cocoons, and leaves them
fome minutes, to foften that natural gum with which the filk
is impregnated ; then fhe ftirs up or brufhes the cocoons with
a wifk of birch or of rice-{traw, about fix inches long, cut
ftumpy, like a worn-out breom; the loofe threads of the co-
coons ftick to the wifk, and are drawn out: fhe then difen-
gages thefe threads from the wifk, and by drawing the ends
through her fingers, cleans them from that loofe filk which
always furrounds the cocoon, till they come off entirely
clean: this operation is called /a battue: and when the threads
are quite clean, fhe paffes four or more of them, if fhe in-
tends to wind fine filk, through each of the holes in the thin

iron

SILK.

which is placed horizontally over the centre of
afterwards the twilts the two compound
which confit of four cocoons each) twenty or
twenty-five times round cach other, that the four pea m in
each thread may the better join together by crofling each
and that the thread of the filk may be round, which
on Seen ia | ot ee
throu 6 in the iron
bar being twikted pe a are pafled through the
eyesof the loops, a, of the layer, and thence bein conduéted
tothe reel, are made faft to one of its rails, The child whoturns
the reel, gives it the moft rapid movement poflible, aud thus
ilnaohends from the cocoons in the bafin A, The
motion of the layer prevents the threads lying
upon the reel, until it has made fo many
the air as to dry the of the filk fo far,
that the threads will not adhere vost After the reel is
about the breadth of three inches, by the gradual
» it returns and directs a fecond

montefe are by la

French inches between i a, and the centre of the

reel; and under a penalty, be moved
I per peri e } 9m peaaler he .

in ich, i to ill caufe
‘ol threads dift -

w may 4 to have a diftance of thirty-eight
mait

a

!
qj!
as

“eatin gt is removed from
i two of its arms the ikeins
ie is made with fome of the refufe filk
in where it bore upon the bars of
on the oppofite part of the fkein ;
it is doubled into a , and ufually tied round
extremity, rerence i th Rania fae.
operation » but to uce a
i coakbibietinn, The Ante wate
of a cocoon is entirely exhauited before the
becaufe the threads near the end have not
eer ere
> ma met with wi
ely wh f he afr 200 el. To
of a cocoon may m
600 ells in length. As often as the cocoons fhe
i exhaufted, or break, or only diminifh, fhe joins
to keep up the requifite number, or the propor-
as the cocoons wind off, and the thread becomes
join two cocoons half wound to replace a new
Thus fhe can wind three new ones and twe half wound,
the filk will be equal to that produced from four to five
When the would join a freth thread the muit la
her finger, throw it light! nnthnachehtaee
ich are winding, and the ill join it immediately,
will continue to go up thereft. She muft not wind
Si aiistake ikon they announce on
worm joins in with the other threads, and
and gouty. The filk may be wound of
from one cocoon to 100, but it is difficult to wind
° t In w.
nannies an even thread, becaufe ag
off the end is finer, and other cocoons
anuft be joined on'to keep up the fame fize. This difficulty

i

i

tf

3

bE 3
8
g
rE

He
i

E
é

He

Ht

June
He
TH

i

the i

”

of keeping the filk always even is fo gieat, that (excepting o
thread of two cocoons, which is called fuch) they do not A
a filk of three, four, or fix cocoons; but « filk ef three to
four, four to five, or fix to feven cocoons. Ina coarfer ilk
it cannot be calculated even fo nearly as to four cocoons more
or lefs; they fay, for example, from 12 to 15, from 15 to
20, and fo on.

During the operation of winding, the woman mult always
have a bow! of cold water by her, to dip her fingers in,
and to {prinkle frequently upon the iron bar ¢, that the
heat of a bafin may not burn the threads, alfo to cool her
fingers every time fhe dips them in the het water, and to
po into the bafin when neceflary, that is, when the water

yins to boil. ‘The water muit be juft in a degree
of heat ; for when it is too hot, the thread is and has
no body; and when too cold, the ends which form the
thread do not join well, and form a harth filk. The heat
of the water a which the cocoons are wound, caules
that adhefion of the fibres which compofe the filk ; as thread
can with difficulty be wound off when cold water is em-
ployed; but in this manner the adhefion is very flight, and
the thread breaks with a flight force, or the leafl moifture
will feparate the fibres ; but the filk wound from hot water
cannot be feparated except by hot water.

The old coceons require the water to be very hot; if
the threads break very frequently, it may be concluded that
the water is too cold; or, on the other hand, if the filk
comes off entangled, and in the flate of wool, the water is
too hot. When the firft parcel of cocoons is finifhed, the
bafin, A, is cleaned, taking out all the itriped worms, as
well as the cocoons, on which there remains a little filk :
thefe are thrown into a bafket, into which the loofe filk
that comes off in making the battue is likewife put as waite
filk, to be carded and {pun into threads. ‘The water in the
bafin muft be changed four times a day for coarfe filk, and
twice only for good cocoons of fine filk: if the water is
not changed, the filk will not be fo bright and glofly, be-
caufe the worms contained in the cocoons foul it very con-
fiderably. The reeler muft endeavour to wind as much as

ffible with clear water, for if there are too many worms
in it, the filk will be covered with a kind of duit, which

attracts moths, which deftroys the filk.

From the gummy or vifcid material which filk gives out
to water when the cocoons are infuled in it, Chappe found
that he was able to blow up the water into bubbles, or
{mall balloons, far more permanent than thofe of foap and
water, and offering all the colours of the rainbow. So
clofe, indeed, is the texture of thefe filky bladders, that
even the moft fubtile gas does not penetrate them. Chappe
filled many of them, the diameter of each not exceeding
three inches, with hydrogen gas, and found feveral of them
continued in a ftate of fufpenfion, in an apartment, for con-
fiderably more than twenty-four hours. It is not all filk,
however, that is fufficiently glutinous for this purpofe;
that which is of a very deep yellow will not anfwer the
fame purpofe. This filk, from its colour, is fuppofed to
be produced by the worm in a peculiar difeafe, yet this
is a ftate by no means uncommon.

All kind of filk which is fimply drawn from the cocoons
by the reeling, is called raw filk, but is denominated fine
or according to the number of fibres of which the
thread is compofed. In , the raw filk requires dyeing;
to prepare for which the thread is very flightly twitted, to
render it flrong, and more able to bear action of the
hot liquor, without feparating the fibres or furring up.
Silk-yarn, which is employed by the weavers for the woof
er weft of the ftuffs which cd fabricate, is compofed of

4X2 two

SILK.

two or more threads of the raw filk, flightly twifted in a
machine ; and the thread employed by the ftocking weaver
is of the fame quality, but compofed of a greater number
of threads, according to the thicknefs defired. Organzine
filk is compofed of two, three, or four threads of raw filk
twifted, and fo combined as to obtain the greateft ftrength:
for this purpofe, each thread of raw filk is twifted feparately
upon itfelf by a mill: the twift is given in a right-handed
direGtion, and extremely tight. By a fecond operation of
twifting, two of thefe threads are combined together, the
twift being given in a contrary direction, and not above
half as tight: this forms a thread fimilar toa rope. This
defcription of /filk, ufed for the warp of {ftuffs, is of
the utmoft importance to the manufa€turer, for none of
the principal articles can be fabricated without it. The
Italians, from whom we formerly imported the filk in
the {tate of organzine, for a long time kept the art of
throwing it a profound fecret. It was introduced into this
country by the enterprife and {kill of Meflrs. Thomas and
John Lombe, the latter having, at the rifk of his life, and
with wonderful ingenuity, taken a plan of one of thefe
complicated machines in the king of Sardinia’s dominions,
from which, on his return, they eftablifhed a fimilar fet of
mills in the town of Derby. (See Dersy.) In confider-
ation of the great hazard and expence attending the under-
taking’, a patent was granted to fir Thomas Lombe in 1718,
for fecuring to him the privilege of working organzine for
the term of fourteen years; but the conftruction of build-
ings and engines, and the inftruétion of the workmen, took
up fo much time, that the fourteen years were nearly ex-
pired before he could derive any advantage from it; in
confequence of which, he petitioned parliament, in 1731,
to grant him a further term: but parliament, confidering
it an objet of national importance, granted him the {um of
14,000/. on condition that he fhould allow a perfect model
of the machinery to be taken, and depofited in the Tower
of London for public infpeétion. Similar mills were, in
courfe of time, erected in different parts of the country ;
but owing to the difficulties that were experienced in pro-
curing raw Italian filk of the proper fize for organzine (the
exportation of which was prohibited by the Italians), and
to the mills having fubfequently found employment. for
other purpofes, the quantities worked into organzine, for
many years, bore fcarcely any proportion to the imports
from Italy; it has however been fince revived and im-
proved, in confequence of which it is now carried on to a
very confiderable extent, as well in other parts of England
as at Derby.

The procefs which the filk undergoes to bring it into
this ftate, confifts of fix different operations. 1. The filk
is wound from the fkein upon bobbins in the winding ma-
chines. 2. It is then forted into different qualities. 3. It
is fpun or twilted on a mill in the fingle thread, the twit
being in the direétion of from right to left, and very tight.
4. Two or more threads thus {pun are doubled or drawn
together through the fingers of a woman, who at the fame
time cleans them, by taking out the flubs which may have
been left in the filk by the negligence of the foreign reeler.
5. It is then thrown by a mill, that is, the two threads are
twilted tegether, either flack or hard, as the manufa&ture
may require ; but the twift is in an oppofite direétion to
the firft twilt, and it is wound at the fame time in fkeins upon
areel. 6. The fkeins are forted according to their different
degrees of finenefs, and then the procefs is complete.

_ The firft operation which the raw filk undergoes is wind-
ing, that is, drawing it off from the flcemms in which it is
gmported, and winding it upon wooden bobbins, m which

{tate it can go to the other machines. The winding-frame
is fhewn at jig. 2. of the plate, or rather a part of ity
which will wind fix threads at once, and by increafin
the length it may be made to receive any number. Tack
of the fkeins is extended upon a flight reel AA, called a
{wift ; it is compofed of four {mall rods, fixed into an axis,
and {mall bands of {tring are ftretched between the arms to
receive the fkein, but at the fame time the bands admit of
fliding to a greater or lefs diftance from the centre, fo as to
increafe the effeGtive diameter of the reel, according to the
fize of the fein, becaufe the fkeins, which come from dif-
ferent countries, vary in fize, being generally an exa& yard,
or other fimilar meafure, of the country where the filks are
produced. ‘The {wifts are f{upported upon wire pivots, upon
which they turn freely when the filk is drawn off from
them; but in order to caufe the thread to draw with
a gentle force, a looped piece of ftring, or wire, is hung
upon the axis withinfide the reel, and a {mall leaden weight,
c, being attached to it, will caufe a fufficient friction. B, B,
are the bobbins which draw off the threads; they are re-
ceived in the frame, and are turned by means of a wheel be-
neath each, the bobbin having a {mall roller upon the end of
it, which bears by its weight upon the circumference of the
wheel, and the bobbin is thereby put in motion to draw off
the filk from the fwift. Dis the layer, a fmall light rod of
wood, which has a wire-eye fixed into it, oppofite to each
bobbin, fo as to condu& the thread thereupon; and as the
layer moves conftantly backwards and forwards, the thread is
regularly {pread upon the length of the bobbin. The mo-
tion of the layeris produced by a crank fixed upon theend |
of a crofs-fpindle, E, which is turned by means of a pair of
bevelled wheels from the end of the horizontal axle, upon
which the wheels for turning all the bobbins are fixed.

Thefe winding-machines are ufually fituated in the top
building of the mill, the frames being made of great length,
and alfo double, to contain a row of bobbins and {wifts at
the back as well asin front. ‘Two of thefe double frames
are pat in motion by cog-wheels from the vertical fhaft, F,
which afcends from the lower apartments of the mill, where
the twilting-machines are placed. The winding-machines
require a conftant attendance of children to mend the ends
or threads which are broken ; or when they are exhautted,
they replace them by putting new fkeins upon the f{wifts.
When the bobbins are filled they are taken away, by only
lifting them up out of their frame, and frefh ones are put in
their places.

A patent has been lately taken out by Meffrs. Gent and
Clarke, for a new contruction of the fwifts for winding-
machines: they are made with fix fingle arms inftead of four
double ones; and the arms are {mall flat tubes, made to
contain the ftems of wire forks, which receive the fkein in-
ftead of the bands of {tring in the common {wifts. Thefe
forks admit of drawing out from the tubes until the {wift
is fufliciently enlarged to extend it ; but as they extend the
fein at fix points inftead of four, as in the common one,
the motion is more regular. Inftead of the weight which
caufes the fri€tion, a {pring is ufed to prefs upon the end
pivot of the axis, and make the requifite refiftance.

The twifting of the filk is always performed by a {pindle
and bobbin, with a flyer, but the con‘tru€tion of the machine
which puts the fpindle in motion is frequently varied. The
limits of our plate do not admit a reprefentation of the great
machines, or throwfting-mills, fuch as are ufed at Derby, and
at almoft all the other great filk-millsin England. In fg. 3.

.we have given a drawing of a {mall machine, which 1s fimi-

lar in the parts which a€ upon the filk ; and indeed many
mills employ fuch machines’ conftruéted on a large {cale.
The

SILK.

in our plate contains only thirteen {pindles, and is in-
to be turned by hand, a method which is too ex.
this country, but is commen in the fouth of
where many artifans purchafe, their filk in the raw
and employ their wives or children to pepe it by
machines, which they call ovals, becaufe the ieee
4, are arranged in an oval frame,G H. B is the handle
‘by which the motion is given; it is fixed on the end of a
R, which carries a wheel, D, to give motion to a
uponthe upper end of a vertical axle, E; this, at the
end, has adrum or wheel F, to receive an endlefs ttrap
or band, a a, which cncompailes the oval frame G, and
* gives motion to all the {pindles at once. ‘I'he {pindles 4, 4,
—— y in the frame G H, their points
gi holes in pieces of glafs, which are let into
the oval plank G ; and the {pindles are alfo received in col-
Jars affixed to an eval frame H, which ey pa from the
plank, G, by blocks of wood ; 4 and a are {mall rollers, fup-
in the frame G H, in a fimilar manner to the {pindles ;
ir ufe is to confine the ftrap, a, to prefs agawft the
rollers of the fpindles with fuflicieat force to keep them all
, thread is taken up as falt as it is twilled by a reel, K,
ich is turned re 4, anda pinion, i, upen the end
principal {pindle, R. The threads are guided b
through wire-eyes, fixed in an oval frame, L, wh
in the frame of the machine by a fingle bar or
is has a regular traverfing motion backwards
forwards, by means of a crank, or excentric pin, 4,
in a {mall cog-wheel, which is turned by a pinion upon
vertical axis E ; the oppofite end of the rail, /, is fupported
to make it move eafily, By this means the
are in conftant motion, and lay the map car
reel K, when it turns round, and gathers up
fhewn in the figure.

cee

aed

E

fit

gf
Qe
F
I
i
| J
:
:

:
i

the wire-
the flyer is formed into eyes at the two

extremities ; one is turned down, fo as to ftand oppofite the
middle of the bobbin ¢; and the other arm, J, is bent upwards,
fo that the is exactly over the centre of the fpindle,
and at a height of fome inches above the top of the {pindle.
The thread ence epipstbrregh both ¢ eyes
of this wire, and muit evidently receive a twit when the fpin-
dle is turned ; and at the fame time, bv drawing up the thread
pres nw 6, of the flyer, it will turn the bobbin
and unwind from. The rate at which the thread

with the number of
revolutions which the flyers make in the fame time, deter-

een ne machine fimple ; the bobbin Glled
<x is mple ; the 6
with filk in the windi shine aT cnaee leat
en age ae alia uck fait upon the top of
i : the threads are conduéted through the eyes of
4, and of the layers L, and are then made faft to the
which it will be feen that there are double the
fkeins to that of the {pindles reprefented, becaufe

one half of the number of the fpindles is on the oppofite Gde
of the oval frame, fo that they are hidden, With this prepara-
tion the machine is put in motion, and contiaues to {pin the
threads by the motion of the flyers, and to draw them of
gradually from the bobbins, until the fkeins upon the reel are
made up to the requifite lengths, This is koown by a train of
wheel-work at ao p, confiding of a pinion, n, fixed upon the
eg oa fpindle R, turning a wheel o, which hes a pinion
ixed to it, and turning a larger wheel p; this has avother
wheel upon its {pindle, with a pin fixed iw it, which at every
revolution raifes a hammer, and Grikes upon a bell, 4, to in-
form the attendant that the fkeins are made upto a proper
length. When this machine 1s employed for the firll opera-
tion of twifling the organzine, the wheel, 4, muit be larger,
and the pinion, i, {maller than reprefented, in order that the
reel, K, may be turned flowly, and the threads will therefore
receive a ftronger and clofer twit. Alfo, the handle B is
turned in an oppofite direétion to that in which it mult move
for the final throwing off the two or three twilted threads to-
gether; and as it mufl alfo move for twilling the raw threads
together for the warp of filk-itufls, and for weaving tlock-
ings, this reverfe movement makes no alteration in the ma-
chine, except that it will give twift in a contrary direétion ;
for it is always neceflary, when two or more twilted threads
are combined by twilling, that the twilt of the original threads
fhall be in the oppofite direction to that twill which unites
them into one thread, in the fame manner as for making
ro organzine filk being in fact {mall repe, and tlocking-
filk or warp being only yarn. The filk which is intended
to be dyed, is previoufly twiited very flighty in this machine,
and of courfe in that direétion which will fuit the purpofe for
which it is ultimately intended ; viz. whether for yarn or
organzine.
he great mills for twifting filk, originally introduced by
Meiirs. Lombe, though very complicated, ere fimple in their
operation, becaufe the complexity arifes from the great
number of {pindles which are a€tuated by the fame move-
ment, every one of which produces its effect independent of
the others, and in the fame manner as the oval which we
have deferibed. A machine is contained in a circular frame,
of which the diameter varies from 11 to 13, 15, and even
17 feet ; but 15 feet 1s the general fize of the original Pied-
montefe machines. In the centre of the frame is a perpen-
dicular axis or {pindle, coming up through the floor of the
chamber, and rifing to the cieling ; it is put in motion by a
communication of wheel-work from a water-wheel, or other-
wife from a horfe-wheel. The axis has upon it two, three,
or four horizontal wheels, according to the height of the
machine, which revolve with it, and are of a fathcient fize
to fill nearly all the interior of the circular frame, and a@
upon the pulleys or rollers of the fpindles, which are fup-
ported Steals in the frame, and arranged round the ma-
chine, at equal diftances, in a circle, the number being pro-
portioned to the dimenfions of the machine. The {pindles
are alfo arranged in as many different ftages of height as there
are wheels upon the vertical {pindle ; for the circumference of
each wheel prefles again{t the rollers of the {pindles which
are arranged round it ; and thus, when the wheel revolves, it
gives a very rapid motion to all the {pindles at once, by the
contaét of the edge of the wheel, but without any ra
asin the oval. Each fpindle has a bobbin, filled with filk,
fitted upon the top of it, and from this the filk is carried
up to a horizontal reel, which is turned round flowly by the
machine, and draws off the thread gradually from the bob-
bin; the flyer, being all the while in rapid motion, twifts
the thread upon itfelf, or, if two or three are pre-
vioully wound together upon the bobbin, they will be
twilted

SILK.

twifted round each other. Each reel ferves to take up the
thread from feveral {pindles which are fituated beneath it :
thus, in a mill of fifteen feet diameter, there will be fix
{pindles beneath each reel. ’

To explain this machine more clearly, we will give a de-
{cription of one of thirteen feet diameter, which has four
large wheels and ftages of {pindles, two of which are for
giving the firft preparation to the organzine: the f{pindles
revolve in a direCtion from right to left. The fpindles of
the other two {tages are for the finifhine the twilt, and alfo
for twifting the fingle threads which are to be ufed for
warp or for ftocking-weaving: they revolve in a contrary
direction to the former. The frame of the machine confilts
of two wooden circles of thirteen feet diameter, one placed
upon the floor of the mill, and the other at a height of
fifteen feet above, the two being united by fourteen upright
pillars of wood, which altogether compofe a large cylin-
drical frame or lantern. Each ftage contains eighty-four iron
{pindles, placed vertically, and fupported in the ftage,
which is formed of two wooden circles, extended round
between the fourteen uprights of the lantern, and fixed one
above the other, at about a diftance of four inches afunder,
fo as to fupport the {pindles between them, in the fame man-
ner as the pieces, G, H, of the oval laft defcribed.

The cireles of the ftage are of a rather le{s diameter than
the two circles which compofe the top and bottom of the
lantern ; fo that the {pindles will be rather within the circle
of the frame of the lantern, and admit the wheels of the
central axis to aGt uponthem. For this purpofe, each of the
circles of the ftage is made up by fourteen fegments fixed
between the uprights, and each fegment fupports fix {pin-
dles, making up the number of eighty-four in the whole
circle. The fpindles, like thofe of the oval, are fharp-
pointed at the lower end, and the points reft in-{mall holes
made in pieces of glafs, which are let into the lower circle of
the ftage, whilft the upper circle fuftains the fpindle at a
height of four or five inches above the point, leaving full
one-third of the length of the {pindle projeéting above, for
the purpofe of fitting the bobbin upon it. The upper circle
of the flage is rather fmaller than the lower, becaufe the
{pindles do not pafs through it, but through holes in
imall pieces of hard wood, which project from it, fo as
to be exa€tly above the pieces of glafs which fuftain the
points of the fpindles. Each fpindle has a {mall roller
fixed upon it in the {pace between the two circles of the
ftage, and it is the conta€t of the rim of the great wheel
upon thefe that caufes the revolution of the fpindles when
the wheel revolves. In order to make the contaé certain,
the exterior rim of the great central wheel is made in feve-
ral fegments, and each fegment has a conftant tendency to
recede from the central axis by the ation of a weight, and
thus prefs againft the rollers of the fpindles. In order to
give the reverfe movement of the fpindles, which we have
before fpoken of in the defcription of the oval, the great
wheels for two of the ftages are made differently from thofe
which we have juft defcribed, fo that the fegments of the
rim will a&t upon the outfides of the rollers of the fpindles,
initead of the infides: for this purpofe the wheels are made
larger than the {tages in which the {pindles are placed, and
from the rira of the wheel {mall pillars rife up to fupport the
fegments, which aét upon the rollers of the fpindles in front
or withoutfide of the circles, inftead of the infide, as is the cafe
with the other ftages, in confequence of which the {pindles of
thefe {tages turn in oppofite direGtions. The reels are placed
over the bobbins, to take up the threads when twilted ; and
the rollers of the different fpindles are made fmaller or
larger, as is required, to give more or lefs twift to the filk

operated upon by thems; for the velocity with which the
f{pindles revolve, compared with the rate at which the reels
take up the thread, determines the degree of twift which
the thread will have ; and to render this equable, the reels
which draw off the filk from the bobbins of the f{pindles are
turned regularly with the motion of the machine by means of
wheel.work, which is more eafily conceived than defcribed :
it is fufficient to ftate that it receives its motion from the
central vertical axis. There is alfo a layer adapted to each
reel, with a wire-eye to receive each thread ; and the layers
having a flowly reciprocating motion, diftribute the threads
regularly upon the recls, in a fimilar manner to that firft de-
{cribed for the oval. One of thefe reels is placed between
each of the uprights of the machine, fo as to make fourteen
reels in the whole circle of each flage, and every reel ferves
to take the filk from the bobbins of fix fpindles. The
whole machine in the four ftages contains 336 {pindles.

A machine of four ftages is fo high, as to reach through
two floors of the mill, and for this purpofe the upper floor
is made with a large round opening, to admit the machine :
this floor ferves the people who attend the machine, and
change the bobbins when exhautted, and alfo remove the
finifhed filk from the reels.

The fpindles in the upper ftages are ufually devoted to
the firft twiftine of the fingle threads for the organzine,
and therefore turn the reverfe way, as before mentioned ;
and as the filk is afterwards to be thrown, or re-twifted,
they are drawn off from the bobbins by large bobbins of
three inches diameter, aud four inches long, inftead of the
reels, Thefe bobbins are ftuck fix together upon a long _
{pindle, fituated horizontally, and turned by fimilar wheel-
work to that which aftuated the reels; they have fimilar
layers to conduét the filk regularly upon the bobbins from
one end to the other, fo that the operation is not at all
different.

In many of the beft filk-mills, they have abandoned the
original method of turning the {pindles, for the preparation
of organzine, the reverfe way, by making the action of the
wheels upon the outfide, inftead of the infide, of the circle
of {pindles. Inftead of them they employ two different
machines, one for the firft operation on organzine, and the
other for the fecond operation, both of them conftruéted
with the wheels withinfide: but the motion of the two
machines is reverfed to each other.

Fig. 5. reprefents a fingle fpindle of a throwfting ma-
chine, which, though the fame in its aétion as the great
mill, is different in its conftruétion. G and Hi reprefent
portions of the rails or circles of the ftage which fupport
the {pindle, and aa isa part of the rim of the great wheel
of the central axle. This wheel is not made in fegments,
as before defcribed, but is made very truly circular, and
covered with leather on the edge, that it may act with
more force to turn the roller, 7, of the {pindle. ‘The point
of the fpindle refts in a glafs cap, fupported by the rail G,
and the roller, ¢, is always made to prefs againft the rim
of the great wheel, aa, by a {mall lever, d, and a ftring,
which, after turning over a pulley, has the weight, c, made
faft to it, to prefs the fpindle always towards the wheel.
In this machine, inftead of the reel, the thread is taken up
by a bobbin, K, is put into a frame, m, which moves on
pivots, and by a weight, », is prefled down fo as to make
the bobbin bear upon the edge of a wheel, A, which is kept
in conftant and regular motion, by the fame kind of move-
ment which turns the reels of the great machine. The
intention of this is, that the a€tion of the wheel, 4, to
turn the bobbin, being communicated by preflure again{t
the part upon which the filk is to wind, will be aie

ant,

ing mill, We have

SILK.

ftant, and will not draw more when the bobbin is large
li, or lefs when it is empty, as mult be the cafe when
motion is given to the axis of the bobbin,
is twilted in a right-hand direGtion, if it
yarn, or for dyeing ; or in a left-hand direc-
it is red for organgzine ; it mult be wound on
bobbins, with two or three threads together, prepara-
ig them into one thread. In the original
Derby this was done by women, who, with
wound the threads from two or three of the
cv he which the filk is gathered inftead of
bled them two or three together upon
fize to be returned to the twilt-
doubling stick be Daliiy ecproieand to hee,
5 is flight re in fg.
machine Saw ter hake vo the ms
machine, fg. 2, but inftead of the {wift, the bobbias from
are placed in front at A, fg. 4, two or
The threads from thefe are pled ovr the
wood, a, which, being
effe& to clean the filk by

g,

aia
a ial
i

E

i

&
oe}

ttf
E

E

the bobbin B. A {mall
always the hook, v, of this lever
the bobbin; but if any one of the three
flider ¢, which belongs to it,
upon the end, ¢, of the lever, and deprefles the
as to bring the hook, », in a fituation to
bobbin B, and {top its motion. By
winding of three threads is rendered
SS etacath tho winiin of one; fer when any one
the operation of winding on that bobbin ion
the attendant repairs the broken thread, and puts the
in i . We have lately been informed,

i ee ee ee
in the filk-mills, but we do not know
with this one, which however is not evi-

Sfp bebbin beng tho

aes
is u
i made u into flecna” The of

Se denadiighsedions sf coll wiacnt are for Se

1
iu

ced
i

:

ut
E

.

E
:

1

of ane which the filk is
being now fpun, requires only the
to aifcharge gan and render the ilk
» and alfo to render it foft and glofly.
about four hours, in a boiler filled with
4 {mall quantity of foap is put ; this opera-

of bails

to receive the
‘The filk is boiled
water, into which

tion diffolves the gum, which before could be felt upon the
filk, and rendered it harth, After the boiling, it is well
wathed in a current of clear water, and when dried, will be
found to have loft about one-fourth of its weight ; at the
fame time the volume of the fille is fenfibly increafed, and it
has acquired that foft texture and gloffinels, which are the
principal beauties of ilk, ‘This change is produced by the
diffolution of the gum, which, in the inftance, was the
ouly adherence of the fibre to form a thread, but by the
operation of the uwilling the fibres are firmly united, and no
longer require the gum. It is alfo nece'! » in order to give
a fine dye to the filk, that the gum fhould be removed, be-
caufe it would prevent the entrance of the dyeing matter to
the centre of the thread, aod thus impair the beauty of the
colour. If the filk was thus boiled before the ewifting, no-
thing but a fine — down or wool would be obtained,
and it would require {pinning, by a fimilar procefs to that of
cotton, before a ul could be obtained. This, indeed, is
neceflary for that portion of waite filk which is drawn from
the cocoons in the firft operation of reeling ; alfo for thofe
cocoons which are referved for breeding, and from which
the moths eat their way out by holes, which render it im-

racticeble to wind off the filk. ‘This wafte filk, when care-
fully {pun by a fpinning-wheel, is called {pun filk, and the
thread is not inferior to the regular filk which is wound off :
indeed, the para. off the : nag: ae paae> united by
its gum, is of no advantage farther than as a preparation
for tpning, from aids cocanla the thread Snios is

h

The filk is now in a ftate for ufe: if it is for ttocking-
weaviny, or fewing, or if intended for weaving into fluff,
only requires warping to be put intotheloom. The
tion of warping is to put together all the threads whi
to compofe the warp of the intended piece of ftuff, and |
them parallel, fo that the warp, being put into the loom, will
have no flack threads, nor any which are ftrained too tight.
Formerly, this operation was performed by ftretching the
threads out at length in a field, or by extending them in a
frame, and winding them backwards and forwards over pegs.
The warping machine now univerfally employed is thewn in
Jig. 6, where A A isa treffel or ftool, which fup the
{mall bobbins J, 4, upon which the filk is wound. The num-
ber of thefe is equal to the number of threads which the
of the intended piece of {tuff is to have in its breadth. The
threads from al! thefe bobbins are drawn over wires d, d,
which are in front of the bobbins, and are then all brought
together, and paffed through an opening in a piece of wood
D; this condudts the threads ali together upon a large reel
EE, which is fupported in a frame F F F, and turned round
by means of a pulley at the lower end of its axle, from
which an endlele band is continued to a fecond wheel G,
mounted on a f{pindle, and turned by a handle. This latter
{pindle is fupported in a fort of ftool H, upon which a child
fits down, and at the fame time turns the handle and puts the
reel in motion, fo as to draw the warp or affemblage of
threads off from the feveral bobbins, and lay it upon the
reel E. The piece of wood D is fitted upon one of the up-
right pieces, F, of the frame, to flide freely up and down
upon it, and ts fufpended by a cord, which, after pafling
over a pulley /, is wrapped round the fpindle of the machine
atc: this means, motion of the reel, E, draws the
cord, and raifes up the piece D, fo as to lay the warp epon
the circumference of the reel, in a regular {piral, from one
end to the other, and prevent the coils lapping one upon an-
other. When the required length of warp is wound upon the
reel, the ends of all the threads are cut off, tied » and
thus drawn off from the reel and rolled up into a large ball,

a

SILK.

in which ftate the weaver takes it, and mounts it in his
loom.

For the fubfequent operations of weaving we fhall refer
to the article WrEAviNnG, becaufe the weaving of filk
goods is the fame as for any other, except that finer and
more beautiful articles are produced in this fub{ftance than
in any other. Some information on the details of weaving
mechanifm will be found under our articles Draueut of
Looms, Draw-Loom, Diaper, Dirry, and Dornocx ;
and though thefe are rather the weaving of linen and cotton
than filk, the fame principles apply to filk, as will be more
fully explained under Weavine ; where a defcription of
weaving ribbands and figured filks will be given.

Silk is diftinguifhed by different names according to its
different ftates. Thus,

Sixx, Spun, is that taken from the ball, without fire, and
{pun into thread without any coétion: fuch as is moft, if not
all, that is brought into England from the Levant ; 1. e. from
Perfia by the way of Turkey, from Bengal in India, and from
China. The raw {pun filk is commonly worked up into two
forts, called organize anc tram: the former is made by
giving a throw or twiit to each thread of raw {pun filk fingly,
and then doubling two of thefe twifted threads together,
and twifting them fmartly together ; this forms the warp
or length of a piece when manufactured. The tram, or
fhoot, which makes the breadth of the piece, 1s formed by
twifting two or more threads of raw filk flack. The watte raw
filk, or refufe in reeling, &c. is colleéted, carded, and {fpun,
and called flo/s filk ; this is doubled and thrown, and often
made into a cheap fort. of filk-ftockings, which are very
ftrong and durable.

In the French filk-works, the greateft part of this raw
filk pafles for little better than a kind of fine floretta; yet,
when fpun, it makes a bright thread, and ferves for the
manufaCture of {tuffs of moderate value and Iuftre. But the
{pun filks of the Levant, whence mott of our’s come, are ex-
ceedingly fine and beautiful. The difference arifes hence,
that in France, the beft balls are reeled off in boiling
water, and only the refufe made into fpun filk ; whereas, in
the Levant, there is no fuch thing as reeling or winding on
the fire, but the filks are all fent in bales, or packs, as they
are drawn from off the balls; fo that they are only dif-
tinguifhed by their quality of fine, middling, and coarfe.

S1ix, Boiled, is that which has been boiled in water, to
facilitate the {pinning and winding. This is the finett of all
the forts of filk manufa@tured in France, and is feldom
ufed but in the richeft {tuffs ; as velvets, taffeties, damafks,
brocades, &c.

There is alfo another kind of boiled filk, which 1s prepared
by boiling, to be milled; and which cannot receive that
preparation, without being firft pafled through hot water.
By the laws of France, it has been prohibited to mix raw with
boiled filk ; both as fuch a praétice fpoils the dyeing, and as
the raw filk corrupts and cuts the boiled.

Srixs, throwed or twifled, are {uch as, befides their fpin-
ning and winding, have received their milling or throwing.

This they receive in a different degree, as they are pafled
oftener or feldomer over the mill; properly, however,
throwed filks are thofe in which the threads are pretty thick-
throwed, and twifted feveral times.

The thrown filk comes to us chiefly from Leghorn, Ge-
soa, Naples, and Meflina.

Sirxs, Slack, are fuch as are not twifted, but are prepared,
and dyed for tapeftry, and other works with the needle.

Six, Eaflern or Eaft Indian. That popularly thus called
is not the work of the filk-worm, but comes from a plant
that produces it, in pods, much like thofe of the cotton-

Lot

tree. The matter this pod contains is extremely white,
fine, and moderately glofly ; it fpins eafily, and is made into
a kind of filk, that enters the manufa€iure of feveral Indian
and Chinefe ttuffs.

Sitks, French. It is only in the moft fouthern provinces
of France that filk is cultivated, mulberry-trees planted,
and worms bred. The principal places are Languedoc,
Dauphiné, Provence, Avignon, Savoy, and Lyons. This
lat place, indeed, furnifhes very few filks of its own growth 5
but it is the great {taple whence the merchants of Paris, and
the other cities, are to fetch them. At lea{t, they are
obliged to have them pafs through Lyons, if they bring
them from other places, either by land or fea. ‘There
have been computed to enter Lyons, communibus annis, ix
thoufand bales ; the bale valued at one hundred and fixty
pounds weight ; of which fix thoufand bales, there are one
thoufand four hundred from the Levant, one thoufand fix
hundred from Sicily, one thoufand five hundred from Italy,
three hundred from Spain, and one thoufand two hundred
from Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphiné.

At the time when the manufaétures of Lyons were in
their profperity, there were reckoned te be eighteen thou-
fand looms employed in the filk manufa€ture ; but in 1698,
there were not reckoned four thoufand. However, this
manufaéture afterwards revived, and a great part of Europe
has been fupplied from hence with brocade and rich filks.
The decay has not been lefs notable at "Fours ; they had
formerly there eight hundred mills for winding and prepar= |
ing the filks; eight thoufand looms to weave them; and
forty thoufand perfons employed in the preparation and |
manufacturing of them; but thefe have been reduced to
feventy mills, twelve hundred looms, and about four thou-
fand perfons. 'The revolution has, kowever, made fwch ar
alteration in the manufactures and trade of France, and they
are ftill (1816) in fo unfettled a ftate, that no correét efti-
mate of them can be obtained.

Sinks, Sicilian. The commerce of the filks of Sicily has
been very confiderable ; and the Florentines, Genoefe, and
Luccefe, are the people who have chiefly availed themfelves
of it. Great quantities were yearly brought thence, efpe-
cially from Meffina; part of which they ufed in their own
manufactures, and fold the reft to their neighbours the
French, &c. with profit. The Italians had this advantage,
efpecially the Gencefe, over other people, that, having large
eftablifhments in the ifland, they were reputed as natives, and
paid no duty for the export.

Part of the Sicilian filks is raw, the reft are fpun and
milled ; of which laft kind, thofe of St. Lucia and Meffina
are the moft valued. The raw unwrought filks were always
fold for ready money ; the others, fometimes, in exchange
for other goods. See SiciLy.

Sizxs, fialian. The filks brought from Italy are partly
wrought, and partly raw and unwrought. Milan, Parma,
Lucca, and Modena, furnifh none but the latter kind;
Genoa mott of the former; Bologna affords both kinds.
The fineft Italian wrought filk comes from Piedmont, Novi,
Bergamo, and Bologna; and is imported into England from
the ports of Nice, Genoa, and Leghorn.

The filk we have from Italy is generally thrown, and
ferves for warp for our manufactures.

Sinks, Spanifh, are all raw; and are fpun, milled, &c.
in England, according to the feveral works in which they
are to be ufed.

Sirxs, Turkey, are all raw. One advantage we have in
the commerce of the Levant, in filks, wanting in thofe of
Sicily, is, that the latter are confined to a particular fea-
fon of the year ; whereas the former are bought at all ee

hey

SILK.

are brought from Aleppo, Tripoli, Sayda, and from
| BGs of Cries Cove no ar
of commerce, efpecially for the filke of Perfia, is Smyrna,
The filks are brou Licher in caravans, from the month
of to September, The caravans in January ere
— Foaden the fineft filks; thofe of F and March
| indifferent ones; the reft, the coarfell. a all
| ‘from the feveral provinces of Perfia, chiefly thofe of
Ghileo and Shirvan, and the city of Schamachia, fituate
| the of the Cafpian fea; from which three places,
a author affures us, there hate not come lefs than
thoufand bales of filk in a Ghilan produces
the B+ omy quantities of filk; next to this are
Shirvan and E then Mazanderan, and laitly A ttrabad ;
but the latter is much inferior, ferving only for a manufae-
ture with cotton; that of Mazanderan and A ftrabad
is or ever exported,
_or Ardebil, another city of Perfia, not far dif-
Sea oe is the where filks are
up, hen ed aoe ge ae
Aleppo, Scanderoon, ftantinople ; it is
city, with Schamachia, that have always been efteemed the
pa Fie Shia which has been feveral times at-
tempted to be removed from Smyrna, and the Mediter-
ranean, in favour of Archangel, and the White fea, by
urrying them acrofs Mufcovy, by the Volga and Dwina,
. that traverfe the principal provinces of that vait

Hey
oF
i
[P
‘

Stl ste oo fy rth ae noe
: to court a, view.
difappointed
an earthquake, which almoh
>

é doubtlefs,
effefted, but for the vigorous means ufed by the Turks
, fill remains in her an-

year to fend their fleets, to fetch away the filks.
I Several

that the quantity of
Sake! posite of

is incredible ;

Te Ee toy y all China, and evena great part of
| ith this ity. The filks of this province
| moft efteemed, thofe of Nankin and China

be excellent, —

India
not a fewer filks than China; but that
anefe, 2 barbarous and diftruftful people, have in-

all commerce with tran efpeci with

the |

te

- a :
but which, we muft own, we cannot credit. The Dutch
endeavoured to vindicate themfelves from thefe by

the pens of feveral famous writers.
; quantities of both raw and wrought filk are fur-
I (ck palma Bengal, and by feveral provinces of
OL. >

it. ,
eats chick aravereemeps toatl

Hindooftan, which partly fupply the natives, sad afford a
very confiderable exportation to Europe. Several thoufand
bales of raw filk are annually imported from Bengal and
China; fome of which is, in this flate, ufed for making
»rinces’ ttufls, but the greater part is prepared for the manu-
a¢turers by the filk-throwtters.

Sirk, Laws relating to. The duties on filks and callicoes
being under the fame regulstions with thofe on printed
linens, the law re{pedting them is inferted under the article
Linen. By the 1g & 14 Car. IL, c. 25. f. 2. no perfon
= exercife the trade of a filk-thro Novy he —
erved feven years’ ticefhip, on pain of gos, a month,
half to the em and half to bios that fhall fue in any court
of record, or at the aflizes, or quarter-feflions of the peace.
By 9 & 10 W. c. 43. no foreign filks, called alamodes or
luteltrings, thall be imported but in the of London,
on notice firit given to the commiflioners of the cuftoms, and
licence had from them, on pain of forfeiture, or the value ;
and they fhall be fold, and exported again ; and the offender
fo importing, and alfo the receiver and perfon o to
fell the fame, thall forfeit soo/, Being marked and fealed
by order of the commiflioners, any perfon who fhall coun-
terfeit the cuftom-honfe feal, or that of the luteftring com-

y> thall forfeit s00/., and be fet in the pillory for two

rs. And any perfon who fhall buy and fell, and have
in his cuftody, any alamodes or luteitrings, fealed or
marked with a counterfeit feal or mark, hall forfeit the
fame and 1oo/.

However, none but cuftom-houfe officers, or pérfons de-
puted by the luteitring company, and having writs of
affiftance under the feal of the exchequer, thal] f{eize lute-
ftrings or alamodes within the bills of mortality. (5 Ann.
¢. 20.) The penalties thall be two-thirds to chs king, and
one-third to him that fhall feize or fue in any court of

By 3 Geo. III. c. 21. and 5 Geo. ITI. c. 48. if any
perfon fhall import any ribbands, laces, or gi not
made in Great Britain, whether the fame fhall be wrought

of filk alone, or mixed with other materials, the fame
thall be forfeited, and may be feized by any officer of
the cuftoms, in whatever importers’, venders’, or retailers’
hands they may be found ; and the importer, and every per-
fon aflifting therein, and the venders and retailers in w
cuftody they fhall be found, or who fhall fell or expofe the
fame to fale, or conceal with intent to t the for-
feiture, fhall forfeit refpeétively 200/., with cofts. Half
the faid ties to be to the king, and half to the officer
who inform and profecute.

But if any officer of the cuitoms fhall or refute,
for one month after condemnation, to profecute to effet eny
perfon for any of the faid pecuniary forfeitures, any other
perfon may fue for and recover the fame ; half thereof to go
to the a like manner, and half to him who thall fue.

And when the goods feized (being out of the limits of
the bills of mortality) thall not exceed the value of 20/., two
juttices, on information before them that fuch goods were
feized, as unduly imported, may hear and determine the
fame, and to condemnation or difcharge.

After feizure, until condemnation or difcharge, the {aid
goods fhall be aoe in one of the king’s warehoules, if
the feizure be withi

thall be free to infpection, with leave of the court, judge, or
juttices, before the profecution fhall be.
And condemnation, the faid goods fhall be publicly

after
fold by the candle for exportation ; half of the produce by
+ “¢ fuc

SILK.

fuch fale to be to the king, and half to the officer who fhall
feize and fecure the fame ; and the fame goods fhall not be
delivered out of the warehoufe, till fecurity fhall be given
for exportation, and that the fame fhall not be landed again
in any part of his majefty’s dominions.

By 5 Geo. III. c. 48, if any foreign manufactured filk-
itockings, filk-mitts, or filk-gloves, {hall be imported into
this kingdom, or any part of the Britifh dominions, the
fame fhall be forfeited, and liable to be fearched for and
feized as other uncuitomed goods; and every perfon who
thall import the fame, or be affifting therein, and the ven-
ders and retailers in whofe cuftody they fhall be found, or
who fhall fell or expofe the fame to fale, or conceal with
intent to prevent the forfeiture, fhall, over and above the
forfeiture of the goods, forfeit 2c00/., with ‘cofts; half to
the king, and half to the officer who fhall inform and pro-
fecute.

And when the goods feized (being out of the limits of
the bills of mortality) fhall not exceed the value of 20/.,
two jultices may proceed to the condemnation thereof.
And the proceedings, in all other refpects, fhall be in like
manner as in the cafe of ribbands and laces above men-
tioned.

SILK, in Chemifiry, deferves notice on account of a pe-
suliar falt, or cryitalline fubftance, obtained from it by the
nitric acid. In its natural ftate, or before it is bleached, it
contains a yellow refinous matter, from which it derives its
fine golden colour. When raw filk is infufed in water, a
portion of gummy matter is diffolved, and a light amber-
coloured liquor is produced. Pure alcohol extraéts a much
deeper yellow colour, and makes a tincture, that lofes none
of its colour by long expofure to the fun, which bleaches
the filk itfelf. Nitrous acid a€ts powerfully on filk, in
proportion to its concentration. If two drachms of this
acid are mixed with a pint of alcohol, and filk, either raw
or bleached, be immerfed in it, and kept in digeftion, ina
moderate warmth, for twenty-four hours, the filk becomes
of a dull yellowifh-brown, which, after rinfing and wafhing
with foap, and drying, turns to a fine golden yellow, which
is very permanent. But when concentrated nitric acid is
diftilled off filk, and the remaining liquor duly evaporated,
much oxalic acid is obtained; and the refidue, if evaporated
fill further, yields, together with a little remaining oxalic
acid, a quantity of yellow granular cryftals, very bitter,
not acid, and ftaining the faliva and hands of a very deep
yellow, not eafily removed. If the liquor is previoufly
faturated with potafh, and evaporated, another ycllow
filky falt evaporates, which detonates on coals like common
nitre, and appears to be a triple combination of the former
bitter fubitance with nitrate of potafh. The firft mentioned
granular cryftals, examined with a magnifier, appear to be
compofed of truncated octohedrons.

The above curious fubftance was difcovered by Welter,
and called by him the ‘bitter principle.’? He fuppofes it
to be generally produced by the aétion of nitric acid on
animal matters; and it 1s perhaps the fame fubftance which
caufes the bitternefs of bile. Aikin.

The f{pirit of raw filk, reétified with fome effential oil, is
the medicine commonly known by the name of Gutte Angli-
cana, or Englifh drops.

Stk, Spider. Within about acentury the fecret has been
found in France, of procuring and preparing filk from the
webs of {piders ; and the ufing it in feveral manufaCtures has
been attempted. This difcovery is owing to M. Bon, in
1710, who publifhed a diflertation on the fubjeét, whence
what follows is extraéted.

Spiders are ufually diftinguifhed, either with regard te
their colour, as into black, brown, yellow, white, &c. or
with regard to the number, or arrangement, of their eyes ¢
fome having fix, others eight, others ten. But with regard
to the filk-fpiders, M. Bon reduces them all to two kinds ;
thofe with long legs, and thofe with fhort: which laft are
thofe which furnith the finett raw filk, The filk-{pider
makes a filk every whit as beautiful, glofly, and ftrong, as
the filk-worm ; it {pins it from the anus; around which are
five papille, or {mall nipples ; and behind thefe, two others,
all mufculous, and furnifhed with {phinéters. Thefe nipples
ferve as fo many wire-drawing irons, to form and mould a
vifcous liquor, which, when dried in the air, after being
drawn through them, makes the filk. Each of thefe nipples,
M. Reaumur obferves, confifts of a number of lefs and in-
fenfible ones ; which one may be convinced of by preffing
a {pider’s belly between the fingers, to oblige the liquor to
flow into the nipples ; for by this means, applying the finger
againft the anus, feveral diftin€t threads will be drawn out
through the feveral perforations of each nipple. The
threads are too fine to be counted with any certainty ; but
M. Reaumur reckons each larger nipple may fend forth a
great many.

Hence we fee how the {piders make their threads bigger
or {maller: for as, before they begin to {pin, they always
apply more or fewer of thefe nipples againft the body
whence the web is begun; or, as they apply each more or
lefs ftrongly ; fo, as more or fewer of the minuter nipples
come to take, the thread thus {pun will be a compound of
more or fewer of the fingle threads. Indeed, as the threads
come from the anus all joined together, they appear to be
fingle; but M. Bon has diftinguifhed one of the fingle ones
to confijt of fifteen or twenty diftiné threads.

The threads are of two kinds: the firft is weak, and only
ferves for that kind, of web with which they catch flies.
The fecond is much flronger, and feryes to wrap up their
eggs in; which, by this means, are fheltered from the cold,
as well as from infects, which might otherwife gnaw and
deftroy them. Thefe threads they wind very loofely round
the eggs, refembling the balls or bags of filk-worms, that
have been prepared and loofened for the diftaff.

The f{pider-bags are of a grey colour, when new; but
they turn blackifh, when long expofed to the air: indeed,
one might find other fpiders’ bags of other colours, and
which would afford a better filk; but their {carcity would
render the experiment difficult: for which reafon, we con-
fine ourfelves to the bags of the moft common fpiders, which
are the fhort-legged kind. Thefe always find out fome
place, fecure from the wind and rain, to make their bags ;
as hollow trees, the corners of windows, or vaults, or under
the eaves of houfes.

By colleéting a quantity of thefe bags, a new filk is made,
inferior in nothing to the common filk. It takes all kinds
of dyes, and may be made into all kinds of ftuffs. M. Bon
had {tockings and gloves made of it, which he prefented to
the Academy, and others to our Royal Society.

For the manner of preparing the bags to get the filk, it
is thus: after having gathered twelve or thirteen ounces
of thefe bags, M. Bon had them well beaten for fome time,
with the hand, and a flick, to get out all the dult; he then
wafhed them in lukewarm water, till they left the water
very clean: after this, he laid them to fteep, in a large
veilel, with foap, and faltpetre, and gum arabic. The
whole was left to boil, over a gentle fire, for three hours.
The bags were next wafhed in warm water, to get out
the foap; and after all, laid to dry fome days, to fit orem

or
2

SIL

ing; which was performed by the common filk-
but with cards much finer than ordinary. By this
he had a filk, of a very particular ath-colour, which
eafily {pun; and the thread {pun from it was both
and finer than that of common filk ; which thews,
forts of works may be made of it; nor is there any
but it will (land any trials of the loom, after
that of the flocking-weavers.

— difficulty, now, is in procuring a fufficient
bear Ag “sop ceme F to make any confiderable work of
its Bon obferves, would be no difficulty at all,
but the art of breeding them, —_ stern egree

multiply much more ; eve ider laying fix or
hundred fl whereas the Ay tenet hy tet lay
: yet are thefe laft fo tender, &c. that
die without making any bags, or are hindered, by
accident, from making them ; whereas the {piders
themfelves, without any care, in the months of
‘paler sata tear avad tom chet

t dying foon after.

thus bred live nl or Susivs tibaths with-
and continue in their bage without growing,
ir vilcid juices in motion,
come forth, fpin, and run about to feek
method, therefore, found of breeding young

doubtlefs, furnifh a m

— rte = He sat
piders, which M. Bon » hardly
vot agen Ba of one hundred filk-worms, not
to

de

|

itv
afb?

a397
ql

gz
He

Ee
z
zi
:
i

|
a5

i

il

i

:

forty i

i

air. He
that the greateft part of them
The fame ingenious perfon found,
with regard to their weight, afford
than thofe of the filk-worms: as a proof
that thirteen ounces yield near four
ounces of clear filk, two ounces of which will make 2 pair
whereas ftockings of common filk weigh feven

Nor is there any venom in the filk, or even in the fpider,
M. Bon has been bit by them fe-
of harm; and as for the
{top bleeding, and
ral gluten of it aGting as a kind of
likewife yields, by diltillation, feveral {pecific
quantities of fpirit, and vola-

repared after the fame manner as
bags of filk-worms, in making the
Englith drops, at one time fo famous
ferve to make other s of greater

in
HT

ufed in all fleepy difeates. en a

being appointed by t o cademy
i into this new filk work, has raifed
objeGtions difficulties jes againft it ; which are found
Memoirs of the Academy for the 1710. The
of what he has urged amounts to this. The natural
fiercenefs of the {piders renders them untit to be bred and

Lilie
i

be : four or five thoufand being diftributed
into in fome, one or two hundred in others, the
big ones foon and eat the lefs, fo that, in a fhort time,

there were {carcely left one or two in each cell ; and to this

-

calls drops of Montpelier, and ad- cruft

SIL

inclination of mutually eating one another, M. Resumur
afcribes the fearcity of {piders, confidering the vat number
of eggs they lay.

But this ts not all; he even affirms, that the {pider’s ba
is inferior to that of the filk-worm, both io lufire sx
ftrength ; and that it produces lefs matter to be manufac-
tured. ‘The thread of the {pider’s web, he fays, only bears
a weight of two grains without breaking ; and that of the
bears thirty-fix, The latter, therefore, in all probability,
is eighteen times thicker than the former; yet it is weaker
than that of the filk-worm, which bears a weight of two
drachms and a half: fo that five threads of the (rider's bag
mutt be put together, to equal one thread of the filk-worm’s

bag.

Now it is impoflible thefe thould be applied fo juftly over
one another, as not to leave little vacant {paces between
them, whence the light will not be refleéted; and of con-
fequence, a thread, thus compounded, muft fall thort of
the luitre of a folid thread. dd to this, that the {pider’s
thread cannot be wound off, as that of the filk-worm may,
but mutt of neceflity be carded; by which means, being
torn in pieces, its evennefs, which contributes much to its
luftre, is dettroyed. In effet, this want of luftre was taken
notice of by M. de la Hire, when the ftockings were pre-
fented to the Academy.

Again: {piders furnifh much lefs filk than the worms:
the largeit bags of thefe latter weigh four grains; the
{maller, three grains ; fo that 2304 worms produce a pound
of filk. The {pider-bags do not weigh above one grain ;
yet when cleared of their dutt and filth, they lofe two-
thirds of their weight. ‘The work of twelve {piders, there-
fore, only equals that of one filk-worm ; and a pound of filk
will require at leaft 27,648 fpiders. But as the bags are
wholly the work of the females, who {pin them to depofit
their eyys in, there muft be kept 55,296 {piders to yield a
pound of filk. Yet will this only 1a of the bet {piders ;
thofe large ones ordinarily feen in gardens, &c. foam
yielding a twelfth part of the filk of the others: 280 of
thefe, fhews, would not yield more than one filk-worm ;
663,552 of them would fearcely yield a pound.
1LK~+Gra/s, in Botany, a name ufed for two very dif-
ferent genera of plants, the aloe, and dog’s bane.

Sixx-Tail, or Bohemian Chatterer, in Ornithology. See
Router.

Smx, Virginian, in Botany. See Perrproca.

Sirx-Worm, Bombyx. This infe&, which is a {pecies of
the phalena, (fee Bostsyx,) confifts of eleven rings, and
each of thefe of a great number of other {maller ones, joined
to each other; and the head, which terminates thefe rings,
is furnifhed with two jaws, which work and cut the food, not
by a perpendicular but a lateral a¢tion.

The humours found in the body of this creature all feem
approaching to the nature of the filk which it {pins; for
on being rubbed in the hands, they leave a hard or folid
behind them. Under the fkin there is always found a
mucous rofy-coloured membrane, enveloping animal,
and fuppofed to be the new fin in which it is to appear, on
throwing off the old one. The heart of this creature reaches
from the head to the tail, running the whole length of the
body ; it is, indeed, rather a feries of many hearts conne€ted

to » than one: the motion of {yftole and diaftole is very
evident in this whole chain of hearts; and it is an t
fight to obferve the manner of the vital fluid’s pafling

one of them to the other. ‘The ftomach of this animal is as
as the heart, reaching, like it, from one end of the bed
tothe other. This large on for food, and the fad-
4Y2 den

SIL

den paflage of it through the animal, are very good reafons
for its great voracity.

In the fides of the belly, all about the ventricle, there is
depofited a vaft number of veflels, which contain the filky
juice: thefe run with various windings and meanders to the
mouth, and are fo difpofed, that the creatures can difcharge
their contents at pleafure at the mouth; and according to
the nature of the juices that they are fupplied with, furnifh
different forts of filk from them, all the fluid contents of
thefe veflels hardening in the air into that fort of thread,
of which we find the web or balls of this creature confitt.

Thefe creatures never are offended at any ftench, of what-
ever kind; but they always feel a fouthern wind, and an
extremely hot air always makes them fick. Malpighi de
Bombyce.

SILKEBURG, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in
North Jutland, with a caftle, which was formerly very
flrong; 18 miles W. of Aarhuus.

SILLA, in Ancient Geography, a river of India, which
rofe in a mountain of the fame name, and loft itfelf in the
ground, without receiving any other river.

SILLA, in Geography, a large town of Africa, in Bam-
barra, on the right bank of the Niger, within two {hort
days’ journey of Jenné, which is fituated on an ifland in the
river. This place was the boundary of Mr. Park’s journey,
and from hence he began his return homeward; 75 miles
N.E. of Sego. N. lat. 14° 48’. W. long. 1° 34!.

SruLa Point, a cape on the north-weft coaft of the ifland
of Mindanao, N. lat. 9°. E. long. 128° 51'.

SILLABAR, or CeLtrear, a fea-port town on the
welt coaft of the ifland of Sumatra, with a good and fafe
harbour ; 30 miles S.S.E. of Bencoolen.

SILLAH-MEW, a handfome town of the Birman
empire, fituated on the Irawaddy. It is fhaded by wide-
{preading trees, and embellifhed with feveral temples... A
fmooth bank floping to the river, and clothed with the fineft
verdure, adds much to its beauty. The foil around in
general is but poor. Some fields are regularly fenced, and
eattle in large herds graze in the neighbourhood.

SILLANGER, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland ;
4. miles W. of Hernofand.

SILLANO, a town of Etruria; § miles S.S.E. of
Volterra.

SILLEE, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the north by
Ramgur, on the eaft by Pachete, on the fouth by Tomar,
and on the welt by Nagpour; its form is fquare, and each
fide 1s about 16 miles.—Alfo, the capital of the above
circar; 25 miles S.E. of Ramgur. N. lat. 23° 22’. E.
long. 85° 56'.

SILLEIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Troade.

SILLE-LE-GUILLAUME, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the Sarthe, and chief place of
a canton, in the diltri& of Le Mans; 18 miles N. of Le
Mans. ‘The place contains 2121, and the canton 11,835
inhabitants, on a territory of 2474 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes. N. lat. 48° 12!. W. long. 0° 3/.

SILLEWOOD, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near
the coaft of Norway ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Bergen.

SILLINGA, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles S. of Doefa.

SILLON, in Fortification, an elevation of earth, made
in the middle of the moat, to fortify it, when too broad.

The fillon is more ufually denominated an Kaitar

SILLS, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the fhafts of a
eart, waggon, &c.

SILLY, in Geography, a rock.on the fouth coaft of the

ifland of Jerfey ; 2 miles S. of Noirmont Point.

Sib
SILLYUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,

in Tonia, in the vicinity of Smyrna.

SILM, or Citm Monop, in Geography, a country of
Africa, near the river Scherbro.

SILNO, a town of Lithuania; 4 miles N.N.W. of
Grodno.

SILO, in Ancient Geography. See Suro“.

SILOE, Sinoa, or Si/oam, a fountain at the foot of
the walls of Jerufalem, ea{t, between the city and the
brook Kidron, or Cedron. Jofephus (De Bell. 1. v. c. 26.)
fays, that when Nebuchadnezzar befieged Jerufalem, the
waters of this fountain inereafed ; and that the cafe was the
fame, when Titus befieged the city; fo that, during the
fiege, it abundantly fupplied the Roman army, and furnifhed
alio a fufficiency for watering the gardens; though, before
this event, water could hardly be bought for money. ‘The
prophet Ifaiah (ch. viii. 6.) infinuates, that its waters flowed
gently and without noife. St. John fpeaks of the pool of
Siloam.» (John, ix. 7.) The tower of Siloam, mentioned
Luke, xii. 4. is thought to have been near the fountain

SI-LONG, in Geography, a city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in Quang-fi. N. lat. 24° 34/. E. long.
105° 18!.

SILOOR, a town on the north-eaft coaft of Sumatra.
S. lat. 1° 8!. E. long. 103° 51!. i

SILOXERUS, in Botany, fo named by Labillardiere,
from suaoz, the flyle, and oyxneoc, fwelling, on account of the
tumid bafe of that part. It would have been difficult te
tface this derivation, without authentic information from
the author himfelf.—Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2. 57.—Clafs
and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-fegregata. Nat. Ord. Com-
pofite nucamentacee, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx {carcely any, except the leaves
furrounding the common compound receptacle ; partial in-
ferior, of from five to feven equal, obovate-oblong, con-
cave, membranous leaves, containing feveral florets. Cor.
compound uniform, difcoid, of from two to five tubular,
monopetalous, regular, pitcher-fhaped, five-toothed, perfect
florets. Stam. Filaments in each floret five, very fhort ;
anthers linear, united into atube. Pi. Germen in each
floret inverfely pyramidal, tuberculated ; ftyle awl-fhaped,
{welling very much at the bafe; iftigmas two, obtufe,
fpreading. Peric. none, except the permanent partial
calyx. Seeds folitary to each floret, inverfely pyramidal,
befet with rows of tubercles, and crowned with about twelve
little teeth; down of one leaf, membranous, pellucid, in
five ovate, acute, fringed lobes. Common Receptacle ob-
long, fomewhat club-fhaped, hairy, many-flowered ; partial
{mall, fealy, the fcales membranous, oblong, fcarcely longer
than the florets.

Eff. Ch. Common receptacle hairy; partial chaffy.
Partial calyx with from two to five perfect, equal, regular
florets. Seed-down membranous, five-lobed, fringed.

1. S. humifufus. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 2. 58. t. 209.—
Native of Lewin’s land, on the fouth coaft of New Hol-
land. A {mall, diffufe, herbaceous plant, with a tapering,
apparently annual, root. Stems feveral, fpreading, fimple,
leafy, an mch or twolong. Zeaves.moftly oppofite, fimple,
linear, obtufe, fmooth, near an inch in length; feveral of
them crowded under the heads of #owers, which are
terminal, folitary, ovate or nearly globular, fcarcely an
inch long. Nothing is mentioned concerning the colour,
fcent, or properties of this little inconfpicuous, but fingular,

lant. d
SILPERRY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 2 miles
S.S.E. of Ghidore.

SILPHA,

SILPHA.

SILPHA, in Batomolegy, 3 genus of infos of the order
Eotespoes, ot which the apr Ae is, Antenne cla-
vate, the club perfoliate ; thells margined ; head prominent ;
thorax flattened and margined. This genus of
infedts, from its habits, is known by the trivial name of the
Carrien-bectle. “Phe feveral {pecies are commonly found

decayed animal or vegetable fubltances, frequenting
alfo dung-hills, carrion, and other offenfive matter: they
lay their chiefly in the dead and putrid carcafes of ani-
mals. The are of a lengthened thape, and of an un-

bein y rou with minute
ate rw erenleaeny eve about 120 f{pecies, in
feparate divifions or feStions, The following are mott
worthy of notice.
a dilated and bifid Lip, and a one-
among others, are the following
Species.

w band be-
uth America.
. *Lerronauis. This is a black infe&t; the hells are
vaked, with three raifed lines; thorax rounded and polifhed.
This isan Euro infe&t, and found in our own country.
; IDA. is is brown ; thorax, fhells, and legs livid.
I: is found in Germany.

Ixpica. This, as its name imports, is an Indian infe& ;
it is black; the fhells are marked with two ferruginous
bands; thorax one-toothed before.
- Miecans. Black, witha green polith ; hells triste, trun-
cate, one-toothed. This is an inhabitant of the Cape of
Good Hope. Tail rufous; thells black, with three elevated
ftriz, one-toothed at the future.

This, as its fhews, is found in

* Tnoracica. This is black; the thells are marked
elevated line ; the thorax is teftaceous.
ing are English infeéts.

when caught it emits a very fetid humour.

‘ fhells are punétured, with
three raifed lines ; the thurax is truncate before. This fj
cies

is figured by Donovan. The thores Bee's Keath:

Settion B is diflinguifhed by an entirely rownded Lip, and a
one toothed Jaw,

4#Macutata. Thorax and tells black, the latter with
two rufous {pots ; the body is rufous: the antenoe are
ferruginous, brown before the tip, thells ttriate.

Mcecrieunerata. Rufous; fhells fublitriate, with av-
merous rufousdots. ‘This is found chiefly in Sweden.

Picea. Pitchy; hells thriate, black, the bafe and band
behind are ferruginous. ‘This is a very {mall infect, and is
found in Germany.

Merauuica. This is of a brafly colour; the legs are
ferruginous, It is found in divers parts of Saxony.

C. Lip horny, entire; the Jaw is bifid.

Black; the fhells are truncate, with two
rufous {pots. It is found in fome parts of Germany.
The antenor are long; the five lait joints are perfoliate ;
the thells are a little thorter than the body ; the abdomen is

acute.

-Pusrutosa. Black, polithed; edge of the thorax
and fpots on the fhells are fanguineous. Tt is found in
New Holland; the fhells are truncate, fhorter than the
abdomen.

Acanicixa. This alfo is black and polifhed; the an-
tenne and legs are yellow. It is found in many parts of
Europe, but not in our own country. The thells are trun-
cate, fhorter than the abdomen ; the body is black and im-
maculate ; the abdomen pointed.

D. Lip emarginate, conic; Jaw bifid.

Fasciata. Black; the fhells are marked with two
rufous bands, the fore one {potted with black. It inhabits
North America, and is a rather large infeét; though lefs
than the

Granopis, which is an African infe&, and fo named on
account of its fize. This is black, and the fhells are marked
with two rufous {pots.

*4-Pusrucata. Black; the thellsare marked with two
ferruginous dots. This is found in England, and in many
other parts of Europe. The larva is long, hairy, and

4-Norara.

6 SR Black; fhells ftriate, with three rufous
f{pots. This is found chiefly in the northern parts of Eu-
rope. It is reckoned a very beautiful fpecies ; the antennz
are pitchy ; the thorax is Eoieniontll at the edge ; {pot at
the bafe of the fhells finuate, the middle one 1s td nah
that at the tip is {mall and round; the body beneath is

‘ous.

* Nicrirennis. Rufous; the antenna, fhells, and breaft
are black. This is found chiefly on trees.

*Rurires. This is a black infe&; the bead, thorax,
and legs, are ferrugineus. The abdomen is black.

* Fixes. This is of a fine fcarlet colour; the thells are
brafly and immaculate.

* bases. Black ; but the front, two fpots on the
fhells, and legs are ferruginous. This is found in divers
parts of England, and is reckoned a {mall infe@.
E. The Infe&s of this SeBion are charaGerifed by a heart-

feaped Lip, cmarginate and crenate.

*Germanica. Black ; front and edge of the thells are
ferruginous. Sometimes the fhells are marked with a fer-
=e {pot or two. It ay ge its eggs in the carcafes
Ro a s, and buries under ground. It is very

*Vesritto, This infe&, which is not uncommon in our

ows

SIL

own country, is the moft remarkable of the European fpe-
cies. It is diftinguifhed by having the wing-fheaths confi-
derably fhorter than the abdomen, or as if cut off at the
tips ; they are alfo marked by two waved, orange-coloured
tranfverfe bars, the reft of the infe&t being black; the ge-
neral length of the animal is about three-quarters of an inch.
The vefpillo feeks out fome decaying animal fubftance in
which it may depofit its eggs, and in order to their greater
fecurity, contrives to bury it under ground. Three or four
of thefe infe&ts, working in concert, have been known to
drag under the furface the body of a mole in the {pace of
an hour, fo that not a trace of it has appeared above ground.
The eggs are white, and of an oval fhape: from thefe are
hatched the larve, which, when full grown, are about an
inch long, of a yellowifh-white colour, witha f{caly orange-
coloured fhield, or bar, acrofs the middle of each divifion of
the body. Each of thefe larve forms for itfelf an oval cell
in the ground, in which it changes to a yellowifh chryfalis,
refembling that of a beetle; out of which, in the {pace of
three weeks, proceeds the perfeét infeGt. This fpecies is
reckoned very elegant in form, but it generally diffufes a
very {trong and unpleafant {mell ; it flies with ftrength and
rapidity, and is ufually feen on the wing during the hottelt
part of the day.

Mortuorum. Black; fhells marked with two ferru-
ginous bands; the club of the antennz is black; the hind-
thighs are unarmed. This is found in many parts of Ger-
many, preying on carcafes and fungi.

F. Lip fquare and emarginate.
ip /] §

* ScARABZOIDES. Oval, black; the fhells are marked
with two ferruginous f{pots.

Lunata. Oval, black; fhells with a lunate yellow {pot
at the tip. It is about the fize of the laft, and is found in
Germany.

Coton. Yellow; the fpots on the thorax, and marginal
{pot on the fhells, black. Itis foundin Sweden. The head
is black ; the antenne are yellow; the club is black ; the
thorax is downy, with fix fpots difpofed in a ftreak; the
abdomen is black, edged with yellow.

* AromaAntiaA. This infeé& is fmooth and black ; the fhells
have crenate {trie ; the legs are pale.

* MELANOCEPHALA. This is black and fmooth; the
fhells are grey, with acommon black {pot at the bafe.

*Unreuncra. This is black; fhells yellowifh, with a
common black fpot. The fhells are fometimes immaculate.

*Fimerarta. Black, immaculate; the fhells are very
{mooth, It is found chiefly in dung.

*Minuta. This is black and fmall; the fhells are
firiate ; legs of the fame colour. It is found in many parts
of England.

*PuricartaA. This is oblong and black ; the fhells are
abbreviated ; the abdomen pointed. This is found chiefly

among flowers.

G. The Infeéts of this Section have a long and entire Lip; the

Antenne are ferrate.

* Saxicornis. Smooth, polifhed, and of a chefnut co-
jour ; the antenne are black.

Depressa. Smooth, ferruginous ; the fhells are fub-
{triate, and the body is depreffed. It is found under the
bark of oak-trees.

H. Lip and Jaw unknown.

Of this fection there are no Englifh fpecies ; it will be fuf-
ficient to mention the following.

STIL

Instanta. Black; fhells obfoletely ftriate, with two
large fearlet pots. Common at Berlin ; as is the next.

Niericans., Blackith; the fhells are fmooth, with four
yellow f{pots.
Hisrrrorpes. Black; the antenne and legs are red ; the

fhells are abbreviated with a red fpot, It inhabits Upfal,
and is the fize of a loufe. ;

SILPHIUM, in Botany, an old Latin name adopted
from the Greeks, whofe wiAgiov, according to the defcrip-
tion in Diofcorides, is evidently one of the umbelliferous
family, with a broad or flat feed. (See Lasrr.) Linneus
takes a great liberty, in transferring this name to a fynge-
nefious genus, altogether American, in his Corollarium
Gen. Pl. 16; nor does he, in his Hortus Cliffortianus, give
any reafon for this meafure.—Linn. Gen. 444. Schreb. 580.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2330. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 5. 163. Purfh577. Juff. 118. Lamarck
Illuttr. t. 707. Gaertn. t. 171. (Arterifeus; Dill. Elth.
32. t. 47.) —Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygsamia-necef-
faria. Nat. Ord. Compofite oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymbifere,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated, fquarrofe ;
its fcales ovate-oblong, reflexed for about half their length,
projecting on all fides, permanent. Cor. compound, ra-
diant. Perfe&t florets in the diflk feveral, of one petal,
funnel-fhaped, five-toothed ; their tube fcarcely more flender
than the limb; female ones, in the radius, fewer, lanceolate,
very long, often three-toothed. Séam. in the florets of the
dif only, Filaments five, capillary, very fhort; anthers
united into a cylindrical tube. Pifl. in the florets of the
difk imperfe&t, Germen thread-fhaped, very flender ; ityle
thread-fhaped, very long, villous; itigma fimple: in the
females, Germen inverfely heart-fhaped ; ftyle fimple, fhort ;
{tigmas two, briftle-fhaped, the length of the ftyle. Peric.
none, except the unaltered calyx. Seeds in the difk none ;
in the radius’folitary to each floret, fomewhat membranous,
inverfely heart-fhaped, with a membranous, two-horned,
emarginate border. Recept. chaffy, with linear {cales.

Efi. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seeds comprefled, in-
verfely heart-fhaped, bordered ; their down bordered, with
two horns. Calyx {quarrofe. ;

Fifteen fpecies are defined by authors, hardy herbaceous
perennial plants, generally rather large, with the afpeé of
Sunflowers; their leaves oppofite, whorled, or alternate ;
the flowers yellow. The horns of the feed are wanting in
fome of the fpecies.

1. S. Jaciniatum. Jagged-leaved Silphium. Linn. Sp.
Plo 10.4 Aut. nan. bunih in. 0) eis dalomtalc. ike 5.
t. 3.—Stem hifpid. Radical as well as ftem-leaves pinna-
tifid; their fegments deeply toothed——On the banks of
rivers, in the weftern territories of North America, parti-
cularly on the Miflifippi, flowering from Auguft to O&tober.
Purfh. Collinfon fent the feeds to Linneus. The /fem is
from eight to twelve feet high, fimple, leafy, round, an
inch thick, rough in the upper part with briftly hairs.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, two feet long, and one broad,
with four or five remote lobes at each fide; itrongly ribbed,
rough. Flowers four inches wide; the ten fcales of their
rough calyx armed with {trong taper points.

2. S. compofitum. Panicled Silphium. Michaux Boreal-
Amer. v. 2. 145. Willd. n. 2. Purfh n.2. (S. laci~
niatum; Walt. Carol. 217.)—‘* Stem fmooth. Stem-
leaves pinnatifid; radical ones ternate, with many feg-
ments. Flowers panicled.””—In gravelly woods, near the
fea-coalt of Virginia and Carolina, flowering from Augult
to Q&ober. Not above two feet high. Flowers {mall.
Purfh.

3. Ss

STILPHIUM.

$. S. terchinthinaceum. Broad-leaved Silphium. Linn,
Suppl. 383. Willd. n. 3. Ait.o.2. Paria. 3. Jacg.
- Vind. v. 1, 16, t. 43.—Stem fmooth. Radical

leaves heart-fhaped ; whofe of the ftem alternate, ovate, fer-
rated, rough.—In Louifiana, and the weitern mountains of
North America, flowering from Auguit to OGober, Pur/d.
The is about five feet high, panicled at the top, with

yellow, rather drooping, flowers, three inches in dia-
meter, The radical /arwe,

4 are a foot long, and nearly as
coriaceous, rough, fharply toothed, with very long

4 5S. perfoliatum. Square-ttalked Silphium. Linn. Sp.
Pl. rgo1. Ait. n. 3. Purth n. 4.—Leaves oppofite, tri-
flalked, perfoliate. Stem fquare, fmooth.—Na-
tive of the Allegany mountains, from Peontyivenin to Caro-
lina, flowering from July to Odtober, according to Mr.
Purth, who confiders as a variety of this the conjundum,

933- The prefent is a robuit plant, fre-

Willd. Enum.
went in —— or plantations, taller than a man.
pon like a file, with bordered rough-edged foor-
flalks, clafping the ttem with their compound bafes.
Flowers about two inches wide, with a {mooth calyx,
S. connatum. Round-ttalked Perflate Si hium.
Linn. Mant. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. rfh nes.
—Stem round, hilpid. Leaves oppolite, dittantly ferrated,
; combined at the bafe—Found on the high moun-
tains of inia and Carolina, flowering in Auguft and
September. Purth, as well as Willdenow, juftly infifts on
being a very diftinét f{pecies from the laft, of which
Michaux thought it a variety. The fem is round, covered
in the upper part with deflexed briftly hairs. oe leaves
i road and perfoliate at the bafe. The

Plt
folis Poko et facie ; Dill. Elth. 42. t. 37.)—Stem round,
Leaves oppofite or alternate, oblong, acute, fer-
Calyx fringed.—In mountain meadows of
lina, flowering from July to September.
about two feet high, {potted with purple.
leaves alternate, coarfely toothed ; upper nearly op-
and more entire. Flowers nearly three inches

- S. pumilum. Dwarf Silphium. Michaux Boreali-
; 2. 146. Willd. o. ot Purfh n. 7.— Stem
downy. Leaves oval, flightly ferrated, obtufe, ra-

« Scales of the calyx obovate, obtufe. Seeds
without horns.”-—Gathered in Florida, by Bartram and
Michaux. We have {cen no {pecimen.

. 8. S. = ger i Entire-leaved Silphium. Michaux
ibid. 8. Purfh n. 8.—‘* Stem quadrangular,
harfh. Leaves oppofite, feflile, oblong, entire, rough.
Flowers on fhort italks.”’—On the moit weftern of the Al-

and Illinois mountains, flowering from Augutt to

. About four feet high. Leaves all uniform,
ere&t ; extremely rough on the upper fide. Flowers few.

urfby

2 S. levi Polithed Silphium. Purth n. 9.—
bad Big aie: furrowed, “ee oe oppo-
fite, feffile, inted, minutely ferrated, {mooth on
both Silsry foeewhar bcart-Ibaped ot the bate. Scales of
the calyx ovate, fringed.”"—Gathered by Mr. Enilen, in

orgia, North America, about two feet high. Flowers

bofe.

10. 8. ri faim. Rough Three-leaved Silphium.
Linn. Sp. Pi. 1302. Willd. n.9. Ait. n. 6. Purth
n. 10. (8. ternifolium; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 146.

i
E

GH
4

a

a)

Chryfanthemum virginianum, foliis afperis, tribus ad gral
cula fitisy Morif, te. 6. t. 3. f. 68.) —Stem with fx
angles, {mooth. Leaves three in » whorl, ovatotanceolate,
rough, with unequal tooth-like ferratures, Panicle chree-
forked.—On the high mountains of Virginia and Carolina,
flowering in September and OGober. Purfh. Stem shout
fix feet high, leafy, purplith, {mooth to the touch. Leaves
more or fers accurately whorled, about three inches long
and one broad, on fhort ttalks; the floral ones entire.
Flewers two inches in diameter. Calyx-feales broad, mi-
nutely fringed, {mooth.

11. 5. ternatum. Fringed Three-leaved Silphium. Willd.
n, 10. Purth no. 11.— Stem cylindrical, fmooth. Leaves
three in a whorl, italked, lanceolate, lightly aud minutely
toothed, roughith; fringed at the bafe: the Upper once
feattered und feflile. Panicle forked. Calyx fringed.”"—
Retzius communicated to Willdenow a defcription of thi-,
as a new fpecies from North America, and Purth faw a
{pecimen in Mr. Lambert’s pofleflion. The fem is faid to
be four feet high. Loweit, as well as the uppermolt, deaves
feattered ; thofe of the panicle feflile, two together. Calyx-
Seales in four rows. Florets of the radius broader than in
the laft; but thofe of the difk a Retzius

12. S. atre-purpureum. Violet-ttalked Silphium. Willd.
mn, 1t. Purfh n, 12.—* Stem eylindrical, {mooth. Leaves
about four in a whorl, lanceolate, rough, nearly entire, al-
mott feffile ; fringed at the bafe: the upper ones {cattered.
Panicle forked.””—Willdenow was indebted to Retzius for
this likewife, but Mr. Lyon is faid to have met with it in
Carolina and Georgia, flowering in Auguft and September.
Mr. Purfh, who had feen this plant alive, fays it refembles
the precaing, but is at firit fight diflinguithed by the
P rple {mooth fem. By the defcription of Retzius, the
pecimen of S. trifoliatum in the Linnxan herbarium thould
feem rather to belong to the prefent {pecies. See its de-
{cription above.

13. S. tomentofum. Downy Silphium. Purhh n. 13.—
“Stem and footitalks downy. Branches fingle-flowered.
Leaves alternate, heart-fhaped, ovate, ferrated, thaggy.
Seeds without horns.””—Gathered in Georgia, by John
Bartram, whofe {pecimens are in fir Jofeph Banks’s her-
barium. Pur/b.

14. S.clatum. ‘Tall Silphium.
alternate, ftalked, heart-fhaped, finuated. Calyx-{fcales
obtufe.” Native of Carolina. Herb. Banks.

15. S. reticulatum. Reticulated Silphium. Purth n. 15.
—* Leaves alternate, ovato-lanceolate, heart-fhaped, fer-
rated, bluntifh, fomewhat villous.’? — Native of Florida.
Herb. Banks.

S. folidaginoides, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1302, proves the fanie
plant as Rudbeckia eppahiifole, Sp. Pl. 1280, under each of
which names it lies in Linnean herbarium, It is alfo
Helianthus levis, Sp. Pl. 1278, adopted from Gronovius ;
and is Willdenow’s Bupbthalaum helianthoides, 0. 19, to
which lait geuus it had originally been referred by Linneus
in his Hortus ae Finally this plant is now called
Heliopfis levis ix Purth, p. 563, after Perfoon. See Rup-
BECKIA.

S. trilobatum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1302, is Buphchalmum re-
pens, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2233. 0.13. Lamarck Di@.
Vv. I. 515.

rf ial in Gardening, contains plants of the tall-
growing, herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the {pecies
cultivated are, the jagged-leaved filphrum (S. laciniatum) ;
the broad-leaved filphium (S. terebinthinaceum) ; the hairy-
ftalked filphium (S. afterifcus); and the three-leaved fil-
phium (S. tnfoliatum).

Method

Purth n. 14.—* Leaves

Silla,
Method of Culture—They are all readily increafed by

parting the roots, and planting them out in the autumn or
{pring, where they are to remain in the borders and clumps.
They may alfo be raifed by planting the flips in the fame
manner; they fhould be afterwards managed as the perennial
fun-flower. They are durable in the root, but decay an-
nually in the ftalk.

They afford a good variety and effect among other pe-
rensial plants in the fummer feafon, when put out in a
proper manner.

Srzpuium, in Ancient Geography, a country of Libya,
which took its name from the plant. It commenced eatt-
ward towards Aziris and the ifle of Platea, and extended
weltward as far as the Syrtis.

SILSTADT, in Geography, atown of Germany, in the
eounty of Wernigerode; 3 miles N.E. of Wernigerode.

SILVA, ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Kama,
near the town of Silva, in the government of Perm.—Alfo,
ariver of Ruffia, which runs into the Tchufovaia, 16 miles
N.E. of Perm.—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Perm; 12 miles N.W. of Solikamfk.

Sinva Piana, a town of Switzerland, in the bifhopric
of Coire; 16 miles W.N.W. of Bormio.

SILVANEZ, a town of France, in the department of
the Aveiron; g miles S. of St. Afrique.

SILVELLA, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Upper Po; 3 miles E.N.E. of Cremona.

SILVER, a river of the King’s county, Ireland, which
rifes on the north-weft fide of the Sliebh-Bloom mountains,
and takes a northerly direétion. It has this name in Beau-
fort?s and Arrow{fmith’s maps, but is called the Frankford
river by Mr. Longfield, in his report to the Bog commif{-
fioners, from the {mall town of Frankford, which it paifles.
Mr. Longfield reprefents it as capable of being eafily made
navigable for canal boats, and alfo of being made to contri-
bute to the drainage of the vaft bogs between which it flows.
In one part of its courfe, a little before it joins the Brafna,
the Macartney aquedud, a part of the Grand Canal, pafles
over it.

Sizver, in the Arts, Manufadures and Commerce, and
in Domeftic Economy, is a white malleable metal, fufceptible
of a fine polifh. In Chemiffry, it is a fimple inflammable
body.

th is fometimes found in the native ftate, but more fre-
quently combined with antimony, arfenic, or fulphur ;
forming the varieties of filver-ores; with which we fhall
begin, and then proceed to the affay and analyfis, phyfical
properties, and chemical properties of filver.

Silver-ores contain that metal either native, or alloyed
with other metals, or mineralized by fulphur, and fome-
times with the muriatic acid, the fulphuric acid, and in one
rare inftance with the carbonic acid.

Silver-ores principally occur in the rocks which have been
denominated primary and tranfition rocks, and rarely in
fecondary rocks; but many rich argentiferous lead-ores
occur in alpine lime-ftone and fecondary ftrata. The ores
of filver are accompanied by calcareous {par and fulphate of
barytes, and fometimes with quartz, horn-ftone, jafper, and
fluor fpar. It has been remarked, that the warmer regions
of the globe afford the greateft quantity of gold, but the
richeft repofitories of filver are fituated cither in high lati-
tudes or in elevated regions. The moft celebrated filver-
mines of Europe are in Sweden and Norway, at no great
diftance from the polar regions; and thofe which are in
warmer latitudes, are almolt all fitnated near the fummits
of alpine mountains commonly covered with fnow, as at

\| Allemont in France, and the mines of Mexico and Peru, in

SIL

the centre of the Cordilleras. Silver never occurs, like
gold, in alluvial foil, or the fands of rivers. After the
mineralogical defcription of the ores, we fhall give a fhort
account of the principal repofitories of filver at prefent
known.

Native filver, Argent natif of Hatty, pofleffes the charac-
ters of filver extraéted from other filver-ores, but is gene-
rally lefs malleable. The colour is pure white, but the
f{urface is commonly tarnifhed, and is of a yellowifh-brown
or greyifh-black. Native filver occurs cryttallized in
cubes and oétohedrons ; the cryftals are fmall, and are often
aggregated, forming beautiful ramifications ; the branches
fometimes crofs each other in a re€tangular dire€tion, and
are reticulated. It is fometimes in leaves and fometimes
capillary, and when the filaments are much entangled, it
becomes nearly compact. Native filver is alfo found in
fhapelefs mafles of confiderable fize. In the year 1750,
there was found in the famous mine of Hemmels Furtt, near
Freyberg, in Saxony, a mafs of native filver, which
weighed one hundred weight and a quarter; in 1771 an
equally large mafs was found. It is alfo mentioned by
Albini, in his ‘* Meiffnifche Berg Arconicke,” p. 30, ‘that
at Schneeberg, in 1478, a rich filver vein was difcovered ;
and fo large a block of native filver cut out, that duke
Albert of Saxony defcended into the mine, and ufed this
large block as a table to dine upon. It was {melted into
four hundred centners of filver: a centner is 110 lbs.’?
(Jamefon’s Mineralogy.) Native filver is fufible into a
globule, which is not altered by acontinuance of the heat :
it is {carcely ever pure : the metals with which it is alloyed
are commonly gold, copper or arfenic, andiron. Native
filver alloyed with gold is rare ; its colour is intermediate
between filver-white and brafs-yellow ; it often contains a
confiderable proportion of gold. The {tones which form
the matrix of native filver in the mine are very humerous ;
it fometimes appears to be infiltrated into the fiflures, fome-
times to vegetate on the furface, and in other inftances to
be intimately combined with the fubftance of the ftone.
It is found in almoft all the filver-mines that are worked
in. Europe or America; but the mafles difcovered in
America are not fo large as fome which have been found
in Europe. The facos, a mo{t abundant ore in Peru and
Mexico, confilts of minute particles of native filver, inter-
mixed with brown oxyd of iron; but the particles are too
{mall to be feen without a lens, and bear but a very {mall
proportion to the mafs. Silver rarely occurs in detached
grains, like gold or platina.

Antimonial filver-ore is compofed of filver combined with
antimony, without any other fubftance. Its colour is tin-
white; it has a fhining metallic luftre, which is often tar-
nifhed fuperficially reddifh or yellowifh. It is diftinguifhed
from native filver by its brittlenefs, being fearcely malleable :
the ftruéture is lamellar. It is commonly found cryftallized
in four-fided and fix-fided prifms, having the fides deeply
ftriated : its {pecific gravity is from 9.4. to 9.3. It melts
ealily before the blowpipe, giving a white {moke from the
oxyd of antimony, and leaving a globule of filver. Its
con{tituent parts are from .76 to .84 filver, and from 16 to
24. of antimony. Antimonial filver is rare, particularly
the regular cryilallizations of it. It occurs in veins with
calcareous {par and {ulphate of barytes, and 1s accompanied
by galena and native filver. The foliated {truéture ef anti-
monial filver diftinguifhes it from white cobalt-ore, which
has a granular {truéture; it differsalfo from arfenical pyrites,
both by its ftrudture and foftnefs; the latter is extremely
hard. Antimonial filver yields to the knife.

Arfenical filver-ore is harder than the former fpecies ; its

ttruiure

SILVER.

ftru@ure is lefs perfectly lamellar, the fratture more even,
and the luftre weaker, It ocours in fmall, globular, and
' mafles ; before the blowpipe it yields the

{mell of garlic, peculiar to arfenic ; « globule of filver more
or lefs pure remains. ‘The conflituent parts of this ore are
given by Klapreth a» under ;

Silver - - i6

Arfenic . “ 35

Tren : . 44

Antimony : .

4
Arfenical filver-ore ufually occurs with native arfenic ;
dark red filver-ore, brittle pacatees lead-glance, and
brown blende, in calcareous {par. It is « fearce mineral.
Corneous » Or Hern-ore; Argent muriaté, Fr.
This ts diftinguifhed by its aaliindors it has a
1 » is foft and tenacious, and yields
thefe characters it is fuppofed to bear
fome refemblance to horn, whence its name. ‘The molt
common colours of this mineral are pearl-grey, pafling into
greenith or reddith-blue or brown ; it acquires a brownih
tarnifh. Horn-filver occurs cryttallized in {mall cubes, and
is fometimes, ey sins acicular and capillary : it is
pemeiggs wens et ing or {mall mafles, or torms a coat-
native ~ Te is fufible in the flame of a candle.
the blowpipe, on charcoal, it yields a globule of
and gives out a oe a odour, from the efcape
of the murtatic acid. Its {pecific gravity is from 4.75 to
Horn filver-ore is accompanied with native filver,
black filver-ore, d of iron, quartz, and fulphate of
It is fu oo mineralogiits to be the
of -ore. It occurs in veins in
Europe and reaped and in —_
and is obferved generally to occu upper part of t
vein. According to Klaproth, it confitts oF 68 parts filver,
21 muriatic acid, a {mall _ esd of fulphuric acid, with
a portion of iron 2nd earthy fubftances; but the Jatter
confidered as accidental.

3 Silwer-glance, or wretted filver ;

erner ; tape ey Hay Its colour is
3 itis » and may be cut with a
knife ; the when cut, is thining, and has a metallic
luftre ; in its natural ftate it has often an iridefcent tarnith.
It occurs in a — of forms, in branches, fibres, fmall

Horn-filver is rather a

ture is flatly conchoidal. The {pecifie
(ablimcd, and the ‘Glver

red heat, the fulphur is
appears in filaments, seariiedd or reticulated. Many
mineralogilts fuppofe that capillary native filver owes its
formation frequcatly to a fimilar kind of decompofition
cfuiilives Seino. is mineral occurs in veins, and is
always ied with other ores of filver, and with
galena, iron pyrites, brown blende, fulphate of barytes, cal-
careous {par, and quartz. It is found in almott all filver-
mines in various parts of the globe.
Brittle vitreous filwer-ore; Shrod glaferz, Werner; Ar-
seir, Haiiy; differs from the former by its brittlenefs,
teoces and colour. ‘The colour is intermediate between
iron-black and dark lead-grey ; it is brightly {plendent ex-
or internally it alternates from fhining to gliftening ;
the luftre is aphie: It occurs maflive and diffeminated,
and in thin {mall plates, and frequently cryttallized in fix-
fided prifms, varioufly terminated, and in re@angular four-
Vor. XXXII.

fided tables: the latter eryflals frequently interfeA cack
other, forming the cellular flru¢ture. The tabular eryftals
are generally minute, ‘The fra@iure of the maflive vitreous
ore ts uneven; that of the eryttals imperfc@ly conchoidal.
This ore is foft, brittle, and Fulible by the ipe} the
fulphur, arfenic, and antimony, are partly volati and
a globule of imperfeétly malleable filver, accompanied with
a brown feoria, remains. A ! to Klaproth, the
brittle vitreous filver-ore, from a mime near Freyberg,
contained

Silver ~ . . . 64.50
Sulphur 12
Antimony » 2 ° 10
Iron » . > - 5
Copper and arleuic : o.50
Earthy matter - : : U

Black falphuretted Siver-ore ; Silber fchware, Werner ;
differs from vitreous filver-ore by its want of luftre: it
eccurs maflive, corroded, and in powder: the fra@ture of
the former is uneven; the ftreak thining and metallic. It
yields to the knife, and is fufible into a Mag, containing
globules of filver. b

Red filver-orz, or Ruby filver ; Roth giltiger=, Werner ;
Pr pm and Argent wt fulfuré, Fr. The co-
lours of this mineral are various fhades of red, pafling from
a bright-red to dark-red, and reddith-grey or black. Wher
feraped, the powder is of a crimfon colour. The eryftal-
lized varieties are tranflucent, or femi-tranfparent, the
tranfmitted light is a carmine, light blood, or cochineal-red.
It occurs maffive, difleminat and in thin plates, and
cryftallized in hexahedral prifms, varioufly terminated, and
in dodecahedrons, with triangular faces, nearly fimilar te
the cryftallization of calcareous {par, called dog-tooth {par.
The primitive form of the cryftal, according to Haiiy, is
an obtufe rhomboid, whofe plane angles are 104° 28" and
73° 22', and the inclination of the faces 109° 28’ and
70° 32’. The fracture is ufually uneven, and 1
conchoidal ; its luftre externally is thiniog aod metallic,
internally glimmering, fometimes metallic. It is brittle,
foft, yielding eafily to the knife. Before the blowpipe
it gives out a copious {moke, with an arfenical fmell, and
leaves a globule of filver. Its {pecific gravity is about 5.6.
There are feveral minerals which have a red colour, and
may at firft fight be confounded with red filver, as the ful.”
phuret of hk: or realgar; but this mineral becomes
td when powdered. Gotaber has a greater refem-

lance, but the fpecific gravity is 7, and it is eatirely vola-
tilized by the blowpipe. Red oxyd of copper has a
fpecific gravity of 3.9, and is ufually accompanied with
native copper, malachite, and brown iron ochre; it alfo
effervefces with nitric acid, and communicates to a folu-
tion of ammonia a blue colour. By thefe charaéters it
may be known from red filver-ore. Werner has divided

filver-ore into two fub-{pecies, the light and the dark
Klaproth analyfed this mineral, and found it to contain
only filver, fulphur, antimony, and oxygen. Prouit has
fhewn that there are two kinds of red filver-ore, the one
containing arfenic, and the other antimony. The confi
tuent parts, as given by Klaproth and Wauquelin, are

Kleproth. Vaugeela
Silver - 6a 64-27
Antimony 20.3 16.13
Sulphur - 11.9 17-95
Oxygen - 11.85
Sulphuric acid 8 :
47 Accordiag

SILVER.

, According to the analyfis of Proutt, a variety of this ore

contained nearly .75 parts of metallic filver, and .25 of
metallic arfenic. Red filver-ore occurs in veins, but is
always intermixed with other minerals, particularly with
compact galena, cobalt, fulphuret of arfenic, native arfenic,
grey copper-ore, and fparry iron-ore ; and has a matrix
of calcareous f{par, fulphate of barytes, fluor fpar, or quartz.
It is a common ore in filver-mines, both in Europe and
America: the dark-red ore is confiderably more productive
than the light-red.

Silver amalgam confilts of pure filver combined with mer-
cury. It has been found in the filver-mine of Salberg, in
the province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden, in the mines of
Deux-Ponts, in the Palatinate, and in fome other places,
either in thin plates or grains, or crylftallized into o€tohe-
drons and dodecahedrons. It is fometimes femi-fluid. Its
colour is filvery-white or grey, the fra€ture conchoidal, and
the luftre metallic. It is foft, breaks when cut, and whitens
the furface of gold or of copper; when rubbed upon them
warm before the blowpipe the mercury evaporates, and
leaves the filver pure. The conftituent parts, given by
Klaproth, are

Silver - = = - -
Mercury C3 - = -

36
64

White filver-ore has a near refemblance to compaét galena.
The colour is a light lead-grey, pafling to fteel-grey : it
occurs maffive and diffeminated, and is generally intermixed
with cubic galena. The fraCture is moft commonly even,
but fometimes fine-grained and uneven, and alfo fibrous ;
the internal luftre is gliftening and metallic; the ftreak
fhining. It isfoft and brittle. The fpecific gravity is 5.3.
Some mineralogifts think this ore fhould be clafled with the
argentiferous ores of lead. According to Klaproth, dif-
ferent fpecimens from Hemmels Furft, near Freyberg,
contain, of the

Dark-white filver-ore. | Light-white filver-ore.

Lead - 41 48

Silver - 9-25 20.40
Antimony - 21.50 7.88
Tron - 1.75 2.25
Sulphur - 22.0 12.25
Alumine - 1.0 7

Silex - 0.75 0.25

” Carbonate of Silver.—This ore has hitherto been only dif-
covered in the filver-mine of Winceflaus, in Swabia: it
occurs fometimes in mafles, and fometimes diffeminated
through other minerals. Its colour is a greyifh-black ;
its fra€ture uneven, with a gliftening metallic luftre; it
is brittle and heavy, and effervefces with acids; it melts
eafily under the blowpipe. According to Mr. Selb, who
firft defcribed this mineral, it contains

Silver < = o =

: 72.5
Carbonate of antimony - 17.5
Carbonic acid - - - 12

It contains alfo a flight trace of copper.

Befides the above ores of filver, there are ores of other
metals which contain a portion of filver, and have been
claffed by fome mineralogifts with filver-ores. An argenti-
¥erous variety of grey copper-ore, of an iron-black or fteel-
grey colour, has received the name of black filver-ore. It
occurs maffive, difleminated and cryftallized in tetrahe-
drons; the fra€ture is {mall conchoidal, with a fhining me-
tallic luftre; it is fe@tile and brittle. An ore which is a com-
bination of lead, bifmuth, and filver, has received the name

i

of bifmuthic filver. Its colour is a light lead-grey : it oc-
curs difleminated, but rarely eyer in mafles; the fraéture is
fine-grained, uneven, with a gliftening metallic luftre ; it is
foft and rather brittle; before the blowpipe metallic glo-
bules appear on the addition of borax, which unite; the
button is brittle, and of a tin-white colour: the flux ac-
quires an amber colour. According to Klaproth this ore

contains
Lead - =
Bifmuth = - 23
Silver - - 15
Tron 2 = 4.3
Sulphur - - 16.3
Copper 2 cS 0.9

Argentiferous lead-ores are common in Great Britain and
in various parts of Europe. Many of thefe ores are not
fufficiently rich to repay the expence of extracting the filver.
It is procured in confiderable quantities in North Wales,
the north-weft parts of Yorkfhire, and in the counties of
Durham and Northumberland, Indeed, many lead-ores in
thefe counties contain a much larger portion of filyer than
the average proportion of that metal in the ores of Mexico

and Peru; but mineralogifts do not clafs them with filver-

ores.
Silver Mines in Great Britain.—Silver-ores, properly fo
called, are of rare occurrence in our ifland. A few years fince, |
a vein of filver was worked with great profit in the parifh of |
Alva, in the county of Stirling, in Scotland.

fand pounds fterling value was extra¢ted before the ore was
exhaufted, after which the fearch to recover the vein proved
fruitlefs, and fince that time no filver-mines have heen worked
in that country. The filver-ores at Alva were accompanied
with copper, lead, and cobalt-ores, with a matrix of calca-
reous fpar, and fulphate of barytes. It is fuppofed by Dr.
Millar that the veins traverfe rocks of argillaceous por-
phyry. ;

Cornwall and Devonfhire yield the richeft argentiferous
lead-ores of any part of Great Britain; but the quantity
of thefe ores is {mall. In the former county a {mall quan-
tity of native filver, with other filver-ores, have been occa-
fionally found. We have. been favoured with the followine
account of the prefent itate of the filver-mines in thele
counties from Mr. Mawe, author of Travels in Brazil, who
vifited them in the fummer of 1815.

From the lead-mines of Ben-Alften, in Devonfhire, a
large quantity of filver has been extraéted. The vein is
fituated in &il/as, (fee Starx,) and is filled chiefly with
fluor {par and galena. It has been worked to the depth of
110 fathoms: the filver extraéted from the north and fouth
vein averages about 70 ounces to the ton of lead. Another

vein, running in a more eafterly and wefterly direction, |
fituated in the fame killas, produces 170 ounces of filver inj

the ton of lead. The vein is worked under the river Tamar.
Thefe mines are of confiderable importance ; during the laft
fix weeks, the filver extraGted from the lead procured here
exceeded fix thoufand ounces. The works are extenfive,
and faid to be well condudted.

About four miles to the fouth-eaft of Callington is a

filver-mine of another defcription : the vein is fituated in a |

fimilar rock of killas or chlorite flate. The vein was firft
worked for copper, but native filver and lead-ore were difco-
vered in it. The mine is called Huel Jewel: the thicknefs
of the vein rarely exceeds three or four inches.
the cavities were found a confiderable quantity of capilla
native filver, with galena, red filver-ore, and fulphuret of
filver.

: The ores were |
native filver, and vitreous filver-ore. From forty to fifty thou-

In many of |

|

i

SILVER.

filver. The ores were exceedingly rich, and promifed at one
time an ample recompence to the adventurers.

The Hurland copper-mine, near Redruth, has produced
@ confiderable quantity of native filver in a {mall vein,

from the principal vein, Some of the fibres of
filver were more than four inches long.

There is a lead-mine near Truro worked at this time,
and a confiderable quantity of filver is extraéted from the
lead, as it yields 100 ounces ger ton,

Near Peranzabula, on the north coaft of Cornwall, there
was a mine formerly worked clofe to the fea, which produced
lead-ores in various ftates, and a portion of horn-filver, fine
{pect ms which ‘< . variots pan Mr. =

{pecimens of this rare mi among the refufe
of the mine. .
_ At Comb-Martio, in North Devon, are fome lead-mines,
which were celebrated for the filver, but at pre-
fent they are not uctive

northera
of filver
ounces of filver per ton. Some few rare initances have oc-

ores are the common lead-ores of the

According to Lehman, there are no known lead-ores in
the world but what contain filver, except that of Villoch, in
Carinthia. (Lehman fur les Mines.) But according to Dr.
Wartfon, the quantity of filver neceflary to defray the expence

of extracting, lofs of lead, was nine ounces per ton,
when lead was at the price of 15/. per ton. The pri of
lead is now 26/. per ton, and though ies Gli attic,

yet the difference in the relative prices of each, taking the
above as a ftandard, is fuch, that to repay the expence of ex-
traction, the leac fhould contain about n ounces of filver

2
¢
:
§

. roprietor
lead-mine containing filver may indeed ook te tae
— rer of a ne taken rig him wes
its a royal mine ; yet the crown,

under it, have the right of pre-emption
the ore which may be raifed. was an act o
paffed in the fixth year of William and Mary,
acto t difputes and controverfies concern-
yal mines. This a¢t declared, that every proprietor of
» tin, iron, or lead, fhould continue in pof-
notwith{tanding its being claimed as a
its containing filver or gold ; but it is fur-

feffion

royal mine, from

ther enaéted, that the crown, or perfons claiming under it,
fhould have the

fhould be raifed

£48,
if

ie

a
:

i
;

i of purchafing all the ore which
out of fuch mine, at the following prices,
made clean and merchantable: for copper-ore, at the

ul
fh
Bs
te
i
Ey

E

;

F

the 1 Paris i

Owing to he exiftcace of this a@, it
are not acquainted with the quantity of
filver at prefent extra¢ted annually. We are informed, that
the value of filver produced by the lead-mines of colonel
Beaumont, in Northumberland and Durham, 1s not lefs than

4pcol. annum ; and other large rietors alfo
extradt tembtae quantity of filver fos ths band tes in

A

8
i=)
44

f lead in a ftate of fufion.

the northern counties. At prefeut we beliewe that there ie
no filver extraGied yn ‘Ly fhire lead-ores, i ad

It appears from jngthed’s Chronicle, that filver was
Situadly waited from lead in various parts of the ifland
In the reign of Edward 1. 1600 pounds weight of filver was
obtained in the courfe of three years, from a mine in Devan-
thire, which had been difeovered towards the beginning of
his reign: this mine is called a filver-mine by the old writers,
but it appears to have been a mine of lead that contained
filver. Phe lead-mines in Cardiganfhire have at different
periods afforded great quantities of filver; fir Hugh Mid-
dleton is faid to have cleared from them two thoufand pounds
fer month, and to have been enabled thereby to undertake
the at work of bringing the New River from Ware to
veh ony The fame mines yielded, in the time of Charles I.
eighty ounces of filver in every ton of lead, and part of the
king’s army was paid with this filver, which was minted at
Shrewfbury. Sir J. Pettie’s Effay on Metal. Works.

A mint for the coinage of Welfh filver had been previoufly
eftablithed at Aberyftwith ; the indenture was granted to
Thomas Bufhel, for the coinage of half-crowns, fhillings,
fixpences, twopences, and pennies, and the monies were to
be ftamped with the oftrich feathers on both fides. In 1604
nearly 3000 ounces of this Welsh bullion were minted at one
time at the Tower. Webiter, in his Hiltory of Metals)
publithed in 1671, makes mention, from his own kaolin
of two places in Craven, in the Weit Riding of Yorkthire,|
where formerly good argentiferous lead-ore had been pro-
cured. One of the places was Bronghite Moor, in the parith
of Slaidburn ; the ore held about the value of 67 pounds of
filver in a ton: the other was at Skelkhornfield, in the parith
of Gifburn ; it had formerly belonged to a perfon of the
name of Pudfey, who is fuppofed to have coined it, as there
were man thillings in that country which the common peo-_)

le called Pudfey thillings. There are feveral {melting-

oufes at Holywell, in Flinthhire, where filver is extraéted
from lead. According to Mr. Pennant, at one of the
largett of thefe houfes in the year 1754, more than 12,000
ounces of filver were produ but in the fubfequent years
the quantity of filver appears to have confiderably diminifhed.
The filver extraéted from lead is fold principally to the ma-
nufa@turers at Sheffield and Birmingham.

The filver is extraéted from the Tead by the oxydation of
the latter metal in a reverberatory furnace of a particular
conttruétion, for the admiffion of zir on the furface of the

A thallow veffel or cupel is filled with prepared fern-athes
rammed down, and a concavity cut out for the reception of
the lead, with an opening on one fide for the mouth of the
bellows, through which the air is forcibly driven during the
procefs. The French f{melters cover the furface of the athes
with hay, and arrange fymmetrically the pieces of lead upon
it. When the fire is lighted, and the lead is in a ftate of
fufion from the reverberation of the flame, the blaft from
the bellows is made to play forcibly on the furface, and in a
fhort time a cruft of yellow oxyd of lead, or litharge, is
formed, and driven to the fide of the cupel oppofite to the
mouth of the bellows, where a thallow fide or aperture is
made for it to pafs over; another cruft of litharge is formed
and driven off, and this is repeated in fucceffien till ne.
all the lead has been converted into litharge and driven off,
The amen continues about forty hours, when the com-
plete feparation of the lead is indicated by a brilliaat luftre
on the convex furface of the melted mafs in the cupel, which
is occafioned by the removal of the laft cruft of li that
covered the filver. The French introduce water ugh
a tube into the cupel, to 6 the filver rapidly and preveat

4Z2 its

SILVER.

its [pirting out, which it does when the refrigeration is gra-
dual, owing probably to its tendency to cryttallize. In
England the filver is left to cool in the cupel, and fome in-
convenience is caufed by the f{pirting, which might be avoided
by the former mode.

The filver thus extraéted is not fufficiently pure; it is
again refined in a reverberatory furnace, being placed in a
cupel lined with bone-afhes and expofed to a greater heat :
the lead which had efcaped oxydation by the firft procefs is
converted into litharge, and abforbed by the afhes of the
cupel,

The laft portions of litharge in the firft procefs are again
refined for filver, of which it contains a part that was driven
off with it. The litharge is converted into lead again, by
heating it with charcoal; part is fometimes fold for a pig-
ment, or converted into red lead. The lofs of lead by this
procefs differs confiderably, according to the quality of the
lead. The litharge commonly obtained from three tons of
lead amounts to 58 hundred weight ; but when it is again
reduced to a metallic ftate it feldom contains more than 52
hundred weight of lead, the lofs on three tons being about
eight hundred weight. The Dutch are faid to extraé the
filver from the fame quantity of lead, with a lofs of only fix
hundred weight.

Stlver-Mines of France —The mine of Allemont, tenleagues
from Grenoble, in the department of Ifere, is fituated near
the fummit of a mountain, compofed of thin beds of mica-
flate and hornblende, curioufly contorted and broken. Its
elevation is about 3000 yards above the level of the fea.
‘The veins are numerous, and run in all direGtions: the mine-
ral appears to have filled alfo numerous fiflures in the rock.
‘The ores are native filver, vitreous filver, red filver-ore, and
horn-filver. Silver appears alfo difleminated in a kind of
ferruginous clay, and is accompanied with various ores of
tobalt, antimony, arfenic, and nickel. The matrix was
ferruginous clay and carbonate of lime, mixed with afbeftus,
epidote, and calcareous {fpar. The veins were much richer
near the furface than at a great depth, and the working of
this remarkable mine is at prefent nearly abandoned. Red
filver-ore has alfo been found in the Vofges, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, in a vein of argentiferous copper-
ore. Indications of filver have been traced in other diftiiats
of France. The lead-ores of {ome parts of France are alfo
fufficiently rich in filver to repay the expence of extra@ion.

The filver-mines of Spain are the moft ancient known in
Europe. It appears, as well from the accounts of hiftorians,
as from the numerous veftiges of ancient workings, that the
operations were carried on to a confiderable extent. The
moft remarkable mine was that at Guadalianel, in Andalufia,
in the Sierra Morena, five leagues to the north of Seville ;
the ore which it contains is the red or ruby filver, in a matrix
of compact galena. Since the difcovery of South America
no attention has been paid to the mines of Spain, though
formerly fo produétive both of filver and gold.

Germany.—The mining diftri&t of Freyberg, in Saxony,
contains numerous veins that yield filver. ‘The veins that
traverfe rocks of gneifs are generally compofed of quartz,
calcareous fpar, and fluor {par ; they inclofe argentiferous
lead, vitreous filver-ores, ruby filver, and grey argentiferous
copper-ore. The mine at Annaberg, according to Klaproth,
contains muriate of filver (horn-ore) mixed with much clay,
which is imbedded in compact lime-ftone. The mines of
Schneeberg, in Mifnia, and of Hartz, in Hanover, contain
argentiferous lead, accompanied with proper filver-ores.

Hungary —The mines of Schemnitz and Cremnitz, in
Hungary, have been long celebrated, both for the richnefs
of their produ€tions and the immenfe extent of the opera-

tions. The rocks in which the mining operations are care
ried on, are defcribed as being compofed of an argillaceous
grey-ftone, mixed with quartz or fchorl, or particles of cal«
careous fpar. ‘l’o this rock baron Born has given the name
of the metalliferous rock, /avum metalliferum : it is defcribed
by him as containing three principal veins, running from
north to fouth, and parallel with the river Gran, following
even the windings of the river. From this circumftance we
fhould infer, that the river itfelf had originally taken the
courfe of a fraéture by another ven. The dip or inclina-
tion of all the veins is from weft to eaft, varying from 30
to 70 degrees. In one part of the vein, called the Spitaler
vein, it 1s joined with ah argillaceous white vein, which runs
along with it on the Aanging fide, and from the place of
junction the vein is found to contain filver. In this white
clay are occafionally found nodules of {par and mafles of
quartz, which yield from four to five ounces of filver in the
hundred weight. The fecond great vein at Schemnitz has
nearly the fame characters as the firlt. The third great vein
is more Irregular in its inclination, and the ores are not fo
rich in filver, but in fome parts it contains a confiderable
quantity of gold.

Some notion may be formed of the extent of the mining
operations at Schemnitz, from the gallery or level called the
Emperor Francis’? Gallery, by which the whole of the
royal mine is drained and cleared of water. This gallery,
which forms a very confiderable excavation, and is carried
through hard rock, was a work of immenfe labour and dif-
ficulty ; it is five Englifh miles in length: it was begun in
1748, and finifhed in 1765. :

The mountains round Kremnitz, according to baron Born,
are compofed of the fame metallic rock already defcribed ;
but according to Patrin, they confift of primitive trap. At
this place very extenfive operations, which were begun at
leaft a thoufand years ago, have been eltablifhed on a large
and vich gold vein, and fome of its branches. The rockis a
white folid quartz, mixed with fine auriferous red and white
filver-ore, and with 2urifcrous pyrites. At the depth of 160
fathoms, the vein continued rich and produdtive.

Konigfberg is another mining-town of Hungary, fome
miles to the north-welt of Schemnitz. ‘Uhe valley in which
this place is fituated 1s bounded on one fide by the fame kind
of metallic rock, and on the other, towards the north, by
granite mountains. In the royal mine, at the time it was
vifited by baron Born, the vein was obferved to run between.
the metallic rock, which formedits hanging fide, and the gra-
nite, which was its hading or lower fide. The vein is grey
quartz, mixed with auriferous pyrites. The firft fteam or
fire-engine eftablifhed in the Lower Hungarian mines was
erected at Konigfberg, in 1725, by Ifaac Porter, an Eng.
lifh engineer, who was then in the imperial fervice.

Bohemia.—The circle of Saatz, in Bohemia, abounds in
various metallic ores, among which the ores of filver occa-
fionally predominate. The prevailing rocks are gneifs and
argillaceous {chiftus. The veins at Catharineberg traverfe
gneils, and generally run in a north and fouth direétion, and
parallel to the mountain in which they are fituated. But
there are alfo {ome powerful veins which crofs the mountain.
One of this nature is defcribed, which feems to be infenfibly
blended with the mountain rock. The vein-ftone is alfo of
the fame kind of rock, but occationally afluming the cha-
racters of a variety of granite. It 1s obferved, that the
vein, which feldom exceeds a foot in width, diminifhes in
thicknefs when the containing rocks become harder; and
when the fides are found incrufted with a ferruginous clay,
it appears to be richer in ores. Fiffures from the fides of
the vein are found to improve it; a fine white clay, with

12 quartz,

SILVER.

imbedded in it, indicates rich ore; but a coarfe clay,

itute of quartz, efpecially when it increafes in quantity,
and occupies the whole vein, readers it unproductive, or
entirely barren. The ores of the vein now deferibed are
rich filver and copper pyrites, with fluor {par, blendc, various

and fometimes native filver and copper.
wasting, a place in the fame circle, has been long
on account of its valuable mines. ‘The prevailing
recks are deferibed as micaceous and quartzofe clay-
ate, which at a great became more of an argillaceous
nature, foft, foliated, and of a black colour, ‘The mountains
around this place have a gentle declivity towards the fouth,
but run in lofty ridges to the caft, north, and weit, and are
interfeéted by deep vallies. This inequality of {urface af-
fords great accommodation to the mincrs to open numerous
galleries, which converge to the fouth, and to the valley in
the town of Joachimithal. All the galleries
and works of this diftri are divided into fix different fields,
to the fame number of companies, and they are
a or levels; the one of which runs
ine 1 fathoms; but cena i its feveral
its whole _o* 4500 fathoms. The depth un-

the

fi

der the higheit tops mountain is 170 fathoms: the fe-
cond great which runs through the {pace i cmd
fathoms, and in a direét line 1500 is 20

deeper than the firft; but the operations in the mines have
been carried to a much greater depth; for at the time in
which they were vifited by Ferber, before 1774, the perpen-
dicular depth under the {urface was from 200 to 350 fathoms,

‘
i
:

:
i

and
vitreous filver-ore, which is dug out fometimes in very large
maifes, and is confidered as a very rich ore; one hundred
Seiiasicsatemsltely orytiees and | parc
filver-ore, fometimes beauti ized and tran t
attached to red Hore tlone 0 alearcus par :
filver-ore has fometimes but rarely a
The filver-mines of 4 tthe circle of Karrie
in hills of a gentle declivity, and compofed 0 grey or i
in which fi of greemih lithomarge,
far arm rmty Lad Siedselies tac Socmesty tok
in native filver, and other ores of that metal. A vein to the

ites came into the hangin

fide, the vein produced
, Vitreous, red, and w Another

filver-ore.

by an undulating black rr Pap ee which
fometimes in the hanging fide, and it produces
‘and white filver-ore. crofled by veins runnin
from eait to Seria ie cece ceo pesca rom
the place of j it again becomes
in its former courfe.
, in Weitmania, are
ore is an is

amount to about 4600/. and one-cighth is paid to the king.
Porter's ——- :- '

Norway — The filver-minesof Konigtberg, in Norway, are
fituated in mountains of moderate height, com rad of
nearly vertical beds of mica-flate with garnets, and of grey
quartz mixed with fine black mica, and a little timaens
and red horn-ttone, Other beds are compofed of a ferru-

inous rock, which, in the upper part the mine, is 3%
et thick, but in the lower not more than 6 feet thick.

The veins are from half an inch to two fect or more in
thicknefs, and cut the flrata tranfverfely. The matrix of
the ore is granular lime-ftone, fometimes intermixed with
fluor {par. Enormous mafles of native filver have fometimes
been found in this mine; one is mentioned as weighing 220lbe.
The common ores are native filver and vitreous filver. ‘The
veins are molt productive in the ferruginous rock. ‘The an-
nual produce is about sooolbs. weight of filver.

Afia—The filver-mines of Zmeof are fituated in that
part of the Altaian chain of mountains which lies between
the Oby and Irtifch, from 50° to 52° north latitude. The
annual produce has been {tated at 60,000 marcs of filver,
which is alloyed with about 3 per cent. of gold. The mines
of Nertfchink in Daouria, near the river Amur, yield. ar-
gentiferous galena, petecing about 30,000 mares of filver,
and containing 14 per cent. ot gold. The Ruflian merchants
who trade to China bring back ingots of filver, from feve-
ral ounces to a pound weight, in exchange for their commo-
dities; hence it may be inferred, fays Patrin, that there are
filver-mines on the frontiers of China. Patrin, Hit. des
Mines.

America.—The mott produtive filver-mines in the world
are thofe of South America and New Spain. Thofe of
Peru, for many years after its conquelt by the Spaniards,
yielded the greateft quantity of filver; but at prefent the
mines of Mexico are the richeft. The mines of America
furnith both filver and gold; and in making an eftimate of
their richnefs, we muft take an account of each of thefe
metals. ‘The following table, given by M. Humboldt, will
fhew the diftribution of thefe mineral treafures in the dif-
ferent parts of the new world; the kilogramme being
2 lbs. 3 0z. 5dr. avoirdupois, or rather more than 2 Ibs.
8 oz. troy.

Gold. Silver.

Viceroyalty of Peru - - 782 140,478
Viceroyalty of New Spain - 1,609 537.512
Capitania of Chili - - 2,807 6,827
Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres - 506 110,764
Viceroyalty of Grenada - - 4714
Viceroyalty of Brafil =, on 6,87

Kilogrammes 17,291 995,581

The above was the annual produce of the different dif.
trits, at the beginning of the 1gth century ; from which it
ars, that the total weight ot the precious metals from
the mines in America, reduced to Englifh pounds troy,
is 45,580 lbs. of gold, and the enormous quantity of
145,000 lbs. of filver ; equal in weight to one-third of the tin
produced by the mines in Europe. Dr. Adam Smith, in his
“ Wealth of Nations,” values the gold and filver annually
pe Ns into Cadiz and Lifbon at only fix millions fterling,
including not only the regiltered gold and filver, but that
which may be fuppoled to be {muggled. This eftimate is
only two-fifths of the real annual amount.
he mountain of Potofi has furnifhed, fince its di
in 1545, a mafs of filver equal in value to 234,09 E
tterling.

SILVER.

{terling. The mountain is 18 miles in circumference : it is
compofed of flate, but has a conical covering of porphyry,
which gives it the form of a fugar-loaf, or bafaltic hill; it
rifes 697 toifes, or 480 yards, above the furrounding plain.
The richnefs of the veins has diminifhed, as they have been
worked to greater depths. At the furface of the earth, the
veins of Rica, Centeno, and Mendiéa, which traverfe primi-
tive flate, were filled with native filver, and filver-ores
throughout their whole extent. Thefe metallic mafles rofe
in ridges or crefts above the furface, the fides of the vein
having been dettroyed either by water or by fome other
caufe. In 1545, minerals containing from 80 to go marcs
of filver er quintal were common. In the year 1574, ac-
cording to Acoita, the average richnefs of the ore was eight
or nine mares per quintal. In 1607, the mean wealth of
the ores was not more than an ounce and a half to the
quintal. The ores are now extremely poor, and it is on
account of their abundance alone that the works are itill in
a flourifhing ftate: for from 1574 to the year 178g, the
mean quantity of filver in the ores has diminifhed in the pro-
portion of 170 to 13 while the abfolute quantity of filver
extracted from the mines of Potofi has only diminifhed in
the proportion of 4 to 1.

About fix miles from Pafco is the mountain Jauvichora:
it is diftinguifhed by the name of the Silver mountain. It
is about halfa mile in diameter, and only about 30 yards in
depth: it is compofed of brown iron-ftone, which is inter-
fperfed with pure filver. This ftone does not yield more
than nine marcs of filver in 500 lbs. ; but there is a friable
white clay met with in the middle of this mafs of ore, which
yields from 200 to 1000 marcs of filver in every 50 cwt.
The mountain is penetrated in all direGtions, without any
attention to fecurity ; fo that it is expected it may fall in,
in the courfe of a few years. According to Helms, this
mountain yields annually 200,000 marcs of filver.

The veins of filver at Potofi are in flate, which Hum-
boldt confiders as primitive: this flate is covered with a clay
porphyry, containing garnets. ‘The mines of Gualgayoc,
in Peru, are in the Alpine lime-ftone. The veins which
furnifh nearly all the filver exported from Vera Cruz are
in flate, porphyry, grauwacke, and Alpine lime-ftone :
the principal of thefe veins are thofe of Guanaxto, Zaca-
tecas, and Catoree. The vein of Guanaxto yields more
than one-fourth of the filver of Mexico, and a fixth part of
the total produce of America. This vein is, in fome parts,
from 147 to 150 feet in width, including the branches, and
has been wrought from Santa Ifabella and San Bruno to
Buena-Veita, a length of 42,000 feet. The meft cele-
brated mines in Mexico are elevated from 6000 to gooo
feet above the level of the fea. In the Andes, the mines
of Potofi, Ocuro, Pas, Pafco, and Gualgayoc, are in re-
gions higher than the loftieft fummits of the Pyrenées. A
mafs of rich filver-ore has been difcovered near tne fmall
town of Micuicampa, at the abfolute height of 13,450 feet.
The great elevation of the Mexican mines is peculiarly ad-
vantageous to the working of them, as the climate is tem-
perate, and favourable to vegetation and cultivation.

The part of the Mexican mountains which at prefent
contains the greateft quantity of filver, lies beween the
twenty-firft and twenty-fourth degrees of latitude ; and it
is not a little remarkable, that the metallic wealth of Peru
fhould be placed at an almoft equal latitude, on the other
fide of the equator. In the vaft extent which feparates the
mines of La Pas and Potofi from thofe of Mexico, there
are no others which throw into circulation a great mafs of
the precious metals, but thofe of Pafco and Chota. The

ifthmus of Panama and the mountains of Guatimala contain,
for a length of 600 leagues, vaft traéts of ground, in which
no vein has hitherto been worked with fuccefs,

The province of Quito, and the eaftern part of the king-
dom of New Granada, from the eighth degree of fouth
latitude to the feventh degree of north, are equally poor in
metallic wealth, It would not, however, fays Humboldt,
be corre&t to infer that thefe countries, which have been
convulfed and torn by volcanoes, are deftitute of the pre-
cious metals. Numerous metallic repofitories may be con-
cealed by beds of bafalt, and other rocks of fuppofed
volcanic origin. It fhould, however, be remarked, that
fome of the rocks, which Humboldt enumerates as very
metalliferous, are by other geologifts confidered of volcanic
origin, particularly clink-ftone-porphyry, and other por-
phyries containing hornblende, but diftinguifhed by the ab-
fence of quartz and common felfpar.

The mines of Huantajya are celebrated for the great
quantities of native filver they formerly produced. "They
are fituated in an arid defert, and furrounded by rock-falt,
near the fhores of the Pacific ocean, at no great diftance
from the {mall port of Yquique, in the audience of Lima.
Thefe mines are a remarkable exception to the great eleva-
tion of filver-mines in Spanifh America, being placed on a
low and gentle declivity. Their produce is native filver,
vitreous filver, and horn filver; the annual amount is about
50;090 lbs. troy of filver, or 80,000 marcs.

The filver-mining operations of Chili, according to Hum-
boldt, are in general not produétive ; but the vein at Ufpalata
contains pacos fo rich, that the produce is from 2000 to
3000 marks in every 5000 lbs., or from 40 to 60 marcs
per quintal. Molina, in his Hittory of Chili, defcribes the
vein at Ufpalata, on the Andes, as being nine feet in thick-
nefs. It has been traced go miles, and is fuppofed to extend
300 miles. From the main vein there are branches on each
fide, which extend to the neighbouring mountains: fome
of thefe branches are 30 miles in length. This is the largeft
metallic vein which is at prefent known in the world.

According to Humboldt, the greateit part of the filver
extracted from the bowels of the earth in Peru is furnifhed
by a {pecies of ore called the pacos, of an earthy appearance,
which M. Klaproth analyfed, and was found to confift of
almoft imperceptible particles of native filver with the
brown oxyd of iron. In Mexico, on the contrary, the
greateft quantity of filver annually brought into circulation
1s derived from vitreous filver-ore, grey filver-ore, horn-ore,
and black and red filver-ores. Native filver is not extracted
in fufficient quantity to form any confiderable proportion
of the total produce of the mines of New Spain. It is,
fays this traveller, a very common prejudice in Europe,
that great mafles of native filver are very common in the
mines of Mexico and Peru, and that in general the mines
of mineralized filver, dettined to amalgamation, or to fmelt-
ing, contain more ounces, or marcs of filver, to the quintal,
than the filver-ores of Saxony or Hungary ; but he adds,
I was furprifed to find that the number of poor mines
greatly exceeds thofe of the mines which, in Europe, would
be efteemed rich. It is at firft difficult to conceive how the
famous mine of Valenciana, in Mexico, can regularly fupply
30,000 marcs of filver per month, as the vein confifts o
fulphuretted filver, difleminated in almott imperceptible
particles through the matrix. In the formation of thefe
veins, it fhould appear that the diftribution of filver has
been very unequal, being fometimes concentrated at one
point, and at other times diffeminated in the vein through
the matrix or gangue; for, in the mid{t of the pooreft ores

are

ee ae

i
i

SILVER.

found confiderable mafles of native filver. Although
new continent has not hitherto produced fiugle matles
native filver equal to what have sc found in the old,
metal is more abundant in a ftate of perfect purity in
and Peru than in any other quarter of the globe,
» but in particles difleminated through the
ity of the ore called pacos. The refult of
ftigation of the richnefs of different mines is,
richnefs of the different ores is not more thau
to four ounces of filver in every fixteen hundred

itt

:
;

i

7

pounds of ore. According to this refult, the ore contains,
on the a two ounces and two-fifths per quintal.
Tt had forme: y. been aflerted, that no ores were worked in
Mexico that did not contain one-third part of filver. The
filver-ores of Peru are not richer on the average than thofe
of Mexico. The diftri& of Guanaxto has before been

mentioned as furnithing more than one-fourth of the filver
bene y ee aegiong cotta Monde pcb ra
being luperior to the celebrated repofitory at Potofi: t

are all worked in one extenfive vein. Among thefe mines,
that of the count Valenciana is one of the richeit: the
of filver is four ounces of filver from a

whole weight of filver from the vein of Guanaxto,
annual average from 1786 to the year 1803, has
been Le. eatin Sigh aa itibs. troy ; and in thirty-
a ome eee and filver, from the fame
vein, has been 12,700,000 pounds troy. In average years
it yields from 500,000 to 600,000 marcs of filver, and
ee ans a cal It has been doubted by
whether this be really a vein, or a metallic bed, as
of its courfe it is parallel between the beds, or
rock. It pafles through both flate and por-
is metalliferous in both. Though it has fon
that the extent of this vein is more than
the enormous mafs of filver which it
lait hundred years, fufficient alone to
commodities in Europe, has been ex-
extent of lefs than 2000 feet ; for where
widened by branches, its general width
$ to 48 feet. It is for the moit
to three matffes, divided by banks of mine-
of the matrix deftitute of ore.
vein continues undivided to the depth
then divides into three branches ; and its

branches of the veiu, there
unite, the mine is uncommonly rich. In this cele-
there is a certain middle region, which may be
er riches, for above and

i
iu

i:
:

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in

TF

fi
seh.
nF

if
4
4

£
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:

7

ag

fae
ies

i

is
Lert:
i
is

1100 feet below the mouth of the

of the miner is entirely free throughout the
Spain, and no tndize or Mellinse can be

i

yaaa!
to tf. 4s. week of fix men
1 in x Re ae aces then Wad OF
thatfum. The work nearly naked, and are fearched

:
E

i manner on leaving the mine. They

5.15 gpm fragments of native Liver and filver-ores

in ir, under their its, in their mouths, and even
anus, into which they force cylinders of clay contain-
cylinders are called /onganas. A
filver found in different parts of the

body, lo the mine of Valeocians, the value of thefe folen
minerals, a great part inclofed in the longanas, amounted,
from the year 1774 to 1787, to 30,0004. erred

The filver is extraéted from its ores in New Spain by
amalgamation with mercury, and by {melting : the propor-
tion of filver extracted by mercury is 34 to 1 of that extragted
by felting ; and as fucl is becoming fearce, the quantity
of filver extracted by amalgamation increales, the (melting
being very imperfeéily conducted,

The Sesion miners do not appear to follow any fixed
principle in the feleétion of minerals deitived to {melting or
amalgamation ; for in one diftri€ they {melt the fame ores,
which in another they believe can only be managed with
mercury ; and it is frequently the abuodance or fearcity of
mercury which determines the miner in the choice of his
method. In eral t {melt the entiferous oa,
and the pine niaioch of blende m3 vitreous _—
The pacos, the vitreous, red, and corneous filver-ores, the
grey copper-ore rich in filver, and the meagre ores, diflemi-
nated in {mall quantities in the matrix, they find it more
profitable to amalgamate.

All the metallic wealth of the Spanith colonies is in the
hands of individuals. ‘The government poflefles no other
mine than that of Huanca Velica in Peru, which has been
long abandoned. The individual receives from the king a
grant of a certain number of mea/ures, on the direétion of a
vein or bed; and they are only held to pay very moderate
duties on the minerals extracted. Thefe duties have been
valued on the average throughout all Spanith America at
Hi cent. of the filver, and three per cent. for the gold.
In the {pace of a hundred years, the annual produce of the
Mexican mines has increafed from twenty-five to one hun-
dred and ten millions of francs. The produce of the mines
in Peru has of late years been rather decreafing, which Hum-
boldt attributes to its being worfe gove: than Mexico.
The procefs of extraétion Sead alfo to be conduéted upon
worfe principles than in New Spain, though in neither of
thefe diftriéts is {melting, or amalgamation, performed with
much fkill ; for, et dt to M. Humboldt, the quantity
of mercury annually confumed in New Spain exeeeds two
million one hundred thoufand pounds troy. The mercury
is feparated frem the amalgam by diftillation ; but in the
whole procefs, the Mexicans wafte eight times more than
would ae neceflary, were the procefs conduéted in the fame
manner as at Freyberg.

The following table will thew the annual produce of gold
and filver in the mines of Europe, northern Afia, and Ame-
rica, as given by M. Humboldt, in kilogrammes. It may
be ed rather as an approximation to the real amount,
than as a very accurate ftatement, the amount of Englith
filver not being included ; perhaps this may be eftimated at
4000 Ibs. troy.

Gold, Silver.
Europe - - 1,297 52,670
Northern Afia : 538 21,709
America - ~- 17,29f 7959581

The kilogramme, it has been before ftated, is rather more
than 2b. 8 oz. troy. It is impoflible to value the quantity
of gold and filver annually extraéted on the whole globe ;
for we are unacquainted with the amount of what 1s pro-
cured in the interior of Africa, and the central parts of Afia,
Tonquin, China, and Japan. The quantity of gold and
filver formeriy brought by the Dutch from the latter coun-
try proves that it is rich in the precious metals. We may
draw the fame conclufion refpeéting the northern frontiers
of China aod other parts of Afia; and the quantity e

g° -

SILVER.

gold-duft brought to the weltern coaft of Africa, leads us
to believe, that the countries fouth of the Niger contain
large quantities of this metal, though we have little inform-
ation refpecting the filver of the African continent.

Affay and Analyfis of Silver-Ores—Pure native filver re-
quires no other aflay than fufion, with a httle potafh to free
it from its earthy matter. In the humid way the filver may
be diffolved in nitric acid, and precipitated by common falt,
The precipitate may then be fufed with foda in a crucible,
by which the filver is obtained pure, and the muriate of
{oda fublimed. The auriferous filver-ores may be treated
with potafh, by fufion ina crucible: the alloy of filver and
gold is firft obtained, and the two metals may be fepa-
rated by the procefs of parting. See Rermninc and As-
SAYING.

Thofe ores which confift of filver combined with anti-
mony or arfenic, or both, are firft roafted, to drive off the
arfenic and antimony, the filver remaining pure. The pro-
cefs is much facilitated by the ufe of nitre, for the pur-
pofe of oxydating the metals to be diflipated.

The humid analyfis of this ore requires more particular
treatment.

The ore commonly called arfenical is firft to be coarfely
powdered, and then diflilled vinegar poured upon it, to dif-
folve the lime of the calcareous {par adhering to it.

A given quantity of the ore fo wafhed is now to be finely
powdered, and nitric acid poured upon it: this oxy-
dates the metals, diflolving the greate{t part, and leaving a
yellowith refiduum. To the part diffolved muriate of foda
is to be added, which precipitates the filver. This precipi-
tate being wafhed and dried, will give 77 per cent. of pure
filver. ‘To the liquid from which the laft was precipitated
add a folution of potafh; a lightith red precipitate is now
formed, which, on drying, becomes of a deep brown, and by
ignition affumes the form of powder of a whitifh-grey co-
lour: this is the arfeniate of iron. This fubftance contains
iron and arfenic, in the proportions of 50to 43 or 44. This
is fhewn by treating the arfeniate of iron with ‘charcoal ex-
pofed toa red heat ; the arfenic is reduced, and fublimes,
while the black oxyd of iron remains.

The yellowifh refiduum left in the firft folution is to be
digefted with muriatic acid: if a white powder remains un-
diffolved, it will be found to be muriate of filver, and muft
be added to that firft obtained. ‘To the muriatic folution
add a folution of carbonate of potafh, and a yellowifh-green
precipitate is formed : to this precipitate, when wafhed and
dried, add muriatic acid by a little at once, till the powder
is diflolved ; add alarge quantity of water to this folution,
which will produce a white precipitate ; this being feparated
and dried will be pure oxyd of antimony, affording 3% of
pure antimony. What remains in folution, after the laft
fubftance is feparated by the water, may be precipitated
by pure potafh, and will be found to be oxyd of iron;
which, when treated with charcoal, like the firft obtained,
may be added to the fame to make the whole of the iron
afforded by the mineral. In this way the arfenical filver-
ore afforded, according to Klaproth, the following ana-
lyfis :

Silver = See 02 7
Tron - - > 44.25
Arfenic - =H geo
Antimony : 4.
96

The fulphuretted ores in the large way fometimes merely
gequire to be roafted to drive off the fulphar ; the heat being

urged affords a button of pure filver. This is the cafe with
the variety called Si/ver-glance.

The brittle filver-ore contains a very {mall portion of an-
timony and copper. The metallic button obtained by heat
will require to be cupelled with lead, in order to get the
filver pure; it may, however, be made tolerably pure by
treating the button with nitre, by which the bafe metals
are feparated.

To effect the humid analyfis of brittle filver-ore, the
powder is diffolved in dilute nitric acid with a gentle heat.
By this treatment a refiduum is left equal to 3,5, of the
whole. The folution is to be treated with muriate of foda,
like the laft.

If the prefence of an alkaline fulphate does not form any
precipitate with the remaining folution, the mineral does not
contain lead: add to the folution an excefs of ammonia, and
a greyifh-white precipitate will be left, which is the oxyd of
iron, often containing a little arfenic. If copper be prefent,
ammonia will give to the remaining folution a fine blue co-
lour, and that metal may be feparated by a rod of clean
iron.

It now remains to examine the firft refidaum which was
unaffeé&ted by the nitric acid; this is to be digefted with
nitro-muriatic acid: the refiduum left after this treatment
will be found to be pure fulphur. The nitro-muriatic fo-
lution is now to be diluted with a large quantity of water ;
a white precipitate falls down, which, when wafhed, dried,
and ignited, will be found to be oxyd of antimony, of a
brown colour.

Klaproth found roo grains of this ore to yield as follows :

Silver 2 = = eae G6uc
Antimony = = = Le WO
Tron - = c 5
Sulphur - - ~ = 12
Copper and arfenic - : = afk
Extraneous matter from the mine - I
95

The white filver-ores afford nearly the fame ingredients
with the laft ; and the mode of analytis will be fimilar in the
dry way.

The light-white and dark-white filver-ores contain lead
and alumine, and require a different treatment. After
the filver is precipitated by common falt, a quantity of
muriate Of lead is formed at the time, which, on concentra-
tion, affords the muriate of lead in bright filky cryftals.
When thefe are collected till the liquid will afford no more,
a folution of fulphate of foda is to be added, which precipi-
tates the remainder of the lead in the ftate of fulphate of
lead. This powder, being wafhed and dried, contains #ths its
weight of metallic lead. The remaining liquid being fuper-
faturated with ammonia, as in the analyfis of the brittle
filver-ore, a light-brown precipitate is formed : this precipi-
tate is oxyd of iron and alumine. To feparate the latter,
diflolve the precipitate in nitric acid: feparate the iron by
pruffiat of potafh, or pruffiat of linie, and afterwards the
alumine with foda. The prufliat of iron, heated to a red heat,
is decompofed, leaving the black oxyd of iron, which con-
tains £2 of metallic iron.

The firft refiduum left by th® nitric acid, befides anti-
mony and fulphur, which conftituted the refiduum of the
brittle filver-ore, alfo contains lead, By the frequent
addition of muriatic acid with the application of heat, the
lead is feparated in cryftals of muriate of lead ; obtaining,
by this means, a folution of the muriates of lead and anti-

mony,

SILVER.

mony, The refidaum is fulphur. The muriatic folution de-
flals of muriate of lead on cooling. When no more

cryitals fall down, thefe eryftals are to be added to thofe
obtained before. ‘Thefe, being heated in an allay crucible with
twice their weight of black flux, afford metallic lead. This
lead, however, treated in the ufual way an the cupel, affords
a {mall portion of filver, ‘The folution itill contains a {mall
of muriate of lead and the antimony. By adding a

jon of Glauber’s falt, the lead is ipitated in the
fhate of fulphate, affording sths its nt metallic lead.
The antimony, which is the lait, may be precipitated by af-
fufion of water. The precipitate, being wafhed, dried, and

i is the oxyd of antimony, yielding on its re-
ee + agora’ The analyhe YF the light white

filver-ore, by Klaproth, gives of
Silver yet are 20.4
Lead oes os ae
Antimony - - - - 7.88
Sulphur ‘a a 2.25
- ° 12.25
Alumine = . 7
_ Silex - - - 0.25
98.09
The dark filver-ore, by the fame, is
Silver - - - - 9-25
Lead ott weet ne ge
Antimony ay dest ferRg
ee icles
- im ihe 22
Alumine = ° I
Silex : - ‘75
97-25
The corneous filver-ore, which is muriate of filver, is
eafily reduced in the dry way by fufing it with foda, in a
capable of fufing the metallic filver. The foda
takes the muriatic acid, forming muriate of foda, which
efcapes in white fumes, and the fllver is left ure.
In the humid way, it is firft fufed in a glafs retort with
carbonate of The mafs is then diflolved in hot

The refiduum is then dif-
behind red :

if
g
:

ie
tel
rh
i
i
i

nitromuriatic folution, precipi-

which is oxyd of iron. To the nitri

mafs treated with carbonate of
added

fi

Z

Le
Pre
Fs oe
Pee

3

:
j
Mi
LE

He
if
A

HE
:

which was diflolved in water may be confidered as muriate
of potath, the acid of which is another ingredieet of the
mes and will be equal to {4 of the falr.

Phyfical and Chemical Properties of Siloer.—Bilver, when

ure and newly polithed, is of a {pleadid white colour, and
Gicos more white when the polith is deadened, Its hard.
nefs is nearly that of copper. Its malleability is nearly
equal tothat of gold. At a heat wifibly red in the dark,
it can be worked with great facility by the hammer into
various articles, in the manner of ing iron. After
being rolled into very thin theets, it can be beaten into leaves
of +eolvweth of an inch in thieknefs, and can be draws
into wire finer than a human hair. A wire of »,th of an
inch will require 336 lbs. to break it, when exerted in the

dire€tion of its length. At a temperature thort of red.
nefs, thefe pieces can be united either by the hammer,
or b g them together with fri€tion by a tteel
burnither.

It melts at the temperature of 28° of Wed or
4717° of Fahrenheit. If the heat be raifed the metal be-
comes more liquid, and boils. This is occafioned by its
affuming the elaftic form, in which flate it rifes, and is con-
denfible on the furface of bodies held over it, as has been
obferved with gold.

In purifying filver on the cupel, itis obferved, that when
it is removed from the furnace, and jut at the poimt of con-
gelation, a {mall explofion enfues, giving to the furfzce of
the button an a as if fome ic fluid had been
difengaged from it. It has been difcovered by Mr. Samuel
Lucas, of Sheffield, that the elaflic fluid which is fepa-
rated, producing the phenomenon in queftion, is pure oxy-

$

eal ma

By keeping filver long in a ftate of fufion, at a i

tem , ieee buncilies widedblled one
acquer converted filver into a vitreous oxyd by ex-
pofing it to the heat of a porcelain furnace.

Silver is readily inflamed by eleGiricity, and converted
into an oxyd of a greenifh-yellow colour.

The moft dire& way to obtain the oxyd of filver is
diffolving the filver in nitric acid, and apa rove it wi
lime-water. The precipitate is at firft whife, which
ftate it may be confidered a hydrate of the oxyd. When
heated, the water efcapes, and it aflumes a i
colour, inclining to grey. If the heat be raifed, air
“oo Sepa the oxygen is drawn off, leaving the metal
in a ftate of purity: 100 parts of filver have been found to
contain 7.5 of oxygen; ce, if the atom of hy
be 1, that of filver will be 100. No combination of
with azote or carbon has as yet been difcovered.

It combines with fulphur with great facility: the mere
conta& of the metal with flour of fulphur is fufficiert to
give the furface a yellow colour. If the filver be in thin

tes, and ftratified in a crucible with the fame, at a red

the combination foon takes place, and the mafs fufes,
forming a fulphuret of filver of a violet colour, fometimes
in 8 of the fhape of a needle.

This fubftance is brittle, but fufficiently foft to be cut
with a knife. It is decompofable by heat. The fulphur
efcapes, leaving the metal in a ftate of purity. ,

compound is an atom of filver equal to 100, united to an
atom of fulphur 1s.

Sulphuret of fiver is alfo formed by expofing the metal
to fulphuretted hydrogen gas. The {mall quantity of the
latter exifting io the atmofphere is capable of foon com-
municating a yellow, and ultimately a purple colour to

5A Mr.

SILVER.

Mr. Prout found this tarnifhing matter to be a fulphuret
of filver. The thinneft coat of gum, or of varnifh, com-
pletely defends the furface of filver from tarnifhing.

Silver combines with phofphorus, forming a phofphuret
of filver. This combination is effeted by heating in a
crucible equal parts of filver and phofphoric glafs, with
one-fourth their weight of charcoal powder, or, what is
better, faw-duft. This compound is of a’white colour. It
is brittle, but may be cut with a knife. It is, like the ful-
phuret, decompofable by heat.

Silver combines with feveral metals, forming alloys.
The alloy of filver with gold, when the former is in a very
{mall quantity, is of a much paler colour than gold. Thefe,
like all other compounds, are doubtlefs definite, and hence
we fhould expect, that when thefe metals combine in the
ratio of the weights of their atoms, which will be roo filver
to 140 of gold, the alloy would be the moft perfe&. And
the next perfe& would be two atoms of one to one of the
other. It is ftated by Mufchenbroeck, that the hardeft
alloy of thefe two metals is with two parts of gold to one of
filver.

Silver, as well as rendering gold much paler, gives it a
greenifh tinge. This alloy is more fufible than gold, and
hence is employed as a folder for that metal.

Silver does not form any ftriking alloy with platinum.
Indeed it rather appears to be a mixture than a combination.
As is the cafe with lead and zinc, the two metals feparate,
when kept fome time ina ftate of fufion. This fac is cor-
roborated by the circumftance, that filver can f{carcely be
made to unite two pieces of platinum together, when ufed
as a folder, while gold can be employed for that purpofe
with the greateft fuccefs. For the other alloys of filver,
fee the re{pe&tive metals.

Salts of Silver.—Thefe confift of the oxyd of filver com-
bined with an acid, fome of which only are foluble in water.
The prefence of the foluble falts of filver is eafily de-
teéted by muriatic acid, or any foluble faline compound
with that acid, by occafioning a denfe white precipitate,
which foon changes to a purple colour when expofed to
the fun’s light.

The infoluble falts of filver have the property of coating
bright copper with filver, when rubbed upon it with a little
moifture. Salts of mercury would give the fame white ap-
pearance, but this would be diftinguifhed from filver by
being capable of diffipation by heat. Salts of filver be-
come black with the hydro-fulphurets of the alkalies. And
gallic acid gives a brown precipitate.

Sulphate of Silver—Sulphuric acid has no ation upon
filver at the common temperature. When, however, this
metal is boiled with the acid, the filver becomes oxydated,
fulphurous acid gas is difengaged, and fulphate of filver is
formed, which is a white maf{s, {paringly foluble in water,
except an excefs of fulphuric acid be prefent. The latter,
on evaporation, affords cryttals of a brilliant filvery white-
nefs, in the form of needles or fine prifms.

This falt is foluble in nitric acid.

When heated, it firft fufes, and if the heat be raifed, it
is decompofed, fulphuric acid and oxygen efcaping, leav-
ing the filver in its metallic form.

This falt is decompofed by the alkalies and earths, and all
thofe foluble falts, the acids of which form infoluble com-
pounds with filver. Bergman has ftated, that 100 parts of
metallic filver, precipitated from nitric acid by fulphuric acid,
give 134 of the fulphate. Allowing the roo of filver to
have taken 7 of oxygen, there will remain 28 for the ful-
phuric acid. This, in 100, will give fulphuric acid 22,

and 78 of oxyd of filver. If this falt be compofed of
one atom each of acid and bafe, then, by Dr. Wol-
latton’s fcale, the proportions would be 25.5 acid, and
74-5 oxyd of filver. Dalton’s numbers would give very
nearly the fame refult.

Sulphate of Silver.—This falt, like the latt, is {paringly
foluble in water. In other re{pects, it is but little known.

Nitrate of Silver.—The nitric acid a&ts with confiderable
violence on filver, affording red {uffocating fumes, occafioned
by the copious difengagement of nitric oxyd. If the acid
and the filver be pure, the folution becomes clear and co-
lourlefs, without refiduum: if the acid contains muriatic
acid, which is often the cafe with the acid of the fhops,
then a denfe white powder will fall down, which becomes
purple im the fun-fhine, andisthe muriate of filver: if the
filver contains gold, a purple powder will be left at the bot-
tom of the veffel : if it contains copper, the folutien will be
of a green colour, of greater or lefs intenfity, depending
upon the quantity of that metal.

The folution of filver affords cryftals on evaporation :
they are of a prifmatic form, but differ in their number of
fides ; they do not change by expofure to the air, but are
very foluble in water. Thefe cryftals, when heated, firft
melt ; tle heat being raifed, the water of cryftallization
efcapes, but the mafs ftill remains liquid : in this ftate it is
frequently caft into moulds, in which it aflumes a folid form
on cooling. Thefe fticks, which are employed in furgery
under the name of /unar cauffic, are of a grey colour, and
when broken exhibit a cryftalline appearance.

A more violent heat than that required for its fufion
decompofes it, nitrous gas and oxygen being difengaged.

This decompofition is much more rapid when it is heated
in contact with inflammable matter. Ifthrown upon burn-
ing coals, it detonates.

If filk, cotton, leather, ivory, and many other bodies, be
moiftened with nitrate of filver, and the part be afterwards
moiftened, when a ftream of hydrogen gas is applied to it the
filver becomes reduced, and appears with its metallic luftre.
A ftick of phofphorus dipped in nitrate of filver foon becomes
coated with metallic filver.

This falt has the property of detonating with fulphur or
phofphorus, by being ftruck fmartly with a hammer.

Nitrate of filver is decompofed by all the earths which
form falts, and by the alkalies, by combining with the acid.
Ammonia, however, does not only precipitate the oxyd, but
afterwards combines with it, forming a compound having
alarming fulminating properties. The following is the pro-
cefs recommended for its preparation. :

From the nitrate of filver precipitate the oxyd by means
of lime-water : feparate the oxyd, and dry it upon blotting-
paper: upon this oxyd pour pure cauftic ammonia: let this
remain for twelve hours. If a pellicle be formed upon the fur-
face, add a little more ammonia, which will take it up. A
black precipitate will be found at the bottom of the veflel,
which is the ammoniate of filver, and is the fulminating
fubftance to be obtained. This precipitate is to be carefully
colleéted, and laid in very {mall quantities upon feparate bits
of blotting-paper, to dry. When dry, the flighteft touch
or rubbing motion caufes a violent explofion, Thofe unac-
cuftomed to it fhould begin with the fmalleft poffible quan-
tities, as ferious accidents have happened by exploding it
in too large quantities. The liquid part from which the
fubftance was feparated will be found to be a folution of the
fame : if it be heated ina glafs retort, a portion of itis de-
compofed, and the gafeous produéts difengaged : in a little
time, {mall brilliant cryftals of the fame fubftance ee 5

thele

;

SILVER.

thele frequently detonate with fuch violence, as to break the
veffel in which they are contained.

the fame, are
in gn mftant rendered fo highly elattic by the caloric fet
free, as to produce the colaion effe& fo confpicuous in this
It is needlefs to fay that the filver is left in the

o employed, precipitates the filver in a
ult being nitrate of copper in
the place of nitrate of filver. ipitate i

“oe — The precipitate is ay pure
will always be ed when reci-

2 TY
of precipitatin ver from
the nitrate, producing the Senate vy a termed
recommends one part of filver to
poe aperccapt ag 7 Darla epee 2 bo. Gem diluted

twenty parts of diltilled water: to two
18 int °
ion, from whi pas mny aay

The filver now in folution is reduced
that already formed, in confequence of its ftate of

tallic
would

Meeennnnneer © ae een acid, ot ey, Soluble

white precipitate is thrown down, which is muriate of filver.

white when it is jnft precipitated, it foon affumes
a tint by expofure to the li » and the change is
aig al» cad edgy al hence this fubftance has

by the time in which the chan
os Langectaag
its
trate or Faiphate of fiver fo valuable as a tet for muriatic
_ The latter, on combining with the filver, forms the
in
When this falt is expofed to heat, it eafily melts : on cool-
ing, it becomes folid. It is a femi-tranfparent mafs, of a
colour, and of a horny ap from which it has
peg Bes ver. If fufed with a great
heat in a crucible, it becomes fo thin a fluid as to fink through
the pores of the crucible. It is not decompofed by any of
the acids nor the alkalies, but when heated with the carbo-
nates of potath or foda, the acid is difen It diffolves
er ee eer renee © teaelyesest, olution ; this, by

expofure to the air, confi change. A
Gieliiens onthe ficface, which is firt of a biucith po

and ultimately black. ‘This pellicle, on examination, is
found to be muriate of ammonia and reduced filver, ‘Thole
who with ir Humphrey Davy hold oxymunatic acid to be
a fimple body under the name of chlorine, confider this fub-
flance as a compound of the latter fubfance with metallic
filver. Sir Humphrey gives it the name of argentanr, aad
Dr. Thomfon, more conlifently, chloride of fiver.
‘The compofition of this falt, according to Proult, is

Muriatic acid : 18
Oxyd of filver : Bz
100

By the atonic theory it fhould be conftituted by 100
+ 7:5 = 107.5 of oxyd of filver, and 24 muriatic acid,
which would give

Oxyd of filver - 81.7
Mauriatic acid - 16.3
100

Sir Humphrey confiders it 2s a compound of one propor-
tion of chlorine, 67, and one proportion of filver, 205,

which will give
Silver - - - 15-3
Chlorine - - 24-7
100

Confidering the 24.7 of chlorine as oxymuriatic acid, which
would be 18.8 muriatic acid, and 5.9 oxygen; then givin
this oxygen to 75.3 of filver, would give 81.2 of oxyd o
filver, and 18.8 of muriatic acid in the 100, which nearly
agrees with the above. The property which this falt has of
becoming black by the aétion of light, has rendered it ufeful
for marking linen. Very improper ingredients have been
fold for this purpofe. The nitrate of fiver is employed to
write with upon the linen, which is rp roper; but the

art is often prepared by a folution of a= or potafh, in-
of a folution of muriate of foda (common falt). The
following will be a recipe which cannot fail of fuccefs: dif-
folve 30 grains of lunar caullic in one ounce of diftilled
water ; this will be for the writing liquid. For the pre-
paring liquor, diffolve half an ounce of common falt in four
ounces of water ; and in the fame diflolve half an ounce of
gum arabic. Moilten the part to be marked with the latter,
and dry it till the writing will not run. The letters will firft
wes of a blueifh-white, but become perfeétly black by ex-
polure to light.

The fluate, borate, phofphate, carbonate, and arfeniate of
filver, are infoluble powders, having no ftriking properties, or
but little known. The arfeniate is formed by adding arfeniate
of potafh to any foluble falt of filver. It falls down in the
form of powder of a yellow colour. Its infolubility, and its
confpicuous colour, have been taken advantage of by employ-
ing nitrate of filver as a teft for arfenic.

he chromate of filver is an infoluble falt, of a red colour ;

it is formed by adding chromate of poteth to nitrate of

Sia It, however, becomes purple by expofure to air and
8

Acetate of filver is a foluble falt, formed by adding the
acetic acid to oxyd of filver. The folution affords me: Be

tals,
“The relt of the falts are but little known.
> Sitver, in Medicine, is called /una, the moon; and has
been much extolled for its virtues by chemical writers. But
5A2 crude

SIL

crude filver, however comminuted or attenuated, has not
been obferved to fproduce any medical effe@. It is not
foluble in any of the fluids of the animal or vegetable
kingdom.

Several preparations have been made from filver ; parti-
eularly a

Sitver Pill, or Pilula Lunaris, which is a chemical pre-
paration of filver, formerly highly commended as an an-
thelmintic, and as a purgative remedy for dropfies, and in
many other inveterate ulcerous difeafes.

The method of making it is this: diflolve an ounce of
pure nitre in diftilled water ; then diflolve an ounce of cry{-
tals of filver, made in the common way, with pure filver and
aqua fortis, in three times the weight of water, fo that the
folution may be perfectly limpid: mix the two folutions to-
gether, they will become a clear homogene liquor; evapo-
rate this to a pellicle, and cryftals refembling nitre will
fhoot ; pour off the remaining nitre as before, and the re-
maining nitre will fhoot with the filver, in form of cryttals,
again, upon a fecond evaporation : let thefe cryftals be dried
upon a paper, and then placed in a glafs veffel in a very
gentle heat, enough to make them fmoke, but not run; ftir
it with a piece of glafs all the time, and keep it over the
fire, till no more fumes arife; thus the acid fpirits will be
driven off, and the filver remain of a very bitter tafte and
purging quality. It mut be kept in a dry clofe veffel.

This difcovery has been made to ferve to many other pur-
pofes, befides its ufes in medicine, and has furnifhed the dif-
honeft pretenders to alchemy with one of their moft cunning
methods of deceit. They have been able, by this means, to
conceal filver in nitre, and that in a very large proportion,
as in one-tenth part of the whole quantity ; and this nitre
being projeGted in an equal quantity on melted lead, gives
an increafe of one-tenth part in filver, which remaining upon
the teft, will deceive the ignorant, as if a tenth part of the
lead were converted into pure filver. People who are upon
their guard, may, however, difcover the cheat, by diffolving
the pretended nitre in ten times its weight of water, and
putting a polifhed plate of copper into the folution; for
every particle of the filver will then be precipitated out
of the liquor upon the copper, and to the bottom of the
veflel.

The medicinal ufe is this: the dried mafs, confifting of
the falts of filver and nitre, is to be reduced to a fine pow-
der: this powder, applied to ulcers, ats in the manner of
the lapis infernalis, or filver-cauftic, only much milder; but
for internal ufe, the quantity of two grains of it is to be
ground to a fine powder, with fix grains of loaf-fugar, in
a glafs mortar ; this is to be then mixed with ten grains of
the crumb of bread, and formed into nine pills: thefe are
to be taken by a grown perfon upon an empty ftomach,
drinking after them four or fix ounces of hot water,
fweetened with honey. It purges gently, and brings away
a liquid matter like water, often unperceived by the patient.
It is faid to kill worms, and perform great things in many
obftinate ulcerous diforders. It purges without griping,
but it muft not be ufed too freely, nor in too large a dofe,
for it always proves weakening, and in fome degree corrofive
on the ftomach; but this inconvenience 1s greatly alleviated
by rob of juniper. Boerh. Chem. part i1. p. 297.

However, with this affiftance, it is at beft a dangerous
medicine, and as fuch is defervedly excluded from praétice.
Lewis. z

Sinver, Tindure of, is made by diffolving thin filver
plates, or filver fhot, in {pirit of nitre; and pouring the
folutton into another veflel full of falt-water. By this
means, the filver is immediately precipitated in a very white

SIL

powder, which they wafh feveral times in {pring water.
This powder they put into a matrafs; and pour reétified
{pirit of wine, and volatile falt of urine, upon it. ~The
whole is left to dige(t in a moderate heat for fifteen days 5
during which, the {pirit of wine affumes a beautiful fky-blue
colour, and becomes an ingredient in feveral medicines. This
is alfo called potable filver, argentum potabile.

Silver is likewife converted into cryftals, by means of the
fame fpirit of nitre; and this is called vitriol of filver.

The lapis infernalis argenteus is nothing but the cryftals
of filver melted with a gentle heat in a crucible; and then
poured into iron moulds. See Caustic, Lunar.

Sttver dle. See ALE.

Sitver Bu/h, in Botany, a {pecies of Anthyliis; which fee.
See alfo Barsa Jovis.

Sitver Coin. See Corn, and Money.

a Sirver Fir, the name of a tree of the pine kind. See

INE.

Sitver, Green and Herring. See the adjeCtives.

Sitver, /xflammable, a chemical preparation of the lapis
infernalis made by a {mall heat. The procefs is this: take
an ignited piece of Dutch turf, after it ceafes to fmoke ;
place it with its upper flat furface parallel to the horizon ;
make a little cavity in the middle, and therein put a drachm
of dry lapis infernalis ; it will immediately melt and glow,
and finally it will take flame, and hifs and fhine like nitre :
after the Hame ceafes, pure filver will be found in the hol-
low, as much in quantity as was ufed in making fo much
lapis infernalis.

This curious experiment fhews the phyfical manner in
which acids do but fuperficially adhere to filver; and the
manner in which acids operate, when united to metals, while
furrounding their metallic mafs, they arm the ponderous
principles of them with {picule: it fhews alfo the immuta-
bility of filver diffolved in an acid, and the various ways in
which it may be concealed, yet {till have its ation: it alfo
fhews the difference of potable filver, while exifting in a
faline form, by means of an adhering acid, from that potable
filver of the adepts, where the principles of filver are fup-
pofed converted into a fluid, that will mix with the juices of
the body, and cannot be reduced to filver again; but the
great thing to be here obferved is, that the acid fpirit of
nitre, adhering in a folid mafs of filver, is, in this ftate, as
inflammable, on coming in conta& with an ignited combuf-
tible body, as crude nitre itfelf; this feems to happen with
filver alone, which is unchangeable with fpirit of nitre.
Hence alfo we fee one way, by which filver may be obtained
pure from other adhering matters, by bare burning: the
acid here aéts neither upon the mercurial part of the filver,
nor on its fixing fulphur. Boerh. Chem. part ii. p. 297.

Sirver, King’s. See Kine’s Silver.

Sitver-Leaf is that which the gold-beaters have reduced
into fine thin leaves, to be ufed by gilders, &c. See Goup-
Leaf.

SILVER,

Quick. See Mercury.
SILVER,

Rep. See Rep Silver.

Sitver, Salt. See Sarr Silver.

Sttver, Shell, is made of the fhreds of filver leaves, or
of the leaves themfelves: and ufed in painting and filvering
certain works. It is prepared after the fame manner as fhell-
gold. See Goxp.

Sitver, Slough. See Stoven Silver.

Sitver, Smoke. See SMOKE Silver.

Sitver-Tree, in Botany. See PROTEA.

Sitver-Weed, a fpecies of Potentilla ; which fee.

Sitver-Weed, in Agriculture, a term applied to wild
tanfey ; a plant which grows naturally upon cold {tiff land
II in

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io molt parts, and is a fure mark of the flerility of the foil.
Its flalks {pread upon the ground, and fend out roots from
their joints; by which means, and by frequent thedding of
its feeds, as it flowers during the whole fummer, it foon
and fills the land to a great diflanee, Its leaves
= of feveral lobes or wings, which are generally

fg the mid-rib, and terminated by an odd one:
they are jagged at their edges, and are of a filvery colour,
efpecially on their under fide. It has been noticed by Mr.

that the root is fomewhat of the ed or parfni
kat hs ag n ef :

are very fond of
. See Wurre-nant Silver.

Sirver Wire, is filver drawn through the holes of a wire-

pa fey Moa this means reduced to the finenefs of

or hair. + Aptemape drawing it, fee under the
article Gotp Wire. See alfo Wine, and Daawino.

Su in Geography, a headland on the coatt of
Seuth Carolina, at the mouth of the river Savannah.

Strver Cayes, a clufter of rocks, 10 miles S. of Grand

ver Creek, a river of America, in omnes. ewer
runs into the river Kentucky, N. lat. 37°41’. W. long.

84° 40. ;
SILVER-GRAIN, in Feat Phyfiology, is defcribed
Mr. Knight, Phil, Tranf. for 1801, 344, a8 confitting
er ee in every direétion from
the medulla to the bark, having adhefion to each other
at any time, and lefs during {pring and fummer, than in au-
tumn and winter ; whence the greater brittlenefs of wood
former feafons.’”” The fame writer remarks, that
thefe plates are vifible in every wood which he had examined,
except fome of the ‘Palm tribe ; but are of a different width
different kinds, lying between, and prefling upon, the
It may be obferved, that in
the oak “every tube is touched by them at fhort diftances,
nas Reiaie Suen its courfe. If thefe,’? continues

Mr. “ are expanfible under changes of temperature,
pain: Pe ifing from the powers of vejetable life,

conceive that they are as well placed as is poflible, to pro-
extremities of the branches; and thei

the tree has ceafed to live, inclines me
are not made to be idle whilft it con-
In fupport of this opinion, we would re-
mark, that the plates in queftion wetend where the f{piral
either no longer exiit, or have loft

See CincuLa tion of the Sap.
the covering of any work with a thin
~ This tion is recommended by two
circumftances ; viz. the fuperior beauty of filver to that of
peg noha and alfo its fuperior wholefomenefs to
copper, or lead, for culinary purpoles, as it is not
i other acids.

performed on the fame fubftances, and
po cary al pe which fee. But as works
this kind are liable to tarnifh and fpeckle, they are fel-
when this is the cafe, the coating of filver

much thicker that of gold, becaufe other-

-

prominent
ap to view the fubjacent copper or brafs.

order to avoid this inconvenience, fome have reeom-
mended, when filvering is admitted, a ftrong varnifh, formed
of fome of the compofitions of maitic, fandarac, the gums
p= ahi: a) and white rofin, to be put over it.

The recommended in filvering leather may be ap-
plied to other See Lacquer.
The filver » called argentum mufroum, may be either

SIL
tempered, in the manner of the thell-gold, with gum-water,
or rubbed over 5 properly ands aod it will take “
very good polith from the "s tooth or burnifhers; and
hold ite colour much better with a flight coat of varaith over
it, thaw any true filver powder or leaf’

The fizes for filvering, when they are ufed for this pur-
pofe, ought not to be mixed, asin the cafe of gold, with
yellow, or bole armoniac, but with fome white fubftance,
whofe efleét may t any {mall failures in covering the
ground with the filver from being feen, This may be done
with flake-white, or white-lead, when the fizes formed of
oil are ufed ; but whiting, or tobacco-pipe clay, with a little
lamp-black added to it, is the proper matter in the burnith
seg filvering, or wherever A ol glovers’ or parchment fize
is ufed.

It is ufual to filver metals, wood, paper, &e.

The only metals to which filvering is applied are copper
pc erm and very rarely iron; and there are three modes
° orming this operation, ws. by amalgamation, by mu-
“abd flenn and by filer in fubflance. The nade Ty
performed by adding plates of copper to a folution of ni-
trated filver, which will precipitate the filver in its metallic
fate, and very finely divided ; ferape this from the copper,
and let it be well wafhed and dried. With half an ounce of
this powder, of common falt and {al ammoniac two ounces,
and one drachm of corrofive fublumate, well rubbed together,
make a pafte by the addition of a little water, then clean the
vellel to be filvered with a {mall quantity of diluted aqua
fortis, or by fcouring it with a mixture ef common falt and
tartar. Rub it, when perfeétly clean, with the paite already
mentioned, until it is entirely covered with a white metallic
coating; which coating is an amalgam produced by the de-
compofition of the corrofive {ublimate by means of the cop-
per, to the furface of which it applies very clofely and ex-
peditioufly. The copper thus filvered over is then to be
wafhed, dried, and heated nearly red, for the purpofe of
riving off the mercury: the filver remains behind and ad-
Sacet Eemly to the copper, in a ftate capable of receiving a
high polith. The /econd method of filvering is that by luna
cornea. For this purpofe, prepare the luna cornea in the
ufual manner, by pouring a Caption of common falt into ni-
trate of filver, as long as any precipitation occurs, and boil-
ing the mixture ; then mix the white curdy matter thus ob-
tained with three parts of good pearl-ath, one part of wathed
whiting, and a little more than one part of common falt.
After the furface of the brafs, cleared from feratches, has
been rubbed with a piece of old hat and rotten ftone, in
order to remove any greafe, and then moiftened with fale
and water, a little of the compofition, being now rubbed on
with the finger, will prefeatly cover the furface of the metal
with filver, Then wath it well, rub it dry with foft rag,
and then, as the coat of filver is very thin, cover it wit
tran{parent varnifh to preferve it from tarnifh. As this kind
of filvering is very imperfect, it is only ufed for the faces of
clocks, the feales of barometers, or fimilar objects. (See
Luwa Cornea.) The third mode of performing this opera-
tion is by means of filver in fubitance: and of doing this
there are three different methods. The firit is by mixing
together 20 grains of filver precipitated by copper, two
drachms of tartar, two drachms wr nosed falt, and halfa
drachm of alum; and rubbing this compofition en a per-
feétly clean furface of copper or brafs will cover it with a
thin coating of filver, which may be polithed with a picce
of foft . Another and better method, called French
plating, confifts in burnifhing down upon the furface of the
i fucceffive layers of leaf-filver to any required thick-
nefs, Although the filver in this operation a

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than in any of the former modes, the procefs is tedious, nor
can the junctures of the leaves of filver be always entirely
concealed. But the beft method of all is the Englifh plat-
ing, for an account of which fee PLarrp MANUFACTURE.
Aikin’s Did.

Brafs may be filyered, by boiling it with filings of good
pewter and white tartar, in equal quantities. There are
feveral other methods of filvering, for which fee Smith’s
Laboratory, p. 37, feq. ; allo Handmaid to the Arts, vol. i.
p- 471, &c. See Gripine of Metals.

The following is the recipe in praétice with button-
makers for covering the inferior kinds of plated buttons:
3lbs. of fulphate of zinc ; 3lbs. of common falt ; 1 oz. of
corrofive fublimate ; and 2 oz. of muriate of filver. This
is made into a pulpy ftate with water, and the buttons
{meared over with it. They are then expofed to a certain
degree of heat, which firit caufes the furface to be covered
with an amalgam of filver and mercury, and then expelling
the latter, which requires nearly a red heat, the copper re-
tains a permanent coating of filver. This is afterwards to
be cleaned and burnifhed, by which it acquires a filvery
luitre, which, for a time, appears like durable plating. The
{alt and the fulphate of zinc appear to be of no other ufe
than to dilute and give a pulpy confiftence to the mafs.

Silvering in the cold is performed by the following com-
pofition: 3lbs. of cream of tartar; 3lbs. of common falt ;
and 1 oz. of muriate of filver, which is the precipitate
formed by adding common falt to nitrate of filver, till no
more is precipitated. This compofition is made into a fimilar
pulp. The furface of the copper or brafs to be filvered
mutt firit be cleaned with diluted acid, and then made dry,
and kept free from greafe. The furface, being now rubbed
with the above palte, will aflume a white colour, by the
filver adhering to it. This procefs is generally employed
for filvering clock-faces, and the fcales of inftruments.
The furface fhould always be varnifhed to prevent its tar-
nifhing, as the filver is too thin to bear cleaning. See
Burron.

SILVERING of Leather.
GILDING.

The proceeding in filvering the leather is in all refpects
the fame as when it is to have the appearance of gilding,
except that, inftead of the yellow varnifh, a clear colourlefs
one is to be ufed, where the appearance of filver is to be
preferved.

The moft common varnifh for this purpofe is only parch-
ment fize, made warm, and laid on with a fpunge. How-
ever, the more hard and tranf{parent the varnifhes are, and
the more they are of a refinous nature, the more brilliant
and white, and the more durable, will be the filvery and
polifhed appearance of the filvered leather. Some, inftead
of the parchment fize, ufe that made of ifinglafs.

SILVERING of Mirrors, is the application of a coat-
ing of quickfilver to their pofterior furface, in the
manner briefly defcribed under the article Looxinc-Gila/.
The management of the filvering is, in this cafe, extremely
fimple, and is thus detailed in Aikin’s Ditionary. A per-
fectly flat flab of free-[tone (or fometimes of thick wood),
a little larger than the largeft plate, is inclofed in a {quare
wooden frame or box, open at the top, and with a ledge
rifing a few inches on three fides, and cut down even with
the {tone on the fourth. A {mall channel or gutter is cut
at the bottom of the wooden frame, ferving to convey the
wafte mercury down into a veflel below, fet to catch it.
The flab is alfo fixed on a centre pivot, fo that oneend may
be raifed by wedges (and of courfe the other deprefled) at
pleafure, when working freely in the box.

See Lacquer and Japanners?

SIL

The flab being firft laid quite horizontal, and covered with
grey paper ftretched tight over it, a fheet of tin-foil, a little
bigger than the plate to be filvered, is fpread over it, and
every creafe {moothed down carefully ; a little mercury is
then laid upon it, and {pread over witha tight roll of cloth,
immediately after which as much mercury is poured over it
as will lie on the flat furface without fpilling, That part
of the flab which is oppofite the cut-down fide of the
wooden frame is then covered with parchment, and the
glafs plate is lifted up with care and flid in (holding it
quite horizontally) over the parchment, and lodged on the
furface of the flab. The particular care required here is,
that the under furface of the glafs fhould from the firft juft
dip into the furface of the mercury ({kimming it off as it
were), but without touching the tin-leaf in its paflage,
which it might tear. By this means no bubbles of air
can get between the glafs and the metal, and alfo any little
duft or oxyd floating on the mercury is {wept off before the
plate without interfering. The plate being then let go,
finks on the tin-foil, {queezing out the fuperfluous mercury,
which paffes into the channel of the wooden frame above-
mentioned. The plate is then covered with a thick flannel,
and is loaded over the whole furface with lead or iron
weights, and at the fame time is tilted up a little, by which
{till more of the mercury is {queezed out. It remains in this
fituation for a day, the flope of the ftone flab being gra-
dually increafed to favour the dripping of the mercury.
The plate is then very cautioufly removed, touching it only
by the edges and upper fide, and the under fide is found
uniformly covered with a foft pafty amalgam, confilting of
the tin-leaf thoroughly foaked with the quickfilver, and
about the thicknefs of parchment. It is then fet up in a
wooden frame, and allowed to remain there for feveral
days, the flope of its pofition being gradually increafed,
till the amalgam is fufficiently hardened to adhere fo firmly
as not to be removed by flight f{cratches, after which the
plate is finifhed and fit for framing.

It is a confiderable time before the amalgam has acquired
its utmoft degree of hardnefs, fo that globules of mercury
will often drip from new mirrors fome time after they have
been fet up in rooms; and violent concuffiens of the air,
fuch as from the firing of cannon, will often detach portions
of the amalgam. Thefe can never be perfectly replaced
by any patching, as the lines of junétion with the old amal-

am will always be marked by white feams, feen when
looking into the glafs. See Forratine of Looking-Glaffs.

SILVERING of Paper. See Chinefe PAPER.

SILVERIUS, pope, in Biography, the fon of pope
Hormifdas, was placed in the pontifical chair in the year
536, upon the death of Agapetus. Belifarius, the famous
general of Juftinian, having foon after taken pofleflion of
Rome, the emprefs Theodora refolved to take this oppor-
tunity of reftoring Anthemius, patriarch of Conttantinople,
and his party, who had been condemned for herefy by the
council of Chalcedon. She wrote to Silverius, urging him
to recognize Anthemius as lawful bifhop, to which he gave
a pofitive refufal. Upon this the emprefs made an engage-
ment with the deacon Vigilius, that he fhould be raifed to
the popedom on condition that he would anathematize the
council of Chalcedon, and re-admit Anthemius and his
party ; and fhe at the fame time fent orders to Belifarius to
depofe Silverius. To furnifh a pretext for this act, an
accufation of treafon was brought againft the pepe, as
having invited the Goths to repoilefs themfelves of Rome,
This change was moit probably invented for the purpofe,
and without the fmalleft foundation; and Belifarius, without
aGting upon it, fent for Silverius, and endeavoured by

4 perfuafion

"

had not flrength to oppofe his enemies, he took fanétuary

;

SIL

uafion to get him to comply with the emperor's requi-
ion, but halo co Fisdng, however, that’ he

in a church; but being artfully drawo from it, he was
of the enfigns of dignity, and exiled in the year after he

been eleGted pope. When arrived at Patara, a city io
Lyecia, the place of his exile, the bithop of the place met
him, and, indignant at the treatment he had experienced,
to lay the cafe before the emperor, then at Con-

| sak and from his reprefentation, Juftinian ordered
the to J i

re-heard. Silverius, immediately on re-
went to Rome, where his manl condud

his chair. the intrigues, how-
with Antonina, wife of Belifarius,
mache hands, and reg to the —
Palmaria, on the of Liguria, w he died, from
or hardthip, in or about June, in the year 538;
though Baronius maintains that he held a fynod of four
op ay the ifland, at which he excommunicated Vigilius,
and he did not die till June 540. In the church of

ceiving this order,

Rome he is as a martyr to orthodox

SILVERMINES, in Ae town of the
county of A ich obtained its name
from i -mines in the neighbourhood, from
which much virgin filver was formerly obtained. Thefe
mines, the of lord Dunally, are no longer pire
and are thought to be exhaulted. Silvermines is north of
the mountains, and gives name to a lower ridge of
hills. It is miles $.W. from Dublin, and about 5
miles S. from

:

VES, a town of Portugal, in the province of

on a river of the fame name, containing

inhabitants ; formerly more confiderable than at pre-

and from the year 1188 to 1580 a bifhop’s fee, which

removed to Faro; 15 miles E.N.E. of

N. lat. 37° 10’. W, long. 8° 21'.—Alfo, a river

of runs into the Atlantic, a little below
Nova de Portimao.

SILVESTER I., pope, in Bi ,» was elected to
the fee of Rome in January f Tn that year was held
the council of Arles, to which Silvefter was invited, but he
excufed hi on account of his

was convened by the emperor, and not by the , nor did
the ater pei at it. It was during os pout Beate that
the hi y of the Chriftian church, as it has ever tince
exifted, formed upon the model of the civil government of
the empire, took its origin. Silvefter died in 335, after
having held’ the pal fee nearly twenty-one years.
SILVesTeR 11. » previoully n Gerbert, was
obfeure in Au , inthe roth century.
he entered himfelf as a monk in the mo-
y Aurillac. After laying a found-
all the {ciences cultivated in that ignorant age, he
for improvement. and vifited Spain, in order to

to the emperor Otho I., who placed him
the head of the abbey of Bobbio, about the year 970.
Having refided there fome years, he returned to France,
bet vine docifionally I - In one of thofe vifits he met
with Otho II. at Pavia, took him to Ravenna, where
he held a folemn deputation on a mathematical quettion
with a Saxon, very eminent for his learning. He was

S I i

afterwards made to Otho LIL, who futceeded tw
the imperial crown while he was flill a minor. Io the year
' Hugh Capet promoted him to the archbithopric of
heims ; but this elevation was a fource of difquiet to
him, and after much contention, he was obliged to refign
the fee to Arnulf, the natural fon of Lothaire, king of
France, who had been formerly depofed from it. This
was in the year 997, and at the fame time Otho III. con-
ferred upon him eho archbifhopric of Ravenna ; and on the
death of pope Gregory V. in 999, he was eletied to the
papal dignity, when he aflumed the name of Silveiter, ‘The
acts of his pontificate were but few, and not at all important.
In the year 1000 he is {aid to have conferred on Stephen L.,
king of Hungary, the royal title, with the famous crown,
the palladium of that kingdom, and to have conftituted him
perpetual legate of the Roly fee, with power to difpofe of
all ecclefiaftical benefices. An extraordinary inflance of
ecclefiattical vigour in this et a ge is mentioned by
Ademar, which, if it may be relied on, proves both the
great power of the church at that period, and the dif-
polition to abufe it. Guy, count of Li havi
imprifoned Grimoald, bifhop of that city, for taking
feflion of a difputed monattery, and afterwards releafed hi
the bifhop repaired to Rome, and complained to the pope,
who cited Guy to his prefence. The caufe being heard,
the count was condemned by the pope and fenate to be bound
to the tail of a wild horfe, and dragged away till be was
torn to pieces, the execution of which fentence he efcaped
by compromifing the affair with the bifhop, his accufer,
and taking flight along with him. Silvefter died in the

year 1003. € was a very meritorious character, a pro-
moter of ing, and a proficient in various branches of
the fciences. He {pent much time and large fums of money

in the collection of books from various parts of Europe,
compofed himfelf a number of works, particularly in
arithmetic and geometry, and with his own hands made
st a clock, and an aftrolabe. Living, as he did, in
the very depths of the dark ages, he fell under the fufpicion
of magical praétices, and feveral ridiculous {tories are re-
lated to this purpofe. There were, however, perfons who
knew how to appreciate his character: he is mentioned by
Otho “as a molt learned man, and eminent in the three
branches of philofophy.’”? He wrote a great number of
letters on various topics, of which 160 of them were printed
at Paris in 1611. One of thefe, written in the firft year
of his pontificate, is a call to the church univerfal, for
delivering the Chriltians in Paleftine; in other words, a
ojeh Se a crufade.

SILVESTRE GRANUM, or Coccus Sitvesrnis, 3
term ufed by fome authors to exprefs the coccus Polenicus ;
and by others, for a coarfe or bad kind of cochineal, pro-
duced in the province of Guatimala, in New Spain; it is
by fome fuppofed to be the feed of a plant, but ie, in reality,
an infeét, as the true cochineal is, only that the fearlet
colour it yields is greatly inferior to the other. See Co-
CHINEAL.

SILVIUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Italy, in

» E. of Venufia. The name is aS from Silva,
a grove found in this place, and probably the “ Saltus Ban-
tint’”’ mentioned by Horace.

SILUM, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Adriatic.

N. lat. “4 g'. E. long. 14° so’.

SILU #3; or, according to the orthography of Pro-
lemy, Sy/ures, in Ancient Geography, a people of the ifle of
Albion, who fled, befides two Englith counties of
Hereford Monmouth, Radoorfhire, Brecknockthire,
and Glamorganfhire, in South Wales. Tha Oe,

o

SIL
of Herefordfhire has been fuppofed by fome to belong to

the Ordovices. The name of this ancient Britifh nation is
derived, by fome of our antiquaries, from coi/, a wood, and
ures, men, becaufe they inhabited a woody country; and
by others, from the Britifh words es heuil iiir, which fignify
brave or fierce men. Tacitus has conjectured, with little
probability, and no fufficient evidence, that the Silures had
come originally from Spain, grounding the conjefture on a
fuppofed, or perhaps fancied refemblance between them and
the ancient Spaniards, in their perfons and complexions. It
is much more probable, that they, as well as the other an-
cient inhabitants of Britain, had come from fome part or
other of the neighbouring continent of Gaul. But from
whencefoever they derived their origin, they refleéted no dif-
honour upon it, as their pofterity have not degenerated from
them. The Silures were unquettionably one of the braveft of
the ancient Britifh nations, and defended their country and
their liberty againft the Romans with the mott heroic fortitude.
For though they had received a dreadful defeat from Oftorius
Scapula, and had loft their renowned commander CaraCtacus,
they itill continued undaunted and implacable ; and by their
bold and frequent attacks, they at length broke the heart of
the brave Oftorius. But all their efforts were at laft in vain.
They were repulfed by Aulus Didius, further weakened by
Petilius Cerealis, and at laft totally fubdued by Julius Fron-
tinus, in the reign of Vefpafian. As the Romans had found
great difficulty in fubduing the Silures, fo they took great
pains to keep them in fubjeétion, by building ftrong forts,
and planting ftrong garrifons in their country. One of the
moft confiderable of thefe fortifications, and the capital of
the whole country, was I{ca Silurum, now Caerleon, on the
river Wifk, in Monmouthfhire. Here the fecond legion of
the Romans, which had contributed greatly to the reduétion
of the Silures, was placed in garrifon (as fome antiquaries
have imagined) by Julius Frontinus, to keep that people in
obedience. It is however certain, that this legion was very
early, and very long ftationed at this place. If{ca Silurum
was, in the Roman times, a city not only of great ftrength,
but alfo of great beauty and magnificence. This is evident
from the defcription which is given us of its ruins by Gi-
raldus Cambrenfis, in his topography of Wales, feveral ages
after it had been deftroyed and abandoned. ‘+ This (Caer
Leion, or the city of the legion) was a very ancient city,
enjoying honourable privileges, and was elegantly built by
the Romans, with brick walls. Many veftiges of its an-
cient {fplendour are yet remaining ; ftately palaces, which
formerly, with their gilded tiles, difplayed the Roman gran-
deur. For it was firft built by the Roman nobility, and
adorned with fumptuous edifices ; alfo an exceeding, high
tower, remarkable hot-baths, ruins of ancient temples,
theatres encompafled with ftately walls, partly yet flanding.
Subterraneous edifices are frequently met with, not only
within the walls (which are about three miles in circum-
ference) but alfo in the fuburbs ; as aqueduéts, vaults, hy-
pocautts, ftoves, &c.’? ‘This defcription of Caer-Leion
was compofed in the twelfth century, and therefore we have
no reafon to be furprifed that its very ruins are now fo en-
tirely deftroyed, that they are hardly difcernible. On the
banks of the river Wifk, befides Ifca Silurum, there ftood
two other Roman towns; Burrium, now Ufk, and Goban-
nium, now Abergavenny. Venta Silurum, now Caer-
Gwent, near Chepftow, in Monmouthfhire, was alfo a con-
fiderable Roman town, of which there are fome faint veftiges
full remaining. Bleftum, in the thirteenth journey of An-
toninus, is fuppofed to have been fituated at Monmouth ; and
Magna, in the twelfth journey, at. Kenchefter, or as others
think, at Ledbury, in Herefordfhire.. When the Roman

SIL

territories in Britain were divided into five provinces, the
greateft part of the country of the Silures was in that pro-
ae which was called Britannia Secunda. Henry’s Hitt.
vol. 1.

SILURUS, in Jchthyology, a genus of fifhes of the
order Abdominales, of which the generic charaéter is as fol-
lows: The head is naked, large, broad, and compreffed ;
the mouth is furnifhed with cirri, refembling the feelers of
infeéts ; the gape is very large, extending almoft the whole
length of the head ; the lips are thick, jaws furnifhed with
teeth; the tongue thick, fmooth, and very fhort; the
eyes are {mall ; the gill-membrane is charaterized with from
four to feventeen rays; body elongated, compreffed, with-
out {cales, mucous ; lateral line near the back ; the farft ray
of the dorfal or pectoral fins ferrate, with reverfed {pines.
There are twenty-eight fpecies, divided into fe@tions, ac-
cording to the number of their cirri, as follow: the fifhes
in fe@tion A have ¢qwo cirri; in fe&tion B, four ; in feGtion C,
fix; in fection D, eight; and in fe&tion E, the fifhes are
without cirri.

The name is of Grecian origin, and is derived from the
words ca, to move or hake, and ove, a tail, It is given
to this fifh, from its remarkable quality of being almoft
continually moving its tail in the water.

SeGtion A. Two Cirri.
Species.

Mriiraris. The fpecific charaéter of this is, that its
fecond dorfal fin is flefhy ; cirri bony, toothed. It inha-
bits many rivers in Afia; feeds on fmaller fifhes, and grows
toa large fize. It is from twelve to eighteen inches long ;
the head and fore-parts are broad and deprefled ; the mouth
is very wide ; the teeth are {mall and numerous ; the eyes are
large ; on each fide the head, near the noltrils, a very ftrong
fubcreft, fpine, or bony procefs; firft ray of the dorfal fin
exceflively large, ftrong, and fharply ferrated, both on the
middle part and towards the tip; the tail flightly bilo-
bate, with rounded lobes. It is a native of the Indian
rivers.

Inermis. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; fins unarmed. It
inhabits the rivers of Surinam. This is denominated by
fome naturalifts the fubolivaceous filurus. It is tranfverfely
banded with brown fpots, with unarmed fins, and flexuous
lateral lines. It is about twelve inches in length ; the head is
bony, but fmooth, and it is deftitute of fpiny proceffes.
It is a native of the Indianand South American rivers.

Section B. Four Cirri.
= Species.

Asorus. The back of this fifh has only one fin: it in-
habits Afia : there are two cirri above the mouth, and two
beneath; the teeth are numerous; the dorfal fin is without
{pinous rays ; the firft ray of the peCtoral is ferrate; the
anal fin is long, and conneéted with the caudal.

Cuitensis. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; the tail is lanceo-
late : it inhabits the frefh waters of Chili: it is about ten
inches long ; the body is brown ; beneath it is white. The
flefh is faid to be excellent. :

Bacre. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; firft ray of the dor-
fal and pectoral fins fetaceous. It inhabits South America.

CaxuicutHys. Second dorfal fin one-rayed; a double _
row of fcales on the fides. It inhabits the {mall running
ftreams of Europe, and when thefe are dried up, it crawls
acrofs meadows in fearch of water: it is faid to perforate
the fides of refervoirs, for the purpofe of making its
efcape.

Seétion

SILURUS.

SeAiion C. Six Cirri.
Species, .
Giants, or European Silurus, This is alfo called the
er common filurus, and may be confidered as the
Esc of all European river-fith, growing, in fome cates,
to length of cight, ten, twelve, or even fifteen feet, and
to the weight of 300 pounds. Jts more general length,
» 18 from two to four feet. The head is broad and
depreffed ; the body thick, and of a lengthened form, with
the abdomen very thick and fhort. It is of a Nuggith dif-
i being rarely obferved in motion, and common!

ying half eocragtes the foft bottom of the rivers hick
it vents, under t je¢tineg roots of trees, rocks, logs,
py {ubftances. fa this fituation it remains, with ‘its
wide mouth half open, gently moving about the long cirri
firuated on each fide the jaws, which the {maller fithes mif-
taking for worms, and attempting to feize, become a ready
to the filurus. ‘The colour of this ipecies is dark olive,
varied with irregular {pots of black; the abdomen and
lips are of a pale Aeth-colour, and the fins are tinged with
violet. It is an inhabitant of the rivers of Europe,
as well as fome parts of Afia and Africa, but it appears to
be moit plentiful in the north of Europe. It is not much
elteemed as food, the fieth being of a glutinous nature; but
from its cheapnefs, it is in much requeft among the inferior
ranks of fociety, and is eaten either freh or falted. The
kin, which is {mooth, and deititute of apparent {cales, is
dried and itretched, and after rubbing with oil, becomes of
a horny tranfparency and ftrength, and is ufed in fome of
the northern regions inftead of glafs for windows. The
filurus is not a very prolific fith, fiting a {mall quan-
tity of {pawn, confilting of large globules or ova; thefe,

as well as the newly hatched young, are frequently the
of other fithes, frogs, &c., and thus the great increale of
the fpecies is prevented. ‘The ova are faid to be hatched in

about a week after their exclufion.

LE
z
E
:
5

i aa, oop in the limbs, but lefs violent than that
Tee eeeuabih Ge. The fleth of the eleGtrical filurus is

Feuis. The fecond dorfal fin of the fith of this {peci

is fiethy ; heey oe rays; the tail is bifid. It is
- in Carolina; the

y above is blueith.

ceous fhield ; the {pinous rays of the peGtoral and dorfal fins

are

Carinatus. Second dorfal fin flefhy ; the lateral line is
{pinous; the cirri under the lower lip are connedted. It
inhabits Surinam ; the body is comprefied.

Nuworicus. ‘The fecond dorfal fin of this is fi@hy ; the
anal rays are ten in number. Te ts Somme in the. Pile 9.3
fourteen inehes and a half long ; the body is of a brownith-

3 the fides of the head are blueifh; the end of the
under of the head, pectoral fins and cirri, are
_ Vou. XXXII.

tinged with red: there is a femicircle of reddifh at the com-
meneement of the tail.

Crianias. Second dorfal fin fiethy ; anal rays eleven,
It inhabits the rivers of South America and Africa; is
from twelve to fifteen inches long ; the body is of a blackifh-
ath, beneath itis hoary ; it is faid to inflict venomous wounds
with the ferrated oral fin.

Fasciarus. dorfal fin flefhy ; the anal rays are
thirteen. It inhabits Surinam and the Brazils: the body
4s black, with white bands on each fide, beneath it is white;
the fleth is in high efteem; the head is deprefled, rounded
on the fore part; a third part as long as the whole body ;
the fins are all {potted with black.

Ascita. The fecond dorfal fin Achy ; it has eighteen
anal rays. It inhabits India, and appears to be of a mixed
kind between oviparous and viviparous.

Cosrarus. Second dorfal fin is fiethy; a fingle row of
feales on the fides; the tail is bifid. It i South
America and India.

Cararunactus. Second dorfal fin of one ray ; a Gngle
row of feales on the fides; the tail is entire. It inhabits
South America.

SeGtion D. Eight Cirri.
Species.

Asprepo. Dorfal fin fingle, five-rayed. It is found in
the rivers of America. The bafe of the lateral cirri broad;
the back carinate; the anal fin reaching to the tails the
tail is forked.

Mysrus. The dorfal fin is fingle, and fingle-rayed. It
inhabits the Nile: the tail is forked.

Ancuitraris. Dorfal fin fingle, feventy-rayed. It is
found in the Nile: the upper part of the head is greenith ;
the body above the lateral line is marbled with blackifh
and grey ; the belly and lower jaw are of a reddifh-grey ;
the pectoral fins are tranfverfely divided by a broad red
band.

Barracuvus. Dorfal fin is fingle, and fixty-rayed. It
inhabits Afia and Africa: the tail entire.

Unpecimauis. The dorfal fin is fingle, and eleven-
rayed. It inhabits Surinam: the tail is forked.

Carus. Second dorfal fin fefhy, anal twenty-rayed. It
inhabits Afia and America.

Cous. Second dorfal fin flefhy, anal eight-rayed; tail
=— It inhabits Syria: the cirri are fhorter than the

Docmac. Second dorfal fin fiefhy, anal ten-rayed.
The a of the fith of this {pecies is about three feet.
It is of a grey colour, whitifh beneath: the head is de-

refled ; body convex above ; mouth furnifhed with eight
Cas the exterior ones of the upper lip extending
the length of the body; the lateral line is ftraight, and
fituated nearer the back than the abdomen ; the firit ray of
the dorfal and anal fins long and ferrated, with foft tip. It
is a native of the Lower Nile, towards the Delta.

ucous ; the

dorfal or adipofe fin is long; the tail is »
towards the tip, and forked. It is a native o'

5B Se@ion

SIM
Setion E, Without Cirri
Species.

Cornutus. Firlt ray of the firft dorfal fin ferrate ;
pectoral unarmed. It is not more than eight or nine inches
long; the fhape is oval; body carinated beneath; the
fnout is f{traight, comprefled, a little recurved at the tip,
and about half the length of the body; the firft ray of
the firft dorfal fin extending as far as the middle of the
tail, and ferrated beneath for about half its length. It is
a native of the Mediterranean.

Imgersis. The gill-covers with two {pines on the hind
part. It inhabits Japan, and is about fix inches long ; the
body is funnel-fhaped, reddifh, and coated with fcales. It
is a native of the Indian and South American rivers.

Stturus is alfo a name given by fome authors to the
fturgeon, called by others aecipenfer, but by the generality
of writers flurio.

Siturus Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Hifpania, in the vicinity of Beetica.

SILUUM, a town of Afia Minor, in the interior of
Pamphylia. Ptolemy.

SILYBUM, in Botany, a name borrowed from Diofco-

rides, whofe ci\uZov is defcribed as a large kind of thiltle, ©

eatable when young, if dreffed with oil and falt. A liquor,
which exuded from its root, was given, in the dofe of a
drachm, mixed with water, to excite vomiting. Geertner,
after Vaillant, has applied the name in queition to a genus
of his own, under which he brings together Carduus mari-
anus and Gnicus cernuus of Linneus, two very diflimilar
plants.

SIM, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Yenifei; 6 miles N. of Balagovetfchenfkoi. N. lat.
60° 1o!. E. long. go° 4o!.

SIMA, or Cyma, in Architefure, a term ufed by Wol-
fius, and fome other writers, for what we otherwife call
cymatium, or fimatium.

SIMABA, in Botany, the name of a fhrub in Guiana,
defcribed by Aublet, 4oo. t. 1533; for which, being bar-
barous, Schreber has fubftituted the more legitimate, if
not more harmonious, one of ZwiNnGERA ; fee that article
hereafter.

SIMA THUS, or Stmetus, now Giaretta, or St. Paul,
in Ancient Geography, a river in the eaftern part of Sicily,
which pafled through the territory of the city of Leontini,
and which was celebrated by the poets. The nymph Thalta,
after her amour with Jupiter, is {uppofed to have been con-
verted into this ftream, which, to avoid the rage of Juno,
funk under ground near ‘mount /Etna, and continued this
fuwbterraneous courfe to the fea. Inthe time of the Romans
it was navigable. It takes its rife on the N. fide of tna,
and furrounding the weft {kirts of the mountain, falls into
the fea near the ruins of the ancient Morgantio. It does
aot now fink under ground; but throws up near its mouth
great quantities of amber, which the peafants gather, and
earry to Catanea, where it is manufaétured in the form of
crofles, beads, faints, &c. and is fold at very high prices
to the fuperftitious people on the continent. There is a large
fandy beach, that extends from the mouth of this river a
great way to the S, of Catanea, and was, without doubt,
continued the whole way to the foot of the mountain Tau-
rominum ; but it was broke in upon, at a remote period,
by the lavas of Etna, which, from a low fandy fhore,
have now converted it into a high, bold, black iron coaft.
After piercing through the lava, beds of fhells and fea-fand
have been difcovered.

SIMALISCHEVA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia,

SIM

iD the government of Kolivan; 40 miles S.S.E. of Ko-
ivan.

SIMANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Bithynia, fituated between two rivers.

SIMANCAS, in Geography, a {mall town of Spain, in
the province of Leon, near the confluence of the rivers
Pifuerga and Duero, celebrated for a white wine, that is
very much elteemed. In the time of Philip II. it was a
{trong place, in which he ordered the archives of the king-
dom to be kept. It was taken by the Moors in the year
967; 8 miles S.W. of Valladolid.

SIMAR, atown of Hindoottan, in the circar of Gohud;
14 miles E. of Gohud.

SIMARA, one of the {maller Philippine ifles ; 24 miles
E, of Mindanao. N. lat. 12° 5'. E. long. 121° 4o!.

SIMARIA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra;
4 miles E.N.E. of St. Severina.

SIMARONA, a name given by the Spaniards in Ame-
rica to a {pecies of vanilla, called alfo baflard-wanilla. The
pods of this kind are every way fmaller than thofe of the
true kind, and have very little liquor or pulp in them when
broken, and contain very few feeds. Thefe are greatly in-
ferior to the true kind, having fcarcely any {meil. It is not
yet certainly known whether this fpecies be the fruit of a
different kind of vanilla-plant from the common, or whe-
ther it be the fruit gathered at a different feafon, or from
a plant growing in a different foil. See VANILLA.

SIMARONES, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cuba; 105 miles E. of Havanna. ,

SIMAROUBA, or Simarusa, in Botany, is the bark
of the roots of a tree, firft imported into Europe in the
year 1713, but not leng ago botanically afcertained to be
a fpecies of the Quaffia ; which fee.

SIMAROUBA, or SIMARUBA, in the Materia Medica. ‘This
bark, according to Dr. Wright’s account of it, is rough,
fcaly, and warted. The infide, when frefh, is a full yellow,
but when dry, paler: it has but little fmell: the talte is
bitter, but not difagreeable. Macerated in water, or in
rectified {pirit, it quickly impregnates both meniftrua with
its bitternefs, and with a yellow tinéture. It feems to
give out its virtue more perfectly to cold, than to boiling
water; the cold infufion being rather ftronger in tafte than
the decoétion; which laft, of a tranfparent yellow colour
whilft hot, grows turbid and of a reddifh-brown as it cools.
The milky appearance, which Juffieu fays it communicates
to boiling water, Dr. Wright has not obferved in the de-
coétion of any of the fpecimens which he has examined.

The bark was firit fent from Guiana to France, in 1713,
tothe count de Porchartrain, then fecretary of ftate, as a
remedy of great efficacy in dyfentery. In the years 1718
and 1723, an epidemic flux prevailed very generally in
France, which refifted all the medicines ufually employed in
fuch cafes ; {mall dofes of ipecacuanha, mild purgatives, and
all aftringents, were found to aggravate, rather than to re-
lieve, the difeafe: under thefe circumftances, recourfe was
had to the cortex fimaruba, which proved remarkably fuc-
cefsful, and firft eftablifhed its medical chara&ter.in Europe.
Dr. Wright fays, ** moft authors who have written on the
fimaruba, agree, that in fluxes it reftores the loft tone of
the inteftines, allays their fpafmodic motions, promotes the
fecretions by urine and perf{piration, removes that lownefs
of {pirits attending dyfenteries, and difpofes the patient to
fleep ; thé gripes and tenefmus are taken off, and the ftools
are changed to their natural colour and confiltence. Ina
moderate dofe it occafions no difturbance or uneafinefs, but
in large dofes it produces ficknefs at the ftomach and
vomiting.

& Modern

SIM

* Modera phyficians have found from experience, that this
medicine is only fuccelsful in the third flage of dyfentery,
where there is no fever, where too the flomach is no way
hurt, and where the gripes and tenefmus are only continued
weaknels of the bowels. In fuch + Munro

we two or three ounces of the decoction every five or fix
aol i ror five deops of laudanum; and found it
a remedy. The late fir J. Pringle, Dr. Huck

#

and many others, preferibed the cortex fimaruba
in o!d and obitinate dyfeaterics and diarrhaas, {pecially thofe
brought from warm climates. Fluxes of this fort, which
were brought home from the fiege of Martinico and the
Havannah, were completely and {peedily cured by this bark.
The urine, which in thofe cafes had been high-coloured and
feanty, was now voided in great abundance, and perfpira-
tion reftored, Dr. James Lind, at Haflar Hofpital, fays,
that the fimaruba produced thefe effects fooner, and
more certainly, when given in fuch quantity as to nau-
feate the ftomach. Dr. Huck San remarks, that
if the fimaruba di give relief in three days, he ex-
er benefit from its farther ufe; but others have
it efficacious in fluxes, after a continued ufe for
feveral weeks. My own experience, and that of many
living friends, are incing proofs to me of the efficacy of
this medicine, and I hope fimaruba bark will foon be
in more ufe.””

Dr. Wright recommends two drachms of the bark to be
boiled in twenty-four ounces of water to twelve ; the de-
coétion is then to be ftrained and divided into three equal

the whole of which is to be taken in tuoht poor
| nae and when the ftomach is iled to this ona
——— of the bark may be increafed to three drachms.
To this decoétion fome join aromatics, others a few drops

do *
that the virtues afcribed to fimaruba

8,
| :
3

the ee in Scotland. Woody. Med. Bot.
SIMA Ow, in a of Hindooftan, in
- SIMARUM Muscutus, in Anatomy, a name given by
pti ee mama ei called by the moderns

ae magnus. od

IMAS, in Ancient a promon' in

Euxine fea, on which Yom fletme. my
SIMATIUM, or Simaise, in Arebiteure. See Cy-

confounded together,

diftinguithed ; the latter being the

called par-
great doucine, or rela; and by the Greeks,

In the antique buildings, the fimatium, at the top of the
Donic corniche, is generally in form of a cavetto, or femi-

{eotia; as we fee particularly in the theatre of Marcellus,
This fome eakinaéies lieve imitated; but, in the

Ionic order, the fimatium is always a doucine.
The fimatium, or doucine, then, is diflinguifhed from
the other kinds of cymatia, by its being camous or flat-

SIMBALATH,, in the Materia Medica, a name given
by Avicenna and others to the {pikenard, or nardus Indica,
The exa& i retation of the word is /pici and
Avicenna, under this general name, diftinguithes 1 into fe-
veral kinds; the firft he calls a/nardin, or nardin. \t has
been fuppoted by fome that he means the Indian fpikenard

SIM

by this word; but, on the contrary, it # plainly ther
tape the Celtic nard: he calls M eee Remand arb,
and fays that it is of European growth. After this he
mentions the Afiatic nards of fevera! kinds, which are only
the Indian fpikenard, growing in different places, and
fuch as ufed to be brought thence in different degrees of
perfection,

SIMBANI, in Geography, a of country in Afia,
abounding with woods, and wu » lying between the
kingdom of Woolli to the north-welt, Foota Torra to the
north, Bondou to the northeaft, and Tenda to the fouth-
welt.

SIMBING, a town of Africa, in Ludamar; 5 miles
S.W. of Jarra,

SIMBIRSK, a town of Ruffia, and capital of a govern-
ment, on the Volga ; 380 miles E.5.E. of Mofeow. N. lat.

8” 30’.

54°25’. E. long. 48° 3

: SIMBIRSKOE, 4 government of Ruflia, bounded oa
the nor zanfkoe, on the welt by Nizegorodfkoe and
Giaeuiee on the fouth by the po foros of Saratov,
and on the eaft by Uphinfkoe ; about 180 miles from eaft to
welt, and 140 from north to fouth. N. lat. 52° 20! to 55*
30’. E. long. 45° to 51°.

SIMBO ‘AN, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Tucuman; 85 miles S.E. of Rioja.

SIMBULETA, in Botany, altered by Forfkall from
the Arabic Symbulet ennefem.—Forkk. ce Lapras 115.
Juff. 418.—Clafs Didynamia; Order probably Angio/permia.
Nat. Ord, uncertain.

Eff. Ch. « Calyx five-cleft. Corolla bell-haped, rin-
gent. Anthers combined.” ;

Defer. “ Stem annual, a foot high, fimple, flender, ere,
round, with fome appearance of angles. Leaves {cattered,
near to each other, linear-thread-fhaped; the upper ones
fimple, half an inch long; lower an inch long, in two
pointed, {mooth divifions. C/ufer terminal, four inches m
length. Flowers folitary, drooping, on fhort ftalks, with
a fhort, linear, leafy bradea under each. Calyx a peri

of one leaf, bell-thaped, permanent, in five linear equal
fegments. Corolla of one petal, ringent, white; tube bell-
fhaped, longer than the calyx; upper lip of the limb re-
flexed, cloven; lower longeit, three-lobed, ftraight, its
middle lobe inflexed. Filaments four, inferted into the co-
rolla, two of them longelt. Anthers four, black, united
into a quadrangular comprefled plate. Germen ovate.
Style thread-thaped. Stigma capitate, ovate, nearly glo-
bofe, oblique. Fruit not obferved. The afpe& of the
plant is exactly that of a Refeda or Polygala; it moreover
approaches the chara¢ter of Co/umnea, as to the combined
anthers, but differs in many other refpeéts.”” Found on
mount Kurma, and no where elfe, by Forfkall, whofe de-
{cription has not enabled any learned botaniit to guefs at
the plant, except that Juffieu thinks it may be akin to Ve-
ronica, or to Aublet’s Piripcea. We thould rather fufped
an affinity to Antirrbinum.

SIMCOE Lake, in Geography, a lake of Upper
Canada, formerly lake Aux Claies, fituated between York and
Gloucefter, and communicating with lake Huron. It has
a few {mall iflands; and feveral good harbours.

SIMELIUM, a Latin term, ufed by fome to fignify a
table, with ranges of little cavities in it, for the di £
of medals in ical order.

The word is but ill written; it fhould rather be cimelium,
as being formed of the Greek cuww.s, curigfities, or @ cabinet

io
We cee AP fay, a cabinet of medals, than a fime-
5B: SIMENA.

SIM

_ SIMENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

SIMENAU, in Geography, 2 town of Pruffia, in the
province of Oberland; 8 miles E. of Salfeld.

SIMEON, in Scripture Biography, afon of Jacob and
Leah, born in the year 1757 B.C. (Gen. xxix. 37-)
Simeon and Levi revenged the affront, fuftained by the de-
filement of their half-filter Dinah on the part of Schechem,
the fon of Hamor, by entering the town of Schechem, and
killing all the men they found; after which they brought
away Dinah, in the year 1739 B.C. (Gen. xxxiv. 25.)
It has been thought that Simeon was the moft cruel to his
brother Jofeph, and that he advifed his brethren to fell him.
(Gen. xxxvii. 20.) The conjeture is founded on the cir-
cumitance of his being detained prifoner in Egypt (Gen.
xlil. 24.), and of his being treated with greater rigour by
Jofeph than the reft of his brethren. Jacob, on his death-
bed, manifefted peculiar indignation againft Simeon and
Levi. (See Gen. xlix. 5.) Accordingly the tribes of
Simeon and Levi were difperfed in Ifrael. Levi had no
compact lot or portion ; and Simeon received for his portion
only a diftri& difmembered from the tribe of Judah (Jofh.
xix. I, 2, &c.), and fome other lands which were over-rua
by thofe of this tribe on the mountains of Seir, and in the
defart of Gedor. (1 Chron. iv. 24. 39. 42.) The Tar-
gum of Jerufalem, and the rabbins, who have been followed
by fome of the fathers, have affirmed, that the greater part
of the {cribes and men learned in the law were of this tribe ;
and as thefe were difperfed throughout Ifrael, we perceive
the accomplifhment of Jacob’s prophecy, which foretold
that Simeon and Levi fhould be feattered among their
brethren. It has been fuggetted, however, that the dif-
perfion of Simeon and Levi, which Jacob meant to be a
degradation, was in the progrefs of events over-ruled fo as
to be an occafion of hononr; for Levi had the priefthood,
and Simeon had the learning or writing-authority of Ifrael ;
in confequence of which both thefe tribes were honourably
difperfed throughout Ifrael. According to the teftament
of the twelve patriarchs, a book indeed of no authority,
Simeon died at the age of 120 years.

The fons of Simeon were fix, and are enumerated Exod.
vi. 15. Their defcendants amounted to 59,300 men, at the
Exodus (Numb. i. 22.); but the number of thofe that en-
tered the Land of Promife anfounted only to 22,200, the
reft having died in the defart. (Numb. xxvi. 14.) The
portion of Simeon was weft and fouth of that of Judah;
having the tribe of Dan and the Philiftines north, the Medi-
terranean weft, and Arabia Petrza fouth. Jofh. xix. 1—9.
Calmet.

Srzon is alfo the name of that aged and pious perfon,
mentioned Luke, ii. 25, 26, to whom Jefus Chrift was pre-
fented by his parents in the temple, and who pronounced
upon them his blefling. It is believed, with good reafon,
that he died foon after he had borne his teftimony to Chrift.
Some, indeed, have pretended, that this Simeon was the
fame as Simeon the juft, thafon of Hillel, and matter of
Gamaliel, whofe difciple St. Paul was.

SIMEON, or Simon, was alfo the name of our Lord’s
coufin-german, fon of Cleophas and of Mary, the fifter of
Chrift’s mother, probably the fame with him who is named
Simon by St. Mark (ch. vi. 3.) He was probably one of
eur Lord’s firit difciples. -According to Eufebius, he was
unanimoully ele€ted bifhop of Jerufalem, after the death of
St. James, A.D. 62. When the emperor Trajan made
itri€ inquiry for all who were of the race of David, Simon
was accufed before Atticus, the governor of Palettine; and
having endured many fufferings with a fortitude which afto-

SIM

nifhed obfervers, at the age of 120 years, he was crucified
about A.D. to7; fo that he had fuperintended the church
of Jerufalem about 43 years. The Latins place his feaft
February 18, the Greeks April 27.

SIMEON, in Biography, the fon of Jochai, a very celebrated
man among the Jews, was a {cholar of the rabbi Akiba, and
flourifhed about the year 120. Att the infurreétion excited
by Barchocheba, he fled, through fear of the Romans, and
retired to a cave, where he concealed himfelf twelve years,
in the courfe of which he is faid to have compofed his work,
entitled ‘« Sohar,’’ which is an explication of the five books
of Mofes. This, from its abftraét manner, and the matter
being clothed, according to the Egyptian method, in hiero-
glyphical images and very florid language, is not eafily un-
deritood. There are feveral editions of it, but its exact age
is not known. It contains things that are very old; but it
is admitted by Chri{tians, as well as Jews, who held it in
efteem, to be the produétion of more authors than one, and
to have been enlarged, from time to time, by various addi-
tions. Gen. Biog.

Simon, furnamed Metaphra/fes, an ecclefiaftical writer,
lived in the tenth century, under Leo the philofopher and
his fon Conftantiae Porphyrogenitus. He was a native of
Conftantinople, and rofe to high employments at court,
having been fecretary to the emperors, and the medium of
communication between them and foreigners. His writings
indicate a man converfant in ecclefiaitical affairs. He de-
rived his furname of Metaphraftes, or Tranflator, from his
occupation of writing again, in a different ftyle, not tranf-
lating, the lives of the faints. In this bufinefs he evidently
meant to give a panegyric, rather than a true hiftory ;
whence he has made additions and alterations at pleafure,
fo that the fubjects are reprefented not as they were, but as
he imagined they ought to be. His *¢ Lives of the Saints’?
have feveral times been tranflated into the Latin language.
Simeon likewife compofed fermons, hymns, and prayers,
with various pieces of the religious kind, of which fome
have been printed, and others remain in manufcript.

Simeon, named Sfylites, a diltinguifhed perfon in the
annals of fanaticifm, was bern about the year 392 at Sifon,
a town on the borders between Syria and Cilicia. He was
the fon of a fhepherd, and followed the fame occupation to
the age of thirteen, when he entered into a monattery.
After fome time he left it, in order to devote himfelf to a
life of greater folitude and aulterity, and he took up his
abode on the tops of mountains, or in caverns of rocks,
fafting fometimes, it is faid, for weeks together, till he had
worked himfelf up to a due degree of extravagance. He
then, to avoid the concourfe of devotees, but probably to
excite ftill greater admiration, adopted the ftrange fancy of
fixing his habitation on the tops of pillars, whence the
Greek appellation ; and with the notion of climbing higher
and higher towards heaven, he fucceflively migrated from a
pillar of 6 cubits to one of 12, 20, 36, and 4o. This feat.
was confidered as a proof of extraordinary anxiety, and mul-
titudes flocked from all parts to pay their veneration to the
holy man, as he was denominated. Simeon pafled 47 years
upon his pillars, expofed to all the inclemency of the fea-
fons. At length a horrible ulcer put an end to his life, at
the age of 69. His body was taken down from his laft
pillar by the hands of bifhops, and conveyed to Antioch,
with an efcort of 6000 foldiers; and he was interred with a
pomp equal to any thing that had been difplayed for the
moft potent monarchs. He has been enrolled among the
faints, either in the Greek or Latin churches. Thefe
honours produced imitators, whofe performances furpafled
the original. One of them inhabited his pillar 68 he

8 c

SIM

The madnefs remained in vogue till the twelfth century,
when it was fuppretled,
Simon Ben Jocwat.
SIMERCHEIT, in a town of Bohemia,
in the cirele of Boleflaw ; 4m . of Meluik.
SIMEREN, a river of Syria, which runs into the Eu.
la

at Romkala.
SIMERING, a town of Autftria; 4 miles S.S.E. of

See Campana.

SIMI, or Symi, an ifland in the Mediterranean, between
the iMlaud of Rhodes and the continent of Afia; 6 miles N.
of Rhodes. N. lat. 36° 36’. E. long. 37° 34'.

SIMIA, in Nateral Hiflery, a genus of the clafs and
order of ia Primates, of which the generic charac-
ter is, that the i seat wap four a teeth Pb iw,
which are approximate 5 tulks are folitary, longer, an
more pete the gri obtufe. The animals of this

From greadly ref

in the cheeks before they f
vious, agree gregarious, and the prey of leopards and

confined to the torrid zone ; they fill the woods of Africa,

araguay.
Thefe animals, from the ftru€ture of their members, have
many ations in common with the human kind ; molt of them
are fierce and untameable ; fome are of a milder nature, and
will thew a degree of attachment : they feed on fruits, leaves,
and infe&s; inhabit woods, and live in trees: they go in
large companies. The different {pecies never mix with each
other, but always keep apart: they leap with great aCtivity
tree to tree, even when loaded with their young,
which cling to them: they are not carnivorous, but, for
che fhe ofa jief, will rob the neits of birds of the eggs
and young; and it is obferved, that in thofe countnes
-apes moft abound, the feathered tribe difcover fingu-
ity in fixing their nefts beyond the reach of thefe
invaders,

Mr. Ray firft diftributed the animals of this genus into
three clafles, viz. the /imiz, or apes, fuch as wanted tails ;
cercopitheci, or monkies, fuch as had tails; and papioncs,

or baboons, thofe with fhort tails.

From Ray, Linnzus formed his method, which was fol-
lowed by M. de Buffon, who made a farther fub-divifion of
the long-tailed apes, or true monkies, into fuch as had
preheafile tails, and fuch as had not.

The genus is divided into the following feétions :

Se&tion A. Apes without any tail.
ae Basoons with fhort tails.
——C. 1 Morxies. Tails ae ; cheeks
; haunches n i
Tails prehenfile; no cheek-
and their haunches are covered.
——E. Sacors. Tails not prehenfile; no cheek-
pouches ; haunches covered.

z

Sapasous.

—— D.

SIM

Of the whole genus, fays Dr. Shaw, it may be obferved
that the baboons are commonly of a ferocious aod fullen
difpofition. ‘The larger apes are alfo of « malignant temper,
except the orang-outang and the gibboos. The monkics,
pipes fo called, are extremely various in their difpofitions ;

ome of the {maller {pecies are lively, harmlefs, and euter-
taining ; while others are as remarkable for the mifchievous
malignity of their temper, aod the capricious uncertainty of
their manners. It is no ealy talk to determine with exa@
precifion the feveral {pecies of this extenfive geous; fince,
exclufive of the varieties in point of colour, they are often
fo nearly allied as to make it difficult to give real and dif-
tinétive characters, We thall, as ufual, follow Gmelin’s
Syftema Nature of Linneus, in which there are fixty-four
fpecies delineated.

Sefiion A. Apes without Tails.
Species.

TroGLopyres, or Angola Ape. The generic charaf@er
is, that the head is conic, body brawny, back and fhoulders
hairy, the reit of the body {mooth.

Saryxus ; Orang-outang. Rufty-brown, hair of the fore-
arms reverfed, haunches covered. Befides this there are
two varieties; 1. Without cheek-pouches, or callofities on
the haunches. This variety always walks ere@. Its trivial
name is Pongo, It inhabits Java and Guinea, and is from
five to fix feet high. 2. The other variety refembles the
former, but is above half as high: it is docile, gentle, and
grave, and by fome thought to differ from the other only
in

age.

Of thefe animals, the {pecies which has moft excited the
attention of mankind is the orang-outang, or, as it is often
denominated, the fatyr, great ape, or wild man of the woods.
It isa native of the warmer parts of Africa aud India, and alfo
of feveral of the Indian iflands, where it refides principally
in the woods, and is {uppofed to feed, like moft other of this

us, on fruits. The orang-outang appears to admit ef con-
facrable variety in point of colour, fize, and proportion ;
and there is reafon to believe, that in reality there may be
two or three kinds, which, though nearly approximated as to
general fimilitude, are yet f{pecifically diftin&. The fpeci-
mens imported into Europe i rarely exceeded the height
of two or three feet, though full-grown ones are faid to be
fix feet in height. The general colour feems to be of a
dufky brown ; the face is bare ; the ears, hands, and feet
nearly fimilar to the human ; and the whole appearance is
fuch as to exhibit the moft itriking approximation to the
human figure. The likenefs, however, is only general, and
will not bear the teit of examination; and the ftraéture of
the hands of the feet, when obferved with anatomical cor-
reGtneis, feems to prove that the animal was principally de-
figned by nature c walking on four legs, and not for an
a potture, which is only occafionally aflumed, and
which is thought to be the effects of initruétion rather than
truly natural.

he manners of the orang-outang, when in captivity, are
gentle, and perfeétly void of that dilyufting ferocity which is
often con{picuous in fome of the larger baboons and monkies.
It is mild and docile, and may be taught to perform a va-
riety of aétions in domeitic life. But, however docile and
gentle when taken young, and initruéted in its behaviour,
ut is peflefled of great ferocity in its native ftate, and is
pote dee a very dangerous animal, capable of readily over-
poseeing the ftrongeit man. Its {wiftnefs is equal to its

ngth ; and hence it can rarely be obtained in its full-
grown flate.
M. Vol-

SIMIA.

M. Volmaer’s account of the manners of the orang-outang
brought into Holland in 1776, and prefented to the prince
of Orange, is nearly as follows. It was a female, about 2%
Rhenith feet. It fhewed no fymptoms of fiercenefs and
malignity, and was of rather a melancholy appearance. It
was fond of company, and fhewed a marked preference
to thofe who took daily care of it, of which it feemed very
fenfible. When the company retired, it would frequently
throw itfelf on the ground, as if in defpair, uttering lament-
able cries, and tearing in pieces the linen within its reach.
Its keeper having fometimes been accuftomed to fit near it
on the ground, it took the hay off its bed and laid it by its
fide, and feemed, by every demonttration, to invite him to be
feated near. Its ufual manner of walking was on all fours,
but it could walk on its two hinder feet only. One morn-
ing it got unchained, and was feen to afcend the beams and
rafters of the building with wonderful agility, and it was
with the utmott difficulty retaken and fecured. During
its ftate of liberty it had taken out the cork from a bottle
of Malaga wine, which it drank to the laft drop. It would
eat every thing that was offered, but was not obferved to
hunt for infects like other monkies; it was fond of eggs,
but fifh and roatted meat feemed its favourite food. It had
been taught to eat with a fpoon and fork. Its common
drink was water, but it would drink any kind of wine.
At the approach of night it lay down to fleep, and pre-
pared its bed by fhaking well the hay on which it flept,
and putting it in proper order, and laftly covering it with a
coverlet, This animal lived feven months in Holland. On
its firft arrival, it had but little hair, except on its back
and arms, but on the approach of winter it became well co-
vered, and the hair on the back was full three inches long,
The whole animal then appeared of a chefnut-colour ; the
fkin of the face, &c, was of a moufe-colour, but about the
eyes and round the mouth it was of a dull flefh-colour.
Tt was imported from the ifland of Borneo. See Orane-
OUTANG.

In Dr. Gmelin’s edition of the Syftema Nature, fays
Dr. Shaw, the {maller variety, or the jocko, inits lefs fhaggy
or more naked ftate, is given as a diftin&t {pecies under the
name of §. troglodytes. The print publifhed many years
paft, by the name of Chimpanzee, is of this kind. (See
Cuimpanzes.) The animal defcribed in the g9th volume of
the Phil. Tranf, is by Gmelin referred to the orang-outang ;
but Mr. Pennant defcribes it under the title of Golok. It
has a pointed face; long and flender limbs; arms, when
the animal is upright, not reaching lower than the knees ;
head round, and full of hair ; grows to the height of a man.
tt inhabits the forefts of Mevat, in the interior parts of Ben-
gal. Jn its manners it is gentle and modeft, diftinguifhed
from the orang-outang by its flender form, In colour it is en-
tirely black. In the Philofophical TranfaGtions the defcrip.
tion is as follows. «The animal is faid to be the height of
a man, the teeth white as pearls ; the arms in due proportion,
and the body very genteel.’’

Lar, or long-armed Ape, has its haunches naked ; its
arms as long as its body; it is found in India, is gentle,
flothful, impatient of cold and rain, and is four feet high.
There are two other varieties, of which the firft is about
eighteen inches high, the face and body brown. The fecond
has its body and arms covered with filvery hair; the face,
ears, crown, and hands, are black, Jt inhabits the forefts of
Deval, in Bengal; ia playful, gentle, and elegant ; about
three feet high. The lar, or, as it is fometimes denominated,
the gibbon, is diftinguifhed by the length of its arms, which,
when the animal ftands upright, are capable of touching the
ground with its fingers; hence its trivial name. Notwith-

{tanding the apparent ferocity of the lar, and the deformity
of its figure, which is extremely well given by Dr. Shaw, it
is of a traGtable and gentle nature, and has even been cele-
brated for the decorum and modetty of its behaviour. Con-
fidered with refpeé to the reft of the genus, it ranks among
the genuine apes, or thofe which have not the leaft veftige
of a tail; and, fays the naturalift already quoted, alarms the
pride of mankind, by too near an approach to the real
primates of the creation.

Sytvanus; Pigmy. Haunches naked; head roundifh ;
arms fhorter. It inhabits Africa and the ifland of Ceylon ;
is mild and eafily tamed ; it ufes threatening geftures whex
it is angry, chatters when pleafed, falutes after the manner
of the Hottentots, and drinks from the palm of the hand.
The face is fhort and flat; the forehead tranfverfely pro-
jecting at the regions of the eye-brows; the fkin is rough ;
the hair on the neck and fore-arms reverfed: it fs about
eighteen inches high.

Inuus ; denominated by Buffon the Magot, and by Pen-
nant the Barbary Ape. Its haunches aré naked, and the
head oblong. Inhabits Africa, is fond of the open air,
deformed, dirty, and melancholy. It a good deal refembles
the S. fylvanus, but its fnout is longer, colour paler, nails
rounded, and is about three feet anda half high. This is
what is commonly feen in the exhibition of fuch kind of
animals: it is not remarkable for docility or good temper ;
but, by force of difcipline, it is made to exhibit a greater
degree of intelligence than many others. Its colour is an
olivaceous-brown, paler or whiter beneath ; the face is of
a {warthy flefh-colour. The hands and feet have nails re-
fembling the human, It is deftitute of any real tail, but
hess is commonly a fhort fkinny appendix in the place
of one.

This animal inhabits many parts of India, Arabia, and all
parts of Africa, except Egypt, anda {mall number is found
on the hill of Gibraltar, which breed there. Thefe apes are
very ill-natured, mifchievous, and fierce, agreeing with the
charaéter of the ancient cynocephali; they are often exhi-
bited to play tricks; affemble in great troops in India; and
will attack women going to market, and rob them of their
provifions. The females carry their young in their arms, and
will leap from tree to tree with them.

Suitxa ; or Hog-faced Ape. Nofe blunt, truncate, re-
fembling that of a hog.

Section B. Baxoons with foort Tails.

Nemestrina, Beard thin; colour grey; eyes hazel ;
haunches naked. It inhabits Sumatra and Japan ; is lively,
gentle, tractable, and impatient of cold. The face is naked
and tawny; the nofe is flat ; lips thin, with hairs refembling
whifkers ; hair on the body olive-black ; belly reddifh-yellow :
it is about two feet high. This {pecies is figured by Mr. Ed-
wards, who was in poffeffion of the living animal, and who,
in order to compare his {pecimen with a much larger animal
of the fame fpecies, carried it to Bartholomew fair, and he
faid they feemed highly delighted with each other’s com.
pany, though it was the firlt time of their meeting: the
beft figure of this fpecies is faid to be that given by Buffon,

Apepia; Little Baboon, Thumb clofe to the fingers ;
nails oblong, thumbenails rounded ; haunches covered, This
is an inhabitant of India, The nails are oblong and com-
prefled, except the thumb and great toe-nails, which refemble
thofe of a many the tail is fearcely an inch long ; the face is
brown, with a few {cattered hairs,

Spuinx; Great Baboon, Mouth with whifkers ; nails
acuminate ; haunches naked, This is found in the ifland of
Borneo; it is lafcivious, robuft, and fierce; it feeds on

§ fruita

See Bazoon.

SIMIA.

fruits and feeds; it makes great havock in the produce of
cultivated lands. ‘The head is oblong, refembling that of
a dog, but more obtufe ; the neck is long ; the tail is fhort
and ereét ; the haunches red, with purple ; it is from
three to four feet high in its fitting potture. It is extremely
an Do mufcular in its upper parts, aod flender towards
the » Ieis, fays Dr. ~e ferocious in its manners,
appearance is at ence and formidable. The

ing the tail on conbaale diftance on each

a Aemnetersan: dg It is a native of Borneo, and inhabits

is, in an upright pofture, is full five
Iti moft rem ble of the whole genus
and variety of colour. The tinge is a

sshengae’ See eeeill the hairs, if viewed

blue, mk heres ue furrows.
a itith-yellow,
front the hair rifes, in 2 remarkable manner, into a
form, and beneath the chin is a inted beard of a light oran
- Round the back of the neck the hair is much
than in other and inclines downwards and for-
fomewhat in the manner of a wreath or tippet. The
hands and feet are of a dufky colour, and are furnifhed with
broad pointed claws. It is a native of the interior parts of
Africa, but has been found in India.

Mawion; Ribbed-nofe Ape. Beard thin; cheeks blue,
ftriate ; haunches naked. It inhabits Guinea ; weeps and
like men, when in trouble ; it is libidinous, ugly,
The general likenefs which it bears to the
is fuch as to give the idea of the fame animal
wth, and with lefs brilliant co-
with a {mall fharp-pointed
. The feet are armed with

This baboon is not un-

ae
is
ri

3

faid to be three feet fix inches in length ;
is of a deep olive-brown ; the face is large and
nofe is truncated at the end, fomewhat like that

tHE

Syrva 3; Wood Baboon. Face, hands, and feet naked,
black, fot mi nails white. I[t inhabits Guinea, and is
about three feet high. It is of a robuft frame. Its gene-
ral colour is ferruginous, owing to the alternate if-
Sibi VN 'GRAM Which every Lair is marked, sal which
ee ee fe te eee The

on the hands are longifh, but rounded at their extremi-
ties; thofe on the toes longer and acuminate. ~~
on each fide the tail is large, bare and red: the tail is about
three inches long.

3 Yellow Baboon. This fpecies is of a
mixed with black ; the face is long,
3 the hands are covered on the back with hair.
ch refembles the fylvatica, and is found in Africa.
eyes are feveral long dufky hairs: it is about two

- Crnerea ; Cinereous Baboon. The face of this is dufky ;
the beard is of a pale brown ; the crown is variegated wit

Fy

Hie
He

o

ir
+

és

yellow ; the body is cinereous. It is found im divers parte
of Africa, and is about two feet high.

Livea ; Blue-faced Baboon. The face of this {pecies
is blueith ; it has two broad flat fore-tecth ; the beard is pale
brown. Over the eyes are long hairs; the cars with a tuft
of hair behind each ; the hair is black mixed with cinereous
and rufty-brown ; this is three feet high.

P.Laryrycos; Brown B The face is of a dirty
white, furrounded with thort ftraight bairs. The upper part
of the body is brown, under cinereous ; tail tapering,
almoft bare; it is naked beneath. This {pecies, according
to La Cépéde, is the fame with the long legged baboon de-
{cribed in the additions to Buffen. The figure there given
is the fame with that in Mr. Pennant’s Quadrupeds. ‘The
dittinguithing charaGter of the animal feems to be the great
len EP of its limbs.

nisTata ; Crefted Baboon. In this {pecies the hair on
the crown of the head and checks is long and difhevelled.
The body is covered with long black hair; the breaft is
whitifh ; the face, hands, and feet are black and naked; the
tail is tapering, and about feven inches long ; the animal is
two feet high. It is an inhabitant of India.

Se&tion C. Montes with long Tails, thet are ped oo
the Cheeks are pouched, and the Haunches naked.

Cywosurus; Dog-tailed Monkey. It has no beard; the
face is long ; the forehead footy ; it has a whitith band over
the eyes; male genitals coloured ; the nails are convex. It
is about two feet high, and is faid to be faithlefs, reftlefs,
and lafcivious. The face of this animal appears uncom-
monly mild and placid. It was very fond of f{nuff, which
3 would occafionally rub over its body in a very ridiculous

yle.

Hamapryas; Tartarian Monkey. This is defcribed
as cinereous; the ears are hairy; the nails tharpifh; the
haunches red. It inhabits Africa, is fierce and ve fingu-
lar in its appearance. The face is prominent ; ‘the nofe
fmooth and red; the ears are pointed, and almoit hidden in
fur; the hair on the fides of the head, and as far as the waift,
long and fhaggy ; the nails of the fingers are flat, thofe of
the toes acute and narrow : it is about five feet high. There
is a variety, of which above the fore-head is prominent, ter-
minating in a ridge. a eer ta Cape of Good = 4
is very gregarious, 8, and is watchful of fur-
Seine the head is Diath tectaels is long and thick; the
ears fhort ; the crown is ¢overed with long upright hairs ;
the body is rough and hairy ; the tail is about half the length
of the body, arched at the end; the nails are flat and
rounded ; the haunches are red, and the animal is from four
to five feet high.

Veter ; Lowando. The beard is black; the body is
white. There is a variety with a white beard. It is found
in Ceylon, is wild, ferocious, and mifchievous. The tufks
of this fpecies are long and large; the head is {urrounded
with a broad mane; the body is long and tapering ; it is
between three and four feet high.

Sirens; Wanderu. ‘The beard of this animal is long
and black ; and the body is black. There are three other
varieties of this fpecies. The firft has a buthy beard,
found in Ceylon, and other parts of India. The So i
a jet black colour; the beard is white, and long ;
it inhabits Guinea, and is about two feet high.
has a white beard, which is triangular, fhort, and pointed,
extending on each fide beyond the ears. It inhabits
is harmlefs, and lives in the woods ; it feeds on leaves and

h buds, and is eafily tamed; the body is black ; the face and

hands

SIMIA.

hands are purple; the tail is long, ending in a dirty white
tuft.

Faunus; Malbrouck. This fpecies is bearded; the
tail is bufhy at. the end; it is an inhabitant of Bengal ; the
face is grey; the eyes are large; the eye-lids are flefh-
coloured ; forehead with a grey band, inftead of eye-brows ;
the ears are large, thin, flefh-coloured ; body is blackith ;
the breaft and belly are white; the beard is hoary and
pointed : it is fearcely a foot high.

Cynomoteus; Long-tailed, beardlefs monkey, with
callofities behind, rifing bifid noftrils, and arched tail. This
by Pennant is called the Hare-lipped monkey, who includes
in the fpecies the cynomolgus and cynocephalus of Linnzus.
It is of a thick clumfy form, refembling the Barbary ape,
except in having a long tail. It varies in fize very greatly ;
fome fpecimens fcarcely exceed the fize of a cat, while
others are full as large as a grey-hound. The colour alfo
is various, being fometimes olive-brown, at other times
grey-brown. The head is large ; the eyes are {mall ; the
nofe thick, flat, and wrinkled; on each fide the tail is a
bare {pace ; the under fides of the body, and the infides of
the limbs, of a light afh-colour.. It is a native of Guinea
and Angola. The noftrils are divided like thofe of a hare.

CynocerpHaLus; Dog Monkey. This has no beard ;
it is of a yellowifh colour, has a projecting mouth, a ftraight
tail, and bald haunches. It is found in divers parts of
Africa, and refembles the S. inuus, except that it has a tail.

Drana; Spotted Monkey. This fpecies is bearded ;
the forehead is proje€ting ; the beard is pointed. This is
defcribed by Mr. Pennant as of a middling fize, and of a
reddifh colour on the upper parts, as if finged, and marked
with white fpecks; the belly and chin are whitifh ; the tail
is long. According to Linnus, it is of the fize of a large
cat, and is black, fpotted with white ; the hind part of the
back is ferruginous; the face is black; from the top of
the nofe is a white line, pafling over each eye to the ears in
an arched dire€tion.

Sapza; Green Monkey. This animal has no beard ; it
is of a yellowifh-green colour ; the face is black ; the tail
is grey ; the haunches naked. It inhabits the Cape de Verd
iflands, the Cape of Good Hope, and other neighbouring
countries. The body in the upper parts is a mixture
of grey, green, and yellowifh; throat, breaft, belly, and
thighs are white; the hairs are long and reverfed; the
eye-brows are black and briftly; the tail is ftraight, as
long as the body, and hoary ; the feet are cinereous ; the
nails round, thofe of the hands ovate. It is about the fize
of a cat.

CepHus; Mouftache, Tailed; cheeks bearded; crown
yellowifh ; feet black ; tail rufty at the point. It inhabits
Guinea. The body above is brown; beneath it is of a
blueifh-white ; the head with white ere€t hairs ; eye-brows
with a white tran{verfe arch ; upper eye-lids white ; hair on
the cheeks ftanding out; the mouth is blueifh ; under the
ears are two large tufts of yellow hairs, like muftachios.

ZErutops ; White eye-lidded Monkey, This is without
tail and beard; the fore-top is white, ere€t; the arch of
the forehead is white. There is a variety, of which the
neck and cheeks are furrounded with a broad collar of
white hair. It is found in Madagafcar. Its face is thick
and broad; the eyes are furrounded by a prominent ring ;
the eye-lids are naked, very white; the ears are black,
almoit naked; the tail is arched, covered with long bufhy
hair: it is about eighteen inches high.

Aycuta; Egret. This is tailed, the beard is {canty ;
the colour is grey; crown with an ere& tuft of hair reverled

longitudinally. It inhabits India and Java. The body is a
good deal like that of a wolf; the throat, breaft, and belly
whitifh ; the tail is longer than the body, cinereous, and ta-
pering ; the face is flattifth, whitifh, naked ; the nofe is de-
preffed, fhort, and diftant from the mouth, with a double fur-
row on the upper lip ; the cheeks are a little bearded; the
hairs are turned back; the eye-brows are gibbous, briftly,
prominent ; the feet are black, femi-palmate ; the nails of
the thumbs and great toes are rounded, the reft oblong 3
the ears are pointed; an arched future from the ears to-
wards the eyes and back to the bafe of the lower jaw, and
a longitudinal feam on the fore-arm. ‘There is a variety
that has a rounder head; the face is lefs black ; the body
is of a paler brown.

Nictirans. Tailed, beardlefs, black, fprinkled with
pale fpots ; the nofe is white; the thumb very fhort ; the
haunches are covered. This is called the Nodding monkey.
There is a variety of it having a long white beard. It
inhabits Guinea, is playful, and continually nodding its
head. The face is hairy; the mouth fhort; the orbits
naked ; the irids of a pale yellow; the hair is black,
with a few pale rings; lips and chin whitifh; the tail is
ftraight, cylindrical, longer than the body ; the thumb is
not longer than the firft joint of the fore-finger.

Sinica 3; Chinefe Monkey. Tailed, beardlefs; fore-
top horizontally placed, and fhading the whole head.
There is a fore-top ereét, having the appearance of a round
black bonnet; the body is brown; the legs and arms
black. The fpecies is found in Bengal, and the variety in
India. ‘The tail is longer than the body ; the nails of the
thumbs and great toes are rounded, the reft oblong; the
upper parts of the body are pale brown, mixed with yellow ;
the lower whitifh. It is about the fize of a cat.

Nem us; Cochinchina Monkey. This is without tail
and beard ; the cheeks are bearded ; and the tail white.
It inhabits, as its trivial name imports, Cochinchina ;
alfo Madagafcar, and other places. ‘Ihe face and ears are
of a light red; the forehead is marked with a double
brown band, covered with black hair ; the hair furrounding
the face is whitifh, mixed with yellow ; neck, on the upper
part, with a wreath of the fame colour as that of the fore-
head ; the fhoulders and upper parts of the arms black ;
hands and groin whitifh; thighs on the upper part and
toes black ; feet to the knees brown; it is from two te
four feet high, From this fpecies is procured the bezoar
of the ape.

Mona; Varied Monkey. This. fpecies is tailed and
bearded ; it has a prominent whitifh-grey femi-lanar arch
over the eye-brows, It inhabits Morocco, and the warmer
parts of Afia; is gentle, docile, and patient of cold. ‘The
head is fmall and round; the face is bright, and of a
tawny brown; the hair on the crown is yellow, mixed
with black ; it has a dark band from the eyes to the ears,
and to the fhoulders and arms; tail is greyifh-brown ; the
rump is marked with two white {pots on each fide. It is
eighteen inches high.
~ Ruspra; Red Monkey. This fpecies is tailed and
bearded ; the cheeks are bearded; the crown, the back,
and the tail, are of a deep blood-red, There are two other
varieties; the firft has a yellow beard; the band over the
eyes is black; the fecond has a white heard; the band
over the eyes is white. This ig found in Senegal, Congas
and other hot parts of Atricgz. The crown is flat; the
body and legs are long ; the hair on the upper pasts is of a
bright red, beneath it is of a ycllow-grey ; over the eyes ta
the ears isa band, One variety is black; and another is

white ;

SIMIA.

white omemeneere wr hgetane a It as from eighteen
inches to two feet in height.

Tatarors. This is tailed and bearded; the checks are
bearded ; the ears, nofe, and foles of the feet black, It
inhabits India. The body is of a brownith » and

elegant. A variety is of a black colour. The head is
roundith ; the face is tawny, with a few black hairs; the
ears are like thofe on the human fubjeét ; the breaft, belly,
and on the infide are of a dutky fleth-colour ; it is

upper - of the tail, anterior
parts of the logs, dark olive ; its face is black, and the nofe

is marked with a white {pot. It inhabits Guinea,
sein ke the at, get ad date i tle more than
- high, though tail is twenty inches .

"This is tailed and bearded ;
the region extending from
eyes to the tip of the nofe, are bearded ; the body is of
It inhabits Ceylon and Guinea, is aGive
The tail is longer the body ; the face is
-coloured ; the feet and hands are black,
In a fitting pofture it is only about feveu

ies is tailed and bearded; the head,
the hands and feet, are black ; the in-
circular beard, enclofing a triangular face,
inhabitant of Guinea; is gentle and

is long and forked : it is eighteen inches

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atte
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ta

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tf
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white. It is of the fize of a cat. It inhabits
Pennant, who feems to be the only deferiber of this
took the one in an exhibition in
animal, It

é
F

HUF

is is black ; the cheeks have
3 the body is of a pale-green; the limbs
lodetky. It is thought by fome natu-
a diftinét {pecies, but a variety of the

i
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F

Z
sk
Tz

S. fulva. |

Himerwa. Face naked, blue, obliquely ribbed ; the
beard is and like that of a goat; the tail is long, and
the a deep brown.

Vor. XXXII.

Reoaits. To this {pecies there is no thumb ; the head,
cheeks, throat, and are covered with long coarle
flowing hairs. It inhabits the foreits of Sierra Leona.
The head is {mall ; the face is thort, black, naked ; the toes
are long and flender; the nails are narow and pointed; the
tail is long, covered with fnow-white hairs, aod a tuft at the
end; the body and limbs are fender; it is three feet .
The fkin of this animal is, by the natives, made into po
and gun-cafes.

Bovia; Bay are This has no thumbs ; the tail is
long, flender, and black; the body and limbs are flender.
It inhabits Sierra Leona. The crown is black ; the back
is of a deep bay ; limbs on the outfide black ; cheeks, under
parts of the body, and legs, of a bright bay.

Fusca; Brown Monkey. The tail fhorter than the body,
alternately annulate with dark and light-brown. The face
is flat; the cheeks and forehead are covered with long hairs ;
the body above is of a tawny-brown, belly cinereous ; hands
black and naked.

Seétion D. Tails prebenfile; no Check-pouches ; Haunches
covered. Thefe are denominated

Sapasovs.

Beeizesur, or Bearded Black Monkey. By Penpant it
is denominated the Preacher monkey. It 1s tailed, bearded,
and black. The tail at the tip and feet are brown. It
inhabits South America ; wanders in herds at night, and
howls hideoutfly ; it is exceedingly fierce ; the beard is round
and black; the hair long, black, and fmooth. For the
account given of this animal by Marcgrave, fee BeerzesuL.

SenicvuLus ; Old Man of the Woods. This is tailed and
bearded ; the colour is red. The body is uniformly of a
dirty red; it has a mouth like that of the human fubjeé,
placed in the anterior part of the face ; the chin is promi-
nent, and it is as large as a middling-fized calf. This, which
by fome has been as a variety of the S. beelzebul,
is denominated by Mr. Pennant the Royal monkey. ‘There
were formerly two in the Leverian mufeum, which were
probably young, being of the fize of a {quirrel. They were
entirely of a very bright ferruginous or reddifh put
colour, with the face naked and black, furrounded on the
lower parts by a itraggling beard of black hairs, and the tail
was ftrongly prehenfile. This {pecies is common in Cayenne,
but very rare in Brazil: on the contrary, the former {pecies
is very common in Brazil, but is not found in Guiana. Both
{pecies have the fame voice and manners. The following is
an interelting defcription given by an obferver, who had

feen and kept thefe animals at Cayenne.
“ The Allouates, or Howlers, inhabit the moift forefts,
in the neighbourhood of waters or marfhes. are com-

monly found in the woody iflets of large flooded favannahs,
and never on the mountains of the interior of Guiana. They
go in {mall numbers, often in pairs, and fometimes fingly.
The cry, or rather horrible rattling {cream, which they
make, may well infpire terror; and feems as if the foreits
contained the facbesdl fivlings of all its favage inhabitants
together. It is commonly in the morning and evening that
they make this clamour : they alfo it in the courfe of
poets en fometimes in the night. The found is fo
varied, that one often imagines it uced b
pee of the animals at once, and eS ferncitod to Gnd mn
two or three, and fometimes only one. The allouate feldom
lives long in a ftate of captivity: it in a manner lofes its
voice, or at leaft does not exert it in the fame manner as
when wild. The male is | than the female, which latter
always carries her young on ‘ime

5 * Nothing

SIMIA.

<¢ Nothing is more difficult than to kill one of thefe ani-
mals. It is neceflary to fire feveral times in order to fuc-
ceed, and as long as the leaft life remains, and fometimes
even after death, they remain clinging to the branches by
the hands and tail. ‘The fport{man is often chagrined at
having loft his time and ammunition for fuch wretched
game ; for, in {pite of the teftimony of fome travellers, the
flefh is not at all good ; it is almoit always exceflively tough,
and is, therefore, excluded from all tables : it is merely the
want of other food that can recommend it to needy inha-
bitants and travellers.”

Paniscus. This is the four-fingered monkey of Pennant ;
it is tailed, black, beardlefs, and without a thumb, hence
its trivial name. ‘This animal is diftinguifhed by the graci-
lity of its body and limbs ; its uniform black colour, except
on the face, which is of a dark flefh-colour ; and by want
of thumbs on the fore-feet, inftead of which are very {mall
projections or appendices. It is one of the moft active and
lively of animals, and is, befides, of a gentle and traétable
difpofition in a ftate of confinement. It inhabits the woods
of South America ; affociating in great multitudes, affailing
fuch travellers as pafs through their haunts with an infinite
number of f{portive and mifchievous gambols, chattering, and
throwing down dry fticks, {winging by their tails from the
boughs, and endeavouring to intimidate the paflengers by a
variety of menacing geftures. ‘This is the Coaita of Buffon.

Exquiwa. Bearded; back variegated with black and
yellow; throat and belly white. It inhabits South Ame-
rica. In fize and difpofition it refembles the 5S. panifcus.

Trepipa. ‘Tailed, but without a beard ; the fore-top is
ere& ; hands and feet are blue; the tail is hairy. A variety
has the hair round the face grey; it is brownifh-yellow on
the body. It inhabits Surinam, is nimble, dextrous, and
amufing, and about twelve inches high. The body is brown,
beneath it is rufty ; the hair of the head is formed into a
black ereét hemifpherical tuft ; the tail is hairy; the nails
are rounded; the face and ears downy and flefh-coloured ;
the eyes are approximate chefnut.

Farusettus. The horned fapajou is taillefs and without
beard; two tufts on the head refembling horns. It is found
in feveral parts of South America, is harmlefs and gentle.
The face, fides, belly, and front part of the thighs, are
brown; the crown, the middle of the back, tail and feet,
and hind part of the thighs, are black ; the nails are long
and blunt; the tail is fpiral.

Averta; Brown Sapajou, or Sajou of Buffon.. This
alfo is without tail and beard; the body is brown; the feet
are black.

Capucina; Capuchin Monkey, or Sai of Buffon, and
Weeper of Pennant. This has no beard; the fkin is
brown; the hair and limbs are black; the tail is fhaggy
and the haunches are covered. ‘There is a variety of this,
of which the hair on the breaft, throat, round the ears,
and cheeks, is white. The face is fometimes black, fome-
times flefh-coloured on the forehead ; the tufks are approxi-
mate; the nofe is carinate towards the eyes ; a black varicofe
retraétile wrinkle juft under the hair of the forehead; the
tail is long, always curved, and covered with long thaggy
hair ; it is of the fize of a cat. It inhabits divers parts of
South America; it is mild, docile, timid; walks on its
heels, and does not fkip. It has a crying wailing voice, and
repels its enemies by horrid howlings; it fhrieks fometimes
like a cricket. When made angry it will yelp like a puppy;
it carries the tail fpirally rolled up, which is often coiled
round the neck: it {mells of mufk.

ScrurEA; Orange Monkey, or Saimiri of Buffon.
Beardlefs; the hind part of the head is prominent; the

nails of the four {maller toes ungulate; the haunches are
covered, The body is of a greenifh-grey, under parts
whitifh; the legs and arms are rufty; the tail is fhaggy,
black at the tip, and twice as long as the body; the
nails of the thumbs and great toes are rounded; the face
ofa blueifh-brown ; the eye-brows are briftly ; the ears are
{cantily covered with whitifh hairs; it is of the fize of a
{quirrel, It is found in South America; is pleafant in its
difpofition, beautiful, and graceful; it refts by lying on its
belly. It looks full in the face of fuch as fpeak to it.
It is impatient of European climates.

Morra. Without beard, but it has a tail; it is of a
chefnut colour; the face is brown; the tail is naked and
{caly. It is found in different parts of America. It differs
from the S. fciurea only in being lefs, and on that account
it has been fuppofed to be of the fame {pecies.

Syricuta. This is without tail and beard; the mouth
and eye-brows are covered with long hairs. This is an ob-
{cure and doubtful f{pecies.

Varircata. The hair on the fides and back is mixed
with orange and black. It inhabits Antigua, is lively,
docile, and full of amufing tricks.

Se&tion E. Monkies with Tails that are not prehenfile ; that
have no Cheek-pouches ; the Haunches are covered. Thefe

are denominated
SAGoINs.

Pirnecta; Fox-tailed Monkey. ‘Tailed, but without
beard; the hairs of the body are long, and black at the
tips; the tail is black, and very fhaggy. It inhabits South
America ; is very amufing, and eafily tamed. It is entirely
of a dufky brown colour, with a flight ferruginous caft,
except on the head and face. This is the Saki of Buffon.

Jaccuus; Striated Monkey, or Ouiftiti of Buffon, and
Sanglin or Cagui minor of Edwards. This is tailed; its
ears are hairy, broad; tail curved, very hairy ; nails f{ubu-
late, thofe of the thumbs and great toes are rounded.
There is a variety, which is of a yellowifh colour, {mell-
ing like mufk. It inhabits Brazil; is a¢tive, reftlefs, climb-
ing like a fquirrel; it feeds on infects, fruits, milk, bread,
and fmall birds; it gnaws the bark of trees, 1s untameable,
biting, tormenting cats by fixing under their bellies, and
emits a hiffing cry.

G2pipus; Red-tailed Monkey. This is tailed and
beardlefs ; locks hanging; the tail is red; nails fubulate.
The body is grey, underneath it is white ; the head has long
white hanging locks; its face is black, and it has a few
white hairs behind the ears; a wart on each cheek; the
irids are rufty; the ears are roundifh, black, and naked ;
nails fubulate, except the thumb ; the tail is twice as long
as the body, and is a little hairy, black, red at the bafe ;
the region of the anus is red. It inhabits South America,
is active, brifk, imitating the lion in its geftures. It is
fomething lefs than the S. jacchus; it {mells of mufk, and
the voice refembles that of a moufe. y

Rosaria; Silky Monkey. Tailed; beardlefs; the head
is hairy ; circumference of the face and feet are red; the
nails are fubulate. This {pecies derives its trivial name from
the appearance of its hair, which is very fine, foft, long,
and of a bright yellow colour, refembling yellow filk.
Round the face the hair is much longer than in other parts,
fo as to form a large mane, like that of a lion; near the
face this mane is of a reddifh colour, and it grows paler as
it recedes from the cheeks; the face itfelf is of a dufky
purple; the ears are round and naked; the hands and feet
are alfo naked, and of the {ame dull purple colour as the
face ; the claws are {mall and fharp; the tail is very a:

an

SIM

and rather buthy at the extremity. It is a native of Guiana,
and is a lively, adtive f aud gentle in a tlate of con-

is about the fize of a {quirrel; it is coal-black, except on
lower part of the back, which is of a reddith colour,
on the hands and feet, which are orange-coloured ; the
is naked and filefh-coloured ; the ears are very ‘
naked, of a (quarith form, and of a dufky fleth-colour ;

tail is very long and black. It inhabits the hotter parts of
South America. The claws are eat cok -heps It
fometimes varies in having the face black, inftead of fleth-

Sima Marina, the Sea-Ape, in Ichthyology, a name ufed
Bellonius, and fome other authors, for the fith called
wulper marina, a kind of fhark, remarkable for its long tail,
from which probably it had both one aud the other of thefe
names. See Sea-Fox.

faid to have been a
Homer, and has

Fables attribute this inftrument to Pytocliclus.

alfo informs us, that the ook cede wah parc a
ufed it; but does ee war = prods a
there was a one 2 35
notes in ‘no dees feale would Se cuatachowahe I~

many claimants to the fame inventions deitroy all evidence
9 orgy

IMILAR, in Arithmetic and Geometry, the fame with
Thofe things are {aid to be fimilar, or like, which can-

ings in A, which may be
conceived, without affuming other ; and,
in B, + em Some be thus

conceived, and A be fimilar to B; all things in A will be
the fame with thofe in B.
Since a quantity be underitood otherwife, than

by fome other quantity to which it may be re-

differ in quantity : fince, in fimilar things,
ing in which they differ, befide the
is the internal difference of fimilar

Suaan Angles are alfo equal angles. See Sour Angle.

am Mileage nto Uastachh have thor des bee
the angles proportional.

Hence, 1°, all muit be fimilar reGangles. 2°. All
+ cone! ep mg dh each other as the fquares of their

homologous ‘

SIM

Simitan Triangles are fuch as have all cheir three angles
refpedtively equal to each other, and the fides about the

are o-
portional, equisngular triangles are fimilar to each rd va

tangles ar myer other, as the {quares

In fimilar triangles, aud parallelograms, the altitudes are
proportional to the homologous fides, and the bafes are cut
proportionably by thole fides.

Simizan P are thofe whofe angles are feverally
equal, and the about thofe angles prepeeeanl

And the like of other fimilar re¢tilinear

icasail aliiammaheaban-onty:t0. cet allitian che
{quares of the homologous fides.

In all fimilar figures, the homologous angles are equal,
and the homologous fides proportional. All regular fi
and fimilar i ones, are in a duplicate ratio of their
homologous fides. Circles, and fimilar figures, infcribed in
them, are, to each other, as the {quares of the diameters.

Suntan Arches. See Ancu.

Suucar Curves, in G - The fimilarity of curvi-
linear figures may be derived from that of re¢tilinear figures,
that are always fimilarly defcribed in them; or, we may

forts of fimilar figures, planes, or folids, in
defimtion. Fi are fimilar, when they may
be fuppofed to be placed in fuch a manner, that any right
line bemg drawn from any determined point to the terms
that bound them, the parts of the right line, intercepted
betwixt that point and thofe terms, are always in one con-
ftant ratio to each other.

Thus the figures ASD,aSd (Plate XUI. Geometry,

So fg. 14.) are fimilar, when any line S P being drawn always

from the fame point S, meeting A D in P, and ad in p,
the ratio of SP to Sp is invariable. It is manifeft, that

the reétilinear infcribed ae tapes APDS, are
fimilar in this cafe, according to definition of fuch
figures given in Euclid’s Elements, book vi. See Mac~-

laurin’s Fluxions, art. 122.
When the fimilar fi are in the fituation here de~
{cribed, Hiiey-are aio Eenileshy Sicusted,-snd all athe tes.
us lines are either placed upon one another, or

P
Simitar Segments of Circles are {uch as contain equal
angles. See SEGMENT.

im™iLaR Conic Sedions are thofe where the ordinates to
a diameter in one are proportional to the correfpondent
ordinates to the fimilar diameter in the other ; and w the
parts of fimilar diameters between the vertices and ordinates
in each feétion are fimilar.

The fame definition alfo agrees to fimilar fegments of
conic fe¢tions.

Suan Diameters of two Conic SeBions. When the dia-
meters in two conic feGtions make the fame angles with their
ordinates, they are fometimes {aid to be fimilar.

Spurar Solids. See Lixe Solid Figures.

Smaiar Bodies, in Natural Philefopby, {uch as have their
particles of the fame kind or nature one with another.
iaptdeten sedingion 42. ts vetbanghe whcls de
into i.@ into G are

i ; a8 6 multplied by 2, aud 12 by the
Menat cf cn of which rg sk coherahy.nen aller
numbers.

Suitar Solid Numbers are thofe, whofe little cubes may
5Ca be

SIM

be fo ranged, as to make fimilar and rectangular parallel-
epipeds.

Sum ar Animals. We have a treatife by Dr. Martin,
wherein he treats of the laws and proportions of the mo-
tions and forces of the folids and fluids of animals, of how-
ever different magnitudes, which are fuppofed of fimilar
make and conftitution. See Tractat. de Similibus Ani-
malibus.

SimiLar Difzafe, in Medicine, denotes a difeafe of fome
fimple, folid part of the body : as of a fibre, with regard
to its tenfion, or flaccidity ; of a membrane; a nervous
canal, or the like. See DisEAse.

Srmuxar Parts, in Anatomy, are thofe parts of the body,
which, at firft fight, appear to confift of like parts, or parts
of the fame nature, texture, and formation.

Of thefe we ufually reckon ten, wz. the bones, car-
tilages, ligaments, membranes, fibres, nerves, arteries, veins,
flefh, and fkin; each of which fee under its proper ar-
ticle.

Dr. Grew, in his Anatomy of Plants, obferves, that thefe
have likewife their fimilar and organical parts.

SIMILE, or Simritrupe, in Rhetoric, a comparifon of
two things, which, though different in other refpects, yet
agree in fome one. As, He fhall be like a tree planted by the
waier-fide, &c.; fo that in every fimilitude three things
are requifite ; two things that are compared together ;
and a third, in which the likenefs or fimilitude between
them confitts.

The difference between a fimile and a comparifon confifts in
this, that fimile properly belongs to what we call the quality
of the thing, and the comparifon to the quantity.

And the difference between a metaphor and fimilitude con-
fifts in this, that a metaphor has not thofe figns of com-
parifon which are expreiled ina fimilitude. See MerarHor
and PARABLE.

SIMILITUDE, in Arithmetic, Geometry, &c. denotes
the relation of two things fimilar to each other, or which are
only diftinguifhable by comprefence.

The notion of fimihtude, which now makes fome figure
in geometry, &c. is owing to M. Leibnitz : it will be ren-
dered eafy by the following initance. _Suppofe two watches
perfeGtly alike, the one belonging to Caius, the other to
Gracchus. If now Caius pull out his watch in prefence of
Gracchus, the latter will be furprifed, and fancy it his own ;
but he will perceive it different from his own, upon pulling
out his own; that is, Gracchus diftinguifhes Caius’s watch
from his own by their comprefence; or, by applying the
one immediately to the other.

Euclid, and after him moft other authors, demonftrate
every thing in geometry from the fole principle of con-
gruity. Wollfius, in lieu of it, fubftitutes that of fimilitude ;
which, he tells us, was communicated to him by M. Leib-
nitz, and which he finds of very confiderable ufe in geo-
metry, as ferving to demontftrate many things dire€tly, which
are only demonttrable from the principle of congruity by an
ambages.

SIMILOR is a name given to an alloy of red copper and
zine, made in the beft proportions to imitate the colour of
gold. See Gotp-coloured Metal.

SIMIRA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. 170.t.65. Juff. 205,
the Guiana name of a fhrub, belonging to the natural order
of Rubiacez, and the Pentandria Monogynia of the Linnean
fyftem, but of whofe generic charaéters nothing has yet been
precifely fettled. It feems very near akin to Psycnorria,
or to StrpHanium; fee thofe articles.

SIMITAR, or Scrmrrar;, in War, a crooked or falcated
fword, with a convex edge; not now ufed.

12

'

SIM
SIMLEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-

zerat ; 17 miles N. of Champaneer.

SIMLER, Jostas, in Biography, was born at Cappel, in
Switzerland, in the year 1530. He was minifter at Zurich,
and a profeflor in the {chool of that town. He wrote fe-
veral controverfial works again{t fome of the heretical feéts,
as they were efteemed, and denominated by him. He tanght
mathematics with great reputation, iluftrating his leflons
by various machines of his own invention. Ox his writings
the principal were “¢ De Helvetiorum Repyblica,”? which
contained an account of the original conttitution of the
Swifs confederacy ; ‘“¢ Vallefie Defcriptio,” being an ac-
count of the Valais, and the adjacent alps ; and an abridge-
ment of the Bibliotheca of Conrad Gefner, with the hfe of
that diltinguifhed perfon. In this laft work he has not only
given a good fummary of the original, but has rendered it
more complete, by the addition of a number of books. He
died at Zurich in 1576, at the time when he was preparing
a hiftory of his native country.

SIMLY, in Geography, atown of Hindoottan, in Orifla ;
15 miles N.W. of Boad.

SIMMEN, or Sisen, a river of Switzerland, which
ries in the mountains between the Valais and the canton
of Berne, and runs into the lakeof Thun; 4 miles N.N.W.
of Spietz. The valley through which this lake runs, and
which has on each fide ftupendous rocks, is called ‘* Sim-
menthal,”? and is divided by it into the Upper and Lower.
The inhabitants of fome few parts of this valley fow rye,
oats, or wheat ; but they derive great profit from their grafs,
which is very rich, and they alfo breed a great number
of cattle, from which they make butter and cheefe. he
latter fort of cheefe, called “* Saan’’ cheefe, is much ef-
teemed abroad, being made wholly of cream; and of the
common cheefe, France and other countries purchafe con-
fiderable quantities. Moft of the inhabitants, inftead of
bread, eat the fecond fort of cheefe, with thin barley
cakes; and the principal food of the commonalty is pota-
toes, and their drink is milk or whey.

SIMMERN, a town of France, and principal place of a
diftri@, in the department of the Rhine and Moelle, late
capital of a duchy of the fame name, vefted in the electorate
of the Rhine. The place contains 1469, and the canton
$361 inhabitants, in 31 communes. The territory of the
diftri@ contains 16874 kiliometres; 26 miles S.S.W. of
Coblentz.—Alfo, a river of France, which pafles by Sim-
mern, Gemunden, &c. and runs into the Nahe; 3 miles E.
of Kirn.

SIMMIA CHUMBA, a town of Bengal; 16 miles S.
of Palamow.

SIMMONS’s Isranp, a {mall ifland on the coa{t of South
Carolina. N. lat. 32° 38!. W. long. 80° ro’.

SIMO, atown of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia, on a river of
the fame name, which runs into the gulf of Bothnia; 80
miles E. of Ulea.

SIMOGU, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore, on the
Tumbadra ; 93 miles W. of Seringapatam. N. lat. 13° 21'.
E. long. 75° 30!.

SIMOJOSIKI, one of the fmaller Japanefe iflands, near
the S.W. coaft of Kimo. N. lat. 31° 50’. E. long.
132° 8.

SIMOIS, in Ancient and Modern Geography, a river of
Afia Minor, in the Leffer Phrygia, the fource of which was
in mount Ida, and which difcharged itfelf into the Xanthus,
or the Scamander, according to Pliny. The fource of the
Simois lies S.W. of Cotylus; it flows nearly to the W.,
traverfes a {pace of from twelve to fifteen leagues; receives
the Andrius above Inchavi, and feveral other rivulets, and

difcharges

SIM

diicharges itfelf into the Hellefpont, half a league to the
N.N.E. of cape Sigeum. This flream is not now fulli-
ciently confiderable to deferve the name of river 5 it is rather
torrent {welled by the rains, at the end of the autumn, in
winter, and in the [pring, or by the fudden melting of the
fnow, which falls on mount Ida and Cotylus. Irs bed is
y wide, but its waters are feldom abundant, and in
fummer it is almoft dry, fince a pacha has turved afide the
fiream of the Scamander, and diredted its waters into the
oo See ScaMAnpEn. sey,
»m Biography » aname that vently occurs ta
ancient hiftory: fome of the eI atone who fuf-
tained this appellation are as follow ; wis.

Simon the Jaf, high-pricit of the Jews, was the fon and
fucceifor of Onias 1. and promoted to this dignity A.M.
$702) or 3703. He died A.M. 3711, before A.D. 293.
—Alfo, al fon of Ouias II., advanced to the high-
: A.M. 3805, B.C. 1 In his time, A.M. 3787,

i came to Jerufalem, and attempted to
of the temple, where no one but
to have en Simon oppofed him,
He is {uppofed to have been the
of aiticus gives a high
His fucceflor was Onias III.

the fon of Matta-
» Was rg me
Jews from A.M. 3860 to 3869, B.C. 135.

proofs of his valour in the battle between J
Maccabwrus and Nicanor (2 Mace. viii. 22, 23.), and on an-
other occafion (2 Macc. xiv.17.) In confequence of his

i

judgment and valour, which were in a variety of
ways, he was made governor of whole coait of the
Mediterranean fea, from Tyre to the frontiers of Egypt, by
the young king Antiochus Theos. He alfo took ura
and built Adida, in the plain called Sephela.
When had flain Jonathan and his two fons,

and having marched into Syria, put to death the youn
king Antiochus, and ha i kingdom, ae fon
ported his itor, Demetrius Nicator, whe, at his re-
the ancient franchifes of Judea, and granted
from tribute. After this he took Gaza, and the
Syrians that were in the citadel of Jerufalem capitulated to
him. His adminiitration was fingularly prudent, and it was
his objet to render his nation profperous and fecure.
With this view he made a harbour at Joppa, for the improve-
Se ee racneve ns Sere. earesed he limits of
country.

Jewifh nation acknowledged their obligations to him by
arious particalarly by recompenfin

Parthians, Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria, the brother of
applied to him for fuccour t T ny

—
d not only confirmed the grants of his b » but allowed

confirm the articles of his weaty
demanded the furrender of feveral
thoufand talents of filver, threatening, in cafe
of refufal, to enter Judea with troops, aud to treat him as
Simon di his threats ; neverthelefs he
for the cities of Joppa and Gazara,
himfelf mafter, becaufe they occa-
calamities to his country. The army of An-

!
u

SIM

tiochus, which he had fent tu the coafts of the Mediterraneany
was defeated by John Hyrcanus, the fon of Sumon; and
three years afterwards Simon vifited the cities of Judea, and
came to the caftle of Docus or Dagon, where his fon-in-law
Prolemy, fon of Ambubus, refided. But Ptolemy, though
he entertained him magnificently, caufed him, in the tt
of the entertainment, to be maflacred, together with his two
fons Mattathias and Judas, hoping thus to become matter of
Jerufalem, and of the whole country, But Johu Hyreanus
arrived firft at Jerufalem. Calmet.

Simon the Canaanite, or Simon Zelotes, was an apoitle of
Jefus Chrilt, Zelotes, the appellation given to him by
St. Luke (vi. 15. AGs, i. 13.) feems to be a tranilation
of the furname ite, given to him by the other evan-
geliits. (Matt. x.4. Mark, iii. 18.) Renaiieened per-
fons have fuppofed, that the term Zelotes denoted his
zeal in embracing the gofpel of Jefus Chriit; but others
think, that he was of a fe¢t called Zealots, mentioned by
Jofephus, (De Bell. 1. iv. c. 2. Ll. vi. c. 1.) It does not
a where he preached, or where he died. Some have
allerted that he travelled through Egypt, Cyrensica, and
Africa; that be preached in Mauritania Libya, and
that he pro the gofpel in Britain, clofing his life by
mart on the crofs, which he endured with incredible
courage. Others affirm, that be fuffered martyrdom in
the city of Sunir, in Perfia, on the a8th of O¢tober, on
which day the Latin church celebrates his feftival. The
Greeks honour him June 1, and fay, that he was Natha-
nael, the bridegroom at the marriage of Cana.

Suwon Magus, or the Sorcerer, was a pative, as it is faid,
of the village of Gitton, in the country of Samaria. His
hiltory is recited AGs, viii. 5—13. See alfo Acts, viii.
Q» 10, 11. After having been difcovered and refifted by
the apoftles, and particularly by Peter, he is {aid to have
fallen into greater errors and abominations, applying him-
felf more than ever to magic, and taking pride in oppofing
the apoftles, and propagating his errors. It is faid by
fe of the ancient fathers, that at Rome, whither he
arrived in the time of the emperor Claudius, about A.D. 41,
he was honoured as a deity by the Romans, and by the
fenate itfelf, and that a itatue was decreed to him in the ifle
of Tyber, with this infcription: ‘ Simoni Deo Sanéo.”
This faé&t, however, is difputed by feveral able critics. It
appears, that under the reign of Nero he acquired great
reputation by his inchantments ; and that he pretended to
that he was the Chriit, and that, as the fon of God,

could afcend to heaven; and it has been faid, that he
really caufed himfelf to be raifed in the air, in a fiery
chariot, by the afliftance of two demons, but that by the
prayers of St. Peter he was deferted by bis demons, fell
down and broke his legs, and afterwards, overcome by faced
and thame, threw himfelf headlong from the top of the
houfe where he lodged. But we shall not a thefe
apocryphal ftories, which are not worthy of rect He
died, probably, A.D. 65. Simon formed a feé& of heretics,
ie eee coiled Simonians ; which fee.

Sion, a difciple of Socrates, whofe occupation was that
of a leather-drefler at Athens, and whofe fhop was reforted
to by Socrates and his friends. He is faid to have been the
firft who publifhed the Socratic Dialogues; but none are
extant. Semon fo much valued freedom of inquiry, that
when Pericles invited him to make his houfe his refidence,

with the promife of an ample recompence, he refufed,
ing, that he would not fell the liberty of {peaking his
at any price.

Simon, Joun Francis, an ingenious man of letters,
was born at Paris in 1654. He was originally intended for
the ecclefiaitical profeflion, and took the degree of ar

°

SIM

of laws. M. Pelletier de Souzy engaged him as preceptor
to his fon, and afterwards employed him as his own fecre-
tary, and as a remuneration for his fervices made him coun-
fellor of the fortifications. He became very famous as a
writer of infcriptions and legends of medals ftruck on public
occafions, and on this account he was nominated a member
of the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles-Lettres. He
contributed feveral learned diflertations to the Memoirs of
that body: and he read before it feveral parts of a medallic
hiftory of Lewis XIV. He was an excellent writer both
in the Latin and French languages, and in verfe as well as
profe. In 1712 he was appointed keeper of the royal
cabinet of medals. He died in 1719.

Smvon, Ricuarp, a biblical critic, was born at Dieppe
in 1638. Hereceived his early education in the college of
the Fathers of the Oratory in that place, and afterwards
entered into that congregation. Quitting it in a very fhort
time, he purfued the ftudy of theology, and of the Orien-
tal languages, -in which he made a great proficiency. He
entered himfelf again a member of the Oratory in 1662,
when his fingular turn of thinking, and unaccommodating
temper, involved him in differences, which had nearly caufed
him to abandon the fociety for that of the Jefuits. Thefe
were, after a time, compromifed, and he was fent as pro-
feflor of philofophy to one of their colleges. The houfe
of the Oratory in Paris pofleffing a library rich in Oriental
writings, Simon was engaged to draw up a catalogue of
them, on which occafion he became known to M. de La-
moignon, firft prefident of the parliament of Paris. Having
performed the tafk, he returned to his profeflorfhip, and
there employed himfelf in literary labours. In the year
1670 he was ordained prieft, and in the fame year he gave
a proof of the liberality of his mind, by undertaking the
defence of the Jews at Metz, who had been accufed of
facrificing the child of Chriftian parents. In 1674 he pub-
lifhed, under the name Ricared Simeon, * A Treatife on
the Ceremonies and Cuftoms at prefent preferved among
the Jews, tranflated from the Italian of Leo of Modena,
with a Supplement refpeéting the Seéts of the Caraites and
Samaritans.”” It was reprinted in 1681, with a fupplement,
containing ‘* A Comparifon between the Ceremonies of the
Jews and Difcipline of the Church.’ In 1678 he pub-
lifhed “ A Critical Hiftory of the Old Teftament,” which,
by the boldnefs of fome of its opinions, gave a confiderable
degree of offence ; and though it was protected by the ap-
probation of a do¢tor of the Sorbonne, and a royal privi-
lege, an order was procured for prohibiting ite fale, and the
privilege was revoked. In the fame year he quitted the
Oratory, in order that he might enjoy that freedom which
is natural to the mind, and of which he was enthufiaftically
fond. He was accuftomed to exprefs his fenfe of the ad-
vantages of liberty by repeating the words «* Alterius ne
fit qui fuus efle poteft.”” For the purpofe of enjoying {till
more liberty, he refigned his cure four years after this, and
{pent the remainder of his life in the compofition of feveral
works, of which a great part was controverfial. He died
at Dieppe in 1712, at the age of 74.

Simon was a man of extenfive and very deep learning, and
an acute critic, but fond of fingularity. Few men of letters
have engaged in more difputes, and among his adverfaries
are fome of the moft eminent men of his time, Catholic as
well as Proteftant. He has, however, been ever regarded
as one of thofe, who have much contributed to the free
and learned difcuffions which have improved feriptural
theology, and though not avowedly a reformer, he was an
effective promoter of the Reformation. He publifhed a
number of works, and in addition to thofe already noticed,
we may mention ‘ Hiftoire critique du Texte du Nouveau

SIM

Teftament ;”? ¢* Hiftoire critique des Verfions du Nouveau
Teftament ;”? ‘* Hittoire critique des principaux Commen-
tateurs du Nouveau Teftament ;?? & Nouvelles Obferva-
tions fur le Texte et les Verfions du Nouveau T'eftament ;”
«© Une Traduction Frangoife du Nouveau Teftament, avec
Remarques Litterales et Critiques,’? 2 vols. 8vo. This
was condemned in the paftoral letters of Noailles, arch-
bifhop of Paris, and Bofluet, bifhop of Meaux. « Biblio-
théque Critique,”? 4 vols. publifhed under the name of
Sainjore, a work {upprefled by order of council. « Nou-
velle Bibliothéque Choifie,’? being a fequel to the former.
“* Lettres Critiques,”? 4 vols. « Critique de la Biblio-
theque des Auteurs Ecclefiaftiques de M. Dupin, et des
Prolegomenés fur la Bible du méme,”? 4 vols. 8vo. « Hif-
toire Critique de la Croyance et des Coutumes des Nations
du Levant.’? M. Simon left his MSS. and a number of
printed books, with marginal notes written with his own
hand, to the cathedral library of Rouen.

There was another Simon of fome celebrity, a doctor of
laws, the author of « A Didtionary of the Bible,?’ explain-
ing the geography of the Old and New Tettament, and the
ceremonies of the Jews, firlt printed at Lyons in 1693,
and again in 1703, with confiderable additions, forming
two vols. folio.

Srmon, a great mufician among the ancients, who, re-
jeting former rules of his art, invented a new mode, which
was called “ Simodia,”’ from his name, in the fame manner
as the genus invented by Lyfes, was called Lyfodia.

Sron, M., inventor of pedals for the harp, or harp
a pedale. See Harp.

Simon, in Lchthyology, a name by which fome authors
have called the dolphin. It is affirmed, that this fith loves
the name, and will come to a perfon who calls him by its
but this, though recorded by authors of credit, meets with
no faith among the judicious readers.

Simon’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the coaft of Africa,
11 miles on the W. fide of the Cape of Good Hope:
this is the only convenient itation for fhips to lie in; for
although the road without it affords good anchorage, it is
too open, and but ill-circumftanced for producing neceflaries,
the town being {mall, and fupplied with provifions from
Cape Town, which is about 24 miles diftant. The anchoring
place is fituated in S. lat. 34° 20!, or 34° 23/._ E. long. 18°
29'._ In April 1780, the dip of the S. end of the magnetic
needle was 46° 47!, and variation of the compafs 22° 16’ W.
On the full and change days it was high water at 5% 55™
apparent time ; the tide rofe and fell 5 feet 5 inches; at the
neap tides it rofe 4 feet 1 inch. Cook’s Third Voyage,
vol. iil.

SIMONETTA, Giovanni, in Biography, an hiftorian,
was a native of Caffaro, in Sicily. In 1414 he entered
into the fervice of Francefco Sforza, duke of Milan, of
which prince his brother Cicco was the confidential minifter.
After the death of Francefco, he attached himfelf to his
fon Galeazzo Maria, to whom he, with his brother, conti-
nued fo faithful, that when Ludovico Sforza ufurped the
dukedom, they were arrefted and fent prifoners to Pavia.
Cicco, in the following year, was beheaded, and Giovanni
was banifhed to Vercelli. He, however, returned to Milan,
where he was buried about the year 1491. Simonetta com-
pofed in Latin a hiltory of the a€tions of Francefco Sforza
from 1423 to 1466, which is accounted one of the belt
works of that time. It was feveral times printed. It is
alfo found in Muratori’s colle@tion of Italian hiftorians.

SIMONIACA Lis applied to a perfon gutity of fimony ;
that is of purchafing a benefice, or other facred matter, with
money. See SiMony.

SIMONIANS, or Srmonites, in Leck/fiaflical re
a fe

a fe& of ancient heretics, the firit that ever dillurbed Chril-
tianity ; if they might be faid to do fo, who were little
more than mere ms we tg and chiefly made profeflion

Simon fo often mentioned in the Ads, was their
leader, and under the emperor Nero ; St. Peter till
furviving ; fo that Clemens Alexandrinus is miftaken, when
he makes Simon poitcrior to Marcion.

This impious man, {ays Motheim, is not to be ranked
among the number of thofe who corrupted with their errors
the purity or fimplicity of the Chriftian doctrine, nor is he
to be as the parent and chief of the heretical
tribe ; but he is rather to be placed in the number of thofe
who were enemies to the {fs and advancement of Chrif-

not the leaft attachment to
oppofed himfelf openly to the divine Saviour,
himfelf blafphemoufly the ttle of the /u-
of Ged. Orig. adv. Celium. lib. v. p. 272. ed.

was by birth a Samaritan, or a Jew ; when he had
he made a public profef-
Samaritans, by

SUES
iy Z

the itious
from God the power of com-

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E
i
i
E
4

tormented.
without doubt, in the clafs of thofe philofophers,
only maintained the bsgre! wage matter, but alfo

w
empire of the univerfe with the fup
y» embraced the opinion of thofe
moved from eternity by an intrinfic
by its innate force produced, at
of time, from its own fubitance, the evil
exercifes dominion over it, with his nu-
attendants, From this pernicious doérine,
errors attributed to him concerning fate, the in-
Seerreneaeres em the, eaperiey of the hamen
fimilar extravagancies, flow

Inge mach tot fale

ear
wt
"}
2
i

gE

~*

Nit
ie

powerful of the divine wons; that

won of the female fex, the mother of all human

fouls, dwelt in the perfon of his miitrefs Helena; and that

he came, by the command of God, upon earth, to abolith

empire of thofe that had formed this material world, and

to deliver Helena from their power and dominion. Moth,
Eccl. Hift. vol. i.

This feét is faid to have continued to the fourth century.

Juitin, in his A . 2, fays that in his time, i. ¢. about
A.D. 150, almoft all the Samaritans, and fome few others
acknowl Simon as the greateft of the gods.

(Hift. Eccl. 1. ii. c. 1.) aw of Simonians,
that mingled themfelves among the Catholics, and received
Catholic baptifm ; but who a ard {pread in fecret the
venom of their dottrine. Several were difcovered and ex-

SIM
poe the church about the beginning of the fourth ceatury.
Grosrios.

SIMONIDES, in Biography, a celebrated Grecian poet,
born in the ifle of Chios, was the fon of war aod
flourithed in the fifth century before the Chriftian era.
He excelled in various kinds of poetry, but efpecially ia
the elegiac, for which, as we learn from Horace and Quin-
tilian, he was almoft proverbially famous in antiquity. One
of his molt famous compofitions was entitled + ‘The Lamen-
tations,”’ of which the following fragment is all that remains,
but this juftifies his title to great excellence as a writer.

“ Sweet child! what anguifh does thy mother know,
Ere cruel grief bas taught thy tears to flow!
Amidit the roaring wind’s tremendous found,
Which threats dettruction, as it howls around,

In balmy fleep thou lieft, as at the breait,
Without one bitter thought to break thy ret.
While in pale, glimmering, interru ted light
The moon but fhews the horrors of the might.
Didft thou but know, {weet innocent ! our woes,
Not opiate’s pow’r thy eye-lids now could clofe.
S on, {weet babe! ye waves in filence roll,
And lull, O lull to reft! my tortur’d foul.”

Simonides was endowed with a moft extraordinary
memory, and fome have attributed to him the invention
of the art of recollecting by localizing ideas, which has
lately been brought into fafhion in this coun The in-
troduétion of fome of the compound letters of the Greek
alphabet is alfo afcribed to him. He lived to an ad-
vanced age, and at the age of eighty gained a prize for
poetry. According to Pliny, Simonides added the eighth
ttring to the lyre. In his old age, s from feeing
the refpeét which money procured to fuch as had loit the
charms of youth, and power of attaching mankind by other
means, he became fomewhat mercenary and avaricieus. He
was frequently employed by the victors at the games to
write panegyrics and odes in their praife, before ca
Pindar ey caeciied his talents in their behalf; but Si-
monides would never gratify their vanity in this particular,
till he had firft tied them down to a ftipulated fum for his
trouble ; and, upon being upbraided for his meannefs, he
faid, that he had two pre ig in one of which he had, for
many years, put his pecuniary rewards ; the other was for ho-
nours, verbal thanks, and promifes; that the firit was pretty
well filled, but the lait remained always empty. And he made
no {cruple to confefs, in his old age, that the enjoyments
of life, the love of money was the only one of which time had
not deprived him. Itis mentioned as a fubje¢t of difpraife, that
Simonides was one of the firit who wrote verfes for money, and
that he travelled through the cities of A fia, felling eulogies on
the victors in the public games. He paid a vifit, in advanced
life, to Hiero, king of Syracufe, to whom he gave the cele-
brated anfwer refpecting the nature of God that has been
handed down from geueration to generation to the prefent
time in the writings of Cicero. Hiero having alked his
opinion on the fubjeG&, he requeited a day to confider of it ;
when this was expired, he doubled the time, and thus he did
repeatedly, tll monarch defired to know his reafon for
this proceeding: “ It is,’’ {aid he, ‘ becaufe the longer I
reflect on the queftion, the more difficult it appears to be.’’
He was reported to be extremely avaricious ; e was, how-
ever, juftly ranked among the philofophers and poets, and
ta fenfible of the value of money, he knew what was
more valuable. Undergoing fhipwreck on a voyage, while
the other paflengers encumbered themfelves with their moft
valuable ofieéis, be left his behind him, faying, “ I carry
with me all that is mine ;”? and when he arrived fafe at Cla-

6 zomene,

SIM

zomene, his fellow fufferers being either drowned or pil-
laged, he met with a citizen acquainted with his poetry, who
liberally fupplied all his wants. It was a witty reply which
this author made’ to Hiero’s queen, who demanded of him
whether knowledge or wealth was molt to be preferred:
«¢ Wealth,” faid he; « for I fee every day learned men at
the doors of the rich.’? When he was accufed of being
fo fordid, as to fell part of the provifions with which his
table was furnifhed by Hiero, he faid he had done it, in order
«to difplay to the world the magnificence of that prince,
and his own frugality.”” In jultification of his paffion for
wealth, he faid, ‘* I choofe rather to be ufeful to my enemies
after I am dead, than burdenfome to my friends while I am
living.”? He is faid to have been fufficiently eloquent to re-
concile two princes extremely irritated again{t each other,
and aétually at war. He was unquettionably one of the
moit con{picuous characters of his time. Of his numerous
works only a few fragments remain, which are publifhed in
the Corpus Poetarum Grecarum.

SIMONOR, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo
Archipelago. N. lat. 4° 59'. E. long. 119° gol.

SIMONOSAKI. See X1monosreur.

SIMONTORNYA, or Simcn Tuurn, atown of Hun-
gary, fituatedon the Sarand, with a ftrong caftle, taken by
the Imperialifts in the year 1686; 32 miles S.S.W. of
Buda. N. lat. 46° so’. E. long. 18° 25!.

SIMONY, SimontA, the crime of trafficking with facred
things ; particularly the corrupt prefentation of any one to
an ecclefiaftical benefice for money, gift, or reward.

The word is borrowed from Simon Magus, who is men-
tioned in the Aéts of the Apoftles, as offering to buy the
power of working miracles with money : though the pur-
chafing of holy orders feems to approach nearer to his
offence.

By the Englifh canons, anno 1229, fimony is not only
committed by an agreement for money in hand, or to be
paid yearly ; but by any other profit or emolument ; any
reward, cift, or benefit, direétly or indire€tly ; or by reafon
of any promife, grant, bond, &c. and this either in the
acceptance ofa living, or in an exchange or refignation.

Simony was by the canon law a very grievous crime ;
and it is fo much the more odious, becaufe, as fir Edward
Coke obferves, it 1s ever accompanied with perjury; for
the prefentee is {worn to have committed no fimony. How-
ever, it was not an offence punifhable in a criminal way
at the common law; it being thought fufficient to leave
the clerk to ecclefiaftical cenfures: but many aéts of par-
liament have been made to reftrain it by means of civil for-
feitures. ‘Thus the ftatute of 31 Eliz. c. 6. enacts, that
if any patron, for money, or any other corrupt confideration
or promife, dire@tly or indirectly given, fhall prefent, admit,
inftitute, indu@, inftal, or collate any perfon to an eccle-
fiaftical benefice or dignity, fuch prefentation hall be void,
and the prefentee be rendered incapable of ever enjoying
the fame benefice, and the crown fhall prefent to it for
that turn only: moreover, both the giver and taker fhall
forfeit two years’ value of the benefice or dignity ; one
moiety to the king, and the other to any one who will fue
for the fame. If perfons alfo corruptly refign or exchange
their benefices, both the giver and taker fhall, in like
manner, forfeit double the value of the money, or other
corrupt contideration. -

Farther, by the flatute 12 Ann. ftat. 2. c.-12, if any
perfon, for money or profit, fhall procure, in his own
name, or the name of any other, the next prefentation to
any living ecclefiaftical, and fhall be prefented thereupon,
this is declared to be a fimoniacal contraét, and the party
is fubjected to all the ecclefiattical penalties of fimony, is

SIM.

difabled from holding the benefice, and the prefentation
devolves to the crown.

In the conftruétion of thefe ftatutes, thefe points, fays
judge Blackftone, feem to be clearly fettled.

rt. hat to purchafe a prefentation, the living being ac-
tually vacant, is open and notorious fimony.

2. Vhat for a clerk to bargain for the next prefentation,
the incumbent being fick and about to die, was fimony,
even beiore the ftatute of queen Anne; and now, by that
{tatute, to purchafe, either in his own name or another’s, the
next prefentation, and be thereupon prefented at any future
time to the living, is dire&t and palpable fimony.

But, 3. It is held, that for a father to purchafe fuch a
prefentation, in order to provide for his fon, is not fimony ;
the fon not being concerned in the bargain, and the father
being by nature bound to make a provifion for him.

4. That if a fimoniacal contra&t be made with the patron,
the clerk not being privy thereto, the prefentation for that
turn fhall indeed devolve to the crown, as a punifhment of
the guilty patron; but the clerk who is innocent, does not
incur any difability or forfeiture.

5. That bonds given to pay money to charitable ufes, on
receiving a prefentation to a living, are not fimoniacal, pro-
vided the patron or his relations be not benefited thereby ;
for this is no corrupt confideration, moving to the patron.

6. That bonds of refignation in cafe of non-refidence, or
taking any other living, are not fimoniacal, there being no cor-
rupt confideration therein, but fuch as is only for the good of
the public. So alfo bonds to refign, when the patron’s fon
comes to canonical age, are legal; upon the reafon before
given, that the father is bound to provide for his fon.

7. Laftly, general bonds to refign at the patron’s requeft,
are held to be legal; for they may poflibly be given for
one of the legal confiderations before-mentioned, and where
there is a poffibility that the tranfa€tion may be fair, the
law will not fuppofe it iniquitous without proof; but if
the party can prove the contract to have been a corrupt one ;
{uch proof will be admitted, in order to fhew the bond
fimoniacal, and therefore void. Neither will the patron be
fuffered to make an ill ufe of fuch a general bond of refig-
nation ; as by extorting a compofition for tithes, procuring
an annuity for his relations, or by demanding a refignation
wantonly, and without good caufe, fuch as is approved by
the law, as for the benefit of his own fon, or on account
of non-refidence, plurality of livings, or grofs immorality in
the incumbent. Black{ft. Comm. Db. ii.

Simony is alfo committed by buying or felling the facra-
ment, baptifm, ordination, or abfolution; as well as by
the nomination and collation to a benefice, a place in
monattery, or the like.

By 31 Eliz. cap. 6, perfons who fhall corruptly ordain
or licenfe any minifter, or procure him to be ordained or
licenfed, fhall incur a forfeiture of 40/., and the minifter
himfelf of 10/., befides an incapacity to hold any eccle-
fiaftical preferment for feven years afterwards. See Pre-
SENTATION.

Some have pretended it to be fufficient to avoid the
charge of fimony, if only the ordination were gratuitous,
though the revenues were bought and fold as a temporal
thing. But the canons of feveral councils have condemned
this fubtile diftin@tion ; fince the revenues are atached to an
ecclefiaftical office purely {piritual.

Cafuitts diftinguifh three kinds of fimony ; viz.

Simony, Mental, is that which is reftri€ted to the mere
will and inclination, without ever breaking forth into aét.
As when a prefent is made to a collator, without taking
any notice, that we expect a benefice from him. This
kind of fimony is only punifhable in foro con/cientia.

SIMONY,

SIM

Smmoxy, Cowerntiona/, is where there is an exprefs af,
and a formal though it never come to an execution.
. Stuory, is where the convention is executed on
both fides; which lait is the molt criminal of all. The
canonical penalty of fimony is depofition in a clerk, and
in a layman,
the Romith canoniils, that there is
in the court of Rome; becaufe the pope atts
abfolute fovereign ; they alfo fay, that refig-
SIRT Midlaeic are not ta bo edaiined but by the pope,
ing a little of fimony. On thefe occafions, however,

always {wear, that there had been no deceit,
fimony, or other illegal covenant.

Peter Damian diftinguithes three kinds of fimony : that
eae wee wes thet of firsion

is really down for a benefice; he adds, that the (ame
is committed, by expending money to live at
court to obtain a benefice.
Simony of the Tongue, or Per manus a confitts in
ing the collator, or making one’s {elf agreeable by
Sustony of Services, or Per munus ab confifts in
deing for them offices to obtain a
It was by all the juitices, Trin. o€t. Jac. primi,
that if the patron prefented any perfon to a ben with
cure, for money ; {uch prefentation, &c. is void, though
the prefentee were not privy to it; and the ttatute gives
the jon to the king; but this is now repealed.
— » a town of Naples, in Calabria
Ultra ; mules Squillace,
ie teinotes of Beances dnsthe. dépestmans of

the Gers; 13 miles S.E. of Auch.
faesers: in Botany. vo arms ‘A
* » SIMPLARIS, Antiquity, a oman -

fufficient to convince us, that fimple bodies confift of hard
yo goog gad yan which are not practically
divifible. the general forms of the of com-
ond net 2 stad yal Fit Binke stomp sie Tanase.
the calculated for motion, and under they
oul the leait oy Aad change. How many varieties
f ct pherical particles there exilt, it is dif-
ficult to ratio they bear to each other, in denfity
or : erent 7a Wie fo Scene, One
great however, made, which may us to
more imp conclufions

' . ugh we are ignorant of
the bf dines and denfitier’ of org tae? we
now in a way to acquire a knowledge © i tive
are whch we al be eae to ecu ers
‘com bodies, by ly knowing of what

Vou XXXI ;

SIM
elements they are The ule of experi will
er Se pees nll aa » and rudely
guefs at its proportions ; but the exaét ion will re-

quire to be determined by calculations, which will render
chemiltry as complete as shronoay.
There is the greatelt reafon to believe, that the atoms of

fimple matter attraét each other by the fame laws with gravi-
tation. Sir aac Newton fuppofes, that in gold, which in
his time was confidered the denfelt body, the pores or
interilices between its particles greatly exceed its material
part. Of what denfity, therefore, mult we confider the
atoms of bodies, Our prefent idea of denfity is very vayue,
and varies with the temperature, and therefore,
upon the quantity of caloric they contain. If thefe stoms
were to be finally deferted by the caloric, they would
+ weg contact; and if they were {pheres, the refulting
{peci avity would be 45 of “the {pecific gravity of the
suis iis. caloric, on > eee if de-
ferted by the atoms, would, from its llent property,
be difperfed to an unlimited extent. hen, however,
thefe two {pecies of matter combine, they itil! retain their
original properties; but the attraétion of the atoms de-
creafes, as they recede, by new additions of caloric ina
lefs ratio than the repulfion of the caloric, and the two
powers are kept in equilibrium by change of diltance be-
tween them. If the attra¢tion be as {quare of the
diftance, aad the repulfion as the cube; then, if the dif-
tances be fuccefliye intervals of 1, 2, 3, &c. the attractions
at thefe points will be 1, 4, 4, &c. and the repulfion
I, ¥) vy» &c. Therefore, the caloric at each pot, to
make the atoms ftand in equilibrium at thele refpeétive dif-
tances, willbe 1, 2, 3, &c. fori x 1=1, } xX 24s
vy X 3 = 4, and fo on. It is under this form that the
{pecific gravity of a body is taken; but we know not what
may be the denfity of the real atoms, although we know
that it muit be very confiderable. In proportion as this
is the cafe, we are to expe a er attractive force
agreeably to the laws of gravitation. If the earth were
to be condenfed to half its diameter, the weight of bodies
on its furface would be quadrupled. This circumitance,
aided by the proximity of the atoms in chemical combina-
tion, and the ftate of a tion, in which folids exiit,
will make us ceafe to wonder at the powers of chemical
attraétion, and at the fame time gives a lively hope, that
the fame attraGtion is common both to gravity and chemi-
cal combination. However indeterminate this problem
may appear, we underftand that fome experiments are foon
to be inftituted for fettling this point.

The experiments will in the firft place determine, whether
thefe attractions are the fame, or not: if they are the fame,
the experiments will determine, and point out the numbers
which will expres the ftrength of affinity between differest
bodies ; the only faéts which are now wanting to make
chemiltry a complete {cience.

In the prefent ftate of chemical feience, thofe bodies
confidered 2s elements are divided into two clafles; the
one called combuttible or inflammable, aud the other fup-
porters of combuttion ; becaufe in combining with the firtt
clafs, much light aad heat are developed.

The firft clas, which is by far the moft numerous, confiils
chiefly of metals, with only a few exceptions. ‘Thefe are
exhibited in the following table, which alfo contains the
weights of their atoms = {pecific gravities ; hydrogen, the
lighteit atom, being 1.

If the views of Gay Luffac, the French chemitt, be cor-
rect, in a memoir on Jodine, or Lodine, which has beea publith-
ed in Dr. Thomfon’s Annals, we thall be hardly warranted ia
en ghey

5 w

SIMPLE BODIES.

which fupport combuftion. Some of the latter appear to act
the part of both. This is evidently the cafe with fulphur,
which gives light and heat to a certain extent in its com-
bination with. fume of the metals, and alfo when it com-
bines with oxygen, with which, as an inflammable body,
it forms an acid. Inthe oppofite characters, like eblorine
and jodine, it forms an acid with hydrogen, which is now
termed the hydrofulphuric acid. Gay Luflac goes farther,
and fuppofes that phofphorus, carbon, and azote, have a
fimilar double property. Carbon he fuppofes to be the
acidifying principle of fome of the vegetable acids, and that
azote aéts a fimilar part in the pruffic acid.

Simple Combuttible Bodies.

Tela! Specific Gravity
| Name yh ljeacene
| emg
Gold - - - - | 140 191673

Silver ~ = - . - - | 100 104849
Platinum - - - - | 100 227700
Palladium - - - - 117523
Mercury - - - - | 180 134323
Rhodium - - - - 108900
Ofmium - - - - -| — —
Iridium - - - - -| = —
Copper - - - -| 56 88070
Tron - - - - =H O 77101
Lead - - - - -| 97 112382
Tin - - - - -| 50 72260
Antimony - - - -| 40 66449
Bifmuth - : - - -| 68 97238
“Zinc - - - - -| 28 67923 >
Nickel - - - ole) 89753
Tellurium . - - - 60533
Cobalt - - - - Slee shy 76230
Tungtften - > - - | 56 174240
Manganele - - - =| 50 67815
Titanium - - - -| 40

Uranium - - - : 89100
Cerium - - - = - | 45

Columbium~ = - - -| — _
Potaffium - - - =r as 8415
Sodium - - : - =| 2a 9405
Barium - - - - -| 61

Strontium - - - -| 39

Colurium - - - -| 17

Magnefium =~ - - =O

Aluminum - : - - 8

Glucinum - - - Sel 236)

Ittrium - - - - -| 48

Zirconium - - + = 38

Silicum - - - - -| 38

Hydrogen - - - - I I
Sulphur - . > -| 14 19701
NZ OOD left at iicee et ae 6.5

Carbon | - - - - - 5-4

Boron - - - - - 5-5
Phofphorus- - - =O 17513
Arfenic - - - > -| 40 84249
Molybdenum - - - - 85249
Chromum Banat Ei Sokee 58410

Supporters of Combuttion. ‘

Oxygen» - ai atin ° 75 14
Chlorine - - - - - | 30 30-75
Iodine - - - - - 117
Fluorine : - - - _ _

‘fupporting combuftion with combuttible bodies.

The bodies of the firft clafs, with the exception of fulphur,
phofphorus, azote, hydrogen, and carbon, are known to
be metals ; and there is ftrong reafon to believe that hydro-
gen is a metal in the elaftic form. It is very remarkable,
that thofe bodies, the metallic nature of which is doubtful,
appear to poflefs the property of combining more ftrongly
with inflammable bodies, than the metals with each other in
forming alloys. Indeed, the combinations of moft of the
metals with thofe that are not metallic, are generally con-
f{picuous, and always definite.

The firft of the feeond clafs of bodies, viz. oxygen, has
long been confidered a fimple body. The fecond has been
lately, by the French chemifts and by fir Humphrey Davy,
confidered in the fame light. It was till lately confidered
as a compound of muriatic acid and oxygen, from which
it was called oxymuriatic acid. Its name 1s now changed
to chlorine, from its green colour, Jodine is another fub-
{tance of the fame clafs, exhibiting {triking properties with
inflammable bodies. Its name has been derived from the
violet colour of its vapour. It was difcovered in kelp, a
fubftance which confifts of foda combined with certain
impurities. ‘The jodine is extraéted from it by the follow:.
ing procefs. Infufe the kelp in hot water till all the fo-
luble part is taken up; then evaporate the folution till
the carbonate of foda cryftallizes on cooling. In this way,
by repeating the evaporation and cooling, feparate as
much as poflible of this falt; then continue the evapora-
tion to drynefs. This refiduum is now to be introduced
into a glafs retort, or a long-necked matrafs, and a quantity
of fulphuric acid poured upon it. This is then applied to,
at firft, a gentle heat. When the temperature reaches
about 300°, a purple or violet-coloured vapour appears
in the neck of the retort, which condenfes into fhining
opaque cryftals of the appearance of plumbago. Thefe
cryftals are pure jodine. Jodine, in the folid form, is of
a greyifh-black colour, its vapour being of a beautiful violet.
Its cryftals havea fhining fcaly appearance, like mica. Their
form is that of rhomboidal plates, and fometimes of elongated
oétohedrons. It is foft and friable, fo as to rub to powder
between the fingers. It ftains the fkin of a deep brown
colour, but not permanently. It has the fmell of chlorine
or oxymuriatic gas. Its tafte is acrid, although it requires
feven thoufand parts of water for its folution. It deftroys
vegetable colours, like chlorine, but with lefs energy.

Its fpecific character is 4.948 at the common temperature,
water being 1. It fufes at 225° of Fahrenheit, and affumes
the elaftic form at 374° or 356°; but it will come over in
diftillation with the vapour of water. It is a non-conductor
of electricity.

Jodine, like oxygen and chlorine, has the property of
With
fome of thefe it forms compounds analogous to oxyds, and
with hydrogen it forms an acid refembling the muriatic acid,
the compound formed by hydrogen with chlorine. In thefe
inftances, jodine and chlorine have not only the property of
fupporters of combuition, but of forming acids with an in-
flammable bafe. They, however, in their turns, aé the part
of combuftible bodies, by forming acids with oxygen. It
appears alfo, from the views of Gay Luflac, that fulphur has
alfo this double property, for by combining with hydrogen
it forms the well-known compound called fulphuretted hy-
drogen, which poflefles the properties of an acid, and is ren-
dered fo by ating the part of oxygen with the inflammable
bafe. On the contrary, it forms fulphuric acid with oxygen

by itfelf, acting the part of an inflammable bafe.
It alfo appears to this philofopher, that azote, carbon?
and phofphorus, may have the power of producing Hepey
rs

SIMPLE

their combining with certain inflammable bafes. He is

inion, that mott of the vegetable acids do not owe
their acidity to oxygen combined with hy and carbon,
but to the carbon acting the part of oxygen with hydroges,
as fulphur, chlorine, and jodine do with the fame.

Pe onyetf to this view, we thall give fome of the fadis

on chlorine, jodine, and fulphur, in their com-
with hydrogen and oxygen.

To the combinations of thefe bodies with others, in

which they have no acidity, Gay Luffac has given the names

chlorurets, ,
joduset of zinc, fulphuret of iron, and fo on.

29

a

d
;
:
;

i
i
if
723
a
>
a
:

a

i

“,
;

uriatic acid, =
yperox uriate oO!
forms a compeund with potath,
properties, and affording a large quantity of

Hl
i

in
i:

a
i
yl
as
z
=
F
f
F

to the hydriodates, a fet
ifing from the union of jodine
Eine bafes.

it
i
ek
q

ic acid is formed by firit combinin {,
i abies

to nine of latter. i d being b ti
eeRetinentens clicks te beivendic sit. Tes metet

phofphorus, then hy-
a compound of phol-

phorns and confifting of two atoms of the former
one of +g ved This is the red infoluble fubftance

Seer
ater a uanti it, fo
eee teen Scietbaies peat guenaty oh ees:

ior attraétion of jodine for other
free. Such is the cafe with

are
are confpicuous. Mott of thele are infoluble
am water. metals which decompofe water, form
foluble jodurets ; as in thefe inftances the joduret becomes

aa ’

Another fet of compounds refults from jodine, which we
have already called j Jodine combines with oxygen,
in the ’ Semen hinnatens ses othe Reas,

is 117 jodine to 5 x 7.5 = 37-5 of oxygen. i
pat re

- This acid cannot be direétly formed by combining jodine
with oxygens but it is formed during the actioa P jodine

BODIES.

upon potath, foda, barytes, troatian, lime, and magnefia,
when water is prefeat, The changes are precifely what
take place, when chlorine is fubitituted for jodine, Two
falts are formed with the bale employed; the one with
chloric or jodic acid, and the other with hydrochloric or
hydraodic acid,

When jodine in vapour is pafled through a folution of
potath, four atoms of jodine decompofe four atoms of water,
by which four atoms of hydraodic acid are produced. ‘Thele
unite with four atoms of potath, forming as many com-
pound atoms of hydriodate of potath. four atoms of
oxygen, feparated from the water, now unite with a fifth
atom of jodine, and a fifth atom of potahh ; the whole of
which will amount to an atom of joduret of potaflium,
united to five atoms of oxygen, contlituting an atom of
jodate of potath. It will appear, therefore, that during the
formation of any of the jodates or the chlorates, that for
every atom of fuch jodate or chlorate there will be formed,
at fame time, four atoms of an hydriodate or hydro-
chlorate.

In the example above flated, an atom of jodate of potath
will be 1 atom of jodine (117) + 1 atom of um
(37-5) + 5 atoms of oxygen (5 x 7.5) = 192. The
4 atoms of hydriodate of potath will confit of 4 atoms of
hydraodic acid (4 x (117 + 1)) + 4 atoms of
(4 x (37-5 + 7-5)) = 472 + 180 = 652. The ratio,
therefore, of the jodate of potath to the hydriodate, will be
192 to 652, or 100 to 340 nearly. Inthe cryftalline form,
however, the hydriodate of potath does not cruft, but is
converted into joduret of potaflium, which will confift of an
atom of jodine (117) added to an atom of potaflium (37.5
= 154.5, and 154.5 x 4 = 618, the quantity of the cryf-
talliced foduret ae jodate, which will be 100 of the latter
to 322 of the former nearly.

t is rather out of place to enter into the particulars of
bodies; but this laft fubftance, from its recent difcovery,
has not been before mentioned in this work. There are alfo
many interefting particulars re{pecting chlorine ; but thefe
are rather new explanations, under the idea of this being a
fimple body, than new fads.

We know little more of the body called fluorine, than
that it is in all probability a body combining with hydrogen
to form fluoric acid, in the manner that chlorine and jodine
form hydrochloric and hydraodic acids with thet body.
To the combinations of pre ae with the different bodies, in

‘which no a Dr. Thomfon has propofed the

name of chlorids, as being more agreeable to the termina-
tion in the word oxyds; and we fuppofe would adopt, for
fimilar combinations ef jodine, jodids; and we fhould ex-
peas from the fulphurates being analogous, that they would

called fulphids, to keep up the fame uniformity. The
French chemiits (fee Gay Luifacts Memoir on Jodine,
Thomfon’s Annals, vol. v.) have adopted for the fame
compounds the termination already ufed for the fulphurets,
viz. chlorurets, jodurets; and for the combinations of
carbon and azote with the fame bodies, they would ufe
carburcts, axoturets, or, what is better, nitrogurctz. We {ee
no objeGtion to this termination for all the bi com.
pounds not poflefling acidity, as in fa&t there would be no
other change than that of altering oxyd into exuret. The
acids would fill retain their terminations, eus and ic, diftin-

uifhing thofe which do not contain oxygen by the acidifyin

a, The falts, as at salen weed derive ee
names from the acids. See NomENCLATURE.

Smupe, in Botany, is a general name given to all herbs
and plants ; as having each its particular virtue, by which
it becomes a fimple remedy.

5D: The

SIM

The fimples from the Levant, and the Eaft Indies, were
sot known among us till about the year 120.

Simpte Leaves. See Lear.

The term /imple is alfo technically applied to fome other
parts of a plant. A /imple calyx is ufed in the columniferous
order, in oppofition to the double one of Malva, Hibi/cus,
and many other genera of that order. A /imple fligma
means, that the part in queftion is of no elaborate or pecu-
liar fhape, or ftructure, but merely adequate to perform
its requifite functions. This end is fufficiently anfwered by
a rather obtufe, though not dilated, figure, jult enough to
receive the pollen upon a moift furface, or point. If a
itigma be acute, or taper-pointed, that character fhould be
{pecified ; as alfo if it be capitate, concave, lobed, fringed,
&c.; in all which latter cafes it is no longer fimple. See
Srigma, and Frcunpation of Plants.

A fimple flem, or flalk, is deftitute of branches, or fub-
divifions. Such alfo is fimple pubefcence, the hairs of which
are unbranched and ftraight; not itellated, entangled, or
hooked.

Simp.e, in French Mujfic, in an air with variations, im-
plies the air itfelf, in oppofition to the doubles or variations.
See Arr, and Dous.e.

SrmpLe Cadence, is that where the notes are all equal
through all the parts.

Si1spLE Concords, are thofe in which we hear at lea{t two
notes in confonance ; as a third and a fifth; and, of confe-
quence, at leait three parts. This is either done immediately,
and is called the harmonical triad, or in a more remote
manner, that is, when the founds, that are not bafs, are one
or two odtaves higher. This diftance has no ill effeét in
the third, but in the fifth it has; and, generally fpeaking,
the nearer, or more immediate, the concords are, the better.
See Concorp.

They alfo fay C fimple, or plain, in oppofition to C
accented.

Sime_e Counterpoint, Fugue, Interval, Sounds, and Triple.
See the fubftantives.

SimpLe Equation, Fradion, and Surd, in Algebra.
the fubftantives.

SimpLe Quantities, are thofe which confift of one term
only; as + a, — ab, or + abc; accordingly they are op-
poled to compound quantities.

Supe Glands, in Anatomy. See GLANDS.

SumpeLe Anomaly and Excentricity, in Aftronomy. See the
fubftantives.

StmpLe form, Modes, Neceffity, Oppofition, and Propofi-
tion, in Logic and Metaphyfics. See the fubftantives.

SimpLe Average, Benefice, Church, Depofit, LEfrate,
Fee, Force, Larceny, Refignation, and Vaffalage. See the
fubftantives.

SimpLe Contra, Debts by, are fuch, where the contract
upon which the obligation arifes is neither afcertained by
matter of record, ner yet by deed or {pecial inftrument, but
by mere oral evidence, or by notes unfealed, which are
capable of a more eafy proof, and (therefore only) better
than a verbal promife.

Simete Diachylon, Diacodium, Diamorum, Diaprunum,
Dropax, Fomentations, Hydromel, Mixture, Oxymel, and
Waters. See the fubftantives.

SmmpLe Fencing. See Frncine.

SimpLe Flank and Tenaille, in Fortification.
ftantives. -

In Geometry, we fay, the moft fimple demonftrations are
the beft.

In Grammar, we have fimple words, or primitives ; and
compounds, which have fome particle added to them.

See

See the fub-

SIM

In Juet/prudence, they fay a fimple donation, in oppa-
fition to a mutual or reciprocal one: a fimple fale, in
oppofition to that made with a refervation of the faculty
of redemption ; and fimple homage, in oppofition to liege
homage.

SimeLe Foffils, in Natural Hiflory. See Fossixs.

Simeie Machine, Motion, Pendulum, and Wheel, in Me-
chanics. See the fubftantives.

The fimpleft machines are always the molt efteemed,

SimpLe Vifion, in Optics. See Vision.

In Pharmacy, there are fimple remedies, and compounds ;
the former of which are ufually preferable to the latter.

SimpLE Tafe, in Phyfiology. See Taste.

SimpLe Hiffory and Styl, in Rhetoric.
ftantives.

SimpLe Fradure and Ulcer, in Surgery. - See the fub-
ttantives.

SIMPLER’s Joy, in Botany. See VERBENA.

SIMPLEX Ocutus, in Surgery, the name of a bandage
for the eye.

SIMPLICITY, in Ethics. See Stnceriry.

Srexicity, in Mufic. There is much cant about fim-
plicity in mufic, among the exclufive admirers of old things,
and lamentation for the lofs of our old melodies to the fongs
of Chaucer, Gower, Lydgate, and others, of which the
words are {till extant. But if we may judge by what has
efcaped the ravages of time, of a later date, the lofs of our
mufical compofitions of this period may be fupported with-
out much affi@ion. We may perhaps heighten that afflic-
tion confiderably by cenfurmg modern refinements, and
extolling the charms of ancient fimplicity ; but fimplicity
in melody, beyond a certain limit, is unworthy of the name
that is beftowed upon it, and encroaches fo much upon the
rude and favage boundaries of uncouthnefs and rutticity, as
to be wholly feparated from proportion and grace, which
fhould alone charaéterife what is truly fimple in all the arts :
for though they may be ennobled by the concealment of
labour and pedantry, they are always degraded by an al-
liance with coarfe aud barbarous nature.

Old melodies, when we find them, and can afcertain their
dates, are curious hiltorical faéts in the annals of the mufical
art ; and afford us more fatisfactory information concerning
our ancient national tafte, than all the verbal defcriptions
in profe and verfe can do. And it mutt be owned, that
though the natives of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, can
boaft of national tunes, both plaintive and fpirited, that are
charaéteriftic, pleafing, and diftin& from each other, the
Englifh have not a melody which they can call their own,
except the hornpipe and, Chefhire-round. The hornpipe,
indeed, was in all probability Britifh, or Welfh; as the
pip-corn, or pipe of Cornwall, was an armoric inftrument
and tune, brought thither by the Britons, driven to that
part of the ifland, and into Brittany and Wales, by the
Saxons. The Chefhire-round is a melody of the fame kind.
See Hornpipe, and plate of National Tunes.

SIMPLICIUS, Pope, in Biography, a native of Tivoli,
was elected to the pontificate in September 467, on the
death of Hilary. During the time of his pofleffing the fee
of Rome, great commotions exifted in the eattern and
weftern empire. The latter terminated in the perfon of
Auguftulus, who was dethroned by Odoacer, king of the
Heruli, an Arian. In the Eaft the emperor Zeno was
dethroned by Bafilifcus, who declared again{t the council of
Chalcedon. Simplicius does not appear to have been per-
fonally molefted in thefe changes, but he was frequently
called upon to exert himfelf in defence of the claims of his
fee, and of the orthodox faith. He moreover extended and

ftrengthened

See the fub- .

SIM
ftrengthened the jurifdi@ion over the weilern church,
by inting the bifhop of Seville a vicar in the
province of ica, and by an attack upon the metro-

politan rights of the bilhop of Ravenna, together with other
vigorous meafures. Sienplichos died in the year 483, after
having filled the papal clair nearly fifteen years and a half.
There are extant cightcen of his letters, chicly relating
matters of difcipline, and the affairs of the catters

Simpricius, a Greek philofopher of the fixth eentury,
native of Cilicia. He was a difciple of Ammoriius

ifing, he endeavoured to unite the Platonic
ines with thofle eftablithed Ariftotle,

E
i
i

7 Tanke on Epitteras were pub-
in, with the notes of Wolfius and
tranflated into the Englith and

fi
EE

!
i
‘
?

y
1
i

;

:
:
:
E
A

refidence.
whe = > on hind ed
Some ufe the word in a more extenfive fignification, i

:

for the a relation, &c. or retrenchin
ing not . When the matter of
be and ftripped of its vain ci
court will &e.

SIMPLOCE, in Rhetoric, a which comprehends
both the anaphora and In this fi the
feveral members begin and end with the fame word. ‘Thus
St. Paul: Are they Hebrews? Soam I. Are they Ifraclites?
SoamI. Are they the feed of Abraham? Soam J. 2 Cor.

xi. 22.

SIMPLON, in ’ a mountain of Switzerland,
cette que eee te Vales «. the duchy of
ete es 31 miles E.

SIMPLUDIARIA, in Antiquity, a kind of funeral
honours paid to the deceafed at their nies.
ee Satins and /udus ;

or fimpliludaria, q. games.
Some jari to testice uustals at ohich
games were : fuch is the fentiment of Paulus Dia-
conus. Feftus they were thofe, in the of which
nothing was feen but dancers and leapers, var eden
who, according to M. Dacier, were perfons who run along

ing to
the maits and of veffels or boats, called corbes.
SUEIIGRG hits suse cathors sence ce co chs Ide
in
Shaina eeuee tovternas
leaped from horfe to horfe at full

g couraged by this

SI1M

SIMPSON, Tuomas, in 3 « celebrated felf.
taught mathematician, was born at Market Bolworth, is
Leicetlerthire, in 1710. His father, who wae a weaver in
that town, intended to bring him up to his ows trade, and
took litth heed of his education. Nature, however, bad
endowed him with fine talents, and an ardour of difpofition,
which excited him to nobler At an early period
he gave indications of his turn for fludy, by eagerly perufing
every book that fell in his way, and omitting 50 opportunity
to acquire inftruétions from others. His father, finding
that he was thus led to segle¢t his work, endeavoured to
reftrain him from what he regarded as idle purfuits; but
after fome fruitlefs attempts, a difference was produced be-
tween them, which at length terminated in an rupture,
and ‘Thomas left his father’s houfe, and ied the widow
of a taylor, with whom he refided st Nuneaton, where he
continued fome time working at his trade, aud improvin
his knowledge. Here he became acquainted with a .
ling pediar, who lodged in the fame houfe, and who, to
the profeflion of an itinerant merchant, had united the more

le one of a fortune-teller. An intimacy was formed

ween them, and as the pedlar was going to Briftol, he
lent, during his abfence, Cocker’s Arithmetic to Simpfon,
to which was fubjoined a thort appendix on Algebra; and a
book en Genitures, by Partridge, the almanac-maker.
Thefe books he ftudied fo clofely, that on the pedlar’s re-
tura, he was aftonifhed to find that Simpfon was little
inferior to himfelf in the art of calculating nativities ; and he
prediéted that he would thortly be his fuperior. En-
phecy, he at firlt determined to embark
in the trade of a fortune-teller ; 2nd by this occupation, and
teaching a {chool, he found means to fupport himfelf with-
out weaving, which he now entirely zbandoned, and was
foon regarded as the oracle of the neighbourhood. From
this time he feems to have lived very comfortably, till an
unfortunate event involved him in a deal of trouble. Hav-
ing undertaken to raife the devil, in order to anfwer certain
queftions to a young woman, who copfulted him refpecting

the her {weetheart, then abfent at fea, the credulous girl was fo

frightened on the appearance of a man from beneath fome
ftraw, who reprefented the devil, that fhe fell into violent
fits, from which fhe was with difficulty recovered, and
which for a confiderable time threatened infanity or fatuity.
Tn confequence of this exertion of his art, he was obliged to
leave the place, and he removed to Derby, where re-
mained a few years, working at his trade by day, and in-
ftruéting pupils in the evening. He became a writer in the
Lady’s Diary in the year 1736: his firft queitions were
ftated in e, and are of that kind as fhew that at this
iod he had made fome progrefs in mathematical know-
. He from this period applied himfelf with great
ardour to every branch of the analytic {cience, and acquired
a deep infight into the dotirine of fluxions, upon which he
afterwards publithed a work, which is even now regarded
as among the beit, 1f not the very belt, a in our lan.
guage. After he had given up aftrology, its emolu-
ments, he found himfelf reduced to great ftraits, notwith-
ftanding his induitry to provide a fubfittence for his family
at 3 and on account he determined to remove to
London, which he did in the year 1736. When he arrived
at the capital, unknown and without recommendation, he
for fome time followed his bufinefs in Spitalfields, and
taught mathematics in the evening, and at other {pare hours.
His exertions were attended with fuch fuccefs, that he re-
turned to the country, and brought to town his wife, with
her three children. The number of his fcholars increafed,
and he was encouraged to make propofals for publithing by
’ fubfcription

6

SIM

fub{cription “ A New Treatife of Fluxions.’? The book
was printed in 1737. Inthe year 1740 he publifhed « A
Treatife on the Nature and Laws of Chance.’?? This is a
very thin and {mall quarto; and to this treatife are annexed
full and clear inveftigations of two important problems,
added to the fecond edition of De Moivre’s Book of
Chances, as alfo two new methods for the fummation of
feries. Mr. Simpfon’s next publication was a volume, in
quarto, of “ Effays on feveral curious and interefting Sub-
jects in fpeculative and mixed Mathematics,’”? printed in
1740. Soon after the publication of this book, he was
chofen member of the Royal Academy at Stockholm. This
was followed by a fmaller volume, on “ The Doétrine of
Annuities and Reverfions, deduced from general and evident
Principles, with ufeful Tables, fhewing the Values of fingle
and joint Lives.’”? Next year came out an ‘ Appendix,
containing Remarks on De Moivre’s Book on the fame
Subje&, with Anfwers to fome perfonal and malignant Re-
prefentations in the Preface tu it.”? In 1743 he publifhed
his ‘* Mathematical Differtations on a variety of phyficil
and analytical Subjeéts.”? Shortly after this he publifhed
«* A Treatife on Algebra,’? which in the year 1755 he er-
larged and confiderably improved. After this he gave the
public his « Elements of Geometry,’’ with their applica-
tion to- menfuration, to the determination of maxima and
minima, and to the conftru€tion of a great variety of
geometrical problems. This work has pafled through
many editions, and is {till read in fome places devoted to the
education of the young ; though we think it has been fuper-
feded by other treatifes of more modern date. The firft
edition of this book occafioned fome controverfy between
Mr. Thomas Simpfon and Dr. Robert Simfon, the author
of a well-known edition of Enuclid’s Elements. See
SIMSON.

In the year 1748, Mr. Simpfon publifhed “ Trigo-
nometry, plane and {pherical, with the Conitruétion and
Application of Logarithms.’”? In 1750 he publifhed a new
edition of his ** Treatife on Fluxions,’?? which, however, he
wifhed to be confidered rather as a new work than a new
edition of an old one. In 1752 appeared in 8vo. a work,
entitled “* Select Exercifes for young Proficients in Mathe-
matics ;”? and in 1757 he publifhed his laft work, entitled
‘¢ Mifcellaneous Tratts,’?—‘ which,” fays Dr. Hutton,
‘* was a valuable bequeft, whether we confider the dignity
and importance of the fubjects, or the fublime and accurate
manner in which they are treated.’ Such are the fcientific
works of Mr. Simpfon. Through the intereft of Mr. Jones,
the father of the celebrated fir William Jones, Mr. Simpfon
was, in 1743, appointed to the profeflorfhip of mathematics,
then vacant, in the Royal Academy of Woolwich; and in
1745 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society. On
this occafion, in confequence of his very moderate circum-
ftances, he was excufed his admiffion fees, and from giving
bond. for the fettled future annual payments. As a pro-
feffor, he exerted all his talents in inttru€ting the pupils
committed to his care. He had, it has been fajd, a peculiar
and happy method of teaching, which, united to a great
degree of mildnefs, engaged the attention, and conciliated
the efteem and friendfhip of his fcholars. Mr. Simpfon
died in the year 1761, in the 51ft year of his age. Befides
the works already mentioned, Pe wrote feveral papers, which
were read before the Royal Society, and printed in their
TranfaGtions. He was not only a contributor to, but for
fome years editor of, the Lady’s Diary, during which, viz.
from the year 1754 to 1760, he raifed that work to a high
degree of refpectability. In 1760, when a plan was in
agitation for erecting Blackfriars bridge, he was confulted

SIM

by the committee in regard to the beft form for the arches.
On this occafion he preferred the femicircular form; and
befides his report to the committee, he wrote fome letters
on the fubjeét, which were afterwards publifhed in the
Gentleman’s Magazine.

Simpson, Jonn, was born at Leicefter, in the month of
March 1746. He was educated for the miniftry among the
Proteftant diffenters, under the care of Mr. (afterwards Dr.)
John Aikin, who kept a flourifhing fchool at Kibworth, in
Leicefterfhire, and afterwards an academy at Warrington,
for the education of young men devoted to the miniftry.
From Warrington Mr. Simpfon went, in 1765, to Glafyow,
where he fpent two years in this ancient feat of learning,
and where he attended the letures of the excellent Dr.
Leechman. At Glafgow he remained two years, when he
purfued his ftudies in a private manner among: his relations,
till the month of April 1772, when he fettled at Notting-
ham, and from therce removed, in 1777, to Waltham{tow,
where’ he became paftor of the congregation of diffenters,
which had previoufly enjoyed the joint fervices of Mr.
Farmer and Mr. Radcliffe. Here he remained but two
years, and after this it does not appear that he was fettled
any where as minifter, but continued preaching occafionally
to the end of his life. Asa preacher he acquired confider-
able reputation, but he is chiefly known as a critic on the
Holy Scriptures. His principal work is entitled Eflays
on the Language of Scripture,’ in two volumes o¢tavo.
Befides this he publifhed many other works, among which
are “ An Effay to fhew that Chriftianity is belt conveyed in
the Hiftoric Form ;” “ A View of the internal and pre-
fumptive Evidences of Chriftianity,’? which is a moft ufeful
performance, and it has been faid may be ranked, in merit
and value, with the moral demonftrations of the truth of
the Chriftian religion of Taylor, Locke, Lardner, Clarke,
and Paley. Mr. Simpfon died in the year 1813. He
was an Unitarian in the largeft fenfe of the word; and
agreeably to the enlightened, confcientious, and general

confiftency of his charaéter, his fpeculative belief infpired

him with the moft genuine fentiments of rational piety, and
an elevated devotion. He was firm in his principles, fteady
in his conduét, and courteous in his manners; modett,
humble, affe@tionate, difinterefted, and generous. See Ser-
mons on the Death of Mr. Simpfon, by the Rev. T. Jervis
and the Rev. Hunter.

Simpson, CuristopHer, an Englifh mufician of the
feventeenth century, extremely admired for his performance
on the viol da gamba, or fix-ftringed-bafe, and general
knowledge of mufic. The bafe-viol with fix ftrings, and a
fretted finger-board, was in fuch general favour in his time,
that Aaee all the firft muficians of our country, whofe
names are come down to us, were performers upon it, and.
compofed pieces purpofely to fhew its powers; but parti-
cularly Coperario, William Lawes, Jenkins, Dr. Colman,
Lupo, Mico, and Loofemore.

Simpfon, during the lat years of the Ufurpation, pub-
lifhed a treatife on this inftrument, entitled “The Divifion
Violitt, or an Introduétion to the playing upon a Ground.’?
But this inftrument, lke the lute, without which no con-
cert could fubfift, was foon after fo totally banifhed, that
its form and conftruétion were fcarcely known, till the ar-
rival of Abel in England, whofe tafte, knowledge, and ex-
preflion upon it were fo exquifite, that, inftead of renovat-
ing its ufe, they feem to have kept lovers of mufic at an
awful diftance from the inftrument, and in utter defpair of
ever approaching fuch excellence. The inftrument itfelf,
however, was fo nafal, that this great mufician, with all his
fcience and power of hand, could not prevent his moft en-

thufialtic

r
“

SIM

thufiattic admirers from lamenting that he had not, early w
i to the violoncello,
ufe had continued, or were rellored,
impfon, from the univerlal change of tate
every {pecies of mufic, would be of but little
to a fludent on that inflrument now; when rapid di-
no other merit than the difficulty of executing
ve been totally fupplanted by vocal expreflion,
and rich harmony to which the num-
is favourable. Rough, but warm enco-
fixed to Sunpfou'’s works by Der.
Jenkins, Mathew Lock, and others, which
ith what perifhable materials mutfical fame is

tranflation of this book into Latin, for the ufe of fo-
with the original text on the oppofite page, was
by the author in 1665, under the title of + Chelys
i Editio fecunda,” thin folio.

Behdes thefe, Simplon publithed, in 1667, “ A Com-
ium of practical Mufic, in five Parts, containing 1. The
iments . 2. The Principles of Compofition.
i 4. The Form of Figurate Def-
5- The Contrivance of Canon.”

PEE

aii
Me

>Et
f

the kind, more frequent! tes new doubts and per-
Tig eyeing ei a Ey
learned from moft books ; and what a ftudent is unable to
find in one, if out of the reach of a mafter, mult be fought

da sgrend. in the wopel sre,
hy Carats, duke of Newcalle
was a Roman Catholic, and patronized by fir Robert Bolles,
Place, with whom he refided during the Inter-
prea feems to have been in clofe friendhhip with
skins and Lock, as, on all occafions, they reciprocally

praife each other.
» Repmonp, an eminent performer on the haut-
bois. was a natural fon of Dubourg, the famous per-

spec on arene. 9 and ferved semmcepciontip to lam,
utbois Simpfon, when out of his
4 the ~ on his inftrument fo

Simpfon was en-
as firft hautbois at Covent Garden, and in a few years
himfelf fo ufeful in bringing out mufical per-
ee an Dee sprointed jit me
an ative important onage at t
om ftant di-

Ht
i
i
i
ue

me,
ae
g

i

4

if
i
iH
i
4

i
f

SIM

SIMPULUM, among the Romans, 2 veflel with 2 long
handle, and made like a cruct? It was ufed in (ecrifices and
Libations, for taking a very little wine at » time,

SIMRAR, w Geagrapie. a town of Hindoollan, in
Oude; 24 miles E.S.E. of Fyzabad.

SIMREE, « town of Bengal; 32 miles N.N.W. of
Boghpour,

dIMSAT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govers-
ment of Diarbekir; 54 miles W. of Diarbdckir.

SIMSBURY, a polt-town of America, in Hartford
county, Connecticut; 14 miles N.W. of Hartford. Cop-

~ore has been found in this place. It contains 1966 in-

bitants; 386 miles from Wahhin on.

SIMSIA, im Botany, fo called by Mr. Brown, is a jult
tribute to the botanical learning aed fkill of Dr. Joho Sums,
F.R.S. and F.L.S. the continuator, fince the fourtecath
volume, of the popular and very uleful Botanical Magazine,
of the late Mr. ean Cunris ; fee that oxi: =a
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 152. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 367-
—Clafs and order, Titrandria Menogynia. Nat. Ord. bre
teacea, Jufl, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, unlefs the corolla be taken for
fuch, Cor. Petals four, inferior, linear-oblong, equal, de-
ciduous; reflexed at the extremity. Neélary none. Stam.
Filaments four, awl-thaped, prominent, inferted into the
difk of each petal; anthers roundith, cohering, fo that the
adjoining lobes of each make ene common cell, at len
apersting. Pifl. Germen fuperior, obovate; ihyle cyla-
drical ; fiigma dilated, concave. eric. Nut inverfely co-
nical, of one cell, naked.

‘EM. Ch. Petals four, equal, reflexed, without netari-
ferous glands. Stamens prominent. Anthers cohering,
their adjoining lobes making a common cell. Stigma di-
lated, concave. Nut inverfely conical.

A New Holland genus of {mooth fhrubs, of humble

wth. eaves alternate, thread-hhaped, forked; their

gro
Sootfalks dilated at the bafe. Flowers {mall, yellow, {mooth,

compofing {mall, globofe, terminal heads, difpofed either
in clufters or panicles, with or without 2 fhort common ia-

, and with a minute braGea under each flower. Two
{pecies only are mentioned.

1. S. tenwifolia. Slender-leaved Simfia—Heads naked,
moftly folitary on each branch of the panicle, accompanied
by {mall partial bracteas.—Fouud by Mr. Brown, on ftony
fides of hills, in Lewin’s land, on the fouth coaft of New
Holland.

2. S. ancthifolia. Fennel-leaved Simfia.—Heads nume-
rous in each panicle, and about as long as its partial
branches, accompanied by imbricated involucral leaves.—
Gathered by Mr. Brown, on the fandy fea-fhores of the
fame country.

SIMS

done t credit to an feffional
enc. an A wy Synarme was denominated the phi-
ply

lofophy and of the {chools, and was able to fu

with great credit t ieee ofn Aoltadlation in. Gnclets

’ languages. ile he was purfuing a courfle of

theology, as preparatory to his entering into orders, mathe-

matics took athens hehehe eer -
y

SIMSON.

fay that he amufed himfelf in his favourite purfuit, while
he was aétually preparing his exercifes for the divinity hall.
When fatigued with fpeculations, in which he could not
meet with certainty to reward his labours, he relieved his
mind, ardent in the purfuit of truth, by turning to mathe-
matics, with which he never failed to meet with what would
fatisfy and refrefh him. For a long time he reftricted him-
felf to a very moderate ufe of the cordial, fearing that he
fhould foon exhauft the ftock which fo limited and abftra&
a f{eience was capable of yielding ; at length, however, his
fears were diflipated on this head, for he found that the
more he learned, and the farther he’ advanced, the more
there was to learn, and a {till wider field opened to his view.
He accordingly determined to make the mathematics the
profeffion of his life, and gave himfelf up to the ftudy with-
out referve. It is faid, that his original incitement to this
fcience as a treat, as fomething to pleafe and refrefh the
mind in the midft of feverer tafks, gave a particular turn to
his mathematical purfuits, from which he could never deviate.
He devoted himfelf chiefly to the ancient method of pure
geometry, and felt a decided diflike to the Cartefian method
of fubitituting fymbols for the operations of the mind, and
{till lefs was he willing to admit fymbols for the objects of
difcuffion, for lines, furfaces, folids, and their affections.
He was rather difpofed in the folution of an algebraical
problem, where quantity alone is to be confidered, to fub-
ititute figure and its affe¢tions for the algebraical fymbols,
and to convert the algebraic formula into an analogous geo-
metrical theorem. In fo little refpet did he come at laft
to confider algebraic analyfis, as to denominate it a mere
mechanical knack, in which he would fay we proceed with-
out ideas of any kind, and retain a refult without meaning,
and therefore without any conviction of its truth.

About the age of twenty-five Dr. Simfon was chofen
profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of Glafgow. He
immediately went to London, and there formed an ac-
quaintance with the moft eminent men who at that time
flourifhed in the metropolis. Among thefe was the cele-
brated Halley, of whom he always {poke with the moft
marked refpeét, faying that he had more acute penetration,
and the moft juft tafte in that fcience, of any man he had
ever known. Dr. Simfon alfo admired the maiterly fteps
which fir Ifaac Newton was accuftomed to take in his in-
veftigations, and his manner of fubftituting geometrical
figures for the quantities which are obferved in the pheno-
mena of nature. He was accuttomed to fay, that the 39th
propofition of the firft book of the Principia, was the moft
important propofition that had ever been exhibited to the
phyfico-mathematical philofopher, and he ufed to illuftrate
to the higher clafles of his pupils, the fuperiority of the
geometrical over the algebratc analyfis, by comparing the
folution given by Newton, of the inverfe problem of cen-
tripetal forces, in the 42d propofition of that book, with
the one given by John Bernouilli, in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris, for the year 1713.

Returning to his mathematical chair, Dr. Simfon dif-
charged the duties of a profeflor, for more than half a cen-
tury, with great honour to the univerfity and to himfelf.
It is fcarcely neceflary to add, that in his lectures he always
made ufe of the geometry of Euclid, in preference to thofe
works which he thought leaned too much to analyfis. His
method of teaching was fimple and perfpicuous, his elocu-
tion clear, and his manner eafy and impreflive. He uni-
formly engaged the refpe& and affeétion of his pupils.

It was owing to the advice of Dr. Halley that our author
fo early direGted his efforts to the reftoration of the ancient
geometers. He had recommended this to him as the mott

certain means of acquiring a high reputation, as well as to
improve his tatte, and he prefented him with a copy of
Pappus’s Mathematical ColleGtions, enriched with his own
notes. The perf{picuity of the ancient geometrical analyfis,
and the elegance of the folutions which it affords, induced
him to engage in an arduous attempt, which was nothing lefs
than the entire recovery of this method. His firft tafk was
the reftoration of Euclid’s Porifms, from the {eanty and
mutilated account of that work in a fingle paflage of Pappus.
He, however, fucceeded, and fo early as 1718, feems to
have been in pofleffion of this method of inveftigation, which
was confidered by the eminent geometers of antiquity as their
fureft guide through the intricate labyrinths of the higher
geometry. In 1723 Dr. Simfon gave a fpecimen of this
difcovery in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions ; and after that
period he continued with unremitting afliduity to reftore
thofe choice porifms which Euclid had colleéted, as of the
moft general ufe in the folution of difficult problems.
Having obtained the object of which he was in purfuit, he
turned his thoughts to other works of the ancient geo-
meters, and the Porifms of Euclid had now only an occa-
fiona] {hare of his attention. The Loci Plani of Apollonius
were the next taflk in which he engaged, and which he com-
pleted in the year 1738 ; but after it was printed he was far
from being fatisfied that he had given the identical propo-
fitions of that ancient geometer ; he withheld the impreflion
feveral years, and it was with extreme reluétance that he
yielded to the entreaties of his mathematical friends in pub-
lifhing the work in 1746, with fome emendations, in thofe
cafes in which he thought he had deviated the moft from
the author. Anxious for his own reputation, and fearing that
he had not done juftice to Apollonius, he foon recalled all
the copies that were in the hands of the bookfellers, and
the impreffion lay by him feveral years. He afterwards
revifed and corrected the work, and even then did not, with-
out fome degree of hefitation, allow it to come into the
world as the reftoration of Apollonius. The work was,
however, received by the public with great approbation ; the
author’s name became better known; and he was now con-
fidered as among the very firft and moft elegant geometers
of the age. He had, previoufly to this, publifhed his Conic
SeGtions, a treatife of uncommon merit, whether confidered
as a complete reftitution of the celebrated work of Apol-
lonius Pergeus, or as an excellent fyftem of this ufeful branch
of mathematics. This work was intended as an introduétion,
or preparatory piece, to the ftudy of Apollonius, and he has
accordingly accommodated it to this purpofe. The inti-
mate acquaintance which Dr. Simfon had now acquired
with all the original works of the ancient geometers, as well
as with their commentators and critics, encouraged him to
hope that he fhould be able to reftore to its original ftate
that moft ufeful of them all, the Elements of Euclid, and
under the impreffion of this idea, he began ferioufly to make
preparation for a new and more perfeét edition. The errors
which had crept into this celebrated work appeared to re-
quire the moft careful efforts for their extirpation ; and the
data alfo, which were in like manner the introduétion to the
whole art of geometrical invettigation, feemed to call for the
nobleft exertions of a real matter in the fcience. The data
of Euclid have fortunately been preferved, but the work
was neglected, and the few ancient copies, which amount only
to three or four, are faid to be wretchedly mutilated and er-
ronecus. It had, however, been reftored, with fome degree
of fuccefs, by previous authors; but Dr. Simfon’s view of
the whole analytical fyftem pointed out to him many parts
which ftill required amendment. He therefore made its
reftitution a joint tafk with that of the Elements, and all

lovers

_ ee

SiM

lovers of are ready to acknow
their obli — eer him for his ning contains the
Elements and the Data, and which has gove through mao
imprefiions in quarto aod o¢tavo, in the Lat and Engl

nother work on which Dr. Simfon beflowed great labour
and pains, was the Seétio Determinata of Apollonius, which,
though begun carly, was not given to the world till after his
death, wheo it was printed with the work on Porilms of
Euclid, at the expence of the late carl Staahapes who
ee? et ee mebenstion sad who be many
had a contlant correfpondence r. Sim-
co eam of the flor, in 1768, the noble

lord Mr. Clow, profellor of logic in the univerfity
of Glory 1 whol care he had left all his papers, to
make a jon of fuch as might ferve to fupport and ex-
tend his reputation as the reftorer of ancient
geometry.

* The life of gen man,” fays his biographer, “
with much variety ; and a mat ician im-

» is more abitraéted, perhaps, than any other
ordinary occurrences of life, and even the

ordinary topics of converiation. Such was the cafe with
Dr. Simfon. Ass he never entered into the marriage ttate,
and had no occafion for the commodious houfe in the uni-

i with chambers, {pacious enough
modation, and for containing his large, but well-felected,
collection of books, but without any decoration, or even
convenient furniture. His official fervant acted as valet,
footman, and bed-maker ; and as this retirement was en-
tirely devoted to ftudy, he entertained no company at his
chambers, but on occafions, when he wifhed to fee his

him to
an affiftant in his profeffional labours. He died in
the age of 81, leaving to the univerfity his valuable
1s kept from the reft of the books.
complete colleétion of mathe-
} manufcripts in the kingdom, many of
being rendered doubly valuable by the addition of
Simfon’s notes. It is open for the public benefit, but
it is limited b icular rules and reftri¢tions.
pita’ haturs sed br tad « Sine cowses.
in his old age he retained much graceful-
nd dignity of manner, He was naturally difpofed to
though he feldom made the firft advances

tf
H
Fr

i

yy
iH

'
E
d

;
E
k

towards acquaintance, he always behaved with great affa-
ee ” See Dr. William Trail’s Account of
the Life and Writings of Dr. Simfon.

SIMULACRUM, among the Romans. See Ipor and

Inorartry.
SIMULATION, in Ethics, is making a wy appear
which does not exift ; and thus it is diftinguifhed from
mulation, which is keeping that which exits from appear-
ing. See DissimvtaTion.
IMULCANDY, in Geography, a town of Bengal;

60 miles N.E. of Pucculoe. ;

SIMULYA, a town of Bengal; 25 miles N.N.E. of

Dacca.

SIMUS, in £ the name ufed by fome authors
for the nafus, or nafe, a fifth common in the large rivers in
Germany, and fomewhat refembling our chub, and in fome

e&ts our common rudd.
MYRA, Suman, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Vor. XXXII.

SIN

two leagues N. of mount Libanus,
aud eight lea -5.E. of Autaradus, and id le &.
of the river Ker. Strabo fays that it was inhabited by the
Zemarites, Ptolemy i betwees the mouth af the
rivers Eleutherus and

SIN, the kingdoms of Laos and Camboja, an extenfive
conte of India, on the other fide of the Ganges, according
to y:

Six, or Zin, a city and defart &. of the Holy Land, ia
Arabia Petrea: this gave namé to the wildernefe of Sin,
The feripture diitin two cities and two defarts of
Sin; one is written el Sin, with a famech, and the other
1M) fim, with a teade, The firlt was near Egypt aod the
Red fea. The Ifraclites, in their march, entered the wilder-
nefs of Sin immediately after they had pailed the fea, be-
tween Elim and Sinai. ( Exod. xvi. 1. cola 1.) Here the
manna defcended upon t The other Sin was fouth of Pa.
leftine, but towards the Dead fea. Kalcth was in the defart
of Zin (Deut. xxii. 51.) ; from this wildernefs they fent
out the {pies Here Mofes and Aaron offended the d,
at the waters of ftrife. (Numb. xni.21.) The land of Ca-
naan, and the tribe of Judah, had the defart of Zin, or Zina,
for their fouthern limit. Numb, xxvii, 14. xxiv. 3.
Joh. xv. 3.

Sin, in Theology, denotes want of conformity to the law
of God, given as arule to the reafonable creature, and fo
far as any creature is capable of conforming to it, in the
things which that law requires, or the tran{greflion of that
law in thofe things which it forbids; and under this de-
finition are comprehended both the fins of omiffion and fins
of commiffion.

Plato defines fin to be fomething void, both of number
and meafure; by way of contradiction to virtue, which he
makes to confift in mufical numbers, &c. See Vinrug,
and Ruyranus. °

Accordingly, Suarez obferves, that an a@ion becomes
finful, by its wanting a due commentfuration ; for as every
thing meafured refers to fome rule, from which, if it de-
viate, it becomes incommenfurate ; and as the rule of man’s
will is the law of God, fo, &c. Suarez adds, that all evil
actions are prohibited by fome divine law ; and that this is
required to the perfection of the divine providence.

Simplicius, and after him the fchoolmen, aflert, that evil
is not any pofitive thing, contrary to 3 a mere
defe& and accident. : | dance :

Sins are diitinguithed into original and a@ual.

Sry, Original, has been divided by fome divines into inbe-
rent and imputed: the former term is ufed to denote that
corruption or degeneracy of nature, which is faid to be pro-
pagated by the laws of, generation from the firlt man to
all his offspring, by reafon of which man is utterly indif-
poled, difabled, and made oppofite unto all that is {piritually
gent and wholly inclined to all evil, and that continually,

ence, it is faid, proceed all a¢tual tran{greflions, T’
general caufe and und of this propagation of a finful
nature, are ee Mee to man’s common intercit in
the guilt or condemnation of Adam’s firft fin; but the man-
ner in which this hereditary corruption is conveyed, is not
particularly explained, though fome have fuppofed that it
may refult from the conftitution of the body, and the de.
pendence of the mind upon it.

Father Malebranche accounts for it from natural caufes
thus: mean at this day retain, in the brain, all the traces
and impreffions of their firft parents. For all animals pro-
duce their like, and with like traces in the brain; whence
it is that animals of the fame kind have the fame fympa-
thies and antipathies, and do the fame things on the {ame

5sE occafions ;

Syria, ituated ona

SIN.

oceafions ; and our firft parents, after their tranfgreflion,
received fuch deep traces in the brain, by the impreflion of
fenfible objeéts, that it was very poffible they might com-
municate them to their children.

Now, as it is neceflary, according to the order eftablifhed
by nature, that the thoughts of the foul be conformable to
the traces in the brain; it may be faid, that as foon as we
are formed in the womb, we are infected with the corruption
of our parents: for having traces in the brain like thofe of
the perfons who gave us being, it 1s neceffary we have the
fame thoughts, and the fame inclinations, with regard to
fenfible objects. Thus, of courfe, we muft be born with
concupifcence and original fin. With concupifcence, if
that be nothing but the natural effort.the traces of the
brain make on the mind to attach it to fenjible things ; and
with original fin, if that be nothing but the preyalency
of concupifcence ; nothing, in reality, but thefe effects con-
fidered as viftorions, and as mafters of the mind and heart
of the child.

Imputed original fin denotes that guilt or obligation to
punithment, to which all the polterity of Adam are fubje@,
by the imputation of his tranfgreffion. This is called the
guilt of Adam’s firft fin, in which the finfulnefs of that
itate into which man fell is faid partly to confift; and it is
denominated original fin, in order to diftinguifh it from adéual
fin, or perfonal guilt. This do&rine of imputed guilt has
been explained and vindicated by fuppofing a covenant made
with Adam, (called by divines the ‘* covenant of works,’’
fee CovENANT,) as a public perfon, not for himfelf only,
but for his poiterity, in confequence of which he became
the federal head, furety, or reprefentative of all mankind;
and they defcending from him by ordinary generation, finned
in him, and fell with him, in his firft tranfgreffion. It has
been dehated, how far the imputation of Adam’s fin reaches :
fome haye maintained, that it extends to final condemnation,
and eternal mifery: others have fuggefted, that the fin of
Adam has fubjeéted his pofterity to an utter extinétion of
being ; fo that all, who die in their infancy, fall into a ttate
of annihilatton, excepting thofe who are the feed of God’s
people, who, by virtue of the bleflings of the covenant made
with Abraham, and the -promife to the feed of the righte-
ous, fhall, through the grace and power of Chrift, obtain
a part in a happy refurreCtion, in which other infants fhall
have no fhare.

It feems beft to acknowledge, fays Dr. Doddridge, that
we know nothing certain concerning the ftate of infants,
and therefore can aflert nothing politively ; but that they
are in the hands of a merciful God, who, as he cannot con-
fiftently with juftice and truth give them a fenfe of guilt
for an action they never committed, fo probably will not
hold their fouls in being merely to make them fenfible of
pain for the guilt of a remote anceitor, their exiftence in 2
itate of everlafting infenfibility (which was Dr. Ridgley’s
{cheme) feems hardly intelligible ; we mutt, therefore, either
fall in with the above-mentioned hypothefis, or fuppofe
them all to have a part in the refurrection to glory, which
feems to put them all on a level, without a due diftinGtion
in favour of the feed of believers ; or elfe muft fuppofe they
go through fome new ftate of trial, concerning which the
Scripture 1s wholly filent.

Such is the doétrine of original fin, both inherent and im-
puted, as fome divines, eminent as {cholars and theologians,
have ftated it. In proof of the degeneracy or depravity of
human nature, they have appealed to obfervation and ex-
perience, and they have referred to a_ variety of texts of
{cripture, in which, according to their ideas of them, it is
either implied or exprefled. ‘To thofe who obje@, that the

phenomenon of univerfal corruption in adult perfons may
be accounted for by imitation, and to want of early in{truc-
tion, reftraint, and difcipline, they reply, that the f{erip-
tures feem to trace it to a higher fource, and that children
often manifett. propenfities towards thofe vices of which.
they have feen no examples; to which it is added, that
there are many examples of eminent virtue in the world, and.
yet they are not fo frequently, or fo eafily imitated, as thofe
of a vicious nature, which plainly fhews a bias on the mind
towards vice. Hence they fay, Pagans themfelyes, who
have been moft diftinguifhed by their ftudy of human nature,
have acknowledged, in ftrong terms, an inward depravation
and corruption adding a difproportionate force to evil ex-
amples, and rendering the mind averfe to good. Thofe
who maintain, that the fin of Adam is imputed to all who:
defcended from him in the way of ordinary generation,
allege, in proof of this opinion, that we are all born with fuch
conititutions as will produce fome evil inclinations, which
we probably fhould not have had in our original ttate ;
which evil inclinations are reprefented in fcripture as derived
from our parents, and therefore may be ultimately traced
up to the firft finful parents from whom we def{cended ;
—that infants are plainly liable to difeafes and death, though
they have not committed any perfonal tranfgreffion, which,
while they cannot know the law, it feems impoflible they
fhould be capable of, (Rom. v. 12—14.) ;—that the feeds:
of difeafes and death were undoubtedly derived to children
from their immediate parents, and from them may be traced
up to the firft difeafed and mortal parent, z. e. Adam ;—
that the fcripture teaches us to confider Adam as having
brought a fentence of death upon his whole race, and ex-
prefsly fays, that many were conflituted finners, 2. e. on ac-
count of it are treated as fuch, (1 Cor. xv. 22. Rom. v.
12—19) ;—that the fin of Adam brought upon himfelf de-
praved inclinations, an impaired conftitution, and at length
death :—and there is no reafon to believe, that if man had
continued in a flate of innocence, his offspring would have
been thus corrupt, and thus calamitous from their birth.
Hence, it has been inferred, that the covenant was made
with Adam, not only for himfelf, but in fome meafure for
his potterity ; fo that he was to be confidered as the great
head and reprefentative of all that were to defcend from
him. ;

On the other hand, many divines, no lefs eminent as
fcholars and theologians, than thofe whofe fentiments we
have already ftated, have difputed the validity of the argu-
ments alleged in proof of the doétrine of original fin ;
and whilft ome of them have difowned the doctrine iz toto,
as irrational and unfcriptural, others have allowed that part
of it which comprehends the depravity of the human
fpecies, but have rejected the imputation of Adam’s fin ta
his pofterity. Accordingly Limborch, rejeéting and refut-
ing the imputation of Adam’s fin, acknowledges, that men
are now born lefs pure than Adam was created, and with a
certain inclination to fin; but this inclination cannot pro-
perly be called fin, or ahabit of fin propagated to them from
Adam; but merely an inclination to efteem and purfue
what is agreeable to the flefh, arifing from the bodily con-
ftitution tranfmitted to them by their parents. Inclinations
and appetites of this kind, being moft agreeable to the
flefh, are contrary to the divine will, as God by prohibit-
ing them tries the readinefs of our obedience, and of courfe
thefe inclinations are inclinations to fin. But, if it be afked,
fays this author, whether there be in human nature a cer-
tain original corruption or habit of fin propagated from
Adam to his pofterity, which may truly and properly be
called fin, by which the underftanding, and will, and all the

affections

SIN.

are fo depraved, that they are inclined only to
and that all mankind are by nature fubjeét to the
of God, fuch kind of corruption is confittent nei-
ther with feripture nor with right reafon. ‘The feripture,

he fays, teaches no fuch dottrine, as that which charges in-
fants with a moral corruption, that is truly and properly fin.
See Deut. i. i Romans, ix, 11.) Our

39 Jonah, iv. 11.
i it to his difeiples to be as little children.

(See alfo 1 Cor. xiv. 20.) ‘This notion, fays Limborch, is
to the juitice of God, who would not punifh men
with this moral corruption, from which all actual fins pro-
coed, and which leads to future perdition and mifery, one
be the author of fin. Befides, 1 cannot be con-
how this fin can be propagated; it cannot belong
i nn rag immediately from God, nor
it in the body, which is rea of fin. But as
be ated, fo may a peculiar tempera-
itution, a acacinaeane
objects, which, immoderately in ma
ut is not -_ in ill Moreover, ~4
to punifhment, which is involuntary ; but ori-
ion is involuntary. a ex > many
many arguments urged by vocates
reenavah writer, (Dr. Taylor,) who has
in this controverfy, on the fide of the
i examination of the dotrine of
fame plan with Dr. Clarke, in his
the Trinity,”’ by citing and explain-
of feri which exprefsly {peak of
the tran{j m. He a rete
of the firft tranfgreflion are {poken of
ut five times in the whole bible, twice
in the New Teftament. The firit
is Gen. ii. 17. In this he fays, death is op-
to life, and mutt be fo . But not one word
occurs in this text relating to Adam’s pofterity. 2. The con-
Sealed anigitiies of Adan sod E>e-are related

4

if

‘

|
‘fai

EE
i!
e

E

i

Hi

7

ne
4

in Gen. iti, from the 7th verfe to the end of the chapter.

The natural ences were fhame and fear, the common
effeéts of was perfonal, and could belong only
to The judicial confequences pertained either
to the ferpent, the woman, or the man. As far as they
relate to the man, Adam became obnoxious to death,
which, as our author conceives, was death in law, or eternal

death ; and if the law had been immediately executed, his
i i in his loins mutt have been extin&.
it is alleged, that there is not a word of a curfe upon

parents ; but they are not inflicted
becaufe punifhment includes guilt ; but
in the nature of things could bey guilty
We may fuffer by their fin, and a¢tually do
fuffer by it; but we are not punifhed for their fin, becaufe

we are not guilty of it; this fuffering is eventually a
oe. Accordingly it appears evident in our world,
increafe of natural (at leaft in fome degree) is the

yu
toes t moral evil.

a third text occurs in the New Teltament, viz.
1 . = Here it is faid, the death from which
be releafed at the refurreGtion, is the
only death that came upon all men in confequence of Adam’s

f dee, all men are mortal ; all lofe their

life in Adam, and from him our mortality commences; and
it is equally undeniable, that by Chritt came the refurrettaon
of the dead. From this place we cannot conclude, fays
our author, that any other evil or death came upon mas-
kind in confequence of Adam's firft trau{grefiion, befides
that death from which all mankind thall be delivered at the
refurreGtion, whatever that death be.

4- The mot difficult patlage is that which occurs in
Rom, v, 12—19. A popular advocate of the dottrine of
original fin (Dr. Watts) thinks, that Adam's being a federal
head, and our deriving a finful nature from hun, msy be col-
leéted from this text. In this paflage our author appreheads
that the apoltle is {peaking of che death which takes place
with regard to all mankind, when the prefeot life is extin-
guithed ; and that by judgment to condemnation, or a judi-
cial aét of condemnation, the apoftle means the being ad-
judged to the fore-mentioned death. The words “ as by
one man’s difobedience many were made finners,’’ are (fays
Dr. Taylor) of the fame fignification with thofe in the fore-
going verfe, “* as by the offence of one jelgenet came upon
all men to condemnatios ;"’ and therefore they mean ing
more nor lefs than that by one man’s difobedience, the many,
that is, mankind, were made fubjeét to death by the wud
cial a& of God. The apoitle, being a Jew, was ac-
quainted with the idiom of the Hebrew language ; and ac-
cording to that language, “ being made finners’’ may very well
fignify being adjudged or condemned to death. (Bee Exod,
xxii. 9g. Deut. xxv. 1. 1 Kings, vill. 32. Job, ix. 20. x. 2.
xxxii, 3. xxxiv. 17. xl. 8. Pi. xxxvil. 33. xciv. 21. Prov.
xvii, 15. If. 1.9. liv. 17.) In the Oxek text it is not
eynorro, became finners, but xakpaberas, were conflituted
finners ; viz. by the will and appointment of the judge.
Befidee, it is here exprefsly faid, that the many, é. ¢. man-
kind, are made finners, not by their own difobedience, but
by the difobedience of another man; and therefore they
can be finners in no other way than as they are fufferers.
Upon the whole our author thinks it plain, that “ by one
man’s difobedience many were made finners,”’ means that by
Adam’s offence, the many, i. ¢. mankind, were made fub-
je vo death by the judgment of God. In this paflage there
is an evident contraft or comparifon between fomething
which Adam did and its confequences, and fomething
which Chrift did and the confequences of that: by the
former the many, #. ¢. all men, are brought into condemna-
tion ; and by As latter, all men are juftihed unto life. The
whole of the apoftle’s argument and affertion are fuppofed
by our author to reft upon two principles; w=. that it is
by the one offence of Adam that death pafled upon all men,
and not by their own perfonal fins; and again, that it is by
the obedience of one, or the one at of Chrift’s obedience,
(in his fufferings and death upon the crofs,) that all men are
juflified unto life, and not by their own perfonal righteouf-
nefs. He adds, that fal: ae the whole parag the
apoitle fays nothing of any federal relations or trania¢ts
either on the part of Adam or Chrift, nor of our deriving a
finful nature from Adam.

5. The texts Tim, ii. 14. declares a fa@, with regard to
Eve, which needs no explanation.

Dr. Taylor, in the fecond part of his book, proceeds to
examine other paflages of fcripture, which fome divines have
spoled to original fin. We thall here {cleét two or three of
the principal, that our readers may be able to form a judg-
ment for themfelves ; one is Ephef. ii. 3. * and were by na-
ture the children of wrath even as others.’” The apaftle, our
author apprehends, cannot mean that they were lizble to di-
vine wrath or punifhment by that nature which
brought into the world at their birth. For this nature,

5sE2 whatever

SIN.

whatever infirmities belong to it, is no other than God’s own
work or gift ; and he thinks, that to affert that the nature
which God gives us is the hateful objeé of his wrath, is little
lefs than blafphemy againft our good and bountiful Creator.
In his addrefs to the Ephefians, the apoftle is not {peaking
of their nature, or the natural conftitution of their fouls
and bodies as they came into the world, but evidently of the
vicious courfe of life they had led among the Gentiles.
Nature frequently fignifies an acquired nature, which men
bring upon themfelves by contracting either good or bad
habits. Befides, by nature may here fignify really, properly,
truly ; for csv, children, ttriGtly fignify the genuine children
of parents by natural generation ; and figuratively the word
denotes relation to a perfon or thing by way of friendfhip,
regard, imitation, obligation, &c.; fo that ‘ children of
wrath’? are thofe who are related to wrath, or liable to re-
jection or punifhment. The Ephefians, as the apoftle tells
them, were r:xva @ucx, natural genuine children of wrath,
not by natural birth, or the natural conttitution of their
bodies or fouls, but they were related to wrath in the highett
and ftricteft fenfe, with regard to fin and difobedience :—
Nature, in a metaphorical expreflion, fignifying that they
were really and truly children of wrath, 2. e. ftood in the
ftriGeft and clofeft relation to fuffering.

Another paflage, fometimes referred to in connection with
this fubjeGt, viz. Rom. viii. 7, 8, contains not fo much
as a fingle word that can carry our minds to Adam, or any
confequences of his fin upon us.

Gen. vi. 5. exprefles the univerfal wickednefs of the old
world, but does not fo much as intimate that our nature is
corrupted in Adam ; for the hiftorian doth not charge their
fin in any way upon Adam, but upon themfelves: and be-
fides, Noah is exempted out of the number of the corrupt
and profligate ; but this could not have been the cafe if the
alleged text is a good proof that by Adam’s tranfgreffion
the nature of all mankind is corrupted.

Another text, which has been confidered as of great im-
portance in this controverfy, is Pf. li. 5, 6. “ I was
fhapen in iniquity, and in fin did my mother conceive
me.” The word 455374, which we tranflate /hapen,
fignifies, fays our author, to bring forth or bear. (If.
li. 2. Prov. viii. 24, 25.) Again, the word 957M?
conceived me, properly fignifies warmed me ; and the expref-
fion conveys the idea, not of his being conceived, but
warmed, cherifhed, or nurfed by his mother, after he was
born. Accordingly, the verfe is thus tranflated, «* Behold,
I was born in iniquity, and in fin did my mother nurfe me ;”’
which has no reference to the original formation of his con-
ftitution, but is a periphrafis for his being a finner from the
womb, and is as much as to fay, in plain language, Iama
great finner ; or I have contracted habits of fin. This, it is
faid, is a f{criptural way of aggravating wickednefs, (See
Pf. lviii. 3. Tfaiah, xlviii. 8.) In the whole pfalm there
is not one word about Adam, or the effects of his tranfgref-
fion upon us. The pfalmift is charging himfelf with his
own fin. But if the words be taken in the literal fenfe of
our verfion, then it is manifeft that he chargeth not himfelf
with his fin and wickednefs, but fome other perfon. But
our limits will not allow of our enlarging farther in this
way-

Dr. Taylor proceeds, in part iii. of his book, to examine
and anfwer objetions. Itis afked, 1. Are we not in worfe
moral circum{tances than Adam was? If by moral circum-
itances be meant the {tate of reafon and virtue in the world,
it is certain, that fince Adam’s firft tranfgreflion, this has
become very different from a ftate of innocence. But this
is not the fault of human nature, no more than Adam’s fin

4

was the fault of his nature, but occafioned, as his tranf-
greflion was, by the abufe of it. If by moral circumftances
be meant the provifion and means which God has furnifhed
for our fpiritual improvement, the apoftle to the Romans
expre(sly affirms, that in or by Jefus Chrift, God hath given
us an abundance of grace. But if by moral circumftances
be meant moral abilities, or mental powers, our author fug-
gefts, that there is no ground in revelation for exalting the
nature of Adam to fuch a degree of purity and ftrength
as fome divines have raifed it, when they affirm, that all his
faculties were perfe&t, and entirely deveted to the love and
obedience of his creator. The fequel of his hiftory feems
to be inconfiftent with this notion.

It is faid that man was made in the image of God;
but can this be affirmed of his pofterity? The image of
God mutt be underftood either of the rational faculties of
his mind, or the dominion he had over the anferior crea-
tures, by which he bore the neareft refemblance to God of
any beings in this world; and not, as Dr. Taylor conceives,
of holinefs and righteoufnefs, which is a right ufe of our
{piritual faculties; becaufe fuch an ufe of them could not be
till after they were created ; and this writer is of opinion,
that original righteoufnefs is as far from truth as original fin ;
and that to talk of our wanting that righteoufnefs in which
Adam was created, is to talk of nothing we want. Two
texts, viz. Rom. ii. 14, 15, and Ecclef. vii. 29, are cited by
the Affembly of Divines in their larger Catechifm, to prove,
that our firft parents had the law of God written in their
hearts, and power to fulfil it, in oppofition to their pof-
terity, who want that righteoufnefs in which they are fup-
pofed to have been created, and whofe nature is corrupted to
a lamentable degree: but if thefe texts {peak not of our
firft parents, but of their pofterity, and of the moft cor-
rupt part of their pofterity too, it muft be true, and the
truth is very important, “ that by nature we have the law
of God written in our hearts, and power to fulfil it,’ as
well as they ; and are equally bound to be thankful to God
for our being, and to glorify him by it.

We have already fpoken of that moral taint and in-
fe&tion, which we are {aid to have derived from Adam; and
in confequence of which we havea natural propenfity to fin.
This taint or infeétion muft exift either in the body or the
foul. In the foul, which immediately proceeds from God,
it cannot exift; nor in the body, which, in a ftate feparate
from the foul, is inactive matter, which in itfelfneither is nor
can be the fubje&t of moral good and evil. But fuch an
infeGtion, wherefoever it exifts, or howfoever it is propa-
gated, cannot be derived from Adam to every human
being, independently of the will and operation of God ;
and to affert, that it is by his will and operation, is evi-
dently to make him the author of the pollution. It is main-
tained, that by propagation it is not poflible for parents to
communicate vice ; which is always the faulty choice of a
perfon’s own will, otherwife it is not vice. Children, it has
been faid, begin very foon to fin, and how can this fa&t be
accounted for but upon the fcheme of original fin; namely,
that it is infufed into their nature ? To this objection it has
been replied, that their early fin is owing to the early want of
inftru@tion and difcipline. Another objection, which is
ftrongly urged by the advocates of original fin, is this:
Adam was a common or federal head and reprefentative of
all his pofterity, and confequently all his offspring finned in
him, as their root ; juft as Levi is faid to pay tithes in
Abraham (Heb. vii. 9.) and as the branches muft be mo-
rally corrupt, if the root be in that ftate. (Rom. x1. 16.)
To the arguments deduced from the firft of thefe paflages it
has been replied, that neither the cafe of sateen

CVI

SIN.

Levi, nor the ‘s argument upon it, have
any manner of jon to partaking in guilt, or contradting
moral corruption : and it is alleged, that the inference dedu-
cible from t juft, if the apoftle

feeond paflage would be a |
were here {peaking of moral holinefs, of holinefs, as it is a
quality or pri in the mind: whereas the holinefs here
mentioned is faid to be that external, relative holinefs which
is 1 to the whole nation of the Jews, as
they were "s peculiar church and people. The notion
of a federal head or reprefentative of moral conduét, a re-

ive, the guilt of whofe ations fhall be imputed
to us, sed whofe fin fhall corrupt and debauch our minds,
and this reprefentative appointed by God himfelf, is, as its
in, not only without foundation in ferip-

Opponents maintain
ture, but in itfelf a abfurdity. Indeed, the external

cireumttances of ity may be affeéted by the bad con-
Gu8 of their anceRors: Weis’ frequently a tore in ferip-
holds good in the cafe of Adam and
may be a ——- jua, ren “14
anfwering fes. But any man fhould fo

hen he is guilty, I am to be reputed

;

ony
when he tranfgrefleth, , 1 be accountable and
i for his greflion ; and this before I am born,

his underitanding a clear] — is mean fered
fonable, and inconfittent wi truth and good-
nefs of 9 = » you may fee him fully

God. if you pleafe, ay fee
vindicated by the {pirit of truth from all injuttice of this
kind in Eadie xviii. 20. where he affirms, “ that the foul

one
the

st
at a
i
.
A

it is no other than his own act and deed
accounted or imputed to him, either for
Gen. ii

it
g
oP
-¥
p
a
Ks
Se

1g. Prov. xxvil. 14. Pf. xxxii. 2. Pf. evi. 31.
Rom. v. 13. 1 Cor. xiii. 5.
2 Tim. iv. 16. James, ii. 23.
ome ents for, and fome
doétrine of original fin, of a general
allow. We can only fuggeit,
advocates, that original fin is neceflary to
the being of fin in the world. How comes it
pais, that there is fo much wickednefs in the world, if
?—How is it confiftent with the

ie
te

re
:
y
a
aa
i
Ht
iu
FE

rf

is infifted upon in the New
bern again ? it is replied, becaufe we are born in fin.
nature in Adam is corrupted, and utterly indifpofed,
and made oppofite to all that is {piritually

wholly inclined to all evil, and that continually ; there-

g

Fe

hand, the oppofers of this de¢trine allege,

that it is highly injurious to the God of our nature to be-
lieve that our nature is originally corrupted in the manner
which this do¢trine fuppofes, ‘l'o difparage our nature, is,
they fay, to difparage the work and pl of Ged. They alfo
fuggeit, that the do¢trine of original fin teaches men to trans-
fer their fin toa wrong caufle, to Adam rather than to them-
felves; and alfo that the doéirine, as it is commonly held,
has a manifeit tendency to propagate 2 notion that they
mutt be neceflarily vicious, and that it is thus deftruGive of
virtue. ‘They fay, that to reprefent fin as aatwra/, av al-
together nde 3 is to elation men in fin, avd to pive
not only an excufe, but a reafon for finning. ‘They ally
intimate, that to charge Chriflianity with teaching this
doéirine, is to fink its credibility ; and that it is injuriour
in another way, by perplexing the mind, and rendering all
religious principles uncertain, ‘ We are made,” as one of
them ¢ ffes it, “ finners we know not how, and there-
fore mult be forry for, and repent of, we know not what.
We are made finners in an arbitrary way, and we are
made faints in an arbit way : but what is arbitrary can
be brought under no rules.’”” They think that it is pot
expedient or defirable to teach children, that they are born
children of wrath, that they came into the world under
God’s curfe, and that their being, as foon as given, is in the
worlt and moft deplorable flate of corruption. Young

are exhorted to remember their creator ; but how,
it is faid, can they remember him, without the utmoit
horror, who, it is fuppofed, hath given them life under fuch
deplorable circumitances ?

We thall clofe this article with a brief account of the
“ Fall of Man,” and its confequences, as they have been
itated by different divines. Adam was created, as the Aflem-
bly of Divines affirm, after God’s own image, in knowledge,
righteoufnefs, and holinefs, having the law of God written
in his heart, and power to it; and for proof of this
aifertion, they refer to Gen. ii. 27. Col. ili. 10. Ephef.
iv. 24. Rom. ii. 14, 15. Eccl. vii. 29. This ftate of
moral re¢titude, or original righteoufnels, in which he was
created, is thus deferibed by Dr. Watts. “ His reafon
was clear, and fenfe, appetite, and paffion were fubjeé to
it, his judgment uncorrupted, his will had an inward, con-
ftant, omer bias, bent, and propenfity to holinefs and
virtue ; he had an inward inclination to pleafe and honour
God, fupreme love to his creator, a zeal and defire to ferve
him, a holy fear of offending him, with a readinefs to do his
will.” When Adam finned he loft this moral reétitude ;
and not only fo, but his pofterity became morally corrupt.
We have already ftated the opinion of the opponents to
the doctrine of original fin, concerning the moral condition
of Adam before his fall. By the advocates of this doétrine,
it is further maintained, that a covenant was made with
Adam, as a public perfon, not for himfelf only, but for his

fterity ; and therefore all mankind, defcending from him
. ordinary generation, finned in him, and fell with him ia
that firit t flion. (See Adis, xvii. 26. Gen. ii. 16, 17.
compared with Rom. v. 12—20. 1 Cor. xv. 21,22.) The
Fall, it is faid, brought mankind into a ftate of fin and
mifery. (Rom. v.12. iii, 13.) And the finfulnefs of
that ftate into which man fell confiiteth in the guilt of
Adam’s firft fin, the want of that righteoufnefs in which
he was created, and the corruption of hisnature,&c. (See
Rom. v. 12, 19. Rom. iii. 10. 20. Eph. ii. 1, 2, 3.
Rom. v. 6. vil. 7. 9. - Vie 5. James, i, 14, 15.
Matt. xv. 19.) It is added, that Fall brought
mankind the lofs of communion with God, his diipleafure,
and curfe; fo that we are by nature children <a
bond-flaves to Satan, and jultly liable to all —a——~>

Seni

this world, and in that which is to come. See Gen. iii. 8.
10. 24. Eph.ii. 2,3. 2 Tim. ii. 26. Gen.it. 17. Lam.
iii. 39. Rom. vi. 23. Matt. xxv. 41. 46. Jude, v. 7.

On the other hand, it is alleged, that the language of
man’s finfulnefs confilting in the guilt of Adam’s firft fin
is unfcriptural; nor, in the nature of things, can our
finfulnefs confift in the guilt of Adam’s firit fin; becaufe,
as we could not poflibly commit that action in any fenfe,
fo we could not, upon account of it, become obnoxious
to punifhment. If the texts above cited prove that man’s
nature by Adam’s fin is fo corrupted, that man, i. ¢.
men, are utterly indifpofed, difabled, and made oppofite
to all that is fpiritually good, that is, to all moral aétions,
pleafing and acceptable to God, and wholly and continuaily
inclined to all manner of wickednefs, they would further
prove, that men are no moral agents, and that fin mult be
natural-to us, and if natural, neceflary ; and if neceflary,
with regard to us, it is no fin, with regard to us, or fo far
as we are concerned init. Fora further account of the
{tate of this controverfy, and of the arguments adduced for
and againft the doétrine of original fin, we refer to the
Affembly’s Catechifm; Watts’s Ruin and Recovery ;
Jennings’s Vindication, &c. Chandler’s Sermons, vol. iv.
Serm. 1—7. Bury-Street Leét. vol.i. Limborch 'Theolog,
lib iii, c. 4. § t, 2. Taylor’s Scripture Do@rine of Ori-
ginal Sin, in Three Parts, with a Supplement, &c. ed. 4.
Ben Mordecai’s Letters, Letter V.

The Romifh cafuifts diftinguifh adual fins into mortal;
which are fuch as make us lofe the grace of God; and
venial, which alone are pardoned, as being only fins of in-
firmity, not of malice. See Porrry.

Divines are not yet agreed what the fin againft the Holy
Ghoft is. See BraspHemy againft the Holy Ghoft.

Sun, Philofophical, according to the doGrine of the Jefuits,
is an aCtion, or courfe of a¢tion, that is repugnant to the
diGtates of reafon, and yet not offenfive to the Deity.

SINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Mar-
giana. Ptolemy.—Alfo, a town of Cappadocia, in the pre-
fe€ture of Cilicia. Id.—Alfo, a place in the ifle of Lefbos.
Strabo.

Sina, or Jufliniapolis, a town of Afia, in the Greater
Armenia.

SINAAB, in Geography, a town of Algiers, in the pro-
vince of Tremecen, onthe E. fide of the Shelliff; 72 miles
S.W. of Algiers.

SINACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hyrcania.
Ptolemy.

SINADIZAVA, in Geography, a town of European
Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the Ozma; 12 miles E. of
Nicopoli.

SINA, in Ancient Geography, a people of India, accord-
ing to Ptolemy. It appears that their country extended
from Siam into a part of China.

SINAI, Mount, in Geography, a famous mount of Ara-
bia Petrza, on which God gave the law to Mofes. (Exod.
MIX Do XX1IVe 10 XXX EBo | XXXIV. (2074 Ccca Weuevite
xxv. I. xxvi. 46.) It is fituated in a kind of peninfula,
formed by the two arms of the Red fea, one extending
N. called the gulf of Kolfun; the other extending E. called
the gulf of Elan. The Arabs call mount Sinai by
the name of “ Tor,” ze. the mountain, by way of ex-
eellence; or “ Jebbel Mufa,’’? the mountain of Mofes;
comprehending a range of mountains which rifes at the
intetior extremity of the valley of Fazan, reftri¢ting the
name of Tor Sinai to that part of the range on which the
convent ef St. Catharine ftands; and diftant about 260
miles from Cairo. The wildernefs of Sinai, where the

I

SIN

Ifraelites continued encamped almoft a year, and where
Mofes ereéted the tabernacle of the covenant, is confiderably
elevated above the reft of the country ; the afcent to it is
very craggy, the greater part being cut out of the rock;
and then you arrive at a large fpace of ground, which is
a plain furrounded on all fides by rocks and emmences,
whofe length is nearly twelve miles. Towards the extre-
mity of this plain, on the north, two high mountains appear,
the higheft of which is called Sinai, the other Horeb.
They are both of a very fteep afcent, and the ground on
which they ftand is inconfiderable, when compared with
their height. Sinai is one-third part higher than the other,
and its afcent more upright and difficult. The Greeks have
cut a flight of fteps up the rock. Pococke reckons 3000 of
thele {teps to the top of the mountain, or rather bare,
pointed rock. TwoGerman miles and a half up the mountain
ftands the convent of St. Catharine.
monattery is a building 120 feet in length, and almoft as
many in breadth. Before it {tands another {mall building,
in which is the only gate of the convent, and which remains
always fhut, except when the bifhop is there. At other
times, whatever is introduced within the convent, whether
men or provifions, is drawn up by the roof in a bafket, and
with a cord and pulley, The whole building is of hewn
ftone, which, in fuch a defart, muft have been conftruéted
with great labour and expence. Within the walls is a
{mall mofque for the convenience of the Arabs. ‘This
monaltery belongs to Greek monks, who had in former
times only a tower erected near the burning bufh of Mofes.
But being molefted by the infults and depredations of the
Arabs, they petitioned the emperor Juftinian to build for
them a {trong monaftery for their future fecurity ; and the
emperor is faid to have complied with their requett. Before
the convent is a large garden, planted with excellent fruit-
trees. According to the account of the Arabs, the monks
enter it by a fubterraneous paflage. ‘Thefe Greek eccle-
fiaftics are not allowed to receive an European vifitor, with-
out an order from the bifhop of mount Sinai, who refides
ordinarily at Cairo. When the bifhop happens to be pre-
fent, the gate is opened, and the convent mutt entertain alt
the Arabs who come in there; and this is a grievous
charge on the poor monks, who live merely on alms, and
whofe provifions, which they are obliged to bring from
Cairo, are often ftolen by the way. ‘The Arabs are, in
general, very dangerous neighbours, as they often fire on
the convent from the adjacent rocks ; and feize the monks
whenever they find them without the walls of the monattery,

and refufe to releafe them without a confiderable ranfom.
Five hundred fteps above the convent is found an excel-
lent fpring, which fuperititious perfons have counted mira-
culous, as the mountain is fo high and fo barren. A thoufand
fteps higher ftands a chapel dedicated to the Bleffed Virgin ;
and 500 above this, are two other chapels, fituated in a plain,
which the traveller enters by two {mall gates of mafon-work.
Upon this plain are two trees, under which, at high feftivals,
the Arabs are regaled at the expence of the Greeks. Sinai
is held in great veneration, on account of the law which
God gave on this mountain. The whole mountain is a very
remarkable rock of red granite, inter{perfed with {pots, to
which foil has been brought by human labour, or wafhed
down by rain, and in which grow almond-trees, figs, and
vines. Mount Horeb ftands W. of Sinai, fo that at fun-
rife the fhadow of Sinai covers Horeb. Befide the little
fountain at the top of Sinai, there is another at the foot of
Horeb, which fupplies the monaltery of St. Catharine. At
a {mall diftance is hewn a ttone, four or five feet high, and
three broad, from which, it is pretended, Mofes caufed the
water

The body of this.

SIN

water to out: in this flone are twelve holes or
channels, a foot wide, from which, it is faid, the
water iflued which the [{raclites drank,

Sinai, Knights of. See Catuanine.

SINALOA, in . See Cinaoa.

SI-NAN, a river o ’ which joins the Wed-el-
Mailah, about five miles before it runs into the fea. It glides
in a variety of beautiful windings, and is known by feveral
names, ing to the remarkable places which they
water. Near the banks of this river, Barbarofla the Elder
feattered his treafures when purfued by the victorious
Spaniards, and here he made his lalt ineffectual effort to

retard their om
SINANELEY, town of Hindooftan, in Myfore; 22
ore

miles S.W. of Ban .

SINAPATINGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Tndia, on this fide of the Ganges, in the vicinity of the
river Indus, and one of thofe which belonged to the Cath,

ic name, whofe origin is

the
recur to the Celtic, conjectures that this word comes from

Nap, a name in that lao for all plants allied to
Ps ls Gen. as

reb. 445. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 3. 554. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Sm. FL Brit. 721.
Prodr, Ft
125. Tournef. t. 112.

Sibth. v. 2. 3 Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4.

Jui. 238. Lamarck Iluftr.

t. 566. Gaertn. t. 143.—Clafs and order, Tetradynamia
Sih, _— Ord. Silique/e, or Cruciformes, Linn.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, {preading, divided

i » linear, concave, channelled leaves, forming a
i Cor. cruciform; of four, rounded, flat,

ing, undivided with ered, linear claws {earcely
of the cal Neétary compofed of four ovate

de between the fhorter ftamen and the

germen, and height of the ftamens; ftigma capitate, undi-
vided. eric. oblong, inflated unequally at the lower
part, rough, of two cells and two valves; partition gene-
rally twice

as nee the valves, large, comprefled. Seeds
numerous, ular.
Obf. Sinapis differs ertscipelts from Braffca in having a

and the claws of the petals erect. Crantz
unites this genus pee Rete

ds four. Pod more or lefs cy-

lindrical, the partition longer than the valves.

1. S. — Wild Mot

- Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1748. Curt.
‘ods with many
wie: than their own two-edged beak.
what lyrate.—One of the moit common
as well as about waite ground and It flowers
in May a a but occafionally in all
ftriated, hifpid with flightly deflexed briftles,
with red, Leaves alternate, italked, ovate, rough,

tas
H

Eff. Ch. Calyx malay Spending: Claws of the petals
ard or Charlock. Linn. Sp.

»§-t 47. Fi. Dan. t. 753.—P
troublefome European weeds in heavy moift corn
fpindle-fhaped, {mall, rigid.

3

ee
i

i

SIN

unequally toothed; lower ones fumewhat | ; upper
feflile. Flowers in a terminal, cluftered corymb, of a beans
yellow colour. Seeds extremely pungent, well koown u

the name of Durham-Muttard.

2. 5S. orientalis, Oriental Mufterd. Linn. Sp. PI. 993.
Amen. Acad. v. 4. 280) Ait, n. 2. “ Schkuhe. hasdb.
v. 1. 264. t. 186." (Sinapi ornentale maximum, rapi folio ;
Tourn, Cor, »7.)—Pods rough with reflexed brifiles, and
four blunt angles, compretied at the tip.—Native of the
Levant, and introduced at Kew by M. Thouin in 1778,
where it flowers in June and July. This ennnal is extremely
like the lait, from which indeed it differs merely in having
the pods rough with reflexed briftles, the beat only being
{mooth.

3- S. braficata. Cabbage Muttard. Willd. n. 3.
Loureir. Cochinch. 399.— Leaves obovate, {mooth, toothed
in a diminutive manner.—Native of China, where it is much
cultivated. This plant, we are informed by Loureiro, has
the habit of Cabbage or Lettuce, but in the firu€ture of its
calyx it refembles Muftard. Siem a foot and half high,
{mooth. Radical-leawes oleraceous, obtule, white-vei
on channelled ftalks; Jlem-aves oblong, moftly with two
auricled appendages at the bafe of the ftalk, u ones
feffile, lanceolate, embracing the item. Flowers Tike thot
of the Common Cabbage, bright yellow. Pod alfo re-
fembling that of Bra/fica oleracea.

4 S. alba. White Muttard, Linn. Sp. Pl. 933. FL
Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1677. Curt. Lond. Ete. 5.
t. 46. Mart. Rutt. t. 70.—Pods briltly, rugged, thorter
than their own two-edged beak. Leaves pinoatifid.—Com-
mon in fields and by road-fides, fowering from June to
Augult. The root and fem of this ns are like thofe
of the firlt {pecies. Lower leaves deeply pinnatifid ; upper
fomewhat lyrate ; all of them irregularly toothed and rough.
Flowers yellow. Pods on nearly horizontal ftalks, ribbed,
with a very long, {word-thaped beak. Seeds large, globofe,
pale yellowith, occafionally black.

5- S. nigra. Common Muttard. Linn. Sp. PL 933.
Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 969. Woody. Med. Bot.
t. 151. Mart. Rutt. t. 51.—Pods {mooth, fquare, clof-

refled to the ftem. Upper leaves linear-lanceolate, entire,
mooth.— A molt common weed on hedge banks, waite
pak and the borders of fields, flowering in the midit of
ummer. Root annual, fmall. Stem much branched, {pread-
ing, round, fmooth. Leaves italked, irregularly lobed and
toothed ; radical ones rough ; thofe of the ftem and branches
{mooth and pendulous ; the upper ones deflexed, entire, nar-
row. Flowers numerous, {mall, bright yellow. Seeds {e-
veral, round, {mooth, brown, furnifhing “ our common
table muitard, one of the moft ufeful and wholefome of
ftimulants, both in cookery and medicine.”

6. S. pyrenaica. Pyrenean Muflard. Linn. Sp. Pl. 934.
Allion. oe t. 55. f. 1.— Pods itriated, fcabrous.
Leaves runcinate, fmooth.—Native of the Pyrenées, Mount
Cenis, and fimilar fituations in the fouth of Europe. It
flowers about June. Root biennial. Stem angular, even,
ftriated, wavy, f{mooth. Leaves runcinate ; ts of
the lower or radical ones toothed; thole of the item lanceo-
late. Flowers cluttered, {mall, yellow. Willdenow con-
fiders S. maritima of Allioni as a vanety of this (pecies.

7. @ rug Downy Mattard. Linn. Mant. gs.
Prodr. Fl. Grac. n. 1580. Arduin Spec. v. 1. 21. 4. g9—
Pods downy, erect, with a comprefied beak Leaves ly-
rate, villous.—Native of Sicily, flowering in Juve and July.
Stem perennial, fhrubby. Leaves obtufe. Flowers yellow,
with undivided petals, Pads ere€t, hairy, or very downy,
as indeed are all the parts of the plant. oa

SINAPIS.

Hifpid Muftard. Willd. n. 8. — Pods
hifpid, erect. Leaves lyrate, extremely rough. Stem
hifpid—Native of Morocco. Roof annual. Stem muri-
cated with hairs. Zeaves on ftalks, pinnatifid, obtufe,
toothed, the terminal lobe oblong, very large, exceedingly
rough with fhort, rigid hairs. Flowers yellow. Pods ter-
minating in a long, obtufe, flat beak.

9. S. chinenfis. Chinefe Muftard. Linn, Mant. 95.
Willd. n. 9. Arduin. Spec. v. 1. 23. t. 10.— Pods
{mooth, flightly jointed, fpreading. Leaves lyrate, or
runcinate, fomewhat hairy.—Native of China and Cochin-
china, where it is extenfively cultivated. It flowers in June
and July. Roof annual. Stem three feet in height, ftriated,
branched, Radical-leaves ftalked, large, wrinkled. Flowers
whitifh or yellow, in long, aggregate clutters.

10. S.juncea. Fine-leaved Muftard. Linn. Sp. Pl. 934.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 80. t. 171.—Branches fafciculated.
Upper leaves lanceolate, entire.—Native of Afia and China,
flowering in the fummer. Root annual, fibrous, whitifh.
Stem ere&, branched, two feet high, fmooth. Radical-
eaves ftalked, pinnatifid at the bafe, unequally ferrated ;
upper lanceolate or oblong, feffile. lowers yellow, in
clufters, with the fame pungency of {mell as Common
Muttard.

11. S. Allionii. Allioni’s Muttard. Willd. n. rr.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 79. t. 168.—Pods ovate-oblong,
{preading. Leaves pinnatitid; fegments jagged.—Native
of Auftria? It flowers in July. Root annual, white,
fibrous. Stem folitary, round, generally {mooth, but oc-
cafionally befprinkled with a few whitifh hairs. Leaves
jagged in a pinnatifid manner ; the upper ones feffile ; /oqwer
ftlalked. Flowers yellow, thinly fcattered over upright
clutters, nearly without fcent.

12. S. erucoides. Twarf Muftard. Linn. Sp. Pl. 934.
Willd. n. 12. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 80. t. 170.—
Pods fmooth, equal. Leaves lyrate, oblong, {mooth.
Stem fmooth.—Native of the fouth of Europe, in vineyards
and by way-fides, flowering in June and July. Root annual.
Stem eight or nine inches high, purplifh, a little angular.
Leaves much jagged, yellowifh-green. Flowers white, in
loofe {pikes. }

13. S. cernua. Pendulous Muftard. Willd. n. 13.
Thunb. Japon. 261.—Pods {mooth, fpreading. Radical-
leaf lyrate, the terminal lobe very large, ovate, cut and
toothed.—Native of Japan and China. Root annual. Whole
plant {mooth. Svem furrowed, branched at the upper part.
Flowering branches pendulous. Flowers white, in terminal
clufters.

14. S. japonica. Japanefe Muftard. Willd. n. 15.
Thunb. Japon. 262.—Pods {mooth, ereét. Leaves jagged
in a pinnatifid manner, {mooth.—Native of Japan, about
Jedo, flowering in May. Whole plant fmooth. Stem
herbaceous, ereG&t, furrowed, branched. . Leaves ftalked,
the upper ones lefs deeply pinnatifid, often toothed at the
Flowers yellowifh, in very long clufters.

15. S. incana. Woary-jointed Muftard. Linn. Sp. Pl.
934. Ameen. Acad. v. 4. 280. Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2.
79. t. 169.—Pods with two joints, ere€&t. Leaves bipin-
natifid; fegments linear.—Native of France, Spain, Por-
tugal, and Switzerland. It flowersin July. Root biennial,
branched, acrid, having the tafte and {mell of Braffca
Napus. Stem branched, hifpid. Leaves on long ftalks,
lyrate, very hairy and hoary. Flowers {mall, yellow, in
terminal, axillary clutters.

16. S. frutefcens. Shrubby Muftard. Willd. n. 17.
Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 11.—Pods linear, fmooth. Lower-
leaves oblong, toothed; upper lanceolate, undivided. Stem

8. S. hifpida.

tip.
t

{mooth, fhrubby.—Native of Madeira, whence it was in-
troduced at Kew by Mr. F. Maflon in 1777. It flowers
from December to June. Figure and defcription wanting.

17. S. radicata. Long-reoted Mutftard. Willd. n. 18.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 98. t.167. Prodr. Fi. Grec.
n. 1581. Fl. Grec, t. 648, unpublifhed.— Pods awl-
fhaped, torulofe, {preading. Radical-leaves deeply lyrate,
hifpid. Stem-leaves pinnate. Branches twiggy, {mooth.—
Native of uncultivated hills at Algiers, and in Greece,
Roots very long, tortuous, branched, thread-fhaped. Stem
hifpid below, {mooth above, ereét, branched. Lower-
leaves {talked, their fegments alternate, remote, obtufe, un-
equally toothed: upper with lanceolate, acute, entire or
toothed, fegments. /owers pale yellow, very like thofe
of S. juncea.

18. S. levigata. Smooth Muftard. Linn. Sp. Pl. 934.
Ameen. Acad. v. 4. 281. (Erytimi varietas; Herman.
Parad. 155.) — Pods {mooth, f{preading. Leaves lyrate,
{mooth; upper ones lanceolate. Stem {mooth.—Native of
Spain and Portugal, flowering in June and July. Root an-
nual or biennial. Stem and leaves remarkably {mooth.
Flowers large, yellow.

The Linnean S. hi/panica, a rare and little-known plant,
Ait. n. 15, isremoved to Desfontaines’ new genus Cordylo-
carpus, in Prodr. Fl. Grec. v. 2. 33.

Mr. Brown, in Hort. Kew. has, after Tournefort’s ex-
ample, confidered Si/ymbrium tenuifolium and murale of
Linnzus as {pecies of Sinapis. See StsyMBRIUM.

Srvapis, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, annual kind, of which the {pecies cultivated are,
the white muftard (S. alba); and the common or black
muttard (S. nigra).

The firft fort is generally cultivated in gardens as a fallad
herb, with creffes, radifhes, rape, &c. for winter and {pring
ufe ; in which intention it is a highly valuable plant.

In the fecond fort, it is the flour of the feed that affords
the common muttard for the table.

Method of Culture.—The firft fort is fown along with
other {mall fallad herbs, at all times of the year, fometimes
every week or fortnight, in a bed or border of light earth,
fown generally in fhallow drills very thick, covering it very
thinly with earth ; and in winter, and early in {pring, during
cold weather, in hot-beds. The herbs are always cut for
ufe whilft in the feed-leaf, and but a few days old; other-
wife they become too {trong and rank-tafted for ufe. See
Sattap Herbs, and Smauu Sallad Herbs.

But in order to have feed of this fort for garden ufe, it
fhould be fown on an open {pot of ground, in March or
April, either thinly in drills a foot afunder, or broad-caft
all over the furface, and the plants be left to run up to ftalk,
when they will furnifh ripe feeds in Auguft. And in order
to raile the plants for the feed for muttard, the feeds fhould
be fown in the fpring, any time in March, in fome open
fituation, either in the kitchen-garden, or in open fields.
In either cafe, having dug or ploughed the ground, the
feed fhould be fown broad-caft all over the furface,- and
raked or harrowed in lightly ; or it may be fown in fhallow
drills a foot afunder, and be flightly covered in. The
plants foon come up; and when they have four or more
leaves an inch or two broad, if they ftand very thick, thofe
fown in the broad-caft way particularly fhould be hoed and
thinned, leaving them fix or eight inches afunder, cutting
up all weeds; repeating the operation once or more, if ne-
ceflary. After this the plants will foon fpread and cover
the ground, and fhoot fait up to ttalks for flowers and feed,
which ripens in July or Augutt, when the ftalks fhould be
cut or pulled up, and the feed, being properly ere

an

SIN

and dried in the pod, fhould either be thrafl out direAly,
or ftacked up dry, and thrathed at occafio: opportunities
afterwards; but the firit is the beft metho
Sixaris Nigra, Common Black Muflard, the Materia
Medica, &e. is common in corn-fields and Lks of ditches,
but is cultivated for ufe, and flowers in Jun (See Six aris
and Musrann.) The feeds of this {pecies cnuftard, which
ee a adem » a thofe of the
are by that ef Equrgh, are not

different in tafte or their jou effects, aranfwer equally
well for the table and for medical purpofe; Their tatte is
acrid and and when bruifed this pgency becomes
the {mell: they readily bart thefe qua-

uors, and by dift with water

an clential ad of great he Plemer: jut to rectified

i ive out very little either of th fmell or tafte,
f boertdhe Piel oe ent irr

tity of infipid oil, which is as free frongrimony as that
pe By writers on the materia medic muttard is con-
as promoting a

wifi juice and by fmalating the
derable ity, it opens the body and creafes the uri-
aR gs tnd Woor haw toon +ful in dropfical

boiling Ziv of
to

by the bruifed feeds inj of
the curd. A fourth rt of thi
for a dofe three times aay. [t has alfo

as an antifcorbutic ; thgh Haller fays

in a feparate ftate. The eat pu
is therefore not to be afcribeco the vo
kali, to the effential oil which they »ntain. Bergius
informs us, that he found muftard of in curing
vernal intermittents ; for which p hdireted a fpoon-
ful of the whole feeds to be taken three four times a day,
Ss and when the difea'was obitinate, he
flour of muftardto the bark. Exrnally thefe feeds
are frequently ufed as a ftimulant or fiwifm. The flour
rubbed on the fkin, or applied in the for of a cataplafm,
made into a with crumbs of breadind vinegar, foon
excites a fen of pain, confiderable inflamation, and fome-
poet eS ee Eke ee,
in paralyfis, applied to the fo in the
delirium of and in comatofe afftions. It is ob-
ferved by that the frefh powdeof muftard fhews
ek capa er ad Bat Melee eat ape
ce eli ll Blmelioee ig Nr

14

is evolved, and comes confiderab] more acrid, as is
well known to thofe who muitd for the table; a
circumftance which thould attended t when defi | for

external ufe. Muftard-feed may be mo’ given
entire or unbruifed, and to the quantity a {poonful or half
an ounce for a dofe. The conitituentsf muftard-feed a
pear to be itarch, mucus, a bland fixedil, pean perch:
oil, and an ammoniacal falt. The offical preparations of
muftard are “‘ cataplafma finapis,’’ L. } and “ emplattrum
meloes compofitum,” E. See PLasrs.

The cataplafm of muftard of the Ind. Ph. is prepared
by mixing muflard-feed and lint-feedof each in powder
half a pound, with a fufficient quantit of hot vinegar, to

Vor. XXXII.

SIN

the thicknefs of a cataplafm. The muitard cataplalm of
the Dub. Ph. is formed of muttard-feed in powder and
crumb of bread, of each half s pound, and a fufficient
quantity of vinegar. This preparation may be rendered
more acrid by adding two ounces of eradifh fisely
fcraped. Thefe cataplafms are powerful local ftimulants
and rubefacients, ‘They are to be fpread on cloth to the
thicknefs of about half an inch, and applied to the foles of
the feet, in the low flage of typhus fever, particularly whea
fupor or delirium is prefeat, and in lexy, coma, and
other cafes in which there is a great Geeepenticn to the
head. ‘Their rubefacient efleéts are very quickly produced,
and often fo powerfully as to raife bli on the part.
Cullen’s Mat. Med. oody. Med. Bot. Thomion's
Lond. Difp.

Sinari Perficum, Perfian Muflard, 2 came by which fome
botanical authors have called the thlafpi, or treacle muftard.

SINAPISIS, a word ufed by fome writers as a name for
Armenian bole.

SINAPISM, cnaricpe:, formed from i, OF ounwi,
muflard-feed, in Pharmacy, an external icine, in form of
acataplafm. See Sinaris.

SINAPISTRUM, in Botany, Tourn. Inft. 231. t. 116,
a name of Hermann’s, alluding to the refemblance of the
plant, or at leaft of its pods, to Sinapis, or Muftard. See
CLEOME.

SINARA, the name of the male dancers, who, ac-
cording to the mythology of the Hindoos, amufe their god
Indra, regent of the firmament. (See Inpra.) Thefe are
perhaps the fame beings whofe name is fometimes writtes
Cinnara, and defcribed to be human figures with the head
of a horfe, but we never faw them fo reprefented. See
Srranra and Suna.

SINARUM Reaio, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Afia, and the laft on the eaftern coalt, according to
Ptolemy. '

SINARUS, a river of India, which difcharges itfelf
into the Hydafpes, according to Arrian.

SINASBARIUM, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the fifymbrium, or water-mint, common in all
our ditches and watery places.

SINASSE, in Geography, a town of Abyflinia; 40 miles
N.E. of Miné.

SINAY, a fmall ifland near the W. coaft of the ifland
of Lugon. N. lat. 18° 11’. E. long. 120° 367.

SINBACH, or Simpacn, a town of Bavaria; 5 miles
S. of Landau.

~ SINCAPOURA, er Srxcapura, an ifland, with a town

of the fame name, near the S. coaft of Malacca, which

gives name to the narrow fea, called the “ Straits of Sinca-
2? W. lat. 1° 12'. E. long. 103° 30’.

SIN-CARPOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary; 555 miles
E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 41°23’. E. long. 126° 46’.

SINCERITY, in Ethics, is that excellent habitude and
temper of mind, which gives to virtue its reality, and makes
it to be what it appears. Simplicity, called by the Greeks
azhern, is included in this virtue, but does not exprefs the
whole of it; fo that it is neceflary to add aawiun, truth: of
which two the firft ftands in oppofition to what is mixed
and adulterated ; the other to he is counterfeit. Sincerity
has refpe&t to two forts of objets; perfons and thin
Of the firft kind are God ; other men, and every man’s felf.
Sincerity, with regard to God, fignifies, that the form of
religion is accompanied with the power of it, and that piety

obedience are fubftantial and unaffeCted ; proceeding
from principles, right in themfelves, and uniform in their
influence. Sincerity, as it — men, implies an honefty
5 and

SIN

and opennefs in our dealings with them, extending to the
{prings and motions of our aétions, as well as the actions
themfelves ; to our words and our thoughts. Sincerity,
with relation to a man’s felf, is oppofed to felf-deception.
As to things, truth and goodnefs are the principal objects
of fincerity. The extremes of this virtue are over-franknefs
and hypocrify. Grove’s Syftem of Moral Philofophy,
vol. ii. ch. 3.

SINCHO, or Curxco, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Ningo, on the Gold Coatt, the inha-
bitants of which are chiefly employed in fifhing.

SINCIPUT, in Anatomy, the fore-part of the head, in
oppofition to occiput.

’ SINCKEL, in Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
joins the Wertha; 2 miles S.S.W. of Augfburg.

SINCLAIR. See Sr, Crair.

SIND, in Agriculture, provincially to rinfe or wafh out,
as a milking pail, difh, &c.

SINDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on the
other fide of the Ganges, placed by Steph. Byz. on the
coait of the great gulf between Corgatha and Pagrafa.—
Alfe, a town of Afia, in Pifidia, on the confines of Caria.
Strabo.—Alfo, a town of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon the Cim-
merian Bofphorus, between the ports Sindicus and Bara,
according to Ptolemy.

SinpA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana;
20 miles N.W. of Naffuck.

SIND &, in Ancient Geography, the name of three iflands
in the Indian fea, S. of the Baruflz, according to Ptolemy.

SINDAGUA, in Geography, a ridge of mountains in
South America, between Popayan and the Pacific ocean.

SINDANGAN Bay, a bay on the N.W. coafl of Min-
danao, extending from N. to. S. about 100 miles. N. lat.
8° rs! E.long. 123° 5/.

SINDE. See Innus.—Alfo, a river of Hindooltan,
which rifes about 20 miles W. of Bilfah, and runs into the
Jumnah, at Putterahee.

SINDEJUA, a town of Napaul; 40 miles W. of Mo-
caumpour.

SINDELFINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg; 6 miles
S.W. of Stuttgard. N. lat. 48°41’. E. long. 8° 52!.

SINDER, atown of Hindoottan, in Baglana; 15 miles
S.E. of Naffuck.

SINDERINGEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Hohenlohe, on the Kocher ; 12 miles N:E. of Heilbron.
N. lat. 49°16’. E. long. 9° 3¢/.

SINDESSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria. Steph. Byz.

SINDI, a people of Afiatic Sarmatia, in the number of
thofe who inhabited the Cimmerian Bofphorus. Strabo.

SINDIA, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

SINDIANI, a Scythian people who inhabited the vicinity
oi the Palus Meotis, according to Lucian.

SINDICUS Portus, a port of Afiatic Sarmatia, on
the coatt of the Cimmerian Bofphorus, according to the
Periplus of Scylax.

SINDINICES, a people of Germany, who formed a part
ef the nation of the Vandals.

- END OF VOL. XXXII.

Printed by A. Strahan,
New-Street Square, London.

| SIN

SINDION) Geography, a town of Egypt, on the W.
branch of the je; 14 miles S.S.E. of Rofetta.

SINDITE) Ancient Geography, a town of Leffler Ar-
menia, in the feéture of Mauriana. Ptolemy.

SINDKEHM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the cirear of Nerbar; 15 miles W. of Tolnani.

SINDOCADA, in Ancient Geography, a town placed
by Ptolemy one W. coat of the ifle of Taprobana, be-
tween the moupf the river Soana and the port Priapius.

SINDOLEn Geography, a town of Hindooltai, in
Oriffa; 15 milN. of Sonepour.

SINDOMAA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
and the capital] the territories of Muficanus. Arrian.

SINDON, Scripture Hiflory, a word properly fignify-
ing a fhroud, ajufed by the evangelifts to denote the linen
cloth in whichf{eph of Arimathea wrapped the body of
Jefus, after its|balment, &c. (Matth. xxvii. 59. Mark,
xv. 46. Luke, hii. 53. John, xx. 7.) Sindon is alfo men-
tioned in the hity of Samfon. (Judges, xiv. 12, 13.) The
virtuous womamentioned by Solomon (Prov. xxxi. 24.)

made findons a

The young wien of Jerufalem wore findons.

Id. iit-§235) 5
and the Pheenic
the city of Sida

irdles, which fhe fold to the Pheenicians.
(See
was a fafhion peculiar to the Sidonians
» and perhaps the name was derived from
Martial fays, that the findon of Tyre,

or Pheenicia, cots a man all over, and puts him in a con-
dition to defpifejin and wind.

«© Ridebis vento
Nec fic in Syn

The young mawho fellowed Jefus Chriit on the night of
his paflion, * ot

thus defended ag
XIV. 51.

hoc munere tectus, et imbres
Sindone teGtus eris.”’ Mart. 1. iv. ep. 19.

us findone fuper nudo,”’

was probably
ft the cold, as by a night-gown.

Mark,

ing the wound after trepanning. The

Sinpon, in Suery, a little round piece of linen, or filk,
or lint, ufed in a

firft thing ufuall
to pour a few
then a fpoonful
balfam, a findon

one after the operation of trepanning is,
ps of white baliam on the dura mater ;
el rofatum being warmed with a little
dipped into it, of fine linen cloth: this

is immediately ajlicd upon the dura mater; and being
greater than the ic in the fkull, its circumference is thrutt
all round betwee|the cranium and the membrane; then
pledgets of lint alapplied, and the hole is quite ftopped
with it. The ne| morning, when the drefling is taken
off, the brain is ner left bare a moment; but as focn as
the former findon dj lint are removed, new ones are clapped
on in their room.
SINDOS, in <Acient Geography, a town of Mygdonia,
a country of Macejnia, W. of Therma, between this town
and the mouth of \e Axius.
Sinthos.
SINDOURCOTY, in Geography, a town of Thibet,
on the left bank offhe Ganges; 48 miles S. of Gangotri.
SINDRY, atov of Bengal; 45 miles S.E. of Nattore.
SINDSCAR, «Siysa, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of foful;. 30 miles S. of Moful.
SINDY. See Sno. :

It is called by Steph. Byz. |

es:

76

BINDING SECT. ALG 1 9 198?

Rees, Abraham
The cyclopaedia

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